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4492335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagrass%20meadow | Seagrass meadow | A seagrass meadow or seagrass bed is an underwater ecosystem formed by seagrasses. Seagrasses are marine (saltwater) plants found in shallow coastal waters and in the brackish waters of estuaries. Seagrasses are flowering plants with stems and long green, grass-like leaves. They produce seeds and pollen and have roots and rhizomes which anchor them in seafloor sand.
Seagrasses form dense underwater meadows which are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. They provide habitats and food for a diversity of marine life comparable to that of coral reefs. This includes invertebrates like shrimp and crabs, cod and flatfish, marine mammals and birds. They provide refuges for endangered species such as seahorses, turtles, and dugongs. They function as nursery habitats for shrimps, scallops and many commercial fish species. Seagrass meadows provide coastal storm protection by the way their leaves absorb energy from waves as they hit the coast. They keep coastal waters healthy by absorbing bacteria and nutrients, and slow the speed of climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide into the sediment of the ocean floor.
Seagrasses evolved from marine algae which colonized land and became land plants, and then returned to the ocean about 100 million years ago. However, today seagrass meadows are being damaged by human activities such as pollution from land runoff, fishing boats that drag dredges or trawls across the meadows uprooting the grass, and overfishing which unbalances the ecosystem. Seagrass meadows are currently being destroyed at a rate of about two football fields every hour.
Background
Seagrasses are flowering plants (angiosperms) which grow in marine environments. They evolved from terrestrial plants which migrated back into the ocean about 75 to 100 million years ago. These days they occupy the sea bottom in shallow and sheltered coastal waters anchored in sand or mud bottoms.
There are four lineages of seagrasses containing relatively few species (all in a single order of monocotyledon). They occupy shallow environments on all continents except Antarctica: their distribution also extends to the High Seas, such as on the Mascarene Plateau.
Seagrasses are formed by a polyphyletic group of monocotyledons (order Alismatales), which recolonised marine environments about 80 million years ago. Seagrasses are habitat-forming species because they are a source of food and shelter for a wide variety of fish and invertebrates, and they perform relevant ecosystem services.
There are about 60 species of fully marine seagrasses belonging to four families (Posidoniaceae, Zosteraceae, Hydrocharitaceae and Cymodoceaceae), all in the order Alismatales (in the class of monocotyledons). Seagrasses beds or meadows can be either made up of a single species (monospecific) or mixed. In temperate areas one or a few species usually dominate (like the eelgrass Zostera marina in the North Atlantic), whereas tropical beds are usually more diverse, with up to thirteen species recorded in the Philippines. Like all autotrophic plants, seagrasses photosynthesize, in the submerged photic zone. Most species undergo submarine pollination and complete their life cycle underwater.
Seagrass meadows are found in depths up to about 50m, depending on water quality and light availability. These seagrass meadows are highly productive habitats that provide many ecosystem services, including protecting the coast from storms and big waves, stabilising sediment, providing safe habitats for other species and encouraging biodiversity, enhancing water quality, and sequestering carbon and nutrients.
Seagrass meadows are sometimes called prairies of the sea. They are diverse and productive ecosystems sheltering to and harbouring species from all phyla, such as juvenile and adult fish, epiphytic and free-living macroalgae and microalgae, mollusks, bristle worms, and nematodes. Few species were originally considered to feed directly on seagrass leaves (partly because of their low nutritional content), but scientific reviews and improved working methods have shown that seagrass herbivory is an important link in the food chain, feeding hundreds of species, including green turtles, dugongs, manatees, fish, geese, swans, sea urchins and crabs. Some fish species that visit or feed on seagrasses raise their young in adjacent mangroves or coral reefs.
Seagrass meadows are rich biodiverse ecosystems that occur all over the globe, in both tropical and temperate seas. They contain complex food webs that provide trophic subsidy to species and habitats way beyond the extent of their distribution. Given the wide variety of food sources provided by this productive habitat, it is no surprise that seagrass meadows support an equally wide array of grazers and predators. However, despite its importance for sustaining biodiversity and many other ecosystem services, the global distribution of seagrass is a fraction of what was historically present. Recent estimates from where records exist indicate that at least 20% of the world's seagrass has been lost. Seagrasses also provide other services in the coastal zone such as preventing coastal erosion, storing and trapping carbon and filtering the water column.
The true ecosystem-level consequences of such decline and the benefits that can be afforded through habitat restoration are poorly understood. Given the relatively high-per-unit area costs of marine habitat restoration, making the case for such work requires a thorough examination of the ecosystem service benefits of such new habitat creation.
Global distribution
Seagrass meadows are found in the shallow seas of the continental shelves of all continents except Antarctica. Continental shelves are underwater areas of land surrounding each continent, creating areas of relatively shallow water known as shelf seas. The grasses live in areas with soft sediment that are either intertidal (uncovered daily by seawater, as the tide goes in and out) or subtidal (always under the water). They prefer sheltered places, such as shallow bays, lagoons, and estuaries (sheltered areas where rivers flow in to the sea), where waves are limited and light and nutrient levels are high.
Seagrasses can survive to maximum depths of about 60 metres. However, this depends on the availability of light, because, like plants on the land, seagrass meadows need sunlight if photosynthesis is to occur. Tides, wave action, water clarity, and low salinity (low amounts of salt in the water) control where seagrasses can live at their shallow edge nearest the shore; all of these things must be right for seagrass to survive and grow.
The current documented seagrass area is , but is thought to underestimate the total area since many areas with large seagrass meadows have not been thoroughly documented. Most common estimates are 300,000 to 600,000 km2, with up to 4,320,000 km2 suitable seagrass habitat worldwide.
Ecosystem services
Seagrass meadows provide coastal zones with significant ecosystem goods and services. They enhance water quality by stabilizing heavy metals and other toxic pollutants, as well as cleansing the water of excess nutrients, and lowering acidity levels in coastal waters. Further, because seagrasses are underwater plants, they produce significant amounts of oxygen which oxygenate the water column. Their root systems also assist in oxygenating the sediment, providing hospitable environments for sediment-dwelling organisms. Additionally, the conservation of seagrass meadows contributes to 16 of the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals.
As shown in the image above on the left, many epiphytes can grow on the leaf blades of seagrasses, and algae, diatoms and bacterial films can cover the surface. The grass is eaten by turtles, herbivorous parrotfish, surgeonfish, and sea urchins, while the leaf surface films are a food source for many small invertebrates.
Blue carbon
The meadows also account for more than 10% of the ocean's total carbon storage. Per hectare, they hold twice as much carbon dioxide as rain forests and can sequester about 27 million tons of CO2 annually. This ability to store carbon is important as atmospheric carbon levels continue to rise.
Blue carbon refers to carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere by the world's coastal marine ecosystems, mostly mangroves, salt marshes, seagrasses and potentially macroalgae, through plant growth and the accumulation and burial of organic matter in the sediment.
Although seagrass meadows occupy only 0.1% of the area of the ocean floor, they account for 10–18% of the total oceanic carbon burial. Currently global seagrass meadows are estimated to store as much as 19.9 Pg (petagrams or gigatons, equals a billion tons) of organic carbon. Carbon primarily accumulates in marine sediments, which are anoxic and thus continually preserve organic carbon from decadal-millennial time scales. High accumulation rates, low oxygen, low sediment conductivity and slower microbial decomposition rates all encourage carbon burial and carbon accumulation in these coastal sediments. Compared to terrestrial habitats that lose carbon stocks as CO2 during decomposition or by disturbances like fires or deforestation, marine carbon sinks can retain C for much longer time periods. Carbon sequestration rates in seagrass meadows vary depending on the species, characteristics of the sediment, and depth of the habitats, but on average the carbon burial rate is about 140 g C m−2 yr−1.
Coastal protection
Seagrasses are also ecosystem engineers, which means they alter the ecosystem around them, adjusting their surroundings in both physical and chemical ways. The long blades of seagrasses slow the movement of water which reduces wave energy and offers further protection against coastal erosion and storm surge. Many seagrass species produce an extensive underground network of roots and rhizome which stabilizes sediment and reduces coastal erosion. Seagrasses are not only affected by water in motion; they also affect the currents, waves and turbulence environment.
Seagrasses prevent erosion of the seafloor to the point that their presence can raise the seafloor. They contribute to coast protection by trapping rock debris transported by the sea. Seagrasses reduce erosion of the coast and protect houses and cities from both the force of the sea and from sea-level rise caused by global warming. They do this by softening the force of the waves with their leaves, and helping sediment transported in the seawater to accumulate on the seafloor. Seagrass leaves act as baffles in turbulent water that slow down water movement and encourage particulate matter to settle out. Seagrass meadows are one of the most effective barriers against erosion, because they trap sediment amongst their leaves.
The diagram on the left above illustrates how seagrasses help trap sediment particles transported by sea currents. The leaves, extending toward the sea surface, slow down the water currents. The slower current is not able to carry the particles of sediment, so the particles drop down and become part of the seafloor, eventually building it up. When seagrasses are not present, the sea current has no obstacles and carries the sediment particles away, lifting them and eroding the seafloor.
Archaeologists have learned from seagrasses how to protect underwater archaeological sites, like a site in Denmark where dozens of ancient Roman and Viking shipwrecks have been discovered. The archaeologists use seagrass-like covers as sediment traps, to build up sediment so that it buries the ships. Burial creates low-oxygen conditions and keeps the wood from rotting.
Links to seabirds
Birds are an often-overlooked part of marine ecosystems, not only are they crucial to the health of marine ecosystems, but their populations are also supported by the productivity and biodiversity of marine and coastal ecosystems. The links of birds to specific habitat types such as seagrass meadows are largely not considered except in the context of direct herbivorous consumption by wildfowl. This is despite the fact that both bottom-up and top-down processes have been considered as pathways for the population maintenance of some coastal birds.
Given the long-term decline in the population of many coastal and seabirds, the known response of many seabird populations to fluctuations in their prey, and the need for compensatory restorative actions to enhance their populations, there is a need for understanding the role of key marine habitats such as seagrass in supporting coastal and seabirds.
Nursery habitats for fisheries
Seagrass meadows provide nursery habitats for many commercially important fish species. It's estimated that about half of the global fisheries get their start because they are supported by seagrass habitats. If the seagrass habitats are lost, then the fisheries are lost as well. According to a 2019 paper by Unsworth et al, the significant role seagrass meadows play in supporting fisheries productivity and food security across the globe is not adequately reflected in the decisions made by authorities with statutory responsibility for their management. They argue that: (1) Seagrass meadows provide valuable nursery habitat to over 1/5th of the world's largest 25 fisheries, including walleye pollock, the most landed species on the planet. (2) In complex small‐scale fisheries from around the world (poorly represented in fisheries statistics), there is evidence that many of those in proximity to seagrass are supported to a large degree by these habitats. (3) Intertidal fishing activity in seagrass is a global phenomenon, often directly supporting human livelihoods. According to the study, seagrasses should be recognized and managed to maintain and maximize their role in global fisheries production. In 2022, Jones et al showed seagrass associated small-scale fisheries can provide a safety net for the poor, and are used more commonly than reef-associated fisheries across the Indo-Pacific. Nearly half the people interviewed in the study preferred fishing in seagrass, since their function as a nursery habitat could result in large and reliable catches of fish.
In the oceans, gleaning can be defined as fishing with basic gear, including bare hands, in shallow water not
deeper than that one can stand. Invertebrate gleaning (walking) fisheries are common within intertidal seagrass meadows globally, contributing to the food supply of hundreds of millions of people, but understanding of these fisheries and their ecological drivers are extremely limited. A 2019 study by Nessa et al. analysed these fisheries using a combined social and ecological approach. Catches were dominated by bivalves, sea urchins and gastropods. The catch per unit effort (CPUE) in all sites varied from 0.05 to 3 kg per gleaner per hour, with the majority of fishers being women and children. Landings were of major significance for local food supply and livelihoods at all sites. Local ecological knowledge suggests seagrass meadows are declining in line with other regional trends. Increasing seagrass density significantly and positively correlated with CPUE of the invertebrate gleaning highlighting the importance of conserving these threatened habitats.
Habitats for other species
Other services
Historically, seagrasses were collected as fertilizer for sandy soil. This was an important use in the Aveiro Lagoon, Portugal, where the plants collected were known as moliço. In the early 20th century, in France and, to a lesser extent, the Channel Islands, dried seagrasses were used as a mattress (paillasse) filling – such mattresses were in high demand by French forces during World War I. It was also used for bandages and other purposes.
In February 2017, researchers found that seagrass meadows may be able to remove various pathogens from seawater. On small islands without wastewater treatment facilities in central Indonesia, levels of pathogenic marine bacteria – such as Enterococcus – that affect humans, fish and invertebrates were reduced by 50 percent when seagrass meadows were present, compared to paired sites without seagrass, although this could be a detriment to their survival.
Movement ecology
Understanding the movement ecology of seagrasses provides a way to assess the capacity of populations to recover from impacts associated with existing and future pressures. These include the (re)-colonization of altered or fragmented landscapes, and movement associated with climate change.
The marine environment acts as an abiotic dispersal vector and its physical properties significantly influence movement, presenting both challenges and opportunities that differ from terrestrial environments. Typical flow speeds in the ocean are around 0.1 m s−1, generally one to two orders of magnitude weaker than typical atmospheric flows (1–10 m s−1), that can limit dispersal. However, as seawater density is approximately 1000 times greater than air, momentum of a moving mass of water at the same speed is three orders of magnitude greater than in air. Therefore, drag forces acting on individuals (proportional to density) are also three orders of magnitude higher, enabling relatively larger-sized propagules to be mobilized. But most importantly, buoyancy forces (proportional to the density difference between seawater and the propagule) significantly reduce the effective weight of submerged propagules. Within seagrasses, propagules can weakly settle (negatively buoyant), remain effectively suspended in the interior of the water column (neutrally buoyant), or float at the surface (positively buoyant).
With positive buoyancy (e.g. floating fruit), ocean surface currents freely move propagules, and dispersal distances are only limited by the viability time of the fruit, leading to exceptionally long single dispersal events (more than 100 km), which is rare for passive abiotic movement of terrestrial fruit and seeds.
There are a variety of biotic dispersal vectors for seagrasses, as they feed on or live in seagrass habitat. These include dugongs, manatees, turtles, waterfowl, fish and invertebrates. Each biotic vector has its own internal state, motion capacity, navigation capacity and external factors influencing its movement. These interact with plant movement ecology to determine the ultimate movement path of the plant.
For example, if a waterbird feeds on a seagrass containing fruit with seeds that are viable after defecation, then the bird has the potential to transport the seeds from one feeding ground to another. Therefore, the movement path of the bird determines the potential movement path of the seed. Particular traits of the animal, such as its digestive passage time, directly influence the plant's movement path.
Biogeochemistry
The primary nutrients determining seagrass growth are carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and light for photosynthesis. Nitrogen and phosphorus can be acquired from sediment pore water or from the water column, and sea grasses can uptake N in both ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3−) form.
A number of studies from around the world have found that there is a wide range in the concentrations of C, N, and P in seagrasses depending on their species and environmental factors. For instance, plants collected from high-nutrient environments had lower C:N and C:P ratios than plants collected from low-nutrient environments. Seagrass stoichiometry does not follow the Redfield ratio commonly used as an indicator of nutrient availability for phytoplankton growth. In fact, a number of studies from around the world have found that the proportion of C:N:P in seagrasses can vary significantly depending on their species, nutrient availability, or other environmental factors. Depending on environmental conditions, seagrasses can be either P-limited or N-limited.
An early study of seagrass stoichiometry suggested that the Redfield balanced ratio between N and P for seagrasses is approximately 30:1. However, N and P concentrations are strictly not correlated, suggesting that seagrasses can adapt their nutrient uptake based on what is available in the environment. For example, seagrasses from meadows fertilized with bird excrement have shown a higher proportion of phosphate than unfertilized meadows. Alternately, seagrasses in environments with higher loading rates and organic matter diagenesis supply more P, leading to N-limitation. P availability in Thalassia testudinum is the limiting nutrient. The nutrient distribution in Thalassia testudinum ranges from 29.4 to 43.3% C, 0.88-3.96% N, and 0.048-0.243% P. This equates to a mean ratio of 24.6 C:N, 937.4 C:P, and 40.2 N:P. This information can also be used to characterize the nutrient availability of a bay or other water body (which is difficult to measure directly) by sampling the seagrasses living there.
Light availability is another factor that can affect the nutrient stoichiometry of seagrasses. Nutrient limitation can only occur when photosynthetic energy causes grasses to grow faster than the influx of new nutrients. For example, low light environments tend to have a lower C:N ratio. Alternately, high-N environments can have an indirect negative effect to seagrass growth by promoting growth of algae that reduce the total amount of available light.
Nutrient variability in seagrasses can have potential implications for wastewater management in coastal environments. High amounts of anthropogenic nitrogen discharge could cause eutrophication in previously N-limited environments, leading to hypoxic conditions in the seagrass meadow and affecting the carrying capacity of that ecosystem.
A study of annual deposition of C, N, and P from Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows in northeast Spain found that the meadow sequestered 198 g C m−2 yr−1, 13.4 g N m−2 yr−1, and 2.01 g P m−2 yr−1 into the sediment. Subsequent remineralization of carbon from the sediments due to respiration returned approximately 8% of the sequestered carbon, or 15.6 g C m−2 yr −1.
Threats
Seagrasses are in global decline, with some lost during recent decades. Seagrass loss has accelerated over the past few decades, from 0.9% per year prior to 1940 to 7% per year in 1990.
Natural disturbances, such as grazing, storms, ice-scouring and desiccation, are an inherent part of seagrass ecosystem dynamics. Seagrasses display a high degree of phenotypic plasticity, adapting rapidly to changing environmental conditions. Human activities, on the other hand, have caused significant disturbance and are accountable for the majority of the losses.
The seagrass can be damaged from direct mechanical destruction of habitat through fishing methods that rely on heavy nets that are dragged across the sea floor, putting this important ecosystem at serious risk. When humans drive motor boats over shallow seagrass areas, the propeller blade can also damage the seagrass.
Seagrass habitats are threatened by coastal eutrophication, which is caused by excessive input of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus). That excessive input is directly toxic to seagrasses, but most importantly, it stimulates the growth of epiphytic and free-floating macro- and micro-algae. Known as nuisance species, macroalgae grow in filamentous and sheet-like forms and form thick unattached mats over seagrass, occurring as epiphytes on seagrass leaves. Eutrophication leads to the forming of algal blooms, causing the attenuation of light in the water column, which eventually leads to anoxic conditions for the seagrass and organisms living in/around the plant(s). In addition to the direct blockage of light to the plant, benthic macroalgae have low carbon/nitrogen content, causing their decomposition to stimulate bacterial activity, leading to sediment resuspension, an increase in water turbidity, and further light attenuation. When the seagrass does not get enough sunlight, it reduces the photosynthesis that nourishes the seagrass and the primary production results, and then decaying seagrass leaves and algae fuel algal blooms even further, resulting in a positive feedback loop. This can cause the decline and eradication of seagrasses to algal dominance.
Accumulating evidence also suggests that overfishing of top predators (large predatory fish) could indirectly increase algal growth by reducing grazing control performed by mesograzers, such as crustaceans and gastropods, through a trophic cascade.
Increased seawater temperatures, increased sedimentation, and coastal development have also had a significant impact in the decline of seagrasses.
The most-used methods to protect and restore seagrass meadows include nutrient and pollution reduction, marine protected areas, and restoration using seagrass transplanting. Seagrass is not seen as resilient to the impacts of future environmental change.
Ocean deoxygenation
Globally, seagrass has been declining rapidly. Hypoxia that leads to eutrophication caused from ocean deoxygenation is one of the main underlying factors of these die-offs. Eutrophication causes enhanced nutrient enrichment which can result in seagrass productivity, but with continual nutrient enrichment in seagrass meadows, it can cause excessive growth of microalgae, epiphytes and phytoplankton resulting in hypoxic conditions.
Seagrass is both a source and a sink for oxygen in the surrounding water column and sediments. At night, the inner part of seagrass oxygen pressure is linearly related to the oxygen concentration in the water column, so low water column oxygen concentrations often result in hypoxic seagrass tissues, which can eventually kill off the seagrass. Normally, seagrass sediments must supply oxygen to the below-ground tissue through either photosynthesis or by diffusing oxygen from the water column through leaves to rhizomes and roots. However, with the change in seagrass oxygen balances, it can often result in hypoxic seagrass tissues. Seagrass exposed to this hypoxic water column show increased respiration, reduced rates of photosynthesis, smaller leaves, and reduced number of leaves per shoot. This causes insufficient supply of oxygen to the belowground tissues for aerobic respiration, so seagrass must rely on the less-efficient anaerobic respiration. Seagrass die-offs create a positive feedback loop in which the mortality events cause more death as higher oxygen demands are created when dead plant material decomposes.
Because hypoxia increases the invasion of sulfides in seagrass, this negatively affects seagrass through photosynthesis, metabolism and growth. Generally, seagrass is able to combat the sulfides by supplying enough oxygen to the roots. However, deoxygenation causes the seagrass to be unable to supply this oxygen, thus killing it off. Deoxygenation reduces the diversity of organisms inhabiting seagrass beds by eliminating species that cannot tolerate the low oxygen conditions. Indirectly, the loss and degradation of seagrass threatens numerous species that rely on seagrass for either shelter or food. The loss of seagrass also effects the physical characteristics and resilience of seagrass ecosystems. Seagrass beds provide nursery grounds and habitat to many harvested commercial, recreational, and subsistence fish and shellfish. In many tropical regions, local people are dependent on seagrass associated fisheries as a source of food and income.
Diminishing meadows
The storage of carbon is an essential ecosystem service as we move into a period of elevated atmospheric carbon levels. However, some climate change models suggest that some seagrasses will go extinct – Posidonia oceanica is expected to go extinct, or nearly so, by 2050.
The UNESCO World Heritage Site around the Balearic islands of Mallorca and Formentera includes about of Posidonia oceanica, which has global significance because of the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs. However, the meadows are being threatened by rising temperatures, which slows down its growth, as well as damage from anchors.
Restoration
Using propagules
Seagrass propagules are materials that help propagate seagrass. Seagrasses pollinate by hydrophily, that is, by dispersing in the water. Sexually and asexually produced propagules are important for this dispersal.
Species from the genera Amphibolis and Thalassodendron produce viviparous seedlings. Most others produce seeds, although their characteristics vary widely; some species produce seeds or fruit that are positively buoyant and have potential for long-distance dispersal (e.g., Enhalus, Posidonia, and Thalassia). Others produce seeds that are negatively buoyant with limited dispersal potential (e.g., Zostera and Halophila). although long-distance dispersal can still occur via transport of detached fragments carrying spathes (modified leaves which enclose the flower cluster); e.g., Zostera spp. Nearly all species are also capable of asexual reproduction through rhizome elongation or the production of asexual fragments (e.g., rhizome fragments, pseudoviviparous plantlets). Sexually derived propagules of some species lack the ability to be dormant (e.g., Amphibolis and Posidonia), while others can remain dormant for long periods. These differences in biology and ecology of propagules strongly influence patterns of recruitment and dispersal, and the way they can be used effectively in restoration.
Seagrass restoration has primarily involved using asexual material (e.g., cuttings, rhizome fragments or cores) collected from donor meadows. Relatively few seagrass restoration efforts have used sexually derived propagules. The infrequent use of sexually derived propagules is probably in part due to the temporal and spatial variability of seed availability, as well as the perception that survival rates of seeds and seedlings are poor. Although survival rates are often low, recent reviews of seed-based research highlight that this is probably because of limited knowledge about availability and collection of quality seed, skills in seed handling and delivery, and suitability of restoration sites.
Methods for collecting and preparing propagules vary according to their characteristics and typically harness their natural dispersal mechanisms. For example, for viviparous taxa such as Amphibolis, recently detached seedlings can be collected by placing fibrous and weighted material, such as sand-filled hessian bags, which the seedlings' grappling structures attach to as they drift past. In this way thousands of seedlings can be captured in less than a square meter. Typically, sandbags are deployed in locations where restoration is required, and are not collected and re-deployed elsewhere.
For species which have seeds contained within spathes (e.g., Zostera spp.), these can be harvested using divers or mechanical harvesters. In Chesapeake Bay several million Zostera marina seeds have been collected each year during the peak reproductive season using a mechanical harvester. Seeds are extracted from spathes after harvesting, but the methods of extraction and delivery vary. For example, some methods involve keeping the spathes within large holding tanks where they eventually split open and release the (negatively buoyant) seeds, which are then collected from the tank bottom. The seeds are then placed in a flume to determine seed quality based on settling velocity, after which they are scattered by hand from boats over recipient habitats. Alternatively, using buoys anchored in place, Z. marina spathes can be suspended over restoration sites in mesh bags; the spathes release and deliver the seeds to the seafloor.
For species that release seeds from fruits that float (Posidonia spp., Halophila spp.), fruits can be detached from the parent plant by shaking; they then float to the surface where they are collected in nets. Seeds are then extracted from the fruit via vigorous aeration and water movement from pumps at stable temperatures (25 °C) within tanks. The negatively buoyant seeds are then collected from the tank bottom and scattered by-hand over recipient habitats. Other methods have been trialed with limited success, including direct planting of seeds by hand, injecting seeds using machinery, or planting and deploying within hessian sandbags.
Restoration using seagrass propagules has so far demonstrated low and variable outcomes, with more than 90% of propagules failing to survive. For propagules to be successfully incorporated within seagrass restoration programs, there will need to be a reduction in propagule wastage (which includes mortality, but also failure to germinate or dispersal away from the restoration site), to facilitate higher rates of germination and survival. A major barrier to effective use of seeds in seagrass restoration is knowledge about seed quality. Seed quality includes aspects such as viability, size (which can confer energy reserves available for initial growth and establishment), damage to the seed coat or seedling, bacterial infection, genetic diversity and ecotype (which may influence a seeds ability to respond to the restoration environment). Nevertheless, the diversity of propagules and species used in restoration is increasing and understanding of seagrass seed biology and ecology is advancing. To improve chances of propagule establishment, better understanding is needed about the steps that precede seed delivery to restoration sites, including seed quality, as well as the environmental and social barriers that influence survival and growth.
Other efforts
In various locations, communities are attempting to restore seagrass beds that were lost to human action, including in the US states of Virginia, Florida and Hawaii, as well as the United Kingdom. Such reintroductions have been shown to improve ecosystem services.
Dr. Fred Short of the University of New Hampshire developed a specialized transplant methodology known as "Transplanting Eelgrass Remotely with Frames" (TERF). This method involves using clusters of plants which are temporarily tied with degradable crepe paper unto a weighted frame of wire mesh. The method has already been tried out by Save The Bay.
In 2001, Steve Granger, from the University of Rhode Island Graduate School of Oceanography used a boat-pulled sled that is able to deposit seeds below the sediment surface. Together with colleague Mike Traber (who developed a Knox gelatin matrix to encase the seeds in), they conducted a test planting at Narragansett Bay. They were able to plant a area in less than two hours.
the Coastal Marine Ecosystems Research Centre of Central Queensland University has been growing seagrass for six years and has been producing seagrass seeds. They have been running trials in germination and sowing techniques.
References
Seagrass |
4492505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Come%20and%20See | Come and See | Come and See (; ) is a 1985 Soviet anti-war film directed by Elem Klimov and starring Aleksei Kravchenko and Olga Mironova. Its screenplay, written by Klimov and Ales Adamovich, is based on the 1971 novel Khatyn and the 1977 memoir I Am from the Fiery Village (), of which Adamovich was a co-author. Klimov had to fight eight years of censorship from the Soviet authorities before he could be allowed to produce the film in its entirety.
The film's plot focuses on the Nazi German occupation of Belarus, and the events as witnessed by a young Belarusian partisan teenager named Flyora, who—against his mother's wishes—joins the Belarusian resistance movement, and thereafter depicts the Nazi atrocities and human suffering inflicted upon the Eastern European region's populace. The film mixes hyper-realism with an underlying surrealism, and philosophical existentialism with poetical, psychological, political and apocalyptic themes.
Come and See received generally positive critical reception upon release, and received the FIPRESCI prize at the 14th Moscow International Film Festival. It has since come to be considered one of the greatest films of all time; in the 2022 Sight & Sound directors' poll, it ranked 41st.
Plot
In 1943, two Belarusian boys dig in a sand-filled trench looking for abandoned rifles in order to join the Soviet partisan forces. Their village elder warns them not to dig up the weapons as it would arouse the suspicions of the occupying Germans. One of the boys, Flyora, finds an SVT-40 rifle. The boys' activities are noticed by an Fw 189 reconnaissance aircraft, flying overhead.
The next day two partisans arrive at Flyora's house, to conscript him. Flyora becomes a low-rank militiaman and is ordered to perform menial tasks. When the partisans are ready to move on, the commander, Kosach, says that Flyora is to remain behind at the camp. Bitterly disappointed, Flyora walks into the forest weeping and meets Glasha, a girl working as a nurse for the partisans, and the two bond before the camp is suddenly attacked by German paratroopers and dive bombers.
Flyora is partially deafened from the explosions before the two hide in the forest to avoid the German soldiers. Flyora and Glasha travel to his village, only to find his home deserted and covered in flies. Denying that his family is dead, Flyora believes that they are hiding on a nearby island across a bog. As they run from the village in the direction of the bogland, Glasha glances across her shoulder, seeing a pile of executed villagers' bodies stacked behind a house, but is too distressed to alert Flyora.
The two become hysterical after wading through the bog, where Glasha then screams at Flyora that his family is actually dead in the village, resulting in him attempting to drown her. They are soon met by Rubezh, a partisan fighter, who takes them to a large group of villagers who have fled the Germans. Flyora sees the village elder, badly burnt by the Germans, who tells him that he witnessed his family's execution and that he should not have dug up the rifles. Flyora, hearing this, attempts suicide out of guilt, but Glasha and the villagers save and comfort him.
Rubezh takes Flyora and two other men to find food at a nearby warehouse, only to find it being guarded by German troops. During their retreat, the group unknowingly wanders through a minefield resulting in the deaths of the two companions. That evening Rubezh and Flyora sneak up to an occupied village and manage to steal a cow from a collaborating farmer. As they escape across an open field, Rubezh and the cow are shot and killed by a German machine gun. The next morning, Flyora attempts to steal a horse and cart, but the owner catches him and instead of doing him harm, he helps hide Flyora's identity when SS troops approach.
Flyora is taken to the village of Perekhody, where they hurriedly discuss a fake identity for him, while an SS Einsatzkommando unit, accompanied by collaborators from the Russian Liberation Army and Schutzmannschaft Batallion 118, surround and occupy the village. Flyora tries to warn the townsfolk as they are being herded to their deaths, but is forced to join them inside a barn church. Flyora and a young woman are allowed to escape the church, but the latter is dragged by her hair into a truck to be gang raped. Flyora is forced to watch as several Molotov cocktails and grenades are thrown onto and within the church before it is further set ablaze with a flamethrower as other soldiers shoot into the building. A German officer points a gun to Flyora's head to pose for a picture before leaving him to slump to the ground as the soldiers leave.
Flyora later wanders out of the scorched village in the direction of the Germans, where he discovers they had been ambushed by the partisans. After recovering his jacket and rifle, Flyora comes across the girl who was dragged off by SS soldiers in a fugue state, her inner-legs and face covered in blood after having been brutally gang-raped by the soldiers. Flyora returns to the village and finds that his fellow partisans have captured eleven of the Germans and their collaborators, including the commander, an SS-Sturmbannführer. While some of the captured men including the commander and main collaborator plead for their lives and deflect blame, a young fanatical officer, an Obersturmführer, is unapologetic and vows they will carry out their genocidal mission.
Kosach makes the collaborator douse the Germans with a can of petrol brought there by Flyora, as a runner approaches bearing a torch lit from the burning village, but the disgusted crowd shoots them all before they can be set on fire. As the partisans leave, Flyora notices a framed portrait of Adolf Hitler in a puddle and proceeds to shoot it numerous times. As he does so, a montage of clips from Hitler's life play in reverse, but when Hitler is shown as a baby on his mother's lap, Flyora stops shooting and cries. A title card informs: "628 Belorussian villages were destroyed, along with all their inhabitants." Flyora rushes to rejoin his comrades, and they march through the birch woods as snow blankets the ground.
Cast
Aleksei Kravchenko as Flyora/Florian Gaishun
Olga Mironova as Glasha/Glafira
Liubomiras Laucevičius as Kosach (voiced by Valery Kravchenko)
Vladas Bagdonas as Rubezh
Tatyana Shestakova as Flyora's mother
Yevgeny Tilicheyev as Gezhel the main collaborator
Viktors Lorents as Walter Stein the German commander
Jüri Lumiste as the fanatical German officer
Production
Klimov co-wrote the screenplay with Ales Adamovich, who fought with the Belarusian partisans as a teenager. According to the director's recollections, work on the film began in 1977:
For eight years, filming could not begin because the State Committee for Cinematography (Goskino) would not accept the screenplay, considering it too realistic, calling it propaganda for the "aesthetics of dirtiness" and "naturalism". Alongside this, the death of Klimov's wife Larisa Shepitko, also a filmmaker, in 1979 forced him to first complete the work she began on what was to be her next film, Farewell; it would finally be released in 1983. Eventually in 1984, Klimov was able to start filming without having compromised to any censorship at all. The only change became the name of the film itself, to Come and See from the original, Kill Hitler (Klimov also says this in the 2006 UK DVD release).
The film was shot in chronological order over a period of nine months. Kravchenko said that he underwent "the most debilitating fatigue and hunger. I kept a most severe diet, and after the filming was over I returned to school not only thin, but grey-haired." Contrary to what some rumors suggest, though, Kravchenko's hair did not turn permanently grey. In fact, a special Silber Interference Grease-Paint, alongside a thin layer of actual silver, was used to dye his hair. This made it difficult to get it back to normal, so Kravchenko had to live with his hair like this for some time after shooting the film.
To prepare the 14-year-old Kravchenko for the role, Klimov called a hypnotist with autogenic training. "[Kravchenko's acting] could have had a very sad ending. He could have landed in an insane asylum," Klimov said. "I realized I had to inject him with content which he did not possess," "This is an age when a boy does not know what true hatred is, what true love is." "In the end, Mr. Kravchenko was able to concentrate so intensely that it seemed as if he had hypnotized himself for the role."
To create the maximum sense of immediacy, realism, hyperrealism, and surrealism operating in equal measure, Klimov and his cameraman Aleksei Rodionov employed naturalistic colors, widescreen and lots of Steadicam shots; the film is full of extreme close-ups of faces, does not flinch from the unpleasant details of burnt flesh and bloodied corpses, and the guns were often loaded with live ammunition as opposed to blanks. Kravchenko mentioned in interviews that bullets sometimes passed just 4 inches (10 centimeters) above his head (such as in the cow scene). Very little protection was provided on the set. When the dive bombs were detonated the camera crew only had a concrete slab 1.5 meters tall and 5 meters wide to protect them. At the same time the mise-en-scène is fragmentary and disjointed: there are discontinuities between shots as characters appear in close up and then disappear off camera. Elsewhere, the moment of revelation is marked by a disorienting zoom-in/dolly-out shot.
Music
The original soundtrack is rhythmically amorphous music composed by Oleg Yanchenko. At a few key points in the film classical music from mainly German or Austrian composers are used, such as The Blue Danube by Johann Strauss II. The Soviet marching song "The Sacred War" and Russian folk song "Korobeiniki" (Vadim Kozin) () are played in the movie once. During the scene where Glasha dances, the background music is some fragments of Mary Dixon's song from Grigori Aleksandrov's 1936 film Circus. At the end, during the photographic montage, music by Richard Wagner is used, most notably the "Ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre.
At the end of the film, the partisans walk through a winter woodland to the sound of Mozart's Lacrimosa before the camera tilts towards the sky and the ending credits appear. Film critic Roger Ebert commented on this scene as follows:
Meaning of the title
The original Belarusian and Russian title of the film derives from Chapter 6 of the Book of Revelation, where in the first, third, fifth, and seventh verse is written "" in Belarusian (English: , Greek: , Erchou kai ide and "" in Russian) as an invitation to look upon the destruction caused by the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. have been cited as being particularly relevant to the film:
And when he had opened the fourth seal, I heard the voice of the fourth beast say, "Come and see!" And I looked, and behold a pale horse: and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him. And power was given unto them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth.
Release
Original release
Come and See had its world premiere in the competition program at the 14th Moscow International Film Festival on 9 July 1985. It was theatrically released on 17 October 1985, drawing 28.9 million viewers and ranking sixth at the box office of 1986.
2017 restoration
In 2017, the film received an official restoration overseen by Karen Shakhnazarov. It won the Venice Classics Award for Best Restored Film, and was also shown in several European independent cinemas again.
Home media
In 2001 the film was released on DVD in the United States by Kino Lorber. This release is currently out-of-print. The film became available on FilmStruck, the streaming service for the Criterion Collection from its opening on 1 November 2016 to its closing on 29 November 2018, and from November 2019 on the new Criterion Channel service. On 18 December 2019, Janus Films released a trailer for a 2k-restoration that premiered at the Film Forum in New York City on 21 February 2020 with a theatrical run and then a home media release through Criterion was released on 30 June 2020.
Reception
Box office
Come and See grossed $71,909 in the United States and Canada, and $20.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of nearly $21 million, plus over $1.2 million with home video sales.
Critical response
Contemporary reviews
Initial reception was positive. Walter Goodman wrote for The New York Times that "The history is harrowing and the presentation is graphic ... Powerful material, powerfully rendered ...", and dismissed the ending as "a dose of instant inspirationalism," but conceded to Klimov's "unquestionable talent." Rita Kempley, of The Washington Post, wrote that "directing with an angry eloquence, [Klimov] taps into that hallucinatory nether world of blood and mud and escalating madness that Francis Ford Coppola found in Apocalypse Now. And though he draws a surprisingly vivid performance from his inexperienced teen lead, Klimov's prowess is his visual poetry, muscular and animistic, like compatriot Andrei Konchalovsky's in his epic Siberiade." Mark Le Fanu wrote in Sight & Sound that Come and See is a "powerful war film ... The director has elicited an excellent performance from his central actor Kravchenko".
According to Klimov, the film was so shocking for audiences that ambulances were sometimes called in to take away particularly impressionable viewers, both in the Soviet Union and abroad. During one of the after-the-film discussions, an elderly German man stood up and said: "I was a soldier of the Wehrmacht; moreover, an officer of the Wehrmacht. I traveled through all of Poland and Belarus, finally reaching Ukraine. I will testify: everything that is told in this film is the truth. And the most frightening and shameful thing for me is that this film will be seen by my children and grandchildren".
Retrospective assessments
The film has since been widely acclaimed in the 21st century. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 90%, based on 58 reviews, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "As effectively anti-war as movies can be, Come and See is a harrowing odyssey through the worst that humanity is capable of, directed with bravura intensity by Elem Klimov."
In 2001 Daneet Steffens of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "Klimov alternates the horrors of war with occasional fairy tale-like images; together they imbue the film with an unapologetically disturbing quality that persists long after the credits roll."
In 2001, J. Hoberman of The Village Voice reviewed Come and See, writing the following: "Directed for baroque intensity, Come and See is a robust art film with aspirations to the visionary – not so much graphic as leisurely literal-minded in its representation of mass murder. (The movie has been compared both to Schindler's List and Saving Private Ryan, and it would not be surprising to learn that Steven Spielberg had screened it before making either of these.) The film's central atrocity is a barbaric circus of blaring music and barking dogs in which a squadron of drunken German soldiers round up and parade the peasants to their fiery doom ... The bit of actual death-camp corpse footage that Klimov uses is doubly disturbing in that it retrospectively diminishes the care with which he orchestrates the town's destruction. For the most part, he prefers to show the Gorgon as reflected in Perseus's shield. There are few images more indelible than the sight of young Aleksei Kravchenko's fear-petrified expression." In the same publication in 2009, Elliott Stein described Come and See as "a startling mixture of lyrical poeticism and expressionist nightmare."
In 2002, Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club wrote that Klimov's "impressions are unforgettable: the screaming cacophony of a bombing run broken up by the faint sound of a Mozart fugue, a dark, arid field suddenly lit up by eerily beautiful orange flares, German troops appearing like ghosts out of the heavy morning fog. A product of the glasnost era, Come and See is far from a patriotic memorial of Russia's hard-won victory. Instead, it's a chilling reminder of that victory's terrible costs." British magazine The Word wrote that "Come and See is widely regarded as the finest war film ever made, though possibly not by Great Escape fans." Tim Lott wrote in 2009 that the film "makes Apocalypse Now look lightweight".
In 2006, Geoffrey Macnab of Sight & Sound wrote: "Klimov's astonishing war movie combines intense lyricism with the kind of violent bloodletting that would make even Sam Peckinpah pause".
On 16 June 2010, Roger Ebert posted a review of Come and See as part of his "Great Movies" series, describing it as "one of the most devastating films ever about anything, and in it, the survivors must envy the dead ... The film depicts brutality and is occasionally very realistic, but there's an overlay of muted nightmarish exaggeration ... I must not describe the famous sequence at the end. It must unfold as a surprise for you. It pretends to roll back history. You will see how. It is unutterably depressing, because history can never undo itself, and is with us forever."
Legacy
Come and See appears on many lists of films considered the best. In 2008, Come and See was placed at number 60 on Empire magazine's "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time" in 2008. It also made Channel 4's list of 50 Films to See Before You Die and was ranked number 24 in Empire magazine's "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema" in 2010. Phil de Semlyen of Empire has described the work as "Elim Klimov’s seriously influential, deeply unsettling Belarusian opus. No film – not Apocalypse Now, not Full Metal Jacket – spells out the dehumanizing impact of conflict more vividly, or ferociously ... An impressionist masterpiece and possibly the worst date movie ever." It ranked 154 among critics, and 30 among directors, in the 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the greatest films ever made, while it ranked 104 among critics, and 41 among directors, in the 2022 Sight & Sound polls. The film is generally considered one of the greatest anti-war movies ever made, and one with the most historically accurate depictions of the crimes on the Eastern Front.
Klimov did not make any more films after Come and See, leading some critics to speculate as to why. In 2001, Klimov said, "I lost interest in making films ... Everything that was possible I felt I had already done."
Accolades
Come and See was selected as the Soviet entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 58th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee.
See also
List of Soviet submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
References
Further reading
External links
Come and See on Russian Film Hub
Full film on YouTube on Mosfilm's and Belarusfilm's pages
1985 drama films
1985 films
1985 in the Soviet Union
1980s German-language films
1980s Russian-language films
1980s war drama films
Animal cruelty incidents in film
Anti-war films about World War II
Apocalyptic films
Belarusian drama films
Belarusian-language films
Belarusian World War II films
Eastern Front of World War II films
Existentialist films
World War II films based on actual events
Films about anti-fascism
Films about fascists
Films about Nazism
Films about orphans
Films directed by Elem Klimov
Films set in 1943
Films set in Belarus
Films set in the Soviet Union
Gang rape in films
Metaphysical fiction films
Mosfilm films
Partisan films
Russian war drama films
Russian World War II films
Soviet-era Belarusian films
Soviet war drama films
Soviet World War II films
Works about children in war
Films shot in chronological order |
4492716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniforms%20of%20the%20British%20Army | Uniforms of the British Army | The uniforms of the British Army currently exist in twelve categories ranging from ceremonial uniforms to combat dress (with full dress uniform and frock coats listed in addition). Uniforms in the British Army are specific to the regiment (or corps) to which a soldier belongs. Full dress presents the most differentiation between units, and there are fewer regimental distinctions between ceremonial dress, service dress, barrack dress and combat dress, though a level of regimental distinction runs throughout.
Senior officers, of full colonel rank and above, do not wear a regimental uniform (except when serving in the honorary position of a Colonel of the Regiment); rather, they wear their own 'staff uniform' (which includes a coloured cap band and matching gorget patches in several orders of dress).
As a rule, the same basic design and colour of uniform is worn by all ranks of the same regiment (albeit often with increased embellishment for higher ranks). There are several significant uniform differences between infantry and cavalry regiments; furthermore, several features of cavalry uniform were (and are) extended to those corps and regiments deemed for historical reasons to have 'mounted status' (namely: the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers, Royal Corps of Signals, Army Air Corps, Royal Logistic Corps and Royal Army Veterinary Corps).
Full dress
Full dress is the most elaborate and traditional order worn by the British Army. It generally consists of a scarlet, dark blue or rifle green high-necked tunic (without chest pockets), elaborate headwear and other colourful items. It was withdrawn from a general issue in 1914, but is still listed in the Army Dress Regulations, which speaks of it as "the ultimate statement of tradition and regimental identity in uniform" and the "key" to all other orders of dress. Each regiment and corps has its own pattern, approved by the Army Dress Committee. They are generally a modified version of the pre-1914 uniforms. In the case of units created since the First World War, such as the Army Air Corps, the Full Dress order incorporates both traditional and modern elements. Gloves as worn with Full Dress uniform are white for all ranks in all regiments and corps, with the exception of The Rifles, the Royal Gurkha Rifles, the Royal Army Chaplains' Department, and the Royal Irish Regiment, who all wear black gloves in Full Dress. This is also the case with the Frock Coat and Numbers 1 and 3 dress. In addition, the Life Guards, the Blues and Royals, the Queens Royal Dragoons, the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, the Royal Dragoon Guards, and the Royal Lancers all wear white leather gauntlets when mounted.
Full dress is still regularly worn on ceremonial occasions by the Foot Guards, the Household Cavalry and the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery. It is issued at public expense to these units and to the various Royal Corps of Army Music Bands for ceremonial use. Other units may obtain Full Dress on occasion, as it can be worn whenever a parade is attended or ordained by the monarch or a member of the British Royal Family, including ceremonial parades, state funerals, and public duties around royal residences (such as the Changing of the Guard), or participating in the Lord Mayor's Show.
Most regiments maintain full dress for limited numbers of personnel, including musicians and guards of honour (in some cases). However, all of these uniforms must be purchased and maintained from non-public funds.
Historically, musicians were an important means of communication on the battlefield and wore distinctive uniforms for easy identification (coats laced and/or in "reversed colours"). This is recalled in the extra uniform lace worn by infantry regiments' corps of drums, and the different coloured helmet plumes worn by trumpeters in the Household Cavalry. Shoulder 'wings' are now a distinguishing feature worn by musicians of some non-mounted regiments and corps in ceremonial forms of dress. Originally, wings were embellishments in a certain number foot regiments, so that, in 1750, nineteen out of forty-nine foot regiments wore them, although they had been forbidden in 1730. In December 1752, the wings were reserved for grenadier companies only, followed by the light infantry in 1770. Within less than three decades, these initially small and modest features grew in size, became stiffened and lavishly trimmed with lace and fringes. After a design change, in 1836, the wings disappeared by the end of the Crimean War, 1855, and became solely the privilege of military musicians.
Headgear, as worn with full dress, differs considerably from the peaked caps and berets worn in other orders of dress:
Field marshals, generals, lieutenant generals, major generals, brigadiers and colonels wear cocked hats with varying amounts of ostrich feathers according to rank;
Life Guards, Blues and Royals, 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards and Royal Dragoon Guards wear metal helmets with plumes, the plumes variously coloured to distinguish them.
King's Royal Hussars, Queen's Royal Hussars, Light Dragoons, the Royal Regiment of Artillery and the Royal Signals wear a black fur busby, with different coloured plumes and bags (this is the coloured lining of the busby that is pulled out and displayed on the left-hand side of the headdress).
As the uniforms of Rifles regiments traditionally aped those of the hussars, a somewhat similar lambskin busby is worn by The Rifles and the Royal Gurkha Rifles, with coloured plumes to distinguish them. However, these busbies do not feature bags like in their hussar counterparts.
The Royal Lancers and the band of the Royal Yeomanry, feature the czapka, or 'lancer's cap'. The plumes and top of this headgear historically distinguished the various Lancer regiments.
The Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards, Scots Guards, Irish Guards, Welsh Guards, Royal Scots Dragoon Guards and Honourable Artillery Company wear bearskins, as do officers of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers; whose other ranks wear the flat-topped fusilier cap.
The Royal Regiment of Scotland wears the feathered bonnet, as do pipers in the Scots Guards and Royal Scots Dragoon Guards.
English and Welsh Line infantry regiments (The Princess of Wales' Royal Regiment, Mercian Regiment, Duke of Lancaster's Regiment, Royal Anglian Regiment, Royal Yorkshire Regiment, and Royal Welsh), the Royal Engineers, Adjutant General's Corps and Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers wear the dark blue Home Service Helmet with a spike ornament on top.
The Royal Logistic Corps, Royal Army Medical Corps, Royal Army Veterinary Corps and Royal Army Dental Corps wear the Home Service Helmet, with a ball ornament on the top.
The Royal Tank Regiment, Army Air Corps, Parachute Regiment, Special Air Service, Intelligence Corps and the Special Reconnaissance Regiment wear berets; as they do with all orders of dress.
The Royal Irish Regiment, the pipers of the Queen's Royal Hussars and the Irish Guards wear the caubeen.
The Royal Gibraltar Regiment wear a white pith helmet with a spike ornament on the top.
Not all full-dress uniforms are scarlet; light cavalry regiments (hussars, light dragoons and lancers) and the Royal Artillery have worn blue since the 18th century, while rifle regiments wear green. The seven support corps and departments in existence in 1914 all wore dark blue dress uniforms, with different coloured facings. Hussar and Rifle regiments' tunics feature cording across the chest, while that of the Royal Lancers and Army Air Corps features a plastron in the facing colours.
Facings
Each regiment and corps of the British Army has an allotted facing colour according to Part 14 Section 2 Annex F of the British Army dress regulations. Where full dress is currently not used, the notional colours can be ascertained by the colours of the mess dress; if the regiment in question has not been amalgamated with another. The Intelligence Corps, SAS and SRR have never had a design of full dress, and the SAS nor SRR had a design for mess dress. The Intelligence Corps mess dress colour of cypress green is "traditionally unacceptable", and the full dress facing colours of the SAS and SRR can be inferred from their beret colours according to this section of the regulations. The London Regiment and existing Yeomanry regiments have a variety of colours for their various sub-units.
Blue: General officers and Colonels, The Life Guards, 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards, The Royal Dragoon Guards, The Queen's Royal Lancers, Foot Guards Regiments, The Royal Regiment of Scotland, the Princess of Wales Royal Regiment, the Royal Welsh, Adjutant General's Corps, Honourable Artillery Company (Artillery dress), Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers
Scarlet: The Blues and Royals, Queen's Royal Hussars, Royal Horse Artillery, Royal Artillery, The Rifles, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, Educational and Training Services (part of Adjutant General's Corps), Royal Military Police (part of Adjutant General's Corps) Royal Army Physical Training Corps, Royal Corps of Army Music, Honourable Artillery Company (Infantry dress), The Royal Yeomanry
Yellow: Royal Scots Dragoon Guards
Crimson: The King's Royal Hussars, Army Cadet Corps
Buff: The Light Dragoons, The Mercian Regiment
Royal blue: The Duke of Lancaster's Regiment
Maroon: The Parachute Regiment, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
Dark blue: The Royal Anglian Regiment, The Queen's Own Gurkha Logistics Regiment
Black: Royal Corps of Signals, Army Legal Services (part of Adjutant General's Corps)
Blue velvet: Royal Engineers, Queen's Gurkha Engineers, The Royal Logistic Corps
Black velvet: Royal Tank Regiment
Brunswick green: The Royal Yorkshire Regiment
Piper green: The Royal Irish Regiment
Grey: The Intelligence Corps
Cambridge blue: Army Air Corps, Small Arms School Corps
Emerald green: Royal Army Dental Corps
Purple: Royal Army Chaplains Department
Ascot grey: Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps
Dull cherry: Royal Army Medical Corps
Slate grey: Royal Gibraltar Regiment
Frock coats
One type of frock coat may be worn by officers of lieutenant general and above (and major generals in certain appointments) on formal occasions when not on parade in command of troops. They are a knee-length, dark blue, double-breasted coat with velvet collar and cuffs. It is usually worn with the peaked cap but is occasionally worn with a cocked hat by certain office-holders such as the Major-General commanding the Household Division, Gold Stick and Silver Stick and the Constable of the Tower.
A different type of frock coat is worn by certain officers of the Household Division, Honourable Artillery Company and King's Troop of the Royal Horse Artillery. These are also dark blue but are single-breasted and with ornate black braiding and loops. Similar braided coats are worn on occasion by directors of music and bandmasters of bands affiliated to line cavalry regiments (in other bands they wear a plainer double-breasted frock coat similar to that of senior officers but without the velvet) in dark blue (or green for The Rifles).
Numbered orders of dress
Fourteen numbered 'orders' of dress (in addition to full dress) are set out in Army Dress Regulations but many of these are rarely worn or have been phased out altogether. Numbers 5 and 9 have been replaced by the new 'Personal Clothing System' Combat Uniform (or PCS-CU for short). Several orders of dress are only issued to officers (and senior non-commissioned officers in some cases); others are only issued to personnel serving in particular climates or specific roles.
No.1: Temperate ceremonial
No. 1 Dress, or "dress blues", is a ceremonial uniform, worn on only the most formal of occasions and by senior staff officers, aides to the Royal Family, and to the personal staff of senior officers in command. It is not generally issued to all units, with the khaki No. 2 Dress functioning as the main parade uniform.
No. 1 dress originated in the "undress" uniforms ('blue Patrols') worn for semi-formal or ordinary duty occasions in the late 19th century. It was first issued in its current form for the 1937 Coronation, intended as a cheaper alternative to the full dress uniforms that had been generally withdrawn after 1914. It became known as No. 1 Dress in 1947. Army units participating in the 1953 Coronation wore the new uniform as a temporary issue.
For most units, No. 1 dress consists of a dark blue stand collared tunic, matching trousers, and peaked cap, caubeen, or beret depending on the regiment. Female members may wear skirts with tights in place of the trousers. Units are distinguished by badges and the colours of the cap, tunic piping, vertical stripes ("welts") on the trousers, and the colour of the collar for certain cavalry regiments. The Rifles wear a rifle green tunic with black trousers. The Royal Gurkha Rifles wear matching tunics and trousers of rifle green. The Royal Dragoon Guards and the King's Royal Hussars wear dark green and crimson trousers respectively. Cavalry regiments wear shoulder chains in place of shoulder straps, and for officers "overalls" (tight-fitting trousers historically worn by mounted troops). The Royal Regiment of Scotland wears a short jacket called a "doublet", in Archer Green. Prior to amalgamation, Highland regiments wore the doublet with the kilt and sporran while Lowland regiments wore trews, both in the individual regiment's tartan.
In the full ceremonial order of No. 1 Dress, officers wear a waist sash of crimson silk and twisted cord epaulettes; while general officers wear a waist sash of gold and crimson stripes. Light cavalry regiments wear a lace crossbelt in place of the sash, while Rifle regiments wear a polished black leather crossbelt, as do the Special Air Service and Royal Army Chaplains Department (who have a unique pattern of tunic that features an open step collar instead of a stand collar). Other ranks wear a white, buff, or black leather belt with a regimental pattern locket, with a bayonet frog if carrying arms.
The peaked forage cap is worn by most regiments exceptions being:
Beret:
Royal Tank Regiment,
4/73 (Sphinx) Special Observation Post Battery RA
Royal Regiment of Fusiliers
other ranks of the Royal Welsh,
Parachute Regiment,
Special Air Service
Intelligence Corps.
Staff Sergeants and ranks below of the Royal Logistic Corps
Army Air Corps,
Qualified personnel serving with a unit forming part of air assault, or commando formations or with Army Aviation Units.
Glengarry
Royal Regiment of Scotland
Caubeen
Royal Irish Regiment,
Kilmarnock cap
Royal Gurkha Rifles.
The above headdress is also worn as part of Numbers 3, 10 and 11 dress (and with Number 2 and 6 dress on formal parades).
No.2: Service dress (temperate parade uniform)
Originally issued as a field uniform, this uniform is worn for most formal duties by all units. No.2 dress consists, for most corps and regiments, of a khaki jacket, shirt and tie with trousers or a skirt. Coloured trousers are worn by some units: crimson by the King's Royal Hussars, dark green by the Royal Irish Regiment and Royal Dragoon Guards.
All officers and other ranks now wear the same style and colour of Service Dress and it is issued free to all. Officers are required to purchase the caps, belts and shoes for which they are given a cash grant. The only variations of the standard jacket are the jackets worn by the Foot Guards whose buttons are grouped differently depending on their regiment, and the Royal Regiment of Scotland who wear a "cutaway" form of the jacket to be worn with kilts.
Regimental distinctions worn on No.2 dress can include collar badges (sometimes with coloured cloth backings), coloured lanyards worn on the shoulder, arm badges, and unusually for the Educational and Training Services Branch blue socks are worn.
Regimental buttons are worn; for most units, these are of gold colour, with black buttons worn by The Rifles, Royal Gurkha Rifles and Royal Army Chaplains Department, silver by the Special Air Service, Special Reconnaissance Regiment, Honourable Artillery Company and Small Arms School Corps and bronze by the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment. Officers and Warrant Officers Class One of some (but not all) regiments and corps wear a leather Sam Browne belt (that of 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards is of pig skin which is not to be highly polished) or a cross belt. Infantry Warrant Officers Class Two and SNCOs wear a scarlet (for WOs) or crimson (for SNCOs) sash over the right shoulder to the hip. Soldiers wear a white or black plastic waist belt with a plate buckle displaying the regimental badge in ceremonial uniform – a plain khaki belt in non-ceremonial.
Every regular army soldier is issued with one suit of No.2 dress. In general, issue of this order of dress to units of the Army Reserves is to all officers and SNCOs with pools of khaki uniforms being held by units for use by corporals and below.
In the ceremonial form of No.2 dress, the headdress is the same as that worn with No.1 dress, with the exceptions of the Brigade of Gurkhas (who wear the slouch hat); and of officers of The Queen's Royal Hussars who wear their "tent hat" (the only headdress worn without a cap badge or other distinction). On 'informal parades' officers in Nos 2 or 6 dress may wear a peaked khaki cap (which may also be worn with Nos 4, 7, 12, 13 and 14 dress); this item is not generally issued to other ranks (who would wear the beret or equivalent on these occasions) except those in HCMR and King's Troop RHA.
Another item of headwear authorized (but not provided) for optional wear on informal parades in Nos 2 or 6 dress is the side cap; it may also optionally be worn with Nos 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13 and 14 dress.
No.3: Warm weather ceremonial uniform
No.3 dress is the warm weather equivalent of No.1 dress, worn for specified overseas stations or assignments. With the introduction of No.1 Dress in temperate regions, No. 3 Dress was adopted as the tropical equivalent during the early 1950s. It comprised an all-white cotton drill high-collared tunic, cut in a similar fashion to the No. 1 dress jacket, plus white trousers. These were worn with the coloured No.1 dress cap. No. 3 dress was typically issued temporarily, being withdrawn from units on leaving the station. This order of dress dates back to white drill uniforms worn for "hot-weather" ceremonial and off-duty wear in India prior to World War I.
Since the 1970s this order has consisted of the same white tunic but is now worn with coloured No. 1 dress trousers. Head-dress, footwear and badges are generally as for No. 1 dress. Widely worn during the 1950s and 1960s (when Britain still maintained significant garrisons in tropical stations) this uniform is now usually restricted to military attachés in tropical postings and their personal staffs; units of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment and The Royal Bermuda Regiment (see below); plus a few army bands and officers of the battalion of the Royal Gurkha Rifles stationed in Brunei.
The band of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment is entitled to a permanent issue of No. 3 dress. The Royal Bermuda Regiment, which has many ceremonial duties, issued No. 3 Dress as a summer uniform until the end of the millennium, wearing No. 1 Dress (with red facings) during the rest of the year due to the cold and often stormy weather (a black Slade-Wallace belt being worn with No. 3 Dress whereas a white one is worn with No. 1 Dress). As most of its public ceremonial duties fall during the summer months, it now wears No. 3 Dress year-round, with No. 1 Dress worn only as authorized by the Commanding Officer.
No.4: Warm weather Service Dress (officers only)
Issued to officers on first posting to a warm-weather area: the uniform is similar to No.2 dress but made in a light khaki shade defined in Section 01.87 of the Army Dress Regulations as "stone".
When officers are taking part in parades and formations with other ranks in warm weather areas, they wear either No.3 or No.6 dress.
There had been an Other Ranks pattern of warm weather Service Dress, but this fell out of use after the 1950s.
No.6: Warm weather parade uniform (bush jacket)
The "bush jacket" uniform (in Australia, this is known as the "safari uniform"). It is issued to all officers and ORs on posting to a warm-weather station. It consists of a stone coloured bush-style four-button jacket worn with or without a shirt and tie underneath and stone coloured trousers. It is worn by all ranks for parades (as with No. 2 Dress), unless No. 3 dress is worn, and by ORs for all other occasions.
No.7: Warm weather barrack dress
The tropical shirt-and-trousers uniform, consisting of a stone coloured short-sleeve shirt worn with stone coloured trousers (tartan kilt or trews for Scottish regiments), and regimental headgear. Regimental/Corps stable belts may be worn in this order of dress.
No.8: Combat Dress
The current No.8 Dress, which was introduced as part of Project PECOC in 2011, is known as Personal Clothing System – Combat Uniform (PCS-CU); it is based around a Multi-Terrain Pattern (MTP) windproof smock, a lightweight jacket and trousers with a range of ancillaries such as thermals and waterproofs. Prior to 2011 separate designs of combat dress were provided for use in desert, temperate and tropical regions (numbered 5, 8 and 9, respectively, in the uniform regulations) all of which were replaced by PCS-CU.
PCS-CU is designed to be lightweight, yet durable enough to be used throughout rigorous activities soldiers find themselves performing, and with the idea that layers of clothing are warmer and more flexible than a single thick layer. The PCS-CU jacket is always worn loose, with sleeves rolled down; however, an MTP pattern shirt was introduced in 2015 and this may be worn during the Summer months tucked into the trousers with sleeves rolled up. While the shirt may be worn during the winter months, it is always worn with the sleeves rolled down.
Some Regiments and Corps wear a stable belt in No 8 dress whilst others restrict its use to Nos 13 and 14 Dress. On exercises and operations the stable belt is replaced with a plain green field belt, with nylon Personal Load Carrying Equipment and the Osprey body armour vest with pouches attached using the PALS system being worn for load-bearing purposes.
In the twentieth century the British army introduced Tactical Recognition Flashes (TRFs) – worn on the right arm of a combat uniform, this distinctive insignia denotes the wearer's regiment or corps (or subdivision thereof, these being the ALS, ETS, RMP, MPGS, and SPS, in the case of the AGC).
Working headdress is normally worn, which is typically a beret. The colour of the beret usually shows what type of regiment the wearer is from. The colours are as follows:
Khaki: Mercian Regiment, Foot Guards, Honourable Artillery Company, Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, Royal Anglian Regiment, Duke of Lancaster's Regiment, Royal Welsh, Royal Yorkshire Regiment, Royal Gibraltar Regiment, 4/73 (Sphinx) Special Observation Post Battery RA
Light grey: Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry
Dark grey: Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps
Brown: King's Royal Hussars, Royal Wessex Yeomanry
Black: Royal Tank Regiment, Westminster Dragoons Squadron, Royal Yeomanry
Dark (Rifle) green: The Royal Dragoon Guards, The Queen's Royal Hussars (with broad browband), The Rifles, Royal Gurkha Rifles, Small Arms School Corps, Essex Yeomanry
Maroon: Parachute Regiment, all ranks serving with 16 Air Assault Brigade (not restricted to Parachute qualified personnel) other than the non–Parachute Regiment Infantry Battalion or Army Air Corps and attached Arms personnel
Beige: Special Air Service including attached troops who are not SAS-qualified
Emerald grey: Special Reconnaissance Regiment
Commando green: Commando qualified personnel serving in Commando units (including the Special Boat Service)
Cypress green: Intelligence Corps
Cambridge blue: Army Air Corps including attached personnel and REME Aircraft trades, 47 Regiment Royal Artillery any army personnel serving in an aviation unit.
Scarlet: Royal Military Police
Green: Adjutant General's Corps (except Royal Military Police, who wear scarlet; Military Provost Staff, Educational and Training Services Branch and Army Legal Service, who wear navy blue), Military Provost Guard Service
Dark blue: all other Army units (except Scottish line infantry regiments and the Royal Irish Regiment)
A regiment or corps cap badge is worn on the beret or other headdress worn in No. 8 Dress. The badge is positioned above the left eye when a beret or a caubeen is worn; the badge worn on the Tam O'Shanter sits above the left ear. Uniquely D (London Irish Rifles) Company of The London Regiment wear their cap badge over the right eye, on their caubeen. Troops from other services, regiments or corps on attachment to units with distinctive coloured berets often wear the latter with their own cap badge. Colonels, brigadiers and generals usually continue to wear the beret of the regiment or corps to which they used to belong with the cap badge distinctive to their rank.
The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers wears a feather hackle on the beret, they are now the only infantry regiment to wear the navy blue beret. Hackles are also worn by other regiments with Fusilier heritage: e.g. other ranks of the Royal Welsh wear white hackles on their berets (inherited from the Royal Welch Fusiliers).
The Royal Regiment of Scotland and the Royal Irish Regiment, instead of the beret, wear the Tam O'Shanter and the caubeen respectively, both of which feature hackles. The Tam O'Shanter is also worn by some UOTCs and Army Reserve units in Scotland.
Prior to the adoption of PCS-CU, the beret was often substituted by the Mk 6 Combat Helmet with a DPM cover (or desert DPM if worn with No.5 Dress); this has since been replaced by the Mk 7 helmet with an MTP cover and some scrim netting for the insertion of additional camouflage. In jungle conditions, the helmet is usually substituted by an MTP bush hat – or equally, in cold conditions, an MTP peaked hat (Cap, Extreme Cold Weather), a rolled woollen tube known as a cap comforter, or other specialized headgear. When the British Army finds itself in peacekeeping roles, regimental headdress is worn (where the tactical situation allows) in preference to the helmet or MTP hat, in order to appear less hostile to local civilians. When working for the United Nations, soldiers will wear the pale blue UN beret.
No.10: Temperate mess dress
The British Army's temperate mess dress includes a waist-length short jacket, with which men wear trousers, overalls or a kilt; and for women a long skirt. No. 10 dress is normally worn by sergeants and above for formal evening functions. Colours vary greatly from unit to unit but generally match those of the traditional full dress of the regiment or corps. Thus mess jackets can be scarlet, dark blue or green with facings and waistcoats in regimental colours. Two basic patterns of jacket are worn: the high collared "cavalry" style and the open-fronted one with lapels formerly worn by officers of infantry regiments. The version of No. 10 dress worn by officers frequently includes elaborate braiding on the waistcoats.
Mess dress was derived from the shell jacket (infantry) or stable jacket (cavalry): a short, working jacket in full-dress colours, which 19th-century officers paired with a uniform waistcoat for evening wear.
No.11: Warm weather mess dress
A white jacket is substituted for the coloured one of temperate mess dress. Waistcoats are not worn.
No.12: Protective clothing
This order of dress includes various types of protective clothing ranging from the standard overalls to specialist kit worn by aircrews, chefs, medics and others.
No. 12 also covers whatever day-to-day working dress may be authorised at a local or regimental level. Formerly an olive green shirt and trousers were often worn, but this has been replaced with combat dress shirt and trousers worn with beret and stable belt (identical to that of No. 7 Dress).
No.13: Temperate barrack dress
In 2018 it was announced that although Nos 13 and 14 Dress remain an authorised order of dress to be worn on appropriate occasions, Barrack Dress trousers, skirts and short-sleeved shirts were to be withdrawn.
It consists of khaki barrack dress trousers (as issued under the Future Army Dress (FAD) programme) and the standard issued shirt from No.2 dress with a pullover sweater. The stable belt, a wide belt made of tough woven fabric, is often worn. The fabric of the belt itself is in regimental colours, either a single colour or striped along its length (the origin of these combinations is often traditional, derived from historic uniform colours and facings, and may coincide with the design of a particular unit's TRF). It is traditionally fastened with a set of leather straps and buckles on the wearer's left-hand side (in some units to their front), but may alternatively have a metal locket arrangement, or a plate at the front bearing regimental, or formation insignia. The stable belt is worn over the pullover by some Regiments and Corps.
Some regiments' officers and WOs may wear coloured pullovers in place of the green pattern; the following regimental patterns and colours are authorised:
Grey/blue v-neck: Royal Scots Dragoon Guards
Grey/blue/green knit: Queen's Royal Lancers
Grey/brown v-neck: 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards
Grey/green v-neck: Royal Regiment of Fusiliers
Grey v-neck: Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps
Green v-neck: Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, 307 (South Nottinghamshire Hussars Yeomanry) Battery RA (V)
Lincoln green v-neck: 68 (Inns of Court and City Yeomanry) Signal Squadron (V)
Brunswick Green knitted crew neck: Royal Dragoon Guards
Dark green: Queen's Royal Hussars
Emerald green v-neck: Royal Army Dental Corps
Brunswick green v-neck: 9th/12th Royal Lancers
Lovat green v-neck: Royal Yeomanry
Green fleck v-neck: Royal Wessex Yeomanry
Lovat green and red fleck v-neck: Essex Yeomanry
Black: Royal Tank Regiment, Royal Army Chaplains Department, Army Legal Services Branch
Navy/corvette blue: Royal Artillery
Dark blue: 94 (Berkshire Yeomanry) Signal Squadron (V)
Storm blue v-neck: Queen's Own Yeomanry
Light blue/green fleck: Light Dragoons
Maroon: Royal Army Veterinary Corps
Dull cherry v-neck: Royal Army Medical Corps
Brown fleck round neck: King's Royal Hussars
Buff: Mercian Regiment
Mid brown v-neck: Royal Mercian and Lancastrian Yeomanry
A regimental pattern coloured side cap may be worn at the commanding officer's discretion. Some warrant officers in a few regiments customarily carry a Pace stick when in this order of dress.
No.14: Short Sleeve Order
As for No.13, but with the shirt sleeves rolled up to above elbow level or the issued short sleeve barrack dress shirt. The pullover is not worn.
Obsolete
No.5: Battledress (1939–1961)
Battle Dress refers to the combat utility uniform issued from 1939 to the early 1960s that replaced No.2 Service Dress. It is often incorrectly called the "Pattern 37 uniform" from the pattern of web gear and accessories introduced earlier in 1937. It consisted of a short jacket called a blouse and high-waisted trousers made of khaki wool serge worn with a beret or side-cap. It was also issued in RAF Blue-Grey for the Royal Air Force, Navy Blue for the Royal Navy / Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve and Dark Blue for the Civil Defence Corps. Officers were permitted to have the collar of the BD jacket tailored to have faced lapels, allowing the wearing of a shirt and tie underneath, inspiring the later American M44 'Ike Jacket'. Originally introduced in 1939, design modifications were made in 1940 (Austerity Pattern), 1942 (Pattern 40), and 1949 (Pattern 49). It became a barracks and walking-around dress with the introduction of the Jungle Green combat dress uniforms in the mid-1940s and is synonymous with the British soldier of the 1940s and 50s.
Battledress had some drawbacks. The uniform was designed for the temperate climate of the United Kingdom or Northern Europe. It was found too heavy for wear in summer, the sunnier climate of Southern Europe (like the Mediterranean Theatre) or in tropical or jungle climates (like the Pacific Theatre). Conversely it was too lightweight for cold weather or high altitudes (like Korea). It was also very difficult to iron due to the complex series of pleats. It became obsolete in 1961 and No.2 Service Dress was reintroduced in its place in 1962 for barracks and parade use.
No.5: Desert Combat Dress
Desert combat clothing is listed as: hat, jacket and trousers DPM and were issued to soldiers and other British military personnel posted to Cyprus, the Middle East and Afghanistan. As issued in the 1991 Gulf War, this uniform was identical to the No. 9 DPM tropical uniform, except for the multi-tone desert camouflage. This was quickly replaced with a two-tone desert version of DPM camouflage (the base colour and one other). Smocks were also available in the desert DPM, including the SAS pattern windproof smock. Covers for combat helmets and body armour were also made in this camouflage prior to their replacement by Multi-Terrain Pattern (MTP) camouflage.
Since 2011, No 5 Dress has no longer been issued due to the introduction of the Personal Clothing System – Combat Uniform (PCS-CU).
No.8: Temperate Combat Dress
Prior to 2011 this was based on a woodland/temperate variant of Disruptive Pattern Material. Smocks were also available in the temperate DPM, including the SAS pattern windproof smock. Covers for combat helmets and body armour were also made in this camouflage prior to their replacement by Multi-Terrain Pattern (MTP) camouflage.
No.9: Tropical Combat Dress
No.9 dress is no longer provided, being replaced by PCS-CU. It was made from cotton or poly-cotton DPM of a lighter weight than pre-Combat Soldier 95 No 8 Dress. The jacket was similar in cut to a shirt and had epaulettes fitted to the shoulders. Its sleeves could be rolled above the elbow and the shirt tucked into the trousers for a smarter appearance for example in barracks. There is a large pocket on each breast, closed with a button-down flap, and a first aid field dressing pocket on one sleeve. This uniform was normally worn with a DPM bush hat; out of the field, regimental headdress was often worn. The trousers had button down belt loops when carrying equipment was not worn, a uniform belt was worn in these loops.
History
Red coats
Prior to the English Civil War of 1642–51 the only significant instances of uniform dress in British military culture occurred in small bodyguard units, notably the Yeoman of the Guard. Other than these royal bodyguards, there was no standing English Army before the English Civil War, only the permanent, but part-time, Militia for home defence and temporary forces raised for expeditions abroad. Scotland, which remained independent from England until the 1707 Acts of Union created the Kingdom of Great Britain, also raised a standing Scottish Army after the English Civil War (known in Scotland and Ireland as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms), which merged with the English Army in 1707 to create the British Army. During the Civil War the Parliamentary New Model Army adopted a fairly standardized pattern of red clothing, a practice which continued with the small regular English Army of the Restoration period. The Scottish Army initially appears to have issued grey uniforms but began to imitate English Army practice by adopting red uniforms from the 1680s.
By the end of the 17th century, the colour of the uniforms of the English Army was largely settled on red with few exceptions. Red tunics became the norm for line infantry, including foot guards, and certain other units. The practice of distinguishing regiments by different facings was in general use by the early 18th century. In the decades after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, British Army uniforms trended towards extravagance rather than practicality. That trend was reversed during the Crimean War with the adoption of looser fitting tunics and more practical headdresses. At the time, the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers, Royal Sappers and Miners, and the Commissariat Department and transport organs were not part of the British Army but of the Board of Ordnance. After the Crimean War, the Board of Ordnance was abolished and these units (with the Royal Sappers and Miners having been amalgamated into the Royal Engineers) and the Commissariat, stores and transport organs (re-organized ultimately into the Army Ordnance Corps and the Army Service Corps, both since amalgamated into today's Royal Logistic Corps), were transferred to the British Army. The Royal Artillery wore dark blue tunics. Red tunics were however retained by the Royal Engineers (the pre-Crimean War, officer-only Royal Engineers and the Corps of Royal Sappers and Miners, made up of other-ranks, originally wore blue jackets, but first wore red during the Napoleonic Wars), line infantry and most other units, including cavalry, except in India where drab coloured garments were introduced in 1848 and worn increasingly from 1857 on.
Until 1873 the other ranks of most infantry regiments wore tunics in madder red. In that year the brighter shade of scarlet was adopted, having previously been limited to officers, sergeants and all ranks of certain regiments of cavalry.
General issue of full dress uniforms ceased at the start of the First World War. The Household Division resumed wearing their scarlet and blue full dress in 1920, but for the remainder of the Army it was only worn by regimental bands, or else on certain limited social or ceremonial occasions (an example of the latter was the 1937 Coronation when mounted detachments from participating cavalry regiments were issued with full dress uniforms for the occasion). The reason for not generally reintroducing the distinctive full dress between the wars was primarily financial, as the scarlet cloth required expensive red cochineal dye.
Not all Full Dress uniforms were (or are) scarlet. Historically, the great bulk of the British Army wore red or scarlet (with the Royal Artillery distinctive in blue). In the early nineteenth century, the success of élite Hungarian Hussars and Polish Lancers inspired the creation of similar units in other European armies, which also adopted their highly-distinctive forms of dress; in the British Army, these light cavalry uniforms were mostly dark blue. At the same time, the formation of regiments of Riflemen (who had always worn dark green rather than red, for reasons of camouflage) led to the full-dress use of 'Rifle green' uniforms in Rifle regiments. Line Infantry regiments though invariably wore scarlet, as did heavy cavalry (with the exception of the Royal Horse Guards ('The Blues') and the 6th Dragoon Guards).
Khaki
In January 1902, the British army adopted a universal khaki uniform for home service wear, the Service Dress, after experience with lighter khaki drill in India and South Africa. The traditional scarlet, blue and green uniforms were retained for full dress and off duty "walking out dress" wear. Details of these colourful uniforms varied greatly between regiments and branches of the army. The early use of camouflage in the form of plain khaki reflected the exigencies of colonial war and the freedom allowed, and taken, by many of the officers who fought it. The adoption of khaki for active service resulted from the development of weapons of greater accuracy and range combined with smokeless powder during the late 19th century, making low-visibility on the battlefield a matter of priority.
Battledress and camouflage
In 1938, the British Army adopted a revolutionary and practical type of uniform for combat known as Battledress; it was widely copied and adapted by armies around the world. During the Second World War a handful of British units adopted camouflage-patterned clothes, for example the Airborne Forces' Denison smock and the windproof suit. In the late 1960s, the Disruptive Pattern Material (DPM) camouflage uniform was adopted across the whole of the British Army. It remained in service, with periodical updates, for the next 40 years. From 2009 it began to be replaced by a new Multi-Terrain Pattern (MTP) uniform. This "Personal Clothing System (Combat Uniform)" has been developed for use across the British Armed Services, making use of the latest in clothing technology. Unlike the different versions of DPM issued for use in different terrains, the new MTP kit is issued in just one version, designed to function effectively across a variety of terrains, meeting a need identified in recent combat experience.
Headgear
From the time of the New Model Army broad-brimmed Flemish hats were worn. After the restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 the Monmouth cap, a broad-brimmed, low-crowned felt hat, with one side of the brim generally turned up, was introduced. Then came the tall Flemish hat which developed into the low-crowned Carolina hat and the tricorne hat. During James II’s reign the grenadier cap was introduced for grenadiers. Scottish Highland infantry regiments from about 1763 wore feather bonnets.
At the beginning of the 19th century the shako was introduced. In 1811 a lighter, smaller version of it was adopted. In 1816 an improved ‘Prussian’ style of black felt shako with a glazed top was issued. This soon evolved into a shako much wider at the top and rather bell shaped. In 1844 the so-called Albert shako was substituted. However during the Crimean war it proved impractical for active service and the round, undress, Kilmarnock forage cap was worn by most of the regiments engaged. The Kilmarnock forage cap was superseded in kilted Highland regiments by the Glengarry bonnet in 1851. After the Crimean War a lighter shako, after the French style of the period, was introduced, and in 1868 the last model of British shako: smaller and tilted a little more to the front, was introduced. Cap comforters were introduced in the late 19th century as an informal working headdress.
Following the Battle of Waterloo, all members of the newly named Grenadier Guards were permitted to wear the bearskin. This privilege had previously been restricted to the grenadier company of the regiment. In 1831, this distinction was extended to the other two regiments of foot guards (Coldstream and Scots) in existence at that date. Bearskins were subsequently adopted by the Irish Guards and the Welsh Guards when raised in 1900 and 1915 respectively.
The Home Service Helmet was introduced in 1879 and the Foreign Service pith helmet was used in hot climates. During the early years of the 20th century the blue Field Service Cap, the Brodrick cap and the Slouch hat were all worn. In the First World War, a khaki Balmoral bonnet was introduced in 1915 for wear in the trenches by Scottish infantry. This came to be known as the "bonnet, tam o' shanter". The Brodrick cap was unpopular and was replaced in 1905, by a round khaki peaked cap used until the outbreak of World War II. In 1938 the Field Service Cap of the 1890s was re-introduced in a khaki version and during WWII it gave way to the General Service Cap. Cavalry regiments and the Tank Corps wore soft berets. After the war the beret proved a useful, practical and comfortable cap and is still used.
See also
British Armed Forces uniforms
Combat uniform
DPM Parachute Smock
Military uniform
List of equipment of the British Army
Smock Windproof DPM
Denison Smock
References
External links
British Army equipment
British military uniforms |
4492933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banks%2C%20Lancashire | Banks, Lancashire | Banks is a large coastal village in Lancashire, England, south of the Ribble estuary four miles (6 km) north-east of Southport. The village is administered by West Lancashire Borough and North Meols Parish Council. It is in the South Ribble parliamentary constituency. At the 2001 census the population of the North Meols civil parish was 3,792, rising to 4,146 by the 2011 census.
Banks is the largest village in the parish of North Meols on the West Lancashire coastal plain. It was primarily an agricultural community due to the excellent soil, although there was fishing activity for many years. Production of flowers and vegetables is common on the farms surrounding the village. The proximity of Southport and Preston have led to its expansion as a dormitory for commuters.
History
Etymology
Banks is believed to have been named for the many artificial embankments built in the north of the village to protect it from winter floods from the River Ribble and the tide. The old embankments can be seen when entering Banks at Marsh Road and at the end of George's Lane. However, these embankments became redundant when the River Ribble retreated in the 1900s and larger ones are in place further north creating more farmland. Local people refer to the village as Bonks ; retained from the Middle English pronunciation.
Early history
The earliest recorded history commences with a deed concerning Far Banks, made in the reign of Henry II in 1154. It relates to a Guide House for travellers who forded the River Ribble from the Fylde to North Meols. At this time the area was on the most northern fringe of the ancient division of West Derby and the local area was called meles, meaning sand dunes.
The area was isolated to the north and west by the Ribble estuary, to the south by a chain of barren sand hills, to the east by a lake called Martin Mere – which at the time was the largest lake in England covering .
The biggest coastal disaster in the area was in 1719 when 5,000 acres of the Ribble estuary, from Crossens to Hesketh Bank and Tarleton were flooded, when the sea banks broke. A total of 47 houses were carried away by the tidal flood. Nine people drowned and cattle, sheep and crops were lost.
North Meols
Dating from before the Norman conquest, this area of small farming and fishing villages was originally known as Otegrimeles, from the Norse word , meaning sand dunes. Historically, North Meols centred on St. Cuthbert's Church in Churchtown, although there were vicarages in Crossens, Banks and Birkdale. Parts of the parish were almost completely surrounded by water until the drainage of Martin Mere and other marshland was completed. This was done by the irrigation and sluice ditches constructed by Thomas Fleetwood of Bank Hall in 1692 with further attempts in 1780. The drainage was completed in the 19th century with the construction of Crossens pumping station. This left a legacy of fine agricultural soil, which continues to be exploited – the primary industry in the area is farming, especially of flowers and vegetables.
Banks railway station
Banks had a station on the West Lancashire Railway which opened on 19 February 1878, on the line between Southport and Preston railway station to carry passengers and produce to be sold at town markets. The station had a depot and goods yard for coal merchants. The line crossed Hoole Lane, Long Lane and Square House Lane where there were staffed level crossings. Low passenger numbers led to the railway's decline and its closure was assured by the Beeching Axe on 7 September 1964. The stone bridge supports that carried the track across the sluice ditches in Banks can still be seen and the station platform still exists. The route is used as a public footpath.
Greaves Hall
Thomas Talbot Leyland Scarisbrick was born in 1874. He grew up in Southport and was educated in Lancashire. In 1900 he built Greaves Hall on a site. It had a porter's lodge by the main entrance, a gardener's lodge, engineer's workshop, laundry and general workshop, all built close to the hall in a mock Tudor style. The mansion was surrounded by lawns and gardens filled with ornamental trees and flowering shrubs. The hall had approximately 55 rooms, open areas situated on the ground, first, second and attic floors and a vast basement.
The Scarisbrick family lived at Greaves Hall until after the First World War when they moved to Scarisbrick Hall and sold the estate to a consortium of Banks farmers. The mansion stood empty while the land was cultivated by the consortium. The mansion and grounds were occupied by Sherbrook School for Girls. The school was closed when the Health Authority took over the hall as a TB hospital and subsequently for patients with mental health and learning disabilities from Liverpool during and after the Second World War. Greaves Hall Hospital had wards built in the grounds and the mansion house was used for administration. In the early 1990s the facility was moved to Southport.
Given Grade II listed status in 1997, Greaves Hall suffered many fires and vandalism. Its owners claimed it was beyond repair and two planning applications to demolish it were refused. On 4 August 2009 a small section of the roof collapsed, within days it was cleared and full demolition commenced on 13 August. The site of the Greaves Hall mansion house and former hospital maintenance area has been redeveloped for housing.
Water tower
The water tower off Aveling Drive dominated the skyline from the 1960s. It could be seen from miles around and from Winter Hill, east from the village. The tower was built for Greaves Hall Hospital and was decommissioned in 1992 when the hospital closed. After a failed preservation attempt, it was demolished in 2018 under protest by local residents.
Geography
At , Banks is situated in North West England. The closest cities are Preston approximately to the north east and Liverpool approximately to the south west. The nearest town is Southport, south west of the village.
Situated on the West Lancashire Coastal Plain, most of the village is only slightly above sea-level and parts can be susceptible to flooding. There are embankments to the north of the village and there are drainage systems across the area, most notably the pumping station on Banks Road, Crossens.
The drainage of Martin Mere in the mid-19th century created a legacy of fine agricultural soil which is exploited to this day - the primary industry in the area is farming, especially of flowers and vegetables.
The area has a maritime climate like most of the UK. The area rarely sees substantial snowfall and temperatures rarely fall below –5 °C so it does not have frequent frosts. Banks generally has moderate precipitation, unlike the rest of western UK.
Areas
Banks Village is the central part of Banks and where most of the shops, both the religious sites and the primary schools are situated. It is also where Greaves Hall was situated. Far Banks is the east side of the village from Smithy Corner to the border with Hundred End and Tarleton. Banks Enclosed Marsh is former marshland in the north which has been reclaimed for agriculture. This area is sparsely populated, consisting mostly of farmhouses. Banks Marsh is the far north of the village and is part of the Ribble estuary. There are no houses in this area as it prone to flooding.
There are three other areas in the civil parish of North Meols: Hundred End is a hamlet on Marsh Road between Banks and Hesketh Bank, Churchtown/Crossens Moss is south west of the village and mostly used for agriculture. The villages of Churchtown and Crossens are part of Southport.
Banks Marsh
Banks Marsh forms the largest area of marshland within the Ribble Estuary National Nature Reserve. It is one of the most important sites in the United Kingdom for wintering wildfowl. The reserve, established in 1979, occupies over half of the total area of the Ribble Estuary, including extensive areas of mud and sand flats and almost all of the salt marsh habitat - one of the largest such areas in England. Its 4,697 hectares (11,613 acres) contain large areas of intertidal mud and sand flats.
The reserve has been declared a Ramsar site and a Special Protection Area (SPA). In summer the salt marsh supports large numbers of breeding birds including black-headed gull, European herring gull, lesser black-backed gull, common tern and common redshank. Skylark, meadow pipit and linnet nest in significant numbers on the grazing marsh. Management of the site involves grazing the salt marsh with cattle to maintain the short sward on which wintering wildfowl (especially Eurasian wigeon and the pink-footed goose) depend. The main area of salt marsh is grazed by approximately 800 cattle from May to October, forming one of the largest single herds of cattle in the UK. Wildfowling takes place on much of the reserve and improved management has contributed to the increase in the number of birds visiting the site. A group of volunteers led by the local Wildfowlers Association carries out much of the valuable maintenance work on the reserve.
The Ribble Estuary is an important part of the network of wetland sites in Western Europe. It supports over a quarter of a million waders and wildfowl each winter, and is an internationally important site for twenty species of birds. Recreation, fishing, wildfowling and farming all take place within the estuary in balance with the wildlife interest.
Governance
Banks is part of the South Ribble parliamentary constituency and represented by the Conservative MP Katherine Fletcher.
At local government level, Banks is one of the two remaining settlements within the historical civil parish of North Meols and has its own parish council. North Meols is also a ward under the administration of West Lancashire Borough Council.
Demography
According to the 2001 census the population of North Meols was 3,793, and 3,730 of those people were white. Only 60 people in the village were from other ethnicity.
By the 2011 census the population had risen to 4,146.
Economy
Even though modern Banks is primarily a commuter village for Southport, Liverpool and Preston, there is farming activity which has been the core of the community for hundreds of years. Most of the produce grown on the farms was sold to local markets, but now most is either sold to national supermarkets like Marks and Spencer or to countries in the EU.
Banks once had a thriving shrimping industry but this has dwindled to almost nothing due to cheaper foreign competition.
Recently there has been interest on Banks Marsh in the edible seaweed, samphire, (locally known as Sampi). It is found on few coastal areas in Europe. It is picked by local people in the summer months and mostly sold to Booths supermarkets that sell local produce.
There are two business areas made up of small businesses that provide local services. One is on the A565 (Southport New Road) and the other is a Granite worktop manufacturing business (Granite House) in the former grounds of Greaves Hall. Banks has a post office open Monday, Wednesday & Friday 10:30-16:30 Where all main Post Office services are offered along with a wide selection of Greetings Cards, Gifts and Stationery items. There is Co-op store, a hairdressers, and a newsagents. Healthcare facilities include the North Meols Medical Centre on Church Road, a doctor's surgery and a pharmacy. A new care home was completed in August 2014 (located just off Guinea Hall Lane on Greaves Hall Lane). Shortly afterwards a learning and head injury home was built adjacent to the care home. There is also a community centre on Hoole Lane.
The village attracts walkers to its many public footpaths, and Banks Marsh attracts bird watchers. In addition many cyclists pass through the village and in recent years The Tour of Britain has passed through Banks on the A565.
Transport
Since the closure of Banks railway station in 1964, the nearest railway station is , south west of the village, with trains to Liverpool, Wigan, and Manchester.
The village has regular bus services linking it with Southport, Formby, Crosby, Bootle, Liverpool and Preston.
Roads
Ralph's Wife's Lane is the main road connecting Banks with Crossens to the south. Its name has two origins: one that Ralph was a fisherman lost at sea or Ralph was a smuggler, again lost at sea. His wife's ghost is supposed to be looking for him. It has been reported that people have seen the ghost on dark winter nights walking from by St Stephens Church to Fiddler's Ferry holding a lamp waiting for her loved one to return home. The story states that she lit a lamp in her window every night and sat by it so he knew that she was waiting for him to return home. The site of the house is occupied by two bungalows.
Sugar Stubbs Lane is situated in Far Banks down the A565 road towards Mere Brow. The road was once a track across the marsh. In the 1980s the road was extended across the Banks Moss towards Hundred End and Tarleton. Its history is that it was the route taken by monks from Lancaster who travelled by boat across the marsh to Liverpool, and marked their way across the marsh and estuary by dropping the stubbs from the sugar canes along the way so they could find their way back giving the name to Sugar Stubbs Lane and Sugar Stubbs Farm where a small farm shop is run from the house.
There are four properties on the lane, one, the former Mock Tudor gatehouse to Greaves Hall at the junction of the A565 road and Sugar Stubbs Lane. The driveway to Greaves Hall was restored in 2005 and is a public footpath.
Education
The village has two primary schools, Banks Methodist Primary School on Chapel Lane and Banks St Stephens Primary School on Greaves Hall Avenue. (Banks St Stephens school relocated to its present site from Hoole Lane in July 1998.) There is also a children's nursery on Station Road.
There are no secondary schools in Banks and most children aged 11–16 attend Tarleton High School or secondary schools in Southport. In 1973 the education office announced that there may be the possibility of a new secondary school being built on Station Road in Banks. But on 29 January 1974 the government said that the necessary funding was not available and so the plan was cancelled.
Religious sites
The village has two places of worship: Banks Methodist Chapel situated on Chapel Lane and St Stephens Church in the centre of the village on Church Road.
Leisure
Banks Leisure Centre on Greaves Hall Avenue was known as North Meols Leisure Centre. It has two 7-a-side all weather football pitches, a sports hall and a fitness suite.
The Riverside Holiday Park is on Southport New Road. The site is operated by Harrison Leisure, who have a large caravan showroom complex which now dominates the site. There is a small cafe in the building previously used as the gym, the pool building remains, but only used by guests. The former nightclub was demolished in 2017 to make way for a retail development.
Culture
The village has a brass band. Banks Brass Band was formed in 1875. The band members are from the area. They play at various functions and take part in the annual village street parade.
Once a year (usually in late October) Banks Methodist Primary School holds a scarecrow competition to celebrate Halloween. It was started in 2007 and it involves people (mainly children) making scarecrows in their gardens for a week before the judging begins at the school.
The W.I. holds meetings in the small hall on Meols Court. The hall is used for other recreational purposes, such as bingo for the senior citizens.
Outdoor life
Banks is well known for the marshland which lies on the coast of the Ribble estuary which is highly regarded for bird watching and attracts many visitors. It is a site of special scientific interest.
There are footpaths across the village including the old railway line from Southport New Road to Rydings Lane in Far Banks. It is owned by the Environment Agency and is open to the public, dog walkers and horse riders. Hoole Lane is the starting point of a 10-mile cycle route that extends down the coast through Southport to Ainsdale.
The Sluice, sometimes called the River Crossens and the Back Drain flow through Banks and are popular with anglers.
There are two recreational grounds in Banks, one which is mostly used for cricket, the other was once part of the Greaves Hall grounds and is now used by the football team. There are three children's play areas.
Media
Most residents get two weekly free newspapers, the Southport Midweek Visiter and the independent Southport Champion. The village shops sells the Southport Visiter on Fridays. The Ormskirk and West Lancashire Advertiser is sold in the area.
Banks receives the local radio station called Dune FM closed down in 2012, which is based in Southport.
Other radio stations based elsewhere in the region are popular such as Rock FM based in Preston. Because the village is on the border of Merseyside and in Lancashire, the village picks up signals from both BBC Radio Merseyside and BBC Radio Lancashire.
Growth
Banks has significantly increased its size and population. More housing and facilities have been constructed, particularly the housing estate on the former grounds of Greaves Hall by Seddon Homes. Since it was demolished in August 2009 there are plans to use the site for further residential development. Elsewhere in the village, new homes by the Redrow group were built in 2014 on Guinea Hall Lane and also a small estate opposite Aveling Drive (formerly a horse paddock). A care home, Sutton Grange completed in late summer 2014, as well as a brain injury and learning facility were constructed off Greaves Hall Lane completed shortly later as well as some shared ownership properties and rental properties by the Local Council opposite the Care Home. In 2016 further housing was built on Hoole Lane.
The area floods during long, heavy spells of rain, due to extra surface water from poor drainage. The local council has addressed this problem and works closely with developers.
References
External links
North Meols Parish Council
Banks Brass Band
Banks Methodist Primary School
Banks St Stephens Primary School
Villages in Lancashire
Geography of the Borough of West Lancashire
Populated coastal places in Lancashire |
4493817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawn%20Brady%20and%20Belle%20Black | Shawn Brady and Belle Black | Shawn-Douglas "Shawn" and Isabella "Belle" Brady are fictional characters on the American soap opera, Days of Our Lives. Shawn-Douglas Brady has been played by Jason Cook (1999–2006, 2015) and Brandon Beemer (2006–2008, 2016–). Belle Black has been played by Kirsten Storms (1999–2004), Charity Rahmer (2004), and Martha Madison (2004–2008, 2015–). Along with Lucas and Sami, the popular couple has been lauded by critics and fans as one of the soap's next supercouples. They are often referred to as the portmanteau "Shelle" (for Shawn and Belle) by fans on internet message boards and in magazines. Shawn and Belle have a daughter, Claire Brady.
Storylines
As the children of two of Salem's supercouples, high school sweethearts Shawn-Douglas Brady (the son of Bo Brady and Hope Williams) and Belle Black (the daughter of John Black and Marlena Evans) find love at a young age. The long time friends experienced a high school relationship, with romantic dates and school dances, and quickly fell in love. Unfortunately, the young couple was separated when Shawn claimed to have fathered classmate Jan Spears' baby, actually conceived by a rape while on a school trip to Puerto Rico. Belle was devastated and broke up with Shawn. Back in Salem, Belle and Jan had an argument at Shawn's house and Jan later fell down a flight of stairs and miscarried. Jan blamed Belle for the baby's death, and Shawn believed Jan's claim that the miscarriage was caused by the argument. Belle was hurt that Shawn thought she was capable of something so horrible. After Shawn and Belle's friends were able to prove that Jan's miscarriage was caused by an accident that occurred after Belle had left the house, Shawn begged Belle come back to him, but she refused. After some help from their friends, Shawn and Belle finally reunited and headed off to Salem University.
While at school, Shawn and Belle were tempted to have sex but eventually decided to wait until marriage. Shortly after, Belle left Salem for a short time to take care of some business for her father, John Black's, company in Italy when the Salem Stalker began committing numerous murders in town. Belle's mother, Marlena Evans, was a suspect and when Belle returned to Salem, she covered for some of Marlena's suspicious behavior. This led to the murder of Shawn's beloved great-grandmother, Alice Horton. Shawn could not forgive Belle for covering for her mother and left town (it was later discovered that Marlena and all of the "victims" of the Salem Stalker were alive and taken captive by Andre DiMera). Belle was devastated, especially when Jan returned and told Belle that Shawn had joined the United States Merchant Marines.
Unbeknownst to Belle, Jan had taken Shawn captive, hoping to have him for herself. As a result, Belle turned to Shawn's uncle, Philip Kiriakis, who secretly had a crush on her. While trapped, Shawn was subjected to Jan's brainwashing by telling him that Belle had moved on with Philip and showing him video of the friends spending time together. Shawn refused to believe her. When Shawn finally escaped from Jan's clutches, he had a motorcycle accident and lost part of his memory. He had no recollection of Jan's deception and believed her to be his girlfriend, but he remembered the videos of Belle and Philip and believed that Belle had moved on. When Shawn returned to Salem with Jan, Belle hoped that they could reconcile, but saw he was under Jan's spell. Belle was hurt by his actions and turned to Philip for comfort. Philip confessed his feelings and the two decided to marry. Despite Jan's manipulations, Shawn could not forget Belle. During a blizzard, Belle and Shawn found refuge in a barn. Cold and afraid, the two made love, though neither remembered due to hypothermia. Belle still planned to marry Philip and a hurt Shawn crashed his motorcycle through the church window at the wedding. His attempt to stop the wedding failed and Belle and Philip were married.
Once Philip, a Marine, was sent to the war in Iraq, Shawn and Belle realized they still loved each other and planned to tell Philip the truth. However, in the war, Philip lost part of his leg and Belle, unable to cause her husband any more distress, decided to remain married to him. Shawn was eventually able to convince her that they should tell Philip about their relationship until Belle learned she was pregnant. She assumed Philip to be the father since neither she nor Shawn had any recollection of the time they made love in the barn. Belle decided to stay with Philip for the sake of the baby and Shawn moved on to a relationship with Belle's friend, Mimi Lockhart.
After Shawn and Belle's baby, Claire, was born, Belle suffered from postpartum depression and could not understand why she was so unhappy. Her depression worsened as Shawn's relationship with Mimi became serious feeling as though she would lose him forever. Things became worse for the young mother when it was discovered that baby Claire needed a liver transplant to live. Claire finally received the transplant from Shawn's little brother, Zack Brady, when he was hit by a car and died. It was then that Shawn's girlfriend, Mimi, and her mother, Bonnie Lockhart, realized that Shawn was Claire's biological father, not Philip. On her mother's advice, a guilt-ridden Mimi decided to keep the truth from Shawn for fear of losing him to Belle. After Claire's successful transplant, Shawn and Belle both had a vision of little Zack telling them that they belonged together. Belle finally realized she was, and always had been, in love with Shawn and wanted to be with him. However, Shawn was tired of chasing Belle and asked Mimi to marry him and the couple made it down the aisle. Belle realized she had lost Shawn and decided to focus on her life with Philip and Claire.
Since Mimi was unable to conceive a child due of a previous abortion, the couple decided to try in vitro fertilization with a surrogate. Philip and Belle decided have the same procedure, with Belle carrying her own child, and both couples even had the procedure at the same time. However, unbeknownst to either couple, the sperm samples were switched by a gloved hand which caused Belle's egg to be fertilized by Shawn's sperm and Mimi's egg by Philip's sperm. Outraged, Philip declared that the only sane and logical thing to do would be to abort both embryonic cells. Mimi agreed, believing that Belle and Shawn's child would bring the soulmates together again, but Belle and Shawn were determined to keep the baby.
When Shawn's half-sister and troubled teen, Chelsea Benson, was serving her community service (sentenced for causing the accident that killed her brother Zack) at University Hospital, she discovered that Shawn was Claire's father. Determined to turn her life around, Chelsea decided to tell the truth for once. However, because of her strained relationship with Shawn, she knew her brother would not believe her, so she purposely left Claire's hospital file in Shawn's cubicle when he was admitted for alcohol poisoning. Shawn discovered the file but thought it was a mistake or forged. Mimi was relieved to see that both Belle and Philip agreed that it could not be true. An angry Philip looked into the matter to find out who would do such a thing. They soon found out that it was Chelsea. Since Chelsea was arrested for putting Claire's file in Shawn's cubicle, they had to run a DNA test on Shawn, to make sure that the file was inaccurate. Mimi and Bonnie tried to change the lab results so that Shawn would never know, but were unable to complete the job and the results came back positive that Shawn was Claire's biological father. Philip refused to believe that this could be true, so he said he was going to find out himself but took off with Claire. A frantic Belle ran to the police station for help finding her husband and daughter. Shawn found Philip with Claire at the hospital. The lab tech confirmed that Claire was Shawn's. When the police arrived, they convinced an irate Philip to give them Claire and Philip was arrested for disorderly conduct. Then the police gave Claire to Shawn.
Belle was given a scare when she began to have abdominal pains. She and Philip rushed to the hospital where the couple learned that Belle could lose the baby. Meanwhile, Shawn overheard Mimi and Bonnie having a conversation about lying to Shawn about Claire for months. Shawn confronted his wife and mother-in-law and demanded to know how they could keep him away from Claire for the first year of her life. Mimi tried to explain, but Shawn told her their marriage was over. After he left Mimi, Shawn met a girl named Willow who he told his troubles and admitted he was still in love with Belle. When Shawn arrived at the hospital, he was afraid Belle would lose their baby. Equally worried, Belle insisted that she not receive medication that may harm the baby while Philip insisted that she must first protect her life. Belle asked Philip, as next of kin, not to sign the consent form that would hurt the baby. Philip promised he would not, but when the doctors told him that if they did not remove the baby, Belle would die, Philip ultimately signed the consent form. When Belle awoke and Philip told her what he had done, she became hysterical with anger and grief and Philip left Shawn with Belle to grieve for their baby. Shawn told Belle that it was the right decision as it was the only way to save her life. Philip returned after Belle apologized to him.
When Carrie Brady visited Belle in the hospital, the two had a long talk about love and life. Carrie advised Belle that if she really loved Shawn, then she should be with him, as it was unfair to Philip. Meanwhile, Shawn arrived at the hospital with gifts for Belle and Claire and misinterpreted a conversation he overheard between Belle and Carrie. Since he only heard part of the conversation, he misunderstood and thought Belle wanted nothing to do with him. Devastated, he left without talking to Belle.
Shawn then learned that Victor knew he was Claire's father and ran a race car through a wall in the Kiriakis mansion. Bo and Hope talked to their son and tried to get him to calm down. Hope knew her son was in love with Belle and advised him to go see her.
While Belle was still in the hospital recovering from the loss of her baby, her missing mother returned with her father to Salem. She comes to visit Belle in the hospital along with John. They decided they wanted Belle to come stay at the Penthouse with them while she was recovering. In the hospital and once at the penthouse Marlena and Belle had a long heart-to-heart and Belle made a decision regarding her marriage to Philip. She called her husband and asked him to bring Claire to the penthouse where the couple decided to end their marriage. Philip gathered his things and left town. Shawn arrived at the penthouse and he and Belle had a long overdue talk. Just as the destined pair were making progress, Belle was trying to explain why she ended her marriage with Philip by telling Shawn about her conversation with Carrie. Shawn, remembering what he thought he heard, became hurt and angry and left Belle stunned and confused.
Shawn continued to see Willow and even took her out on his father's boat. The two were caught in a storm and had to be rescued by the Coast Guard. Meanwhile, Hope invited Belle to dinner and convinced her to give her relationship with Shawn a chance. Belle agreed and when the two discovered that Shawn was in danger, they hurried to check on him. Belle was shocked to see Shawn and Willow kissing and when she confronted Shawn, he told her that the kiss did not mean anything. Belle was upset at how Shawn had no feelings for this girl, he was just using her to get away from his own problems, and told him that he was no longer the Shawn she once loved. Shawn was hurt and Belle left.
Before Belle would allow Shawn to be a part of Claire's life, she demanded that he get his act together. Shawn obliged and went out to find a job and get a decent place to live so that he could spend time with his daughter. Shawn took a job with the dirty EJ DiMera and began to deliver notes back and forth between EJ and Patrick Lockhart. Shawn got paid a huge amount of money and he bought himself an apartment with Willow. Shawn tried to hide his living arrangements with Willow from Belle, knowing that Belle would not let Willow, a prostitute, anywhere near Claire. Belle ultimately found out the truth about Willow and that Shawn was working for EJ. Willow became furious with Shawn for kicking her out and vowed revenge. Before leaving, she set his apartment on fire and Shawn was forced out of the building. Shawn, Belle, and Claire moved into Bo and Hope's house for a short time to become a family, even though Shawn and Belle were not romantically involved. Shawn quit his dirty job with EJ and tried to get his life together for the sake of Claire and Belle.
Max and Mimi discovered that Philip had gone back into the Marines, and was severely injured. Victor set up Belle in a diner so that she would answer the phone leaving Claire unattended. While she was on the phone with Victor, a woman kidnapped Claire. She was returned to Belle a few hours later unharmed. Meanwhile, Max and Mimi continued to try to track down Philip, but Victor had them locked up in a church basement before they got too close. A bandaged man was seen in a secret room in the Kiriakis Mansion. Victor would secretly bring Claire to the man for visits. The man turned out to be a wounded Philip. Victor had Philip flown to Canada in order to receive a face transplant.
Just when Shawn, Belle, and Claire started to bond as a family, they started to be investigated by a woman named Beverly Healy who worked for Child Protective Services, and who was believed to work for Victor and Philip. Beverly concluded that Shawn and Belle were unfit parents, and had a court order which allowed her to take Claire away from them. Shawn and Belle were horrified when they learned that Philip was fighting for custody of Claire. At the closed hearing, Victor represented Philip, as it was believed that he was unable to appear due to injuries. Shawn and Belle pleaded their case, as Victor did his. Shawn was shocked when Willow testified against him, saying that Shawn never cared about Claire or anyone else, just about his cars and money. Marlena, Bo, Hope, Max, and Mimi were shocked when a bandaged Philip was wheeled into the courtroom in a wheelchair. Shawn and Belle were also shocked, and when Philip revealed his face, Belle yelled, "That is NOT Philip". Philip's injuries are explained and Victor provides proof that it is his son. The judge awards temporary custody to Philip, and tells Shawn and Belle that they need to go to counseling sessions.
After everyone learns that Willow was paid $10,000 to lie on the stand, and everyone knowing that the judge was probably paid off by Victor as well, Shawn and Belle conclude that they need kidnap Claire and go on the run. After Steve helps them over the Canada–US border, Shawn, Belle, and Claire take refuge in a room in an alley. They plan to board a ship that will take them to Australia, but they need the money first. Shawn calls home to his father Bo, and Bo sends Chelsea and Nick to bring them the money that they need. Philip and Willow however, follow Nick and Chelsea, but Nick plants a knife in Philip's suitcase which gets him arrested.
In July 2007, Shawn proposed to Belle, and the pair marry in November 2007. On New Year's Eve 2008, Belle confesses to having sex with Philip before their wedding, causing them to separate. When Shawn contemplated divorce, Claire was once again kidnapped, and with the help of Philip and Chloe, Belle and Shawn find their daughter in Ireland. On the way home from Ireland, Belle and Shawn's plane crashes, and they were saved by John and Steve Johnson. Thankful to be alive and Claire being safe, they were able to work out their differences and decided to give their marriage another chance. The couple left town to sail around the world on the Fancy Face IV, taking Claire with them in March 2008.
In October 2015, Shawn-Douglas returns to Salem to attend his mother's wedding to Aiden Jennings. Belle returns with Claire in November 2015, following the death of Bo, and Belle reveals that during their time in Maine she had an affair and that she and Shawn-Douglas were divorcing. The couple divorce in 2016, but later reconcile. They remarry in 2020.
Impact
Shawn and Belle were nominated for "Most Irresistible Combination" at the 32nd Daytime Emmy Awards.
See also
List of supercouples
Notes and references
External links
Isabella "Belle" Black at SoapCentral.com
Shawn-Douglas Brady at SoapCentral.com
Days of Our Lives characters
Soap opera supercouples |
4494489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20of%20Toronto | Geography of Toronto | The geography of Toronto, Ontario, covers an area of and is bounded by Lake Ontario to the south; Etobicoke Creek, Eglinton Avenue, and Highway 427 to the west; Steeles Avenue to the north; and the Rouge River and the Scarborough–Pickering Townline to the east. In addition to Etobicoke Creek and the Rouge River, the city is trisected by two minor rivers and their tributaries, the Humber River in the west end and the Don River east of downtown. Both flow southward to Lake Ontario at Humber Bay and Toronto Harbour respectively, which are part of the longer Waterfront, as well as Etobicoke Creek and the Rouge River.
The concentration and protection of Toronto's many deep ravines allows for large tracts of densely forested valleys with recreational trails within the city. Approximately 26 to 28 percent of Toronto is covered with over ten million trees, a fairly high percentage within a large city in North America and there are ambitious proposals to double the coverage. Some parts of Toronto, such as High Park and the lower Humber River, are located in the northernmost parts of the Carolinian forest zone found in North America.
The shoreline of the former Lake Iroquois is a major east−west geological feature, which was formed at the end of the Last Glacial Period. In the west end, Davenport Road follows the ancient shoreline with the steps to Casa Loma rising above and downtown skyscrapers clearly visible to the southeast. It merges with the current Lake Ontario shoreline at the Scarborough Bluffs promontory.
The Toronto Islands are the only group of natural islands located on the western shores of Lake Ontario and were formed from the erosion of the Scarborough Bluffs. The Toronto Islands were originally a sand spit until a major storm separated them from the mainland during the 19th century.
Toronto's immediate neighbours are Mississauga and Brampton within the Regional Municipality of Peel, Vaughan and Markham within the Regional Municipality of York, and Pickering within the Regional Municipality of Durham. The Greater Toronto Area (GTA) includes the regional municipalities of Halton, Peel, York and Durham.
The GTA is part of a larger, natural ecosystem known as the Greater Toronto Bioregion. This ecosystem is bounded by Lake Ontario, the Niagara Escarpment, and the Oak Ridges Moraine, and includes many watersheds that drain into Lake Ontario.
In March 2005, the Government of Ontario unveiled the boundaries of a greenbelt around the Greater Toronto Area, a area stretching from Niagara Falls to Peterborough. The green belt is designed to curb urban sprawl and to preserve valuable natural areas and farmland surrounding the city. However, some types of development including detached single residential, quarries and commercial facilities continue to get approved, exerting pressure and population growth on the Greenbelt. Toronto is among the latest in a line of cities that have implemented growth boundaries of some kind as a method of restricting urban growth, including Ottawa; Portland, Oregon; Frankfurt; Melbourne; Seoul and London.
Climate
Toronto's continental climate is moderated by Lake Ontario; its climate is among the mildest in Canada east of the Rocky Mountains, given Toronto's southerly latitude within the country. Downtown Toronto sits in a pocket of the humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa) zone found at the southwestern end of Lake Ontario covering the southern part of the city — including downtown (but excluding the Toronto Islands), where the annual average temperature exceeds . Some of Toronto, outside of the pre-1998 city limits, some suburban areas, and the Toronto Islands, fall within the Dfb climate regimen. This difference partly results from the urban heat island effect. Toronto is located in hardiness zone 7a, with decreasing hardiness further away from the downtown core (5b in the suburbs). There is a high degree of variability from year to year and sometimes over a period of days, particularly during the winter months. Though not native to North America, cherry blossom (sakura) trees bloom in Toronto during late April and early May.
Lake Ontario's water temperature varies due to upwelling of colder water or warmer pools of surface water creating very localized thermal contrast; the deeper waters of the lake, far from the shore, remain at a near-constant water temperature of , the effect of which is either cooling or warming (in winter). This creates generally warmer nights through the colder season than would otherwise occur. When offshore winds blow in summer, they warm as they near the lakeshore in the evening; conversely, the cooling effect by the lake is most pronounced on spring afternoons, which can affect Toronto even more than other cities on the Great Lakes due its exposure to onshore winds from the east to southeast, on some days, the temperatures can be as much as cooler than areas far removed from Lake Ontario, an effect that wanes by summer when the dominant windflow becomes more southwesterly and the lake surface temperature warms.
Springs and autumns are shorter seasons than summers and winters, and they feature varied weather with alternating periods of dry, sunny weather and rain. Many days in these seasons are sunny with pleasant rather than warm or cold temperatures. Nights are generally cool, but frosts are rare. Snow can fall in early spring or late fall but usually melt quickly after contact with the ground. At these changeable times of the year, temperature contrasts (up to in extreme cases) can occur within short time frames due to rapidly changing air masses that sweep across the continent, often accompanied by high winds. Due to these airmass changes, temperatures of or above have been recorded as early as April 16 and as late as October 8. Conversely, temperatures of or below at night have been recorded as early as November 6 and as late as April 18. Snowfall has been reported as early as October 1 and as late as May 28. Toronto's weather is affected by the relative position of the polar jet stream and continental storm track, both of which pass over or near to the area with some frequency. This is determined by a number of complex global weather drivers, such as ENSO, NOA/AO Oscillations and the Polar vortex.
There is no "dry season" as precipitation falls in all months with regularity (but mainly snow during the winter), but summer rains result mostly from thunderstorms, which make for higher average amounts as a general rule with occasional dry periods. February and March rank as the driest months on average. Annual average precipitation is .
Winter and snowfall
Despite being cold, extended snow-free periods occur in most winter seasons and precipitation can fall as rain with temperatures sometimes climbing above . Average winter snowfall is at the weather station in Downtown Toronto and at Toronto Pearson International Airport.
The average January maximum / minimum is between in the city. There are usually a few colder periods where temperatures remain below and less frequently below at night (especially in the northern suburbs), with wind chills making it feel like .
Due to its position on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario, Toronto is not a direct target of heavy, wind−whipped lake-effect snow squalls that hit other Great Lake cities on the south/east shorelines of the lakes, in areas where prevailing winds amplify lake effect. Despite this, there are usually two or more heavy snowfalls each winter which deposit at least accumulation, usually from powerful winter storms known as Alberta clippers, "Colorado Lows" or panhandle hooks that pick up moisture en route to the Great Lakes. These storms can produce strong easterly driven winds that fetch additional moisture from Lake Ontario. They frequently come with a volatile mix of snow, ice pellets, freezing rain and sometimes just ordinary rain, all of which can disrupt transportation, and in severe cases, interrupt power supply. A sustained freezing rain event occurred on December 22, 2013, plunging 30 percent of the city into darkness, some until after Christmas Day.
Such storms can also produce large snowfall amounts, higher totals found in areas closer to Lake Ontario, sometimes falling over a series of days or weeks creating havoc. On January 13, 1999, after a series of snowstorms, then-Toronto mayor Mel Lastman called in the Canadian Armed Forces to assist with snow removal and clearing streets. Within twelve days, the downtown Toronto weather station at the University of Toronto (Trinity College near Queen's Park) recorded an average season's worth of of snow, much of it lake effect from Lake Ontario and a monthly record for January, but fell short of the snowiest month overall March 1870, with , of which fell over a five-day span. February 2008 set a record a snowfall record for the month with falling at the airport. The winter of 2007–08 brought accumulated seasonal snowfall totals of downtown and at the airport. The heavy winter snows, in combination with record rains during June–July of that year made 2008 the wettest year on the climate record with over of total precipitation. The largest single 24-hour and daily snowfall records occurred on December 11–12, 1944, when accumulated, with on December 11 alone. More recently on January 16–17, 2022, a blizzard dropped up to (in sections of Scarborough) of accumulated snow in the city, crippling public transportation, with most of it falling on the morning of January 17. The official storm total at Pearson Airport was
On the opposite extreme, the winter of 2011–12 had the lowest seasonal snowfall total with only . March 2012 was the warmest March on record. The least snowfall in a calendar year was 2006, with only . The El Niño influenced winter of 2009–10 had , March 2010 recorded no measurable snow, the first such occurrence in any March since 1946, and was followed by the warmest April ever on record.
Winter weather conditions in Toronto can vary greatly from one year to another and is significantly affected by global weather patterns such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). El Niño winters on the weak to moderate side are generally colder or below average in terms of temperatures, with stronger ones being mild and dry, with near to decreased snowfall (such as the winters of 2009–2010 and 2015–2016 were drier than normal), while La Niña winters tend have more precipitation, with more snowfall (the aforementioned winters of 1999 and 2008 were La Niña), but are usually near to above average in terms of temperatures. ENSO Neutral years are more unpredictable, such as 2013-14 which was the coldest, longest winter in recent memory.
Summer
Maximum temperatures typically range from with moderate to high humidity, proximity to Lake Ontario and the other lakes contribute to summer humidity but far away sources like the Gulf of Mexico also factor in. The subtropical jet can move well north of the area in the midsummer influenced largely by the strength and position of the Bermuda-Azores High and ridging over the North American continent, in some summers, it is a dominating influence.
Lake effect cooling varies greatly depending on location within the city and strength and direction of localized winds, variation in water temperature and currents due to recent weather, the most pronounced effect on the Toronto Islands and also on the immediate lakeshore such as in The Beaches, and Scarborough Bluffs, hence the term "cooler by the lake". This is less a factor in the west and northwest parts of the city. Temperatures over occur on average seven days each year (three consecutive days of such temperatures is defined as a heat wave, which occur in most summers but maximums rarely exceed , which last occurred on July 21, 2011). However, coupled with high humidity, the humidex value can rise well above during these heat events, creating great discomfort. Nighttime temperatures generally hover close to in the city but during hotter spells remain closer to . Summer heat episodes are usually broken by cooler, drier periods that can be brief.
Thunderstorms are also a regular occurrence and can pop up quickly, especially west and north of the city in areas more prone to the "lake breeze front" or "lake breeze thunderstorms" phenomenon, in which intense, sharply defined squall lines develop quickly on summer afternoons inland, amplified by localized variation in wind patterns between the Great Lakes. These storms sometimes, but not always move into the city causing localized flooding resulting from downpours with high rainfall amounts, intense lightning but less often severe winds knocking down trees and powerlines.
Severe weather and records
In addition to snowstorms, ice storms, windstorms, heavy rainfall events associated with tropical storms or very severe thunderstorms, tornadoes are rare but do occur, particularly in the northern and western suburbs. That area sits on the northeastern edge of "tornado alley" where tornadoes occur with the most frequency per area in Canada. Downtown Toronto, on the other hand, generally avoids tornadic storms resulting from lake breeze inflows which assist in breaking up formation of tornadoes. Tornado warnings have been posted for the city on a few occasions in the early 21st century, however, no touchdowns have been confirmed within city limits since a weak tornado hit Scarborough in 1998. A pair of dangerous F2 tornados did touchdown in neighbouring Vaughan during a tornado outbreak on August 20, 2009. A powerful derecho affected the city on May 21, 2022.
Toronto is susceptible to flash flooding due to its various ravines and valleys that can easily flood, as well as generally poor drainage due to its large urban area. Flooding can result from remnants of tropical storms, heavy rainfall combined with snowmelt, or summertime thunderstorms stalled out along lake breeze boundaries. Low-lying areas, such as the lower reaches of the Don River valley, are the most likely to flood. This often leads to the shutdown of the Don Valley Parkway and GO Transit's Richmond Hill line. A second mouth is being built for the Don River to mitigate flooding, creating Villiers Island.
The tropical storm remnant of Hurricane Hazel caused 81 deaths in October 1954 due to flooding that swept homes along river banks into Lake Ontario. A sudden downburst during a strong thunderstorm was believed to have played a contributing factor in the Air France Flight 358 crash on August 2, 2005. Just a few weeks later on August 19, part of a tornado outbreak in Southern Ontario, record-breaking intense rainfall, the worst since Hazel, deluged north-central sections of the city within a couple of hours and destroying a section of Finch Avenue West in North York resulting in record insurance claims. Some rain gauges recorded of rain, over in just one hour. Another large rainstorm with intense, record rainfall amounts struck a wide swath of the city during the afternoon rush hour on July 8, 2013 flooding city streets, subway tunnels, basements and knocking out power for over two million residents, stranding commuters, some having to be rescued from a submerged train. A daily rainfall record of was set at Pearson Airport, most falling in an hour and a half. Flood insurance claims are likely to exceed the 2005 storm due to a wider area affected. In the springs of 2017 and 2019, heavy rain combined with snowmelt led to the water levels of Lake Ontario to rise to record levels, flooding parts of the Toronto Islands and closing it to the public.
The most severe heat wave in Toronto occurred in 1936, during the 1936 North American heat wave, when downtown temperatures in Toronto exceeded on three consecutive days (July 8 – 10), with nighttime temperatures not falling below . The city was ill-equipped at that time to handle such a prolonged extreme heat wave, and heat stroke claimed 225 lives in the city, not counting indirect deaths from causes such as drowning. The hottest month recorded, however, was July 1921, when the average maximum temperature downtown was , with a monthly mean temperature of , this was equalled in July 2020. At Toronto Pearson International Airport, the highest monthly maximum average was in July 1955, however the highest mean of was set in July 2020, records there began in 1937. The highest humidex (combined feel of temperature and humidity) reached at the airport during the heat wave of July 1995, downtown it reached on July 21, 2011 during the 2011 North American heat wave.
The coldest minimum temperature of was recorded on January 10, 1859. The coldest temperature recorded at the airport was on January 4, 1981, and the coldest windchill recorded was on the same day. The coldest month overall was at the airport in February 2015 and at downtown in February 1875. Other notable cold waves occurred in January 1994 and February 1934. Winter cold snaps pose a danger as they often come with high winds, leaving the city's homeless population very prone to frostbite and hypothermia.
Upward temperature trend
Based on public records provided by Environment and Climate Change Canada, the average annual temperature has increased at Pearson Airport over a period of 30 years. If compared with the thirty-year normals from 1971 to 2000, more of this increase occurred at night: the average minimum temperature has been higher. Average precipitation during the same period was close to the average of the previous period, snowfall totals down only marginally with slightly higher rainfall. In order from the top: December, September, July and January have seen the highest average temperature increases. Part of this warming is likely attributed to increased urban growth surrounding the airport.
An older study conducted in the 1990s analysed the heat island effect comparing data from selected regional stations, including both Downtown Toronto and Pearson Airport, enough for a large area of the old city limits, and parts of Etobicoke to have a different Köppen climate classification from the surrounding area.
Statistics
Topography
Toronto has numerous hills and valleys that were carved out during the last Ice Age. The ravines are largely undeveloped, primarily as the result of Hurricane Hazel in 1954.
A significant topographical feature is the old shoreline of the Glacial Lake Iroquois, known as the Iroquois Plain. The plain consists mostly of sand deposits and eroded shale and gently slopes about north from Lake Ontario. The Iroquois Plain joins Lake Ontario at the Scarborough Bluffs where erosion and the currents of Lake Ontario have carried sand deposits into Toronto Harbour to form the Toronto Islands. Above the Iroquois Plain, the topography includes two features: the South Slope and the Peel Plain. The South Slope is the southern part of an interlobular moraine the Oak Ridges Moraine. The South Slope has a gentle slope as well, and experiences relatively high runoff as water infiltration is relatively low. The Peel Plain is mostly clay and generally flatter than the South Slope. Water infiltration is also low. Historically, the Peel Plain and South Slope were considered to be high-quality agricultural lands, unlike the Iroquois Plain, which is very sandy. These areas are now heavily urbanized.
Both Dufferin Street and Caledonia Road between Davenport Road and Eglinton Avenue, in the York district, run across numerous steep hills and valleys and the neighbourhood in this area is named Fairbank. Fairbank and Silverthorn to the west have often been compared with the many hills that make up San Francisco. However, parts of the hills and valleys are slightly levelled for GO Transit's Barrie line that runs through this area.
Vaughan Road runs parallel to the buried Castle Frank Brook to the northeast.
The Don River is categorized as an underfit river, given that the river is too small for its much wider and deeper valley. The same is true for the Humber River, the Rouge River, and the various smaller waterways of Toronto.
Grenadier Pond at the western edge of High Park is the largest body of water fully within Toronto's city limits. During the winter, it becomes a natural skating rink.
See also
Fauna of Toronto
List of Toronto parks
Native trees in Toronto
Toronto waterway system
Notes
References |
4494823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boone%20Hall | Boone Hall | Boone Hall Plantation is a historic district located in Mount Pleasant, Charleston County, South Carolina, United States and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The plantation is one of America's oldest plantations still in operation. It has continually produced agricultural crops for over 320 years and is open for public tours.
The historic district includes a 1936 Colonial Revival-style dwelling, and multiple significant landscape features, including an allée of southern live oak trees, believed to have been planted in 1743.
History
17th and 18th centuries
The earliest known reference to the site is in 1681 in a land grant of from owner Theophilus Patey to his daughter Elizabeth and her new husband Major John Boone as a wedding gift. Their land became known as Boone Hall Plantation, but it is unknown when a house was built on the site. John Boone was one of the first settlers to arrive in the colony of South Carolina, doing so in 1672. Boone and his wife were ancestors of Founding Fathers Edward Rutledge and John Rutledge.
Boone was elected to the colonial Grand Council during the 1680s, but was removed twice because he illegally trafficked enslaved Native Americans, became associated with pirates, and concealed stolen goods. He did hold other local offices, such as tax assessor and highway commissioner. When Boone died, he divided his estate among his wife and five children. His eldest son, Thomas, made Boone Hall his home. It later passed to another descendant known as John Boone.
19th century
The Boone family owned the plantation until fourteen years after descendant John Boone's death, when his widow Sarah Gibbes Boone sold the property in 1811 to Thomas A. Vardell for $12,000 (~$ in ). Shortly after, Henry and John Horlbeck bought the property, including slaves. They used a number of the enslaved workers, formerly in the fields, to make bricks. During the early 19th century, Charleston's landowners built and expanded their houses in town and along the Ashley River.
While the Horlbeck brothers have received credit for "building" many houses and public spaces in downtown Charleston using the brick from their plantations, enslaved workers had made the bricks and others accomplished the actual construction under the watch of the Horlbecks and their overseers. The work of talented slaves, with self-taught and acquired skills, including carpentry, mathematics, and geometry, were central to the construction and appearance of many Charleston-area structures. By 1850, these laborers produced 4 million bricks, by hand, per year. The fingerprints of these workers are still visible in the bricks of many of these historic sites.
The Horlbeck family planted the allée, the Avenue of Oaks that leads up to the plantation house. Enslaved gardeners and field laborers planted each oak in 1843, using hand tools. Similarly, the Horlbecks directed their workers to plant pecan trees on the plantation to cultivate a commodity crop. By the end of the century, Boone Hall was one of the leading producers of pecans in the United States.
When Henry Horlbeck died in 1837, several of his children settled his estate by transferring their interests in Boone Hall to four of his sons—Henry, Daniel, Edward, and John Horlbeck. The sale occurred on October 1, 1842, and described the plantation as having a "Wooden Dwelling House[,] Brick Stables[,] Barns[,] Brick Kilns[,] and buildings" on 1442 acres "commonly called and known by the name of Boone Hall."
20th century
Canadian Thomas Stone purchased Boone Hall Plantation in 1935 from the Horlbeck estate, coinciding with the Colonial Revival architectural era. Deciding that the surviving wooden house did not fit their idea of a southern plantation house, Stone and his wife, Alexandra, demolished the historic structure. They replaced it with a historically styled, yet modern house in 1936. The Stones focused the property's agricultural production toward the 200-acre pecan farming operation of what had been a 700-acre pecan farm. They also built an electrical plant that created power from the tides of the nearby rivers to power the plantation.
In 1940, the Stones sold the plantation to Georgian prince Dimitri Jorjadze and his wife Audrey Emery Jorjadze, an American socialite. The prince raced thoroughbreds under the nom de course, Boone Hall Stable. His most notable horse was Princequillo, who in 1943 was the fastest distance runner in the United States. The Jorjadzes sold the plantation to Dr. Henry Deas in 1945.
He sold it a decade later to Harris M. McRae and his wife Nancy in 1955. The McRaes continued to farm the land, shifting the focus to peach trees. They opened the plantation to public tours in 1956.
21st century
Boone Hall is still owned by the McRae family, which has made great efforts to preserve the original structures and gardens. Due to its role in the antebellum south and the survival of its brick slave cabins, the site was named one of the African American Historic Places in South Carolina.
Mansion and grounds
Architecture
The house at Boone Hall Plantation is modern, built during the first half of the 20th century. Thomas Stone commissioned architect William Harmon Beers to design a larger, modern residence in the Colonial Revival style. It was constructed by builder Cambridge M. Trott in 1936. Built on the gently sloping banks of Horlbeck Creek, the south-facing residence is a two-and-half story building that incorporates materials from the plantation's old farm structures, as well as salvaged historic brick recovered from the Laurel Hill Brickyard.
The eight-bay-wide facade is slightly asymmetrical, with its pedimented gable portico at the fourth, fifth and sixth bays. The portico is supported by six massive Tuscan columns, and features a bull's-eye window in the tympanum. On the ground level, the three western bays feature shuttered 9/9 windows, while the two eastern bays are slightly smaller with 6/9 windows. Within the portico are smaller 6/6 windows flanking the paneled entry door with sidelights and fanlight. Second-level window openings are slightly shorter, with a 6/6 sash. An oculus window occupies the space between the second and third bays on the western side of the facade. Above the entry is an iron balcony accessed by French doors. The lateral hipped roof has a medium pitch, with tall brick exterior chimneys at each side elevation. One interior chimney pierces the slate roof.
On the northern, rear facade, a wing of four bays projects from the eastern half of the house. The roof is hipped and has two gabled dormers on all three sides of the wing, indicating a finished attic level. Brick exterior chimneys are located at the rear and east elevations of the wing, which has 6/9 windows at both levels. There are two further projections from the rear wing. A small one-story brick wing on the north elevation, with hipped roof and exterior chimney, was originally used for farm-related storage. At the rear bay of the east elevation is a one-story, one-by-one bay frame wing, with a slate gable roof and exterior brick chimney attached to the house as an office. This small structure predates the main house, and was relocated, attached and re-sided.
Within the ell at the rear of the house, connecting the library at the front of the house with the loggia in the rear wing, is a brick paved terrace enclosed with a serpentine wall. Single and
double French doors, with fanlight, in round-arched surrounds access the terrace from the library, while the west wall of the loggia opens to the terrace with a row of three French doors with sidelights and fanlights in round-arched openings. The mansion has an excavated basement with cement slab flooring, and 5'5" walls of smooth cement on which the brick exterior walls rest. Brick piers lend additional
support to the main structure.
Interior
As a modern-built, classical revival/Colonial Revival structure, the interior of the historic house echoes design choices made by master builders of the 18th century. The floor plan covers about , with principal rooms located on the ground floor. The foyer has plaster walls with a double cornice at ceiling level, and flooring of teak parquet. A cantilevered winding staircase rises to the second level, lit by a triple-hung arched window with 12-light sash. To the left of the foyer is the library, accessed through a mahogany paneled door, with an arched tympanum and keystone, that matches the exterior entry door. Shallow steps lead down from a landing just inside the room to the floor of wide oak boards. The walls are clad in dark green painted cypress paneling, offset by a white chair rail that flanks a simple fireplace surround, glass-fronted built-in bookshelves, and a cornice with heavy dentil molding. On the north side of the library, are ornate French doors, with a semicircular arch in the Palladian style, that access the terrace. Centered on the east wall of the foyer is an arched opening, with fluted pilasters and keystone, that accesses a short hallway that steps down to the double door entry of the dining room. The dining room features oak flooring and cypress paneling painted red. The modest dentil cornice, fireplace surround and chair rail are painted white, matching the treatment in the library. The dining room connects with the kitchen through a butler's pantry with glass-fronted cabinets, topped by smaller cabinets at the ceiling level that extend completely around the room. The countertops are made of Monel, and the narrow oak flooring continues into the large kitchen designed to facilitate grand-scale entertaining.
Accessed through an arched opening on the north wall of the foyer, located under the winding staircase, is the entry into the loggia, adjacent to the west of the kitchen in the rear wing, that leads to the game room at the north end of the rear wing. The enclosed loggia features a low groin-vaulted ceiling of brick and cement stucco, herringbone-laid brick flooring, and centered on a round-arched fireplace surround with a mirrored inset above the mantel. Opposite the fireplace are three double door arched openings to the terrace. The game room has exposed ceiling beams of rough-hewn cypress, cypress paneled walls and salvaged wide heart pine flooring that may have been saved from the prior plantation residence that was demolished so that this house could be built on the same site. The game room also gives access to a small wine cellar located in the basement. The private family quarters (not open for public tours) are found on the second floor and are accessed by a hallway featuring arches with fluted pilasters and keystones. The bedrooms have generally simpler finishes than those found on the ground floor, though the rear bedrooms and the third level finished space are quite plain. Giving access to each floor is an elevator that rises from the basement to the second level.
Grounds and other significant structures at the Site
Boone Hall Plantation comprises 738 acres. The landscape includes areas of cultivated, seasonal crop fields, but also includes preserved wetlands, creeks, and ponds.
The most notable feature of the grounds is the grand Avenue of Oaks that was first planted in 1743 and completed by the Horlbeck brothers in 1843. On axis with the front facade of the house, the allée consists of 88 live oak trees and one magnolia, that are evenly spaced. It runs for 3/4 of a mile from the entrance of the plantation to a pair of brick gateposts. The gateposts are topped with ball finals, hung with formal wrought iron gates and, along with a brick serpentine wall, enclose the forecourt of the house. Open lawns at each side of the entry drive are flanked by formal gardens with brick-paved paths, laid among large live oaks and planted with camellias, azaleas and Noisette roses. Visitors arriving to the house in the 19th century by carriage would have driven through the tunnel of oaks, and past the many slave quarters to the left of the road. Their number and small massing would have starkly contrasted to the large, master's house at the end of the drive. Such a vista symbolizes the place as a place of work and production, rather than leisure.
The first slave cabins were likely made of wood. These brick slave cabins date from between 1790 and 1810. Built of brick, the one-story structures are 12 feet by 30 feet with gabled roofs, have either plank or dirt floors, and a simple fireplace with a brick hearth and no mantle at the rear of each house. The cabins were in use well into the 20th century, as they were occupied by sharecroppers through the 1940s. These dwellings were continuously occupied by enslaved workers, then free sharecroppers for nearly 150 years, making them incredibly significant to the history of the site.
On the wide forecourt directly in front of the house are two pergolas, constructed in 1993 as part of the ongoing efforts to enhance the gardens. At the southwest edge of the gardens, within the serpentine wall, is a brick smokehouse dating from 1750. The cylindrical structure has a conical timber roof sheathed in slate.
To the southeast of the main house is the large Cotton Gin house built in the 1850s. The machinery to process cotton is no longer found, and has since been used as a guest house, restaurant and gift shop by subsequent owners. Due to damage by Hurricane Hugo, the building is no longer habitable and is awaiting renovation.
Boone Hall Plantation, Inc.
Boone Hall Farms
The agricultural operation of Boone Hall Plantation, incorporated filed with South Carolina Secretary of State to do business as Boone Hall Farms. During the spring and summer, BHF cultivates strawberries, and hosts an annual Low Country Strawberry Festival at the peak of each growing season, when guests pick thousands of pounds of strawberries from the U-Pick fields. The Boone Hall Farms farm-to-table program generates produce including tomatoes, squash, cucumbers, watermelons, sweet corn, and other produce for over 35 Low Country businesses and restaurants.
Boone Hall Farms also offers its produce, prepared foods, and fresh seafood and meat at its Roadside Produce Stand located down the road from Boone Hall Plantation.
Slave quarters
The slave quarters that remain on the structure are the brick quarters that housed enslaved workers at the property. They have survived in large part because of the durability and quality of the materials they were constructed from. Many structures that house slaves were made from wood, and were easily removed from agricultural landscapes when the owner decided they no longer wanted a visual marker of the history of the enslaved on their property. The interpretation of the slave quarters at Boone Hall Plantation is more extensive than that of the main house, and includes many archaeological artifacts uncovered around these houses. The history of the enslaved workers at Boone Hall Plantation are also linked to Gullah culture, interpreted through living history presentations through song and storytelling. The history of the main house is disconnected entirely from the history of the slave quarters, however. While domestic enslaved workers would have cooked, cleaned, and performed many other tasks for the Boone, then Horlbeck families, slavery was illegal in 1935 when the historic house was built. Such limited interpretive exploration may be attributed to the site's lack of a curator, or curatorial staff to do more research and writing for the public's benefit.
2020 plantation wedding controversy
Many former plantations open to the public allow venue rentals, most specifically for weddings. Boone Hall Plantation offers multiple buildings and locations on the property for these events. However, as publicly pointed out recently by Ryan Reynolds and Blake Lively who were married at Boone Hall Plantation in 2012, plantation weddings are controversial. In fact, wedding sites like the Knot stated they would cease promoting sites like Boone Plantation out of respect for the people who were enslaved at these places. As Reynolds told a Fast Company reporter recently, "It’s impossible to reconcile. What we saw at the time was a wedding venue on Pinterest. What we saw after was a place built upon devastating tragedy. Years ago we got married again at home—but shame works in weird ways. A giant fucking mistake like that can either cause you to shut down or it can reframe things and move you into action. It doesn’t mean you won’t fuck up again. But re-patterning and challenging lifelong social conditioning is a job that doesn’t end.”
Representatives from Boone Hall Plantation issued a statement to Fox News saying, "We treasure all our relationships with couples that have chosen to get married at Boone Hall, and, when needed, respond to them in private, honest, and personal discussions to address any concerns they may have. The discussions are heartfelt as we want to listen and put love and respect at the center of any issues that arise. We will always work to be a part of the solution for our couples, not a part of the problem”.
In popular culture
The grounds and buildings of Boone Hall Plantation have appeared in a number of major motion pictures and TV series:
America (1972 TV Series)
Days of Our Lives (1984)
North and South (1985 & 1986 Mini-Series)
Alex Haley's Queen (1993 Mini-Series)
Scarlett (1994 Mini-Series)
The Notebook (2004)
The Price of Freedom (2004 Documentary)
Bin Yah: There's No Place Like Home (2008)
Gallery
See also
Antebellum South Carolina
List of plantations in South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston County, South Carolina
References
External links
Official Site
Boone Hall at South Carolina Plantations
Annual Re-enactment of The Battle of Secessionville held at Boone Hall Plantation
Boone Hall Plantation in Street View
Slave cabins and quarters in the United States
Antebellum architecture
Historic American Buildings Survey in South Carolina
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in South Carolina
Historic house museums in South Carolina
Plantations in South Carolina
Museums in Charleston County, South Carolina
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places in Charleston County, South Carolina |
4494959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20Coastal%20Commission | California Coastal Commission | The California Coastal Commission (CCC) is a state agency within the California Natural Resources Agency with quasi-judicial control of land and public access along the state's coastline. Its mission as defined in the California Coastal Act is "to protect, conserve, restore, and enhance the environment of the California coastline".
Protection of coastal resources includes shoreline public access and recreation, lower cost visitor accommodations, terrestrial and marine habitat protection, visual resources, and regulation of agricultural lands, commercial fisheries, and industrial infrastructure. By regulating land use within a defined coastal zone extending inland from up to , it has the authority to control construction of any type, including buildings, housing, roads, as well as fire and erosion abatement structures, and can issue fines for unapproved construction. It has been called the single most powerful land-use authority in the United States due to its purview over vast environmental assets and extremely valuable real estate.
Critics say that the CCC has exceeded its mission, harmed the environment by promoting car infrastructure and single-family detached homes, violated property rights of citizens, and worsened California's housing shortage by limiting housing supply in the some of the state's most affluent areas. The CCC has lobbied against legislative proposals to ease housing construction in areas under the CCC's remit. Proponents of the CCC's work, on the other hand, say that the Commission has protected open space, views, habitats, and public coastal access.
Composition
The commission is composed of 12 voting members, 6 chosen from the general public, and 6 appointed elected officials. Being on the commission can carry responsibilities which are highly politicized. The 12 appointed commissioners control zoning, compel property alterations, impose fines, bestow construction approvals or vetoes, and require public thoroughfares on private property.
Separate from the appointed Commissioners are the commission's employed staff, numbering some 164 people during 2021–22.
Jonathan Zasloff, a law professor at the University of California, Los Angeles stated that "The commission is the single most powerful land use authority in the United States given the high values of its jurisdiction and its high environmental assets." and that, because its members are appointed by the governor and the State Senate and Assembly leaders (which have generally been Democrats), "The commission reflects a constituency that is important to Democrats."
Authority
Development activities are broadly defined by the Coastal Act to include (among others) construction of buildings, divisions of land, and activities that change the intensity of use of land or public access to coastal waters. Development usually requires a Coastal Development Permit from either the Coastal Commission or the local government if such development would occur within the Coastal Zone. The Coastal Zone is specifically defined by law as an area that extends from the State's seaward boundary of jurisdiction, and inland for a distance from the Mean High Tide Line of between a couple of hundred feet in urban areas, to up to five miles in rural areas.
The state authority controls construction along the state's of shoreline. One of the provisions passed under the 1976 California Coastal Act specifically prohibits State Route 1 from being widened beyond one lane in each direction within rural areas inside the Coastal Zone. The Coastal Commission also had the power to block a proposed southern extension of State Route 241 to Interstate 5 at San Onofre State Beach in San Diego County.
The Coastal Commission has the ability to overrule local elected representatives and has also gained the ability to fine private citizens. The agency has sought enforcement through the courts as it originally did not have the power to issue fines on its own to alleged violators. A bill in the California legislature to grant the commission a broad power to issue fines was defeated in September 2013. However legislation attached to the state budget in the summer of 2014 finally granted the authority to impose fines on violators of public-access which could apply to about a third of the backlog of over 2,000 unresolved enforcement cases. The first notable fines were issued in December 2016 against Malibu property owners Dr. Warren M. Lent and his wife, for $4.2 million, and Simon and Daniel Mani, owners of the Malibu Beach Inn, who settled amicably for $925,000. The difference in severity of the fines were attributed to the "egregious" nature of the Lent case.
Local agency administration
A "local coastal program" is the official name for a zoning plan controlled by the commission but administered by a local agency. The commission can retake granular control of any project if it is appealed. An appeal will take approximately 6–8 months on average to reach a final decision and may take longer to resolve more complicated appeals.
The commission is the primary agency which issues Coastal Development Permits. However, once a local agency (a County, City, or Port) has a Local Coastal Program (LCP) which has been certified by the commission, that agency takes over the responsibility for issuing Coastal Development Permits. For areas with Certified LCP's, the Commission does not issue Coastal Development permits (except in certain areas where the Commission retains jurisdiction, i.e. public trust lands), and is instead responsible for reviewing amendments to a local agency's LCP, or reviewing Coastal Development Permits issued by local agencies which have been appealed to the commission.
A Local Coastal Program is composed of a Land Use Plan (LUP) and an Implementation Plan (IP). A Land Use Plan details the Land Uses which are permissible in each part of the local government's area, and specifies the general policies which apply to each land use. The LUP can be a part of a local government's general plan. The Implementation Plan is responsible for implementing the policies contained in the LUP. The IP is generally a part of the city's zoning code.
One example
The Local Coastal Program (LCP) for a run-down gateway to Channel Islands Harbor in Oxnard is designated for visitor-serving commercial uses and harbor-related uses that support recreational boating and fishing. The county owns and manages the harbor and wanted to amend the LCP to allow a mixed-use development with up to 400 apartments as their selected developer said the project was only feasible with the housing. In 2020, the commission refused to override the denial by the city of Oxnard of land-use changes as that is only intended to be used in rare instances when a local government is standing in the way of the development of a public works project that would meet regional public needs.
Managed retreat
The Commission recommended cities implement managed retreat philosophies allowing oceans to naturally erode developments thereby nourishing beaches with reclaimed sand made of disintegrated former properties.
History
The California Coastal Commission was established in 1972 by voter initiative via Proposition 20. This was partially in response to the controversy surrounding the development of Sea Ranch, a planned coastal community in Sonoma County. Sea Ranch's developer-architect, Al Boeke, envisioned a community that would preserve the area's natural beauty. But the plan for Sea Ranch eventually grew to encompass of the Sonoma County coastline that would have been reserved for private use. This and other similar coastal projects prompted opponents to form activist groups. Their efforts eventually led to putting Proposition 20 on the ballot.
Proposition 20 gave the Coastal Commission permit authority for four years. The California Coastal Act of 1976 extended the Coastal Commission's authority indefinitely. Jerry Brown, in his first term as governor, signed the California Coastal Act into law, but two years later, became frustrated with the commission and made headlines by calling them "bureaucratic thugs." Peter M. Douglas helped write the act in addition to prop 20 and was subsequently employed as the Executive Director of the Coastal Commission for 26 years. In 2011 the Commissioners chose Charles Lester as Douglas's replacement, but then fired him in 2016.
Accounting for 164 percent inflation, the commission's total funding declined 26 percent from $22.1 million in 1980 ($13.5 million in then-current dollars) to
$16.3 million in 2010. The commission's full-time staff fell from 212 in 1980 to 125 in 2010. There are 16 Commission employees working in the enforcement function to investigate violations along the of coastline. The commission's total budget for fiscal year 2019-2020 was $32,086,000 The total compensation of the commission's executive director John L. Ainsworth was $254,000 in 2019, Charles F. Lester's was $177,000 in 2015, and Peter M. Douglas's was $213,000 in 2011. Including the proposed budget for fiscal year 2021–22, the cumulative expenses of the Commission since 2007 exceed $348 million.
U.S. Supreme Court Cases
The Supreme Court of the United States ruled in the 1987 case of Nollan v. California Coastal Commission that a requirement by the agency was a taking in violation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. The Coastal Commission had required that a lateral public easement along the Nollans' beachfront lot be dedicated to facilitate pedestrian access to public beaches as a condition of approval of a permit to demolish an existing bungalow and replace it with a three-bedroom house. The Coastal Commission had asserted that the public-easement condition was imposed to promote the legitimate state interest of diminishing the "blockage of the view of the ocean" caused by construction of the larger house. The court, in a narrow decision, ruled that an "essential nexus" must exist between the legitimate state interest and the permit condition imposed by government, otherwise the building restriction "is not a valid regulation of land use but an out-and-out plan of extortion."
The commission won its attempt to require a permit for activity on a pharmaceutical limestone quarry owned by Granite Rock Company of Watsonville, California, in the United States Supreme Court case California Coastal Comm'n v. Granite Rock Co. Granite Rock's approved Forest Service permit to excavate pharmaceutical limestone expired by the time the case was decided.
Reactions
Critics of the commission's authority say it has exceeded its mission, violated the constitutional property rights of citizens, and worsened the California housing shortage by limiting housing supply. Advocates such as former member Mary Shallenberger say the commission has protected open space, views, habitats, and coastal access and should be given authority to control housing to a greater extent.
On the commission's ability to practically dictate how coastal land is used, Jeff Jennings, the mayor of Malibu commented: "The commission basically tells us what to do, and we're expected to do it. And in many cases that extends down to the smallest details imaginable, like what color you paint your houses, what kind of light bulbs you can use in certain places."
Enforcement
The agency is tasked with protection of coastal resources, including shoreline public access and recreation, lower cost visitor accommodations, terrestrial and marine habitat protection, visual resources, landform alteration, agricultural lands, commercial fisheries, industrial uses, water quality, offshore oil and gas development, transportation, development design, power plants, ports, and public works. The commission's responsibilities are described in the California Coastal Act, especially the Chapter 3 policies.
The agency has sought enforcement through the courts as it originally did not have the power to issue fines on its own to alleged violators. A bill in the California legislature to grant the commission a broad power to issue fines was defeated in September 2013. However legislation attached to the state budget in the summer of 2014 finally granted the authority to impose fines on violators of public-access which could apply to about a third of the backlog of over 2,000 unresolved enforcement cases. The first notable fines were issued in December 2016 against Malibu property owners Dr. Warren M. Lent and his wife, for 4.2 million dollars, and Simon and Daniel Mani, owners of the Malibu Beach Inn, who settled amicably for $925,000. The difference in severity of the fines were attributed to the "egregious" nature of the Lent case.
Affordable overnight coastal accommodations
According to the commission, the California Coastal Act requires that "overnight accommodations in the Coastal Zone are [be] available at a range of price points." When permitting new hotels, they usually try to require 25% of bookings at expensive hotels be offered at lower rates, or, in the case of a developer who is adding a small boutique style hotel to a beach property, they will be required (in 2021) to pay $150,000 into a fund which will help to provide for lower cost accommodations in the region.
In 2019, the commission fined a hotel builder $15.5 million after it "replaced two of the only low-cost motels in Santa Monica with a luxury boutique hotel, without a permit," the commission said in a statement. "We as an agency have a mandate to encourage public access on the California coast and that means doing everything we can to ensure people can actually afford to stay there," said Dayna Bochco, who chairs the commission.
Convenient beach parking
In 2022, the commission forced San Diego to require off-street parking for accessory dwelling units within the Coastal Zone in order to reduce potential demand for public parking close to beaches, so that non-residents can find convenient beach parking.
In 2023, the commission required restaurants on the San Diego beach to replace any street parking spaces "lost" to permanent outdoor dining structures (San Diego's “Spaces as Places” outdoor dining program) that had grown extremely popular after first being implemented on a temporary basis during the COVID pandemic with other parking spaces no more than 1,200 feet away.
Examples
In 2018, a high profile case was resolved without litigation: at tech billionaire Sean Parker's 2013 wedding in Big Sur, where extensive staging was installed in an ecologically sensitive area without a proper permit, Parker cooperated with the Commission and created a mobile app named YourCoast to help visitors discover 1500 access points to beaches as well as report violations. He also paid $2.5 million in penalties even though the property owner was at fault and had illegally closed the area to the public for six years.
The Ritz-Carlton Hotel in Half Moon Bay was ordered to pay $1.6 million in penalties for failing to provide public access to its nearby beaches in 2019. Cars of hotel guests and golfers would be parked in public spaces by the valets or public access was simply denied to those spaces.
In 2020, the commission fined 33 Newport Beach residents a total of $1.7 million because their yards encroached on the beach, and required that the beach be returned to its natural state.
In 2019, during the process of replacing wooden power poles with steel poles to reduce wildfire risk, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) graded fire roads and created new roads on Environmentally Sensitive Habitat Areas in Topanga State Park which destroyed almost 200 endangered Braunton's milkvetch plants on (10% of those plants in the area). The city agreed that its utility will pay the commission's fine of $1.9 million and will follow the restoration order requiring LADWP to apply for a coastal development permit to complete the project and to restore of habitat within the coastal zone and an additional outside the zone.
Project permits and proposals
In the 1980s, the commission denied the Remmenga family's petition to build a home from the beach in Hollister Ranch unless the public were allowed access through their property. Alternatively, the Remmengas were given the option to pay the commission $5,000 which was said to help fund public pathways to the beach. The California Courts of Appeal held that "even if an individual project does not create an immediate need for a compensating accessway, one may be required of it if its effect together with the cumulative impact of similar projects would in the future create or increase the need for a system of such compensating accessways."
Jeff Peck and his business partner, Steve Barber, bought a large Half Moon Bay property for $3 million in 1999. Peck intended to build homes where his 17-year-old autistic daughter, Elizabeth, could live independently among friends after he dies. He proposed building of office space on the property to help fund homes that would also be built to house 50 disabled people. The San Mateo County Board of Supervisors unanimously approved the project in 2011.
In 2012 commissioners agreed with appeals filed against the project, saying the proposal would have too large of an impact on utilities, environment and traffic. Peck then filed a civil lawsuit against the commission and a complaint with the state Department of Fair Employment and Housing claiming that the commission's action discriminated against developmentally disabled people. Supporters of the development said the Coastal Commission had never approved any affordable housing for the disabled in the organization's 40-year history. That accusation was based on a cursory database search and doesn't prove anything, said Charles Lester, commission executive director in 2012.
In 2008, the commission rejected a proposal for a freeway through San Onofre State Park in San Diego County. The decision was upheld by the U.S. Department of Commerce for this alternate route to congested Interstate 5, Southern California's main north–south artery. In agreeing to end lawsuits brought by the state of California, the California Parks and Recreation Commission, the Native American Heritage Commission and the Save San Onofre Coalition, Orange County tollway officials withdrew their approval in 2016 and agreed in a legal settlement to preserve San Onofre State Beach.
About 60 oceanview homes in Dana Point sit precariously on a landslide-prone bluff. Since 2012 Orange County has submitted two petitions to the commission to replace the boulders below the bluff along the beach into a "revetment" a combination of boulders backed by a barrier of concrete with a path on top. The commission has denied the petitions because of the anticipated loss of beach sand and because the county would shoulder the cost, not the homeowners. The county's responsibility for maintaining the bluff comes from a legal settlement dating to the early days of the development. The county's cost for the new structure was estimated to be $10 million for construction and another $15 million in mitigation fees to be paid to the state.
In 2014, the commission appealed a San Diego project by the United States Navy because of environmental impacts. The Navy had awarded a 99-year lease to a developer to build a multi-use development including a regional Navy headquarters at no cost to the public to replace buildings that dated to the 1920s. The U.S. Congress had authorized the reuse plan in 1987 and local agencies approved a master plan in the 1990s. Critics of the development argued the Navy building should be built at a more secure site on a local base and that the downtown property should be developed as parkland for a more civic use, while plan supporters said the development will mean more economic development and additional reasons for visitors to go to the waterfront. The commission's legal opposition to the project began under Executive Director Peter M. Douglas.
In 2014, the McCarthy family sought permitting to construct a home on their property in San Luis Obispo County. The commission first denied permission telling the McCarthys to relocate a path that ran through the family's property. When the family offered a route to relocate the path and offered to pay for the work, the commission denied their petition because of impacts which included "lesser views for hikers" and significant impacts to the environment. San Luis Obispo County gave the McCarthys a permit, but the commission vetoed it in 2021.
In 2016, the commission denied a controversial proposal for 895 homes, a hotel, and shops from being built on an Orange County oil field overlooking the Pacific Ocean. The Los Angeles Times said the denial was an expression of frustration with competing staff and developer proposals. The site had been disturbed by nearly 70 years of oil production but was still a crucial ecological refuge for plants and animals.
In 2020, the commission delayed construction of a two-story Newport Beach office building and garage with space for two tenants because neighbors objected to the project's potential effect on traffic, noise, light, and views.
In 2020, the commission required the elimination of basements for planned homes in Monterey because there was no way to be completely certain there were no artifacts on the sites in an archaeologically sensitive area, reversing the Monterey County Board of Supervisors' split approval of the projects.
In 2020 and 2021, Santa Cruz city planners advocated housing projects including 175 apartments to be built downtown adjacent to Santa Cruz's main bus station. The commission opposed the downtown project because of insufficient plan conformity with height and density specifications. Commission district supervisor Ryan Maroney said the mass and scale of a building would impact the "coastal resources" of views, community character and aesthetics.
In 2023, the commission lobbied against California state legislative proposals that would ease housing construction in areas under the CCC's remit. Under the legislative proposals, housing that complies with zoning rules and environmental protection laws, would be fast-tracked in areas of the state that have not met their state-set housing goals. By exempting these housing developments from lengthy public hearings and environmental legal challenges, the proposals would effectively cut the CCC out of the housing permitting process.
Other
In 2005, the commission found Dennis Schneider's proposed home in San Luis Obispo to be inconsistent with the California Coastal Act. The commission ruled that Schneider could still build a new home, but with 15 conditions including: his house must be reduced to , the house must be moved inland, and his barn can't be built because is too small for ranching cattle. Several of the conditions were targeted at preserving the character of the view that a boater would have of the coastline from offshore. While commission Executive Director Peter M. Douglas said "the view of pastoral areas from the sea to the land without human structures intervening is very important," the California 2nd District Court of Appeal ruled in a unanimous 2006 opinion: "We believe that it is unreasonable to assume that the Legislature has ever sought to protect the occasional boater's views of the coastline at the expense of a coastal landowner."
In 2008, studies showed seabirds on offshore rocks abandoned their nests after Fourth of July fireworks celebrations in Gualala. Commission executive director Peter Douglas said the fireworks organizer, the Gualala Festivals Committee, simply refused to work with the commission. The commission sent a cease and desist order banning the fireworks, and a judge in Ukiah rejected a request to delay the commission's ruling. Douglas explained "Our job under the coastal act is to protect marine resources, and that's what is affected here. We don't get involved in 95 percent of the fireworks displays along the coast because most of them don't have these impacts."
Since 2008, the commission, the California state government, and Vinod Khosla have engaged in litigation over reopening a public pathway through Khosla's property to Martin's Beach. Khosla offered to sell a portion of his property to create a pathway for $30 million.
In 2015, the commission approved a construction project for SeaWorld San Diego to build a bigger tank for their killer whales including the condition that they must not breed captive whales to fill them.
In 2020, a commission investigation found the city of Long Beach guilty of pruning palm trees that contained more than one Heron bird nest. One fledgling bird, which later died, was found on the ground in the vicinity of the arborists' work. Proposed penalties include planting trees, more tree-trimming oversight, and fines.
Promotion
The commission utilized the endorsement of poet Amanda Gorman and other celebrities for the commission's advertising and tax-deductible donation campaign suggesting "donate on your California tax form." The commission's logo was designed by FINE, a digital branding and advertising agency. The whale tail license plate purchasing program is a state-sponsored promotional and revenue-generating tool of the commission. Executive director Peter Douglas said the commission rejected many requests from the Wyland Foundation, founded by the original artist of the whale tail painting, for a share of the profits. Denying the foundation, Douglas said the image was being used under the rubric of an "oral agreement," and that no formal licensing or any word on paper had been set down giving the state the right to use the design. Ultimately $20,000 was donated to Wyland's foundation in 2005, and the Commission paid two artists $1,000 each to paint new art for the license plate.
References
Further reading
External links
of the California Coastal Commission
California Coastal Commission Public Education Program
California Coastal Commission in the California Code of Regulations
Coastal
Coastal Commission
Environment of California
Government agencies established in 1972
1972 establishments in California |
4495539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20B-52%20Units%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Air%20Force | List of B-52 Units of the United States Air Force | The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress has been operational with the United States Air Force since 5 June 1955. This list is of the units its assigned to, and bases stationed at.
In addition to the USAF, A single RB-52B (52-008) was flown by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) until it was retired on 17 December 2004. It now is on static display at the west gate of Edwards AFB, California. One other B-52H (61-0025) was flown for many years by the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards, and was transferred to NASA on 30 July 2001 as a replacement for the RB-52B. On 9 May 2008, that aircraft was flown for the last time to Sheppard AFB, Texas where it became a GB-52H maintenance trainer, never to fly again.
Current USAF B-52 units
The only active operational model of the B-52 is the B-52H. It is currently stationed at three USAF bases, flown by four wings:
2nd Bomb Wing – Barksdale AFB, Louisiana
11th Bomb Squadron (B-52H, Tail Code: LA, Gold Tail Stripe)
20th Bomb Squadron (B-52H, Tail Code: LA, Blue Tail Stripe)
96th Bomb Squadron (B-52H, Tail Code: LA, Red Tail Stripe)
5th Bomb Wing – Minot AFB, North Dakota
23nd Bomb Squadron (B-52H, Tail Code: MT, Red Tail Stripe)
69th Bomb Squadron (B-52H, Tail Code: MT, Yellow Tail Stripe)
307th Bomb Wing (AFRC) – Barksdale AFB, Louisiana
93rd Bomb Squadron (B-52H, Tail Code: BD, Blue/Gold Chex Tail Stripe)
343rd Bomb Squadron
412th Test Wing (AFMC) – Edwards AFB, California
419th Flight Test Squadron (B-52H, Tail Code: ED)
Historical USAF B-52 units
2nd Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Barksdale AFB, Louisiana
Activated by re-designation of: 4238th Strategic Wing
B-52F, 1963–1965; B-52G, 1965–1992; B-52H, 1992–present
11th Bombardment Squadron (B-52H)
20th Bombardment Squadron (B-52F/H) (to 7th BW 6/65 – from 7th BW 12/92)
62nd Bombardment Squadron (B-52G) (from 39th BW 6/65, inactivated 12/92)
96th Bombardment Squadron (B-52H)
596th Bombardment Squadron (B-52G) (from 397th BW 4/68)
Currently flying B-52Hs at Barksdale AFB
5th Bombardment Wing (Heavy)
Travis AFB, California (1959–1968)
Minot AFB, North Dakota, (1968–Current)
B-52B, 1959; B-52G, 1959–1968; B-52H, 1968–Current
23rd Bombardment Squadron
31st Bombardment Squadron (to 4126th SW 1/60)
72nd Bombardment Squadron (B-52H)
Currently flying B-52Hs at Minot AFB.
6th Bombardment (later Strategic Aerospace) Wing, Walker AFB, New Mexico
B-52E, 1957–1967
24th Bombardment Squadron
39th Bombardment Squadron
40th Bombardment Squadron
4129th Combat Crew Training Squadron (1959–1963)
Moved to Eielson AFB, AK after closure of Walker AFB in 1967; 24th BS began flying RC-135s.
7th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Carswell AFB, Texas
B-52F, 1958–1969; B-52D, 1969–1983; B-52H, 1982–1992
Moved to Dyess AFB, TX after closure of Carswell AFB and transfer to US Navy as NAS JRB Fort Worth/Carswell Field; became B-1B Wing (9th BS)
9th Bombardment Squadron
20th Bombardment Squadron (from 2d BW 6/65 to 2d BW 12/92)
492nd Bombardment Squadron (to 4228th SW at Columbus AFB)
11th Bombardment (later Strategic Aerospace) Wing, Altus AFB, Oklahoma
B-52E, 1958–1968
26th Bombardment Squadron
98th Bombardment Squadron (Reassigned to 4123 SW at Carswell AFB 1958-1958 and relocated to Clinton-Sherman AFB in 1959)
42nd Bombardment Squadron (Reassigned to 4043 SW in 1960)
Became KC-135 Air Refueling Wing in 1968
17th Bombardment Wing (Heavy)
Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio (1963–1975)
Beale AFB, California, (1975–1976)
Activated to replace: 4043d Strategic Wing
B-52E, 1963–1968; B-52H, 1968–1975; B-52G, 1975–1976
34th Bombardment Squadron (B-52E a/c from 42 BS, B-52G a/c from 744 BS)
Inactivated in 1976; Beale AFB became a SAC Strategic Recon base for SR-71 and U-2 operations.
19th Bombardment Wing (Heavy)
Homestead AFB, Florida (1962–1968)
Robins AFB, Georgia (1968–1983)
B-52H, 1962–1968; B-52G, 1968–1983
28th Bombardment Squadron (B-52G a/c from 781st BS, 7/68)
Became 19th Air Refueling Wing in 1983
22nd Bombardment Wing (Heavy), March AFB, California
B-52B, 1963–1966; B-52D, 1966–1982
2nd Bombardment Squadron
486th Bombardment Squadron (B-52D a/c from 781st BS)
The 22nd Bombardment Squadron became 22nd Air Refueling Wing in 1982,
and the 2nd Bombardment Squadron became the 2nd Strategic Squadron in 1988,
28th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota
B-52D, 1957–1971; B-52G, 1971–1977; 1977–1985
77th Bombardment Squadron
717th Bombardment Squadron (Reassigned to 4245 SW in 1960)
718th Bombardment Squadron (Reassigned to 4128 SW in 1960)
Equipped with B-1B Lancer in 1986
39th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Eglin AFB, Florida
Activated to replace: 4135th Strategic Wing
B-52G, 1963–1965
62nd Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 301st BS; to 2nd BW 6/65)
Inactivated in 1965; Eglin AFB SAC facilities transferred to TAC
42nd Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Loring AFB, Maine
B-52C, 1956–1957; B-52D, 1957–1959; B-52G, 1959–1994
69th Bombardment Squadron
70th Bombardment Squadron (inactivated 6/66; a/c to 528 BS/380 SAW)
75th Bombardment Squadron (Reassigned to 4039 SW in 1959)
Inactivated in 1994; Loring AFB closed per BRAC
43rd Strategic Wing, Andersen AFB, Guam
B-52D, 1972–1983; B-52G, 1983–1990
60th Bombardment Squadron
63rd Bombardment Squadron (Provisional), 1972–1973
Inactivated in 1990; Andersen transferred to PACAF
68th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina
Activated to replace: 4241st Strategic Wing
B-52G, 1963–1982
51st Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 73rd BS)
Became 68th Air Refueling Wing in 1982
70th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Clinton-Sherman AFB, Oklahoma
Activated to replace: 4123rd Strategic Wing
B-52E, 1963–1968; B-52D, 1968–1969
6th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 98 BS)
Inactivated in 1969; Clinton-Sherman AFB closed.
72nd Bombardment Wing (Heavy)
Ramey AFB, Puerto Rico (1959–1971)
Andersen AFB, Guam (1972–1973)
B-52G, 1959–1971, 1972–1973
60th Bombardment Squadron (transferred to 43rd SW in 1971
Inactivated in 1971; Ramey AFB closed; portion transferred to US Coast Guard as AIRSTA Borinquen
Provisional wing at Andersen for Linebacker I, II 1972–1973 (Vietnam War)
91st Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Glasgow AFB, Montana
Activated to replace: 4141st Strategic Wing
B-52D, 1963–1968
322nd Bombardment Squadron
Inactivated in 1968; Glasgow AFB closed; Became 91st Strategic Missile Wing in 1968 at Minot AFB
92nd Bombardment (later Strategic Aerospace) Wing, Fairchild AFB, Washington
B-52D, 1957–1971; B-52G, 1970–1986; B-52H, 1986–1994
325th Bombardment Squadron
326th Bombardment Squadron (B-52D) (Reassigned to 4141 SW in 1961)
327th Bombardment Squadron (B-52D) (Reassigned to 4170 SW in 1961)
Became 92nd Air Refueling Wing in 1994
93rd Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Castle AFB, California
B-52B, 1955–1965; B-52D, 1956–1958; B-52E, 1957–1958, 1967–1970; B-52F, 1958–1974; B-52G, 1966–1967, 1974–1994; B-52H, 1974–1993
328th Bombardment Squadron
329th Bombardment Squadron
330th Bombardment Squadron (1955–1963) (1998–1991)
4017th Combat Crew Training Squadron (1955–1956)
Inactivated in 1995; Castle AFB closed per BRAC.
95th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Biggs AFB, Texas
B-52B, 1959–1966
334th Bombardment Squadron (1959–1966)
Inactivated in 1966; Biggs AFB closed and transferred to US Army as Biggs AAF.
96th Bombardment Wing, (Heavy) Dyess AFB, Texas
B-52E, 1963–1970; B-52D, 1969–1982; B-52H, 1982–1985
337th Bombardment Squadron
Inactivated in 1993; Dyess AFB became B-1B base Jun 1985
97th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Eaker AFB, Arkansas
B-52G, 1960–1992
340th Bombardment Squadron
Inactivated in 1992; Eaker AFB closed per BRAC; became 97th Airlift Wing at Altus AFB in 1992
99th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Westover AFB, Massachusetts
B-52C, 1956–1966; B-52B, 1958–1959; B-52D, 1957–1961, 1966–1974
346th Bombardment Squadron
347th Bombardment Squadron (Reassigned to 4047 SW in 1961)
348th Bombardment Squadron
Inactivated in 1974; Westover AFB transferred to Air Force Reserve as Westover ARB.
306th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), McCoy AFB, Florida
Activated to replace: 4047th Strategic Wing
B-52D, 1963–1973
367th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 347 BS)
Inactivated in 1974; McCoy AFB closed. Became 306th Strategic Wing at RAF Mildenhall, UK in 1975
307th Strategic Wing, U-Tapao RTNAF, Thailand
B-52D, 1973–1975
364th Bombardment Squadron (Provisional)
365th Bombardment Squadron (Provisional)
Inactivated in 1975; USAF ops at U-Tapao RTAFB closed out and transferred to Royal Thai Air Force.
319th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Grand Forks AFB, North Dakota
Activated to replace: 4133d Strategic Wing
B-52H, 1963–1982; B-52G, 1982–1986
46th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 30th BS)
Equipped with B-1B Lancer 1987–88
Became 319th Air Refueling Wing in 1994
320th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Mather AFB, California
Activated to replace: 4134th Strategic Wing
B-52F, 1963–1968; B-52G, 1968–1989
441st Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 72d BS)
Tenant SAC unit on ATC base. Inactivated in 1989; Mather AFB closed in 1991 per BRAC.
340th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Bergstrom AFB, Texas
Activated to replace: 4130th Strategic Wing
B-52D, 1963–1966
486th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 335 BS)
Inactivated in 1966; reactivated and equipped with FB-111s in 1968
366th Wing (Headquartered at Mountain Home AFB, Idaho; aircraft located at Castle AFB, California)
B-52G, 1992–1994
34th Bombardment Squadron
34 BS equipped with B-1B Lancers in 1994
376th Strategic Wing, Kadena AB, Okinawa
4180th Bombardment Squadron (Provisional) (never made operational)
Equipped with RC-135s in 1970 when B-52s withdrawn from Kadena AB.
379th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Wurtsmith AFB, Michigan
B-52H, 1961–1977; B-52G, 1977–1992
524th Bombardment Squadron
Inactivated in 1993; Wurtsmith AFB closed per BRAC
380th Strategic Aerospace Wing, Plattsburgh AFB, New York
B-52G, 1966–1971
528th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 70th BS)
Re-equipped with FB-111s in 1971; Inactivated 1995 and Plattsburgh AFB closed per BRAC
397th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Dow AFB, Maine
Activated to replace: 4038th Strategic Wing
B-52G, 1963–1968
596th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 341st BS)
Inactivated in 1968; Dow AFB closed.
410th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), K. I. Sawyer AFB, Michigan
Activated to replace 4042d Strategic Wing
B-52H, 1963–1994
644th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 526th BS)
Inactivated in 1995; K. I. Sawyer AFB closed per BRAC
416th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Griffiss AFB, New York
Activated to replace 4039th Strategic Wing
B-52G, 1963–1992; B-52H, 1992–1995
668th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 75th BS)
Inactivated in 1995; Griffiss AFB closed per BRAC.
449th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Kincheloe AFB, Michigan
Activated to replace 4239th Strategic Wing
B-52H, 1963–1977
716th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 93rd BS)
Inactivated in 1977; Kincheloe AFB closed
450th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Minot AFB, North Dakota
Activated to replace 4136th Strategic Wing
B-52H, 1963–1968
720th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 525th BS)
Inactivated in 1968
454th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Columbus AFB, Mississippi
Activated to replace 4228th Strategic Wing
B-52F, 1963–1966; B-52D, 1966–1969
736th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 492nd BS)
Inactivated in 1969; Columbus AFB transferred to ATC
456th Strategic Aerospace (later Bombardment) Wing, Beale AFB, California
B-52G, 1963–1975
Activated to replace 4126th Strategic Wing
744th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 31st BS, a/c to 34th BS)
Wing Inactivated in 1975, replaced by 17th Bombardment Wing
461st Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Amarillo AFB, Texas
B-52D, 1963–1968
Activated to replace4128th Strategic Wing
764th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 718 BS)
Inactivated in 1968; Amarillo AFB closed.
462nd Strategic Aerospace Wing, Larson AFB, Washington
Activated to replace 4170th Strategic Wing
B-52D, 1963–1966
768th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 327 BS)
Inactivated in 1966; Larson AFB closed.
465th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Robins AFB, Georgia
Activated to replace 4137th Strategic Wing
B-52G, 1963–1968
781st Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 342d BS)
Tenant SAC unit on AFLC base; Inactivated in 1968
484th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Turner AFB, Georgia
Activated to replace 4138th Strategic Wing
B-52D, 1963–1967
824th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 336 BS)
Inactivated in 1967; Turner AFB closed and transferred to US Navy in 1968 as NAS Albany.
494th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Sheppard AFB, Texas
Activated to replace 4245th Strategic Wing
B-52D, 1963–1966
864th Bombardment Squadron (a/c from 717 BS)
SAC tenant unit on ATC base; Inactivated in 1966
509th Bombardment Wing (Heavy), Pease AFB, New Hampshire
B-52D, 1966–1969
393rd Bombardment Squadron
Re-equipped with FB-111s in 1970; Inactivated 1995, Pease AFB transferred to Air National Guard as Pease ANGB per BRAC
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Beginning in 1962, in order to retain the lineage of the Strategic Wings as combat units and to perpetuate the lineage of many currently inactive bombardment units with illustrious World War II records, Headquarters SAC received authority from Headquarters USAF to discontinue its MAJCOM strategic wings that were equipped with combat aircraft and to activate AFCON units, most of which were inactive at the time which could carry a lineage and history. Component units were also redesignated to historically linked units of the newly established wing. Therefore, the history, lineage and honors of the World War II historical units were bestowed upon the newly established wing upon activation.
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4126th Strategic Wing Beale AFB, California
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31st Bombardment Squadron Inactivated on 1 February 1963, assets to 744th BS/456th SAW
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718th Bombardment Squadron Inactivated on 1 February 1963, assets to 764th BS/461st BW
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301st Bombardment Squadron Inactivated on 1 February 1963, assets to 62nd BS/39th BW
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4138th Strategic Wing Turner AFB, Georgia
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336th Bombardment Squadron Inactivated on 1 February 1963, assets to 824th BS/484th BW
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327th Bombardment Squadron Inactivated on 1 February 1963, assets to 768th BS/462nd BW
4200th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing, Beale AFB, California
B-52H, 1 Apr 1965 – 25 June 1966
(Special Unit with 2 Modified B-52H for Air Sampling & D-21 operations
4201st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron
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492d Bombardment Squadron Inactivated on 1 February 1963, assets to 736th BS/454th BW
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93rd Bombardment Squadron Inactivated on 1 February 1963, assets to 716th BS/449th BW
4241st Strategic Wing Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina
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B-52D, 1960–1963
717th Bombardment Squadron Inactivated on 1 February 1963, assets to 864th BS/494th BW
Provisional B-52 units
Vietnam War
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4525th Strategic Wing Kadena AB, Okinawa
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4258th Strategic Wing, U-Tapao RTNAF, Thailand
SAC MAJCOM unit, April 1967 – April 1970 (Replaced by 307th Strategic Wing)
Andersen AFB & Kadena AB started primarily with B-52F's and later B-52D's aircraft; aircrew and support personnel deployed from CONUS B-52 wings on a rotational basis / U-TAPAO AB started operation after the B-52D became the primary mission aircraft; SW(P)72 at Andersen AFB was only equipped with B-52G's
Operation Desert Storm
801st Provisional Bombardment Wing, Moron AFB, Spain
Activated in January 1991. Inactivated March 1991.
Composed of B-52G aircraft and personnel
806th Provisional Bombardment Wing, RAF Fairford, England
Activated in January 1991. Inactivated March 1991.
Composed of B-52G aircraft and personnel from the 62d, 340th, 524th, and 668th Bombardment Squadrons
1701st Provisional Air Refueling Wing, Prince Abdulla AB, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Activated in August 1990. Inactivated March 1991.
Air refueling wing of KC-10s, KC-135s. Had 6 B-52Gs from 60th Bombardment Squadron (January–March 1991)
1703rd Provisional Air Refueling Wing, King Khalid Military City, Saudi Arabia
Activated in August 1990. Inactivated March 1991.
Air refueling wing of KC-135s. Had 7 B-52Gs from 69th Bombardment Squadron (October 1990 – March 1991)
1708th Provisional Bombardment Wing, Prince Abdulla AB, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Activated in August 1990. Inactivated March 1991.
Composed of B-52G aircraft and personnel from the 69th and 524th Bombardment Squadrons (August 1990 – March 1991)
Additional B-52G aircraft and personnel from the 69th, 524th, 596th, 328th and 668th Bombardment Squadrons (December 1990 – March 1991)
4300th Provisional Bombardment Wing, Diego Garcia AB, British Indian Ocean Territories
Activated in January 1991. Inactivated March 1991
Composed of B-52G aircraft and personnel from the 69th and 328th Bombardment Squadrons. Also Air Force personnel from other B-52 units across the SAC bases in the United States.
Global War on Terrorism
20th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron
23d Expeditionary Bomb Squadron
40th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron
96th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron
References
Strategic Air Command.com article source.
Donald, David, Ed. US Air Force Air Power Directory, AIRtime Publishing Inc., Westport, CT, 1992
United States military aircraft
Military units and formations of the United States Air Force by equipment
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress |
4495698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyasatirtha | Vyasatirtha | Vyāsatīrtha (. 1460 – 1539), also called Vyasaraja or Chandrikacharya, was a Hindu philosopher, scholar, polemicist, commentator and poet belonging to the Madhwacharya's Dvaita order of Vedanta. As the patron saint of the Vijayanagara Empire, Vyasatirtha was at the forefront of a golden age in Dvaita which saw new developments in dialectical thought, growth of the Haridasa literature under bards like Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa and an amplified spread of Dvaita across the subcontinent. Three of his polemically themed doxographical works Nyayamruta, Tatparya Chandrika and Tarka Tandava (collectively called Vyasa Traya) documented and critiqued an encyclopaedic range of sub-philosophies in Advaita, Visistadvaita, Mahayana Buddhism, Mimamsa and Nyaya, revealing internal contradictions and fallacies. His Nyayamruta caused a significant stir in the Advaita community across the country requiring a rebuttal by Madhusudhana Saraswati through his text, Advaitasiddhi. He is considered as an amsha of Prahlada in the Madhva Parampara.
Born into a Brahmin family as Yatiraja, Bramhanya Tirtha, the pontiff of the matha at Abbur, assumed guardianship over him and oversaw his education. He studied the six orthodox schools of Hinduism at Kanchi and subsequently, the philosophy of Dvaita under Sripadaraja at Mulbagal, eventually succeeding him as the pontiff. He served as a spiritual adviser to Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya at Chandragiri though his most notable association was with the Tuluva king Krishna Deva Raya. With the royal patronage of the latter, Vyasatirtha undertook a massive expansion of Dvaita into the scholarly circles, through his polemical tracts as well as into the lives of the laymen through Carnatic classical devotional songs and Krithis. In this regard, he penned several kirtanas under the pen name of Krishna. His famous compositions are Krishna Nee Begane, Dasarendare Purandara, Krishna Krishna Endu, Olaga Sulabhavo and many more. Politically, Vyasatirtha was responsible for the development of irrigation systems in villages such as Bettakonda and establishment of several Vayu temples in the newly conquered regions between Bengaluru and Mysore in-order to quell any rebellion and facilitate their integration into the Empire.
For his contribution to the Dvaita school of thought, he, along with Madhva and Jayatirtha, are considered to be the three great saints of Dvaita (munitraya). Scholar Surendranath Dasgupta notes, "The logical skill and depth of acute dialectical thinking shown by Vyasa-tirtha stands almost unrivalled in the whole field of Indian thought".
Historical Sources
Information about Vyasatirtha is derived from his biography by the poet Somanatha Kavi called Vyasayogicharita and inscriptional evidence. Songs of Purandara Dasa and traditional stories yield important insights too. Though Vyasayogicharita is a hagiography, unlike other works in the genre, it is free of embellishments such as performance of miracles and some of its claims can be corroborated with inscriptional evidence. Somanatha mentions at the end of the text that the biography was approved by Vyasatirtha himself, implying the contemporary nature of the work. While some scholars attest the veracity of the text to the claim that Somanatha was a Smartha hence free of sectarian bias, others question the claim citing a lack of evidence.
Context
The philosophy of Dvaita or Tattvavada was an obscure movement within Vedanta in medieval India. Philosophically, its tenets stood in direct opposition to Advaita in that its progenitor, Madhva, postulated that the self (Atman) and god (Brahman) are distinct and that the world is real. As Advaita was the prevailing sub-sect of Vedanta at the time, the works of Madhva and his followers came under significant attack and ridicule. Madhva deployed his disciples to promulgate the philosophy across the country, which led to the establishment of a small and diffuse network of mathas, or centres of worship, across the subcontinent. The early years of Dvaita were spent spreading its basic tenets including participating in debates with the Advaita scholars.
Philosophical improvements were pioneered by Padmanabha Tirtha and subsequently perfected by Jayatirtha. Dasgupta contends that the latter's contributions brought Dvaita up to the standards of intellectual sophistication set by Advaita and Visistadvaita. By imbuing the nascent philosophy with structure and expanding upon Madhva's terse texts, he reinforced the intellectual position of Madhva and set the standard for Dvaita literature through his seminal work, Nyaya Sudha ('Nectar of Logic'). Subsequent authors such as Vishnudasacharya further expanded upon these texts and authored commentaries branching into diverse fields such as Mimamsa and Navya Nyaya, a tradition which would continue for centuries. Despite the intellectual growth, due to the turbulent political atmosphere of India at the time, penetration of Dvaita into the cultural collective of the subcontinent was limited. It was not until Sripadaraja, the pontiff of the matha at Abbur, who aligned himself with the Vijaynagara king Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya and served as his guru, that Dvaita would receive royal encouragement and a certain degree of power. But the Smartha Brahmins, adhering to the principles of Advaita, and Sri Vaishnavites, following the Visistadvaita philosophy of Ramanuja, controlled the Shiva and Vishnu temples respectively, thus limiting the influence of Dvaita.
Early life
Vyasatirtha was born Yatiraja into a Deshastha Madhva Brahmin family to Ballanna and Akkamma in a hamlet called Bannur. According to Vyasayogicharita, the childless couple approached saint Bramhanya Tirtha, who granted them a boon of three children with the condition that the second child, who would turn out to be Yatiraja, be handed over to him. After Yatiraja's upanayana, Bramhanya Tirtha assumed guardianship over the child. Bramhanya was genuinely surprised by the precocious intellect of the child and intended to ordain him as a monk. Yatiraja, anticipating the ordination, decided to run away from the hermitage. While resting under a tree, he had a vision of Vishnu, who urged Yatiraja to return, which he did. He was subsequently ordained as Vyasatirtha. Indologist B.N.K Sharma contends that Vyasatirtha would have been 16 years of age at this time.
After the death of Bramhanya Tirtha during the famine of 1475–1476, Vyasatirtha succeeded him as the pontiff of the matha at Abbur in 1478 and proceeded to Kanchi, which was the centre for Sastric learning in South India at the time, to educate himself on the six orthodox schools of thought, which are: Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vaisheshika and Yoga. Sharma conjectures that the education Vyasatirtha received in Kanchi helped him become erudite in the intricacies and subtleties of Advaita, Visistadvaita, Navya Nyaya and other schools of thought. After completing his education at Kanchi, Vyasatirtha headed to Mulbagal to study the philosophy of Dvaita under Sripadaraja, whom he would consider his guru, for a period of five to six years. He was subsequently sent to the Vijayanagara court of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya at the behest of Sripadaraja.
At Chandragiri
Vyasatirtha was received by Saluva Narasimha at Chandragiri. Somanatha speaks of several debates and discussions in which Vyasatirtha emerged triumphant over the leading scholars of the day. He also talks about Vyasatirtha giving spiritual guidance to the king. Around the same time, Vyasatirtha was entrusted with the worship of the Venkateshwara deity at Tirupati and undertook his first South Indian tour (a tour entailing travelling to different regions in order to spread the doctrines of Dvaita). After the death of Saluva Narasimha, Vyasatirtha remained at Chandragiri in the court of Narasimha Raya II until Tuluva Narasa Nayaka declared himself to be the de facto ruler of Vijayanagara. At the behest of Narasa, Vyasatirtha moved to Hampi and would remain there for the rest of his life. After the death of Narasa, his son Viranarasimha Raya was subsequently crowned. Some scholars argue against the claim that Vyasatirtha acted as a spiritual adviser to Saluva Narasimha, Narasimha II and Vira Narasimha due to the lack of inscriptional evidence.
At Hampi
At Hampi, the new capital of the empire, Vyasatirtha was appointed as the "Guardian Saint of the State" after a period of prolonged disputations and debates with scholars led by Basava Bhatta, an emissary from the Kingdom of Kalinga. His association with the royalty continued after Viranarasimha Raya overthrew Narasimha Raya II to become the emperor. Fernão Nunes observes that "The King of Bisnega, everyday, hears the teachings of a learned Brahmin who never married nor ever touched a woman" which Sharma conjectures is Vyasatirtha. Sharma also contends that it was around this time that Vyasatirtha had begun his work on Tatparya Chandrika, Nyayamruta and Tarka Tandva.
After the accession of Krishnadeva Raya, Vyasatirtha, who the king regarded as his kuladevata, greatly expanded his influence by serving as an emissary and diplomat to the neighbouring kingdoms while simultaneously disseminating the philosophy of Dvaita into the subcontinent. His close relationship to Krishnadeva Raya is corroborated by inscriptions on the Vitthala Temple at Hampi and accounts by the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes.
Vyasatirtha was also sent on diplomatic missions to the Bijapur Sultante and accepted grants of villages in newly conquered territories for the establishment of Mathas. Stoker conjectures that this was advantageous to both the king and Vyasatirtha as the establishments of mathas in these newly conquered regions led to political stability and also furthered the reach of Dvaita.
Somanatha writes of an incident where Krishnadeva Raya was sent a work of criticism against Dvaita by an Advaita scholar in Kalinga as a challenge. After Vyasatirtha retaliated accordingly, Krishnadeva Raya awarded Vyasatirtha with a ratnabhisheka (a shower of jewels) which Vyasatirtha subsequently distributed among the poor. The inscriptions speak of grants of villages to Vyasatirtha from Krishnadeva Raya around this period, including Bettakonda, where he developed large irrigation systems including a lake called Vyasasamudra. This period of Vyasatirtha also saw the establishment of Dasakuta (translated as community of devotees), a forum where people gathered and sung hymns and devotional songs. The forum attracted a number of wandering bards (called Haridasas or devotees of Vishnu) such as Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa.
Time Period of Kuhu Yoga
Kuhu yoga parihara – Once Krishnadevaraya had Kuhu yoga. Sri Vyasarajaru, noticing that the kingdom is in trouble, asked the king to donate to Vyasarajaru, who ruled the state before the kuhuyoga period and during the period. When the Kuhuyoga came in the form of Krishna sarpa, he kept his kaavi on the simhasana which was burnt into ashes. Then after the Kuhuyoga period was over, the very next day itself, he asked the king to take back his kingdom. King Krishnadevaraya was reluctant to take back the kingdom, as he himself had donated the same to Sri Vyasarajaru, which would amount to Dattapahara dosha. But Sri Vyasarajaru insisted and ordered him to take back, so he took it.
Later Years
There was a period of "temporary estrangement" from the royalty due to internal political friction, during which Vyasatirtha retreated to Bettakonda. After the death of Krishnadeva Raya, Vyasatirtha continued to advise Achyuta Deva Raya. Inscriptions speak of his donation of a Narasimha idol to the Vittala Temple at Hampi indicating he was still an active figure. His disciples Vijayendra Tirtha and Vadiraja Tirtha furthered his legacy by penning polemical works and spreading the philosophy of Dvaita into the Chola and the Malnad region, eventually assuming pontifical seats at Kumbakonam and Sodhe, respectively. He died in 1539 and his mortal remains are enshrined in Nava Brindavana, near Hampi. His remembrance day every year (called Aradhana) is celebrated in the month of Phalguna. He was succeeded by his disciple, Srinivasa Tirtha.
Works
Vyasatirtha authored eight works consisting of polemical tracts, commentaries on the works of Madhva and a few hymns. Visnudasacharya's Vadaratnavali, a polemical treatise against the tenets of Advaita, is considered to have significant influenced him. By tracing a detailed, sophisticated and historically sensitive evolution of systems of thought such as Advaita, Vyakarana, Nyaya and Mimamsa and revealing internal inconsistencies, McCrea contends that Vyasatirtha created a new form of doxography. Ramanuja's Visistadvaita as well as Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka is dealt with in Nyayamruta. This style of polemics influenced Appayya Dikshita, who authored his own doxographical work titled Śātrasiddhāntaleśasaṃgraha.
Nyayamruta
Nyayamruta is a polemical and expositional work in four chapters. Advaita assumes that the world and its multiplicity is the result of the interaction between Maya (sometimes also characterized as avidya or ignorance) and the Brahman. Therefore, according to Advaita, the world is nothing more than an illusory construct. The definition of this falsity of the world (called mithyatva) varies within Advaita with some opining that the world has various degrees of reality for example Appayya Dikshita assumes three degrees, while Madhusudhana Saraswati assumes two. The first chapter of Nyayamruta refutes these definitions of reality.
In the second chapter, Vyasatirtha examines role of pramanas in Dvaita and Advaita. Pramana translates to "proof" or "means of knowing". Dvaita assumes the validity of three pramanas: pratyeksha (direct experience), anumana (inference) and sabda (agama). Here, Vyasatirtha argues that the principles of Dvaita can be supported by the relevant pramanas and demonstrates this by verifying Madhva's doctrine of five fold difference accordingly. Subsequently, the Advaita concept of Nirguna Brahman is argued against. While the third deals with the critique of the Advaita view on the attainment of true knowledge (jnana), the fourth argues against soteriological issues in Advaita like Moksha, specifically dealing with the concept of Jivanmukti (enlightenment while alive). Vyasatirtha asks whether, for an Advaitin, the body ceases to exist after the veil of illusion has been lifted and the unity with the Brahman has been attained.
Nyayamruta caused a furore in the Advaita community resulting in a series of scholarly debates over centuries. Madhusudhana Saraswati, a scholar from Varanasi, composed a line-by-line refutation of Nyayamruta titled Advaitasiddhi. In response, Ramacharya rebutted with Nyayamruta Tarangini and Anandabhattaraka with Nyayamruta Kantakoddhara. The former is criticised by Brahmananda Saraswati in his commentary on Advaitasiddhi, Guruchandrika. Vanamali Mishra composed a refutation of the Bramhananda Saraswati's work and the controversy eventually died down. Stoker conjectures that the strong responses Vyasatirtha received were due to the waning power of Advaita in the Vijayanagara empire coupled by the fact that as an administrator of the mathas, Vyasatirtha enjoyed royal patronage.
Vyasatirtha's disciple Vijayendra Tirtha has authored a commentary on the Nyayamruta called Laghu Amoda.
Tatparya Chandrika
Tatparya Chandrika or Chandrika is a commentary on Tattva Prakasika by Jayatirtha, which in turn is a commentary on Madhva's Brahma Sutra Bhashya (which is a bhashya or a commentary on Badarayana's Brahma Sutra). It not only documents and analyses the commentaries of Shankara, Madhva and Ramanuja on the Brahma Sutra but also their respective sub-commentaries. The goal of Vyasatirtha here is to prove the supremacy of Madhva's Brahma Sutra Bhashya by showing it to be in harmony with the original source, more so than the other commentaries. The doxographical style of Vyasatirtha is evident in his copious quotations from the main commentaries (of Advaita and Visistadvaita) and their respective sub-commentaries under every adhikarna or chapter. Only the first two chapters of the Brahma Sutra are covered. The rest was completed by Raghunatha Tirtha in the 18th century.
Tarka Tandava
Tarka Tandava or "The Dance of Logic" is a polemical tract targeted towards the Nyaya school. Though Vyasatirtha and his predecessors borrowed the technical language, logical tools and terminologies from the Nyaya school of thought and there is much in common between the two schools, there were significant differences especially with regards to epistemology. Jayatirtha's Nyaya Sudha and Pramana Paddhati were the first reactions against the Nyaya school.
The advent of Navya Nyaya widened the differences between the two schools especially related to the acquisition of knowledge or pramanas, triggering a systematic response from Vyasatirtha through Tarka Tandava. Vyasatirtha refers to and critiques standard as well as contemporary works of Nyaya: Gangesha Upadhyaya's Tattvachintamani, Nyayalilavati by Sri Vallabha and Udayana's Kusumanjali and their commentaries. The work is divided into three chapters corresponding to the three pramanas, and a number of topics are raised, including a controversial claim arguing for the supremacy of the conclusion (upasamhara) as opposed to the opening statement (upakrama) of the Brahma Sutra. Purva Mimamsa and Advaita adhere to the theory that the opening statement trumps the conclusion and base their assumptions accordingly. Vyasatirtha's claim put him at odds with the Vedanta community with Appayya Dikshita being his most vocal opponent. Vyasatirtha's claim was defended by Vijayendra Tirtha in Upasamhara Vijaya.
Mandara Manjari
Mandara Manjari is the collective name given to Vyasatirtha's glosses on three (Mayavada Khandana, Upadhi Khandana, Prapancha Mithyavada Khandana) out of Madhva's ten refutation treatises called Dasha Prakarna and one on Tattvaviveka of Jayatirtha. Vyasatirtha here expands only on the obscure passages in the source text.
Bhedojjivana
Bhedojjivana is the last work of Vyasatirtha as it quotes from his previous works. The main focus of this treatise is to emphasise the doctrine of difference (Bheda) in Dvaita as is evident from the title, which can be translated to "Resuscitation of Bheda". Sarma notes "Within a short compass, he has covered the ground of the entire Monistic literature pushed into contemporary prominence and argued an unexpurgated case for the Realism of Madhva".
Legacy
Vyasatirtha is considered to be one of the foremost philosophers of Dvaita thought, along with Jayatirtha and Madhva, for his philosophical and dialectical thought, his role in spreading the school of Dvaita across the subcontinent and his support to the Haridasa movement. Sharma writes "we find in his works a profoundly wide knowledge of ancient and contemporary systems of thought and an astonishingly brilliant intellect coupled with rare clarity and incisiveness of thought and expression". His role as an adviser and guide to the Vijayanagara emperors, especially Krishna Devaraya, has been notable as well.
Spread of Dvaita
Sharma credits Vyasatirtha of converting Dvaita from an obscure movement to a fully realised school of thought of philosophical and dialectical merit. Through his involvement in various diplomatic missions in the North Karnataka region and his pilgrimages across South India, he disseminated the precepts of Dvaita across the sub-continent. By giving patronage to the wandering bards or Haridasas, he oversaw the percolation of the philosophy into the vernacular and as a result into the lives of the lay people. He also contributed to the spread of Dvaita by establishing 732 Vayu idols across Karnataka. Vyasatirtha is also considered a major influence on the then burgeoning Chaitanya movement in modern-day Bengal. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu(1486-1534) is said to be a disciple of Isvara Puri who was a disciple of Madhavendra Puri who was a disciple of Lakshmipati Tirtha who was a disciple of Vyasatirtha(1469-1539). Stoker postulates that his polemics against the rival schools of thought also had the effect of securing royal patronage towards Dvaita.
Scholarly Influence
Vyasatirtha was significantly influenced by his predecessors such as Vishnudasacharya, Jayatirtha and Madhva in that he borrowed from their style and method of enquiry. He exerted considerable influence on his successors. Vadiraja's Yuktimalika derives some of its arguments from Nyayamruta, while subsequent philosophers like Vijayendra Tirtha and Raghavendra Tirtha have authored several commentaries on the works of Vyasatirtha. Vijayadhwaja Tirtha's Padaratnavali, an exhaustive commentary on the Madhva's Bhagvata Tatparya Nirnaya, borrows some its aspects from Vyasatirtha's oeuvre. His influence outside the Dvaita community is found in the works of Appayya, who adopted his doxographical style in some of his works and in the works of Jiva Goswami.
In his dialectics, Vyasatirtha incorporated elements from such diverse schools as Purva Mimamsa, Vyakarana and Navya Nyaya. His criticism of Advaita and Nyaya led to a severe scholarly controversy, generating a series of exchanges between these schools of thought, and led to reformulations of the philosophical definitions of the respective schools. Bagchi notes "It must be recognised that Vyasatirtha's definition of reasoning and his exposition of its nature and service really register a high watermark in the logical speculations of India and they ought to be accepted as a distinct improvement upon the theories of Nyaya-Vaisesika school".
Contributions to the Haridasa Movement
The contribution of Vyasatirtha to the Haridasa cult is two fold: he established a forum of interactions for these bards called Dasakuta and he himself penned several hymns in the vernacular language (Kannada) under the pen name Krishna, most notable of those being the classical Carnatic song Krishna Ni Begane Baaro. Vyasatirtha was also the initiator of social change within the Dvaita order by inducting wandering bards into the mainstream Dvaita movement regardless of caste or creed. This is evident in his initiation of Kanaka Dasa , who was not a Brahmin and Purandara Dasa who was a merchant.
Political influence
The political influence of Vyasatirtha came into view after the discovery of Vasyayogicharita. The court of Vijayanagara was selective in its patronage thereby creating competition between the sectarian groups. Stoker contends that Vyasatirtha, cognizant of the power of Smartha and the Sri Vaishnava Brahmins in the court, targeted them through his polemical works. Though his works targeted the philosophy of Ramanuja, Vyasatirtha maintained a cordial relationship towards the Sri Vaishnavites, often donating land and money to their temples.
In his role as a diplomat, he interacted with a variety of people including tribal leaders, foreign dignitaries and emissaries from the North India. By establishing mathas and shrines across the subcontinent, patronizing large scale irrigation projects at strategic locations and forging productive relationship across various social groups, he not only furthered the reach of Vaishnavism but smoothed the integration of newly conquered or rebellious territories into the empire. In doing so, he exported the Madhva iconography, doctrines and rituals into the Telugu and Tamil speaking regions of the empire. The establishment of Madhva Mathas, apart from serving as a place of worship and community, led to fostering of economic connections as they also served centers of trade and redistribution of wealth.
According to a legend, he isconsidered to have taken over the throne of Vijayanagara for two years on behalf of the king.
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Biography of Vyasatirtha
Bhedojjivana (Sanskrit text)
Tarka Tandava (Sanskrit text)
Nyayamrta and Advaitasiddhi
Tatparya Chandrika (Sanskrit text)
16th-century Indian philosophers
Madhva religious leaders
Dvaita Vedanta
Haridasa
Carnatic musicians
History of Karnataka
Scholars from Mysore
Dvaitin philosophers
15th-century Indian philosophers
Musicians from Karnataka
16th-century Indian musicians
15th-century Indian musicians
Writers from Mysore
Vijayanagara poets
Scholars from the Vijayanagara Empire |
4495715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Boyd | Martin Boyd | Martin à Beckett Boyd (10 June 1893 – 3 June 1972) was an Australian writer born into the à Beckett–Boyd family, a family synonymous with the establishment, the judiciary, publishing and literature, and the visual arts since the early 19th century in Australia.
Boyd was a novelist, memoirist and poet who spent most of his life after World War I in Europe, primarily Britain. His work drew heavily on his own life and family, with his novels frequently exploring the experiences of the Anglo-Australian upper and middle classes. His writing was also deeply influenced by his experience of serving in World War One.
Boyd's siblings included the potter Merric Boyd (1888–1959), painters Penleigh Boyd (1890–1923) and Helen à Beckett Read, née Boyd (1903–1999). He was intensely involved in family life and took a keen interest in the development of his nephews and nieces and their families, including potter Lucy Beck (1916-2009), painter Arthur Boyd (1920–1999), sculptor Guy Boyd (1923–1988), painter David Boyd (1924–2011), painter Mary Nolan (1926–2016) – who was married to painters John Perceval and Sidney Nolan – and architect Robin Boyd (1919–1971). His nephew Guy Boyd was his literary executor.
Life
Boyd's friends saw him as "[c]harming, generous, frivolous and funny". He was sensitive and private; a complex man who struggled with his identity as an Anglo-Australian, as an expatriate writer and with religious beliefs. He did not believe in the class superiority which many of his critics levelled at him; was a loyal family man and friend, yet never found a lasting romantic relationship of his own. As a writer he wrote from experience and about what he knew intimately but was never sure about himself. Throughout his life he felt like an outsider whether in Australia or Europe.
Childhood and education
Martin à Beckett Boyd was born in Lucerne, Switzerland, on 10 June 1893. He was the youngest son of Arthur Merric Boyd (1862-1940) and Emma Minnie à Beckett (1858-1936) who were both established painters. At the time of his birth, the family was travelling through Europe, supported financially by his maternal grandmother, Emma à Beckett, wife to William Arthur Callendar à Beckett. It was Emma's fortune, inherited from her father, John Mills, an ex-convict who founded the Melbourne Brewery, that allowed their family to live comfortably. He regarded this "somewhat casual birthplace as one of the factors accounting for his lifelong inability ever to feel completely at home anywhere."
Boyd lived in the Melbourne suburb of Sandringham until he was 13 when the family moved permanently to the family farm in , Victoria. He had a love of books and writing from an early age, but he was also colour blind. He became the only writer in his ancient family amongst painters and artists. Brenda Niall, Boyd's biographer, comments, "His family seems to have been one of those so distinctive in character and achievement that it confers its own citizenship. Being a Boyd was more important than being an Australian: it gave him a sense of identity strong enough to bypass nationalism for civilization."
Boyd's siblings included the potter William Merric Boyd (1888–1959), and the painters Theodore Penleigh Boyd (1890–1923) and Helen à Beckett Read (1903–1999). He fondly remembered his childhood years at Yarra Glen. "[T]he Yarra, only yards away, still provides summer swimming as it did for the Boyds. The river yields cold eels that writhe and bite like snakes but make nice eating later. On the farm the Boyds had ponies, hunting, and fishing, and gorged themselves in the evenings on unlimited fruit and cream." He enjoyed his school years at Trinity Grammar School, Kew. Niall notes that "Boyd did respectably in academic work; he edited the school magazine, the Mitre; he developed a love of English poetry; and, through [his headmaster's] example, he began to consider a future as a clergyman."
After finishing school in 1912, Boyd was undecided on a career path and so commenced study for a religious vocation at St John's College, St Kilda. He did not see out the year but this was the beginning of a lifelong, but never resolved, investigation of the place of religious devotion in his life. At the suggestion of his mother, he began training as an architect at Purchas and Teague in Melbourne.
War experiences
Initially feeling no pressure to enlist, Boyd eventually signed up after hearing that some of his contemporaries at Trinity Grammar had died during the landing at Gallipoli. On the advice of his family, who thought he might not survive the rigours expected of an ordinary Australian soldier, he travelled to England and in 1916 took up a position as a commissioned officer in the Royal East Kent Regiment, known as the "Buffs". After fighting in the trenches in France for several months during 1916 and 1917, Boyd requested a transfer and was accepted into the Royal Flying Corps in 1917 where he stayed until the end of the World War I. His war experiences coloured the rest of his life, including his writing.
In the 1940s Boyd questioned following Britain into World War Two believing that Australia should look to America and Mediterranean countries for replacement ties. Even though he had served in the military, he felt a strong sense of injustice at the bombing of German cities and the killing of innocent women and children, and questioned the complicity of the Church of England in the atrocities during that time.
Michael Bardwell notes that Boyd was "a great campaigner [...] often writing letters to the press about matters he thought were of public importance." A wartime example of this activism was an incident in December 1943, which Boyd relates in his autobiography Day of my Delight, quoted by Bardwell: "A group of eminent people had drawn up a petition to end by mutual agreement the night bombing of cities, which had now become senseless massacres. I put one of the printed forms of this petition on the village notice board, and one on my gate, saying it could be signed at my house. The notices were torn off at night. . .I then put up another inscribed: "The object of this petition is to stop the murder of women and children. Will those who think this aim undesirable, please come in and explain why, instead of tearing this notice off under cover of darkness?" No one came, and a farmer's wife in the village said: "It is a pity Mr. Boyd put up those notices. It quite spoiled the Christmas spirit."
While Boyd did not see himself as a pacifist (he described his belief as 'qualified pacifism', he supported those who did. Throughout the years his consistent opposition to war included the publication of a seven-part protest pamphlet during the war in Vietnam entitled Why They Walk Out (1970). Extracts of the essay were published in Australia.
Life after World War One
Boyd returned to Australia after World War One but found he no longer fitted in. Because of his decision to join the British Army, he felt that a wedge had developed between him and his friends as their wartime experiences were different. Listless and directionless he left Melbourne in 1921 to live in London, did some newspaper work and travelled. Wearying of that world too and with the death of his brother Penleigh in 1923, Boyd again turned to religion joining an Anglican Franciscan community in Dorset. This too was a phase, however, so he left and continued on as before. For almost twenty years he lived a nomadic life, never staying long in any place and owning few possessions. He survived financially on one hundred pounds a year from his parents, a short stint as acting editor of The British Australasian, and sporadic payments from his writing. Joan Lindsay, author of Picnic at Hanging Rock, remembers her cousin Martin as a gentleman. He was a modest, free-spirited bachelor, adept at finding comfortable lodging. She remembers, "…he had always had a nose for odd and unusual pieces of furniture and queer old paintings picked up for a few pounds. During the war he had embellished his dugout in France with a large statue of his favourite Dancing Faun, dragging it from one filthy hole to another until forced to abandon it forever in the oozing mud".
In 1925 Boyd's first novel, Love Gods, was published. He had found his vocation and between 1925 and 1949 he published ten novels, a volume of autobiography and a children's story.
While living in England he is recorded as having an affair with a woman. Boyd's sexuality was, and continues to be, the subject of conjecture. Illicit love, and same-sex desire, are prevailing themes in his work. A 1930s novel, The Shepherd of Admetus was rejected by publishers due to its overt homosexual narrative.
After his father's death in July 1940, his mother's inheritance was released, which gave Boyd the financial freedom to live life however he chose. The money originally came from Martin's grandmother Emma à Beckett (née Mills) and had been secured with the direct intervention of his male relatives.
Boyd delayed a return to Australia in the hope he could return a success. His motivation was not to be a disappointment to his family and he was plagued by doubts about his own achievements. After the success of Lucinda Brayford, he returned to Australia in 1948, intending to remain living in his grandfather à Beckett's home, 'The Grange', near Berwick. After three years he left again for England in 1951, disappointed by his dream of 'The Grange' and the past, ignored by the Australian literary establishment, and out of touch with his younger relatives.
Boyd moved to Rome in 1957 where he wrote the Langton tetralogy, frequently considered his finest work, the second autobiography, Day of My Delight, the travel story Much else in Italy and a light novel The Tea-Time of Love. Despite his literary successes, Boyd's medical expenses in the year before his death were paid by his nephews Arthur, Guy, and David Boyd. His loyalty to his family and friends was being generously repaid. Brenda Niall recounts, "A few days before Christmas 1971, Boyd was astonished to get an official letter from Canberra. The Commonwealth Literary Fund had awarded him $1000 and a life pension of $30 a week "out of regard for the part you have played in the development of the literature of Australia". This had come about because a number of his Australian friends had heard of his illness and financial difficulties; and stirred others to do something about it. Thelma Herring, Barrie Reid, Patrick White and Gough Whitlam (then Leader of the Federal Opposition and a member of the Commonwealth Literary Fund committee) were among those responsible."
Death
Martin Boyd suffered from ill health for the last decade of his life. He died of cancer on 3 June 1972 just days after being received into the Catholic Church. He is buried near the poets John Keats and Percy Bysshe Shelley in Rome's Protestant 'English cemetery'.
Social image and views
The Boyd family had considerable influence which extended not only throughout the state of Victoria, where Boyd grew up, but extended to the rest of Australia and parts of Europe. They are known for their various contributions to the creative and literary arts but also had many links to the military and, through the a'Becketts, to legal affairs. Martin Boyd was one such individual who greatly contributed to Australian Literature. Being from an upper-middle-class family predominantly associated with the creative arts was a fundamental influence in the development of his identity and the sense of beauty that would later influence his literary style.
With the development and refinement of this artistic flair, Boyd's novels soon gained the appreciation of many despite an inherent disinterest in Australian literature. His social comedies provided colourful characters in understandable if not relatable settings.
Behaviour
One of the defining characteristics of Boyd was his reputation as a social enigma. This can mainly be traced to the contrast between the professional aspects of his life and the socially deviant behaviour of, and rumours surrounding, his personal life.
One such behavioural trait was his inability to remain in one place for an extended amount of time, which he himself referred to as wanderlust. Throughout his life he took up residence in a variety of places throughout Australia and Europe. Because of this trait, Boyd was often considered a travelled individual, even publishing his own travel book, and extended his social influence to many of the new locations where he took up residence. However his well known wanderlust also contributed to a reputation for restlessness among his social peers and raised the issue of his inability to settle down and take a wife.
The fact he never married, coupled with rumours and reports of behaviour deviant from that expected of a gentleman and popular author in his position, began to raise questions and doubts about his sexual tendencies. The suspicions centred around his close relationships with those of the same sex; in particular, he was suspected of having an illicit relationship with a young Italian boy, Luciano Trombini.
Despite Boyd's denial and the lack of any substantial evidence, these claims fundamentally changed views of Boyd and his literature. A few of Boyd's works had already been subjected to censorship and one novel had been refused publication for its homosexual content.
However it was not until well after his death that such issues were viewed without the sense of prejudice and taboo that were common during his time. It was then that multiple papers analysing the erotic and homosexual undertones of his works were published.
Social views
Boyd was quite outspoken in his beliefs and morals. The publication of his two autobiographies, and to a lesser extent the biographies detailing his life and his novels contain his opinions and beliefs on society and the contemporary issues of the time.
One of the foremost beliefs that influenced Boyd and his works is that of religion. Despite his move towards literature, Boyd retained strong religious beliefs and morals which played a big part in many of his works. This was one of the fundamental reasons for Boyd's success, despite a disinterest in Australian literature, as his strong religious beliefs and morals resonated with the views societies had at the time. He later expressed his disdain for the adoption of purely materialistic values and the self-importance that riddled the aristocracy at the time.
Another major issue surrounding Boyd's values was his disapproval of the supposed blind patriotism encouraged during his education and military service. In his autobiographies he notes how such practices took attention from required skills and left many students disillusioned, particularly many of the young Englishmen facing the possibility of life on the street with no employment opportunities.This may in part be related to the sense of estrangement between Boyd and Australia as he found himself torn between the old world and the new one.
Critical reception and recognition
In 1928 Boyd won the Australian Literature Society Gold Medal for his novel The Montforts. The novel, written under the pseudonym Martin Mills, is based on the history of Boyd's à Beckett ancestors. In 1957, he again won the ALS Gold Medal award for A Difficult Young Man, published in his own name.
Boyd wrote extensively, with early poems, autobiographical books, an essay pamphlet on modern youth, an extensive list of novels, five short stories, and articles on varying subjects, to his name. He is, however, most renowned for his novels, which were inspired, according to many critics, by his own life and family experiences. Often described as a witty author, Boyd is recognised as one of the most important Australian novelists of the 20th century although responses to his novels vary.
Early works
Verses
The following novels were written under the pseudonym of Martin Mills, though Boyd later gave his birth name to The Montforts. First publication details given below.
Love Gods (London, England: Constable, 1925.)
Bangrane: a memoir (London, England: Constable, 1926.)
The Madeleine Heritage (Indianapolis, USA: Bobbs-Merrill, 1928.) This is the American edition of The Montforts (London, England: Constable, 1928.)
Dearest Idol (Indianapolis, USA: Bobbs-Merrill, 1929.) Published under the pseudonym Walter Beckett.
Later works
While almost all of Boyd's novels were written in England, some regard his earlier novels as less refined when compared to his later works, those being:
Scandal of Spring (London, England: J. M. Dent, 1934)
The Lemon Farm (London, England: J. M. Dent, 1935)
The Painted Princess (London, England: Constable, 1936) For Children.
The Picnic (London, England: J. M. Dent, 1937)
Night of the Party (London, England: J. M. Dent, 1938)
Nuns in Jeopardy (London, England: J. M. Dent, 1940)
Lucinda Brayford (London, England: Cresset Press, 1946)
Such Pleasure (London, England: Cresset Press, 1949)
The Langton tetralogy which, though not published as a series during his lifetime, is now referred to as a collective:
The Cardboard Crown (London, England: Cresset Press, 1952)
A Difficult Young Man (London, England : Cresset Press, 1955)
Outbreak of Love (London, England: John Murray, 1957)
When Blackbirds Sing (London, England: Abelard-Schuman, 1962)
Why They Walk Out (Rome, M. Boyd, 1970)
Unpublished works
The Shepherd of Admetus
Bitter Sauces
Autobiography
A Single Flame (London, England: J. M. Dent, 1939)
Day of My Delight: An Anglo-Australian Memoir (Melbourne, Victoria: Lansdowne, 1965)
Subject matter
While writing most of his novels in England, Boyd's novels frequently focus on the contrasting and conflicting realities of upper-class English and Australian societies. He tended to concentrate on the niceties and absurdities of social exchanges, instead of a greater concern with universal problems of human life.
Boyd's works do, however, reflect the two major preoccupations of his own life: a spiritual and religious concern; and, the disillusionment with and displacement from the two countries he was affiliated with, England and Australia. This is referred to by Kathleen Fitzpatrick as "the Anglo-Australian malaise". The novels explore the importance of class and social standing in England and Australia that families such as the Boyds experienced. The novel Lucinda Brayford, is a good example of this preoccupation. Biographer and critic, Brian McFarlane, writes, "...Boyd is clearly preoccupied with the way qualities of character and patterns of behavior recur in families. Sometimes, indeed, his stress on hereditary influences seems so bluntly asserted as to rob the impulses and motivations of his characters of some of their interests".
Responses to Boyd's work vary from outright hostility, to others describing his novels as "alone in Australian Literature reflect[ing] the lives of an alienated British elite…". Fitzpatrick writes, "In spite of very great gifts, which included a prose style of great flexibility and grace, Martin Boyd, the man without a country and the writer without a subject has remained a gifted amateur rather than a professional novelist", while McFarlane describes Boyd's virtues as "minor but real".
Boyd's novels are now published in the Penguin Twentieth Century Classics series, and he is described as "rubbing shoulders" with authors such as Franz Kafka. In his own time, Boyd's novels received few reviews in the Australian newspapers, and little critical attention between 1928 and 1949. While Boyd's first three novels did not sell well and led to his following three novels being rejected by publishers, his novel, The Montforts achieved critical success. Despite this, Fitzpatrick wrote in 1963, "He has a public in England, and his novel Lucinda Brayford was a bestseller in America, but his work seems to be little known in Australia...". "Martin Boyd’s work is vaguely felt, I think, to be rather immoral because it is in conflict with the Australian ethos of the moment". In The Australian Book Review, McFarlane also claims that "There has always been something grudging about the Australian response to Boyd. Perhaps he would have been more critically and commercially popular if he had not confined himself to writing about the upper-middle classes".
See also
Charles Henry Chomley
Boyd family
References
External links
AustLit author entry
The Fryer Library, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia UQFL22 – The Chomley, à Beckett, Boyd Collection
The National Archives of Australia Open Access War Records of Martin à Beckett Boyd
The National Archives Martin à Beckett Boyd's Service Record (Fee required to download information)
Further reading
1893 births
1972 deaths
20th-century Australian novelists
Australian male novelists
Australian male short story writers
Victoria (state) architects
Martin
Burials in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome
ALS Gold Medal winners
20th-century Australian short story writers
People educated at Trinity Grammar School, Kew
20th-century Australian male writers
People educated at St John's Theological College, Melbourne |
4496038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%2078 | New York State Route 78 | New York State Route 78 (NY 78) is a state highway in western New York in the United States. While it is signed north–south, the southern portion runs in an east–west direction across Wyoming and Erie counties, from its beginning at a junction with NY 19 north of the village of Gainesville to the village of East Aurora. The part of the route north of East Aurora follows a generally north–south alignment to an intersection with NY 18 in the Niagara County town of Newfane (at the hamlet of Olcott), just south of the Lake Ontario shoreline. The route is most closely identified in the region with Transit Road, a major north–south trunk road through the center of Erie and Niagara counties; however, NY 78 does not follow Transit Road for its entire length, nor does Transit Road comprise more than half its length. The highway joins Transit Road north of East Aurora and stays with the road until nearly its end in the city of Lockport.
The section of NY 78 between NY 5 in the town of Amherst and the Lake Ontario shoreline in Newfane was originally designated New York State Route 32 in the mid-1920s. In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, NY 32 was absorbed into NY 78, which ran from Gainesville to Newfane upon assignment. From East Aurora to Depew, NY 78 originally used a slightly more easterly alignment along several local streets and a section of NY 422. Two realignments in the 1930s moved the route onto its modern alignment, and NY 78's original routing between East Aurora and Depew was briefly designated NY 78A during the mid-1930s.
Route description
Wyoming County
NY 78 begins at an intersection with NY 19 at the northern end of the Wyoming County village of Gainesville. NY 78 proceeds westward from NY 19 as Delhi Road, a two-lane residential road through the rural sections of Gainesville. At a junction with Dolph Road, NY 78 bends southwest, dropping the Delhi Road moniker, and soon entering the hamlet of Wethersfield, located in the town of the same name. In Wethersfield, NY 78 is a two-lane residential street, intersecting with the northern terminus of County Route 10 (CR 10; Hardys Road) and southern terminus of CR 4 (Hermitage Road).
After the hamlet of Wethersfield, NY 78 continues southwest, crossing through rural farms as a two-lane roadway, intersecting with the southern terminus of CR 57 (Poplar Tree Road). A short distance after CR 57, NY 78 intersects with the northern terminus of NY 362 while winding southwest through Wethersfield. At the intersection with Maxwell Drive, NY 78 becomes westbound, remaining rural for several miles. After the intersection with Irish Road, NY 78 makes a gradual bend to the southwest, then north. At the end of this bend, NY 78 intersects with the eastern terminus of CR 54 (Chaffee Road) and the northern terminus of CR 11 (East Arcade Road).
Now in the town of Java, NY 78 uses the right-of-way once used by CR 11 northbound, winding past several farms as it proceeds northward. A short distance to the north, NY 78 intersects with NY 98 southbound. Both NY 78 north and NY 98 south turn west on a wrong-way concurrency through the town of Java, running as a two-lane residential street through dense woods and wide fields. Continuing west through Java, NY 78 and NY 98 cross over a railroad line and enter the hamlet of Java Center. In Java Center, NY 78 and NY 98 intersect with the southern terminus of NY 77 (Cattaraugus Road). This intersection also doubles as the terminus of the NY 78 and NY 98 concurrency as NY 98 proceeds south on NY 77's right-of-way.
NY 78 bends northwest on Main Street and out of Java Center as a two-lane rural roadway through the town of Java. The route soon drops the Main Street moniker, winding northwest into an intersection with CR 44 (Curriers Road). After CR 44, NY 78 runs northwest as a two-lane residential road, passing numerous houses before intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR 15 (Holland Road). After an intersection with Elm Road, NY 78 regains the Main Street moniker, crossing into the town of Sheldon and into the hamlet of Strykersville. Through Strykersville, NY 78 is a two-lane residential street, intersecting with the western terminus of CR 9 (Perry Road) and the southern terminus of CR 35 (Dutch Hollow Road).
After CR 35, NY 78 bends northwest out of Strykersville, crossing into the rural sections of Sheldon surrounding the hamlet. Near the intersection with Chester Street, NY 78 crosses the county line into Erie County and into the town of Wales.
Erie County
Wales to West Seneca
Now in the Erie County town of Wales, NY 78 changes monikers from Main Street to Strykersville Road, paralleling Buffalo Creek northwest through the rural section of Wales. A short distance northwest, NY 78 intersects with CR 175 (Center Line Road), which connects to the Wyoming County line a short distance east. For a short distance after the intersection, the two routes parallel, with NY 78 bypassing the hamlet of Wales Hollow and intersecting with the northern terminus of CR 387 (East Creek Road). Still known as Strykersville Road, NY 78 parallels Buffalo Creek into the southern terminus of CR 385 (Schang Road). The two-lane rural roadway remains the same for several miles to the northwest, crossing an intersection with CR 382 (Hunters Creek Road).
Continuing northwest through Wales, NY 78 remains a two-lane rural street known as Strykersville Road until intersecting with US 20A (Big Tree Road) at a T-intersection. US 20A and NY 78 become concurrent along Big Tree, proceeding west through the town of Wales. The routes remain a two-lane residential street for a distance, intersecting with CR 383 (Reiter Road) as it winds west. Now in the town of Aurora, US 20A and NY 78 enter a large interchange with NY 400 (the Aurora Expressway). A short distance later, the routes enter the village of East Aurora. Now known as Main Street, US 20A and NY 78 proceed west as a two-lane village street, intersecting with NY 16 (Olean Road) and the southern continuation of CR 6 (Pine Street).
NY 16 joins the US 20A and NY 78 concurrency as it proceeds west on Main Street, becoming the main commercial thoroughfare through the village. The routes cross over railroad tracks in the center of East Aurora, returning to the residential street it was earlier, which reverts at Center Street. Several blocks to the west, US 20A, NY 16 and NY 78 enter a roundabout at the western end of East Aurora, where US 20A forks southwest on Hamburg Street, while NY 16 and NY 78 join up with CR 572 (Buffalo Street) and proceed northwest out of the village. Now in the town of Aurora once again, NY 16, NY 78 and CR 572 proceed northwest past Knox Farm State Park, intersecting with CR 377 (Williardshire Road). At CR 377, the moniker changes from Buffalo Street to Seneca Street as NY 16, NY 78 and CR 572 enter the town of Elma.
Passing the town water tower, NY 16, NY 78 and CR 572 proceed northwest through Elma as a two-lane commercial and residential road, intersecting with the western terminus of CR 528 (West Blood Road). The routes slowly becomes commercial once again, passing a large industrial building before entering an at-grade interchange with CR 574 (Jamison Road). Before 1980, this intersection served as the western terminus of NY 422. After CR 574, NY 16, NY 78 and CR 572 continue northwest along Seneca Street as a two-lane residential roadway through Elma. Bending northwest, the routes enter the hamlet of Spring Brook, where it intersects with CR 140 (Rice Road) and CR 362 (North Davis Road).
Paralleling Cazenovia Creek, NY 16, NY 78 and CR 572 intersect with the southern terminus of CR 95 (Pound Road). The route remains a two-lane residential road for a distance, soon bending further northwestward into the town of West Seneca. In West Seneca, the three routes intersect with US 20 (Transit Road). At this intersection, NY 78 turns north onto a concurrency with US 20 while NY 16 proceeds northwest along CR 215. This junction serves as the northern terminus of CR 572. Now concurrent with US 20, NY 78 runs north along Transit Road as a four-lane commercial boulevard, quickly entering a cloverleaf interchange with NY 400 (the Aurora Expressway) once again.
Transit Road
US 20 and NY 78 proceed northward along Transit Road, remaining a major commercial thoroughfare street serving the eastern suburbs of Buffalo with limited pockets of residential along its run. Throughout its north–south run to the Erie County–Niagara County line to the north, Transit Road serves as the town line boundaries of West Seneca and Elma, Cheektowaga and Lancaster, and Amherst and Clarence, respectively, except for a brief period where it passes through the Village of Depew, which straddles the Cheektowaga-Lancaster line.
After an intersection with CR 330 (Bullis Road), Transit Road continues north as a five lane road, serving as the town line between West Seneca to the west and Elma to the east, paralleling several residential districts on each side and crossing an intersection with CR 325 (Seneca Creek Road / Main Street). Just after CR 325, US 20 and NY 78 proceed over Buffalo Creek and into an intersection with NY 354 (Clinton Street). Now on the Lancaster–Cheektowaga town line, US 20 and NY 78 continue northward along Transit Road, intersecting with the western terminus of CR 321 (French Road).
Passing several strip malls, US 20 and NY 78 continue north along Transit Road, passing several residential complexes. After Madeira Drive, Transit Road becomes a four-lane industrial boulevard again, passing several factories on each side of the road. The routes become commercial again, intersecting with CR 523 (Como Park Boulevard). Paralleling Cayuga Creek to the west, US 20 and NY 78 become a four-lane commercial boulevard again. A short distance later, the routes cross over Cayuga Creek and enter an intersection with the western terminus of NY 130 (Broadway). At this junction, NY 78 continues north on Transit Road, while US 20 turns east onto Broadway through the village of Depew.
Continuing north on Transit Road, NY 78 becomes a four-lane commercial boulevard through Depew, crossing over railroad tracks owned by CSX Transportation and used by Amtrak just east of the village's Amtrak station. After crossing the tracks, NY 78 intersects with Walden Avenue (NY 952Q), a major arterial out of the city of Buffalo. Continuing north through Depew, NY 78 intersects with the eastern terminus of CR 316 (George Urban Boulevard). Continuing north through Depew, NY 78 and Transit Road remain the four-lane commercial boulevard through the center of town, passing numerous businesses. Outside of the village, NY 78 connects to CR 161 (Pleasant View Drive).
NY 78 and Transit Road remain four lanes, passing several commercial businesses and entering an intersection with NY 33 (Genesee Street) and crossing over Ellicott Creek. The route crosses over a former railroad grade, soon intersecting with CR 324 (Aero Drive). Just after CR 324, NY 78 and Transit Road enter an intersection with the feeder roads to exit 49 of the New York State Thruway (I-90). NY 78 and Transit Road north of I-90 continues as the town line of Amherst to the west and Lancaster to the east. After crossing Wehrle Drive (CR 290 and CR 275), transit road serves as the town line of Amherst to the west and Clarence to the east until the Erie County line.
North of Wehrle Drive, Transit Road widens to six and then eight lanes wide as it passes through a dense commercial shopping distance along the Amherst-Clarence town line until NY 5 (Main Street). The route condenses back to six lanes along the Eastern Hills Mall in Clarence, entering an intersection with a feeder road that connects to NY 324 (Sheridan Drive). NY 78 and Transit Road continue north, crossing under NY 324 and condense down to four lanes once again. NY 78 passes through more strip malls to the north of NY 324. Continuing north, NY 78 intersects with the termini of CR 192 (Maple Road) and CR 37 (Greiner Road).
Remaining a four-lane boulevard, NY 78 and Transit Road passes east of Transit Middle School. NY 78 intersects with the western terminus of CR 217 (Clarence Center Road). Passing east of Transit Valley Country Club, the road enters the hamlet of East Amherst at CR 296 (Casey Road). The route continues northward, intersecting with CR 299 (North French Road) and CR 282 (Country Road). Soon entering the hamlet of Swormville, NY 78 and Transit Road remain a four-lane commercial boulevard through Amherst and Clarence. After Swormville, NY 78 and Transit Road become residential, soon becoming two lanes for the first time since West Seneca.
Crossing north along the Amherst-Clarence line still, NY 78 and Transit Road becomes a mix of commercial and residential, passing large sections of fields north of Swormville. A short distance to the north, NY 78 intersects with the northern terminus of NY 263 (Millersport Highway). After crossing an intersection with Tonawanda Creek Road (CR 2 and CR 559) that also doubled as the former intersection with NY 268, NY 78 and Transit Road widen to four lanes and cross over Tonawanda Creek into Niagara County.
Niagara County
After crossing Tonawanda Creek, NY 78 and Transit Road enter the town of Lockport as a four-lane boulevard. Intersecting with the western terminus of CR 117 and the eastern terminus of CR 60 (both North Tonawanda Creek Road), NY 78 and Transit Road continue north as the four-lane commercial boulevard through Lockport. The route remains four lanes, but becomes a boulevard through wide fields for a distance, passing runway 28 of North Buffalo Suburban Airport. Now in the town of Pendleton for a short distance, NY 78 and Transit Road cross through a long stretch of fields, becoming a commercial boulevard to the north.
After an intersection with CR 12 (Rapids Road), NY 78 and Transit Road continue north through Pendleton, soon crossing into the town of Lockport once again. In the town of Lockport, NY 78 changes monikers to South Transit Road, passing several commercial businesses, intersecting with NY 93 (Robinson Road). The four-lane boulevard continues north from NY 93 through the town of Lockport, passing a stretch of residences and homes as it enters the city of Lockport. Now a four-lane commercial boulevard, it passes several strip malls along South Transit Road. Now in the South Lockport hamlet outside of the city, in the town of Lockport, NY 78 and South Transit Road continue north, passing several stretches of residences.
The route becomes a residential/commercial mix as it passes through the city of Lockport, passing Altro Park before entering the center of the city. In the center of the city, NY 78 intersects with NY 31 (West Genesee Street and Walnut Street) just over the Erie Canal. At this junction, NY 78 changes monikers to North Transit Street, becoming a two-lane residential street north of the city center. Crossing over an ex-Erie Railroad line, the route intersects with Grand Street, where NY 78 turns east off North Transit Street onto Grand. East on Grand Street, NY 78 intersects with Clinton Street, where NY 78 turns north. Passing northeast of Upson Park, NY 78 continues northeast through Lockport on Clinton Street. The route becomes a two-lane residential street, passing Dolan Park and turning north on Lake Avenue.
Crossing back into the town of Lockport, NY 78 continues north along Lake Avenue, intersecting with CR 31 (Old Niagara Road). A short distance to the north, it enters the hamlet of Highland Park, winding northward as a two-lane commercial roadway. After crossing the western terminus of CR 7 (Slayton Settlement Road), NY 78 enters the Ridgelea Heights section of Lockport, crossing over the East Branch and west of Oak Run Golf Club. After the golf club, NY 78 expands to four lanes in the town of Newfane. In Newfane, NY 78 intersects with NY 104 east (Ridge Road) in the hamlet of Wrights Corners. NY 78 and NY 104 become concurrent northbound, becoming a four-lane commercial boulevard through the hamlet.
A short distance to the north, NY 78 and NY 104 fork in different directions, with NY 104 following Ridge Road to the northeast and NY 78 running along Lockport–Olcott Road to the northwest. Still in the town of Newfane, NY 78 proceeds northwest as a four-lane (quickly changing to two-lane) residential street. The route passes east of Bent-Wing Airport, continuing northwest through Newfane. The route remains residential for a distance, crossing over a brook on its way into the hamlet of Corwin. In Corwin, NY 78 remains a two-lane residential road, crossing over Somerset Railroad tracks that are operated by CSX Transportation (heading for the Somerset Power Plant near Camp Kenan) north of Jacques Avenue. Now paralleling Eighteenmile Creek, NY 78 intersects with the western terminus of CR 105 (Hatter Road). While winding northwest, the route soon enters the hamlet of Newfane.
Through the hamlet of Newfane, NY 78 winds northwest along Eighteenmile Creek, intersecting with CR 137 (Ewings Road). NY 78 through Newfane is a two-lane commercial street, marking the center of the hamlet. The route intersects with the eastern terminus of CR 91 (East Street). Paralleling Eighteenmile Creek out of Newfane, the route intersects with CR 104 (Ide Road)'s eastern terminus. Now running alongside the creek, NY 78 continues north through the town of Newfane, passing west of a public golf course, remaining a two-lane residential road through town.
After crossing the eastern terminus of CR 52 (Wilson–Burt Road), NY 78 continues north through the town of Newfane, entering the hamlet of Burt. Through Burt, the route passes a former railroad grade at Railroad Avenue and passes east of Fisherman's Park. Continuing north, NY 78 enters the hamlet of Olcott. In Olcott, NY 78 retains the name of Lockport–Olcott Road, becoming a two-lane residential road. The route soon bends northwest, intersecting with NY 18 (Lake Road) on the shore of Eighteenmile Creek. This intersection serves as the northern terminus of NY 78, while the right-of-way continues north as Lockport Street, which terminates at the shore of Lake Ontario.
History
The north–south roadway connecting NY 5 in Amherst to the Lake Ontario shoreline in Olcott via Lockport was originally designated as NY 32 in the mid-1920s. In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, NY 32 became part of NY 78, a new route extending from Gainesville in the south to Olcott in the north, mostly along existing but previously unnumbered roads. However, the portion between NY 362 and NY 19 was in the process of being built. NY 78's early routing was identical to its modern alignment except from East Aurora to Depew. Initially, NY 78 headed north from East Aurora to Lancaster by way of Maple Street, Jamison and Bowen roads, and Clinton (NY 354) and Aurora streets before following NY 35 west to Transit Road in Depew.
NY 78 was realigned to follow US 20 (now US 20A) west from East Aurora to Transit Road, where it turned north onto Transit Road and followed it to Depew. The former routing of NY 78 between East Aurora and Lancaster was redesignated as NY 78A. NY 78 was rerouted one last time to overlap with NY 16 northwest from East Aurora to its junction with Transit Road in West Seneca. The realignment bypassed the southernmost portion of Transit Road, which became NY 187 in the early 1940s.
NY 78A
NY 78A was an alternate route of NY 78 in Erie County between NY 78 in East Aurora and NY 35 (now US 20) in Lancaster. The route began at the modern intersection of Main (then-US 20) and Maple streets in East Aurora and followed Maple Street, Jamison and Bowen roads, and Clinton (NY 354) and Aurora streets to a terminus at Broadway (NY 35) in Lancaster. It was assigned after NY 78 was rerouted to follow US 20 and Transit Road instead between East Aurora and Depew. The NY 78A designation was short-lived as it was removed . Its routing is now part of several county routes as well as NY 354.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
078
Transportation in Erie County, New York
Transportation in Niagara County, New York
Transportation in Wyoming County, New York |
4496150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional%20sports%20league%20organization | Professional sports league organization | Professional sports leagues are organized in numerous ways. The two most significant types are one that developed in Europe, characterized by a tiered structure using promotion and relegation in order to determine participation in a hierarchy of leagues or divisions, and a North American originated model characterized by its use of franchises, closed memberships, and minor leagues. Both these systems remain most common in their area of origin, although both systems are used worldwide.
Etymology
The term league has many different meanings in different areas around the world, and its use for different concepts can make comparisons confusing. Usually a league is a group of teams that play each other during the season. It is also often used for the name of the governing body that oversees the league, as in America's Major League Baseball or England's Football League. Because most European football clubs participate in different competitions during a season, regular-season home-and-away games are often referred to as league games and the others as non-league or cup games, even though the separate competitions may be organized by the same governing body. Also, there is a rugby football code called rugby league, which is distinct from rugby union.
Structure of North American leagues (Franchise and minor league system)
Professional sports leagues in North America comprise a stipulated number of teams, known as franchises, which field one team each.
The franchises have territorial rights, usually exclusive territories large enough to cover major metropolitan areas, so that they have no local rivals. New teams may enter the competition only by a vote of current members; typically, a new place is put up for bid by would-be owners. The "franchise system" was introduced in baseball with the formation of the National League in 1876 and later adopted by the other North American leagues.
Although member teams are corporate entities separate from their leagues, they operate only under league auspices. North American teams do not play competitive games against outside opponents.
The leagues operate in a closed membership system and do not have promotion and relegation. It is organized in a way that assures the teams' continued existence in the league from year to year. On occasion a league may decide to grow by admitting a new expansion team into the league. Most of the teams in the four major North American leagues were created as part of a planned league expansion or through the merger of a rival league. Only one team in the National Hockey League (the Montreal Canadiens), for example, existed before becoming part of the NHL. The rest of the teams were created ex novo as expansion teams or as charter members of the World Hockey Association, which merged with the NHL in 1979.
American and Canadian sports leagues typically have a "playoff" system where the best teams in a given season compete in a tournament, with the winner being crowned champion of the league for that season. These have their roots in the long travel distances common in US and Canadian sports; to cut down on travel, leagues are typically divided into geographic divisions and feature unbalanced schedules with teams playing more matches against opponents in the same division. Due to this, not all teams face the same opponents, and some teams may not meet during a regular season at all. This results in teams with identical records that have faced different opponents differing numbers of times, making team records alone an imperfect measure of league supremacy.
Major League Soccer is technically not an association of franchises but a single business entity, though each team has an owner-operator; the team owners are actually shareholders in the league. The league, not the individual teams, contracts with the players. Unlike teams in the four traditional major North American sports leagues, MLS teams play meaningful games against teams from other nations. The MLS season serves as a qualifier for the CONCACAF Champions League, featuring teams from throughout the northern half of the Americas, including the Caribbean. Starting in 2023, all MLS teams play in the Leagues Cup, a competition also involving all sides in Mexico's top flight of Liga MX that serves as an additional qualifier for the Champions League. Also, MLS uses playing rules set by the international governing body of its sport. MLS followed its own playing rules until 2004, when it adopted FIFA rules. Under the auspices of US Soccer and the Canadian Soccer Association, respectively, the U.S. and Canada have separate knockout cup competitions during the MLS season that include teams from lower leagues. In the U.S., the U.S. Open Cup has had MLS participation from the league's inception; since the 2012 cup, each competition has featured all American-based MLS sides. Similarly, all of Canada's MLS teams compete in the Canadian Championship. However, the league structure of MLS follows the North American model, with a single premier league and no promotion or relegation.
Major League Rugby, which began play in 2018 as the second attempt to launch a professional rugby union competition in the U.S., has a business structure identical to that of MLS. It is a single business entity, with each team owner-operator being a league shareholder, and all player contracts are held by the league. Also similar to MLS, MLR uses playing rules set by its sport's international governing body. However, MLR teams do not play competitive matches against teams from other leagues, and there is currently no cup competition in U.S. rugby similar to soccer's U.S. Open Cup. The MLR league structure also follows the North American model of one premier league without promotion and relegation.
A more rarely seen business model in North America is the pure single-entity league, typified by the two incarnations of the XFL, where there are no individual owners or investors, with all teams centrally owned and operated by the league. Many upstart leagues begin their existence as pure single-entity leagues before they secure investors for teams (such as the Premier Hockey Federation) or are forced to operate in the pure single-entity model when investors fail to materialize (such as the Stars Football League).
Many North American systems have a secondary or minor league but without promotion and relegation of teams between them. Often a minor league team is partly or wholly owned by a major league team, or affiliated with one, and utilized for player development. For example, Major League Baseball operates Minor League Baseball. The minor clubs do not move up or down in the hierarchy by on-field success or failure. Professional ice hockey has a system somewhat similar to baseball's (without as many levels), while the National Basketball Association operates a single NBA G League. The National Football League does not have a minor league system as of 2023 but it has operated or affiliated with minor leagues in the 1930s, 1940s, 1960s, 1990s, and the early 2000s and invested in one in the late 2000s.
Men's soccer has multiple minor leagues. The United Soccer League operates two of these, the second-level USL Championship and the third-level USL League One. Major League Soccer operates the third-level MLS Next Pro, consisting primarily of reserve sides of MLS teams. Another third-level league, the National Independent Soccer Association, is totally independent. None have a promotion/relegation system, although many teams have moved between levels, either by invitation or by choice.
To prevent conflicts of interest, most North American sports leagues that operate on the franchise system do not allow individual owners to hold an interest in more than one franchise at once. Most such leagues also use revenue sharing and a salary cap in an effort to maintain a level of parity between franchises.
Structure of European leagues (Promotion and relegation system)
Football in England developed a very different system from that in North America, and it has been adopted for football in most other European countries, as well as to many other sports founded in Europe and played across the world. The features of the system are:
The existence of an elected governing body to which clubs at all levels of the sport belong.
The promotion of well-performing teams to higher-level leagues or divisions and the relegation of poorly performing teams to lower-level leagues or divisions.
Matches played both inside and outside of leagues.
European football clubs are members both of a league and of a governing body. In the case of England, all competitive football clubs are members of The Football Association, while the top 20 teams also are members of the Premier League, a separate organization. The 72 teams in the three levels below the Premier League are members of still another body, the English Football League. The FA operates the national football team and tournaments that involve teams from different leagues (except the EFL Cup, operated by the English Football League and open to its own teams and those in the Premier League). In conjunction with FIFA and other countries' governing bodies, it also sets the playing rules and the rules under which teams can sell players' contracts to other clubs.
The rules or Laws of the Game are determined by the International Football Association Board.
The Premier League negotiates television contracts for its games. However, although the national league would be the dominating competition in which a club might participate, there are many non-league fixtures a club might play in a given year. In European football there are national cup competitions, which are single elimination knock-out tournaments, are played every year and all the clubs in the league participate. Also, the best performing clubs from the previous year may participate in pan-European tournaments such as the UEFA Champions League, operated by the Union of European Football Associations. A Premier League team might play a league game one week, and an FA Cup game against a team from a lower-level league the next, followed by an EFL Cup game against a team in the EFL, and then a fourth game might be against a team from across Europe in the Champions League.
The promotion and relegation system is generally used to determine membership of leagues. Most commonly, a pre-determined number of teams that finish at the bottom of a league or division are automatically dropped down, or relegated, to a lower level for the next season. They are replaced by teams who are promoted from that lower tier either by finishing with the best records or by winning a playoff. In England, in the 2010–2011 season, the teams Birmingham City, Blackpool and West Ham United were relegated from the Premier League to the Football League Championship, the second level of English football. They were replaced by the top two teams from the second level, Queens Park Rangers and Norwich City, both of which won automatic promotion, as well as Swansea City (a Welsh club that plays in the English system), which won a playoff tournament of the teams that finished third through sixth. In the 2011–12 season, the teams Wolverhampton Wanderers, Blackburn, and Bolton were relegated to the Championship. They were replaced by Reading, Southampton, and West Ham. The two former teams had won automatic promotion, while the latter occupied the last promotion spot when they defeated Cardiff 5–0 on aggregate in the semifinals, and defeated Blackpool 2–1 at the final in Wembley Stadium.
The system originated in England in 1888 when twelve clubs decided to create a professional Football League. It then expanded by merging with the Football Alliance in 1892, with the majority of the Alliance teams occupying the lower Second Division, due to the divergent strengths of the teams. As this differential was overcome over the next five years, the winners of the Second Division went into a playoff with the worst placed team in the First Division, and if they won, were promoted into the top tier. The first club to achieve promotion was Sheffield United, which replaced the relegated Accrington F.C.
Relegation often has devastating financial consequences for club owners who not only lose TV, sponsorship and gate income but may also see the asset value of their shares in the club collapse. Some leagues offer a "parachute payment" to its relegated teams for the following years in order to protect them from bankruptcy. If a team is promoted back to the higher tier the following year then the parachute payment for the second season is distributed among the teams of the lower division. There is of course a corresponding bonanza for promoted clubs.
The league does not choose which cities are to have teams in the top division. For example, Leeds, the fourth-biggest city in England, saw their team, Leeds United, relegated from the Premier League to the Championship in 2004, and went without top-flight football for 16 seasons before United returned to the Premier League in 2020. During this period, United were relegated again to the third-tier League One in 2007 and returned to the Championship in 2010. Any city that loses all of its Premier League clubs to relegation will continue to be without a club in the top league until a local club plays well enough to be promoted into the Premiership. Famously, the French Ligue 1 lacked a team from Paris, France's capital and largest city, for some years. Likewise, Berlin clubs in the Bundesliga have been rare, due to the richer clubs being all located in the former West Germany.
As well as having no right to being in a certain tier, a club also has no territorial rights to its own area. A successful new team in a geographical location can come to dominate the incumbents. In Munich, for example, TSV 1860 München were initially more successful than the city's current biggest team Bayern München. As of the current 2022–23 season, London has 13 teams in the top four league levels, including seven Premier League teams.
Clubs may be sold privately to new owners at any time, but this does not happen often where clubs are based on community membership and agreement. Such clubs require agreement from members who, unlike shareholders of corporations, have priorities other than money when it comes to their football club such as tradition or local identity. For similar reasons, relocation of clubs to other cities is very rare. This is mostly because virtually all cities and towns in Europe have a football club of some sort, the size and strength of the club usually relative to the town's size and importance. Buying an existing top-flight club and moving it to a new location is problematic, as the supporters of the town's original club are unlikely to switch allegiance to an interloper. This means anyone wanting ownership of a high ranked club in their native city must buy a local club as it stands and work it up through the divisions, usually by hiring better talent. There have been some cases where existing owners have chosen to relocate out of a difficult market, to better facilities, or to realize the market value of the land that the current stadium is built upon (A famous example being the Relocation of Wimbledon F.C. to Milton Keynes). As in the U.S., team relocations have been controversial as supporters of the club will protest at its loss.
Systems around the world
Leagues around the world generally follow one or the other of these systems with some variation.
Most sport leagues in Australia are similar to the North American model, using post-season playoffs and no relegation, but without geographical divisions, with the most notable examples being the Australian Football League (Aussie rules) and National Rugby League (rugby league). Nippon Professional Baseball in Japan uses the North American system due to American influence on the game. In cricket, the Indian Premier League, launched in 2008, also operates on this system. The Super League, which is the top level of rugby league in the United Kingdom and France (also with a Canadian team), was run on a franchise basis from 2009 to 2014, but returned to a promotion-relegation model with the 2015 season. Another example of a franchised league in European sport is ice hockey's Kontinental Hockey League, centered mainly in Russia with teams also located in Belarus, China, and Kazakhstan. Rugby union also has a European-based franchised league in the United Rugby Championship (historically the Celtic League, Pro12, and Pro14). It was founded with teams in the Celtic nations of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, and later added teams outside those nations, first from Italy and then South Africa.
The promotion-relegation system is widely used in football around the world, notably in Africa and Latin America as well as Europe. The most notable variation has developed in Latin America where many countries have two league seasons per year, which scheduling allows because many Latin American nations lack a national cup competition. Another notable variation is the Brazilian system of two parallel league systems each with its own separate promotion and relegation, one national and another on state-level, the same teams play both leagues each year.
The European model is also used in Europe even when the sports were founded in America, showing that the league system adopted is not determined by the sport itself, but more on the tradition of sports organization in that region. Sports such as basketball in Spain and Lithuania use promotion and relegation. In the same vein, Australia's A-League Men does not use the pyramid structure normally found in football, but instead follows the tradition of Australian sports having a franchise model and a post-season playoff system. This model better suits a country with a few important central locations where a sport needs to ensure there is a team playing with no risk of relegation. Likewise, the American franchise model is used by rugby union's Super Rugby, which features 12 non-European franchises. Australia and New Zealand have five franchises each; one franchise represents Fiji but currently plays most of its "home" games in Australia; and one franchise represents the Pacific islands as a whole (mainly Samoa and Tonga) but is based in New Zealand. Super Rugby also formerly featured franchises in South Africa, Japan, and Argentina.
In east Asia, places such as Japan, China, South Korea and Taiwan have a particular differentiation among leagues: "European" sports such as football and rugby use promotion and relegation, while "American" sports such as baseball and basketball use franchising and minor leagues, with a few differences varying from country to country. A similar situation exists in countries in Central America and the Caribbean, where football and baseball share several close markets.
Historical comparisons
A major factor in the development of the North American closed membership system during the 19th Century was the distances between cities, with some teams separated by half of the North American continent, resulting in high traveling costs. When the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs was established in 1876, its founders judged that in order to prosper, they must make baseball's highest level of competition a "closed shop", with a strict limit on the number of teams, and with each member having exclusive local rights. This guarantee of a place in the league year after year would permit each club owner to monopolize fan bases in their respective exclusive territories and give them the confidence to invest in infrastructure, such as improved ballparks. This in turn would guarantee the revenues needed to support traveling across the continent.
In contrast, the shorter distances between urban areas in England allowed more clubs to develop large fan bases without incurring the same travel costs as in North America. When The Football League, now known as the English Football League, was founded in 1888, it was not intended to be a rival of The Football Association but rather the top competition within it. The new league was not universally accepted as England's top-calibre competition right away. To help win fans of clubs outside The Football League, a system was established in which the worst teams at the end of each season would need to win re-election against any clubs wishing to join. A rival league, the Football Alliance, was then formed in 1889. When the two merged in 1892, it was not on equal terms; rather, most of the Alliance clubs were put in the new Football League Second Division, whose best teams would move up to the First Division in place of its worst teams. Another merger, with the top division of the Southern League in 1920, helped form the Third Division in similar fashion, firmly establishing the principle of promotion and relegation.
See also
Gate receipts
History of Baseball
Football in England
Football in France
Football in Italy
Football in Germany
Football in Australia
European Football
Football in Spain
Football in the Netherlands
Football in Portugal
Football in Scotland
Rugby Football League
EuroHockey Club Champions Cup
Handball-Bundesliga
Liga ASOBAL
EHF Cup
List of largest sports contracts
List of professional sports leagues
Notes
References
Further reading
Cain, Louis P. and Haddock, David D.; 2005; 'Similar Economic Histories, Different Industrial Structures: Transatlantic Contrasts in the Evolution of Professional Sports Leagues'; Journal of Economic History 65 (4); pp1116–1147
Sports culture
Sports law
Sports business
organization |
4496754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Touhou%20Project%20characters | List of Touhou Project characters | This is a list of the characters that belong to the Touhou Project, a series of danmaku and fighting video games by ZUN from Team Shanghai Alice. Most Touhou characters reside in a fictional realm called Gensokyo (, 'Land of Illusions'), where humans and yōkai coexist. Gensokyo's culture is like that of feudal Japan, but the Touhou games take place in the present day. Many yōkai prey on and eat humans, and humans subsequently try to exorcise them, but no racial resentment exists between the two. The characters in the Touhou Project have unique abilities, and many of them are based on Japanese folklore and religion.
All characters, except for the two main protagonists Reimu and Marisa, are listed by the first game of their appearance. Reimu first appeared in the first game, Highly Responsive to Prayers, and Marisa in the second, Story in Eastern Wonderland.
Protagonists
Reimu Hakurei
Species: Human
Ability: Flight, using yin-yang orbs, and godly powers. Ability as the Hakurei Miko.
Residence: Hakurei Shrine
is the main protagonist of the series, appearing in some role in every Touhou game to date, and is almost always available as a playable character. She is seen on the cover art of all of the PC-98 games, and is on the title screen for most of the Windows games. Despite the fact she's never done any training of any sort, she is fairly strong. Because of this, she does not believe at all that hard work pays off, and hates putting in large amounts of effort. Since her freedom is to the level of the impossible, she has a negative disposition. As she has a simple and straightforward personality, her human emotions are wild, and she often has hasty conversations. She has a strange atmosphere that attracts others regardless of whether they are human or yōkai.『永夜抄』付属のマニュアル Since her job is yōkai extermination, she takes a stern pose against yōkai, but she herself does not have a particular interest in humans or yōkai, and depending on the circumstances, is willing to help, or attack either. In Silent Sinner in Blue, she looked after the fainted yōkai rabbit, and in Curiosities of Lotus Asia, made a surprise attack on a harmless yōkai who was reading her book, and stole it. Since she likes yōkai extermination itself, when incidents do not occur for a long time, she grows irritated due to boredom. This is a personality that strong yōkai especially like, but since she exterminates yōkai, sometimes without prior conversation or warning, she is feared by the weaker yōkai. It is a carefree personality, but on the opposite side of her impartial nature, she does not see anyone as a companion, and even when she acts together with other humans or yōkai, she is always alone. As she is ruthless in her job, especially in the middle of yōkai extermination, she exterminates the yōkai and fairies she comes across without mercy. She is also similar to Alice Margatroid as she chooses not to show her true power due to the fact there would be nothing being left afterwards if she lost a battle with her full power. She is fairly tall.
From Rinnosuke Morichika's viewpoint, she has good relations with Marisa Kirisame. However, she has never fought alongside Marisa, and in Imperishable Night, Reimu fights Marisa for getting in her way. When Reimu confronted Watatsuki no Yorihime in Silent Sinner in Blue, she did not cooperate with her allies.
She serves the role of the miko of the Hakurei Shrine, located at the boundary between Gensokyo and the Outside World, called the "Miko of Hakurei." The job of the miko of the Hakurei Shrine is to exterminate yōkai and resolve incidents, and Reimu herself possesses considerable power, but since she habitually lives a life of drinking tea and taking naps, she does not have enough training. Gensokyo is sustained by the maintenance of the indispensable relationship of yōkai attacking humans and humans exterminating yōkai, of which the Miko of Hakurei plays a part. Since the Miko of Hakurei is also in an indispensable position of maintaining Gensokyo, it has become forbidden for the Miko of Hakurei to exterminate yōkai and for yōkai to attack the miko, as well as humans coming to the Hakurei Shrine grounds to meddle. However, since the relation of yōkai attacking humans has thus been lost, yōkai have been in decline, so Reimu approved of a request she received from yōkai to establish battle rules for bouts with yōkai to kill time, thus preserving the relation between yōkai and humans in a mock style, allowing strong and weak ones to have fights on equal ground, called the "spell card rules" in the "Spell Naming Law."スペルカードも参照 The customs related to the job have been preserved from time immemorial without fail, and as she follows the custom, she takes an attitude of not worrying about the results.
Reimu's appearance varies slightly between the games. However, she always can be seen with black or brown hair with a red bow (the length of her hair changes between games), the Purification Rod, a gohei created by Rinnosuke Morichika, and a red and white hakama with a long skirt. The hakama is unconventional in its appearance due to the fact that the sleeves are detached, exposing her armpits, which has become the subject of an Internet meme. In 2006, dōjin music group IOSYS, who make Touhou-themed music parodies, released the song Tsukiyo wo Kakusanai Teido no Nouryoku?, which made frequent usage of the line "Waki miko Reimu" (armpit miko Reimu), leading to an unofficial nickname.
Her main abilities are flight, good intuition, and getting along with everyone; even those who were once her enemies. In the games, she is characterized by her homing amulets and yin-yang orbs. In addition to being in all of the Touhou games (apart from Shoot the Bullet and Fairy Wars), she also appears in Graffiti Kingdom as "Flying Maiden", a game which ZUN helped to develop.
Marisa Kirisame
Species: Human
Ability: Magic (Hakkero)
Residence: Forest of Magic
is a human magician who lives in a cluttered house in the Forest of Magic. She is friends with Reimu and visits her often, but is otherwise solitary and spends most of her time researching magic. She is an avid collector, hoarding almost any item she comes across, often "borrowing" things without permission from various characters. She talks in a direct, and often rude way, highlighting her tomboyish nature and otherwise carefree attitude. While she is prone to violence, selfishness, and other disagreeable behaviors, she is an honest and hard worker, usually on the front lines of defending Gensokyo whenever an incident occurs. She is contrasted with Reimu, the naturally-talented protagonist, as Marisa's powers derive entirely from hard work and determination rather than any abilities she was born with, and it is said that she wins her fights with Reimu "about 40% of the time." In the games, her attacks are characterized by five-pointed stars and lasers, and other high-level destructive magic. Reflecting her "borrowing" habit, many of her spells are inspired by other characters, such as her signature move "Master Spark" which was originally Yuuka Kazami's, or her "Nondirectional Laser" attack, which was originally Patchouli's attack. Her habitual stealing also corresponds to gameplay, as she is the best character for collecting power-ups due to her high speed. She is fairly short.
Additional game characters
Highly Responsive to Prayers
The Stage 5 boss. The gatekeeper of the Hakurei Shrine. Has three forms: a yin yang, a priestess, or a priest.
The Stage 10 boss of the Makai route. A hovering set of evil eyes, connected by electricity.
Species: Devil
Residence: Ruins of Vina
The Innocent Devil, Stage 15 boss of the Makai route.
Species: Angel
Residence: Fallen Shrine
The Angel of Death, final boss of the Makai route.
Species: Vengeful Spirit
Ability: Black Magic
Residence: Hakurei Shrine
First appearing as the Stage 10 boss of the Jigoku route, Mima returns in later PC-98 games with more significant roles. She is a ghost that haunts the area around the Hakurei Shrine. She is very confident in her abilities, and even boastful of them. Although she claims during Story of Eastern Wonderland to want revenge against the entire human race, it is not known precisely what Mima's motivations for that are. She is also attempting to revive herself. Although she is often called a ghost, during Phantasmagoria of Dim. Dream, Mima denies being dead and tries to explain that she is "just a soul."
Stage 15 boss of the Jigoku route. Also named the "Hellish Moon", she is a bronze moon-like orb surrounded by a sickly purple aura and engraved with the image of a young girl.
The Astral Knight, final boss of the Jigoku route.
Story of Eastern Wonderland
Species: Turtle
Ability: Flight
Residence: Hakurei Shrine
Reimu's pet turtle that she caught during her training. As he lived for a very long time, he has gained many mystic powers, one of which is flight. Reimu rides on him to fly in all the PC-98 games from Story of Eastern Wonderland onwards, but from Embodiment of Scarlet Devil onwards, she learned to fly by herself, and Genjii has not been seen since then. ZUN has confirmed during an interview that Genjii lives in the pond behind the Hakurei Shrine.
Species: Human
An engineer in Gensokyo that is the boss of Stage 1 and the Extra Stage. She pilots the "Flower Tank" on stage one and "Evil Eye Sigma" on the extra stage. Unlike many other scrolling shooters where mechs are the primary enemy, Rika is the only character in the series to pilot vehicles in a boss fight.
Species: Human
Residence: Forest of Magic
A female samurai that is the Stage 2 boss. She is seeking the power of the Hakurei family.
Phantasmagoria of Dim. Dream
Species: Witch
Ability: Inability to grow old, magic
Ellen is a witch with the power of eternal youth. She has lived so long that she never remembers anything. She has a cat named Sokrates. She has a cameo in the manga Hatarakimono by Izumi Takemoto, who ZUN is a fan of.
Species: Human
A princess who claims to be a police officer, but her behavior and attitude suggests otherwise. She is known to be a collector in things other people have no interest in.
Species: Poltergeist
A one-sided poltergeist created by a mentally unstable girl. As the inhabitants of her house have stopped taking any notice of her, she is looking for another place to haunt.
Species: Human
One of the few believers in science in Gensokyo. However, she is also a considerably powerful magic user. Though she does not particularly like magic, she combines it with science, as the powers of science alone are insufficient. She is the only meganekko in the PC-98 series, but others appeared in the Windows games.
Species: Human
Ability: Artificial Magic
Residence: Probability Space Hypervessel
Age: 15
Yumemi's assistant who acts overly familiar towards her, and their relationship is apparently more complex than one of a typical boss and subordinate. Although she looks too young to be an assistant professor, it is because she earned her Ph.D. (in comparative physics) at the age of 15. She speaks unusually, especially for a young girl. Most of her mannerisms were later adopted by Marisa.
Species: Human
Ability: Artificial Magic
Residence: Probability Space Hypervessel
Professor of comparative physics at an unnamed university in a world beyond Gensokyo. In this world, a grand unification theory has been developed; when Yumemi presented an expanded theory that included magic to her academic society, she was ridiculed. She came to Gensokyo to do research and make her case infallible.
Species: Robot
Residence: Hakurei Shrine
A nuclear-powered maid that Reimu requested in the ending of Phantasmagoria of Dim. Dream. She is the only non-controllable and non-fightable character to have appeared in an official Touhou game.
Lotus Land Story
Species: Yōkai
Residence: Mountain Path
An insignificant yōkai who happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time. In game, her name appears as two question marks, and "Orange" is only revealed in the character profiles of the game.
Species: Vampire
Residence: Lake of Blood
Kurumi is a vampiress that lives on an island in the center of the Lake of Blood. She guards the lake and prevents others from passing by unhindered.
Residence: Mugenkan
Elly is the gate guard of Mugenkan. Though seemingly powerful, the mansion rarely has any visitors, and thus her danmaku abilities are out of practice.
Species: Yōkai
Residence: Mugenkan
Yuuka is a powerful yōkai who lives in a mansion, Mugenkan, on the boundary between the Dream World and the real world. In Lotus Land Story, an unknown act of hers radiated magical power across the worlds, sending the evil spirits in Reimu's shrine into a frenzy, which also got the attention of Marisa. She is often seen carrying a parasol, which is capable of firing the Kyokutai Laser. This laser is later adopted by Marisa as her signature Master Spark.For her later appearance in Phantasmagoria of Flower View, see Yuuka Kazami.
Species: Demon
A human-looking, blonde-haired girl in a maid uniform. Younger twin sister of Gengetsu. Although she is dressed like a servant, she tells the player characters that the area in which they fight is her world; she does not appear to work for anyone.
Species: Demon
A blonde girl who dresses in pink, with red bows and white, angel-like wings. Older twin sister of Mugetsu, and the stronger of the two.
Mystic Square
Species: Yōkai
Residence: A mountain cave that holds a doorway to Makai
The gatekeeper of Makai. Her name comes from a character in Izumi Takemoto's short manga Crystal Egg.
Species: Demon
Residence: Makai
A resident of Makai, she attacks the main characters as they are invading. Her name comes from a character in Izumi Takemoto's short manga Downtown Stories: Rooftop Serenade.
Species: Yōkai magician
Ability: Magic, Manipulation of Dolls
Residence: Makai
A girl whose powers come from the forbidden "Grimoire of Alice" and is mostly powerless without it. She first appears in Stage 3, and after being defeated by the protagonist, returns in the Extra Stage. She is a reference to the Alices of Shin Megami Tensei, Asura Blade: Sword of Dynasty, and Alice in Wonderland.
For her later appearances in the Windows games, see Alice Margatroid.
Species: Magician
Ability: Fire Magic
Residence: Makai
A black witch who appears with Mai on the fourth stage, and is angered when Mai is defeated before she is. Specializes in fire magic.
Species: Magician
Ability: Ice Magic
Residence: Makai
A white witch who appears with Yuki on the fourth stage, and fights more seriously when Yuki is defeated before her. Specializes in ice magic.
Species: Demon
Residence: Pandæmonium
A sword-throwing maid who serves Shinki, she is ranked as one of the top class inhabitants of Makai.
Species: Goddess
Residence: Pandæmonium
The creator of Makai. Because she is the creator of everything in Makai, the residents of Makai see her as God. As the final boss, she personally delivers the punishment on the four intruders of Makai.
Embodiment of Scarlet Devil
Species: Yōkai
Ability: Manipulation of darkness
Boss of Stage 1. She is a yōkai who has the physical appearance of a young girl. She has blond hair, red eyes, wears black clothing, and her hair is wrapped in a red ribbon. This ribbon is an ofuda, and Rumia herself cannot touch it. She is short.ZUNによれば、「game_1522.lzh」で説明されている登場人物に関して「身長は大体成長期の10代前半の少女達となります」とのことである。「高」は人間でいえば「10代後半以降程度の身長」、「低」は「10代前半の人間だとしたらかなり低い部類」となる。
Her ability is to create a sphere of night around her, but as it impairs her own vision significantly, it is not useful in combat. She usually spends her days fluttering around aimlessly.
Species: Fairy
Residence: Misty Lake
Stage 2 mid-boss. A minor character, who received no in-game profile; fans named her Daiyousei (lit. "Big/Great Fairy"). ZUN later described her as bright, playful, and expressive. Sometimes appears in dōjinshi with Cirno.
Species: Ice fairy
Ability: Enough power to manipulate ice
Residence: Misty Lake
Stage 2 boss, and a playable character in Touhou Hisōtensoku, Fairy Wars, and Hidden Star in Four Seasons. An ice fairy that lives on the lake surrounding the Scarlet Devil Mansion. Although she is weak from the player's perspective, appearing only as the 2nd stage boss, and a Stage 1 midboss in Perfect Cherry Blossom and Double Dealing Character. She is one of the strongest fairies in Gensokyo. Regardless, her weakness and low intelligence compared to most others in Gensokyo, and her bravery leads her to be the subject of mockery. Her hobby is freezing frogs and watching them revive as they thaw, but she tends to shatter them instead by accident. Unlike Letty Whiterock, she radiates cold air all year-round, and can stay awake even in the spring and summer. She is short.
She is often called "⑨" (pronounced "nineball") by fans, and the character "⑨" is regarded as a symbol of "Baka" (Stupid), since ZUN labeled her as such in the manual of Phantasmagoria of Flower View.
Species: Yōkai
Ability: Manipulation of qi
Residence: Scarlet Devil Mansion
Stage 3 boss. A Chinese girl serving as the door guard of the Scarlet Devil Mansion. Canonically, she is known to be a very humanoid yōkai who practices martial arts, but is generally friendly towards humans. Her name has been the subject of confusion in the fanbase, as Japanese fans were not sure whether to read her name in Japanese (Kurenai Misuzu), or in Chinese (Hong Meiling). Some people chose to simply call her Chūgoku (China), a name that she is still sometimes called, though ZUN has confirmed during a Q&A at Meiji University that the Chinese reading of Hong Meiling is correct. This is referenced in Immaterial and Missing Power, wherein one of her win quotes is "please remember my name." In dōjinshi, she is usually portrayed as a joke character, constantly being abused by the other residents of the Scarlet Devil Mansion in a humorous fashion, especially Sakuya. She is one of the more popular Touhou characters, and was added as a playable character in a patch for Immaterial and Missing Power, despite not having a story of her own. In Touhou Hisōtensoku, she is reintroduced as a playable character with her own storyline. She has aqua-colored eyes and long, scarlet hair that symbolizes the place that she is guarding. Her outfit is traditionally Chinese, composed of a cheongsam, and a beret with a star that reads dragon (龍) in Chinese. She is tall.
Species: Devil
Residence: Scarlet Devil Mansion
Stage 4 mid-boss. Similar to Daiyousei, she received no character profile in the game and was named Koakuma (lit. "Little Devil") by fans. However, she is popular for a relatively obscure character. ZUN later described her to be like Daiyousei (whimsical, enjoys pranks, and acts without thinking). He also added that while devils are as powerful as vampires and magicians, Koakuma is a rather weak one, therefore, she is a Koakuma (Little Devil). She lives in the Scarlet Devil Mansion, and is thought to be an assistant to Patchouli Knowledge of some sort, but no specific details have been given.
Species: Witch
Ability: Able to manipulate elemental magic, like fire, water, wood, metal, earth, sun, and the moon
Residence: Scarlet Devil Mansion
Stage 4 boss, and a playable character in Immaterial and Missing Power, Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, and Hisoutensoku. A scholar who is a friend of Remilia Scarlet. She resides in the library of the Scarlet Devil Mansion, and is the de facto librarian. In fact, she rarely leaves it and is somewhat of a hikikomori, choosing not to leave because the sun damages her hair or the books. She has command over the seven elements (which the Japanese days of the week are named after, making her the "One-week Wizard") and is theoretically an extremely powerful magician. Patchouli is the name of a plant, from which oils and perfumes can be made, and the surname Knowledge is a rather literal reference to her studious nature. However, her constitution is very poor and asthma often prevents her from reciting her spells. This is also reflected in the fighting games, where she moves slowly, and likes to keep a distance between herself and her opponent. She has a bitter relationship with Marisa, who tends to 'borrow' her books without asking. She is fairly short.
Species: Human
Ability: Manipulation of time
Residence: Scarlet Devil Mansion
Stage 5 boss, and a playable character in Perfect Cherry Blossom, Imperishable Night, Phantasmagoria of Flower View, Double Dealing Character, Immaterial and Missing Power, Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, Hisoutensoku, and Unconnected Marketeers. She is the head maid of the Scarlet Devil Mansion.
Sakuya is the only human living in the Scarlet Devil Mansion,『三月精 第2部』「上海アリス通信 三精版 第5号」（『月刊コンプエース』Vol.7 p.275。実質的には「第6号」なのだが誤植で「第5号」になっている。単行本未収録）。 and is responsible for its upkeep. She uses humble speech to her mistress Remilia Scarlet and friend Patchouli Knowledge, but speaks less formally with others.
She is tall. The color of her eyes changes with each work, and ZUN has stated that "she plays the role of a human maid about 10-20 years old" and "perhaps she is a character in her early teens", and in Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, according to Hieda no Akyuu, "she claims to be in her late teens."
Sakuya has the ability to manipulate time. Furthermore, it also seems she is able to change the speed at which time flows. However, as it is difficult to reverse events that have already occurred, and since she is not able to return broken things to how they were originally even if she reversed time, in actuality, it is not possible for her to reverse time.『香霖堂』単行本第4-5話 However, she is able to do things to an extent of moving things back to where they were originally. She is also able to manipulate space, which is closely related to time.
Sakuya possesses a great amount of silver『永夜抄』付属のマニュアル。 throwing knives and is able to throw them with great accuracy. With her ability to manipulate time, she is able to conjure knives from out of nowhere. According to ZUN, it seems like her throwing knife arm and her cooking arm are comparable, and therefore she is skilled at cooking.
She was not born in Gensokyo, and the name "Sakuya Izayoi" was given to her by Remilia Scarlet. In Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, Akyuu guessed that she might have originally been a vampire hunter. A recurring joke with Sakuya in dōjinshi usually involves her stabbing Hong Meiling mercilessly with her knives, usually due to Meiling's laziness or inability to keep unwanted visitors, such as Reimu and Marisa, out of the mansion. However, Sakuya does care for Meiling's well-being, and the two have a close relationship, as demonstrated in Eastern and Little Nature Deity / Strange and Bright Nature Deity.
At the time of Embodiment of Scarlet Devil, she merely worked at the Scarlet Devil Mansion in return for food. Continuing in Imperishable Night, she did not worry about the clothing, food, or housing at all and simply felt satisfied and utterly devoted to her mistress, Remilia.『永夜抄』付属の「キャラ設定.txt」。
Species: Vampire
Age: Approximately 500 years
Ability: Manipulation of fate
Residence: Scarlet Devil Mansion
Final boss, and a playable character in Immaterial and Missing Power, Imperishable Night, Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, and Hisoutensoku. Remilia is the vampiric mistress of the Scarlet Devil Mansion who claims to be descended from Vlad III Dracula, and her prelude theme song is titled The Young Descendant of Tepes, referencing his Romanian name, Vlad Tepes, but she has no actual connection to him. She is known as the Scarlet Devil as when she feeds, the blood of her victims stains her dress scarlet. Apart from her unpleasant needs, she is hardly malicious enough to deserve such a title; as though she is over 500 years old, and has appropriate wisdom, her attitude is comparable to that of a young child. Although being a vampire is normally a lonely life, she has a good relationship with her many employees (including Sakuya and Meiling). Reimu is one of the few humans who tolerates her, and Remilia seems quite fond of her in turn. Marisa also gets along with her in exchange for access to her library. Her power is the control of fate (which has never been overtly demonstrated in the games). She prefers melee fighting to danmaku, but when she does resort to the latter, she is fond of red bullets and knives. She is short.
Species: Vampire
Age: Over 495 years
Ability: Enough power to destroy anything
Residence: Scarlet Devil Mansion
Extra Stage boss, and a playable character in Sunken Fossil World. Remilia's little sister, she often resides in the mansion's basement, and knows very little about life on the outside. This does not upset Flandre - she likes her sister and usually does not try escaping. However, because of this fact, Flandre is generally ignorant. Most vampires hold back somewhat when fighting humans, as they plan to keep them alive and feed from them later, but Flandre was always fed prepared dishes and does not know her food comes from humans. Thus, when fighting them, she does not hesitate and incinerates them without a second thought. In dōjinshi, she is very fond of Reimu and Marisa and is often portrayed as somewhat crazy, though alternate portrayals as a sweet "Little Sister"-type are also popular. She is short.
Her theme music, "U.N. Owen Was Her?" was based on the book And Then There Were None by Agatha Christie. "U.N. Owen" was a mysterious figure known to scheme people in the novel.
Perfect Cherry Blossom
Species: Yuki-onna
Ability: Manipulation of chilliness
Stage 1 boss. She is a yōkai who only appears during winter. In Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, it was written that she was a type of yuki-onna.
She is fairly tall.
She possesses an ability to manipulate chilliness. According to Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, since this is equivalent to an ability that manipulates the winter within nature, she possesses tremendous power according to the environment, but she is mostly powerless outside of winter. In Bohemian Archive in Japanese Red, Letty herself said that outside of winter, she hides away in a place where "not a ray of sunlight can reach."
Her name is a reference to Letitia "Letty" Blacklock, a character from A Murder is Announced, by Agatha Christie.
Species: Beast (Bakeneko possessed as Shikigami)
Ability: Sorcery (while possessed as shikigami), surprising people (as bakeneko)
Residence: Yōkai Mountain
Stage 2 boss and Extra Stage midboss. She has two tails and is a bakeneko yokai. She is also Ran Yakumo's shikigami, but since Ran herself is a shikigami of Yukari Yakumo, she is a "shikigami of a shikigami" from Yukari's viewpoint. She is short.
Chen, as a bakeneko, acquires powers of a wrathful god while possessed, but since the one of whom she is a shikigami of, Ran, is also a shikigami, her strength is fairly low. This shikigami possession is removed when she is soaked in water, and due to being a cat as well, she generally dislikes being in water regardless.
She originally lives in Yōkai Mountain. In Bohemian Archive in Japanese Red, she made the village of cats and tried to stand as the leader, but was not able to achieve any worthwhile results.
Species: Magician
Ability: Manipulation and creation of magical dolls
Residence: Forest of Magic
Alice is a magician who lives in the Forest of Magic. She is a playable character in Imperishable Night, Subterranean Animism, Immaterial and Missing Power, Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, and Hisoutensoku.Alice has blonde hair and pale skin, and at first glance she has the appearance of a doll. She is "fairly tall." She wears a frilly white and blue dress, and a red headband. The color of her eyes changes with each work.
She is an all-purpose-type of magician without any major strengths or weaknesses. With a personality that is indifferent to other people, she is attached to magic, and is usually confident, but timid.
According to Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, Alice was originally a human, and upon completion of some training, she became a magician. It has not been long since the day she has become a magician, and because of this, she still continues human habits like eating and sleeping that are not entirely necessary.
As her speciality is making dolls, she is also able to manipulate a great amount of dolls at the same time, and she is one of the best dollmakers in Gensokyo. She is able to make her dolls move with as much fluidity as any human, and she can make multiple dolls perform different actions, sometimes making them cooperate and sometimes making them move completely asynchronously, to such an extent that to onlookers around her, it might not seem like she is manipulating them. The dolls are also able to manipulate other dolls, but Alice does not use them to assist her when creating new dolls, opting to do it entirely herself.
She has a residence in the Forest of Magic. According to Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, since she was originally a human, even as a yōkai, she has a high understanding and friendship towards humans and presents a low danger level, and if someone gets lost in the forest, she gladly gives shelter. However, Alice's house is covered all over with dolls, and since she is not very eager for conversation, it seems like she immediately flees when there is something eerie. However, she is not hostile, and in Strange and Bright Nature Deity, the Three Fairies of Light accidentally arrived at her house, and Alice was hospitable to them.
According to Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, she does not perform the usual act of attacking humans, but likes fights and upon receiving a challenge to do battle, gladly accepts. As she manipulates a great number of combat dolls, the challenger is likely to be highly outnumbered, making a difficult battle inevitable, but she has the weakness of having to use her hands to manipulate the dolls, and thereby cannot engage in combat directly.
Since she does not find it enjoyable to win battles with overwhelming power, she usually fights with power that is only slightly greater than that of the opponent. Furthermore, it would be problematic were she to be defeated while putting forth the extent of her power, and so she does not give it her all in fights, in which respect she is similar to Reimu Hakurei.
In the character settings text for Imperishable Night, it was written that she was an indoors type who was often alone, but in Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, the range of her place of activities is set to "any kind of place" in Gensokyo, and she also appeared in front of people in times of festivals to exhibit her skill with dolls. Additionally, while she is reclusive in character, in the only mainline Touhou games in which she's a playable character, she fights alongside Marisa. In each ending of Imperishable Night and Immaterial and Missing Power, she participated in banquets at the Hakurei Shrine. It was also hinted that she sometimes visits the library of the Scarlet Devil Mansion.
According to ZUN's comments in the Music Room of Perfect Cherry Blossom, Alice is a special character of the Touhou series, and because of that, he composed her theme with renewed vigor.
Species: Fairy
Ability: Can recognise the coming of spring
A fairy that heralds the arrival of spring. However, since she expresses herself with danmaku rather than words, her announcement is usually seen as a hostile attack. She is the first midboss to receive an official character profile. In the "Muenzuka" stage of Phantasmasgoria of Flower View, a black version of Lily White shows up instead of the normal version. Fans have named her Lily Black, and gave her a darker character as opposed to the cheerful Lily White.
Species: Poltergeists
Ability: Playing musical instruments without hands or feet
Residence: Poltergeist Mansion
Bosses of Stage 4. They are poltergeists in the shape of three bards. They were originally daughters of a human noble, but an unfortunate event caused his four daughters to separate. The fourth daughter, Layla Prismriver, was unable to leave the mansion that held so many of her memories. Using her power, she conjured poltergeists with the appearance of her older sisters, then slowly became forgotten along with the mansion and the poltergeists. Even though the humans died with the passage of time, the poltergeists remain in the mansion. The three Prismriver Sisters, now musical performers of some note, were employed by Yuyuko Saigyouji to provide entertainment for the upcoming flower-viewing. The protagonists encounter them at the gate to the netherworld.
Ability: Power to play melancholic notes
The eldest of the Prismriver Sisters. She plays the violin and prefers solo performances. She can also play 'melancholic notes', which can bring people or yōkai into a state of depression, but Lyrica's playing negates this effect, meaning it only has an impact when she plays solos. Honest to a fault, she is perhaps the most well-adjusted of the sisters. The player fights her first if the player is playing as Reimu. She is fairly short.
Ability: Power to play maniac notes
The middle child of the Prismriver Sisters. She plays the trumpet, and can perform 'maniac notes', which brings the listener into a state of euphoria and vitality. Her magic is the strongest of the three sisters, but her technique is not very good. Despite this, she is cheerful and tends to obsess over things. The player fights her first if the player is playing as Sakuya. She is fairly short.
Ability: Power to play illusionary notes
The youngest of the poltergeist Prismriver Sisters. Although skilled with all instruments, she prefers keyboard and percussion. Neither her keyboard nor her 'illusionary notes' exist in the natural world, and has no major effect beyond making the other two sisters' performance more enjoyable. She is clever and manipulative, usually goading her older sisters into doing her fighting rather than engaging in battle herself. The player fights her first if the player is playing as Marisa. She is short.
Species: Half-human half-phantom
Age: Under 60 years
Ability: Kenjutsu
Residence: Hakugyokurō
Stage 5 boss and Stage 6 midboss, and a playable character in Imperishable Night, Phantasmagoria of Flower View, Ten Desires, Wily Beast and Weakest Creature, Immaterial and Missing Power, Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, and Hisoutensoku. Youmu is a gardener attached to the Saigyouji family and the bodyguard of Yuyuko Saigyouji, and a practitioner of a two-sword school of fencing.
One sword is the Roukanken, which possesses power to kill ten yuurei in one slash, carried by Youmu from her left shoulder to her right waist, and she carries the Hakurouken on her left waist, which slices through people's confusion. The longer sword is the Roukanken, and it has been conveyed that it was forged by yōkai. The shorter sword is the Hakurouken, which seems to be the heirloom of the Konpaku family.
According to the Saigyouji family, Youmu is the second generation to take her position, the former generation being Youki Konpaku. Youki was Youmu's fencing shishō (instructor). Youmu is also Yuyuko's sword instructor, but she is fundamentally treated as a gardener.
Youmu wears a dark green and white dress, which sometimes contains baldricks for her various swords, and she has short, white hair. She is "fairly short." The color of her eyes changes after Perfect Cherry Blossom and Imperishable Night. As she is a mixture of human and yuurei, she has a half-human half-yōkai existence, and the large yuurei (, hanyuurei, , hanrei) that always follows her is the yuurei half of her body. In Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, Youmu (the one taking the appearance as a girl) was treated as "half-human half-yuurei," and the yuurei was treated as "yuurei," and it was supposed that Youmu (the half-human half-yuurei) manipulates the yuurei consciously. Youmu has a lower body temperature compared to normal humans and a higher body temperature compared to normal yuurei. In the Imperishable Night manual, it was written, "she has two kinds of body: human and yuurei," showing Youmu to be "human" and the yuurei to be "yuurei.""
Those who are a mixture of human and yuurei are a species with long lifespan,『永夜抄』付属の「キャラ設定.txt」。 but in Seasonal Dream Vision, it was revealed that she was under 60 years of age, and in Phantasmagoria of Flower View, she was unfamiliar with the "flower incident that occurs once every 60 years."
As she has a straightforward and diligent personality, she is often manipulated by those around her (especially Yuyuko). For this reason, she often fails at her task, but that does not mean that she has no real power, and she especially excels at instantaneous force and concentration of power. In Immaterial and Missing Power, as literally stated by the shishō, "truth-slashing is something which you know," so she often performs tsujigiri-like moves, but Suika Ibuki pointed out that she does not think that Youmu understood her shishō's teachings.
Youmu is highly sensitive, and in the good ending of Imperishable Night, upon receiving the insanity of the moon, she became affected with eyes of insanity. She is afraid of dares, the darkness, and ghosts. However, she is calm with regards to yuurei since she is half yuurei herself. At one point in Ten Desires, as a result of being mistaken for a hermit, she temporarily believed she was one.
In Perfect Cherry Blossom, she gathered all of Gensokyo's spring at Yuyuko's instruction, which was the reason Gensokyo's winter did not end. In Bohemian Archive in Japanese Red and Curiosities of Lotus Asia, she took on the responsibility for collecting and returning the yuurei that have gone to Gensokyo as a result of the thinning of the barrier of the Netherworld.
Species: Ghost
Age: At least 1000 years
Ability: Manipulation of death and departed souls
Residence: Hakugyokurō
Final Stage boss, Stage 1 boss of Ten Desires, and a playable character in Imperishable Night, Immaterial and Missing Power, Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, and Hisoutensoku. Yuyuko is the princess of the netherworld pagoda, Hakugyokurō. She is a ghost, but unlike most of her kind, looks entirely human. She was a human, cursed with the power to bring death to others; this ability caused her to eventually commit suicide using her life to seal away an ancient evil residing in a yōkai cherry blossom tree. Living in the netherworld, she does not socialize much with the rest of Gensokyo, apart from her gardener Youmu, the only person she speaks to is Yukari. Her family name Saigyouji suggests relations with the famed poet Saigyo. Yuyuko, at first appearance, is a ditz; her mental processes seem to be dedicated mainly to teasing her gardener and servant, Youmu, and anticipating her next meal. However, her usual manner conceals a sharp mind and an almost prenatural depth of insight. For example, she was the only one to perceive what sort of being Fujiwara no Mokou was at first sight. Yuyuko has the power to invoke death to any mortal; however, she rarely chooses to use it. Her danmaku are characterized by butterfly-shaped bullets. She is fairly tall.
Species: Shikigami (Kitsune)
Ability: Power to use shikigami
Residence: The boundaries of Gensokyo
Extra stage boss and Phantasm stage midboss. A nine-tailed fox yōkai whom Yukari Yakumo made her shikigami. She is considerably powerful even without her master's support. Among other things, she uses this power to maintain her own shikigami, Chen. Since Yukari sleeps 12 hours a day, she handles the work during these times. In dōjinshi, she is often depicted as a harassed servant, doing all of the work for her lazy master. She is fairly tall.
Species: Yōkai
Ability: Manipulation of space and boundaries
Residence: The boundaries of Gensokyo
Phantasm stage boss, and playable character in Imperishable Night, Subterranean Animism, Immaterial and Missing Power, Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, Hisoutensoku, and Antinomy of Common Flowers. Yukari is an elder yōkai who dwells on the border of Gensokyo, and may predate the existence of the realm itself. A good friend of Yuyuko and an acquaintance of Reimu, she is the self-appointed stewardess of the seal between Gensokyo and the Outside World, but does not do a particularly good job of it. Most of the time, she is asleep, leaving all the work to her shikigami Ran and Chen. When she is not, she tends to amuse herself by pulling in unprepared humans from the outside world and stranding them in Gensokyo, with no apparent way for them to return. Her calculation and mathematical skills far exceeds that of Ran, being Ran's master, making her one of the most intelligent yōkai, and, one of the most powerful - Rinnosuke suggests that no yōkai or human could defeat her in battle. Her ability is the manipulation of boundaries, which refers to both physical and metaphorical boundaries, which also distinguish her spell cards. Often, though, she just summons her shikigami and various others to create her danmaku for her. She is tall.
Immaterial and Missing Power
Species: Oni
Ability: Manipulation of density and sparseness
Residence: Gensokyo, often seen at Yokai Mountain and the Hakurei Shrine, exact location unknown
Main antagonist of Immaterial and Missing Power, a playable character in Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, and a support character to Reimu in Subterranean Animism, her only appearance in a mainline Touhou game. Suika is an oni, and once part of the Four Devas of the Mountains, alongside Yuugi Hoshiguma and Kasen Ibaraki (the fourth one has not been revealed), but has since then retreated underground with the rest of the oni. As an oni, she loves drinks, feasts, and competition. Despite her small size, she is physically strong, and has, speed and mystic powers to match. Using her ability to control density, she can gather people to form a banquet, or she can scatter herself to become mist. In Immaterial and Missing Power, she made the residents of Gensokyo have feasts for several consecutive days, intending to draw the joyous oni from hiding.
Suika (萃香) is the Japanese word for watermelon, and so this became an unofficial nickname for her. Her name is likely a reference to Mount Ibuki, where the oni Shuten-dōji was born.
Imperishable Night
Species: Yōkai firefly
Ability: Manipulation of insects
Residence: Bushes, grass
Stage 1 boss. Insects collect around her, and so she often can be seen in the middle of a swarm of them. With her powers, she can manipulate the flickerings of fireflies with timed synchronicity, or summon swarms of poisonous insects to kill an enemy. Like insects, she is afraid of pesticides and the cold. She is seen wearing a cape and pant-like bloomers, which led fans to believe she was a male. She is often seen alongside Yuuka and other insect/bug characters.
Species: Night sparrow
Ability: Making humans insane by singing
Residence: Youkai Trail
Stage 2 boss and playable character in Phantasmagoria of Flower View. Mystia is a night sparrow that dwells on a road near a human village. She conceals herself by blinding travelers who walk along the road at night, then lures them astray, after which point they disappear without a trace. She is carefree, loves to sing, and considers her nightly activities nothing more than a game. She cooks grilled lamprey, because, as a night sparrow, she is upset by other birds being eaten as yakitori. An incident in Imperishable Night in which she was apparently eaten by Yuyuko made her a popular joke character. However, she returned in Phantasmagoria of Flower View.
Species: Were-hakutaku
Ability: Power to consume history (as a human) and create history (as a hakutaku)
Residence: Human Village
Stage 3 boss. Although half-human and half-beast, she appears perfectly human, except during a full moon, when she grows horns. She was not born with therianthropy, and only became a were-hakutaku due to an unknown incident. She loves humans, and considers it her duty to protect the human village, by consuming the village's history to hide it when malicious yōkai pass by. However, she is trigger-happy and sometimes mistakes ordinary travelers for such malicious yōkai. Keine opened a terakoya in the village and spends her time teaching children and compiling historical records. She seems to be good friends with Fujiwara no Mokou.
Species: Yōkai rabbit
Ability: Power to confer good luck to humans
Residence: Eientei
Age At least 1,300 years old
Stage 5 midboss and playable character in Phantasmagoria of Flower View. Based upon the "White Hare of Inaba" story of the Kojiki, she evolved into a yōkai from a rabbit due to her longevity. She is the leader of the earthly bunnies of the Eientei, despite her deceitful personality. She is also a lucky charm - humans who get lost in the forest can depend on her fortune to find their way, though the humans often are not aware they can use her fortune for greater things.
Species: Moon rabbit
Ability: Power to manipulate insanity
Residence: Eientei
Stage 5 boss and playable character in Phantasmagoria of Flower View, Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, Legacy in Lunatic Kingdom, and the PlayStation 4 version of Urban Legend in Limbo. A Moon rabbit, she came to Gensokyo about 30 years ago to escape a war between Earth and the Moon. Since then, she has been an apprentice to Eirin, a pet to Kaguya, and a caretaker to Tewi. She has the power to drive people insane with her eyes by inducing hallucinations, and can also use her eyes to communicate telepathically with her kind. She also has control over waves of all kinds, such as light waves, brainwaves, electromagnetic waves, as well as sound waves, demonstrated during her story in Phantasmagoria of Flower View. "Udongein" and "Inaba" are both nicknames, the first given her by Eirin and the second Kaguya; the latter is what Kaguya calls all rabbits. Despite her power over insanity, Reisen is portrayed as one of the most level-headed and serious characters in the series.
According to a series of yonkoma manga, Inaba of The Moon and Inaba of The Earth, despite the care she generally got, Reisen is often abused by her mistress Kaguya and teacher Eirin. She is also often the subject of many pranks made by Tewi. However, it is important to note that Inaba of the Moon and Inaba of the Earth's canonicity is highly debatable, due to its nature being comedic and over-the-top, as befits a yonkoma, its events also being contradictory to established facts, and the fact that ZUN was only loosely involved in its creation.
Species: Human (Lunarian)
Ability: Power to create any drug, natural genius
Residence: Eientei
Boss of Final Stage A and midboss of Final Stage B. A genius pharmacist who once lived on the Moon. Kaguya persuaded her to produce the forbidden Hourai Elixir (the elixir of life) and consumed it. They were found out, but only Kaguya was punished and sent to the Earth, a fact which Eirin always felt guilty about. The Moon Court eventually pardoned Kaguya and summoned her back. Eirin and a handful of emissaries were sent to retrieve her, but Eirin found out that Kaguya did not want to return to the Moon. Acting out of her past guilt, Eirin betrayed and murdered all the other emissaries under the eyes of the earthlings who had fostered Kaguya. Eirin bribed the earthlings with the Hourai Elixir, in order to keep them silent, and went into hiding with Kaguya in Gensokyo. She is based on the Japanese goddess Omoikane.
Species: Human (Lunarian)
Ability: Manipulation of eternity and the instantaneous
Residence: Eientei
Boss of Final Stage B, Kaguya is actually the Princess Kaguya from The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter. A princess of the Moon, after consuming the forbidden Hourai Elixir and becoming immortal, she was punished by being exiled to live on the Earth. Later, she was pardoned and ordered to return to the moon. However, she preferred her common life on Earth to that as a princess on the Moon. Eirin helped her escape the emissaries, and the two went into hiding in Gensokyo. She has also been selling Yagokoro medicine and hosting exhibitions showing various items from the Moon. In dōjinshi and fanworks, she is often portrayed as a freeter who lays around Eientei all day.
Species: Human
Ability: Manipulation of fire, eternal youth, immortality
Residence: Bamboo Forest of the Lost
Extra Stage boss. Mokou was the daughter of a nobleman (assumed to be Fujiwara no Fuhito), one of Kaguya's suitors during her initial exile on Earth. When he was humiliated by Kaguya's five impossible requests, Mokou came to hate her. She wanted to take revenge, but Kaguya disappeared before she was able to do anything, so Mokou consoled herself by stealing the Hourai Elixir that Eirin had bribed the other humans with, and drank it to become immortal. She eventually found herself unable to remain in human society, and moved to Gensokyo, wherein she found Kaguya was also a fugitive. Both her and Kaguya continue to resent each other, and routinely kill one another, and though she resurrects herself each timed, she still experiences pain. She has control over the flames of the phoenix.
Phantasmagoria of Flower View
Species: Crow tengu
Ability: Manipulation of wind, exceptional speed
Residence: Yōkai Mountain
Playable character in Phantasmagoria of Flower View, Subterranean Animism, Double Spoiler, Hidden Star in Four Seasons, Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, Hisoutensoku, and is the only playable character of Shoot the Bullet, making her the first sole playable character in a Touhou game other than Reimu. She is also the main character of the fanbook Bohemian Archive in Japanese Red, the Stage 4 boss in Mountain of Faith, and also appears in Fairy Wars and Impossible Spell Card. Aya is the sole reporter, photographer, and distributor of the Bunbunmaru Shinbun ('Sentence sentence period newspaper'). She is often serious and appears to take her job quite seriously which is at odds with her reporting, as her newspaper consists mostly of rumors, gossip, and other questionably accurate stories. Despite being the only periodical newspaper available in Gensokyo, Strange and Bright Nature Deity and Curiosities of Lotus Asia suggest that it is not very well received.
Aya does not like to fight unless necessary, though she has a disliking for those she thinks are weak. As a tengu, she has power over the wind and is the fastest flyer in all of Gensokyo, as well as eyesight that far exceeds that of most others. Her bullets are extremely fast compared to most others. Additionally, she is one of the stronger yōkai in Gensokyo, and has sometimes defeated opponents when only trying to cover a news story.
Species: Doll
Ability: Manipulation of poison
Residence: Nameless Hill
An abandoned doll who turned into a yōkai after years of exposure to the poisonous lily-of-the-valleys. She advocates for doll emancipation (though other dolls are not capable of free will like she is) and dislikes humans because of their manipulation of dolls. Because of this, Sikieiki judged her to be "too narrow in outlook." Perhaps affected by this statement, she made an alliance with Eirin Yagokoro, though she still wishes for the liberation of dolls. Her name may originate from A Medicine for Melancholy by Ray Bradbury. Additionally, the word melancholia, from which melancholy is derived, had two meanings historically, as a precursor to depression, and, in Hippocratic humoral theory, melancholia was a word for black bile. In addition to her attacks, she also spews poisonous mists on the battlefield, slowing the player's movement when the player comes into contact with them.
Species: Yōkai
Ability: Manipulation of flowers
Residence: Garden of the Sun
First appearing in Lotus Land Story, Yuuka is the second PC-98 character to appear in the Windows Touhou games, after Alice Margatroid. She also appeared in Mystic Square for the PC-98, and as a playable character in Phantasmagoria of Flower View for Windows. She loves seasonal flowers, and thus throughout the year will move to the respective places where flowers are presently growing. She has lived long enough to witness several major flower-blooming outbreaks, an event that only occurs once every 60 years, implying she's at least a few hundred years old, and Sikieiki once commented that she "had lived a little too long." A consistent trait across all games is her slowness, either as a boss or a playable character. Yuuka carries a parasol with her, which she described as "the only flower in Gensokyo that never withers", but this may be metaphorical.
Species: Shinigami
Ability: Manipulation of distance
Residence: Sanzu River
Playable character in Phantasmagoria of Flower View and Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, and Final Stage Boss of Shoot The Bullet. Komachi is a shinigami who provides passage across the Sanzu River, giving her a role akin to that of Charon in Greek mythology. Despite her rather important job, she does not always take it seriously and ends up being scolded by her boss, Sikieiki Yamaxanadu. Her name is thought to have originated from the famed beauty Ono no Komachi. Her attacks come in the form of holed coins, in reference to the "price" one needs to pay to cross the Sanzu River.
Species: Yama
Ability: Power to judge clearly as good and evil
Residence: Higan
Final boss of the game, and Stage 10 Boss in Shoot The Bullet, Eiki Shiki is one of the judges of the underworld. Her job is to judge the deceased and decide whether they get sent to Heaven, Hell, or somewhere else. As a part of her job, she can be rather moralistic and likes to talk at length about morals. "Eiki Shiki" is her real name; the "Yamaxanadu" part of her name is actually her title, a combination of her status as "Yama" and "Xanadu", the place she is in charge of. "Yama" means that she is a judge of the underworld, and "Xanadu" means paradise.
Mountain of Faith
Species: Goddess of red leaves (Kami)
Ability: Control of autumn leaves
Residence: Foot of the Yōkai Mountain
Stage 1 midboss. Shizuha and her younger sister, Minoriko, control the season of autumn. She is prideful, and likes to show the leaves to Minoriko, believing them to be the best aspect of autumn, but grows dejected when winter approaches.
Species: Goddess of abundance (Kami)
Ability: Control of harvest
Residence: Foot of the Yōkai Mountain
Stage 1 boss and the younger sister of Shizuha. As a harvest goddess, she is invited as a special guest to the harvest festival in the Human Village every year, and will not guarantee the humans a good harvest if she is not. She can cultivate a harvest substantial enough to provide for everyone in Gensokyo, but may also destroy it if she desires. Like her sister, she is prideful and cheerful, but only during autumn.
Species: Curse goddess (Kami)
Ability: Gathering of misfortune
Residence: The Great Youkai Forest
Stage 2 boss. Hina is the head of the Nagashi-bina army, and gets her powers from nagashi-bina dolls which humans put their own misfortunes in and leave to float in rivers. As such, Hina is surrounded by curses and those who encounter her will run into misfortune, but she has no dislike of humans, and does not wish to see them hurt. Her danmaku is characterized by spinning, and the kanji for curse (厄 yaku), which is also seen on her dress, resembles a spiral.
Species: Kappa
Ability: Manipulation of water
Residence: Untrodden Valley
Stage 3 boss, also appearing as an enemy boss in Impossible Spell Card, and a playable character in Subterranean Animism, Hopeless Masquerade, Antinomy of Common Flowers, and Urban Legend in Limbo. An engineer with an interest in humans, she believes that the kappa and the humans were ancient allies. In-universe, the kappa are a race with advanced technology, demonstrated when the shy Nitori uses optical camouflage to conceal herself from the humans. As an engineer, she likes to disassemble and reassemble technology to understand how it works, but she is not able to make any tools of her own with magical properties. To carry all her engineering tools, Nitori is seen with a huge backpack, several times larger than her own back.
Species: White wolf tengu
Ability: Power to see a thousand ri ahead
Residence: Waterfall of Nine Heavens
Stage 4 midboss, also appearing in Impossible Spell Card and Double Spoiler. A loyal tengu who patrols the Yōkai Mountain and can see from distances up to one thousand ri (3,900KM or 2,400 miles) away. She attempts to scare intruders off with simple attacks before reporting them to her superiors. When not on duty, she plays dai shogi with the kappa who live nearby. During the events of Mountain of Faith, she failed to scare Reimu and Marisa away, so she was assigned under Aya Shameimaru to continue surveillance on the intruders. Her report led to the peaceful resolution of the tension between the tengu and the Moriya Shrine.
Species: Human, distant descendant of the goddess Suwako Moriya
Ability: Power to cause miracles
Residence: Moriya Shrine
Stage 5 boss and priestess (miko) of the Moriya Shrine, and a playable character in Undefined Fantastic Object, Ten Desires, and Hisoutensoku. Though she is human, she is descended from Suwako and has the power to create miracles due to her divine blood. In the past, people began to worship her as a living god due to these miracles, despite the fact that she was the priestess of another god and most of the miracles were her god's. Gradually, faith in both Sanae and her god Kanako declined and they chose to move their shrine to Gensokyo. In an attempt to gather the faith of Gensokyo's residents, she threatened to close down the Hakurei Shrine, which resulted in a sound defeat for her and her gods. In Gensokyo, her status is only that of a regular human.
Sanae is a rarity as she is both an outsider to Gensokyo as well as a human, and though there have been multiple characters who've come from the Outside World, only Sanae appears to have an understanding of popular culture, in once incident referencing mecha anime. Due to her position, she has trouble adjusting to life in Gensokyo, and is largely contemptuous towards yōkai. She has long, green hair with a frog head hair clip. Somewhat similar to Reimu, her outfit resembles a hakama with detached sleeves, leaving the armpits exposed, but Sanae's is white and blue. She also carries a gohei, but the paper decorations are rectangular, compared to the more irregular shape of Reimu's.
Species: Goddess of wind and rain (Kami)
Ability: Power to create qianResidence: Wind God's Lake
Stage 6 boss, also appearing in Subterranean Animism, Legacy of Lunatic Kingdom, Double Spoiler, Impossible Spell Card, and as a playable character in Hisoutensoku. Officially, a goddess of the mountain who inhabits the Moriya Shrine, but in reality a goddess of wind and rain. She is based on the Japanese god Yasakatome no Mikoto. As faith in gods in the Outside World declined, she decided to move from the Moriya Shrine to Gensokyo's Yōkai Mountain, to avoid being forgotten. She quickly acquired faith from the yōkai on the mountain — though it did have elements making it closer to a state of friendship. To acquire the faith of the humans and yōkai living elsewhere in Gensokyo, she sent her priestess Sanae to the Hakurei Shrine. She wears a snake-patterned shimenawa as her trademark, symbolizing her victory over Suwako long ago, in addition to removable pillars on her back. In the events before Subterranean Animism, she was the one that sent the Yatagarasu to Utsuho Reiuji so Kanako and Suwako could start their Mountain Industrial Revolution project using nuclear fusion power with the kappa. The project was a complete success.
Kanako is ambitious, and continually tries to increase her faith in any way that she can. Somewhat unusually for a deity, she does not demand formality in her worship, and is largely open towards science, to the extent that she wishes to transition towards being a goddess of technological innovation. She has no hostility towards humans, but will curse them, should they act disrespectfully.
Her ability is to produce a single Qian (乾), one of the eight elements (Bagua) of Taoism, which is associated with creation, leadership and reliability. She is also called a 'wind god', which would suggest an ability to alter the terrain and weather, and alongside Suwako, she has been seen creating large structures and opening holes into the underground.
Species: Goddess of mountains (Kami)
Ability: Power to create kunResidence: Moriya Shrine
Extra Stage boss, also appearing in Subterranean Animism, Legacy of Lunatic Kingdom, Double Spoiler, Impossible Spell Card, and as a playable character in Hisoutensoku. She is the original goddess of the Moriya Shrine, and once the leader of Mishaguji, but was later defeated by Kanako. However, the people of her kingdom still feared Mishaguji and were unable to accept Kanako as their new goddess. The two created a false god, "Moriya", from which they could both gather faith. Kanako borrowed Suwako's powers, and silently ruled as the goddess of mountain. Already long forgotten in the Outside World, Suwako was untroubled as her faith slowly declined, but accompanied Kanako to Gensokyo nonetheless — despite their history, and their frequent disagreements, the two are good friends. Suwako is notable for her frog motif, and though Cirno likes to freeze frogs much to Suwako's annoyance, there is no major resentment between the two.
Suwako's personality is somewhat opposite to Kanako - she is laid back, and does not appear to be affected by how much faith she has. Additionally, she enjoys competition, but does not leave the shrine often. Her ability is to create Kun (坤), which is associated with acceptance, subtlety, and flexibility. Mountain of Faith displays rather little of her power, but in Hisoutensoku, she can summon magma, geysers, grow plants instantly, and bend rivers.
Scarlet Weather Rhapsody
Species: Yōkai oarfish
Ability: Power to read the atmosphere
Residence: Sea of Abstruse Clouds
Sub-boss of Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, and Stage 10 boss in Double Spoiler. An ambassador from the Dragon Palace who came to warn Gensokyo of an upcoming calamity. She is a lightning user, and most of her combat abilities center around lightning and her long scarf. In her official profile in Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, it is said that "she can read the mood of a place, and adapt to it right away. She does not try to break the mood unless there is a very urgent reason. Flexibility is stronger than stiffness. When necessary, she vanishes completely and parries any attack."
Species: Celestial
Ability: Manipulation of Earth
Residence: Bhava-agra (Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana)
Boss of Scarlet Weather Rhapsody, Double Spoiler, Impossible Spell Card, and Violet Detector and is also a playable character in Antinomy of Common Flowers. Tenshi is a celestial with a "sheltered upbringing", but not entirely aware of this fact herself. She is overconfident, does not consider how her actions affect others, and is sensitive to insults, but ZUN described her as "nice", and that Scarlet Weather Rhapsody was "all about others bullying her." Bored with her life in Heaven, and envious of yōkai creating incidents, she creates one of her own in Gensokyo by using her powers, along with stealing the Hisou-no-Tsurugi ("Scarlet Disposition Sword"), which has the ability to absorb the disposition of others in the form of a mist, manipulating the weather. She is adept at the manipulation of rock and earth: she can throw rocks like a projectile, and raise the earth around or in front of herself. Additionally, she is remarkably strong, likely because of the peaches she ate in Heaven, which have magical properties. Tenshi's name can have multiple meanings depending on how it is read - Tenshi (天子) literally means 'Child of Heaven', and it can also be interpreted as 'Angel' (天使). Hinanawi (比那名居) can be read as 'The Goddess of Earthquake'.
Subterranean Animism
Species: Tsurube-otoshi
Ability: Dropping onibi
Residence: Underworld
Stage 1 midboss. A bashful yōkai who likes dark and confined spaces, and suddenly drops from high places to attack. She appears in a well bucket and it is believed she rarely, if ever, leaves this. Her name is written in katakana as, according to ZUN, kanji would "make her seem too strong." As she has no official dialogue, and a sparse character profile, very little is known about her.
Species: Tsuchigumo
Ability: Manipulation of illness
Residence: Fantasy Wind Cave
Stage 1 boss. A cave-dwelling spider yōkai who is cheerful and enjoys fighting. Her ability is to spread disease, generally of the infectious sort, which is especially dangerous to humans, however she prefers not to use her ability unless needed. Her design resembles a spider - the shape of her dress resembles that of a spider and her buttons look like an extra three pairs of eyes. Furthermore, the name Yamame (八ま目) can be translated as 'Eight Eyes.'
Species: Hashihime
Ability: Manipulation of jealousy
Residence: Deep Road to Hell
Stage 2 boss. A bridge princess who lives on the route to Former Hell. She is perpetually jealous, to an irrational degree - even being jealous of those who are worse off than her. Though she may appear to others as quite normal, internally she is consumed by jealousy, and the only seemingly practical use for this ability is seeing the lives of humans ruined by it, from her influence. Parsee's boss theme is "Green-Eyed Jealousy", named after her own green eyes, and in Double Spoiler her title is "The Green-Eyed Monster." These are both descriptions of jealousy from The Merchant of Venice and Othello, respectively.
Species: Oni
Ability: Exceptional strength, unexplainable phenomena
Residence: Former Streets of Hell (Ancient City)
Stage 3 boss, also appearing in Double Spoiler. One of the "Four Devas of the Mountain" along with Suika Ibuki, she is referred to as "Yuugi the Powerful" within the four, due to her unmatched strength. As well as her physical prowess, it has been suggested she can produce heat by moving her hand, and flatten trees by screaming. She possesses "unexplainable phenomena", which comes from the Analects of Confucius, precisely what this consists of is unknown, but the Analects speak of "anomalies, strength, disorder, and spirits." Originally from the Yōkai Mountain, she and the other oni moved underground when humans began to shun the oni. Yuugi continues her cheerful sake-drinking life in the Ancient City of Former Hell, and carries a sake dish named the Hoshiguma Dish, which raises the quality of any sake that is poured into it. She is cheerful and energetic, and has little tolerance for the weak. Yuugi is unusually tall, has long, blonde hair, and a red horn coming out of her forehead. She wears a white shirt with a long, blue skirt, and has broken chains attached to her wrists and ankles. The name Yuugi may be in reference to 'courage' (勇力) seen in 'strength', as seen in "anomalies, strength, disorder, and spirits." (怪力乱神).
Species: Satori
Ability: Mind reading, hypnosis
Residence: Palace of the Earth Spirits
Stage 4 boss, stage 9 boss in Double Spoiler, and the protagonist of the manga Foul Detective Satori. Satori became the Mistress of the Palace of the Earth Spirits after the underground city was separated from Hell. Satori has the ability to read the hearts and minds of any living creature, and while most yōkai and humans are wary of her because of this, she is loved by animals, who normally cannot be understood by anyone, and keeps many of them as pets. Little is known about her actual personality, largely due to the fact she is ostracized and so does not interact much with anyone else in Gensokyo. She also has some limited hypnotic abilities, which can bring traumatic memories to the forefront of someone's mind, or induce amnesia. During the events of Subterranean Animism, the Heroine invaded her home from above ground. After an encounter, Satori permitted the Heroine passage towards the Hell of Blazing Fires.
Species: Kasha
Ability: Carrying corpses, communicating with spirits
Residence: Remains of the Blazing Hell
A two-tailed cat who shows up as a midboss in stage 4 and 5, and turns into humanoid form as the stage 5 boss and Final Stage midboss. Rin (nicknamed Orin in the game) is one of Satori's pets, whose job is to carry corpses to the former Hell of Blazing Fires to regulate its heat, which she does with a wheelbarrow, and though it holds no special properties of its own, is described as "likely to have carried the most corpses in all of history." She also has the ability to communicate with the dead, and other ghostly spirits, and in combat can briefly reanimate corpses.
Before the events of Subterranean Animism, Rin learned of her old friend Utsuho's newly acquired power, and of her plans to conquer the above ground. She got terrified at the thought of her friend's future, and the punishment her mistress would impart on her (even though Satori never intended to, it was merely Rin's own paranoia). She decided to drive the evil spirits to above ground to lure the yōkai in and get them to help her, but instead the Heroine appeared before her, and when she was stronger than Rin expected, she asks the Heroine to help her and stop Utsuho.
Species: Hell raven with Yatagarasu
Ability: Manipulation of nuclear fusion
Residence: Hell of Blazing Fires
Final Stage boss, stage 8 boss in Double Spoiler, and a playable character in Hisoutensoku. Utsuho (sometimes Okuu) is one of Satori's pets, a Hell raven who has lived in the underground world for longer than its separation from Hell. Her job is to regulate the flames of the Hell of Blazing Fires. Before the events of Subterranean Animism, she was told by a voice (presumably Kanako Yasaka's) that she could swallow the god, yatagarasu, that was hidden in the flames to gain a power that would fulfill the wishes of both the worlds below and above the surface, the power in question being nuclear fusion. Utsuho decided that using these powers, she would take over Gensokyo. Her friend, Rin Kaenbyou, became worried about Utsuho, and drove evil spirits to the surface to cause an incident among the strong yōkai above ground, hoping that they would come down to do something about it and, when they got there, they ultimately defeated Utsuho and brought her back to her former self. Contrary to their expectations, it was a human that came, and not a yōkai.
Species: Satori
Ability: About enough power to manipulate the unconscious
Residence: Myouren Temple
Extra Stage boss, stage 9 boss in Double Spoiler, and a playable character in Hopeless Masquerade, Urban Legend in Limbo, and Antinomy of Common Flowers. Like her elder sister Satori, Koishi was born with the power to read other people's minds. However, Koishi knew this power of hers would make people feel uneasy around her, so she deliberately closed off this power (which weakened Satori's power as well). She sealed away her own mind to others in doing so, and even her sister would not be able to read her mind. Satori took pity on her, and gave some pets to Koishi, hoping that the animals would open Koishi's heart to others. The plan worked, and Koishi started to care for her pets, and would one day set out to seek the god who gave Utsuho power so that her own pets could use it too.
Undefined Fantastic Object
Species: Mouse yōkai
Age: At least 1000 years
Ability: Power to find sought-for objects
Residence: The Road of Lingering Snow (Stage 1), Makai (Stage 5)
Stage 1 boss and stage 5 mid-boss. Being a leader of mice and a natural dowser, Nazrin was commanded by Shou to search for the shards that fell from the sky and the Jeweled Pagoda of Bishamonten, but her dowsing rods brought her to the humans instead. Nazrin is easily frightened, and flees at the first sight of danger. She can use her dowsing rod to search for anything, provided she has a proper internal image of what it is, however food is the singular exception to this, as the other mice under her command would eat it before she could find any.
Species: Kasa-obake
Ability: Surprising humans, blacksmithing
Residence: Myouren Temple Cemetery (Ten Desires)
Stage 2 boss, Extra Stage mid-boss of Undefined Fantastic Object, and stage 3 mid-boss of Ten Desires. Kogasa was once an umbrella who was forgotten for a long time and thus became an obake. Beyond blacksmithing, Kogasa's only ability to speak of is surprising humans, but holds no malice towards them. She is generally happy, but can quickly grow depressed if things do not go her way - she has low self-esteem, and is annoyed when people do not take her seriously, and will often contemplate if she's better off foregoing her consciousness and going back to being an umbrella. Ultimately, she just wants to feel wanted, but is held back by her lackluster ability. The name Kogasa (小傘) means 'little umbrella', and Tatara (踏鞴) is the traditional Japanese method of smelting iron. She carries an umbrella that resembles a Kasa-obake, and is the only Touhou character with heterochromia: her left eye is blue, and her right one is red.
Species: Yōkai and Nyūdo
Age: At least 1000 years
Ability: Nyūdō
Residence: Myouren Temple
Stage 3 boss, stage 5 boss in Double Spoiler, and a playable character in Hopeless Masquerade, Urban Legend in Limbo, and Antinomy of Common Flowers. Ichirin Kumoi is a former human turned nyūdō user that the heroine encounters at the Palanquin Ship, which she guards alongside Unzan. Nyūdō (入道) is a Japanese term which literally means "entering the road", and is often used to refer to monks who have entered the road towards the path of Buddha. In the context of Touhou, it refers to Ichirin's ability to control her partner, Unzan, who will fire the danmaku for her, although the spell card "Electrified Nyūdō" has Ichirin firing it herself.
Ichirin was once a human, but came into contact with the man-eating foreseeing nyūdō, Unzan. Ichirin repelled by shouting "The foreseeing nyūdō was foreseen!", which would normally make him disappear, but he was impressed by her courage and devoted the rest of his life towards protecting her. Over time, Ichirin's fear of yōkai ceased, which caused her to become shunned by other humans, and eventually became a yōkai herself. Her and Unzan are always seen together, and they reside in the Myouren Temple. Ichirin wears a headdress and kesa, giving her the appearance of a traditional Buddhist monk.
Species: Ship ghost
Ability: Causing shipwrecks
Residence: Palanquin Ship
Murasa is the stage 4 boss, the spirit of the former captain of the Palanquin Ship, which she drowned in. She now sinks any ships she comes across, but her ability is limited by the fact Gensokyo has no seas. Despite her rather morbid ability, she is still capable of empathising with humans, and is careful with who she chooses to drown. She wears a standard serafuku with a sailor hat, and carries an anchor.
Species: Tiger yōkai
Age: At least 1000 years
Ability: Gathering of treasures
Residence: Formerly Makai (Above Hokkai), currently Myouren Temple.
Shou is the stage 5 boss, and is an avatar of the god Bishamonten. Alongside the rest of the yōkai aboard the Palanquin Ship, she seeks to revive Byakuren Hijiri. She is generally dignified, but displays a wider array of emotion when among close friends. Her ability is to gather treasures, and she can use gems in combination with the Jeweled Pagoda to fire lasers which can eviscerate anything it hits, or create more gems, but most of her power comes from the Pagoda, and is quite weak physically compared to other yōkai. As a priest of the Myouren Temple, she is subject to worship.
Species: Magician, formerly human
Age: Over 1100 years
Ability: Magic
Residence: Formerly Hokkai, currently the Myouren Temple.
Stage 6 boss, stage 12 boss in Double Spoiler, stage 10 boss in Impossible Spell Card, and a playable character in Hopeless Masquerade, Urban Legend in Limbo, and Antinomy of Common Flowers. Byakuren is a Buddhist monk characterized by her serenity and dislike of conflict, making her liked by pacifistic yōkai. She is the chief priestess of the Myouren Temple, and teaches dharma to those who listen to her, and hopes to try and bring peace between humans and yōkai. Additionally, she manages funerals, and performs monthly sutra chant concerts, which both humans and yōkai attend.
Her magic is primarily focused on enhancing her physical abilities, in particular, strength, speed, and senses, but when not under the effects of magic, these are all on a level comparable to that of a regular human. Byakuren possesses the Sorcerer's Sutra Scroll, which contains the sutras she needs to perform her magic. It is able to recite spells on its own, can hold an infinite number of sutras, does not deteriorate, and can only be used by Byakuren. The name Byakuren (白蓮) can mean white lotus (the white lotus being a symbol of purity), and Hijiri (聖) can mean saint, making one possible reading of her name Saint of the White Lotus. Additionally, the White Lotus was a sect of Buddhism that became influential in China during the 13th century.
Species: Nue
Age: More than 800 years
Ability: Making objects unidentifiable
Residence: Myouren Temple
Nue is the Extra Stage boss, also appearing as a sphere of light in stages 4 and 6, and as a boss in Double Spoiler and Extra Stage midboss in Ten Desires. Her ability is to conceal the nature of an object, making it look different to any person who looks at it, and she can also use this ability to disguise herself. She enjoys confusing people this way, and avoids letting people find out her actual appearance. Nue has several red wings, blue tails, carries a trident, and has a snake on her right arm. She wears a black dress, paired with black thigh-high socks, making her the first Touhou character to feature zettai ryōiki. The name Houjuu (封獣) means 'sealed beast', likely a reference to the fact she conceals her true nature.
Double Spoiler
Species: Crow tengu
Ability: Thoughtography
Residence: Yōkai Mountain
Boss of Double Spoiler and a playable character. She is upbeat and has a laid-back personality, but hates going outside and working. She writes the Kakashi Spirit News, which she gets information for using her power of thoughtography, and is the only rival to Aya's Bunbunmaru Newspaper. While her newspaper is more thoughtfully written than Aya's, Hatate's dislike of work, combined with the fact that her thoughtography requires information to have already been heard (rather than acquiring it first-hand), new publications are much slower. Because of the business rivalry between them, Hatate has a strong hatred of Aya.
Fairy WarsFairy Wars does not introduce any new characters, but three characters from the manga Eastern and Little Nature Deity and Strange and Bright Nature Deity do appear.
Species: Fairy
Ability: Detection of movement
Residence: Forest of Magic
Unlike the other two fairies, Star's ability relies on the stars, which means her strength is consistent, as unlike the sun or moon, the stars are always present. She is able to detect movement of any sort from afar, but precisely from what distance is unknown. She is the most level-headed of the three, though she still enjoys pranking others just as much, but she is selfish, sometimes using her companions as bait to make an escape. She has a mushroom bonsai tree.
Species: Fairy
Ability: Muting sound
Residence: Forest of Magic
Luna is a fairy whose ability is to mute sound, but uses the moon, making her vulnerable when it is not present in the sky. She is clumsy and has the most human traits of any fairy, as she likes to read, and tries to engage in logical thinking, but ironically is the stupidest of the three fairies.
Species: Fairy
Ability: Refraction of light
Residence: Forest of Magic
A cheerful fairy who likes to play pranks on humans, usually in the form of getting them lost. She manipulates the power of the sun, namely the power to control reflection, with which can make things appear to be invisible, but is evidently reliant on the sun, and less effective in the presence of rain. She lives with Luna Child and Star Sapphire in a tree house close to the Hakurei Shrine, and the trio often go out to prank humans. Sunny and her accomplices are from the manga Eastern and Little Nature Deity and Strange and Bright Nature Deity.
Ten Desires
Species: Yamabiko
Ability: Reflection of sound
Residence: Myouren Temple
Stage 2 boss. Kyouko Kasodani is a yōkai who can reflect sound waves, which allows her to create a danmaku from compressed air - Japanese legend says that echoes are the result of yamabiko manipulating the sound themselves. She is a priest in training at the Myouren Temple, and is one of its newer members. The name Kyouko (響子) means 'echo child', and Kasodani (幽谷) means 'ghost valley'.
Species: Jiangshi
Ability: Eating anything
Residence: Myouren Temple Cemetery
Stage 3 and Stage 4 boss, alongside Seiga Kaku. She is under the effects of an anti-decomposition spell, to prevent her body from rotting, but is majorly lacking in cognitive ability compared to a human. Her ability is to eat anything, and gain sustenance from it. Her name is likely derived from Miyako no Yoshika, a 9th Century Japanese scholar, who according to legend, 100 years after becoming a hermit, was spotted in the mountains, his face entirely unchanged.
Species: Hermit
Age: Over 1400 years
Ability: Passing through walls
Residence: Hall of Dreams' Mausoleum
Stage 4 boss, alongside Yoshika Miyako. Seiga Kaku is a Taoist hermit who tries to convert others at any opportunity. She is generally malign, manipulating others for her own benefit, such as when she revived Yoshika, her de facto pet. Similarly, she uses her ability to pass through walls to steal others' belongings and then sell them back to them. The name Kaku (霍) is Chinese, which, combined with the fact she is not native to Gensokyo, can be taken to presume she is most likely Chinese.
Species: Ghost
Ability: Creating thunder and lightning
Residence: Hall of Dreams' Great Mausoleum
Stage 5 midboss, one of Toyosatomimi no Miko's servants. Soga no Tojiko comes from the Soga clan, and is a vengeful spirit who uses thunder and lightning, both as a result of anger and as part of her danmaku. She has a short temper, and the fact she is prone to anger in the first place makes her rather unlike Mononobe no Futo, but she is able to control her emotions when speaking to her friends. The name Soga (蘇我) is taken from the Soga clan, an influential clan of the Asuka period of Japan, until they were overthrown by the Fujiwara clan in the Isshi Incident, 645. However, the name can also mean 'ego awakening', and Tojiko (屠自古) means 'ancient carcass'.
Species: Taoist, self-identifies as a shikaisen"
Age: Over 1400 years
Ability: Manipulation of Feng shui
Residence: Hall of Dreams' Great Mausoleum
Stage 5 boss, one of Toyosatomimi no Miko's servants. Mononobe no Futo is a shikaisen (shijie xian), a hermit whose living body was strengthened by taking on qualities of the dead, and as a shikaisen, she is able to take on many potential forms, but largely chooses to retain the same appearance she had as a human. Mononobe is old-fashioned, unable to adapt to new ways of life, and she speaks in an archaic manner. Though she sometimes has trouble understanding others, she is kind-hearted, even if at times hostile towards yōkai. She has the ability to manipulate feng shui, the flow of qi, giving her control of water, fire and the wind. Mononobe's name likely comes from the Mononobe clan.
Species: Saint
Age: 1446 years (born 7 February, 574)
Ability: Listening to ten people speak simultaneously
Residence: Divine Spirit Mausoleum
Stage 6 boss. A Saint living inside the Hall of Dreams' Mausoleum. She is easygoing, and does not appear to take things very seriously, nor does she attempt to try and aggressively convert others to her faith. Though relaxed, she is respectful of others and friendly towards humans. Her ability to listen to ten people at once is reliant on desires (and is the origin of the name Ten Desires), as she was completely unable to understand Youmu Konpaku, who had no desire of life or death, which would suggest rather than listen to people directly, she identifies their desires, and responds to those, rather than their words. Her character design is largely based on Prince Shōtoku, and is the only Touhou character whose exact birth date has been officially revealed. The name Toyosatomimi no Miko (豊聡耳神子) is derived from one of the names given to Prince Shōtoku in the Nihon Shoki, Umayato-no-toyotomimi-no-miko (厩戸豊聡耳皇子).
Species: Tanuki
Ability: Disguise
Residence: Myouren Temple
Extra Stage boss. An easygoing yet confident bake-danuki who speaks like an old woman. Mamizou has the ability to disguise herself and the objects around her. She is able to affect them directly, unlike Nue who merely obfuscates peoples' perception. However, she cannot hide her smell, which can leave her compromised. Mami, as seen in Mamizou's name, can be read in two ways, as 猯, meaning tanuki, or 魔魅, meaning 'deceiving spirit'.
Hopeless Masquerade
Species: Menreiki
Age: About 1300 years
Ability: Manipulation of emotions
Residence: Unknown, only seen in the Human Village during the Final Stage.
Stage 7 Boss, and a playable character in Urban Legend in Limbo and Antinomy of Common Flowers. A Menreiki who was born from the 66 masks that were created by Toyosatomimi no Miko, who later made the Mask of Hope for her own usage. Kokoro cannot express her emotions with her own face, and uses the masks for this purpose. While she has control of the masks (and thereby her emotions) when they are in her possession, should she lose a mask, she will no longer be able to control it, nor experience that emotion herself. After the events of the game, she grows less reliant on the masks and is able to develop a sense of self. Kokoro once lost her Mask of Hope, which caused her to lose all hope and made her dependent on others, but returned to normal once she acquired another one. This mask fell into Koishi's hands, and Kokoro resents Koishi, who refuses to give it back.
Double Dealing Character
Species: Mermaid
Ability: Increase in strength when in water
Residence: Misty Lake
Stage 1 Boss. Wakasagihime is a Mermaid yokai who lives in Misty Lake. She is mostly timid, and most of the other characters are surprised to see her taking an offensive stance. She is strengthened when submerged in water, which may explain why others do not see her acting aggressively. The name Wakasagihime is derived from the wakasagi, a Japanese fish.
Species: Rokurokubi
Ability: Detaching her head, flying
Residence: Human Village
Stage 2 Boss. A Rokurokubi who can detach her head from the rest of her body, and fly it when in this state. Sekibanki is slightly prideful, but does not take any effort to prove herself, and usually leaves others alone. Though she is a rokurokubi, they only have the ability to stretch their necks to an extent much greater than a human, with the complete removal of the head being a trait of the distinct nukebuki. Sekibanki appears to share characteristics of both, as while she can remove her head, she has the elongated neck of a rokurokubi. Additionally, rokurokubi have symbols on their necks indicating precisely from which point the head detaches, revealing their identity, and it is likely that Sekibanki covers up her neck for this reason. The name Sekibanki is spelled with the characters 赤蛮奇, meaning 'red barbarian anomaly'. Ban (蛮) is likely taken from hitouban (飛頭蛮), a Chinese creature similar to the rokurokubi, with hitouban meaning 'flying head barbarians'.
Species: Werewolf
Ability: Transforming into a wolf on a full moon
Residence: Bamboo Forest of the Lost
Stage 3 Boss. A werewolf with a calm temperament, who can transform into a wolf on a full moon, likely a Honshu wolf, a species that has gone extinct in the Outside World. The name Kagerou (影狼) means 'shadow wolf', and Imaizumi (今泉) is the same surname as that of Yoshinori Imaizumi, a Japanese zoologist who researched the Honshu wolf.
Tsukumo Sisters
Species: Tsukumogami
Ability: Making sound, performing music without instruments
Residence:
Both Benben and Yatsuhashi Tsukumo are bards who were once musical instruments in the Outside World, but came to Gensokyo. When the Miracle Mallet was used, its magical power flooded into them, and they both became tsukumogami at around the same time. However, they quickly learned where their power was coming from (the Shining Needle Castle) and decided to overthrow society as tools, with similar motivations to Seija Kijin. Though called the Tsukumo sisters, they do not share a bloodline, but rather they both came sentient at the same time. They are both the Extra stage midbosses.
Stage 4A Boss and Stage 4B Midboss. Benben is calm and collected, making her opposite to her sister.
Stage 4B Boss and Stage 4A Midboss. As can be inferred, she is loud and energetic, unlike her sister. She uses her dress as a Koto to summon attacks.
Species: Amanojaku
Ability: Upturning anything
Residence: Shining Needle Castle
Stage 5 Boss, and the protagonist of Impossible Spell Card. An amanojaku who guards the Shining Needle Castle and serves as the main antagonist of the game, with her attempt to try and overthrow Gensokyo, in which she planned to give the poor and weak more power. Seija is extremely misanthropic, deliberately opposing others at any opportunity, which in turn has made her hated by others, but she enjoys being hated. Her ability is to completely turn over anything she encounters, reflected in her Spell Cards which allow her to rotate the player's screen, disorienting them.
Species: Inchling
Ability: Can use the Miracle Mallet
Residence: Shining Needle Castle
Stage 6 Boss. Sukuna is an inchling, a species of small humans, the most recognised one being Issun-bōshi, and Sukuna is one of his descendants. She can use the Miracle Mallet, a family heirloom, which allows its user to grant wishes at a cost, but it can only be wielded by other inchlings. In the events of the game, Sukuna uses it to increase her height, bringing her to a size comparable to a human child, but caused magical energy to be leaked into Gensokyo, resulting in disruption. She has a complex surrounding her height, and speaks in a childlike manner.
Species: Tsukumogami
Ability: Can make anything follow a rhythm
Residence:
Extra Stage Boss. A Tsukumogami made from a Taiko drum who utilises the magic energy of drummers from the Outside World, and is seen with a drum set. She acquired magical power from the Miracle Mallet, but removed this power to become self-sufficient, recognising that this power would not last forever. She believes in freedom, and is helpful towards other tools (such as the Tsukumo sisters) in letting them acquire freedom for themselves. The name Raiko (雷鼓) consists of the kanji for 'thunder' and 'drum'.
Urban Legend in Limbo
Species: Ibaraki-dōji
Age: Over 1000 years
Ability: Communicating with animals, remotely controlling her arm, guiding yōkai, hiding her home with fangshi, creating light orbs, instant movement, creating barriers to and from the Outside World
Residence: Yōkai Mountain, also seen at the Hakurei Shrine
Playable character, and the title character of the manga Wild and Horned Hermit. Little is known about her past beyond the fact she is one of the Sages of Gensokyo (the others being Yukari and Okina), who created Gensokyo and separated it from the Outside World, and, according to the Bunbunmaru, she was acknowledged at Yōkai Mountain as early as 1980. Kasen has perhaps the largest number of abilities of any Touhou character, and she remarked to Reimu that her abilities are a "secret", suggesting that there may be hidden powers she has yet to demonstrate. However, the confirmed abilities include communicating with and guiding animals, removing her artificial arm and allowing it to act independently from the rest of her body, guiding yōkai, using fangshi and hermit sorcery to hide her home, producing light orbs of greatly various sizes, being able to move instantly, opening and closing the Hakurei Barrier at will, and she has claimed that she never uses her full strength when fighting Reimu as it would be 'risky.' Additionally, she owns the Ibaraki Box of a Hundred Medicines, which can cure any illness or injury from whoever drinks it, and if the drinker is healthy, then they will gain superhuman strength, but temporarily act like an oni.
Species: Human
Age: 15–16 years
Ability: Levitation, pyrokinesis (control of fire), hydrokinesis (control of water), telekinesis, psychokinesis, teleportation
Residence: Kantō, Japan, Outside World
Final boss who becomes a playable character, also a playable character in Antinomy of Common Flowers, and is the only playable character of Violet Detector. She considers herself above others, and has limitless confidence, but the events of the game lead her to respect the people of Gensokyo. Despite her hubristic behavior, she is rather intelligent, and gets along quite well with others. She wears glasses, a long, plaid purple skirt, and a black hat and cloak. She carries Zener cards and a Liberator. The name Sumireko (菫子) means 'violet child', meaning both her and Renko Usami ('lotus child') are named after flowers.
Legacy of Lunatic Kingdom
Species: Moon rabbit
Ability: Firing bullets from other dimensions
Residence: Gensokyo
Stage 1 Boss. Seiran is a military infiltrator of the Lunarians and member of the "Eagle Ravi" squad. She usually communicates to her kin via telepathy, as she has trouble speaking normally. Seiran is also the name of the Aichi M6A, a Japanese floatplane used during the Pacific War, but ZUN has confirmed that this was a coincidence, and the two have no relation.
Species: Moon rabbit
Ability: Becoming stronger by eating dango
Residence: Gensokyo
Stage 2 Boss. Ringo is an informant of the Lunarian military and member of the "Eagle Ravi" squad. With the leisurely job of Information Management, she is generally laid back and avoids fighting where she can.
Species: Baku
Ability: Complete control of the dream world
Residence: Dream World
Stage 3 Boss, and a playable character in Antinomy of Common Flowers. Doremy Sweet is a Baku who can completely manipulate the world of dreams. This means she can create dreams herself, and observe other people's, which gives her a strong insight into the minds of others. However, outside of dreams, she is rather powerless.
Species: Lunarian
Ability: Reversing situations with words
Residence: The Lunar Capital
Stage 4 Boss. Sagume is a high-ranked Lunarian and goddess who has the power to reverse a situation with her words, meaning that if she says something, the opposite will occur. For this reason, she's careful with her words, and not very talkative.
Species: Fairy
Ability: Driving people to madness
Residence: Sea of Tranquility, near side of the Moon, Hell, Hakurei Shrine
Stage 5 Boss. Clownpiece is a Hell fairy and subordinate of Hecatia Lapislazuli. She carries a torch, and any human who looks into its flame is driven to insanity, which was previously used to grow leaves on trees instantly, but this caused the flame to be temporarily extinguished. Clownpiece wears leggings and a shirt with an American flag pattern, which she wore after seeing it on the moon. Her character art has Clownpiece raising her torch, resembling the Statue of Liberty.
Species: Divine spirit
Ability: Total purification
Residence:
Final Boss, and the individual responsible for orchestrating the invasion of the Moon. Junko is a divine spirit who is able to purify anything, meaning that she can remove impurities, similar to refinement of metals. She used this power on her own hatred of the Lunarians, and on Clownpiece and other fairies to strengthen them, facilitating the invasion of the Moon, in which she planned to kill Chang'e. Nothing is known about Junko's origin, but she appears to be Chinese. She wears a liangbatou, which is Chinese in origin, and ZUN said "Junko is a character to be contrasted with Hecatia. She has more of a Chinese feel, and she seems strong in a simple way. That's it."
Species: Goddess
Ability: Having three bodies in a single mind
Residence: Hell
Extra Stage Boss. Hecatia Lapislazuli is the goddess of Hell, and formed an alliance with Junko to invade the Moon, with the same motivation – revenge against Chang'e, whose husband, Houyi, destroyed the sun, weakening Hell. However, Junko's ability means that this grudge was not entirely belonging to Hecatia herself. She has three bodies, belonging to each world: the Outerworld, Earth, and the Moon, which have red, blue, and yellow hair respectively. Unlike Junko's traditional and rather plain outfit, Hecatia wears a punk-inspired tri-colored skirt, a black shirt with the words "Welcome ❤ Hell", and a collar with three chains, each having an orb of the three worlds Hecatia has a presence in, and during combat, her hair and eyes change color. Hecatia's name is derived from the Greek goddess Hecate, who is sometimes depicted with three bodies.
Antinomy of Common Flowers
Species: Pestilence Goddess
Ability: Bringing financial misfortune
Playable character and final boss alongside Shion, her older sister. She is a habitual thief and extravagant spender, who cannot hold onto her money, so despite her expensive outfit, she is quite poor most of the time. Her ability is to bring others into a similar state, by convincing them to make exaggerated purchases.
Species: Poverty Goddess
Ability: Bringing misfortune, which extends to herself
Playable character and final boss alongside Joon, her younger sister. Her ability, which she seems unable to control, is to bring great misfortune towards anyone she encounters, making her just about as disliked as Joon. The only person immune to this is Tenshi, whose good luck is able to negate it.
Hidden Star in Four Seasons
Species: Fairy
Ability: Scattering scales
Stage 1 midboss and boss. A fairy who dislikes the cold, and is able to scatter the wings on her back, which she uses as part of her danmaku. She resembles the Asian swallowtail, and is acquainted with Cirno.
Species: Yama-uba
Ability: Creating sanctuaries
Residence: Yōkai Mountain
Stage 2 midboss and boss. A recluse who lives a solitary, primitive lifestyle, and will chase out any intruder she comes across. Because of her asociality, little is known about her.
Species: Komainu
Ability: Locating Shinto and Buddhism
Residence: Hakurei Shrine
Stage 3 boss. A komainu who guards the Hakurei Shrine, though she was never asked to, and until the events of the game, Reimu had no idea who she was, as Aunn mostly stays hidden because of her weakness. She can detect Shintoist or Buddhist piety, and chooses to loiter around the shrines in which she finds it.
Species: Magician (formerly Jizo statue)
Ability: Using magic (control of life)
Residence: Forest of Magic
Stage 4 boss. And acquaintance of Marisa who was brought to life with the Forest of Magic's power, she is powered up by Mai Teireida as a test for the protagonist, but is defeated. Yatadera is the name of a Buddhist temple in Yamatokōriyama, which contains many Jizo temples, including the oldest one in Japan.
Species: Human
Ability: Drawing out people's vitality by dancing behind them
Stage 5 boss (with Satono Nishida). She is a servant of Okina Matara. With Satono, she dances behind people to help produce vitality. She is airheaded, and the only bokukko in the series.
Species: Human
Ability: Drawing out people's mental energy by dancing behind them
Stage 5 boss (with Mai Teireida). She is a servant of Okina Matara. Her ability is to help produce mental energy in humans. Though more discreet than Mai, she is still quite overconfident in her abilities.
Species: Secret Goddess
Ability: Creating back doors, manipulation of life energy
Final stage and extra stage boss. She is a God and one of the Sages of Gensokyo, and the master of Satono Nishida and Mai Teireida. She has no issue making grand displays of her power, cursing those who disrespect her, but blessing those who revere her, and she is capable of empathising with humans. Her main ability is to create back doors on anything, including living beings, as a means of teleportation, to send herself or objects elsewhere. Additionally, she can use her servants, Mai and Satono, to manipulate the life or mental energy of others, respectively.
Wily Beast and Weakest Creature
Species: Soul of a stillborn child
Ability: Stacking stones
Residence: Sai no Kawara, Sanzu River
Stage 1 midboss and boss. She is the spirit of a mizuko, a child who either was stillborn, or otherwise a victim of infant mortality. She has a fittingly childlike optimism, and greatly enjoys stacking stones under the Sanzu River, and holding competitions for it. Ebisu (戎) shares her name with a Japanese god who was born without bones, but became a god at the age of three.
Species: Ushi-oni
Ability: Changing the weight of everyday objects
Residence: Sanzu River
Stage 2 midboss and boss. Though she is initially hostile towards the protagonist, she is quite helpful in redirecting them. Her ability is to change the weight of objects she is close to, and carries a stone carving of a baby, which once given to someone else, can be made heavier and submerge them into the river. If someone attempts to cross the river without permission from a shinigami, they will be attacked by giant fish, and Urumi makes a living by catching and selling them.
Species: Goddess of chickens
Ability: Healing throat illnesses
Residence: Yōkai Mountain
Stage 3 midboss and boss, Extra stage midboss. She is a self-described 'birdbrain', but still is reasonably intelligent, and only attacks the protagonist out of a concern for their own welfare. Her name is derived from kutakake, an archaic word for chicken in Japanese.
Species: Jidiao
Ability: Making people lose the will to fight back
Stage 4 midboss and boss. She orchestrated the incident, by sending beast spirits to the Human Realm in search of a human who can help the beasts defeat Keiki. Despite a polite and helpful facade, she is highly manipulative. She is in control of the Kiketsu (鬼傑) family, whose name roughly translates to 'devilish excellence'.
Species: Haniwa
Ability: Directly turning her loyalty into strength
Residence: Primate Spirit Garden
Stage 5 midboss and boss, and Stage 6 midboss. She is a servant of Keiki, the commander of her idol army, and has a vigilant, soldierly attitude. She carries a haniwa as a weapon, and wears yellow lamellar armor.
Species: Goddess
Ability: Creating idols
Final boss. She creates idols, which are animated by faith, who she can use to work or fight for her, similar to Alice's dolls, but it is said anything Keiki creates has a soul. Despite her somewhat conniving and usurping behavior, she is quite polite, and likes to avoid conflict. She makes peace with Reimu and Marisa by offering to create a shintai for the Hakurei Shrine, and a figure of Marisa, respectively.
Species: Kurokoma
Ability: Unmatched leg strength
Extra stage boss. Ambitious in character, she is the leader of the wolf spirits, and unsuccessfully tried to overthrow Hell after hearing of Keiki's defeat. Her outfit is similar to that of a cowboy.
Sunken Fossil World
Species: Taotie
Ability: Capable of absorbing anything
Final boss. She leads the eagle spirits. She carries a large spork. She can gain the powers of anything she absorbs. She defeats all of the heroines standing in her path, until Okina Matara makes Flandre Scarlet defeat her, since her pure destructive energy cannot be absorbed by Toutetsu’s special ability.
Unconnected Marketeers
Species: Maneki-neko
Ability: Beckoning in money or customers
Stage 1 midboss and boss. She is supposed to be a maneki-neko, but since she was born a calico cat, she struggled and decided to live on the mountains by her own. She makes the protagonist buy a card from her. She can beckon in either money or customers, but beckoning one causes her to lose the other.
Species: Yamawaro
Ability: Manipulating forest qi
Stage 2 midboss and boss. She is the leader of the Yamawaro on Yōkai Mountain. She is slightly more polite than other members of her society. She softens during business.
Species: Yamajorou
Ability: Controlling people's minds with tobacco smoke
Stage 3 midboss and boss. She is the owner of a gambling den on the Yōkai Mountain plateaus. Her personality is gruff and curt. With her ability, she calms down the gambling patrons if they use up all their money.
Species: Goddess
Ability: Capable of making magatama
Stage 4 Boss. She makes jewelry for a living, and can also make yin-yang orbs. She made Reimu's yin-yang orbs, which are her primary weapons throughout the series.
Species: Kuda-gitsune
Ability: Capable of slipping into places where one's soul is weak
Stage 5 Midboss.
Species: Great Tengu
Ability: Capable of manipulating the starry sky
Stage 5 Boss.
Species: Goddess
Ability: Capable of letting one relinquish ownership
Stage 6 Boss. She can return something to someone that they loses, throws away or gives away.
Species: Ōmukade
Ability: Capable of eating dragons
Extra Stage Boss. She has a masculine personality and enjoys fighting.
Other characters
Species: Human
Ability: Telling the time by looking at the stars, and her location by looking at the moon
Residence: Kyoto, Japan, Outside World
Renko Usami is a physics student from Japan. She and her friend Maribel form the two-person occult circle, the Secret Sealing Club, which investigates Gensokyo, but Maribel is the only one who's actually visited Gensokyo. She is from the short stories that come with ZUN's music collections.
Species: Human
Ability: Seeing any boundary
Residence: Kyoto, originally from outside Japan
Nicknamed Merry by Renko, Maribel is a psychology student and friend of Renko. She and Renko form the two-person occult circle, the Secret Sealing Club, which investigates Gensokyo. Descended from a long line of magicians, she is one of the few humans who can perceive and cross Gensokyo's boundaries, and can also visit it in her dreams. There has been no official romanization of her name, and thus Maribel is unofficial, Merryberry and Maribelle being suggestions of possible alternatives. She is from the short stories that come with ZUN's music collections.
Rinnosuke is a half-human and the protagonist of the short story compilation Curiosities of Lotus Asia, a background character in Hopeless Masquerade, and one of the few males in Gensokyo. He runs the Kourindou, an antique store, which sells many artifacts from the Outside World, (buying them from Yukari) and is the only place in Gensokyo that does, but he values his merchandise so highly that he never manages to make a sale. As a result, in actuality, his store is mostly just a place for Reimu, Marisa, and Sakuya to lounge around in. Marisa and Rinnosuke in particular have a good relationship, as Rinnosuke once helped out her father, who created the Mini-Hakkero for her.
Protagonist of the book Perfect Memento in Strict Sense, and its spinoff manga, Memorizable Gensokyo. She is the ninth Child of Maire, giving her all of their memories, as well as never forgetting any that she produces herself. She takes on the role of a local historian, documenting the various creatures living in Gensokyo.
Princess of the moon with her older sister, Yorihime. Like her sister, she has exceptionally powerful abilities – her good fortune means that she has faced very little hardships in her life, and is able to move between the sea (the Moon) and mountains (Gensokyo) with ease. Though it has not been used, she carries a fan that she claims could cause a wind that would instantly purify the entire forest to an atomic level. She has only appeared in the manga Inaba of the Moon and Inaba of the Earth and Silent Sinner in Blue.
Princess of the moon, alongside her younger sister, Toyohime. She can summon the power of the gods, meaning the precise attacks she inflicts are dependent on the god that was summoned. Examples include causing lightning (from Hono-ikazuchi), using the sun (from Amaterasu), and making herself immune to bullets (from Ame-no-Uzume). Additionally, she carries a sword, and is extremely proficient with it, but the extent of this power has not been properly displayed, because it is largely outclassed by her other powers. Like her sister, she has only appeared in the manga Inaba of the Moon and Inaba of the Earth and Silent Sinner in Blue, and ZUN has said that she is too powerful to be put in any game.
A moon rabbit (not related to Udonge) who attempted to flee from the Moon to Earth, but was caught by Eirin Yagokoro, and as punishment for her crime, she was sentenced to be a pet for the Watatsuki sisters, who named her Reisen after their former pet, Reisen Udongein Inaba. Her original name is unknown. She can communicate with other moon rabbits using her ears, in which their feelings are transmitted. She has appeared in Silent Sinner in Blue, Cage in Lunatic Runagate, and Inaba of the Moon and Inaba of the Earth.
Kosuzu is the owner of Suzunaan, a book renting store. She was introduced as the protagonist of the manga Forbidden Scrollery. She has a generally cheerful and optimistic personality, and enjoys telling stories to local children, but overestimates her own combat ability and naively gets into situations she should not, despite being easily scared.
Miyoi is a Zashiki-warashi working at the Geidontei pub, and is the main protagonist of the manga Lotus Eaters along with Reimu and Marisa. She can manipulate memories.
Notes
References
ZUN. Shanghai Alice Signpost. vol.1 2002/8/11 (Embodiment of Scarlet Devil readme file)
ZUN. Perfect Cherry Blossom Character settings. 2003/8/17
ZUN. Imperishable Night Character introductions and spoilers. 2004/8/15
ZUN. Shanghai Alice Signpost. vol.5 2004/12/30 (Immaterial and Missing Power readme file)
ZUN. Bohemian Archive in Japanese Red. Ichijinsha. 2005/8/11
ZUN. Phantasmasgoria of Flower View Character introductions and spoilers. 2005/8/14
ZUN. Perfect Memento of Strict Sense. Ichijinsha. 2006/12/29
ZUN. Strange and Bright Nature Deity''. Kadokawa Shoten.
External links
Characters category on Touhou Wiki for more detailed information.
Touhou Project |
4497089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura%20Jane%20Grace | Laura Jane Grace | Laura Jane Grace (born Thomas James Gabel; November 8, 1980) is an American musician best known as the founder, lead singer, songwriter, and guitarist of the punk rock band Against Me!. In addition to Against Me!, Grace fronts the band Laura Jane Grace & the Devouring Mothers, a solo project she started in 2016. Grace is notable for being one of the first highly visible punk rock musicians to come out as transgender, after she publicly came out in May 2012. She released her debut solo studio album, Stay Alive, in 2020.
Early life and musical beginnings
Grace was born in Fort Benning, Georgia, the eldest child of United States Army Major Thomas Gabel and Bonnie Gabel (née Grace). Grace has a brother named Mark, who is six years younger. The family moved frequently between military bases due to their father's military career, living briefly in Fort Hood, Texas; Pennsylvania; Ohio; Germany; and at a NATO post in Naples, Italy, during the Gulf War. When she was 8 years old while living in Italy, Grace bought her first guitar from Sears mail order with money saved from mowing lawns. Grace initially took guitar lessons from an army officer's wife, but ended up teaching herself how to play.
When she was 12 years old, Grace's parents had an acrimonious divorce, which led to Grace and her brother moving with their mom from Naples, Italy – where their father remained – to Naples, Florida to live with their maternal grandmother. In contrast to her time in Italy, Grace has said that moving to Florida was a difficult adjustment. Constantly bullied at school, Grace was drinking alcohol and taking drugs by age 13, substances which included pot, LSD, and cocaine. Grace was arrested for possession of marijuana at 14 and went on to struggle with addiction for years. Grace also regularly skipped school, eventually dropping out of high school.
Grace has suffered from depression, attributing her "first memorable bout" to feelings of gender dysphoria after her first sexual relationship. She also noted that depression occurs in both sides of her family, with her grandmother (also called Grace) being admitted to hospital regularly.
While in junior high school Grace became a fan of punk rock, attracted to the nihilistic and anarchistic ideals of the genre. At age 13, she played bass in her first band, known as both the Black Shadows and the Leather Dice as they had never agreed on a name. The band was formed with members of her youth group at church. Their first gigs were at church talent shows playing Nirvana and Pearl Jam covers.
An arrest at age 14 crystallized her aversion to authority: having gone to the beach on Independence Day 1995 to watch fireworks, "I walked up on the boardwalk, and a cop was like 'Hey, get off the boardwalk; you're blocking the flow of traffic'. So I turned around and got off, and he came up to me again and was like, 'Get off the boardwalk.' And I was like 'I'm off the boardwalk. Grace claims to have then been slammed into a police car, thrown face-first to the pavement, jumped on, hogtied, carried "like a suitcase", put in a holding cell, not allowed to call her mom at that time, charged with resisting arrest and battery, placed under house arrest for the summer, and required to do 180 hours of community service, all because "I was a dirty, grubby little punk kid with black spiky hair who hadn't washed his pants in a year." Grace's mother hired an attorney, whom she could ill afford, who took the case to court and lost. Grace was charged as an adult and ultimately convicted of both felonies. Grace later said the experience "changed my life. [It] politicized me." "I have an inherent distrust of mankind. I think authority and government base their power on violence. I refuse to recognize anyone's power over me."
After that incident, Grace came to identify with British anarcho-punk band Crass, calling them "to me, the best band to ever blend music and politics": "I felt like Crass' music legitimately made a change. They really backed up what they were doing. I saw that writing a song against something was just as valid as standing on a street corner holding a sign."
Grace befriended James Bowman when they met on their first day of freshman year at Naples High School; the two have been close ever since. "We were both punk rock kids with spiky hair and more belts than necessary", recalls Bowman. "We just hung out and smoked pot and did normal kid things." Grace's first tattoo—a Crass logo on the right ankle—was done by Bowman, though she later covered it up with a tattoo of the Rebel Alliance symbol because Bowman had been drunk and inked it sloppily.
At age 16, Grace published a zine called "Misanthrope," which dealt mostly with political issues of the time. The "highlight of her career" was interviewing Bobby Seale.
Grace played bass in a band called the Adversaries with Dustin Fridkin and a "revolving cast" of drummers from 1994 to 1996. The lineups were not stable, and the band had various names, including the Snot Rockets, Upper Crust, and eventually the Adversaries. The Adversaries released one (obscure) demo. Their "crowning achievement as a band" (according to Grace) was playing at "The Hardback" in Gainesville, FL. The breakup of the Adversaries led to Grace briefly playing in a band called Common Affliction in 1996. The ending of Common Affliction led to Grace recording the first Against Me! demo tape in December 1996.
Career
In 1997, at age 17, Grace dropped out of high school and began writing songs, naming the musical project Against Me!. Moving to Gainesville, Florida, at 18, she began performing as Against Me!, either alone on an acoustic guitar or with friend Kevin Mahon accompanying by drumming on pickle buckets. Her songs drew influence from early acoustic protest music, covering topics such as class struggle. Early Against Me! shows were played at dive bars, laundromats, and anywhere else that would allow Grace to perform, to audiences of a few or even zero. Making ends meet by working odd jobs, dumpster diving, selling blood plasma, and living in a low-rent house with twelve roommates across the street from an experimental waste dump, Grace also volunteered with nonprofit socialist groups such as Food Not Bombs. She was arrested again at 18 for obstruction of justice and resisting arrest without violence: "I was picking up [Mahon]. He was like, 'Pop the trunk—I want to throw some stuff in there.' I was waiting in the car and I saw two cop cars come up behind me. I got out and they had my friend on the ground. I went up to the first officer I saw and said, 'Excuse me, officer, what's going on?' He's like, 'Down on the ground—you're going to jail.' I started to ask another question and he grabbed me, slammed me into the cop car, and arrested me."
In 2000, Grace convinced Bowman to move to Gainesville and began teaching him how to play Against Me! songs on guitar. After some early EP releases, Against Me! developed into a full band consisting of Grace, Bowman, bassist Dustin Fridkin, and drummer Warren Oakes. Their debut album, Against Me! Is Reinventing Axl Rose, was released in 2002 through local independent record label No Idea Records. With Fridkin replaced by Andrew Seward, the band signed to DIY indie record label Fat Wreck Chords for 2003's Against Me! as the Eternal Cowboy and 2005's Searching for a Former Clarity. The name As the Eternal Cowboy was symbolic of the old fashioned concept of the Western cowboy, always wandering the plains lost and lonely. It was envisioned by Grace as a concept record about love and war. Searching sold over 65,000 copies and was their first album to chart on the Billboard 200, reaching 114. Against Me! supported it with a tour of all 50 U.S. states.
As Against Me!'s popularity increased, Grace felt alienated from the male-centric punk scene: "With the band especially, I felt more and more like I was putting on an act – like I was being shoved into this role of 'angry white man in a punk band. The stresses of the band's tour schedule, coupled with going through a divorce at age 24, contributed to her addiction: "I was just getting fucked up all the time: drinking, drugs, whatever. I felt unhealthy and depressed about so many things". Throughout this time Grace made oblique references to gender dysphoria in song lyrics, including "The Disco Before the Breakdown" ("I know they're going to laugh at us / when they see us out together 'holding hands' like this"), "Violence" ("You've been keeping secrets ... Nothing but shame and paranoia"), and "Searching for a Former Clarity" ("In the journal you kept by the side of your bed ... confessing childhood secrets of dressing up in women's clothes / Compulsions you never knew the reasons to"). To help escape the stress and depression, Grace spent 18 months living in hotels on the outskirts of Gainesville while writing the next Against Me! album.
2006–2011
In December 2005, Against Me! signed to Sire Records, a subsidiary of the Warner Music Group. With increased mainstream exposure, Grace swore off cross-dressing and other expressions of femininity: "You go through periods of binging and purging. I was 25, we were about to go on a long period of touring, and I was like, 'That's it. I'm getting rid of all this. I'm male, and that's it.
Against Me!'s first major-label album, 2007's New Wave, brought the band mainstream success: It debuted at no. 57 on the Billboard 200; featured their first charting single, "Thrash Unreal", which reached no. 11 on Billboard's Modern Rock Tracks chart; and was named as Spin's album of the year. The song "The Ocean" directly referenced Grace's gender dysphoria, with the lyrics "If I could have chosen, I would have been born a woman / My mother once told me she would have named me Laura / I would grow up to be strong and beautiful like her / One day I'd find an honest man to make my husband". Though Grace anticipated "completely outing myself" with the song, no one involved with the band seemed to pick up on the lyrics' literal meaning. She also wanted to cross-dress in the music video for "Thrash Unreal", but the label's A&R representative vetoed the idea.
In August 2007, Grace was arrested in Tallahassee, Florida, on charges of battery, following a confrontation with a coffee shop patron after Grace tore down an article about Against Me! that had been hung up and defaced to mock the band. Grace allegedly knocked a cup out of the man's hand, then forced his head into the wooden counter. She admitted to intentionally knocking over the cup but denied hitting the man, and was released on bail the following morning. "We were playing at this place The Beta Bar," she said, "and this coffee shop next door was having a protest show against ours. I mean... go protest the fucking war!"
Grace's solo EP, Heart Burns, was released in October 2008. Timed to coincide with that year's United States presidential election, the EP's songs addressed the country's political and economic climate, criticizing presidential candidate John McCain and the trial of environmental activist Eric McDavid. "I wanted to do something that was the complete opposite of New Wave in the sense of approach", she said. "I didn't want to really think about it. I didn't want to obsess about anything. I just wanted to go in and play songs. I wanted to record because it'll be fun, and that's what this is supposed to be about." Grace supported the EP by performing on The Revival Tour with Chuck Ragan of Hot Water Music, Tim Barry of Avail, and Ben Nichols of Lucero.
Against Me!'s fifth studio album, White Crosses, was released in 2010 and became their most successful, reaching no. 34 on the Billboard 200. By that September, however, Grace began taking week-long writing trips alone, checking into hotels dressed as a woman and writing a concept album titled Transgender Dysphoria Blues, about a transsexual prostitute. The record was positively received.
Against Me! cancelled a series of tour dates in October and November 2010 due to "a culmination of circumstances engulfing us", and left Sire/Warner.
In 2011, Grace purchased an abandoned post office in Elkton, Florida, converting it into a recording studio called Total Treble and launched an accompanying record label for future Against Me! releases, Total Treble Music. The first album recorded at the studio was Cheap Girls' Giant Orange (2012), which also marked Grace's first experience as a record producer. Total Treble Studio closed in 2013 after being destroyed in a storm.
2012–present
In spring 2012, Grace performed on the Revival Tour with Chuck Ragan and Cory Branan.
In July 2018, it was announced that Grace would release an album in the fall of 2018 under the name "Laura Jane Grace & the Devouring Mothers" on Chicago-based Bloodshot Records. The record, Bought to Rot, was made with bassist Marc Jacob Hudson and drummer Atom Willard (Against Me!, Angels & Airwaves, The Offspring). The release included a tour with a three night weekly residency in Chicago.
Grace released Stay Alive in 2020, her debut solo studio album. The album was written and recorded during the COVID-19 pandemic, when Grace was left without the ability to record with her band Against Me!, and thus made a solo album instead. The album was recorded over three days in Steve Albini's studio in Chicago. Stay Alive was released as a surprise album with no promotion.
Writing
In 2015, Grace wrote a column called "Mandatory Happiness" for the Vice Media publication Noisey.
On November 15, 2016, Grace's memoir Tranny: Confessions Of Punk Rock's Most Infamous Anarchist Sellout, co-written with Noisey editor Dan Ozzi, was published. Much of the book is based on Grace's journals, which she had kept since third grade. The book was known under a working title of Kill Me Loudly or Killing Me Loudly in 2015, when Grace was working with a different publisher.
Politics
Grace has said that she is an anarchist. After leaving Naples, Italy and moving to Naples, Florida, Grace said that she discovered punk rock music around the age of 13. Around the age of 15 or 16 years old, Grace said that she also discovered the anarcho-punk and activist punk rock movements, which she found appealing for its feminist and anti-hate stance against racism, homophobia, and its embrace of body liberation. Grace said she has been influenced by these concepts as core values since learning about them. A band that Grace cites frequently as an example of politics and music is Crass, an English art collective and punk rock band formed in 1977. However, as Against Me! became more successful, the constraints of the punk rock scene, which often had rigid sets of rules, were difficult to embrace, especially during the times when Grace was struggling with gender dysphoria.
The Against Me! song "Stop!" was part of the Rock the Vote campaign to encourage voting in the 2008 US presidential election.
At a May 2016 Against Me! show in Durham, North Carolina, Grace set her birth certificate on fire in protest of the North Carolina bathroom bill. Grace said "Goodbye gender" during this act of protest.
In 2020, Grace played at a fundraiser for Bernie Sanders's campaign for the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.
Other work
Grace participated in a 10-part documentary called True Trans where she interviewed "gender variant people from all walks of life" to allow them to tell their stories, in addition to telling hers. In 2015, the show was nominated for an Emmy for New Approaches: Arts, Lifestyle, Culture.
In 2015, Grace worked with Joan Jett and Miley Cyrus to make videos for the Happy Hippie Foundation to raise money for homeless LGBT youth.
Personal life
Grace was married in 2000. The marriage ended in divorce four years later in 2004.
In March 2006, while touring as an opening act for Alkaline Trio, Grace met visual artist Heather Hannoura, who designed merchandise for Alkaline Trio and other bands. The two spent the summer together on the Warped Tour, began living together, and got tattoos of each other's names. They married in December 2007, after a year-long engagement.
Grace and Hannoura have a daughter together, born in 2009. Grace's feelings of dysphoria "started coming back really strong" about the time Hannoura became pregnant that February, but were not acted on. The family moved to St. Augustine, Florida, in 2010, when Evelyn was about a year old. The couple separated and then divorced in 2013.
In 2006, Grace became a vegan.
Grace has lived in Chicago since 2013. She released a song "I Hate Chicago" in 2018 that criticised many aspects of the city.
Transition
Grace experienced feelings of gender dysphoria from a young age, citing them as her "earliest memories". Grace publicly came out as a transgender woman in May 2012 in an article to Rolling Stone. Grace announced plans to begin transitioning. Having been inspired to come out after meeting a transgender Against Me! fan, Grace had informed the rest of the band that February. In 2012, she began publicly using the name Laura Jane Grace. "Laura" is the name her mother would have chosen had she been assigned female at birth, "Jane" was selected simply because she thinks it's pretty, and "Grace" is her mother's maiden name. On continuing to perform in Against Me!, Grace said, "However fierce our band was in the past, imagine me, six-foot-two, in heels, fucking screaming into someone's face."
In her 2012 interview with Rolling Stone, Grace revealed plans to take hormones and undergo electrolysis. She said she was also considering surgery. She expressed apprehension about chondrolaryngoplasty and bottom surgery, saying, "I don't give a fuck if I lose my penis. It's just fucking scary because of the surgery. I've needed to have my wisdom teeth removed for five years, and I still haven't." She said that she would live as a woman and undergo psychotherapy for a year before considering gender confirmation surgery: "Right now, I'm in this awkward transition period. I look like a dude, and feel like a dude, and it sucks. But eventually I'll flip, and I'll present as female." In 2015, Grace stated, "I think it's perfectly valid [for a trans person] to never undergo bottom surgery".
In response to Grace's announcement, a number of figures in the punk community voiced their support, including musicians Brian Fallon, Brendan Kelly, Franz Nicolay, and Mike Shinoda; cartoonist Mitch Clem; and mixed martial artist CM Punk. Herndon Graddick, President of GLAAD, hoped that Grace's public profile would increase public awareness and acceptance of trans people: "[Laura] is displaying extraordinary courage by coming out as transgender after already establishing herself as a rock star. For many of the band's fans, this may be the first time they're actually thinking about transgender people and the bravery it sometimes takes in order to be true to yourself."
Grace confirmed in January 2019 that she underwent facial feminization surgery in December 2018 as part of her transition.
Discography
Studio albums
Extended plays
Singles
As lead artist
As featured artist
with Against Me!
Against Me! Is Reinventing Axl Rose (2002)
Against Me! as the Eternal Cowboy (2003)
Searching for a Former Clarity (2005))
New Wave (2007)
White Crosses (2010)
Transgender Dysphoria Blues (2014)
Shape Shift with Me (2016)
Filmography
2014: True Trans with Laura Jane Grace (TV Series documentary) on AOL Studios – 10 episodes
Awards
2014: The Advocate, 40 under 40
2014: OUT, OUT 100
2015: Emmy Award, News & Documentary Emmy Award, New Approaches: Arts, Lifestyle, Culture (nominee) for True Trans
2017: Alternative Press Music Awards, Icon Award
Selected works and publications
Mandatory Happiness column
Book
References
Further reading
External links
Against Me!'s site
Laura Jane Grace & the Devouring Mothers at Bloodshot Records
American lesbian musicians
1980 births
20th-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American singer-songwriters
Against Me! members
American women rock singers
American women singer-songwriters
American lyricists
American punk rock guitarists
American punk rock singers
Record producers from Georgia (U.S. state)
Women punk rock singers
LGBT people from Florida
LGBT people from Georgia (U.S. state)
American LGBT singers
American LGBT songwriters
American LGBT composers
LGBT record producers
Transgender memoirists
Living people
Musicians from Columbus, Georgia
Musicians from Gainesville, Florida
People from Naples, Florida
Singer-songwriters from Florida
Transgender women musicians
American rock songwriters
Guitarists from Florida
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4497200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaquina%20Bay | Yaquina Bay | Yaquina Bay ( ) is a coastal estuarine community found in Newport, Oregon. Yaquina Bay is a semi-enclosed body of water, approximately 8 km² (3.2 mi²) in area, with free connection to the Pacific Ocean, but also diluted with freshwater from the Yaquina River land drainage. The Bay is traversed by the Yaquina Bay Bridge.
There are three small communities that border the Yaquina River and Bay: Newport (population approx. 9,989), Toledo (population approx. 3,459) and Elk City (population approx. 25). The Yaquina Bay in Newport is a popular tourist destination along the Pacific Coast Highway. It is also an important estuary for the area's ecology and economy.
History
Yaquina Bay is named after the Yaquina Tribe that occupied the territory along the Yaquina River. With the railroad addition In the late 1880s, many thought Yaquina Bay would be the commerce center for the Pacific Northwest. Wheat, lumber, and other goods were transported to Yaquina Bay as the area began to develop. Oyster companies and other merchandise organizations began to take residence in the Bay.
Exploration and settlement
Indigenous peoples of the region had called Yaquina Bay home for years until the westward expansion. In 1856, the first vessel entered Yaquina Bay carrying supplies for Siletz Block-houses up the Yaquina River. The newfound Bay access promised a great deal of advantages, particularly open transportation and shipping to and from San Francisco Bay. Also in 1856, a doctor from the Willamette Valley was appointed surgeon to an Indian agency in Yaquina Bay. Following Indian trails through the Coast Range, the doctor, along with three other explorers, set out for the coast in quest for his new appointment.
In 1861, Captain Spencer, from the state of Washington, first settled in Yaquina Bay. Spencer, with the assistance of a local Indian guide, discovered valuable oyster beds within the Bay, which would attract future businesses, particularly firms from San Francisco.
In 1866, news spread of the promises and new life Yaquina Bay had to offer and quickly brought a surge of settlers to the area. Newport was quickly formed and oyster companies and other industries began to take resident. The growing oyster business initiated the construction of a wagon road from Corvallis to Yaquina Bay, costing approximately $20,000 and spanning 45 miles. The road was completed in 1873 and promised continued connections between Corvallis and the coast, and even helped settlers reach their new coastal home.
With the influx of residents, seasonal visitors to the area, and booming businesses, Yaquina Bay's oyster trade quickly began to decline. In 1869, a group of oystermen formed a task force with the interest of preserving oyster beds. To better the public's interest and their own, they worked diligently to restore and protect the oyster communities.
Shortly after the establishment of Newport, the Yaquina Bay lighthouse began construction in 1871. However, with the establishment of the Yaquina Head lighthouse to the north, it was decommissioned in 1874.
For a long time, Yaquina Bay was the midpoint between San Francisco and Seattle. With increased ship and navigation traffic into the area, the number of shipwrecks increased rapidly.
Past uses
Historical uses of Yaquina Bay include commercial oyster farming and fishing, recreational clamming, and shipping and navigation. Logging practices also occurred in the Yaquina Bay estuary from the 1920s to the 1980s.
Economy
Yaquina Bay and its watershed have multiple uses, including fishing, tourism, recreation, and research. As of 2014, the highest percentage of the Newport workforce is employed in management, business, science, and arts (36.7%), while only 8.9% are employed in natural resources, construction, and maintenance. Agriculture is a small percentage of the economy in Lincoln County, but has increased in the past ten years. While timber harvesting has been a historic contributor to the economy, this industry has since decreased. Employment had declined by 82% between about 1980 and 2000.
Fisheries and aquaculture
In 2015, Pacific Whiting, or North Pacific Hake, was the largest source of fish caught by commercial fisheries from Newport, OR, while Pink Shrimp brought in the greatest dollar amount. As of 2015, the total value of commercial fisheries out of Newport totals approximately $33,221,009. Recreational fishing also occurs in Yaquina Bay, with perch, rockfish, herring, chinook salmon, clams, and crabs the popular catch. Aquaculture of oysters also occurs in Yaquina Bay, totaling 1,172 pounds in 2012.
Recreation and tourism
Yaquina Bay Harbor houses commercial and recreational fishing vessels, other recreational boats, government vessels, and research vessels. Tourism represents a substantial contributor to the county economy, accounting for $133.8 million in industry income in 2012. Some tourist destinations include South Beach State Park, Yaquina Bay State Recreation Site, the Oregon Coast Aquarium, restaurants, shops, and attractions on the Bayfront, and Hatfield Marine Science Center.
Physical geography
Physical characteristics
Yaquina Bay is a characteristic estuary, with freshwater input from the Yaquina River as well as open access to the Pacific Ocean introducing ocean saltwater. Yaquina Bay is maintained at 6.7 m (22 ft) deep with the help of dredging, but depth decreases upstream with the occurrence of shoals, tidal flats, and other shallow zones. The estuary is about 11.6 km2 at mean tide and can decrease to 9.1 km2 at mean low tide. The North and South Yaquina Jetties, at the junction between the Pacific Ocean and Yaquina Bay, were constructed in 1888.
Predictions of tidal height and times are based on National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) data with respect to Hatfield Marine Science Center's Center Dock. Yaquina Bay high and low tidal range is approximately 2.4 m (7.9 ft). Tidal flux is typically vigorous and allows intense mixing near the mouth of the Bay. However, there is seasonal variation on mixing within the estuary. During the summer and early months, June to October, the estuary is well-mixed contrasted to the winter months, November to May, when the estuary is more stratified. Due to the variation in tides and mixing, the salinity changes drastically depending on location within the Bay. Average salinity at the mouth of the Bay is 34 psu, whereas the salinity upriver is 0.
The Yaquina River is 95 km (59 mi) long, beginning at the Central Oregon Coast Range, rounding past multiple bordered cities, and eventually opening up into Yaquina Bay. The river provides nutrients for the Bay and supports a variety of biology.
Sediments and deposition
Sediments that are found within Yaquina Bay are derived from tertiary rocks from the Central Oregon Coast Range, Pleistocene marine sediments and estuarine deposits. These sediments have three realms of deposition; marine deposition, fluviatile, and an intermediate transition state called marine-fluviatile. Marine deposition is found within the initial 2.4 km (1.5 mi) of the estuary and is associated with average ocean salinity and turbulent mixing. The sediment is similar in texture to sand and other fine grains. Fluviatile deposition extends from the point of freshwater input up to 9.7 km (6 mi) into the Bay, with its sediments more coarse. The transition stage between these two realms contains sediment mixes from the marine and fluviatile areas.
The last recorded rate of sediment deposition was in 1936, with a recorded estimate of 23 cm (9.1 in) annually. However, deposition is subject to seasonal variations. Maximum deposition takes place in the winter and early spring when river runoff is highest due to increased rain, when the longshore drift is coming from the south, and when winds are from the southwest. In the summer, deposition is low because of lower runoff, southward longshore drift and northwest winds.
Turbulent mixing within the estuary increases the amount of suspended sediment and therefore increases the turbidity within Yaquina Bay. Turbidity has been found to be most prominent when river runoff is low, typically during the summer. Chlorophyll concentrations and other measurements of water chemistry (see Chemistry section below) verify these observations.
Geology
Yaquina Bay was formed roughly 2.2 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era. Increased sedimentation and subsidence contributed to formation of Yaquina Bay. Sedimentary rocks in this area are mainly "sandstone, siltstone and clay-containing mudstone", as indicated in geological samples from the sediments. The oldest rocks found in the Coast Range and in Yaquina Bay date back to Paleocene and Eocene Epochs, about 40-60 million years ago. The seafloor to the west of Oregon is continually spreading and there is evidence of subduction taking place along the coast of Oregon and Washington.
Biology
Yaquina Bay comprises several different habitats that provide resources for many species. These habitats include intertidal eelgrass beds, mudflats, and sandflats, and subtidal areas. Mudflats and sandflats are typically covered by water during high tide and exposed to air during low tide, while subtidal areas are covered by water almost all of the time.
Life in Yaquina Bay
Beds of native eelgrass (Zostera marina) and beds of invasive eelgrass (Zostera japonica) grow separately and provide a distinct habitat for certain organisms. Birds, including gulls, ducks, shorebirds, crows, geese, egrets, rails, pelicans and cormorants are present in Yaquina Bay using the eelgrass and mudflats as habitats. Mud shrimp also live in mudflats, and they play an important role in nutrient cycling within the estuary. Burrows in the mud made by mud shrimp pump oxygen deeper into the sediment, which makes it available for microbes to use. Mud shrimp activity has also been shown to increase the movement of carbon and dissolved inorganic nitrogen in and out of the mud. Some species of diatoms, a type of phytoplankton, can be found on the sediments of Yaquina Bay wetlands. These diatoms are also important in nutrient cycling within the estuary.
Another type of estuary habitat is formed by native Olympia oysters (Ostrea lurida). These are historically abundant in Yaquina Bay, and in addition to creating hard surfaces in the estuary, oysters also filter the bay water and provide food for local people. In fact, settlement on the mouth of Yaquina Bay is attributed in part to the oyster fishery.
In subtidal areas, marine mammals such as harbor seals and California sea lions are sometimes present in Yaquina Bay. Sea lions in the estuary are mostly male. They move through the estuary, but spend a lot of time near the Bayfront or hauled out on docks, perhaps due to the additional food or safety. Some fish species present in Yaquina Bay include English sole and sculpin, in addition to river lamprey, lingcod, anchovies, Pacific herring, sturgeon, flounder, and salmon. Clams and Dungeness crabs are also present within the bay and make up a resource for recreational fishers.
The estuary as a nursery
Yaquina Bay has been shown to be a site for spawning and development of many species. Pacific Herring and bay goby larvae are abundant, but other larval fishes such as sculpin, anchovy, smelt, clingfishes, cod, stickleback, pipefish, prickleback, gunnels, sandlance, rockfish, greenlings, lumpfish, and flounder are present in the estuary. Although there are larval fish present in the estuary, the Pacific herring was found to be the only commercial species that relies on the estuary for spawning and development. Yaquina Bay also provides a nursery environment for English sole. Multiple species of juvenile salmon, including chum, coho, and chinook, also pass through Yaquina Bay during their life cycle, often transitioning from shallower to deeper waters as they grow.
Chemistry of Yaquina Bay
The Yaquina Bay estuarine chemistry is influenced by daily tides, river sediment input, summer upwelling along the coast, and biological processes.
Tides
Yaquina Bay experiences mixed semidiurnal tides, ranging from 1.9-2.5 m (6.2-8.2 ft) daily. The influx of water from the ocean changes the salinity of the estuary, creating a salt intrusion that has been estimated to reach as far as 21.8 km (13.5 mi) upriver. Daily tidal changes affect estuary mixing and stratification. Flood tides coming from the ocean bring coastal nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus into the estuary. During mixing events, the Yaquina Bay estuary experiences changes in gradients for salinity, concentration of chemical species, and suspended sediment, which in turn influences biological productivity. The Yaquina Bay estuary has high primary productivity throughout the year due to high dissolved oxygen concentrations and cool water temperature from tidal flushing.
Nutrients
Silicon
Sediment input from the Yaquina River contributes to the Yaquina Bay estuary chemistry, varying with seasonal rainfall. In the winter, when there is higher rainfall and therefore more input from the river, siliceous diatoms are more abundant and have higher species diversity. This is contrasted with fewer diatom species in seasons when there is less rainfall.
Rocks are mostly made of silica and when land weathering takes place, rocks are broken down into their smaller silica components. With increased rainfall and sediment transport, this weathering provides a source of silica for diatoms in Yaquina Bay.
The upstream Yaquina River source material is more quartz dominated (more silica) than downstream source material. Some of the heavy minerals upstream include micas (biotite and muscovite made of potassium, aluminum, and silica), hematite (iron), and limonite (iron oxides). Near the coastal shoreline and mouth of the Yaquina Bay estuary, the sand grains are mostly feldspars and chert (silica), and volcanic fragments (most likely high in silica, potassium, aluminum, sodium, and calcium). In nearshore marine deposit sediment, the source material is less quartz (less silica) compared to upriver sources; heavy minerals include pyroxene (a group of silicate minerals), hypersthene (magnesium iron silica), and diopside (magnesium calcium silica).
Carbon
Organic carbon concentrations of the Yaquina Bay estuary vary depending on depth. Concentrations are lowest in the channel (<0.2%) and highest in shallower sediments, particularly from samples collected at tidal flats (2.7%). About 1-7% of sand in the Yaquina Bay estuary is made of carbonates like mollusk shell fragments and foraminifera. Carbonate concentrations are higher in the bay channel (5%) and decrease towards the bay margin (3%).
Nitrogen
Major nitrogen sources for the Yaquina Bay estuary change with season. During drier seasons, the ocean is the major nitrogen source while the river is the major source in wetter seasons, where river discharge can be up to five times higher than drier seasons. Samples taken at the surface with varying salinities showed dissolved inorganic nitrogen is found mostly at the two salinity extremes; the mouth of the estuary and up the Yaquina River. The input at the mouth of Yaquina Bay indicates input from upwelled waters during the summer season. The nutrient flux into the estuary is enough to sustain primary productivity during the summer months.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is generally a limiting nutrient in the ocean. In Pacific Northwest estuaries, an important source of phosphorus comes from ocean upwelling in the summer (see below). Samples taken at the surface with varying salinities showed dissolved inorganic phosphorus more prevalent in areas with higher salinities compared to lower, thus indicating the ocean as the source for this system.
Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration is an important water quality parameter because of its close relationship with biological activity. In the Yaquina Bay estuary, DO levels may be lower and almost hypoxic due to low DO levels with coastal upwelled water imported into the estuary. DO levels of imported ocean water are dependent on physical factors (wind stress and cool water temperature) and biological factors (association with chlorophyll a and respiration). Ocean influence of DO levels in the estuary extends to about 10 km (6.2 mi) upriver. In the upper estuary beyond ocean influence, DO levels decrease with increasing temperature.
Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll a (Chl a) concentrations vary seasonally with ocean water import, particularly during summer upwelling. Variation of Chl a also depends on the timing of summer upwelling each year, where upwelling could occur earlier or be delayed. Oregon estuaries typically have low median Chl a levels, about less than 5 micrograms per liter of water. When high concentrations of Chl a are advected into the estuary, there is also an increase in flood tide DO levels.
Upwelling
Summer upwelling along the Oregon coast brings nutrients from deep waters up into the Yaquina Bay estuary. This event, along with decreased rain and river input, and increased light, all contribute to the seasonal chemistry variability in the Bay.
Environment
Coastal hazards
As with any coastal zone, there are inherent hazards present. Especially in the Pacific Northwest, coastlines are impacted by large waves, storm surge, strong currents, wind, and rain. Yaquina Bay is seasonally affected by these impacts, with winter typically the most intense period. Storms and rain increase, which leads to more land runoff and also causes waves and currents to reshape the coastline.
Erosion is a challenge for Yaquina Bay and the entire Oregon Coast. Yaquina Bay's sediments are made up of sandstone, siltstone and clay-containing mudstone and these soft sediments contribute to annual erosion. Waves, however, are the main proponent of erosion. Waves are parallel to the beach and as wind increases, energy is enhanced and height grows, causing a devastating effect on beaches. Also, as currents run along the coast, they move sand causing either addition or depletion of sand in some areas. This has been evident around the Yaquina Jetty. With longshore drift increased during the winter, sand is deposited and dramatically built up in this area.
In 2002, researchers, stakeholders, and policy makers organized a vulnerability assessment to assess the current state of the coast in respect to future hazards occurring. They included Yaquina Bay in their case study, as this area is heavily influenced by tourism, businesses, industries, vessels, to name a few. The assessment was able to address areas of concern and helped businesses and industries by highlighting ways to adapt to the changing conditions to prevent future damage.
See also
Hatfield Marine Science Center
Steamboats of Yaquina Bay and Yaquina River
Yaquina Bay Bridge
Yaquina Bay State Recreation Site
References
External links
Yaquina Bay State Recreation Site at Oregon.gov
Bays of Oregon
Bodies of water of Lincoln County, Oregon
Newport, Oregon |
4497306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese%20transition%20to%20democracy | Portuguese transition to democracy | Portugal's redemocratization process started with the Carnation Revolution of 1974. It ended with the enactment of the Constitution of Portugal in 1976.
Background: the Salazar-Caetano era
The 28 May 1926 coup d'état replaced the First Portuguese Republic with a military dictatorship that promised order, authority, and discipline. The military regime abolished political parties, took steps against the small but vocal Marxist groups, and did away with republican institutions. In 1928 it invited University of Coimbra professor António de Oliveira Salazar to serve as minister of finance. In 1932 he became Prime Minister. That year marked the beginning of his regime, the New State (Estado Novo).
Under Salazar (1932–68), Portugal became, at least formally, a corporative state. The new Constitution of 1933 embodied the corporatist theory, under which government was to be formed of economic entities organized according to their function, rather than by individual representation. Employers were to form one group, labor another, and they and other groups were to deal with one another through their representative organizations.
In reality, however, Salazar headed an autocratic dictatorship with the help of an efficient secret police – the PIDE. Strict censorship was introduced, the politically suspect were monitored, and the regime's opponents were jailed, sent into exile, and occasionally killed.
Portugal drifted and floundered under this repressive regime for several decades. Economic conditions improved slightly in the 1950s, when Salazar instituted the first of two five-year economic plans. These plans stimulated some growth, and living standards began to rise.
1960s and the Colonial War
The 1960s, however, were crisis years for Portugal. Guerrilla movements emerged in the Portuguese African overseas territories of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea that aimed at liberating those territories from "the last colonial empire". Fighting three guerrilla movements for more than a decade proved to be enormously draining for a small, poor country in terms of labour and financial resources.
In the early 1960s the rise of new technocrats with a background in economics and technical-industrial expertise led to a new period of economic fostering, with Portugal as an attractive country for international investment. Industrial development and economic growth would continue throughout the 1960s. During Salazar's tenure, Portugal participated in the founding of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1960 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1961. In the early 1960s, Portugal also added its membership in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank. This marked the initiation of Salazar's more outward-looking economic policy. Portuguese foreign trade increased by 52 per cent in exports and 40 per cent in imports. The economic growth and levels of capital formation from 1960 to 1973 were characterized by an unparalleled robust annual growth rates of GDP (6.9 per cent), industrial production (9 per cent), private consumption (6.5 per cent) and gross fixed capital formation (7.8 per cent).
In 1960, at the initiation of Salazar's more outward-looking economic policy, Portugal's per capita GDP was only 38 percent of the European Community (EC-12) average; by the end of the Salazar period, in 1968, it had risen to 48 percent; and in 1973, under the leadership of Marcelo Caetano, Portugal's per capita GDP had reached 56.4 percent of the EC-12 average. On a long term analysis, after a long period of economic divergence before 1914, and a period of chaos during the First Republic, the Portuguese economy recovered slightly until 1950, entering thereafter on a path of strong economic convergence with the wealthiest economies of Western Europe, until the Carnation Revolution in April 1974. Portuguese economic growth in the period 1960 to 1973 under the Estado Novo regime (and even with the effects of an expensive war effort in African territories against independence guerrilla groups), created an opportunity for real integration with the developed economies of Western Europe. Through emigration, trade, tourism and foreign investment, individuals and firms changed their patterns of production and consumption, bringing about a structural transformation. Simultaneously, the increasing complexity of a growing economy raised new technical and organizational challenges, stimulating the formation of modern professional and management teams.
Salazar incapacitated
When Salazar was incapacitated in an accident in 1968, the Council of State, a high-level advisory body created by the Constitution of 1933, chose Marcello Caetano to succeed him. Caetano (1968–74), though a Salazar protégé, tried to modernize and liberalize the old Salazar system. He was opposed, however, by a group widely referred to as "the bunker," the old Salazarists. These included the country's president, Admiral Américo Tomás, the senior officers of the armed forces, and the heads of some of the country's largest financial groups. The bunker was powerful enough that any fundamental change would certainly have led to Caetano's immediate overthrow.
As Caetano promised reform but fell into indecision, the sense began to grow among all groups—the armed forces, the opposition and liberals within the regime—that only a revolution could produce the changes that they felt Portugal sorely needed. Contributing to this feeling were a number of growing tensions on the political and social scene.
Economic pressure
The continuing economic drain caused by the military campaigns in Africa was exacerbated by the first great oil "shock" of 1973. Politically, the desire for democracy, or at least a greater opening up of the political system, was increasing. Social tensions mounted, as well, because of the slow pace of change and the absence of opportunities for advancement.
The decisive ingredient in these tensions was dissension within the military itself, long a bulwark of the regime. Younger military academy graduates resented a program introduced by Caetano whereby militia officers who completed a brief training program and had served in the overseas territories' defensive campaigns, could be commissioned at the same rank as military academy graduates. Caetano's government had begun the program (which included several other reforms) in order to increase the number of officials employed against the African insurgencies, and at the same time cut down military costs to alleviate an already overburdened government budget.
Spínola and revolution
A key catalytic event in the process toward revolution was the publication, in 1973, of General António de Spínola's book, Portugal and the Future, which criticized the conduct of the war and offered a far-ranging program for Portugal's recovery. The general's work sent shock waves through the political establishment in Lisbon. As the first major and public challenge to the regime by a high-ranking figure from within the system, Spínola's experience in the African campaigns gave his opinions added weight. The book was widely seen as the opening salvo in Spínola's ambitious campaign to become president.
1974 uprising
On 25 April 1974, a group of younger officers belonging to an underground organization, the Armed Forces Movement (Movimento das Forças Armadas – MFA), overthrew the Caetano regime, and Spínola emerged as at least the titular head of the new government. The uprising succeeded in hours with virtually no bloodshed. Caetano and other high-ranking officials of the old regime were arrested and exiled, many to Brazil. The military seized control of all important installations.
Spínola regarded the military's action as a simple military uprising aimed at reorganizing the political structure with himself as the head, a "renovação" (renovation), in his words. Within days, however, it became clear that the uprising had released long pent-up frustrations when thousands, and then tens of thousands of Portuguese poured into the streets celebrating the downfall of the regime and demanding further change. The coercive apparatus of the dictatorshipsecret police, Republican Guard, official party, censorshipwas overwhelmed and abolished. Workers began taking over shops from owners, peasants seized private lands, low-level employees took over hospitals from doctors and administrators, and government offices were occupied by workers who sacked the old management and demanded a thorough housecleaning.
Very early on, the demonstrations began to be manipulated by organized political elements, principally the communists and other groups farther to the left. Radical labor and peasant leaders emerged from the underground where they had been operating for many years. Mário Soares, the leader of the Socialist Party of Portugal (Partido Socialista – PS) and Álvaro Cunhal, head of the Portuguese Communist Party (Partido Comunista Português – PCP) returned from exile to Portugal within days of the revolt and received heroes' welcomes.
Who actually ruled Portugal during this revolutionary period was not always clear, and various bodies vied for dominance. Spínola became the first interim president of the new regime in May 1974, and he chose the first of six provisional governments that were to govern the country until two years later when the first constitutional government was formed. Headed by a prime minister, the moderate civilian Adelino da Palma Carlos, the government consisted of the moderate Democratic People's Party (Partido Popular Democrático – PPD), the PS, the PCP, five independents, and one military officer.
Beneath this formal structure, several other groups wielded considerable power. In the first weeks of the revolution, a key group was the National Salvation Junta (Junta de Salvação Nacional), composed entirely of high-ranking, politically moderate military officers. Working alongside it was a seven-member coordinating committee made up of politically radical junior officers who had managed the uprising. By the end of May 1974, these two bodies worked together with other members in the Council of State, the nation's highest governing body.
Gradually, however, the MFA emerged as the most powerful single group in Portugal as it overruled Spínola in several major decisions. Members of the MFA formed the Continental Operations Command (Comando Operacional do Continente – COPCON) composed of 5,000 elite troops with Major (later Brigadier General) Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho as its commander. Known universally by his unusual first name Otelo, Carvalho had directed the 25 April uprising. Because the regular police withdrew from the public sector during the time of revolutionary turmoil and the military was somewhat divided, COPCON became the most important force for order in the country and was firmly under the control of radical left-wing officers.
Spínola formed a second provisional government in mid-July with army Colonel (later General) Vasco Gonçalves as prime minister and eight military officers along with members of the PS, PCP, and PPD. Spínola chose Gonçalves because he was a moderate, but he was to move increasingly to the left as he headed four provisional governments between July 1974 and September 1975. Spínola's position further weakened when he was obliged to consent to the independence of Portugal's African colonies, rather than achieving the federal solution he had outlined in his book. Guinea-Bissau gained independence in early September, and talks were underway on the liberation of the other colonies. Spínola attempted to seize full power in late September but was blocked by COPCON and resigned from office. His replacement was the moderate General Francisco da Costa Gomes. Gonçalves formed a third provisional government with heavy MFA membership, nine military officers in all, and members of the PS, PCP, and PPD.
In the next year, Portuguese politics moved steadily leftward. The PCP was highly successful in placing its members in many national and local political and administrative offices, and it was consolidating its hold on the country's labor unions. The MFA came ever more under the control of its radical wing, and some of its members came under the influence of the PCP. In addition, smaller, more radical left-wing groups joined with the PCP in staging huge demonstrations that brought about the increasing adoption of leftist policies, including nationalizations of private companies.
An attempted uprising by Spínola in early March 1975 failed, and he fled the country. In response to this attack from the right, radical elements of the military abolished the Junta of National Salvation and formed the Council of the Revolution as the country's most powerful governing body. The council was made responsible to a 240-member radical military parliament, the Assembly of the Armed Forces. A fourth provisional government was formed, more radical than its predecessor, and was headed by Gonçalves, with eight military officers and members of the PS, PCP, PPD, and Portuguese Democratic Movement (Movimento Democrático Português – MDP), a party close to the PCP.
The new government began a wave of nationalizations of banks and large businesses. Because the banks were often holding companies, the government came after a time to own almost all the country's newspapers, insurance companies, hotels, construction companies and many other kinds of businesses, so that its share of the country's gross national product amounted to 70%.
The transition to civilian rule
Elections were held on April 25, 1975, for the Constituent Assembly to draft a new constitution. The PS won nearly 38% the vote, while the PPD took 26.4%. The PCP won less than 13% of the vote. A democratic right-wing party, the Democratic and Social Centre (Partido do Centro Democrático e Social – CDS), came in fourth with less than 8%. Despite the fact that the elections took place in a period of revolutionary ferment, most Portuguese voted for middle-class parties committed to pluralistic democracy.
Many Portuguese regarded the elections as a sign that democracy was being effectively established. In addition, most members of the military welcomed the beginning of a transition to civilian democracy. Some elements of the MFA, however, had opposed the elections, agreeing to them only after working out an agreement with political parties that the MFA's policies would be carried out regardless of election results.
Following the elections came the Hot Summer of 1975 when the revolution made itself felt in the countryside. Landless agricultural laborers in the south seized the large farms on which they worked. Many estates in the Alentejo were confiscated—over 10,000 square kilometres in all—and transformed into collective farms. In the north, where most farms were small and owned by those who worked them, such actions did not occur. The north's small farmers, conservative property-owners, violently repulsed the attempts of radical elements and the PCP to collectivize their land. Some farmers formed right-wing organizations in defense of private landownership, a reversal of the region's early welcoming of the revolution.
Other revolutionary actions were met with hostility, as well. In mid-July, the PS and the PPD withdrew from the fourth provisional government to protest antidemocratic actions by radical military and leftist political forces. The PS newspaper República had been closed by radical workers, causing a storm of protest both domestically and abroad. The PS and other democratic parties were also faced with a potentially lethal threat to the new freedom posed by the PCP's open contempt for parliamentary democracy and its dominance in Portugal's main trade union, Intersindical, or as it came to be known in 1977, the General Confederation of the Portuguese Workers–National Inter-Union (Confederação Geral dos Trabalhadores Portugueses – Intersindical Nacional – CGTP-IN).
The United States and many West European countries expressed considerable alarm at the prospect of a Marxist-Leninist takeover in a NATO country. Spain in particular, which was preparing for the succession of Francisco Franco, even threatened to invade Portugal if communism began to spread across the border. United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger told PS leader Soares that he would probably be the "Alexander Kerensky of Portugal". The result of these concerns was an influx of foreign financial aid into Portugal to shore up groups committed to pluralist parliamentary democracy.
By the time of the "hot summer" of 1975, several currents could be seen within the MFA. A moderate group, the Group of Nine, issued a manifesto in August that advocated nonaligned socialism along the lines of Scandinavian social democracy. Another group published a manifesto that criticized both the Group of Nine and those who had drawn close to the PCP and singled out Prime Minister Gonçalves for his links to the communists. These differences of opinion signaled the end of the fifth provisional government, in power only a month, under Gonçalves in early September. Gonçalves was subsequently expelled from the Council of the Revolution as this body became more moderate. The sixth provisional government was formed, headed by Admiral José Baptista Pinheiro de Azevedo; it included the leader of the Group of Nine and members of the PS, the PPD, and PCP. This government, which was to remain in power until July 1976, when the first constitutional government was formed, was pledged to adhere to the policies advocated by MFA moderates.
Evolving political stability did not reflect the country as a whole, which was on the verge of anarchy. Even the command structure of the military broke down. Political parties to the right of the PCP became more confident and increasingly fought for order, as did many in the military. The granting of independence to Mozambique in September 1975, and to Angola in November meant that the colonial wars were ended. The attainment of peace, the main aim of the military during all these months of political upheaval, was thus achieved, and the military could begin the transition to civilian rule. The polling results of the April 1975 constituent assembly elections legitimized the popular support given to the parties that could manage and welcome this transition.
A coup by military units in November 1975 led by Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho, referred to as the 25 of November, marked the decline of leftist influence in Portugal. On this day, under the pretense of a left-wing takeover of a radio station, Colonel António dos Santos Ramalho Eanes declared a state of emergency and sent loyal commandos to seize the city of Lisbon. Revolutionary units within Lisbon were quickly surrounded and forced to surrender; about 200 leftists were arrested, and COPCON was abolished. The communists' ability to institute its goals had diminished without the support of the military, and people returned to their jobs and daily routines after eighteen months of political and social turmoil.
A degree of compromise among competing political visions of how the new state should be organized was reached, and the country's new Constitution was proclaimed on 2 April 1976, paving the way to the termination of the provisional governments and of the Ongoing Revolutionary Process. Several weeks later, on 25 April, elections for the new Parliament, the Assembly of the Republic, were held.
These elections could be said to be the definitive end of a period of revolution. Moderate democratic parties received most of the vote. Revolutionary achievements were not discarded, however. The constitution pledged the country to realize socialism. Furthermore, the constitution declared the extensive nationalizations and land seizures of 1975 irreversible. The military supported these commitments through a pact with the main political parties that guaranteed its guardian rights over the new democracy for four more years.
Consolidation of democracy
After the adoption of the country's new Constitution in 1976, the first elections for the Assembly of the Republic, were won by the PS. It took 36.7% of the vote, compared with the 25.2% for the PPD, 16.7% for the CDS, and 15.2% for the PCP. Elections for the presidency were held in June and won easily by General António Ramalho Eanes, who enjoyed the backing of parties to the right of the communists: the PS, the PPD, and the CDS.
Although the PS did not have a majority in the Assembly of the Republic, Eanes allowed it to form the first constitutional government with Soares as prime minister. It governed from 23 July 1976, to 30 January 1978. A second government, formed from a coalition with the CDS, lasted from January to August 1978 and was also led by Soares. The PS governments faced enormous economic and social problems such as runaway inflation, high unemployment, falling wages, and an enormous influx of Portuguese settlers from Africa. Failure to fix the economy, even after adopting a painful austerity program imposed by the International Monetary Fund, ultimately forced the PS to relinquish power. However, the PS could be seen as having been successful in that it governed Portugal democratically for two years and helped thereby to consolidate the new political system. After the collapse of the PS-CDS coalition government in July 1978, President Eanes formed a number of caretaker governments in the hope that they would rule until the parliamentary elections mandated by the constitution could be held in 1980. There were, therefore, three short-lived governments appointed by President Eanes. These were led by Prime Minister Alfredo Nobre da Costa from 28 August, to 21 November 1978; Carlos Mota Pinto from 21 November 1978, to 31 July 1979; and Maria de Lourdes Pintasilgo (Portugal's first woman prime minister) from 31 July 1979, to 3 January 1980.
The weakness of these governments and the failure of the PS and the PPD, now renamed the Social Democratic Party (Partido Social Democrata – PSD), to form a coalition government forced President Eanes to call for interim elections to be held in December 1979. Francisco Sá Carneiro, the dynamic leader of the PSD and a fierce personal rival of Soares, put together a coalition of his own PSD along with the CDS, the People's Monarchist Party (Partido Popular Monárquico – PPM), and another small party to form the Democratic Alliance (Aliança Democrática – AD). The AD downplayed its intentions to revise the constitution to reverse the nationalizations and land seizures of the mid-1970s and advocated a moderate economic policy. The coalition won 45.2% of the vote in the elections, or 128 seats, for a majority of 3 in the 250-seat assembly. The PS, which had also formed an electoral coalition with several small left-wing groups, suffered a drubbing and won only 27.4%, a large drop compared with 1976 results. The PCP, in coalition with another left-wing party, gained slightly.
Francisco Sá Carneiro became prime minister in January 1980, and the tenor of parliamentary politics moved to the right as the government attempted to undo some of the revolution's radical reforms. The powers conferred on the presidency by the constitution of 1976 enabled President Eanes to block the AD's centrist economic policies. For this reason, the AD concentrated on winning enough seats in the October 1980 elections to reach a two-thirds majority to effect constitutional change and on electing someone other than Eanes in the presidential elections of December 1980.
Portuguese voters approved of the movement to the right, and in the parliamentary elections the AD coalition increased the number of its seats to 134, while the PS held steady at 74 seats and the PCP lost 6 seats for a total of 41. The AD's win was not complete, however, because President Eanes was easily reelected in December. In contrast to the election of 1976, when Eanes was supported by the PS and parties to its right, he was backed in 1980 by the PS, the PCP, and other left-wing parties. Voters admired Eanes for his integrity and obvious devotion to democracy. His election, however, made constitutional change less certain because the AD did not have by itself the required two-thirds majority. The AD also suffered a serious loss when its dynamic leader, Sá Carneiro, died in a plane crash just two days before the presidential election. His successor was Francisco Pinto Balsemão, the founder and editor of the Expresso newspaper.
The AD coalition remained in power until mid-1983, forming two governments with Balsemão as prime minister. In combination with the PS, which also desired fundamental changes in the political system, the AD was able to revise the constitution. Amendments were passed that enhanced the power of the prime minister and the Assembly of the Republic at the expense of the President. The role of the military in the running of the country was ended with the abolition of the Council of the Revolution. The Constitutional reform was promulgated in September 1982. The Council of the Revolution was replaced with two consultative bodies, linked to the office of the President. One of these, the Higher Council of National Defense, was limited to commenting on military matters. The other, the Council of State, was broadly representative of the entire country and did not have the power to prevent government and parliamentary actions by declaring them unconstitutional. The constitutional reform also created a Constitutional Court to review the constitutionality of legislation. Because ten of its thirteen judges were chosen by the Assembly of the Republic, it was under parliamentary control. Another important change reduced the president's power by restricting presidential ability to dismiss the government, dissolve parliament, or veto legislation. Also, the ideological tone of the Constitution was toned down, and several references to the goal of establishing a socialist order were softened or eliminated.
Although the AD government had achieved its main objective of amending the constitution, the country's economic problems worsened, and the coalition gradually lost popular support. Balsemão also tired of the constant political skirmishing needed to hold the AD together and resigned in December 1982. Unable to choose a successor, the AD broke apart. Parliamentary elections in April 1983 gave the PS a stunning victory that increased its parliamentary seats to 101. After long negotiations, the PS joined with the PSD to form a governing coalition, the Central Bloc (Bloco Central), with Soares as prime minister.
The Central Bloc government was fragile from its beginning and lasted only two years. Faced with serious and worsening economic problems, the government had to adopt an unpopular austerity policy. Administrative and personality difficulties made relations within the government tense and resulted in bitter parliamentary maneuvers. Overshadowing these difficulties was the upcoming presidential election in early 1986. Soares made clear his ambition to succeed Eanes, who, according to the constitution, was not allowed to seek a third consecutive term. A split within the PSD over its presidential candidate ended the coalition government in June 1985.
In new assembly elections held in October 1985, the PS, blamed by the public for the country's severe economic problems, such as a 10% fall in wages since 1983, suffered serious losses and lost almost half its seats in the Assembly of the Republic. The PCP's electoral coalition lost six seats; the PSD won thirteen more seats because of new leadership; and the CDS lost almost a third of its seats. The big winner was a party formed by supporters of President Eanes, the Democratic Renewal Party (Partido Renovador Democrático – PRD), which, although only months old, won nearly 18% of the vote and forty-five seats. The party's victory stemmed from the high regard Portuguese voters had for President Eanes.
No party emerged from the October 1985 elections with anything even close to an absolute majority. Hence, the 1985–87 period was unstable politically. The new head of the PSD, economist Aníbal Cavaco Silva, as prime minister headed a minority PSD government that managed to survive for only seventeen months. Its success was attributed partly to support from the PRD, which as a young party wished to establish itself, although it was a motion of censure presented by this party in the spring of 1987 that eventually brought the government down. Cavaco Silva also benefited from the internal dissension of other parties.
The presidential election of 1986 did not yield a winner in the first round. The candidate of the CDS and the PSD, Diogo Freitas do Amaral, won 46.3% of the vote compared with 25.4% for Mário Soares. Freitas do Amaral, candidate of a united right, profited from the left's mounting of three candidates. In the two-candidate runoff election in mid-February, Soares won with 51.3% of the vote, getting the support of most left-wing voters. The PCP supported him as the lesser of two evils, even though Soares repeatedly reminded voters that he, perhaps more than anyone else, had prevented the communists from coming to power in the mid-1970s.
Cavaco Silva came to have full control of his party, the PSD. As prime minister, he pushed for a liberalization of the economy. He was fortunate in that external economic trends and the infusion of funds from the European Community after Portugal became a member in 1986 enlivened the country's economy and began to bring an unaccustomed prosperity to Portuguese wage earners. Confident therefore that his party could win in parliamentary elections, Cavaco Silva maneuvered his political opponents into passing a vote of censure against his government in April 1987. Instead of asking for a new government composed of a variety of parties on the left, President Soares called for early elections in July.
Cavaco Silva had judged the political situation correctly. The PSD won just over 50% of the vote, which gave it an absolute majority in the parliament, the first single-party majority since the restoration of democracy in 1974. The strong mandate would enable Cavaco Silva to put forward a more clearly defined program and perhaps govern more effectively than his predecessors.
See also
Spanish transition to democracy – which occurred along a similar time period
Metapolitefsi – Greek democratization that began in 1974
References
Carnation Revolution
20th century in Portugal
Democratization
Political history of Portugal |
4497714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Algeria | Human rights in Algeria | In 2011, the then Algerian president Abdelaziz Bouteflika lifted a state of emergency that had been in place since the end of the Algerian Civil War in 2002, as a result of the Arab Spring protests that had occurred throughout the Arab world.
Serious challenges to human rights in Algeria have included torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, serious restrictions on free expression and media, overly restrictive laws on the organization, funding, or operation of NGOs, restrictions of religious freedom, serious government corruption, people trafficking, significant restrictions on workers’ freedom of association and child labor. In 2017, Human Rights Watch reported the Algerian government had increasingly resorted to criminal prosecutions against bloggers, journalists, and media figures for peaceful speech, via articles in the country's penal code criminalising "offending the president", "insulting state officials" and "denigrating Islam", in addition to dismissing peaceful demonstrations as "unauthorised gatherings".
Bouteflika resigned in 2019 after months of protests following the declaration of his intention to run for a fifth term as president. Following an interim period, Abdelmadjid Tebboune was elected president, who spoke out in favour of protestors. Despite this, Human Rights Watch reported in 2021 that the Algerian government continued to arrest and imprison protestors, activists, and journalists from the Hirak movement, alongside amending the country's constitution to restrict freedom of speech and further curtail judicial independence.
Historical background
Algeria has been categorized by Freedom House as "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labeled "partly free". To the extent that there is democracy in today's Algeria, it is founded in three pieces of legislation:
The Political Parties Act (1989, amended 1997), which allowed multiple political parties
The Associations Act (1987, amended 1990), which permitted establishment of associations
The Information Act (1990), which paved the way for independent news media
Free elections were held in the country beginning in 1988, but a victory by the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) in the 1991 parliamentary ballot sparked a military coup d'état and the imposition, in February 1992, of a state of emergency under which basic human rights were suspended. Freedom of expression, association, and assembly were severely restricted, and many individuals were arrested without charge and held without trial. A civil war raged from 1991 to 1999, and since its end there have been no proper official investigations into the massive human-rights violations that took place during the conflict.
The government's main opponent in the war was the Armed Islamic Group (GIA), an Islamic terrorist organization and Al Qaeda affiliate that was described by John R. Schindler in The National Interest in July 2012 as "supremely violent" and as the perpetrator of "a wave of bombings in Paris in the summer of 1995" that were "Al Qaeda's first attacks on the West". Schindler notes that "Algeria's nightmare years of 1993–1997 were a focus of the international human-rights community" but that "the terrible fratricide [of] the 1990s got little coverage in Western media, despite the fact that it probably claimed twice as many lives as the Bosnian conflict, which ran concurrently and received nonstop Western attention." Schindler added that "Algeria's bloody civil war, which began twenty years ago, never really ended."
December 2010 marked the beginning of a period of frequent and nationwide protests inspired by the so-called "Arab Spring" and sparked by widespread anger over high unemployment, a serious housing shortage, high food prices, extensive corruption, and severe restrictions on freedom of expression and other human rights.
The National Coordination Committee for Change and Democracy (CNCD) is an umbrella group of opposition parties, unions, and human-rights groups that was formed in January 2011 in the wake of the violent suppression of protests in which several people were killed and hundreds injured or arrested.
The CNCD planned a march in Algiers on January 21, 2011, to demand an end to the state of emergency and a restoration of democracy and freedom. The government sought to prevent the demonstration by blocking roads to Algiers, stopping trains to Algiers, setting up checkpoints and barricades within Algiers, refusing visas to representatives of the international media, detaining government opponents and journalists, and shutting down the Internet. Still, the protest went on, with authorities estimating the number of participants at 800 and the organizers estimating the number at 2000. Many protesters were beaten and cameras confiscated.
The state of emergency was lifted in February 2011, but extensive restrictions on human rights remain.
In April 2019, president Abdelaziz Bouteflika, who had been in the role since 1999, resigned following mass protests after he announced his intention to run for a fifth term. Bouteflika was succeeded by Abdelmadjid Tebboune, who spoke in favour in the protestors.
During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria, public health was used by the government to justify the dispersion of ongoing Hirak protests by implementing a lockdown. When the lockdown was lifted in June 2020, protests in major Algerian cities were subsequently repressed, leading to riots in Béjaïa.
The following chart shows Algeria's ratings since 1972 in the Freedom in the World reports, published annually by Freedom House. A rating of 1 is "free"; 7, "not free".
In 2022, Freedom House rated Algeria's human rights as 32 out of 100 (not free).
Basic rights
Discrimination based on birth, race, gender, and a number of other attributes is illegal, although women, in particular, face considerable and systemic discrimination.
Although it is unconstitutional, the government monitors the communications of its political opponents, the news media, human-rights organizations, and terrorist suspects. Homes are searched without warrants. The constitution also guarantees freedom of speech and of the press, but with various caveats. Public comments about the conduct of government forces during the 1990s are illegal, as are criticism of Islam, speech that insults government leaders, or anything that threatens "national unity" or offends against "individual dignity".
Pressure is exerted by the government on the news media, largely by arresting journalists for defamation, which is defined broadly and punished harshly under Algerian law. Self-censorship by some journalists is common, although other journalists do not hesitate to criticize the government openly. Radio and TV, which are entirely state-owned, provide slanted coverage and deny access to opponents of the regime. Most newspapers are printed at government-owned presses, and the regime uses this fact to exert influence on editors and reporters. It also exerts influence by wielding the power of the government-owned advertising company to place or not place ads in various publications.
Internet access is usually not a problem, although the government monitors e-mail accounts and chat rooms. Academic conferences and the like are sometimes subject to governmental interference, with visas sometimes being denied to foreign scholars who have been invited to participate in such events.
In the past, Algerian academics have needed official approval before attending conferences abroad, and are often denied that approval.
Though Algeria's constitution guarantees freedom of worship, it also declares Islam the state religion and prohibits activities incompatible with Islamic morals, and in reality religious liberty for non-Muslims is limited by a number of laws and practices. Registering non-Muslim groups is difficult, proselytizing is punishable by up to three years in jail, and Christian groups often have trouble obtaining visas, although this last problem has apparently eased in recent years. The Protestant Church of Algeria has been particularly targeted, with eighteen of their churches shut down between November, 2017 and October, 2019. This casts doubt on the state of religious freedom in Algeria. In general, non-Muslims are socially tolerated, but some discrimination and abuse exists, and many Christians keep a low profile.
Although the rights of assembly and of association are guaranteed by the constitution, they are severely curtailed in practice. Demonstrations have been banned in Algiers since 2000. Permits are required for public meetings, and are often difficult to obtain. Official approval is required in order to form political parties and many other types of organizations, such as NGOs.
While congratulating Algeria for lifting the state of emergency in February 2011, Human Rights Watch urged that the government still needed to "restore basic liberties" by amending "numerous repressive laws and end various arbitrary practices that have no legal basis". Sarah Leah Whitson of HRW said that lifting the state of emergency had had "very little impact on civil liberties because a whole range of laws is on the books that can be just as repressive, or applied in a repressive manner". Freedom of assembly, HRW noted, was "still stifled in Algiers, and inconsistently and selectively observed in the provinces".
In May 2012, HRW complained that the Algerian government had been using "arrests and other tactics to keep people from demonstrating in the capital in the period leading up to the May 10, 2012 elections". Peaceful demonstrators in Algiers, including at least one candidate for election, were being detained, and some individuals had been prevented from entering the city. HRW noted that while the state of emergency had technically been lifted February 2011, security forces were still enforcing "repressive laws on public gatherings, including a ban on gatherings in Algiers". HRW described these laws as being "contrary to Algeria's binding human rights obligations under international law" and called on the country's government to "end its unjustified restrictions on freedom of assembly in Algiers".
Similarly, although the constitution guarantees free movement, this, too, is restricted in practice. There are limits on travel to and through the country's southern provinces. The minister of interior is empowered to place people under house arrest. Young men who still owe the country military service cannot leave the country without permission. Married women cannot travel abroad without their husbands' permission.
A 1992 state of emergency law remains in effect, and the government is especially concerned with enforcing the restrictions on assembly and association. These restrictions, which are used to limit the activities of opposition political parties and other opponents of the regime, are among the major human-rights problems in Algeria.
On 21 February 2022, the Human Rights Watch reported that the Algerian authorities arbitrarily imprisoned human rights defenders, civil society activists, opposition figures and journalists for peacefully exercising their rights to speak and assemble.
On 2 March 2022, Amnesty International reported that Algerian authorities ramped up their assault on civil society, with 27 human rights defenders and peaceful activists arrested in February. According to the reports, the authorities have sought to suppress Hirak protests, have arrested hundreds of activists, human rights defenders and journalists, and held them in pretrial detention or sentenced them under vaguely worded charges.
Women's rights
The Algerian Family Code of 1984, according to Amnesty International, "imposed many serious limitations on women's rights, including the right to equality before the law and the right of self-determination".
Under Algerian law, nonspousal rape is illegal, but spousal rape is not. Women often choose to report their rapes, but convictions can be difficult to obtain, things have improved on these fronts since a 2007-2011 nationwide program to combat violence against women. Women abused by their husbands cannot file charges unless they can provide medical confirmation that they have been incapacitated for at least 15 days. A number of women's groups run rape-crisis centers and provide counseling to abused women, but have limited resources and have trouble getting spousal abuse taken seriously. Sexual harassment is a crime punishable by a fine. Women receive decent medical care during pregnancy and childbirth.
Although the sexes are equal under the constitution, there are discriminatory elements of sharia in Algerian law. Muslim women cannot marry non-Muslims, for example. Women have the ability to get a divorce and are usually awarded child custody, although certain decisions about children's lives remain in the father's hands. Men can marry up to four women, although this is supposedly allowed only if the first wife approves and if the man can afford it. Women can choose their own husbands. Daughters inherit less than their brothers by law. Women are discriminated against in employment. In cities, women are encouraged to seek an education, and more girls than boys actually make it through secondary school. In 2010, the majority of health-care and media professionals weare women, as were many judges and business owners.
In a 2012 report, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women called on Algeria to take action to "promote gender equality and eliminate patriarchal attitudes and deeprooted discriminatory stereotypes concerning the roles and responsibilities of women and men in the family and society". It asked Algeria specifically to promote equal opportunity in the workplace, to eliminate sexual stereotypes from school curricula, in the media, and among the judiciary, to pass legislation on violence against women, ensure that the definition of rape includes spousal rape.
In November 2019, a new constitution was approved by 66% of voters in a referendum, with a national turnout of 23%, a historical low. The new constitution included within it protections for women from "all forms of violence in all places and circumstances" in addition to the provision of "shelters, care centres, appropriate means of redress and free legal assistance". Despite this, it was reported that feminicides continued into 2020, with at least 36 murders of women and girls.
Children's rights
A child can inherit Algerian nationality from either parent. The child of a Muslim father is automatically Muslim. Education through high school is free and, up to age 16, compulsory. Although illegal, child abuse is a problem, attributed to a "culture of violence". Child sexual abuse is technically punishable by 10-20 years in prison but offenders rarely receive such long sentences. Algeria is not a signatory of the 1980 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction.
There is no organized system of adoption in Algeria, and orphans and other children are placed with guardians in accordance with the so-called "Kafala" system, under which the children are in a "precarious" situation, with very little in the way of individual rights, according to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. The system is inconsistent with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Freedom of Assembly
Human Rights Watch said in its annual report -2015-2016- that Algerian authorities continued to suppress peaceful protests by prohibiting all kind of gatherings held without prior approval. According to Article 97 of the penal code, organizing or participating in an unauthorized gathering, even if it is peaceful, is regarding a crime and imposes a penalty of up to one year in prison. In February, a court sentenced eight members of the National Committee for the Defense of the Rights of Unemployed Workers to one-year prison after convicting them of "unauthorized gathering" and "exercising pressure on the decisions of magistrates".
Disabled people's rights
Discrimination on the basis of disability is illegal, but this law is not well enforced, and social prejudice is common.
LGBT rights
Homosexuality and lesbianism are punishable by up to 3 years imprisonment with fines up to 10,000 dinars, torture, beatings, or vigilante execution. Police join in on the attacks, are complicit, or turn a blind eye. There is intense social discrimination, and very few gay people live openly. Gender expression is banned and discrimination is rampant.
HIV/AIDS rights
There is social discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS; the government reported in 2022 that it does not take measures to specifically prevent and treat HIV/AIDS in the LGBTQI+ community.
Refugee and asylum seekers' rights
The country has provisions for helping refugees and asylum seekers, and works with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other groups. Algeria has helped some such individuals from sub-Saharan Africa while turning away many others. In 2020, 17, 000 mostly sub-Saharan migrants were expelled from the country, including some asylum seekers.
Employees' rights
Government approval is required to form unions, and a union can lose its legal status for various reasons. Strikes are permitted, but require government approval, and are only allowed after two weeks of mediation or conciliation. Collective bargaining is permitted. Forced labor is prohibited. The Ministry of Labor is supposed to enforce the ban on child labor, but 1.5 million Algerian children work, mostly on farms and in shops. There is a low minimum wage, but enforcement of it is inconsistent. however, the Algerian government is helping the workers with benefits. There are rules about work hours and the like which are better enforced in the public than in the private sector.
Rights of persons under arrest
Arbitrary arrest and detention is unconstitutional in Algeria, but there is nonetheless frequent use of pretrial detention. A 2009 report noted that suspects were subjected to "physical abuse and other brutalities" while in pretrial detention and during questioning. A summons is required to compel a suspect to preliminary questioning and to compel defendants and plaintiffs to appear in court. Warrantless arrests may be made by police who have witnessed an offense. There are also rules indicating how long suspects may be held without charge, These procedures are usually followed. A major problem, however, is that suspects are often held before trial for very long periods. Prosecutors' requests to extend preventive detention are rarely denied by judges. There is no bail, but defendants are often released pending trial, and must report regularly to the police. The right to legal representation, and to government-paid counsel if one cannot afford to pay, is respected.
Torture is forbidden by law but there were a few reports of this in 2022.
On 28 December 2021 the Algerian authorities unjustly imprisoned Algerian blogger and activist Merzoug Touati. He was prosecuted for his online criticism of prison conditions. On 3 January 2022, he was sentenced to one year in prison and a fine of 100,000 dinars (US$700).
Rights of persons on trial
Although Algeria's constitution stipulates that the judiciary is to be independent and provide fair trials, the president has ultimate power over the courts and defendants' rights are not always respected. Defendants enjoy the presumption of innocence, the right to present witnesses and evidence, the right to appeal, and other rights, and these rights are generally respected. In the past, verdicts have often been influenced by family connections and status. In February 2020, Algiers-based prosecutor Mohamed Sid Ahmed Belhadi was transferred to El Oued after calling for 16 Hirak protestors to be acquitted, citing their right to freedom of assembly.
Human Rights Watch complained in June 2012 about the cases of eight terror suspects who had been detained secretly for several years and who faced "trials of questionable fairness because the judges refuse to allow an important witness to testify". These cases, according to HRW, underscore "the continuing obstacles faced by those charged with terrorist offenses, even after authorities lifted a state of emergency in 2011, to obtaining justice that is both prompt and fair". Sarah Leah Whitson of HRW said that "President Abdelaziz Bouteflika speaks often about judicial reform, but when it comes to trying suspected militants, reform does not yet mean fairness."
Rights of prisoners
As a rule, prison conditions are below international standards, and human-rights groups are not allowed to inspect many facilities. Overcrowding is a widespread problem, as are poor lighting, ventilation, food, and hygiene. Prisoners are allowed regular family visits and private worship. In the past, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have both complained that members of radical Islamic groups are treated more harshly in prison than others.
Rights of journalists
In December 2016, the Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor issued a report regarding violation of media freedom in Algeria. Death of the journalist Mohammed Tamalt, 42, is an example of using the government its power to silence the individuals whose writing insulted the president of republic and the official bodies. He died after three- month hunger strike in Algeria prison in 11 December. He was sentenced two years and started his hunger the same day. He spent his three months in intensive care unit in a coma since he was suffering severe lung inflammation. He was deprived of his family and his lawyer visits. In addition, it showed that detention of a journalist because of his writing criticizing the government and not paying attention to their health are considered as violation of human rights. In July 2014, he was accused of being convicted committing crimes against the government by the Algerian court. As a result, he was sentenced two years as well as a payment of a fine equal $1,800. Finally, it clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on freedom of the press; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticize the ruling government, some media organizations' licenses are canceled.
See also
Censorship in Algeria
Disability in Algeria
Freedom of religion in Algeria
Human trafficking in Algeria
LGBT rights in Algeria
Politics of Algeria
Notes
1.Note that the "Year" signifies the "Year covered". Therefore the information for the year marked 2008 is from the report published in 2009, and so on.
2.As of January 1.
3.The 1982 report covers the year 1981 and the first half of 1982, and the following 1984 report covers the second half of 1982 and the whole of 1983. In the interest of simplicity, these two aberrant "year and a half" reports have been split into three year-long reports through interpolation.
References
External links
2012 Annual Report, Amnesty International
Freedom in the World 2012 Report, Freedom House
World Report 2012, Human Rights Watch |
4497844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraken%20in%20popular%20culture | Kraken in popular culture | References to the fictional kraken are found in film, literature, television, and other popular culture forms.
Comics
In various comics, particularly DC and Marvel Comics, multiple creatures have been named Kraken.
The Kraken from The Umbrella Academy was named so after the kraken (sea monster) as he has the ability to breathe under water.
In the Disney comic series "Tamers of Nonhuman Threats", the Kraken appears in the fifth story, "Let's Get Kraken". In this story, the Kraken has a natural enemy, the sperm whale.
The kraken is an aquatic monster that has appeared in many comics publications.
A Kraken was featured in the story "The Kraken" in issue #49 of Adventures into the Unknown by ACG in 1953.
Champion Comics #5 (March 1940, Harvey Comics), Monster Hunters #10 (Oct. 1977, Charlton Comics), Indiana Jones and the Sargasso Pirates #2 (Jan. 1996, Dark Horse Comics), and the Japanese comic, One Piece (ワンピース Wan Pīsu) #62 (November 15, 2010, Shueisha) all featured versions of the Kraken.
Two one-shot publications featured characters bearing the name: a villain called "Dr. Kraken" in Web-Man #1 (1993, Argosy Communications Inc.) and a hero called Diego Hargreeves with the alias "Kraken" in Umbrella Academy #1 (2007, Dark Horse Comics). 2000 AD #583, (July 1988, Fleetway Publications) also featured the debut of a character called Judge Kraken. In Japanese comics, a servant of Poseidon and one of the main antagonists of the second saga of the Saint Seiya manga series. He was called Kraken Isaac (クラーケンのアイザック, Kurāken no Aizakku) - a former childhood friend and fellow saint trainee of main character Cygnus Hyoga -, and debuted in volume 16, published in 1989 by Shueisha.
The web comic "Angry Faerie" (from July 13, 2012), featured a bodybuilder type character called the Kraken.
A Kraken (dispatched by the God Poseidon) appears in the Avatar Press comic God is Dead #48.
A Kraken (depicted as a huge tentacled reptilian monstrosity) is sent to attack the heroes in Grimm Fairy Tales #123 and #124.
A Kraken appears in Broken Moon: Legends of the Deep #1 by American Gothic Press.
A character called "Kid Kraken" appeared in the Dynamite Comics series The Green Hornet 66' meets The Spirit.
DC Comics
Three versions appeared during the Golden Age of Comic Books: the first in Adventure Comics #56 (Nov. 1940), a second, land-based version existing on the planet Venus in Flash Comics #81 (March 1947) and a third variation capable of speech that claimed to be the actual Kraken from ancient folklore who battled the hero Captain Marvel in Whiz Comics #155 (June 1953).
Two versions appeared during the Silver Age of Comic Books: a giant octopus encountered by the Challengers of the Unknown in Showcase #12 (Jan.-Feb 1958), and the second being a giant squid summoned by the hero Aquaman in Aquaman #34 (July-Aug. 1967). Wonder Woman #247 (Sept. 1978) and #289 (March 1982) featured additional versions, and in Wonder Woman vol. 2 #75 (June 1993) the character encountered a version complete with tiara in a dream dimension. In Aquaman #1,000,000 (Nov. 1998), the eponymous hero of the title encounters one of the "Krakens of Vexjor", a race of huge tentacled reptilian sea monsters that inhabit Earth's oceans in the 853rd Century. Wonder Woman and Aquaman also encounter a young Kraken in Issue #1 (Aug. 2011, DC Comics) of the limited series Flashpoint: Wonder Woman and the Furies.
In the 2016 series DC Bombshells, King Nereus took the form of a Kraken to battle the heroines of the story. He's eventually dispatched by Aqua-Woman.
Marvel Comics
Two types of "Krakens" appear in the world of Marvel Comics, one based on the sea monster and the second as a costumed identity used by several individuals. The former first appeared The Avengers #27 (April 1966, Marvel Comics), and several variations of it have appeared in Marvel continuity since. The latter is used as the codename for a high-ranking member of HYDRA, with Daniel Whitehall and Jake Fury having assumed the identity throughout Marvel Comics' run.
Film
In silent films of the 1910s and 1920s, the Kraken was often portrayed using stock footage of an octopus in a bathtub attacking a toy ship. This footage first appeared in Georges Méliès' 1906 film Under the Seas and was recycled in many other films.
The Kraken appears in the film Clash of the Titans (1981) as a giant, four-armed humanoid with scales and a fishtail; it is said to be "the last of the Titans".
In the 2010 version of Clash of the Titans (2010), the Kraken is again featured as a weapon of the Olympian gods. This version of the creature has a humanoid head, torso and arms but also boasts a number of tentacles. Instead of a tail, he is depicted with crab-like legs. He is given a new backstory as the creation of Hades that was used to overthrow the Titans, and was later used by Hades to get revenge on Zeus for tricking him into the underworld. "Release the kraken", as said by Liam Neeson's Zeus, has become an Internet meme.
The Kraken from Clash of the Titans makes an appearance in The Lego Batman Movie.
Even though it is not the kraken, a giant octopus menaces ships and eventually the city of San Francisco in the Ray Harryhausen film It Came from Beneath the Sea.
The Kraken appears in Jack the Giant Killer (1962).
The Kraken appears in Atlantis: Milo's Return (2003), where it is shown to be telepathic.
A telemovie called Kraken: Tentacles of the Deep (2006) features the Kraken as its main antagonist.
In the film Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2006), the Kraken is an enormous cephalopod with rows of sharp teeth. It does the bidding of Davy Jones by pursuing the souls of men who bear the black spot, a mark that appears on men who are overdue on their debt to Jones. It appears in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, where it has been beached and killed.
The Kraken makes an appearance in the 2018 animated film Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation voiced by Joe Jonas. He sings to the other monsters on the vacation to Atlantis, and he later gets brainwashed by Van Helsing in the climax to attack the monsters. Jonathan eventually breaks the Kraken out of his brainwashed state by playing Macarena.
In Return to Neverland, the octopus which replaced the crocodile in the first movie is most likely based on the kraken.
In the Legendary Pictures’ MonsterVerse series, The Kraken is one on the 17 Titans awoken by King Ghidorah in the 2019 film Godzilla: King of the Monsters, it is also known as Na Kika It also makes a appearance in the 2021 graphic novel Godzilla Dominion where it is captured by poachers until Godzilla frees it.
The lead protagonist in the 2023 animated film Ruby Gillman, Teenage Kraken is Ruby Gillman, who is a sixteen-year-old teenage kraken. In the film, krakens are a race of benevolent, majestic creatures in conflict with malicious mermaids.
The three-part Christian cartoon series Kingdom Under The Sea, produced by Spot Films, later on Vídeo Brinquedo, the main villain is a giant octopus covered in shadows named "Kraken". In the Brazilian dub, he is only referred to as "O Monstro (The Monster)".
Literature
Alfred Tennyson 1830 irregular sonnet The Kraken, which described a massive creature that dwelled at the bottom of the sea.
In Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby Dick (chapter 59) the crew of the Pequod encounter a "vast pulpy mass, furlongs in length". Starbuck calls it 'The great live squid, which, they say, few whale-ships ever beheld, and returned to their ports to tell of it.' Narrator Ishmael attributes this to Bishop Pontopiddan's "the great Kraken," and concludes: "By some naturalists who have vaguely heard rumors of the mysterious creature, here spoken of, it is included among the class of cuttle-fish, to which, indeed, in certain external respects it would seem to belong, but only as the Anak of the tribe."
In Victor Hugo's 1866 novel Toilers of the Sea, Gilliatt kills a giant octopus with a knife. "This monster is the creature that seamen call the octopus, scientists call a cephalopod, and which in legend is known as a kraken."
Jules Verne's 1870 novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea mentions the kraken and features a group of giant squids that attack the submarine Nautilus.
In Anatole France's 1908 novel L'île des Pingouins (chapter V), Kraken is the name of a character that plays a monster, depicted as, among others, a dragon.
H. P. Lovecraft's novel The Call of Cthulhu, written in 1926, according to Cthulhu Mythos scholar Robert M. Price, has been inspired by Alfred Tennyson's sonnet. Both reference a huge aquatic creature sleeping for an eternity at the bottom of the ocean and destined to emerge from his slumber in an apocalyptic age.
John Wyndham's 1953 novel The Kraken Wakes features the sonnet written by Alfred Tennyson called The Kraken (1830), which described a massive creature that dwelled at the bottom of the sea; the story itself refers to an invasion by sea-dwelling aliens. The title is a play on Tennyson's line "The Kraken sleepeth".
Jack Vance's 1966 science fiction adventure novel The Blue World, based on an earlier 1964 novella The Kragen, depicts a world where natives must beware the kragen, giant, semi-intelligent squid-like predators which roam the ocean.
In Richard Adams' 1980 novel The Girl in a Swing, the main female character is stalked by the Kraken to punish her for the crime of murder by drowning.
Terry Brooks' 1985 novel The Wishsong of Shannara features a Kraken as a giant sea creature summoned by "dark magic" to join an assault on a Dwarf fortress.
In the children's book Monster Mission (also known as Island of the Aunts) by Eva Ibbotson, the Kraken is a force for good who has the ability to clean and heal the oceans.
The Kraken's appearance at the end of times is implied in the 1990s novel Good Omens by the demon Crowley “Great big bugger […] sleepeth beneath the thunders of the upper deep. Under loads of huge and unnumbered polypol — polipo — bloody great seaweeds, you know. Supposed to rise right at the end, when the sea boils”.
Kraken appear in Artemis Fowl: The Time Paradox as enormous, peaceful creatures that stay in the same spot for centuries feeding on algae, doubling as islands. They are described as being conical in shape, although there is a tubular shaped one on the coast of Ireland. In this book, Kraken shed their shells explosively, igniting a layer of methane under the old one and sending it flying. A comparison is made between the Kraken, and a barnacle (albeit one big enough to be mistaken for an island).
In Ken MacLeod's trilogy Engines of Lights (Cosmonaut Keep, Dark Light, Engine City), the giant squids or kraken are one of the five intelligent species from Earth that colonized the Galaxy, the others being one species of saurs and three species of hominidae, including the Homo sapiens. The krakens are the most intelligent of the space colonizers, and the ones who created the technology which made interstellar travels possible,
In Michael Crichton's posthumous 2009 novel Pirate Latitudes the sailors call the large sea creature that terrorizes the protagonist's ship "the kraken".
China Miéville's 2010 novel Kraken features a cult devoted to the worship of the creature.
In the A Song of Ice and Fire saga, by George R. R. Martin, the sigil of House Greyjoy of Pyke is a golden kraken. Krakens are also said to be stirring in the wake of the War of Five Kings, drawn by blood in the waters.
In J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings trilogy, the Watcher in the Water which guards the west gate of the abandoned dwarf kingdom of Moria is a Kraken-like creature.
In Dead on the Water by Hailey Edwards, a kraken is living in one of the Wink Sinks in Wink, TX.
Music
"Kraken" is a song by filk songwriter Leslie Fish, based partly on the Tennyson sonnet.
"Kraken" Is a song by Knife Party featured on their 2015 EP, Trigger Warning.
"Release the Kraken" is a song by Ninja Sex Party about a comedically harmless Kraken featured on their 2018 album Cool Patrol.
Sports
Greg Hardy, defensive end for the Carolina Panthers, is called "The Kraken" by himself and his fans.
Filipino basketball player June Mar Fajardo of the San Miguel Beermen is often called the "Kraken" during broadcasts of Philippine Basketball Association games and the Philippines men's national basketball team. The term was first used in 2010 by members at the forum Interbasket.net.
New York Yankees catcher Gary Sanchez has been referred to as the Kraken (often stylized as kRAKEn) since joining the team in 2016.
The Mazatlán F.C. football stadium in Mexico is nicknamed El Kraken.
The Seattle Kraken are a National Hockey League (NHL) expansion team based in Seattle, Washington.
TV
The Hakken-Kraks, sea monsters that live in a pond in the vicinity of Whoville, appear in the 1977 television special Halloween Is Grinch Night and draw their name from the kraken (their heads and long necks, the only parts of their bodies ever seen, more closely resemble sea dragons).
The Australian television series Shaun Micallef's Mad as Hell has a kraken character (Michael Ward) who emerges from a closet on the set when the character Sir Bobo Gargle (Francis Greenslade) announces his intention to 'release the kraken!' The kraken's appearance is accompanied by Toni Basil's 1981 song "Mickey".
The Big Bang Theory character Sheldon Cooper mentions krakens in the episodes, "Release the Kraken" and "The Date Night Variable"; in "The Hofstadter Insufficiency", Sheldon dreams of Leonard being grabbed by a kraken and pulled off the research ship he was on.
The television series Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea featured an episode called "The Village of Guilt" (1964), in which a failed experiment creates a giant octopus that terrorizes the population of a Norwegian fjord.
In a 2015 commercial for the U.S. insurer, GEICO, a "kraken" emerges from a golf course water hazard during a televised tournament, its tentacles writhing and grasping a golfer and his caddy, as the commentators intone with characteristic understatement that the sea monster looks like a kraken.
The kraken appears in an episode of Lost Tapes called "Kraken".
The sixth-season episode "A Wondrous Place" of the ABC series Once Upon a Time features a kraken, which attacks Aladdin and Jasmine. It is during this episode that Captain Nemo explains that kraken blood can open portals to other realms, which Captain Hook requires to return to Storybrooke.
The Kraken is featured imprisoned by magic in the deep sea, guarded by magician whales, in The Magicians season 5 episode 6 ("Oops!...I Did It Again"). Its release triggers a time loop, similar to Groundhog Day (film).
The Kraken makes a brief appearance in an episode of Family Guy called "Fighting Irish" when Peter Griffin thanked him for previous aid.
The Kraken appears in New Looney Tunes
The Kraken is explicitly mentioned in the Mickey Mouse episode "Wonders of the Deep," a giant squid subsequently appears and attacks Mickey and Donald while they're looking for Ludwig Von Drake.
The Kraken appears as a false flashback in Our Flag Means Death as the monster which killed Blackbeard's father. It is later revealed that it was in fact Blackbeard killing his own father, saying "I am the Kraken".
Video games
Age of Mythology (2002)
Battlefield 1 (2016): In the Turning Tides DLC, the Royal Marines assault trooper has a tattoo of a Kraken on his left arm.
Call of Duty: Ghosts (2013)
Conan (2007)
Darkfall: Unholy Wars (2013)
Darkfall Online (2009)
Donkey Kong Country Returns (2010)
EarthBound (1994): Does not resemble a giant squid but is instead a large, green snake with red hair that breathes fire.
Evolve (2015): One of the monster classes is named Kraken.
Fable: The Lost Chapters (2004)
Final Fantasy (1987)<ref
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Final Fantasy ARR (2012)
Forge of Empires added Kraken to the Oceanic Future age in 2017
God of War II (2007) Set in the world Greek mythology, the Kraken is the final barrier between the player character Kratos and the temple of the Fates
Gods Of Olympus- It is associated with the God Poseidon
Golden Sun (2001)
Grandia (1997)
Heroes of Newerth (2010)
Hitman (2016): the second episode (Sapienza) contains a redacted challenge called Unleash the Kraken in which a sailing boat is consumed by a sea monster.
Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb (2003): the 7th and last level in Istanbul "The Kraken´s Lair". This level is a boss-fight level.
Kerbal Space Program (2015): A floating-point bug in this space flight simulator which caused vessels at high speed and/or far away places to be disassembled and destroyed was named "Space Kraken" by the community. This name was adopted by the developers, who named the fix for this bug "Krakensbane". Various other game-breaking or ship-destroying glitches have since been found, which are also referred to as the Kraken.
Kid Icarus: Uprising (2012) features a space kraken.
Marvel: Ultimate Alliance (2006)
Old School RuneScape (2013): the Kraken is featured as a boss
One Piece: Grand Cruise (2018) features the crew taking on a kraken.
Return of the Obra Dinn (2018)
Risen 2 (2012)
Sea of Thieves features the Kraken as an enemy which attacks player ships. (2018)
Secrets of the Deep for Pinball FX 2 (2011)
Shamu's Deep Sea Adventures (2005)
Shining Force II (1993)
SimplePlanes (2014)
Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze (2014)
Smite (2013): Kraken is the name of Poseidon's ultimate ability (despite Poseidon being a Greek god and the Kraken being associated with the Norse). A game achievement involving this ability was called "Release the Kraken"
Splatoon (2015): the Kraken is a special weapon obtainable in a match that allows the player to temporarily become a giant squid and move with reduced speed and impunity across the map. This special was not present in Splatoon 2 (2017), but a reworked version called the Kraken Royale was added to the 3.0 update of Splatoon 3 (2022).
Splatoon Series (2015-2022): Throughout all three games in the Splatoon series, the English translation has featured a brand named Krak-On, a variant on the word kraken. In the original Japanese, this connection is not present.
The Ocean Hunter (1998)
Return of the Obra Dinn (2018): A Kraken is seen in the 7th chapter of the story, the Doom, summoned by mermaids to return a sacred shell that was stolen by the Obra Dinn's crew, killing many of them in the process.
The Sims 3: Island Paradise (2013)
The Sinking City (2019)
Tomb Raider: Underworld (2008)
Vainglory (video game) (2014)
Wonder Boy in Monster Land (1987): Kraken is a boss monster: a blue giant squid that floats.
World of Warcraft (2004)
World of Warships (2015): One of the in-game achievements is named Kraken Unleashed, and is awarded to players who destroy 5 or more ships in a single battle.
Zeus: Master of Olympus (2000): The Kraken appears as both an enemy, and a friendly, monster in some campaign missions. It can be unleashed by Poseidon for those missions where Poseidon is an opponent god (it will appear in water ways, essentially blocking trade), but where the player can build a Sanctuary to Poseidon, it will defend the player's city from attack.
Wizard101 (2008-): The Kraken is a boss as well as a spell and pet in the game.
Cataclysm: Dark Days Ahead (2012): Introduced in the 0.G (Gaiman) update, the Kraken is a gigantic octopus mutated by the Blob, and can be found in rivers and lakes.
Miscellaneous
In Greek mythology, Perseus defeats a monster called Ceto, represented by the constellation of Cetus (usually depicted as a whale, whose systematic name is Cetacean, also deriving from Ceto).
A set of four postage stamps displaying legendary Canadian animals was released in 1990. One stamp in the set featured the kraken.
Magic: The Gathering features the kraken as a creature type. Alongside their aquatic brethren leviathans, krakens are typically among the largest creatures available to summon with blue mana.
Dungeons & Dragons features the kraken as an end-game challenge boss.
Kraken was the name of a marine biological supply house in the United Kingdom from 1968 to 1978. A historical website exists .
The Kraken is a steel floorless roller coaster manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard. It opened in 2000 and is located at SeaWorld Orlando, in the United States.
The Kraken Rum is a 94 proof rum manufactured in Trinidad and Tobago; it was released in the United States in 2009.
The Cassini probe has detected a huge body of liquid on Titan, Saturn's largest moon. It has since been named the Kraken Mare.
The Razer Kraken is a gaming/music headphone range created by Razer Inc.
"Kraken" is a modern make of twin-hose regulator for scuba diving.
Attorney Sidney Powell referred to releasing supposed evidence of widespread fraud in the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election as "[releasing] the Kraken," inspiring a wave of memes and criticism.
In Monster High, Kala Mer'ri is the daughter of the Kraken, although she keeps her heritage a secret.
See also
Cetus (mythology)
Colossal squid
Giant squid
Giant squid in popular culture
Lusca, colossal octopus
Sea monster
Seattle Kraken
References
External links
The Kraken: radio drama by Frederick Engelhardt (L. Ron Hubbard).
Reflections: The Kraken by Robert Silverberg.
British poems |
4498159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estramustine%20phosphate | Estramustine phosphate | Estramustine phosphate (EMP), also known as estradiol normustine phosphate and sold under the brand names Emcyt and Estracyt, is a dual estrogen and chemotherapy medication which is used in the treatment of prostate cancer in men. It is taken multiple times a day by mouth or by injection into a vein.
Side effects of EMP include nausea, vomiting, gynecomastia, feminization, demasculinization, sexual dysfunction, blood clots, and cardiovascular complications. EMP is a dual cytostatic and hence chemotherapeutic agent and a hormonal anticancer agent of the estrogen type. It is a prodrug of estramustine and estromustine in terms of its cytostatic effects and a prodrug of estradiol in relation to its estrogenic effects. EMP has strong estrogenic effects at typical clinical dosages, and consequently has marked antigonadotropic and functional antiandrogenic effects.
EMP was introduced for medical use in the early 1970s. It is available in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, other European countries, and elsewhere in the world.
Medical uses
EMP is indicated, in the United States, for the palliative treatment of metastatic and/or progressive prostate cancer, whereas in the United Kingdom it is indicated for the treatment of unresponsive or relapsing prostate cancer. The medication is usually reserved for use in hormone-refractory cases of prostate cancer, although it has been used as a first-line monotherapy as well. Response rates with EMP in prostate cancer are said to be equivalent to conventional high-dose estrogen therapy.
Due to its relatively severe side effects and toxicity, EMP has rarely been used in the treatment of prostate cancer. This is especially true in Western countries today. As a result, and also due to the scarce side effects of gonadotropin-releasing hormone modulators (GnRH modulators) like leuprorelin, EMP was almost abandoned. However, encouraging clinical research findings resulted in renewed interest of EMP for the treatment of prostate cancer.
EMP has been used at doses of 140 to 1,400 mg/day orally in the treatment of prostate cancer. However, oral EMP is most commonly used at a dose of 560 to 640 mg/day (280–320 mg twice daily). The recommended dosage of oral EMP in the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) label for Emcyt is 14 mg per kg of body weight (i.e., one 140 mg oral capsule for each 10 kg or 22 lbs of body weight) given in 3 or 4 divided doses per day. The label states that most patients in studies of oral EMP in the United States have received 10 to 16 mg per kg per day. This would be about 900 to 1,440 mg/day for a 90-kg or 200-lb man. Lower doses of oral EMP, such as 280 mg/day, have been found to have comparable effectiveness as higher doses but with improved tolerability and reduced toxicity. Doses of 140 mg/day have been described as a very low dosage. EMP has been used at doses of 240 to 450 mg/day intravenously.
EMP and other estrogens such as polyestradiol phosphate and ethinylestradiol are far less costly than newer therapies such as GnRH modulators, abiraterone acetate, and enzalutamide. In addition, estrogens may offer significant benefits over other means of androgen deprivation therapy, for instance in terms of bone loss and fractures, hot flashes, cognition, and metabolic status.
EMP has been used to prevent the testosterone flare at the start of GnRH agonist therapy in men with prostate cancer.
Available forms
EMP is or has been available in the form of both capsules (140 mg, 280 mg) for oral administration and aqueous solutions (300 mg) for intravenous injection.
Contraindications
EMP is contraindicated when used in children, patients hypersensitive to estrogens or nitrogen mustards, those with peptic ulcer (an ulcer in the digestive tract), those with severely compromised liver function, those with weak heart muscle (also known as myocardial insufficiency) and those with thromboembolic disorders or complications related to fluid retention.
Side effects
The side effects of EMP overall have been described as relatively severe. The most common side effects of EMP have been reported to be gastrointestinal side effects like nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, with nausea and vomiting occurring in 40% of men. They are usually mild or moderate in severity, and the nausea and vomiting can be managed with prophylactic antiemetic medications. Nonetheless, severe cases of gastrointestinal side effects with EMP may require dose reduction or discontinuation of therapy. Although nausea and vomiting have been reported to be the most common side effects of EMP, gynecomastia (male breast development) has been found to occur in as many as 83% of men treated with EMP, and the incidence of erectile dysfunction is possibly similar to or slightly less than the risk of gynecomastia. As a rule, feminization, a gynoid fat distribution, demasculinization, and impotence are said to occur in virtually or nearly 100% of men treated with high-dose estrogen therapy. Decreased sexual activity has also been reported in men treated with EMP. These side effects are due to high estrogen levels and low testosterone levels. Prophylactic irradiation of the breasts can be used to decrease the incidence and severity of gynecomastia with estrogens.
Severe adverse effects of EMP are thromboembolic and cardiovascular complications including pulmonary embolism, deep vein thrombosis, stroke, thrombophlebitis, coronary artery disease (ischemic heart disease; e.g., myocardial infarction), thrombophlebitis, and congestive heart failure with fluid retention. EMP produces cardiovascular toxicity similarly to diethylstilbestrol, but to a lesser extent in comparison at low doses (e.g., 280 mg/day oral EMP vs. 1 mg/day oral diethylstilbestrol). The prostate cancer disease state also increases the risk of thromboembolism, and combination with docetaxel may exacerbate the risk of thromboembolism as well. Meta-analyses of clinical trials have found that the overall risk of thromboembolism with EMP is 4 to 7%, relative to 0.4% for chemotherapy regimens without EMP. Thromboembolism is the major toxicity-related cause of discontinuation of EMP. Anticoagulant therapy with medications such as aspirin, warfarin, unfractionated and low-molecular-weight heparin, and vitamin K antagonists can be useful for decreasing the risk of thromboembolism with EMP and other estrogens like diethylstilbestrol and ethinylestradiol.
Adverse liver function tests are commonly seen with EMP, but severe liver dysfunction is rare with the medication. Central nervous system side effects are rarely seen with EMP, although enlarged ventricles and neuronal pigmentation have been reported in monkeys treated with very high doses of EMP (20–140 mg/kg/day) for 3 to 6 months. EMP does not appear to have cytostatic effects in normal brain tissue. In women treated with EMP in clinical studies, a few instances of minor gynecological hemorrhages have been observed. EMP is described as relatively well tolerated among cytostatic antineoplastic and nitrogen-mustard agents, rarely or not at all being associated with significant hematologic toxicity such as myelosuppression (bone marrow suppression), gastrointestinal toxicity, or other more marked toxicity associated with such agents. In contrast to most other cytostatic agents, which often cause myelosuppression, leukopenia (decreased white blood cell count), and neutropenia (decreased neutrophil count), EMP actually produces leukocytosis (increased white blood cell count) as a side effect.
In a small low-dose study using 280 mg/day oral EMP for 150 days, tolerability was significantly improved, with gastrointestinal irritation occurring in only 15% of men, and there was no incidence of severe cardiovascular toxicity or deep vein thrombosis. In addition, no other side effects besides slight transient elevated liver enzymes were observed. These findings suggest that lower doses of oral EMP may be a safer option than higher doses for the treatment of prostate cancer. However, a subsequent 2004 meta-analysis of 23 studies of thromboembolic events with EMP found substantial incidence of thromboembolic events regardless of dosage and no association of EMP dose with risk of these complications.
Overdose
There has been no clinical experience with overdose of EMP. Overdose of EMP may result in pronounced manifestations of the known adverse effects of the medication. There is no specific antidote for overdose of EMP. In the event of overdose, gastric lavage should be used to evacuate gastric contents as necessary and treatment should be symptom-based and supportive. In the case of dangerously low counts of red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets, whole blood may be given as needed. Liver function should be monitored with EMP overdose. After an overdose of EMP, hematological and hepatic parameters should continue to be monitored for at least 6 weeks.
EMP has been used at high doses of as much as 1,260 mg/day by the oral route and 240 to 450 mg/day by intravenous injection.
Interactions
EMP has been reported to increase the efficacy and toxicity of tricyclic antidepressants like amitriptyline and imipramine. When products containing calcium, aluminium, and/or magnesium, such as dairy products like milk, various foods dietary supplements, and antacids, are consumed concomitantly with EMP, an insoluble chelate complex/phosphate salt between EMP and these metals can be formed, and this can markedly impair the absorption and hence oral bioavailability of EMP. There may be an increased risk of angioedema in those concurrently taking ACE inhibitors.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
EMP, also known as estradiol normustine phosphate, is a combined estrogen ester and nitrogen mustard ester. It consists of estradiol, an estrogen, linked with a phosphate ester as well as an ester of normustine, a nitrogen mustard. In terms of its pharmacodynamic effects, EMP is a prodrug of estramustine, estromustine, and estradiol. As a prodrug of estradiol, EMP is an estrogen and hence an agonist of the estrogen receptors. EMP itself has only very weak affinity for the estrogen receptors. The medication is of about 91% higher molecular weight than estradiol due to the presence of its C3 normustine and C17β phosphate esters. Because EMP is a prodrug of estradiol, it may be considered to be a natural and bioidentical form of estrogen, although it does have additional cytostatic activity via estramustine and estromustine.
EMP acts by a dual mechanism of action: 1) direct cytostatic activity via a number of actions; and 2) as a form of high-dose estrogen therapy via estrogen receptor-mediated antigonadotropic and functional antiandrogenic effects. The antigonadotropic and functional antiandrogenic effects of EMP consist of strong suppression of gonadal androgen production and hence circulating levels of androgens such as testosterone; greatly increased levels of sex hormone-binding globulin and hence a decreased fraction of free androgens in the circulation; and direct antiandrogenic actions in prostate cells. The free androgen index with oral EMP has been found to be on average 4.6-fold lower than with orchiectomy. As such, EMP therapy results in considerably stronger androgen deprivation than orchiectomy. Metabolites of EMP, including estramustine, estromustine, estradiol, and estrone, have been found to act as weak antagonists of the androgen receptor ( = 0.5–3.1 μM), although the clinical significance of this is unknown.
Extremely high levels of estradiol and estrone occur during EMP therapy. The estrogenic metabolites of EMP are responsible for its most common adverse effects and its cardiovascular toxicity. EMP has been described as having relatively weak estrogenic effects in some publications. However, it has shown essentially the same rates and degrees of estrogenic effects, such as breast tenderness, gynecomastia, cardiovascular toxicity, changes in liver protein synthesis, and testosterone suppression, as high-dose diethylstilbestrol and ethinylestradiol in clinical studies. The notion that EMP has relatively weak estrogen activity may have been based on animal research, which found that EMP had 100-fold lower uterotrophic effects than estradiol in rats, and may also not have taken into account the very high doses of EMP used clinically in humans.
The mechanism of action of the cytostatic effects of EMP is complex and only partially understood. EMP is considered to mainly be a mitotic inhibitor, inhibiting mechanisms involved in the mitosis phase of the cell cycle. Specifically, it binds to microtubule-associated proteins and/or to tubulin and produces depolymerization of microtubules (Kd = 10–20 μM for estramustine), resulting in the arrest of cell division in the G2/M phase (specifically metaphase). EMP was originally thought to mediate its cytostatic effects as a prodrug of normustine, a nitrogen mustard, and hence was thought to be an alkylating antineoplastic agent. However, subsequent research has found that EMP is devoid of alkylating actions, and that the influence of EMP on microtubules is mediated by intact estramustine and estromustine, with normustine or estradiol alone having only minor or negligible effects. As such, the unique properties of the estramustine and estromustine structures, containing a carbamate-ester bond, appear to be responsible for the cytostatic effects of EMP. In addition to its antimitotic actions, EMP has also been found to produce other cytostatic effects, including induction of apoptosis, interference with DNA synthesis, nuclear matrix interaction, cell membrane alterations, induction of reactive oxygen species (free oxygen radicals), and possibly additional mechanisms. EMP has been found to have a radiosensitizing effect in prostate cancer and glioma cells, improving sensitivity to radiation therapy as well.
The cytostatic metabolites of EMP are accumulated in tissues in a selective manner, for instance in prostate cancer cells. This may be due to the presence of a specific estramustine-binding protein (EMBP) (Kd = 10–35 nM for estramustine), also known as prostatin or prostatic secretion protein (PSP), which has been detected in prostate cancer, glioma, melanoma, and breast cancer cells. Because of its tissue selectivity, EMP is said to produce minimal cytostatic effects in healthy tissues, and its tissue selectivity may be responsible for its therapeutic cytostatic efficacy against prostate cancer cells.
EMP was originally developed as a dual ester prodrug of an estrogen and normustine as a nitrogen mustard alkylating antineoplastic agent which, due to the affinity of the estrogen moiety for estrogen receptors, would be selectively accumulated in estrogen target tissues and hence estrogen receptor-positive tumor cells. Consequentially, it was thought that EMP would preferentially deliver the alkylating normustine moiety to these tissues, allowing for reduced cytostatic effects in healthy tissues and hence improved efficacy and tolerability. However, subsequent research found that there is very limited and slow cleavage of the normustine ester and that EMP is devoid of alkylating activity. In addition, it appears that estramustine and estromustine may be preferentially accumulated in estrogen target tissues not due to affinity for the estrogen receptors, but instead due to affinity for the distinct EMBP.
Extremely high, pregnancy-like levels of estradiol may be responsible for the leukocytosis (increased white blood cell count) that is observed in individuals treated with EMP. This side effect is in contrast to most other cytotoxic agents, which instead cause myelosuppression (bone marrow suppression), leukopenia (decreased white blood cell count), and neutropenia (decreased neutrophil count).
Antigonadotropic effects
EMP at a dosage 280 mg/day has been found to suppress testosterone levels in men into the castrate range (to 30 ng/dL) within 20 days and to the low castrate range (to 10 ng/dL) within 30 days. Similarly, a dosage of 70 mg/day EMP suppressed testosterone levels into the castrate range within 4 weeks.
Pharmacokinetics
Upon oral ingestion, EMP is rapidly and completely dephosphorylated by phosphatases into estramustine during the first pass in the gastrointestinal tract. Estramustine is also partially but considerably oxidized into estromustine by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases during the first pass. As such, EMP reaches the circulation as estramustine and estromustine, and the major metabolite of EMP is estromustine. A limited quantity of approximately 10 to 15% of estramustine and estromustine is further slowly metabolized via hydrolysis of the normustine ester into estradiol and estrone, respectively. This reaction is believed to be catalyzed by carbamidases, although the genes encoding the responsible enzymes have not been characterized. The circulating levels of normustine formed from EMP are insignificant. Release of nitrogen mustard gas from normustine via cleavage of the carboxylic acid group has not been demonstrated and does not seem to occur.
The oral bioavailability of EMP is low, which is due to profound first-pass metabolism; specifically, dephosphorylation of EMP. The oral bioavailability of EMP specifically as estramustine and estromustine is 44 to 75%, suggesting that absorption may be incomplete. In any case, there is a linear relationship between the oral dose of EMP and circulating levels of estramustine and estromustine. Consumption of calcium, aluminium, or magnesium with oral EMP can markedly impair its bioavailability due to diminished absorption from the intestines, and this may interfere with its therapeutic effectiveness at low doses.
Following a single oral dose of 420 mg EMP in men with prostate cancer, maximal levels of estromustine were 310 to 475 ng/mL (475,000 pg/mL) and occurred after 2 to 3 hours. Estradiol levels with 280 mg/day oral EMP have been found to increase to very high concentrations within one week of therapy. In one study, levels of estradiol were over 20,000 pg/mL after 10 days, were about 30,000 pg/mL after 30 days, and peaked at about 40,000 pg/mL at 50 days. Another study found lower estradiol levels of 4,900 to 9,000 pg/mL during chronic therapy with 560 mg/day oral EMP. An additional study found estradiol levels of about 17,000 pg/mL with 140 mg/day oral EMP and 38,000 pg/mL with 280 mg/day oral EMP. The circulating levels of estradiol and estrone during EMP therapy have been reported to exceed normal levels in men by more than 100- and 1,000-fold, respectively. Levels of estramustine and estradiol in the circulation are markedly lower than those of estromustine and estrone, respectively, with a ratio of about 1:10 in both cases. Nonetheless, estradiol levels during EMP therapy appear to be similar to those that occur in mid-to-late pregnancy, which range from 5,000 to 40,000 pg/mL. No unchanged EMP is seen in the circulation with oral administration.
The pharmacokinetics of EMP are different with intravenous injection. Following a single intravenous injection of 300 mg EMP, levels of EMP were higher than those of its metabolites for the first 8 hours. This is likely due to the bypassing of first-pass metabolism. However, by 24 hours after the dose, unchanged EMP could no longer be detected in the circulation. The clearance of EMP from blood plasma is 4.85 ± 0.684 L/h. The volumes of distribution of EMP with intravenous injection were small; under a two-compartment model, the volume of distribution for the central compartment was 0.043 L/kg and for the peripheral compartment was 0.11 L/kg. The plasma protein binding of EMP is high. Estramustine is accumulated in tumor tissue, for instance prostate cancer and glioma tissue, with estramustine levels much higher in these tissues than in plasma (e.g., 6.3- and 15.9-fold, respectively). Conversely, levels of estromustine in tumor versus plasma are similar (1.0- and 0.5-fold, respectively). Estramustine and estromustine appear to accumulate in adipose tissue.
The elimination half-life of estromustine with oral EMP was 13.6 hours on average, with a range of 8.8 to 22.7 hours. Conversely, the elimination half-life of estromustine with intravenous injection was 10.3 hours, with a range of 7.36 to 12.3 hours. For comparison, the corresponding elimination half-lives of estrone were 16.5 and 14.7 hours for oral and intravenous administration, respectively. Estramustine and estromustine are mainly excreted in bile and hence in feces. They are not believed to be excreted in urine.
Chemistry
EMP, also known as estradiol 3-normustine 17β-phosphate or as estradiol 3-(bis(2-chloroethyl)carbamate) 17β-(dihydrogen phosphate), is a synthetic estrane steroid and a derivative of estradiol. It is an estrogen ester; specifically, EMP is a diester of estradiol with a C3 normustine (nitrogen mustard–carbamate moiety) ester and a C17β phosphate ester. EMP is provided as the sodium or meglumine salt. EMP is similar as a compound to other estradiol esters such as estradiol sulfate and estradiol valerate, but differs in the presence of its nitrogen mustard ester moiety. Antineoplastic agents related to EMP, although none of them were marketed, include alestramustine, atrimustine, cytestrol acetate, estradiol mustard, ICI-85966, and phenestrol.
Due to its hydrophilic phosphate ester moiety, EMP is a readily water-soluble compound. This is in contrast to most other estradiol esters, which are fatty acid esters and lipophilic compounds that are not particularly soluble in water. Unlike EMP, estramustine is highly lipophilic, practically insoluble in water, and non-ionizable. The phosphate ester of EMP was incorporated into the molecule in order to increase its water solubility and allow for intravenous administration.
The molecular weight of EMP sodium is 564.3 g/mol, of EMP meglumine is 715.6 g/mol, of EMP is 520.4 g/mol, of estramustine is 440.4 g/mol, and of estradiol is 272.4 g/mol. As a result of these differences in molecular weights, EMP contains about 52%, EMP sodium about 48%, and EMP meglumine about 38% of the amount of estradiol within their structures as does an equal-mass quantity of estradiol.
History
EMP was first synthesized in the mid-1960s and was patented in 1967. It was initially developed for the treatment of breast cancer. The idea for EMP was inspired by the uptake and accumulation of radiolabeled estrogens into breast cancer tissue. However, initial clinical findings of EMP in women with breast cancer were disappointing. Subsequently, radiolabeled EMP was found to be taken up into and accumulated rat prostate gland, and this finding culminated in the medication being repurposed for the treatment of prostate cancer. EMP was introduced for medical use in the treatment of this condition in the early 1970s, and was approved in the United States for this indication in 1981. EMP was originally introduced for use by intravenous injection. Subsequently, an oral formulation was introduced, and the intravenous preparation was almost abandoned in favor of the oral version.
Society and culture
Generic names
EMP is provided as the sodium salt for oral administration, which has the generic names estramustine phosphate sodium () and estramustine sodium phosphate (, ), and as the meglumine salt for intravenous administration, which has the generic name estramustine phosphate meglumine. The is estramustine phosphate. The name estramustine phosphate is a contraction of estradiol normustine phosphate. EMP is also known by its former developmental code names Leo 299, Ro 21-8837, and Ro 21-8837/001.
Brand names
EMP is most commonly marketed under the brand names Estracyt and Emcyt, but has also been sold under a number of other brand names, including Amsupros, Biasetyl, Cellmustin, Estramustin HEXAL, Estramustina Filaxis, Estranovag, Multosin, Multosin Injekt, Proesta, Prostamustin, and Suloprost.
Availability
EMP is marketed in the United States, Canada, and Mexico under the brand name Emcyt, whereas the medication is marketed under the brand name Estracyt in the United Kingdom and elsewhere throughout Europe as well as in Argentina, Chile, and Hong Kong. It has been discontinued in a number of countries, including Australia, Brazil, Ireland, and Norway.
Research
EMP has been studied in the treatment of other cancers such as glioma and breast cancer. It has been found to slightly improve quality of life in people with glioma during the first 3 months of therapy.
References
Further reading
Antiandrogens
Antigonadotropins
Carbamates
Chloroethyl compounds
DNA replication inhibitors
Estradiol esters
Estranes
Estrogens
Hormonal antineoplastic drugs
Mitotic inhibitors
Nitrogen mustards
Organochlorides
Phosphate esters
Pfizer brands
Prodrugs
Prostate cancer |
4498207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Albanian%20language | Proto-Albanian language | Proto-Albanian is the unattested language from which Albanian later developed. Albanian evolved from an ancient Paleo-Balkan language, traditionally thought to be Illyrian, or otherwise a totally unattested Balkan Indo-European language that was closely related to Illyrian and Messapic, which is sometimes also referred to as Albanoid.
Proto-Albanian is reconstructed by way of the comparative method between the Tosk and Gheg dialects, as well as the treatment of loanwords, the most important of which are those from Latin (dated by De Vaan to the period 167 BCE to 400 CE) and from Slavic (dated from 600 CE onward). The evidence from loanwords allows linguists to construct in great detail the shape of native words at the points of major influxes of loans from well-attested languages.
Proto-Albanian is broken up into different stages which are usually delimited by the onset of contact with different well-attested languages. Its earliest stages are dated to the early Roman Empire, just before the period of intense Latin-Albanian contact, while in its late stages it experienced contact with Slavic languages. The Tosk-Gheg split is known to predate Slavic contact circa 600 CE, as evidenced by the fact that Latin and ancient Greek loanwords are treated like native words with regard to taxonomical differences between Gheg and Tosk, but the same is not true of Slavic loans.
Nomenclature of periodization of Proto-Albanian
Vladimir Orel distinguishes the following periods of Proto-Albanian:
Early Proto-Albanian (EPA): spoken before the 1st century CE, when Albanian had not yet acquired extensive influence via language contact from Latin/Proto-Romance
Late Proto-Albanian (LPA): after extensive Latin contact, with the end of the period seeing contacts between ancient Slavic idioms still close to the Proto-Slavic language, in the 6th and 7th centuries CE. During this period the structure of Proto-Albanian was "shattered" by major changes.
However, another periodization paradigm does exist, and is used by some scholars in the field, such as Ranko Matasović:
Pre-Proto-Albanian: essentially equivalent to Vladimir Orel's "Early Proto-Albanian", except that the newer paradigm of Matasović dates Latin/Albanian contact a century earlier, and thus it ends for Matasović in the 1st century BCE rather than the 1st century CE. After this period ends, Latin contact begins to transform the language.
Early Proto-Albanian: corresponds to the earlier phases of what is for Orel "Late Proto-Albanian". For Matasović, the period spans the 1st century BCE to the 6th century CE, halting before contact with Slavic idioms begins.
Late Proto-Albanian: includes the last two centuries of LPA for Orel, plus most of the unattested period of Old Albanian, halting before Turkish influence begins. Note that, in this paradigm, Gheg and Tosk split from Early Proto-Albanian, not Late Proto-Albanian, consistent with our knowledge that the split preceded Slavic contact.
Early Albanian: corresponds to the late, Ottoman, phase of Old Albanian in the traditional paradigm, ending in 1800, at which point it transitions to Modern Albanian.
Demiraj, like Matasović and unlike Orel, observes the 5th/6th centuries as a boundary between stages, but instead places the "emergence of Albanian" from its parent after this point, rather than the 14th.
In an Albanian chapter penned by Michiel de Vaan within Klein, Joseph and Fritz' 2018 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics, Demiraj's periods are adhered to. Orel's "Later Proto-Albanian", which is for them also definitively placed before Slavic contact, is referred to as simply "Proto-Albanian" (PAlb) or, in German, Uralbanisch, reflecting the terminology of earlier writing in German. What is for Orel "Early Proto-Albanian" (EPA), dated definitively before the onset of Latin contact, is for De Vaan, "Pre-Proto-Albanian" (PPAlb); in German, this stage is called Voruralbanisch or Frühuralbanisch. De Vaan also discusses the possibility of breaking Pre-Proto-Albanian into two stages: one before the first Greek loanwords, and one that is after the first Greek loanwords, but before contact with Latin.
This page at present is using the paradigm of Orel.
History of study
Vladimir Orel is one of the main modern international linguists to have dealt with the passage from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Albanian to Modern Albanian. According to Orel, the study of Proto-Albanian syntax remains in its infancy so there are some limitations to the work. However, there have been developments in the understanding of the historical development of phonetics and vocabulary.
Other major work has been done by Eqrem Çabej and Shaban Demiraj as well as by major scholars in the field of Romanian historical linguistics as it relates to Albanian (see Albanian–Romanian linguistic relationship) as well as other Balkan linguists. A large amount of work done on Proto-Albanian is published in German, rather than English.
Phonology
Extensive recent studies on Proto-Albanian phonology have been published by Huld (1984), Beekes (1995), Shaban Demiraj (1996), Bardhyl Demiraj (1997), Orel (2000), Hock (2005), Matzinger (2006), Vermeer (2008), Schumacher (2013), and De Vaan (2018).
At present, this page follows Orel's paradigm for periods of Proto-Albanian, and presents the relationship between the synchronic phonologies of both "EPA" and "LPA" with diachronic relationships to each other and to ancestral Indo-European forms as well as descendant Albanian forms.
Stress
In Early Proto-Albanian, stress was paradigmatic, and behaved according to morphological class, with a base on the first syllable. In different paradigms, the stress pattern was varyingly barytonic, oxytonic, and mobile. Unstressed vowels lost one mora—long vowels were shortened, already short vowels were often deleted. In Later Proto-Albanian, however, a new system of unstressed vowel reduction emerged where *a reduced to *ë while all others were simply deleted (except for post-tonic inlaut vowels, which became *ë). Orel gives the following examples:
EPA * "ram" (sg) > *dauš > ... > modern dash
EPA * "rams" (pl) > *dauši > ... > modern desh
EPA * "branch" (sg) > *déga > ... > modern degë
EPA * "branches" (pl) > *dégai > ... > modern degë
Vowels
Early Proto-Albanian possessed four distinctive short vowels: *a, *e, *i and *u. Proto-Indo-European *o had merged into *a by the Early Proto-Albanian stage. A five-way distinction was maintained for long vowels: *aː, *eː, *iː, *oː and *uː. Early Proto-Albanian also had four diphthongs: *ei, *ai, *eu and *au.
Early Proto-Albanian's vowel inventory began to change as a result of Latin contact. Initially Albanian was resistant to the restoration of short *o as a separate phoneme, with Latin unstressed *o being replaced by *a, and stressed Latin *o being replaced by *u. However, in later loans, Latin *o is maintained in Albanian as *o. Additionally, some Latin loans with short *u saw Latin *u replaced by *o, as well as *ə specifically in unstressed positions before sonorants. In two cases, Orel argues that Latin short /u/ was lengthened in Albanian to /u:/, ultimately to render /y/. On the other hand, whatever effect Ancient Greek loanwords had at their time of absorption is unclear, but diachronically the vowels always agree with regular internal Albanian developments.
Late Proto-Albanian
Late Proto-Albanian exhibited *a, *i and *u throughout its development as distinctive short vowels. *o was restored to the phonemic inventory as a result of loanwords where it was increasingly maintained instead of replaced. Although *e was eliminated by breaking to *ie (which would render je and ja), it was restored by the leveling of /ai/ to /e/ and other phenomena that replaced /a/, /ie/, and /ue/ with /e/. The only long vowel preserved in its original form was *iː. *o: was replaced by *ue, *eː was merged into *aː and both were rounded and eventually raised to *o, while *uː merged with the diphthong *ui, ultimately rendering *y. By Late Proto-Albanian, all the original Indo-European diphthongs had now leveled, but new diphthongs were absorbed in loans, and were also innovated by breaking phenomena: *ie, *ue and *ui. *ai in Latin words with AE shared the fate of inherited Early Proto-Albanian *ai, becoming *e, while Latin AU similarly shared the fate of inherited *au and became *a.
Phonemically nasal vowels emerged in Late Proto-Albanian. First, all vowels standing before nasal consonants were nasalized. The following nasal consonant was then lost in certain morphological contexts, while the vowel remained nasalized, resulting in the emergence of LPA phonemes denoted *â, *ê, *î, and *û. Except in certain Gheg varieties, *ê merged into *â. The traditional view presented by Orel and Desnickaja is that distinctive nasalization was lost by Tosk but retained by Gheg and that this is a taxonomical difference between the two. However this has now been challenged, after Sheper and Gjinari discovered Lab dialects (Lab is a subdialect of Tosk) in the Kurvelesh region that still had distinctive nasal vowels, and Totoni likewise found that the Lab speech of Borsh also still has nasal vowel phonemes. This means that, instead of the traditional view, it is possible that denasalization happened in most Tosk dialects only after the split from Gheg.
Slavic *uː appears to still have been back and round when it was loaned into Albanian, but it is after the diphthongization and resulting fronting of the original Early Proto-Albanian *uː to *y was no longer absorbing new *uː segments, as they are, with only three exceptions, reflected as *u. Slavic *o had already become *a in the Slavic languages that contacted Albanian by the time of contact, and was loaned as *a for the most part; as is reflected also in other non-Slavic languages absorbing these words. After /v/, this *a became *o again in two attested cases: kos ("yogurt", from Proto-Slavic *kvasъ) and vorbë ("clay pot").
It was at the end of the LPA period that length became no longer distinctive in Albanian, although many Gheg and some Lab dialects preserved it and/or re-innovated it. Furthermore, by Old Albanian, all diphthongs had been lost: those ending in -i were all leveled, the -u was lost in those ending in -u, and those ending in -e were converted to glide + vowel sequences; further changes including the frequent effacement of the former first element or otherwise its hardening into an occlusive (typically /v/ for former u-, and gj /ɟ/ for former i-) rendering the former presence of a diphthong rather opaque in many reflexes.
Diachronic development
Note that this table differentiates short vowels form long vowels with the IPA symbol <ː> being applied to the long vowels.
Specifically contextualized reflex results are placed in parentheses.
Development of Indo-European sonorants
The nasal sonorants *n̩ and *m̩ both rendered Early Proto-Albanian *a, which remains *a in modern Albanian (PIE *g'hn̩taː "goose" > EPA *gataː > modern Albanian gatë "heron").
Like EPA *a elsewhere, in some cases it was raised to *e, as seen in PIE *ln̩gwh- > EPA *laga > Albanian lehtë (suffixed with -të).
Consonants
Classification & isoglosses with other branches of Indo-European
The closest language to Albanian is Messapic, with which it forms a common branch titled Illyric in Hyllested & Joseph (2022). Hyllested & Joseph (2022) in agreement with recent bibliography identify Greco-Phrygian as the IE branch closest to the Albanian-Messapic one. These two branches form an areal grouping – which is often called "Balkan IE" – with Armenian. Shortly after they had diverged from one another, Greek, Armenian, and partly Albanian undoubtedly also underwent a longer period of contact (as can be seen, for example, in the irregular correspondence: Greek σκόρ(ο)δον, Armenian sxtor, xstor, and Albanian hudhër, hurdhë "garlic"). Furthermore, intense Greek–Albanian contacts certainly occurred thereafter, and ongoing connections between them have been in the Balkans from the ancient times, continuing up to the present-days.
Hyllested & Joseph (2022) identify the highest shared number of innovations between (Proto-)Albanian and (Proto-)Greek. A common Balkan Indo-European root *aiğ(i)- ("goat") can be reflected in Albanian edh ("goat, kid") < PAlb *aidza and dhi ("nanny goat) < PAlb *aidzijɑ̄ with Greek αἴξ ("goat", gen. αἰγός) and Armenian ayc ("(nanny) goat"). It has been noted that the Balkan IE root and all the alleged Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian roots with a meaning "goat" are likely to be not Proto-Indo-European, as they may all originate as independent and relatively early, post-PIE borrowings, from the substrate languages spoken by the sedentary farmers who were encountered by immigrating Indo-European pastoralists. The view of a substrate borrowing can be corroborated by areal words for "goat" in other IE languages, such as Gothic gaits ("goat") and Latin haedus ("kid"), reflecting *gʰaid̯(-o)-, considered as a substrate word usually linked with Semitic languages (cf. Akkadian gadû, Aramaic gaδiā ̄"kid"). However it was most likely not directly borrowed from Semitic, but from a European substrate language that in turn had loaned the word from a common third source. Hence it can be viewed as an old cultural word, which was slowly transmitted to different European languages, and then adopted by the newcoming Indo-European speakers. Within this scenario it should be remarked the exclusive sharing of a common proto-form between Albanian, Greek, and Armenian, which could have been borrowed at a pre-stage that was common to these languages. Specifically Indo-Iranian/Greek/Albanian and Greek/Armenian/Albanian isoglosses are both relatively rare, examples including ndaj (to divide; Indo-Greek-Albanian) and ëndërr ("dream"; Greek/Armenian/Albanian). Whereas Armenian/Albanian isoglosses are "insignificant", there are a considerable number of Indo-Iranian/Albanian isoglosses, which are notably often connected with horses, horse tending, and milk products.
The deictic element *ḱjā- in PPAlb *ḱjā-dīti > Albanian sot ("today") has the same source as *kjā- in Proto-Greek *kjā-wētes (cf. Mycenean Greek za-we-te, Attic Greek τῆτες, and Ionic Greek σῆτες "this year"). These words are built combining the deictic element and a form of the word for "day" in Albanian (PPAlb *dīti-) and for "year" in Greek (PGk *wētes-). The deictic element resulted from a reanalysis of the word for "today" *kjāmer-, which contains the restricted word for "day" *āmer- (cf. Gk ἡμέρα, Doric Greek ἁμέρα, and Armenian awr). In PPalb only later the word āmer- was replaced by *dīti-, when the latter became the usual word for day in this language. Another remarkable Greek/Albanian isogloss is a very ancient form for "hand": *mər-, cf. the Albanian verb marr ("hold") and the Greek márē ("hand"), and also Greek márptō ("grab").
In older literature, Orel (2000) argues that Albanian has a large number of isoglosses that are common to Albanian, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic, as part of a "North Eastern" lexical grouping, with a large number of these referring to wood or objects made out of wood. Orel (1998) noted 24 isoglosses between Balto-Slavic and Albanian, 48 common words between Baltic and Albanian and 24 between Albanian and Slavic. Hyllested & Joseph (2022) review Orel's common items and argue that a substantial number don't have convincing etymologies or do not constitute isoglosses between Balto-Slavic and Albanian. An example is Albanian murg (dark) and Lithuanian margas (colourful) which Orel considers to be isoglosses but both are equally related to Proto-Germanic *murkaz, ancient Greek ἀμορβός amorbos and Proto-Slavic *mergъ.
Orel identifies only one Albanian/Italic/Celtic isogloss, blertë ("green"), cognate to Latin flōrus ("bright") and Irish blár ("gray"). Specifically Celtic/Albanian vocabulary was previously thought to be limited although including at least one core vocabulary item (hënë "moon", cognate to Welsh cann "white" and Breton cann "full moon"), but recent work by Trumper in 2018 has proposed a larger though still not overwhelming set, with the notable addition of dritë ("light").
Although knowledge of Tocharian is fragmentary, the one known Albanian/Tocharian isogloss is "very important" as noted by Orel: kush ("who", cognate to Tocharian A kus, with the same meaning).
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Indo-European linguistics
Paleo-Balkan languages
Albanian language
Albanian |
4498963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Kong%20Metropolitan%20University | Hong Kong Metropolitan University | Hong Kong Metropolitan University (HKMU), also known as Open University of Hong Kong before September 2021, is a public university in Ho Man Tin, Hong Kong. Established as the Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong by the Hong Kong government in 1989, HKMU now consists of five schools, namely the School of Arts and Social Sciences, Lee Shau Kee School of Business and Administration, School of Education and Languages, School of Nursing and Health Studies, and the School of Science and Technology.
HKMU is the only self-financing university set up by the government. It began as a distance-learning-based university, but is now in effect two universities in one. It has started to offer full-time programmes since 2001 and has participated in Hong Kong's centralised joint university admission system (JUPAS) since 2007. Currently, it has a headcount of more than 9,600 students on its full-time face-to-face programmes, occupying one-sixth of all undergraduate students in Hong Kong. The current president is Professor Lam Kwan Sing.
History
Hong Kong Metropolitan University, formerly as the Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong (OLI) and the Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK), was established by the Hong Kong Government in 1989. With the consent made by the Governor of Hong Kong and the Executive Council of Hong Kong in May 1997, the motion for the third reading was agreed by the Legislative Council of Hong Kong. The OLI officially upgraded to the Open University of Hong Kong. The promotion marks the public recognition to the achievements and contributions made by the OUHK in the academic field.
Early Development
In May 1989, the Hong Kong Government established the Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong. The OLI was the first distance-learning-based higher education institution in Hong Kong. The OLI adopted a flexible academic score system, allowing its students to accumulate their credits by stage until successfully earning the degree. In August 1992, the Hong Kong Government announced to accept graduates from the OLI to apply for its positions which required a university degree. In November 1992, the OLI offered 17-degree programmes which were approved by the Hong Kong Council for Accreditation of Academic Qualifications. In November 1993, the OLI held its first congregation.
Upgrade to a University
In June 1995, the OLI passed the accreditation by the Hong Kong Council for Accreditation of Academic Qualifications and received the recommendation of granting the self-accrediting status after June 1996. In October 1996, the Hong Kong Government granted the OLI with the self-accrediting status. It recognised the capacity of self-management and quality assurance of the Institution. In February 1997, the Hong Kong Executive Council approved in principle to the upgrade the OLI to a university. In May 1997, the motion for the third reading was agreed by the Legislative Council of Hong Kong. The OLI was upgraded to the Open University of Hong Kong and became the seventh statutory university in Hong Kong.
Continuous Improvement
In October 1998, students of the OUHK were allowed to be included in the Non-means-tested Loan Scheme for Full-time Tertiary Students (NLSFT). In June 1999, the OUHK was conferred the Prize of Excellence for Institutions by the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE) for 1999. In October 1999, the Hong Kong Government approved a one-off grant of HK$50 million to develop the University into a Centre of Excellence in Distance and Adult Learning and accepted the OUHK to apply for the grant of the Research Grants Council (RGC). In June 2000, the electronic library of the OUHK won the Stockholm Challenge Award in a global IT contest.
In October 2000, the Open University of Hong Kong Centre for Continuing and Community Education was officially renamed as the Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education to acknowledge the donation of HK$40 million by the Li Ka Shing Foundation in supporting the establishment of the Island Learning Centre.
Launch of Full-time Programmes
In September 2001, the OUHK firstly launched the full-time associate degree programme. In March 2005, the University introduced the first full-time top-up degree programme. In May 2004, the OUHK partnered with the Vocational Training Council (VTC) to introduce top-up degree programmes.
In May 2005, the OUHK started to collaborate with local hospitals for nurse degree education. The University partnered with Cathay Pacific Airways to organise the Professional Diploma in Inflight Service programme. In October 2005, the University partnered with the Hong Kong Police Force for recruit police constables' foundation training.
In September 2006, the OUHK officially started to participate in the Hong Kong's centralised joint university admission system (JUPAS), becoming the first higher education institution offering self-financing degree programmes. In the meantime, the OUHK partner with the Hong Kong Baptist Hospital. In June 2007, the OUHK established Centre for Putonghua Education and Testing. In August 2007, the OUHK signed the Memorandum of Understanding with the Union Hospital, partnering to launch full-time Bachelor of Nursing with honours (General Health) programmes. In the meantime, the OUHK freely opened its teaching materials, providing Hong Kong residents with self-studying opportunities. In September 2007, the University Council unanimously approved to name the School of Business and Administration after Dr Lee Shau-kee to acknowledge his donation of HK$50 million in supporting the establishment of the University Development Fund. In December 2007, the OUHK was included in the Government's Matching Grant Scheme for the first time and raised a total of HK$160 million as a result.
In May 2008, the OUHK firstly partnered with the Clothing Industry Training Authority (CITA) on fashion business top-up degree
In June 2008, full-time nursing programmes were accredited by the Nursing Council.
Research Centre
Under the co-ordination of the Research Grants Council (RGC) in 2014, the OUHK was granted a subsidy of HK$18 million in the application of research grants for local self-financing institutions to set up the Institute for Research in Innovative Technology & Sustainability, the Research Institute for Digital Culture and Humanities and the Centre of Chinese Culture.
Programmes offered
Full-time programmes
Full-time programmes have been the recent main focus of the HKMU. Similar to the full-time programmes of other universities, the programmes are conducted by lectures and tutorials. Some even include laboratory courses and practicums. Face-to-face programmes mainly consists of full-time and part-time modes. Some full-time face-to-face programmes have been included in the Hong Kong's centralised joint university admission system (JUPAS).
Part-time programmes
Part-time programmes include distance learning programmes, the programmes have been the ongoing programmes of the HKMU since its establishment. The University provides students applied for distance learning programmes with self-study materials. Some programmes even include interactive CD-ROMs, videos and computer software. The University's tutors conduct regular tutorials on weekday evening or weekend. Distance learning programmes allow student to decide to attend tutorials. However, some tutorials require students to attend specific classes or laboratory courses. Besides, the University arranges tutors to provide students with guidance and assistance by phone, email or online at specific time. Tutors also provide feedback on all assignments to help guide students' learning.
Although most distance learning programmes are in open entry, with no entry requirements and time limits on finishing a qualification, students are required to complete specific assignments and to pass end-term exams during their study periods so as to attain the course credit. Besides, every distance learning programme, including diploma and degree programmes, is set with studying rules. Students are required to follow the rule to accumulate assigned course credits so as to apply for qualifications.
Governance and Organisation
Hong Kong Metropolitan University Ordinance states that the Chief Executive (Hong Kong Governor before the return of Hong Kong to China) or a person designated by him shall be the Chancellor of the University.
Academic and Research Units
The academic units of the University consists of:
School of Arts and Social Sciences
Lee Shau Kee School of Business and Administration
School of Education and Languages
School of Nursing and Health Studies
School of Science and Technology
School of Open Learning
Li Ka Shing School of Professional and Continuing Education (LiPACE)
The University Office of Research Affairs is set up to serve as a centralised unit of the University overseeing research activities of the University, supporting research carried out by staff of the University and co-ordinating development projects with external funding. There are six main research institutes and they are:
Institute for Research in Innovative Technology & Sustainability
Institute for Research in Open and Innovative Education
Research Institute for Bilingual Learning and Teaching (RIBiLT)
Institute of International Business and Governance
Public and Social Policy Research Centre
Research Institute for Digital Culture and Humanities
OUHK Tin Ka Ping Centre of Chinese Culture
Gallery
Campus development
The earliest campus of the Open University of Hong Kong was located at the Hennessy Centre at Causeway Bay. Then, it moved to the Trade and Industry Department Tower in Mong Kok. It soon moved to the Princess Road, Ho Man Tin for the preparation of the grand opening of Ho Man Tin Campus.
In April 1996, the campus located in 30 Good Shepherd Street opened and provided students with an ideal learning environment.
In July 2000, the multimedia laboratory subsidised by the Hong Kong Jockey Club opened.
In October 2000, the Island Learning Centre located in Shun Tak Centre, Sheung Wan opened. The Open University of Hong Kong Centre for Continuing and Community Education was officially renamed as the Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education to acknowledge the donation of $40 million by the Li Ka Shing Foundation in supporting the establishment of the Island Learning Centre.
In April 2005, the OUHK rented the entire 1/F of the Ho Man Tin Plaza as its learning centre.
In May 2005, the Campus Phase II Development started. The Project was to build an academic building of 12 floors at the carpark of Ho Man Tin Main Campus located at Good Shepherd Street. The expense of the Development was about $170 million. It received various donations from the public, including the TS Kwok Foundation, the Tin Ka Ping Foundation, Wong Bing-lai, Serena Yang Hsueh-chi, Stanley Ho Hung-sun, the Chiang Chen Industrial Charity Foundation, Cheng Yu-tung, Solomon Lee Kui-nang and others. The Campus Phase II Development Project received the Government interest-free loan of $120 million. The OUHK officially named the new academic building after Dr Kwok Tak Seng Building to acknowledge the TS Kwok Foundation granting a donation of $40 million to support the Campus Phase II Development Project. In August 2008, the Campus Phase II Building Ground-breaking Ceremony was held. On 22 January 2008, the OUHK named the high block of the Ho Man Tin main campus building after Cheng Yu-tung, in recognition of his donation of HK$35 million towards the development of the University's phase II campus extension.
In May 2008, the Clinical Nursing Education Centre opened. It is the simulation centre incorporating the learning elements of general, mental and Chinese medicinal nursing.
In September 2008, the Campus Phase II opened.
In September 2010, the OUHK named the courtyard of the Ho Man Tin Main Campus after Siu Tsang Fung Kwan, in recognition of the donation of 10 million by Mr Gerald C S Siu and the support from his mother Siu Tsang Fung Kwan and his wife.
In December 2012, the OUHK received the grant of land on Chung Hau Street, Ho Man Tin from the Education Bureau and made use of it to develop the Campus Phase III and a new academic institute. The expected expense was about $720 million. In January 2011, the Campus Phase III received the Government interest-free loan of $317 million. In February 2012, the OUHK named the new campus and the auditorium after the Jockey Club, in recognition of its donation of $190 million in supporting the development of the Campus Phase III. On 28 February 2012, the ground-breaking ceremony of the Campus Phase III was held.
In August 2012, the OUHK sold the Island Learning Centre located at Shun Tak Centre, Sheung Wan and purchased a new learning centre in Kwai Hing. In September 2013, the Kwai Hing Learning Centre opened. The Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education (LiPACE) moved to the Kwai Hing Learning Centre at the Block 2 of the Kowloon Commerce Centre.
In February 2014, the Jubilee College at Jockey Club Campus of the OUHK officially opened.
In August 2014, the OUHK received the approval from the Town Planning Board, rezoning the vacant land of 11 years on Sheung Shing Street for the government and public purposes to facilitate the development of a new academic building。The Planning Department considered that the development would not bring any negative impacts to neighbouring areas. In the meantime, the Education Bureau also gave support to the extension project of the OUHK. Therefore, the application was finally approved.
In February 2017, the OUHK is going to build a Nursing and Healthcare Complex opposite to the Ho Man Tin Main Campus on Sheung Shing Street. The establishment of the new Complex will enable the University to cater to the future manpower requirements for nursing and other healthcare services, and will allow swift response to the new and unforeseen community needs that may arise as our society ages.
Campus locations
Ho Man Tin Campus
The Ho Man Tin Campus consists of the Main Campus on Good Shepherd Street and the Jockey Club Campus.
The Main Campus is located at 30 Good Shepherd Street, adjacent to SKH Tsoi Kung Po Secondary School, the Hong Kong Football Association Limited and the Auxiliary Medical Service Headquarters. It consists of Block A, B and C.
Block A: The HKMU Campus Phase I High Block (Cheng Yu Tung Building), facing Fat Kwong Street
Block B: The HKMU Campus Phase I Low Block, facing Good Shepherd Street
Block C: The HKMU Campus Phase II (Kwok Tak Seng Building), facing Fat Kwong Street
The Main Campus is equipped with a library, lecture halls, tutorial rooms, self-study rooms, lobbies, a canteen, a café, a bank, an information centre, a mail room, pantries, a multi-function hall, changing rooms, language laboratories, multimedia laboratories, technology laboratories, environmental laboratories, clinical nursing laboratories, a sound recording studio, music rooms, band rooms, counselling rooms and a car park. Auxiliary facilities for people with disabilities are also available.
The Jockey Club Campus located at 81 Chung Hau Street, Ho Man Tin, adjacent to Dragon View and Hung Hom Division of the Hong Kong Police Force. The Jubilee College is of 12 floors and it consists of Block D and E. It takes a few minutes to walk from the Main Campus to the Jockey Club Campus.
Block D: The HKMU Jubilee College (facing Princess Road and Chung Hau Street)
Block E: The HKMU Jubilee College (facing Princess Road and Chung Hau Street)
Apart from the auditorium, classrooms, the library and PC laboratories, the College is equipped with learning commons, multi-function halls, cultural and creative studio, laboratories, testing and certification laboratories, microbiological laboratories and the clinical nursing centre.
HKMU Jockey Club Institute of Health Care (IOH) – Sheung Shing Street, Ho Man Tin
Block F: Jockey Club Institute of Health Care (IOH) (opposite to the HKMU Main Campus)
The establishment of the new campus will enable the University to cater to the future manpower requirements for nursing and other healthcare services and will allow swift response to the new and unforeseen community needs that may arise as our society ages. Meanwhile, new programmes such as Bachelor of Social Sciences with Honours in Mental Health and Psychology and Bachelor of Science with Honours in Nutrition and Dietetics are under planning to meet the growing demands for a wide array of healthcare professionals. Some brand-new facilities, including the psychology laboratory and the Special Educational Needs (SEN) service/training centre, will be built in the new Complex. They will become future assessment or resource centres for the public who have needs for specialised healthcare services.
Kwai Hing Campus (KHC)
In August 2012, the HKMU purchased floors 8 – 12 of the Block 2 of the Kowloon Commerce Centre with $770 million. Each floor is about 25,000 sq. ft. The gross area is about 124,300 sq. ft.
The Kwai Hing Campus (KHC) is located at 8-11/F, Tower 2, Kowloon Commerce Centre, 51–53 Kwai Cheong Road, Kwai Chung, New Territories. The Kwai Hing Campus opened in September 2013 and the Li Ka Shing School of Professional and Continuing Education (LiPACE) also moved from the Island Learning Centre to the Kwai Hing Campus (KHC). After from classrooms, lecture theatre, PC laboratories, study rooms, student commons and a learning resources centre, the Campus is also equipped with Jockey Club STEAM Education Laboratory, Japanese Language & Cultural Studies Centre and mock up rooms, including cabin, smart hotel room, wards, Kindergarten room and CIS room.
CITA Learning Centre (OCC)
The HKMU-CITA Learning Centre (OCC) opened in 2010, locating at 0/F – 5/F, HKMU-CITA Learning Centre (CITA Building), 201–203 Lai King Hill Road, Kwai Chung, New Territories. The area of the Centre is around 3,530 square metres with 11 classrooms, 3 PC laboratories, a learning resource centre, studios, self-study rooms and student amenities.
HKMU Consultants (Shenzhen) Limited
The company is located in Shenzhen, Guangdong, mainland China. It is responsible for managing programmes of the OUHK held in China and handling the admission applications of mainland students.
Non-academic Development
Student activities
The HKMU always encourages its students to form societies and organise student activities. The University provides student organisations with assistance and help by Student Affairs Committee and Student Affairs Office. By planning and participating in various activities, students can improve their knowledge and enhance their organisational skills. Currently, there are near 50 student societies and various alumni associations accredited by the University and granted for subsidy. The associations provide students with various kinds of activities, including sports competitions, academic discussions, seminars, outdoor activities and rehearsal exercises.
Since the re-establishment of the Students' Union in 2008, the current Committee on Student Affairs transforms into the joint discussion platform of both the University representatives and the principle members of the Students' Union, helping to manage the constitute politics and financial affairs of student societies.
Students' Union
Every student who is registered on a credit-bearing course of study offered by HKMU during a session shall be entitled to exercise the rights and enjoy privileges of membership during such session. The Students’ Union aims to act as a channel of communication between the students and HKMU and other bodies, to promote a school spirit amongst the students, to promote the welfare of the students, to promote and develop social and educational opportunities for the students and to represent the students.
Executive committee
The Executive Committee is the highest executive authority of the Union and shall be accountable to the general polling, general meetings and the Union Council. It is responsible for the day-to-day affairs and administrative work of the Students’ Union.
The Executive Committee will consist of 6 to 18 committee members from a cabinet to be elected by the votes of all members. The committee members of the Executive Committee will consist of one President, one Internal Vice-President, one External Vice-President, one Financial Controller, one general secretary and not less than one and not more than thirteen additional members as may be elected as part of a cabinet of candidates. There must be 1/5 cabinet members whose study mode will be different from those other cabinet members.
The quorum of a meeting of the Executive Committee will be 1/2 or above of the committee members.
The President of the Executive Committee also serves as the ex-officio member of the Council and the Court. The Executive Committee can commission its members or student representatives to attend the following university meetings to express their views. The meetings include the Senate, the Catering Committee, the University Equal Opportunities Commission, the Committee on Student Affairs and the General Meeting of the Four Schools.
The office of the HKMU Students' Union's is located at Room C0314, 3/F, 30 Good Shepherd Street, Ho Man Tin, Kowloon, Hong Kong
List of the presidents of the HKMUSU:
1st session (2008–2009): WONG Tze
2nd session (2009–2010): WONG Kwun Lun
3rd session (2010–2011): LEUNG Hin Ming
4th session (2011–2012): LEUNG Lok Hang
5th session (2012–2013): Dickson CHAU Tsun Yin
6th session (2013–2014): Delison CHAN Pui Hei
7th session (2014–2015): Ian YIP Yee Yin
8th session (2015–2016): MAN Chun Kit
9th session (2016–2017): Gilbert CHAN Tsz Wai
10th session (2017–2018): Max YEUNG Hau Yin
11th session (2018–2019): Vacant
12th session (2019–2020): Vacant
13th session (2020–2021): Elvin LAU Yu Kit
The Elected President of the HKMUSU
14th session (2021–2022): WONG Wing Sum
Editorial Board
The Editorial Board is responsible for publishing the publications of the Students’ Union and shall be accountable to a general polling, general meetings and the Union Council. The duties of the Editorial Board include reflecting the views of students, reporting the policies of the University, reporting the activities in the University, being concerned with social topics and playing the role of monitoring as media.
The Editorial Board will consist of 7 to 15 committee members from a cabinet to be elected by all members and responsible for organising the Editorial Board. The committee members of the Editorial Board will consist of one Editor-in-chief, two Assistant Editors-in-chief, one Financial Controller, one general secretary, one Executive Editor and not more than nine additional members as may be elected as part of a cabinet of candidates.
The quorum of a meeting of the Editorial Board will be 1/2 or above of the committee members.
The Editorial Board used to be the standing subcommittee of the Executive committee of the Students' Union. The title of its publication is Open Voice. It is introduced by Wong Kwun-lun, the President of the 2nd Students' Union with the mission of "being open" and "injustice provoking outcry", addressing the University and student affairs. Leung Hin-ming took up his role as the 2nd Editor-in-chief of the Editorial Board, introducing more life elements in the publication and developing "Freshman Special Edition". The amount and quality of the later publications varied. The operational transparency and exposure were relatively low. In Year 2015 to 2016, the Editorial Board granted the statutory authority of independence. However, the designate cabinet came to dismissal at that time. The by-elected cabinet failed to succeed due to the inadequate polling rate. The first officially independent Editorial Board was elected in Year 2016 to 2017. Yau Wing-sze, the former Member of the 8th Editorial Board, took up the post of Editor-in-chief. The publication frequency changed from once a year to three times a year. The newly formed Editorial Board followed the existing idea and continued to publish "Freshman Special Edition". It also joined the Joint-University Editorial Board and established the office of the Editorial Board of HKMUSU. The office is located at E0716, Jubilee College, Chung Hau Street, Ho Man Tin, Kowloon.
Open Voice is the only student-driven, university-recognised-and-granted and editorial-independent publication of the HKMU.
List of Editor-in-chiefs:
1st session (2008–2009): WONG Kwun Lun
2nd session (2009–2010): LEUNG Hin Ming
3rd session (2010–2011): YU Yui Ching
4th session (2011–2012): LEE Wai Nan
5th session (2012–2013): LAU Tsz Kwan
6th session (2013–2014): LAM Lap Kwan
7th session (2014–2015): MANG Mong Wan
List of Editor-in-chiefs:(After independent)
1st session (2015–2016): Vacant
2nd session (2016–2017): YAU Wing Sze
3rd session (2017–2018): WONG Kai Yu
4th session (2018–2019): Vacant
5th session (2019–2020): Vacant
The Current Editor-in-chief:
6th session (2020–2021): WONG Ngo Tung
The Elected Editor-in-chief:
7th session (2021–2022): Vacant
The Union Council
The Union Council is the legislative, supervising and judicial authority of the Union with its power only second to a general polling and a general meeting. Its duties include:
Examine, investigate and pass the year plans, budget plans, financial and working report of the Students’ Union;
Supervise the working condition of the Executive Committee and Editorial Board;
Interpret and amend the Constitution;
Hold the elections of Students’ Union;
Hold the elections of the Representatives of the Union Council;
Hold general polling and general meeting;
Handle the resignations of the Councillors of the Union Council, Popularly Elected Councillors, committee members of the Executive Committee and committee members of the Editorial Board;
Enforce punishment; and
Set up Subcommittees under the Union Council
The Union Council will consist of one representative from each affiliated body, seven Popularly Elected Councillors (If there are less than seven Popularly Elected Councillors, their seats shall be deemed to be vacancies), three Ex-officio Councillors (the Chairperson of the Union Council of the previous session, the President of the Executive Committee and the Editor-in-chief of the Editorial Board)
If the Chairperson of the Union Council of the previous session becomes a committee member of the Executive Committee of the current session or a committee member of the current session of the Editorial Board, his/her office should be filled by the Chairperson of the session before the previous session.
If the President of the Executive Committee of the previous session becomes a committee member of the Executive Committee of the current session or a committee member of the current session of the Editorial Board, his/her office should be filled by the President of the session before the previous session.
If the Editor-in-chief of the Editorial Board of the previous session becomes a committee member of the Executive Committee of the current session or the committee member of the current session of the Editorial Board, his/her office should be filled by the Editor-in-chief of the session before the previous session.
The Representatives of the Union Council will consist of one Chairperson, one Vice Chairperson, one Secretary, one Vice Secretary. The representatives of the Union Council will be elected by and among the Councillors. The Union Council will have the following standing subcommittees to assist in the carrying out of its work:
The Constitution Review Committee: consisting of 1 Chairperson and at least 3 other committee members to handle the matters on amending the Constitution.
The Election Board: consisting of 1 Chairperson and at least 3 other committee members to co-ordinate all the election matters of the Students’ Union.
The Union Council may set up different subcommittees according to circumstances. The chairperson of all the subcommittees must be Councillors and other committee members shall be members of the Union. The setting up of all committees shall have to be passed by the Union Council.
General meetings shall be called once a month. Notice of a meeting shall be given to Councillors and announce to members of the Union 1 week before calling the meeting together with the agenda thereof. Upon the joint requisition signed by 1/3 or above of the Councillors, or if the Chairperson thinks
that it is necessary, an emergency meeting may be called. Notice of a meeting shall be given to Councilors and announce to members of the Union 48 hours
before calling the meeting together with the agenda thereof.
The quorum of a meeting of the Union Council will be 1/2 or above of the Councillors.
The Chairperson of the Union Council also serves as the ex-officio member of the Court. The Union Council should also appoint a Councillor (popularly elected is preferred) as the representative to attend the Committee on Student Affairs.
List of Chairpersons of the Union Council:
1st session (2008–2009): CHAN Hing Wai
2nd session (2009–2010): LAW Tsz Chun (left the post in January 2010)/ LEUNG Tsz Yan (assumed office in February 2010)
3rd session (2010–2011): YAU Chun Yip
4th session (2011–2012): TSANG Hin Man
5th session (2012–2013): LAU Chun Kit
6th session (2013–2014): Ian YIP Yee Yin (left the post in January 2014)/ WONG Ho Yi (assumed office in February 2014)
7th session (2014–2015): HO Ki Hang
8th session (2015–2016): CHENG Chung Kit
9th session (2016–2017): TANG Sin Hang
10th session (2017–2018): Martin, HO Tsuen Ye
11th session (2018–2019): Faye WONG Kai Laam
12th session (2019–2020): Faye WONG Kai Laam (left the post in Angust 2019)/ Michael Kwok Tsz Tat (assumed office in September 2019)
The Current Chairperson of the Union Council:
13th session (2020–2021): Paul YEUNG Chun Hei
General Meetings
A general meeting is an authority second to a general polling only. The Union Council should hold an annual general meeting in the first month (starting from April)of each session and the general meeting must be called within 7 to 21 days from a resolution made by the Union Council. At the general meeting, the Union of the previous session shall present its working report and financial report; the Union Council of the current session shall present its budget plan and the Executive Committee and the Editorial Board shall present their year plans and budget plans. Not less than 7 days notice of a general meeting shall be given, and notice shall be given by posting the same on the Union notice board in the campus of OUHK and sending the same by electronic means to members. The quorum of a general meeting will be not less than 100 members personally present. Where the quorum is not reached half an hour before the time appointed for conducting the meeting, the Chairperson shall declare the meeting flopped and may call another meeting again within 14 days. If the adjourned meeting still flops, the motion shall be withdrawn.
Upon a resolution of the Union Council being carried or upon the written requisition of not less than 100 Members, the Union Council shall, as regards the purpose indicated in the relevant resolution or the relevant requisition, call an emergency general meeting, which meeting must be conducted within 7 to 21 days from the day of the resolution or the requisition.
General Polling
A general polling is a means of the members of the Union to resolve issues by way of polling. A general polling is the highest authority of the Union. Upon the resolution of the Union Council being carried or upon the written requisition of not less than 500 members, the Union Council shall conduct a general polling as regards the purpose indicated in the relevant resolution or the relevant requisition, which general polling must be conducted within 7 to 21 days from the day of the resolution or the requisition. The valid votes cast is no less than 1/15 of the total members of the Union. The result of General Polling shall not be valid and the motion shall be deemed to have withdrawn if the number of votes cast is less than 1/15 of the total membership of the Union. A motion of a general polling shall only be carried by 1/2 or above affirmative vote of all the total votes for the motion.
Affiliated Societies
An Affiliated Body means an organisation of members undertaking extra-curricular activities within the context of OUHK, the constitution of which provides that its membership is open to OUHK students and for its office bearers to be annually elected by its members. As of March 2021, there are 34 student societies for both distance learning and full-time programme students to join.
Programme-related societies (School of Arts and Social Sciences):
Animation and Visual Effects Society
Chinese Society
Cinematic Design and Photographic Digital Art Society
Creative Advertising and Media Design Society
Creative Writing and Film Arts Society
Psychology Society
Programme-related societies (Lee Shau Kee School of Business and Administration):
Student Association of Business and Administration
Accounting Society
Business Management Society
Hospitality and Tourism Management Society
Sports and Recreation Management Society
Programme-related societies (School of Education and Languages):
Applied Chinese Languages Studies Society
English Studies Society
Programme-related societies (School of Nursing and Health Studies):
Nursing Society
Programme-related societies (School of Science and Technology):
Applied Science and Environmental Studies Society
Computing Society
Engineering Society
Statistics Analysis and Data Science Society
Testing and Certification Society
Cultural Association:
Dancing Society
Drama Society
Japanese Culture Society
Music Society
Independent Club Association:
Chinese Students and Scholars Association
Christian Fellowship
Enactus
Film Society
Rotaract Club
Social Service Society
Sports Association:
Badminton Society
Dragon Boat Society
Rugby Society
Tchoukball Society
Educational TV Programmes
With a mission to provide open and distance education, the OUHK has been purchasing airtime to broadcast television programmes for the benefit of the learning public since 1989. The programmes feature a wide spectrum of topics including arts, science, social sciences, business administration, education, information technology, child development and psychology as well as Chinese history and culture. They are either produced by the OUHK or purchased from the Open University of the UK or the China Central Radio and TV University.
In October 2015, the OUHK and Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB) once again made a joint effort to launch Open for Learning, the educational TV programme airing on TVB Pearl from 9 am to 1 pm every Sunday morning. The programme has been continuously brought to the public, enlightening not only students, but everyone in Hong Kong.
Lists of graduates
List of number of graduates
List of Honorary Graduates
List of Honorary Graduates goes as follow:
(As of 11 November 2020)
List of Honorary University Fellows
List of Honorary University Fellows goes as follow:
References
External links
Hong Kong Metropolitan University Electronic Library
Free Courseware, Hong Kong Metropolitan University
Hong Kong Ordinance Chapter 1145 HONG KONG METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY ORDINANCE
Nursing schools in Hong Kong
Ho Man Tin
Universities and colleges established in 1989
1989 establishments in Hong Kong |
4498970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hou%20Yifan | Hou Yifan | Hou Yifan ( ; born 27 February 1994) is a Chinese chess grandmaster, four-time Women's World Chess Champion and the second highest rated female player of all time. Once a chess prodigy, she was the youngest female player ever to qualify for the title of grandmaster (at the age of 14 years, 6 months, 16 days) and the youngest ever to win the Women's World Chess Championship (at age 16).
At the age of 12, Hou became the youngest player ever to participate in the Women's World Championship (Yekaterinburg 2006) and the Chess Olympiad (Torino 2006). In June 2007, she became the youngest Chinese Women's Champion ever. She achieved the titles of Woman FIDE Master in January 2004, Woman Grandmaster in January 2007, and Grandmaster in August 2008. In 2010, she won the 2010 Women's World Championship in Hatay, Turkey at age 16. She won the next three championships in which the title was decided by a match (in 2011, 2013 and 2016, with a total of ten wins to zero losses and fourteen draws against three different opponents), but was either eliminated early or she declined to participate in the championships in which the title was decided by a knockout tournament (in 2012, 2015 and 2017).
Hou was the third woman ever to be rated among the world's top 100 players (2014–16 and 2017–22), after Maia Chiburdanidze and Judit Polgár. She is widely regarded as the best active female chess player, "leaps and bounds" ahead of her competitors. she has been the No. 1 ranked woman in the world since September 2015 and is 68 points ahead of the No. 2 ranked Ju Wenjun. She was named in the BBC's 100 Women programme in 2017. She has been semi-retired since 2018, and became a professor at Shenzhen University in 2020, at the age of 26.
Career
Hou started playing chess regularly at the age of five, but already was fascinated by the game when she was three years old. Hou's father, Hou Xuejian, a magistrate, often took his young daughter to a bookstore after dinner. He noticed that the little girl liked to stare at glass chess pieces behind the window. He later bought his daughter her first chess set. The three-year-old was able to beat her father and grandmother after a few weeks. In 1999, her father engaged a chess mentor, IM Tong Yuanming, for his five-year-old daughter. Tong later said that Hou was an unusual talent, showing "strong confidence, distinguished memory, calculating ability and fast reaction". Hou has said that she took up chess because she was fascinated by the pieces.
In 2003, Hou played against the chief coach of the Chinese national men's and women's chess teams, Ye Jiangchuan, for the first time. The chess master was surprised that the nine-year-old could identify almost all of his weak moves. "Then I knew she was an exceptional genius", Ye said. That year, Hou became the youngest member of the national team and won first place at the World Youth Championship for girls under age ten. In June 2007, she became China's youngest national champion.
She was admitted to the National Chess Center, an academy for young talented players from all over the country, in Beijing when she was ten, with leading Chinese grandmasters Ye Jiangchuan and Yu Shaoteng as her trainers. In order to better support her chess career, her family relocated to Beijing in 2003. Hou's mother, Wang Qian, a former nurse, accompanied her to many international tournaments when Hou was young. Hou was homeschooled. As a teenager, she listed her interests as reading and studying and she listed her favorite chess player as Bobby Fischer.
Life outside chess
Hou has attempted to balance chess with life outside of it. Against the wishes of her trainer, she enrolled in Peking University in 2012, studying International Relations. She took a full course load and participated in many extracurricular activities. She was offered a Rhodes Scholarship, and studied for a Master of Public Policy at St Hilda's College, Oxford with the Blavatnik School of Government. Competitors give her credit for what she has achieved in spite of her lack of preparation, and for her life outside of chess. Vladimir Kramnik said: "If she wants to stay the best female player, she can probably do nothing. If she wants to achieve her potential, she must concentrate fully on chess." Hou is aware of this as well, but nonetheless chooses to treat chess as a hobby, not a career. She said in 2018: "I want to be the best, but you also have to have a life."
In 2020, at age 26, Hou became the youngest ever professor at Shenzhen University where she is a professor at the School of Physical Education, which includes chess in its Sports Training Program.
Results
2003
Hou Yifan's first major tournament was on 31 August–12 September 2003 at the Chinese Team Chess Championship (Open) in Tianjin. She scored 3/7 with a 2246 performance rating.
She won her first international tournament when she came first (9½/11; +8 =3 −0, TPR 2121) in the girl's under-10 section of the World Youth Championship in Halkidiki, Greece in October–November 2003. In November, she made her debut in the National Women's Chess Championship, held at Shanwei, Guangdong. She finished in 14th place with 3½/9 with a performance rating of 2202.
2004
On 1 January 2004, she received her first International FIDE rating of 2168, which automatically qualified her for the title of Woman FIDE Master. In April, she competed at the Chinese Team Chess Championship (Women's) in Jinan, Shandong. She scored 1½/7 (TPR 2096) having faced an average opposition rating (Rc) of 2316.
In November, she finished first jointly with Yu Yangyi, Jules Moussard, and Raymond Song, but third on tiebreaks in the boy's under-ten section of the World Youth Championship, held in Heraklio, Crete (9/11; +8 =2 −1; TPR 2119).
At the 11th Asian Women's Championship in Beirut, Lebanon from 4–11 December 2004, she came in eleventh with a score of 4½/9 (+4 =1 −4; TPR 2278). The event was won by Wang Yu with 6½/9.
2005
In February, she competed at the fourth Aeroflot Open (Group C) in Moscow, where she scored 2/5(TPR 2111).
In April, she finished fifth with a score of 7/11 (+6 =2 −3) (tied for fourth) at the Three Arrows Cup 2005 ladies tournament in Jinan, China. In that tournament, she defeated international master Almira Skripchenko and achieved a performance rating of 2393.
From 28 June–6 July at the second China-France Youth Match at Shenzhen, Guangdong, Hou Yifan scored 3/8 (+2 =2 −4, TPR 2324). The Chinese team (Zhou Jianchao, Zhao Jun, Zhao Xue and Hou) won the match 19–13.
In July, at the Festival Open International des Jeunes in Saint-Lô, France, she came second out of 75 players with 6/8(TPR 2305), behind Wen Yang. In 18–29 July at the World Youth Chess Championship in Belfort, France, Hou Yifan, seeded eighth, came in fifth in the Boy's Under-12 Section with 8/11 (+5 =6, TPR 2171).
In October, she qualified for the World Women's Chess Championship to be held in March 2006. Despite being rated only 2220 and ranked women's number 28 in her own country, she qualified by winning the Chinese Women's Zonal (3.5) tournament, scoring 6/9 points with a performance rating of 2526 against a rating opposition of 2401, ahead of several better-known Chinese players.
The sixth World Team Chess Championship was staged in Beersheva, Israel from 31 October to 11 November. China fielded two teams – the men's and women's, which was only the second time in the championship history when a women's team competed in what traditionally has been a male team event. This was Hou Yifan's first major team tournament and she was the youngest participant there, at eleven years of age.
She played as second reserve and finished with 0/3. The Chinese women's team drew one match and lost all of their others (+0 =1 −7), finishing last. The tournament was won by Russia, with China (men's) coming in second and Armenia third.
In December, Hou came in second at the China Women Selective Tournament in Beijing for the 37th Chess Olympiad to be held in May–June 2006 in Turin, Italy. She scored 16½/28 (TPR 2433) and gained 121 elo-points. She made the Olympiad team with the other top finishers, Wang Yu and Shen Yang.
2006
Hou reached the third round (the last 16) of the Women's World Chess Championship in March 2006. Despite being rated 2269 and seeded 56th out of 64 players, she defeated IM Nadezhda Kosintseva (rated 2480) of Russia 1½–½ in the first round, then the former 2000 European champion WGM Natalia Zhukova (2432) of Ukraine 2–0 in the second round. She was beaten 0–2 by IM Nino Khurtsidze (2430) of Georgia in the third round to finish with a performance rating of 2504.
In May–June 2006, China came in third and won the bronze metal at the 37th Chess Olympiad in Turin, Italy. Hou Yifan scored 11/13 (+10, =2, −1), all played on the fourth board, at her Olympiad debut. For her winning percentage of 84.6%, she won a silver medal for fourth (reserve) board performance, and her performance rating of 2596 was the third highest overall.
The Chinese Championships for men and women took place in Wuxi, Jiangsu, 25 June–6 July 2006. Ni Hua took the men's title and Li Ruofan the women's. Hou Yifan came fourth in the women's category V (2369) event with a score of 7/11 (+5 =4 −2) and a performance rating of 2477.
In July–August, she performed badly at what has been traditionally the strongest women's tournament, the North Urals Cup in Krasnoturinsk, Russia. Although seeded third, she failed to win a game scoring 3/9 (+0 =6 −3) with a performance rating of 2357. She finished eighth out of ten players.
In 10–20 August, she played in the China–Russia Summit Match in Ergun, Inner Mongolia. The tournament was a two double-round-robin Scheveningen, one for men and one for women (category VIII (2444)). Russia won the men's event 26½–23½ but China won the women's section 28–22, winning the match 51½–48½. Hou Yifan was the highest scoring female player on tiebreak with 6½/10 (+5 =3 −2, TPR 2563).
China and France played for the Trophée MULTICOMS in Paris 4–9 September 2006. This was also a Scheveningen team match with six men and three women in the teams. France edged out China 20–16 in the men's event. The women's section was a complete mismatch in terms of Elo ratings in favour of the Chinese and they confirmed this over the board winning 12½–5½. The overall result was China 28½ France 25½. Hou Yifan was again the highest scoring female player with 5/6 and a performance rating of 2498.
In October in Yerevan, Armenia at the World Junior Chess Championship (Girl's section) despite being only 12 years old, Hou was the top rated girl with a 2481 FIDE Rating and went on to take second place on tiebreak with a score of 9/12 (+6 =4 −2), tied for first on points behind her compatriot Shen Yang. Her rating performance was 2469.
2007
In January 2007, Hou achieved a respectable fifth place in Group C (Cat. 10, 2486) of the Corus Chess Tournament with a score of 7/13 (+4 =6 −3) and a 2513 performance rating. This result, together with WGM norms she had earned at the 2005 Zonal 3.5 Women's Championship, the 37th Chess Olympiad and the 2006 Chinese Championship (Women's) won her the Woman Grandmaster title, formally conferred by FIDE in late January 2007.
At the Aeroflot Open in February 2007, a few weeks before Hou's thirteenth birthday, she played in the A1 group for the first time. Hou started well with two wins out of two, defeating first the Russian IM Nikita Vitiugov (rated 2604) and then the 2001 European Champion, GM Emil Sutovsky of Israel (rated 2629). However, in the third round she was defeated by the Russian Championship runnerup, Dmitry Jakovenko, and only managed one draw in her next five games. She rallied in the final round with a victory against the Greek grandmaster, Vasilios Kotronias, and finished with a score of 3½/9(TPR 2540).
In March, at the first Ruy Lopez International Festival (cat. XV (2607)) in Zafra, Hou performed badly to finish last with 2/7 (+1 =2 −4). Her performance rating was 2462.
In April, she came in second at the China Women Selective Tournament in Ningbo for the 2007 Asian Indoor Games to be held in October. She scored 8/14 (+6 =4 −4, TPR 2434).
From 1–11 May 2007, at the eighth Russian Team Chess Championship (Women's) in Dagomys, Hou played for Southern Ural Chelyabinsk on board one and scored 6½/10 (+5 =3 −2, TPR 2523). At the 1st World Women's Team Chess Championship in Ekaterinburg later that month, Hou was part of the winning China national team that also included Zhao Xue, Ruan Lufei, Shen Yang, and Huang Qian. Hou Yifan played on board two in every round and scored 7½/9 (+7 =1 −1), winning the gold medal for that board. Her performance rating was 2559.
In June 2007, she won her first Chinese Women's Chess Championship in Chongqing. Hou was thirteen years old at the time, breaking WGM Qin Kanying's record as the youngest champion (she was fourteen years old when winning the title in 1988). Hou scored 9/11 (+7 =4 -0, TPR 2585). Second and third place went to Zhao Xue and Shen Yang, respectively.
In July, she improved on her previous year's performance at the North Urals Cup in Krasnoturinsk, finishing in seventh place out of ten players. She scored 4/9 (+3 =2 −4) with a performance rating of 2436. The tournament was won by Zhu Chen and with Zhao Xue in second place.
In 4–15 August, she competed in what was then her strongest closed tournament – the fifth Győrgy Marx Memorial (Cat. 14, 2582) in Paks, Hungary. Being the lowest rated player and the only non-Grandmaster (out of Pentala Harikrishna, Péter Ács, Csaba Balogh, Ferenc Berkes, and Viktor Korchnoi), she finished in last place in the double round-robin event with 3/10 (+1 =4 −5; TPR 2444).
At the UK-China Match in Liverpool 3–9 September 2007, China defeated the UK team with a comfortable score of 28–20. Hou played for the men's team and scored 2½/6 (+1 =3 −2) with a performance rating of 2540. The average rating of her opponents (Rc) was 2598.
In late September, she came in first at the 2007 Chinese Women's Zonal (3.5) tournament in Tianjin with a score of 8/9 (+7 =2 −0, TPR 2675). In October 2007, she competed at the twelfth European Club Cup in Kemer, Turkey for team Southern Ural Cheliabinsk. Hou played on board two for the team, which finished fourth in the women's tournament. In the individual women's standings, Hou came in fifth with a score of 5/7 (+3 =4 −0) and a performance rating of 2556.
From October 26 to November 3, she competed for Team China at the second Asian Indoor Games in Macau. The national team won team gold in the classic chess mixed team event with 11 match points (18½ game points out of 24). The Chinese team members were Zhao Xue, Xu Yuhua, Hou Yifan, Wang Hao, Ni Hua, and Bu Xiangzhi. Hou Yifan won an individual gold medal for her board two display with a score of 5½/6 (+5 =1 −0; 91.7%) and a performance rating of 2649.
Hou participated in the 2007 season of the China Chess League, officially known as the "Torch Real Estate Cup Chinese Chess League Division A". She played for the Shandong Qilu Evening News Chess Team, who became the 2007 champions when they defeated the 2006 champion Beijing team, 3½ to 1½.
2008
In the January Corus 2008 chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee, Hou competed in Group B where she finished in a tie for seventh–tenth place (ninth by tiebreak) achieving 6/13 (+3 −4 =6) with a performance rating of 2598. She scored victories over three grandmasters, including a 23-move win over former World Champion challenger Nigel Short.
In February 2008, Hou gained her first Grandmaster norm (GM norm) at the Aeroflot Open in Moscow by finishing in 31st place with a score of 4½/9 (+2 =5 −2, TPR 2605). This was followed in March 2008 with a victory at the first Atatürk International Women Masters Chess Tournament (cat. IX (2461)) in Istanbul, Turkey where she finished a point ahead of the rest of the field on 7/9 (+5 =4 −0) with a performance rating of 2674. Her victory in this tournament earned her a GM norm conditional on FIDE ratifying then WGM Zhao Xue's attainment of her GM title. However this GM norm was not used in her eventual official grandmaster title application.
In April 2008, she competed in Mérida, Spain at the second Ruy Lopez Chess Festival tournament. In the category XV (2616) round-robin event she finished seventh out of eight players with 2/7 (+1, =2, −4) and a rating performance of 2467.
Hou competed in the Chinese Chess League again in the 2008 season, which had eighteen rounds in six different cities from March to August. Hou's teammates were GM Bu Xiangzhi, GM Zhao Jun, GM Wen Yang, and WGM Zhang Jilin.
In May–June 2008, she became the Chinese Women's Champion for the second consecutive time with 9/11 points (+7 =4 −0) in Beijing and a performance of 2599. At the July 2008 First Saturday GM Tournament in Budapest, Hou was top seed, but came in second place with 9/12, missing a GM norm by half a point. Her performance rating was 2574.
In August 2008 she competed in the World Junior Chess Championship held at Gaziantep, Turkey where she competed in the general ("boys'") section for the first time in her career. She was the only girl in this section and was the sixteenth seed on the entrant's list. Hou finished joint third–seventh on 9/13 (+6 =6 −1), achieving a performance rating of 2661 and her second GM norm.
In August–September 2008, she competed in her second Women's World Chess Championship at Nalchik, Russia. She had qualified by being one of the six highest rated players from the average of the July 2006–January 2007 period. In this knockout tournament, she was seeded third out of 64 players. She defeated WGM Mona Khaled (Egypt) 2–0 in the first round and WGM Batkhuyagiin Möngöntuul (Mongolia), 2–0 in the second. In third round, she had to go to rapid playoffs to eventually beat IM Elena Sedina (Italy) 3–1 (1–1, 2–0). In the quarterfinals she defeated Armenian IM Lilit Mkrtchian 1½–½, followed by Indian GM Humpy Koneru, the second seed, in the semifinals (4–2 overall, 1–1, 1–1, 2–0). She lost the final to Alexandra Kosteniuk of Russia, 2½–1½. Nonetheless, she became the youngest ever finalist for the Women's World Championship title, earning an automatic International Master (IM) title and a "runner-up 9-game grandmaster norm", her third official GM norm overall. Her performance rating for the entire championship was 2536.
Hou participated at the first World Mind Sports Games in Beijing from 3–18 October as a member of the Chinese team, winning the bronze medal in the Women's Individual Blitz event, the gold medal in the Mixed Pairs Rapid event (with Ni Hua), the silver medal in the Women's Teams Blitz event, and the gold medal in the Women's Teams Rapid event. In mid-late October, playing board one for team Spartak Vidnoe in the thirteenth European Club Cup held in Kallithea, Greece she scored 2/4 (+1 −1 =2, TPR 2448) helping her team to a second-place finish. Very shortly thereafter she played in the Cap d'Agde Rapid tournament from 24 October to 1 November, losing to former world champion Anatoly Karpov in a tiebreaker match at the end of the qualifying stage, despite winning the second tiebreak game.
At the 38th Chess Olympiad in Dresden from 12 to 25 November, she played at the number 1 board in the Chinese women's team. Although her team did not win a prize, she still placed third in the individual board prize. She played in every round with a final result of 7½/11 (+5, =5, −1, TPR 2563).
At the 79th FIDE Congress, held on 16–26 November 2008 in Dresden, Germany, her GM title was approved making her the 27th Chinese Grandmaster. Her three approved GM norms were:
Aeroflot Open Tournament A1 in Moscow, February 2008; score 4½/9 (requirement=4½ points)
World Junior Chess Championship 2008 in Gaziantep, August 2008; score 9/13 (requirement=8 points)
Women's World Chess Championship 2008 in Nalchik, September 2008; reached the finals (equivalent to a 9-game GM norm)
This meant that Hou Yifan reached her third grandmaster norm on 12 September 2008 at the age of 14 years, 6 months, 16 days, making her one of the youngest grandmasters in history, as well as the youngest female.
2009
Hou Yifan competed in the Grandmaster Group B of the 71st Corus chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee from 16 January to 1 February 2009. She was seeded twelfth out of fourteen players and finished joint ninth–tenth with a performance rating of 2620. Between 7–19 March, she finished third in the FIDE Women's Grand Prix Tournament in Istanbul, scoring 8/11 (+6=4–1, TPR 2649).
From 12 to 23 May, she competed at the 8th Asia Continental Chess Championship at the Subic Exhibition and Convention Center, Subic Bay Freeport Zone in Olongapo City, Philippines. She scored 7½/11 with a 2640 performance, finishing seventh out of 86 on tiebreak. By finishing in the top ten she qualified for the 2009 World Cup.
From 9–15 August 2009 at the Jubilee Open, Zürich, she won the "best female player" prize by coming joint seventeenth with 6½/9 (+5 −1 =3, TPR 2590). From 19 August to 1 September at the NH Hotels Risings Stars vs Experienced, Amsterdam, she finished with a score of 3½/10 (+1 −4 =5, TPR 2548). She was defeated in the first round at the Chess World Cup 2009, Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia, 20 November – 15 December 2009.
2010
In January, she finished with 4½/9 at the Moscow Open. In February, she finished with 4/9 at the Aeroflot Open. In April, she won the third Kuala Lumpur Open 7.5/9 (+6 = 2, TPR 2730). In August, she won the 2010 Women's Grand Prix in Mongolia.
In October, she was on board two for Cercle d'Echecs de Monte Carlo in the 15th European Club Cup for Women held in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. She helped her team to a gold medal win with a 4.5/6 score (+3 =3, TPR 2651).
In November, she won the women's individual gold medal in the 16th Asian Games in Guangzhou, China. She finished with 8½/9 and with a performance rating of 2798. She won another gold medal from the women's team event, representing China as the first board, along with her teammates Ju Wenjun, Zhao Xue, Huang Qian and Wang Yu, beating Uzbekistan 2½–1½ in the final.
In December she won the Women's World Chess Championship 2010 in Hatay, Turkey, making her the youngest women's world champion in history. Her compatriot Ruan Lufei was her opponent in the finals. After four games at classical time controls, the score was tied at 2–2, but Hou won the rapid playoffs 3–1 to take the title. Her performance rating was 2585.
2011
In January 2011 she was due to take part in the Gibraltar Chess Festival, but pulled out because of a family illness. In April, she won the First Women Master Tournament in Wuxi with a 7/9 score (+6 −1 =2, TPR 2639).
In June, she took part in a tournament in India, the AAI International Grandmasters Chess Tournament 2011. She finished with a dismal last place, but in August, she rebounded to win clear first place in the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2011–2012 tournament in Rostov, Russia. She then went on to win the second Grand Prix stage in Shenzhen in September 2011.
In August, she took part in the Chess World Cup 2011 in Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia. She was one of the two female participants in the 128-player single-elimination tournament. Her opponent for the first round was Sergei Movsesian, to whom she lost 2–0, resulting in her elimination.
In October she played on board one for team Cercle d'Echecs de Monte-Carlo in the 16th European Club Cup for women held in Rogaska Slatina, Slovenia. Her top rated team placed a disappointing 4th place, with Hou scoring 4/6 (+4 −2, TPR 2526)
In November Hou successfully defended her women's world champion title in the Women's World Chess Championship 2011 in Tirana, Albania against Koneru Humpy. Hou won 3 games and drew 5 in the ten-game match, winning the title with two games to spare. Her performance rating for the match was 2741.
Beginning December, Hou played in the 2011 SportAccord World Mind Games, held in Beijing, China which consisted of 3 events, rapid, blitz and blindfold. She placed joined 5–7th, 6th on tiebreaks with a 4/7 score (+2 −1 =4) in the rapid portion, but winning both the blitz and the blindfold portions with 11.5/15 (+9 −1 = 5) and 5.5/7 (+5 −1 =1) scores respectively.
Afterwards, Hou played for China in the Women's World Chess Team Championship in Mardin, Turkey. The 5 person team, arranged according to rating, consisted of herself, WGM Ju Wenjun, GM Zhao Xue, WGM Tan Zhongyi and WGM Zhang Xiaowen. China was the clear winner with 16 match points, having lost but one match to Ukraine in the 8th round and winning the rest, ahead of the runner-up Russia by three match points. Georgia grabbed bronze with 12 match points. Hou scored five points from the seven games she played (Wenjun played the first board for Round 1 and Round 2) (+3 = 4, TPR 2648).
2012
Hou started 2012 by taking equal first place at Tradewise alongside Nigel Short at the Gibraltar Chess Festival scoring 8/10 (+7 −1 =2) with a tournament performance of 2872. She came second on tiebreak when she lost the 2 game blitz playoff against Short by 1.5–0.5. She scored 5/7 against the 7 GMs she played rated 2700 or higher. This included 4 wins against Zoltán Almási (2717), Judit Polgár (2710) (Polgar's first loss against a female player after 22 years), Lê Quang Liêm (2714) and Alexei Shirov (2710), 2 draws against Michael Adams (2724) and Shakhriyar Mamedyarov (2747), whilst her only loss came against Krishnan Sasikiran (2700) in a close endgame of Q (with a pawn up) versus R+R with black.
From 6 to 13 March, she played and finished joint 2nd–8th in the 2012 Reykjavik Open 7/9 (+5 =4, TPR 2677). From 27 March to 7 April, she participated in the 2012 China Chess Individual Tournament Group A, the determiner of China's National Champion. She finished joint 7th–9th, 7th by tiebreak. 5/11 (+1 −2 =8; TPR 2560).
From April 13 to April 19, Hou played in the 2012 Bangkok Chess Club open. Seeded third by rating, she finished 14th, 6/9 (+4 −1 = 4; TPR 2500).
From 29 May to 7 June, she played in the 3rd Hainan Danzhou Grand Master Chess Tournament that traditionally showcased the top 10 highest rated Chinese players, although the two highest rated players at the time Wang Hao and Li Chao did not participate. Seeded 6th by rating, Hou finished in 10th and last place with 3/9.
From June 9 to June 22, Hou played in the 4th leg of the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2011–2012 held in Kazan, Russia. Coming immediately off the heels of the recently completed Chinese Men's super tournament in Danzhou, she started off slowly with 2 points in the first 5 rounds before closing strongly with 4 wins in the final 6 rounds. She finished joint 3rd–4th. 7/11 (+5 −2 = 4; TPR 2604).
From July 16 to July 19, Hou played in the 5th leg of the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2011–2012 held in Jermuk, Armenia. She won the event with a 7/11 score (+4 −1 =6, TPR 2598). This victory added to her victories in Rostov 2011 and Shenzeng 2011 made Hou the winner of the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2011–2012 and secured for herself the challenger spot for the Women's World Chess Championship 2013.
At the 40th Chess Olympiad held in Istanbul, Turkey from 27 August to 10 September 2012, Hou Yifan led the Chinese women's chess team to a second place, silver medal finish. Hou won the gold medal for individual performance on board 1 with a 2645 TPR, 6.5/9 score (+4, =5). During the competition she was presented with the Caissa Cup, which honors the female player with the best chess results during the year.
From October 8 to October 17, Hou played in the European Chess Club Cup 2012 as a member of team, Cercle d'Echecs de Monte-Carlo. She played board 1 with 4.5/6 score (+4 −1 =1, TPR 2609) and her heavily favored team swept the round robin competition with a 7–0 score.
From October 19 to October 27, Hou played in the main even of 16th Univé Hoogeveen Chess Festival as part of the Univé Crown Group, a four player double round robin tournament. The average rating of the participants was 2695, making this a category 18 tournament. Hou finished in last place with a 2/6 score (−2 =4, TPR 2605).
In an interview in Kazan she said that she was going to start studying international relations at Beijing University in September. She said that she was glad China was moving away from its one-child policy, she would have liked to have had a brother or sister, and she knew of women who had been forced to have abortions.
In November 2012 she was knocked out in the second round of the Women's World Chess Championship 2012. As the winner of FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2011–2012 she earned the right to challenge the new champion in the Women's World Chess Championship 2013.
During December 12 to 19, Hou concluded the year by participating in the 2012 SportAccord World Mind Games, competing in the 3 disciplines of Rapid, Blitz and Blindfold. In the rapid event, she placed second on tiebreaks with a 5/7 score (+4 −1 =2, TPR 2713). For the blitz event, she placed 7th by tiebreaks with a 7/15 score (+6 −7 =2, TPR 2487). In the blindfold event, she won with a 6/7 score (+6 −1).
2013
Hou was invited to participate in the 2013 Tata Steel Chess Tournament Grandmaster A group in Wijk aan Zee from 12 to 27 January. This was a Category 20 event, and her first supertournament participation. She was the lowest Elo rated player at 2603 and seeded 14th. She surpassed initial expectations by finishing 11/14 with a 5.5/13 score (+3 −5 =5, TPR 2688) including a draw against then World Champion Viswanathan Anand. She competed in the 2013 China Chess Individual Tournament Group A in Xinghua, China from April 16 to the 27th. She finished in a six-way tie for 4th to 9th place, 4th by tie breaks, with a 5.5/11 score (+3 −3 =5, TPR 2609).
From May 2 to May 16, Hou competed in the 1st leg of the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2013–2014 held in Geneva, Switzerland. She was the highest rated player in the event but finished 8th/9th, including a loss to the Women's World Champion 2012–13, Anna Ushenina. Her score was 5/11 (+3 −4 = 4, TPR 2470).
From 11 to 14 June, she played a four-game match with David Navara for the CEZ Chess Trophy 2013. All four games ended in draws, so the winner would be decided by tie breaks. After each player won with white in the blitz portion, an armageddon game won by Hou, as black, gave her the trophy. Her performance rating for the classical games was 2707.
From June 30 to July 3, Hou was part of the team representing China in the 4th Asian Martial Arts Games held in Incheon, South Korea. She won a gold medal in the classical portion of the event with a 6.5/7 score (+6 =1). In August, she took part in the Chess World Cup 2013 in Tromsø, Norway. She was one of four female participants in the 128-player single-elimination tournament. Her opponent for the first round was Alexei Shirov. After two draws in the classical portion of the match, they proceeded to tiebreaks. Hou won the first rapid game with white and lost the second with black. In the next tiebreaker set she lost both games resulting in her elimination.
As the winner of the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2011–2012, Hou won the right to challenge Anna Ushenina in a 10-game match for the world title. Scheduled from September 10 to the 27th, the Women's World Chess Championship 2013 was played in Taizhou, Jiangsu, China. She won the match in 7 games with a 5.5–1.5 score (+4 =3, TPR 2730) regaining her championship title.
From 19 to 26 October, Hou played in the European Chess Club Cup 2013 as a member of team, Cercle d'Echecs de Monte-Carlo. She played board 1 with 5/6 score (+4 =2, TPR 2736) and for the second year in a row, her team swept the round robin competition with a 7–0 score.
From 12 to 18 December, she played in the SportAccord World Mind Games in the chess discipline. The tournament consisted of three events: rapid, blitz and the basque system. In the rapid event, Hou scored 5/7 (+3 = 4, TPR 2691) capturing the silver medal. In the blitz event, she won the gold medal with a 21.5/30 score (+19 −6 =5, ). Notable was that during the second day of the blitz event, Hou achieved a near perfect 9.5/10 score. In the final event played under the basque system, Hou won the silver medal on tiebreaks with a 7/10 score (+7 −3).
2014
From 11 to 22 March, Hou competed in the 2014 China Chess Individual Tournament Group A in Xinghua, her birthplace. She again played against the men in the open section rather than in the women's section. She finished in 7th place with a 5.5/11 score (+2 −3 =6, TPR 2558).
From July 14 to July 24, Hou played in the grandmaster section of the prestigious Biel chess tournament. This was a six player category 19 event with an average rating of 2717 with Hou being the lowest rated player. She started with a win over Anish Giri and was tied for second entering the final round and could take joint first place by winning her final game against Pendyala Harikrishna. While she wound up losing the final game, Hou still had a successful tournament, finishing joint 3rd–5th with a 5/10 score (+2 −2 =6, TPR 2734).
From August 1 to August 14, Hou participated in 41st Chess Olympiad in Tromsø, Norway as board one of the top seeded Chinese Women's team. The team rattled off six straight wins before succumbing to the second seeded Russian team with Hou losing her individual game, as black, to Kateryna Lagno. She ended the Olympiad with a 7/9 score (+6 −1 = 2, TPR 2671) leading her team to the silver medal. Her own performance was good enough to receive the silver medal for board one.
Hou is the winner of FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2013–14. From April 8 to April 22, she played in the 4th stage in Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia. Opening with 3 straight victories, she dominated from start to finish. Several times as white she eschewed her regular 1.e4 opening move and began with 1.c4 and 1.g3. She finished in 1st place with an 8.5/11 score (+6 =5, TPR 2695). From June 18 to July 2, she played in the 5th stage in Lopota, Georgia. Leading from start to finish, she won with a 9/11 score (+7 = 4, TPR 2773), a full two points over her nearest competitors. From August 24 to September 6, she competed in the 6th and final stage in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. She finished joint first with Ju Wenjun with an 8.5/11 score (+6 =5, TPR 2686).
At the final leg, the tournament's official awards, Big and Small Cups of Grand Prix, designed and manufactured by the Lobortas Classic Jewelry House, were presented. As the winner of the 2013–2014 Grand Prix Series, Hou Yifan was solemnly awarded the Small Cup during the official closing ceremony of the tournament.
During September 13 to 21, she competed at the 18th European Club Cup held in Bilbao, Spain. Once again she was the top board for Cercle d'Echecs de Monte-Carlo winning the individual gold medal for her performance 5/6 (+4 =2, TPR 2749) while leading her team to a second-place finish.
With the postponement of the Women's World Chess Championship 2014 she played in the Corsican Chess Circuit in October and won, beating Sergey Fedorchuk in the final. This has been described as the most important tournament yet to be won by a female player other than Judit Polgár.
From December 11 to 18, Hou played in the 2014 SportAccord World Mind Games held in Beijing, China. The Mind Games consists of separate tournaments in 3 disciplines: rapid, blitz and basque. In the rapid event, she placed second capturing the silver medal, losing only to Valentina Gunina, the eventual event winner. Her performance was 5/7 (+4 −1 = 3, rapid TPR 2672). She won the gold medal in the blitz event with a 22.5/30 score (+20 −5 = 5, TPR 2718). Especially noteworthy in her blitz tournament was her performance pushed her official blitz rating to 2704, making her the second female player to cross the 2700 barrier in any rating format. In the final basque system event, Hou took home another gold medal with an 8.5/10 score (+7 =3).
When Hou turned twenty one in 2015 she lost her junior status. She ended the year, and her junior playing career, as the reigning Women's World Chess Champion, the 2nd highest rated female player, the highest rated girl, the 4th highest rated junior and the 71st highest overall rated active player with a FIDE rating of 2673.
2015
Hou once again played in the 2015 edition of Tata Steel Chess Tournament held from January 15 to 25. She was the 12th seed out of 14 total participants in the Category 20 Master group and finished 11th with a 5/13 score(+1 −4 = 8, TPR 2670). While she performed approximately according to her rating, Hou had winning chances in a few of her games and even missed a drawing chance against world champion Magnus Carlsen after defending a difficult position as black for most of the game.
Shortly after, she returned to the scene of her greatest chess tournament triumph, the Gibraltar Chess Festival 2015 held from January 27 to February 4. Seeded 13th by rating, she placed joint 3rd–11th, 3rd by performance with a 7.5/10 score (+5 =5, TPR 2772) pushing her FIDE rating to 2686. She also won the 1st place prize for being the highest scoring female player. Her excellent performance in this event resulted in her rating surpassing Judit Polgár's classic rating for the first time in the March 2015 FIDE rating list, ending Polgár's 26 consecutive years reign as the top rated female player in the world. For the first time since Maia Chiburdanidze in January 1989 a single individual was both the top rated woman player and the reigning Women's World Chess Champion.
She played in the Hawaii Grandmaster Challenge 2015 in March, a two-day four player quadruple blitz and rapid round robin event. She began the first day with a 3.5/6 score before crushing her opponents the second day with five straight wins and a draw in the final game easily winning the event with a 9/12 score. Since this event conflicted with the Women's World Chess Championship 2015 she relinquished her title to Mariya Muzychuk at the conclusion of the Championship.
Hou played in the Nakhchivan Open 2015 in from May 1 to the 11th. Seeded 3rd by rating, she finished in a nine-way tie for joint 4th–12th with a 6/9 score (+5 −2 =2, TPR 2581).
She played in the 2015 edition of Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting which ran from June 27 to July 5. With an average rating of 2724, it qualified as a Category 20 supertournament. Hou finished in joint 7th/8th with a 2.5/7 score (−2 =5, TPR 2629)
Hou has been chosen as the first FIDE Presidential nominee for Chess World Cup 2015 held in Baku from September 10 to October 5. She made it past the first round of a World Cup for the first time in her career before losing in the second round 1.5–2.5 to Shakhriyar Mamedyarov after the 1st set of rapid tiebreaks. Her performance rating was 2685 for the event.
From October 2 to October 15, Hou competed in the 1st leg of the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2015–16 held in Monte Carlo, Monaco. She started the event slowly, with a 2.5/4 score going into the first rest day. This included a loss to rival Humpy Koneru before stringing together a streak of six wins, winning the tournament with one round to spare. Her final score was 9/11 (+8 −1 = 2, TPR 2766).
She participated in an exhibition match against Parimarjan Negi held in the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis from November 12 to the 15th. The four-day event showcased a different chess variant each day: Basque Chess, Rapid Chess960, Rapid Chess and Blitz Chess with each game played counting for 1 point in determining the winner. Hou easily won the match: 0–2 in Basque, 3.5–0.5 in Chess960, 3–1 in Rapid Chess, and 4.5–3.5 in Blitz with a total score of 11–7.
As part of the joint Russian-Chinese Match of Friendship chess festival held from December 13 to 15 held in Shanghai, China, Hou participated in an exhibition match with the GM Evgeniy Najer the 2015 European Champion. Playing a series of rapid and blitz games, she won quite convincingly with a 9.5 to 4.5 score.
In the last chess event of the year, the 2nd edition of the 2015 Qatar Masters Open held from December 19 to the 30th in Doha, Qatar, Hou was the 22nd highest rated player in the tournament but finished in 38th place with a 5.5/9 score (+3 −1 =5, TPR 2591). The result was still good enough to win the top women's prize by a full point.
2016
For the third time, Hou competed in the top group of the Tata Steel Chess Tournament held from January 15 to 31. This year she was seeded 13th out of 14 participants in this Category 20 event. She started strongly, going +1 in her first six games before faltering with four losses in the following five games. She placed 12th with a 5/13 score(+1 −4 = 8, TPR 2672).
In early February, Hou played and won in a four-game match against Cristobal Henriquez Villagra in Punta Arenas. Billed as a Bicontinental Chess Match, it was scheduled to be played in two locations, but due to inclement weather, they were unable to play in Antarctica. She won the match with a 2.5–1.5 score(+2 −1 =1, TPR 2584).
Qualifying for the Women's World Chess Championship 2016, in March, as the winner of the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2013–14, she reclaimed the World Championship title from Mariya Muzychuk in Lviv, Ukraine with a 6–3 score (+3 =6, TPR 2685).
From March 23–26 Hou played in a four player 3 round classical/3 round rapid robin tournament to determine the qualifier for the 4th edition of Norway Chess. She finished in 3rd place with a 1/3 score (−1 =2, TPR 2531) in the classical portion and 2/1 score (+2 −1, TPR 2716) in the rapid portion.
In May, Hou dropped out of the current Women's World Championship cycle, effectively relinquishing the crown. She explained her reasons in a Chessbase interview, mainly objecting to the format wherein the Women's World Champion is decided alternately by a knockout tournament and then a match. She also expressed her willingness to participate in the cycle if the format were amended to mirror that of the World Chess Championship.
She played in the Vugar Gashimov Memorial, a category 20 tournament held in, Shamkir Azerbaijan, from May 26 to June 4. She was the ninth seed out of ten participants and finished in last place with a 2.5/10 score (−4 = 5, TPR 2578)
Hou played in the Eurasian Blitz Cup from June 17–20 in Almaty, Kazakhstan. Seeded 17th on the strength of her 2704 blitz rating, she came in 29th place with a 12.5/22 score (+10 −7 = 5, TPR 2650). Among the female competitors, while having a superior performance rating, she came in second to Harika Dronavalli on tiebreaks.
2017
At the Tradewise Gibraltar Chess Festival, Hou finished with a score of 6/10 (the tournament was won by Hikaru Nakamura). Her round 7 win against the French master Borya Ider, in which she made an early positional sacrifice of queen for two minor pieces, was described as "truly astonishing" by organizer and chess journalist John Saunders. In the final round, she appeared to throw her game against Indian Grandmaster Lalith Babu, playing a ridiculous opening and resigning after 5 moves. She later explained that she was upset about being paired against other female players in 7 of her 9 previous games of a Swiss system tournament, despite men far outnumbering women at the tournament. However tournament organizer Brian Callaghan said the pairings were simply the result of a computer program.
Hou Yifan was one of 24 players selected to play in the FIDE Grand Prix 2017, a qualification stage for the World Chess Championship 2018. She reached position 17 in the final standings, and thus was not able to qualify for the Championship.
She declined to defend her title at the Women's World Chess Championship 2017, and as a result forfeited her title.
In April she participated at the Grenke Classic at Baden-Baden. She finished 5th out of eight players, beating Fabiano Caruana and drawing against Magnus Carlsen after having come close to winning.
In June she re-entered the top 100 players, as world no. 85.
In August, she was clear first at the Category 16 50th Biel Chess Festival with 6.5/9 points (+5 −1 =3, TPR 2810).
In September she competed in the Chess World Cup 2017, where she went out in a second round tiebreak to Levon Aronian, the eventual winner.
2018
In January she competed in the Tata Steel tournament in Wijk aan Zee as the only woman in the field of 14 players, placing last with a score of 2.5/13 (+0−8=5).
From 31 March to 9 April, she participated in the 5th Grenke Chess Classic. She finished equal 8th–9th out of ten with a score of 3½/9 (+0 –2 =7).
2019
In December, she won the 2019 Belt and Road World Chess Woman Summit with 5/7 points.
Rating
Rated 2686 in the March 2015 FIDE rating list, Hou was the world no. 59 player and world no. 1 woman player (overtaking the recently retired Judit Polgár's rating for the first time). On 1 July 2006, she was the youngest ever player to enter the Top 50 Women (Number 8) and Top 20 Girls (Number 2) FIDE lists aged 12 (rated 2488), since FIDE began releasing these lists in 2000.
Between the April 2006 and July 2006 FIDE rating lists, she gained an impressive 190 rating points from a rating of 2298 to a rating of 2488, which made her the eighth highest rated female player, and the second highest rated girl, in the world.
Four-time winner of the honorary Caissa Cup as the best female player of the year (2010, 2011, 2013, 2014). Chess Award of Caissa, designed and executed by artisans of the Lobortas Classic Jewelry House, was solemnly presented at the 40th Chess Olympiad in Istanbul on September 2, 2012, during a meeting of the Commission for Women's Chess with the participation of Susan Polgar chairing the commission.
Openings
Hou Yifan primarily plays 1.e4 as White. As Black, she usually plays the Sicilian Defence (including the Najdorf and Dragon variations) as well as the French Defence against 1.e4, while against 1.d4 she plays the Nimzo-Indian, Bogo-Indian and Queen's Indian defences.
Notable games
On 25 January 2008, Hou as Black beat GM Gabriel Sargissian (2676) of Armenia, longtime second of Levon Aronian, in the Corus (Group B) tournament, Wijk aan Zee, Netherlands:
1. d4 e6 2. c4 Nf6 3. Nf3 b6 4. g3 Ba6 Queen's Indian Defense: Fianchetto. Nimzowitsch Variation (E15) 5. Qc2 Bb4+ 6. Bd2 Be7 7. e4 d5 8. cxd5 Bxf1 9. Kxf1 exd5 10. e5 Ne4 11. Nc3 Nxd2+ A . 12. Nxd2 Qd7 13. Kg2 Nc6 14. Qa4 0-0 15. Rac1 f6 16.Nd1 Nxe5 17.Qxd7 Nxd7 18.Rxc7 Bb4 19.Nf3 ; better was 15...Rfd8. 16. f4 fxe5 17. dxe5 Bb4 18. Rhf1 Rac8 19. Ne2 Nxe5 20. Qxb4 Nd3 21. Qb3 Nxc1 22. Nxc1 Rce8 23. Nf3 Qf5 24. Rf2 c5 25. Qd3 Qe4 26. Rd2 d4 27. Qxe4 Rxe4 28. Nd3 Re6 29. h4 Rc8 30. a4 a6 31. Nfe5 b5 32. a5 g6 33. Rc2 c4 34. Nb4 Rf8 35. b3 d3 36. Rd2 Rc8 37. Rd1 Rd6 38. Kf3 d2 39. bxc4 bxc4 40. Nc2 c3 41. Ke2 Rd5 42. Ng4 Rxa5 43. Nge3 Rd8 44. Rb1 Ra2 45. Kd1 Rb2 46. Ra1 Rdb8 47. Rxa6 Rb1+ 48. Ke2 Rc1 49. Rc6 Re8 If 50.Kd3, then ...Rxc2 follows. If 50.Rxc3, then ...d1=Q+.
Views
Male-female skill gap at the top-level
Yifan claimed that there are many reasons for the lack of female contenders at the chess top-level. She says there is a physical aspect to long chess games that might advantage men, and that men generally work harder at chess than women growing up. She uses Chinese girls as an example and points out that most prefer a balanced life, prioritizing things such as university and family life at the cost of working on chess. But she claims there also are external factors: girls playing chess growing up are only encouraged to compete for the girl's title, which might lower their motivation.
See also
List of chess grandmasters
List of female chess players
List of youngest grandmasters
References
External links
, includes notable games
Profile at Starz International Sports
Short biographies at Corus Chess official website:
Profile and interview, ChessBase.com, 5 February 2009
Hou Yifan interview at the 2010 World Championship
Hou Yifan interview with Dominic Lawson over a game
1994 births
Living people
People from Taizhou, Jiangsu
Chess players from Jiangsu
Chinese female chess players
Chess grandmasters
Chess woman grandmasters
Female chess grandmasters
World Youth Chess Champions
Women's world chess champions
Chinese Rhodes Scholars
Chess players at the 2010 Asian Games
Chess players at the 2022 Asian Games
Asian Games bronze medalists for China
Asian Games gold medalists for China
Asian Games medalists in chess
Medalists at the 2010 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2022 Asian Games
Peking University alumni
High School Affiliated to Renmin University of China alumni
Academic staff of Shenzhen University |
4499581 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20Direct | Transport Direct | The Transport Direct Programme was a division of the UK Department for Transport (DfT) to develop standards, data and better information technology systems to support public transport. It developed and operates the Transport Direct Portal which is a public facing multi-modal journey planner. It also supports the creation and management of comprehensive databases of all public transport movements in the United Kingdom with Traveline. During 2010 two key datasets were released as Open Data and published on www.data.gov.uk .
The closure of the portal was announced in September 2014 and the portal closed on 30 September 2014.
Transport Direct Portal
The journey planner was a public-facing multi-modal door-to-door journey planner website for Great Britain which provided options for both public transport and car-based options and included an option for cyclists in some parts of the country.
Standards
A number of data standards were developed to support the collection, transfer and management of the required transport data:-
CycleNetXChange a UK data protocol for exchanging information about infrastructure to support the development of a national cycle journey planning function within the Transport Direct Portal.
IFOPT, a CEN standard for defining public transport access information (building on NaPTAN and NPTG).
JourneyWeb, a protocol to allow the development of a distributed journey planning service (which became the Transport Direct Portal).
NaPTAN for the exchange of information associated with bus stops, railway station and other public transport access point.
NPTG for the exchange of information about places and points of interest.
SIRI, a CEN standard for exchanging real-time public transport information.
TransXChange, a UK data protocol for the exchange of public transport schedules in conjunction with Vehicle and Operator Services Agency, Arriva and Stagecoach Group
Other organisations involved in this work included Traveline, the Real Time Information Group (RTIG), the Association of Transport Coordinating Officers (ATCO) and the Confederation of Passenger Transport (CPT) as well a number of system suppliers.
Data resources
The development of Transport Direct has created a number of comprehensive national datasets to support the Transport Direct Portal. The assessment of accessibility to services by public transport was made a requirement for the Local Transport Plans in 2004. Measuring the level of accessibility required the use of the data collected by Transport Direct.
This data is being used by an increasing number of 3rd parties, including Google Transit (South East Traveline Region) and East Anglia / East Midlands Traveline Regions. MySociety's Mapumental accessibility product. During 2010 increasing amounts of data has become available as Open Data including NaPTAN and NPTDR.
National Public Transport Access Nodes database (NaPTAN)
The National Public Transport Access Node (NaPTAN) dataset is a UK nationwide system for uniquely identifying all the points of access to public transport in the UK. The dataset, which is open data contains details of some 360,000 nodes including every UK railway station, bus station (Coach station), airport, ferry terminal, bus stop, taxi rank or other place where public transport can be joined; it also details all public entrances to transport hubs and can contain details of airport gates, railway platforms and ferry berths. Each element is allocated a unique 'NaPTAN identifier'. Each entry is linked with one or more localities in the National Public Transport Gazetteer.
It is updated on data.gov.uk every three months.
The CEN standard (Identification of Fixed Objects In Public Transport or 'IFOPT') integrates many concepts used in the NaPTAN standard into a European standard for stop identification as an extension to Transmodel which is the European standard for Public Transport information.
Elements of the NaPTAN are used in the timetable data provided by the Bus Open Data Service
National Public Transport Gazetteer
The National Public Transport Gazetteer is a dataset detailing some 50,000 place names for cities, town, villages, hamlets and suburbs in the UK. It is available as open data from data.gov.uk.
National Public Transport Data Repository
The National Public Transport Data Repository (NPTDR) is a snapshot of all public transport schedules for the UK including bus, tram, train, ferry coach and rail. A dataset is created each year for October and the most recent version is available as open data from data.gov.uk.
It was originally created for use by local authorities and other organisations in the production of accessibility strategies, which was a requirement for Local Transport Plan. The data repository was first set up in 2004, and an annual snapshot of data has been created each year since then. Data is collected for all public transport services running in Great Britain during a full week in October each year. It is supplied by Traveline regions and the Association of Train Operating Companies (ATOC) and processed into files for each local authority, broken down further into files for each transport mode. The data in the repository is in both ATCO.CIF and TransXChange technical formats, rather than in a format that would be readily recognised as a timetable. NPTDR was made available as Open Data in September 2010, with new October 2010 data released in March 2011 (Previously there was a charge made for this dataset).
Datasets available:
October 2004 dataset
October 2005 dataset
October 2006 dataset
October 2007 dataset
October 2008 dataset
October 2009 dataset
October 2010 dataset
National Coach Services Database
The National Coach Services Database contains details of all 'limited-stop coach services' in the UK, including those of National Express Coaches, Megabus, Easybus and Scottish Citylink This dataset is not available as open data.
National Car Parks Database
The National Car Parks dataset contains details of every public car park in the country and also every Park and Ride site. This dataset is not available as open data.
National public transport dataset
During 2009-10 Traveline has been developing a national dataset covering local transport details for all parts of the UK which will be updated every week (rather than once a year with the NPTDR). It has an associated data sharing agreement defining how it can be used by 3rd parties. The dataset current does not include rail or coach services.
Cycle routes database
Transport Direct has been contracting companies to survey parts of the UK to provide information to support the cycle journey planning function of the Transport Direct Portal which has been developed in association with Cycling England. Data is stored in the CycleNetXChange format developed for the purpose and is based on the "Ordnance Survey DNF Digital National Framework for referencing objects and the ITN (Integrated Transport Network)".
Open data considerations
All the transport schedules were initially closed data covered by Crown copyright.
In March 2009 the Cabinet Office published the 'Power of Information Taskforce Report' which noted that although the National Public Transport Data Repository described itself as 'Crown Copyright' investigation showed that the database was not actually government data and also that there were significant changes for reuse of the NPTDR dataset. The report suggested that there should be a presumption in favour of information which has been created by public sector bodies being available for re-use. It is suggested that there should be a clear and consistent copyright and licensing rules applied making it easy to work with data from multiple sources in the public sector. It recommended the a 'Crown Commons' style approach with "highly permissive licensing scheme that is transparent, easy to understand and easy to use, modeled on the 'Click Use' license" should be developed.
In December 2009 Local Transport Today reported that 'Data release could spark transport IT innovations". The magazine reported that "Among the data to be made accessible through the site are trunk road traffic volumes, the National Public Transport Access Node (NaPTAN) database and the National Public Transport Data Repository (NPTDR)". A DfT spokeswoman was reported to say: "We will seek to embrace new technology to enable partners to provide exciting, user-focused services such as recently seen with satellite navigation and iPhone applications",
In March 2010 the Prime Minister Gordon Brown announced that the NaPTAN dataset was to be immediately made available from the data.gov.uk site as Open Data, as well as confirming an impending release of Ordnance Survey data. In his speech he observed that at present public transport timetables and real-time running information was owned by the operating companies but that the government would work to free it up. He also said that "from today we will make it a condition of future franchises that this data will be made freely available".
NPTDR was made available as Open Data in September 2010.
Costs
The costs of operating Transport Direct and creating the associated portal are funded by central Government. The data used by the portal is created and maintained by a range of other organisations. Work commissioned by the Department in 2000 indicated that the services that Transport Direct seeks to deliver would not be provided by the private sector.
The cost of the Transport Direct Programme (Portal and other necessary works) from April 2003 to March 2006 was £45 million up for the period April 2003 to March 2006 until then £10 million for the period April 2006 to March 2007. The Portal itself cost £5.9 million for the period April 2006 to March 2007. The 10 millionth user session took place on 1 December 2006 with the number of session steadily growing over time; 1.126 million user sessions were recorded for August 2007.
A Freedom of Information request was made on 4 January 2006 that requested details of the cost of the development of the Transport Direct portal.
History
Context
Bus deregulation in Great Britain in 1985 allowed operators to determine routes and frequencies (except in London) which were normally prepared by hand and few transport authorities had databases giving the name and locations of bus stops, and where they did they were in a locally developer format. Bus operators were required register their schedules with VOSA which they did on paper at timing point level together with a prose description of the route. An additional problem was that a single bus stop could be served by multiple bus operators who would typically use different names for the same bus stop. The Bus wars in the early period of deregulation added to the confusion and printer timetables at bus stops largely disappeared as bus companies cut costs.
In 1986 during the conservative government the M25 motorway was opened by Margaret Thatcher and then in 1989 a white paper titled "Roads for Prosperity" was published which was heralded as 'the biggest road building program since the Romans'. Within a few years however, the M25 was carrying far more traffic than was predicted and plans were drawn up to widen the entire motorway. Other road schemes, including the M3 motorway at Twyford Down, the M11 link road, the Newbury bypass etc. were met with unprecedented levels of opposition which led to a review of transport policy starting in the mid-1990s. Stephen Norris, later to become a strong advocate of cycling and public transport, was appointed as Under-Secretary of State for Transport in 1992 and in 1994 a new revised edition of Planning Policy Guidance 13 acknowledged officially for the first time that new roads lead to additional traffic making new roads much harder to justify; in July the Secretary of State for Transport Brian Mawhinney launched what he termed a 'Great Debate' over about the future direction for transport in the UK; and then in October a major Royal Commission report, Transport and the Environment was published which highlighted the serious environmental consequences of UK's car-based transport system. By the end of 1995 many road schemes had been canceled and the incoming Labour government following the 1997 general election canceled many of the remaining schemes.
Under New Labour, John Prescott, the Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions wanted to an increased role for public transport; Labour's first transport white paper "A New Deal for Transport: Better for everyone" was published in 1998 which included a commitment to create a national multi-modal transport information system by the end of 2000. A subsequent White Paper, the 'Transport Ten Year Plan 2000' provided more details of the required work. The project would:- "Stimulate the transport sector to develop high quality information systems", "Enable users to find all available electronic travel information", "Develop integrated information and ticket sales for journeys involving more than one mode of transport" and "Deliver an integrated and comprehensive information service for all travel modes and mode combinations, which was implemented as the Transport Direct Portal."
Development
Given the capabilities of the computers at the time it was not considered feasible at the time to operate a national journey planner, so a regional approach was chosen. The Confederation of Passenger Transport agreed to set up Traveline in 2000 which would include representatives from local government and from the transport operators. Traveline then organised itself into a regional structure, each of which would develop systems for providing information from telephone call centres in time over the internet. Initially paper timetables were used while the necessary information systems and supporting datasets were developed. A basic file format for the exchange of transport schedules was available and was updated in 2000 to accommodate some of the requirements of the new project. A contract to develop the Transport Direct Portal was awarded in 2002 to Atos Origin which would provide a single access point to the journey planners being developed by each of the Traveline regions. A specification for the National Public Transport Access Nodes (NaPTAN) database, which would hold the details of every station, coach terminus, airport, ferry terminal, bus stop, etc. in Great Britain was published in December 2002 together with the associated NPTG standard was also defined and was populated with 50,000 commonly used place names and major points of interest. A GPS survey of the country was carried out to populate the new database. On completion the NaPTAN database detailed 360,000 Stop Points. Also in 2002 Transport Direct also managed a program for the Department for Transport to invest £20m into real-time Passenger information system to 19 local authorities in the UK to increase the uptake of this technology which was already being developed in a number of places.
An initial specification for a new more comprehensive standard for the exchange of public transport data ( TransXChange) was completed in 2003 although much of the schedule data was still transferred using a simpler 'ATCO CIF' file format. Data for the portal was collected from some 200 organisations. A data standard for the exchange of real time public transport information was completed in 2003. RTIG-XML, a data standard for the exchange of real time public transport information was completed in 2003. A prototype national door-to-door journey for Great Britain (i.e. UK without Northern Ireland) was available by November 2003 to 'stakeholders and key opinion formers' and was officially launched by Alistair Darling, the Secretary of State for Transport on 31 December 2004. The integration of public transport and car journey planning on this scale was claimed as a world-first. To put the project in perspective, it was launched prior to the existence of Google Maps (early in 2005) and routing of public transport on Google Maps was not released until December 2005 and this service required a feed of data of the type being collected by Transport Direct.
Operation
From 2004 Transport Direct has operated the Transport Direct Portal in using the Traveline regional planners from which it is constructed.
During 2005 Transport Direct was re-organised into three service areas to:
Provide travel information services directly to users through the Transport Direct Portal;
Provide travel information services through valued-adding third parties such as the BBC, Google, Directgov(provided by Transport Direct, National Rail Enquiries, Visit Britain and the UK Department for Work and Pensions;
Work with and orchestrate the travel and transport information communities within the UK, Europe and internationally to promote the use of standards and common processes to deliver an effective transport information supply chain.
A database of public transport schedules (known as 'National Public Transport Data Repository' or NPTDR) was first assembled in 2004 covering a week in October. This data could be used with the 'Accession' software, developed with funding from the Department for Transport for analysis accessibility to services which was a requirement for the Local Transport Plans in development at the time by every Transport Authority. A similar dataset has been collected every subsequent year.
Information was made available from the portal through additional channels during the year, including PDAs, mobile phones and via interactive television via BSkyB, cable and Freeview set-top boxes with a modem or broadband connection.
In 2006 Transport Direct started FareXChange, a technical standard for the exchange of information about public transport fares. Also in 2006 the Service Interface for Real Time Information (SIRI), which was developed with support from Transport Direct was adopted as a CEN standard.
In 2007 data for buses and coaches in the South East England Traveline Region was made available to Google Transit. This did not however include the rail information which is available through Transport Direct but for which 3rd parties are required to deal directly with Network Rail or for London (which is only available to 3rd parties from Transport for London).
In November 2008 the final (version 1.0) draft of Identification of Fixed Objects In Public Transport (IFOPT), a CEN standard for describing public transport interchanges was completed. In December 2008 the Department released NaPTAN data for use in OpenStreetMap and after an import process was defined the first a data for many places including London had been imported by August 2009.
In March 2009 Transport Direct added cycle journey planning to the Portal for Manchester and Merseyside. CycleStreets, a national cycle journey planner using OpenStreetMap data was launched as beta in the same month.
In June 2009 MySociety launched a beta version of Mapumental which shows travel time by different modes of public transport within a time limit for anywhere in Great Britain using the NPTDR dataset.
In July 2009 Cycling England (funded by the Department for Transport) 'urged' local authorities across England to help develop a cycle journey planner for the Government's Transport Direct website and offered matched funding for the cost of collecting the data.
In November 2009 data for the East Anglia and East Midlands Traveline Regions were made available to Google Transit. Again, only bus and coach information is available through Google.
In January 2010 Cycle City Guides were contracted to survey further cycle routes with an eventual aim of providing coverage for every urban area in England with a population over 30,000.
In March 2010 the NaPTAN dataset was made available as Open Data from data.gov.uk. In the same month Google Maps launched a cycling routing function for 150 cities in the United States. Google also announced that it had made Google Streetview available for virtually every road in the United Kingdom.
In September 2010 the National Public Transport Data Repository was made available on data.gov.uk as Open Data. Transport for London made their current public transport schedules available to same month from the London datastore.
References
External links
Transport Direct office project website
The Primary public facing journey planner interface
The mobile journey planner interface
Transport Direct Evaluation - Baseline Report for the Department for Transport 2004
Real time information research
Department for Transport
E-government in the United Kingdom
Transport in the United Kingdom |
4500579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%2042 | New York State Route 42 | New York State Route 42 (NY 42) is a north–south, discontinuous state highway in the Catskill Mountains region of New York in the United States. The southernmost of the highway's two segments begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 6 (US 6) and US 209 in Port Jervis and ends at a junction with NY 55 near the Rondout Reservoir in Neversink. NY 42's northern segment runs from NY 28 in Shandaken to NY 23A in Lexington. The southern segment is located in Orange County and Sullivan County, while the northern segment is in Ulster County and Greene County.
NY 42 is one of three state routes in New York that is split into two segments; the others are NY 24 and NY 878, both located on Long Island. Like NY 24, NY 42 was a continuous route when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. The portion of the route between Neversink and Shandaken was eliminated in the mid-1930s.
Route description
Southern segment
Port Jervis to Forestburgh Pond
NY 42 begins at an intersection with US 6 and US 209 (Pike Street / East Main Street) in the city of Port Jervis. NY 42 proceeds northwestward, immediately concurrent with NY 97 on West Main Street, a two-lane commercial street through Port Jervis. After passing far east of the Port Jervis station on Metro-North Railroad's Port Jervis Line, NY 42 and NY 97 break off West Main Street for Park Avenue, paralleling the Norfolk Southern Southern Tier Line (ex-Erie Railroad Delaware Division tracks) and Elks–Brox Memorial Park. NY 42/NY 97 continue northwest through Port Jervis as a two-lane wooded road before crossing into the town of Deerpark. In Deerpark, NY 42 and NY 97 are a two-lane commercial roadway alongside the Southern Tier Line, entering the hamlet of Sparrowbush.
In Sparrowbush, NY 42 and NY 97 becomes residential, accessing Eddy Farm Golf to the south, before entering the center of the hamlet, where NY 97 continues northwest on the right-of-way, while NY 42 proceeds north on a new roadway. NY 42 proceeds northward a two-lane residential street through Sparrowbush, soon passing Old Cahoonzie Road to the south. Running up a mountainside, the route parallels NY 97, which runs to the west, north out of Sparrowbush. Through the town of Deerpark, NY 42 continues as a two-lane residential street, intersecting with Old Cahoonzie Road as it becomes a two-lane rural road. A short distance from the change of scenery, NY 42 enters the hamlet of Cahoonzie, which consists of a few residences and dense woods. After an intersection with Peenpack Trail, the route bends northwest into dense woods, running past ponds and a cluster of homes on the nearby hillside.
NY 42 continues through Deerpark, crossing a creek near Whitehead Road as it winds north and northwest for several miles. The route intersects with Old Plank Road, where it bends northward once again, becoming a two-lane rural road once again through fields before crossing the county line into Sullivan County. In Sullivan County, NY 42 is in the town of Forestburgh and immediately into the hamlet of Hartwood Club. Running east of the Rib Reservoir, the route remains a two-lane road through fields, until Baer Road, where residences begin to appear once again. Making an elongated bend to the northwest, the route passes east of Burnt Hope Lake as it winds northwest through the town of Forestburgh. At an intersection with King Road, NY 42 bends northward once again, entering the hamlet of Forestburg, where NY 42 intersects with County Route 43 (CR 43; Forestburgh Road) and CR 48 (Hartwood Road) alongside Forestburgh Pond.
Monticello and Kiamesha Lake
Continuing north of Forestburgh Pond, NY 42 bends northeast as a two-lane field road, passing through the hamlet of Forestburgh, north of Merriewold Lake. In the hamlet, NY 42 passes several residences on the southern end and in downtown, where CR 108 (St. Josephs Road) intersects. After bending northeast alongside some residences, NY 42 comes near St. Josephs Lake in the town of Thompson. In Thompson, NY 42 continues northward as a two-lane residential roadway, passing east of Wildwood Lake and to the west of Monticello Airport, which is accessible via Cantrell Road. After Cantrell Road, NY 42 bends northwest, varying as a two-lane residential and rural roadway through Thompson. The route bends northeast once again, returning to its residential state as it intersects with CR 45 and CR 45A (Sackett Lake Road). After crossing under power lines, NY 42 enters the village of Monticello.
In Monticello, NY 42 gains the moniker of Forestburgh Road, passing through a large residential section of the village. After passing Monticello High School, the route bends northeast, entering downtown Monticello. The route becomes commercial just before an intersecting with Broadway, where NY 42 turns east onto Broadway and crosses through town as a four-lane main commercial street. A block after intersecting with the village continuation of CR 102 (St. John Street), NY 42 abandons Broadway for Pleasant Street, another two-lane commercial street through downtown Monticello. After an intersection with Rock Ridge Avenue, NY 42 enters an interchange with NY 17 (the Quickway; exit 105). The Pleasant Street moniker is dropped after the cloverleaf interchange, as NY 42 returns into the town of Thompson.
In Thompson, NY 42 continues north, intersecting with the southern terminus of CR 103 (Anawana Lake Road). NY 42 passes west of Thompson Square Mall as it bends north into the area of Kiamesha Lake. After bending south through the valley, NY 42 intersects with Concord Road and becomes a lakeside roadway alongside the western shore of Kiamesha Lake, soon bending northeast into the hamlet of Kiamesha Lake. Through Kiamesha Lake, the route is a two-lane shore roadway, with residences running along the northern side. After bending to the northern end to the lake, NY 42 intersects with CR 109 (Kiamesha Lake Road). Crossing northeast from Kiamesha Lake, NY 42 winds its way through the town of Thompson.
South Fallsburg to Grahamsville
After leaving Kiamesha Lake, NY 42 continues through the town of Thompson as a two-lane residential/rural roadway before crossing into the town of Fallsburg. In Fallsburg, NY 42 winds northeast past a large residential development, intersecting with the northern terminus of CR 161 (Heiden Road). With the moniker of Main Street, NY 42 enters the hamlet of South Fallsburg as a two-lane residential street. At an intersection with Stratton Hill Road, the route and Main Street bend eastward, crossing over the northern edge of Pleasure Lake. Bending northeast through downtown South Fallsburg, NY 42 becomes a two-lane residential street, crossing a former railroad grade at Railroad Plaza. After Railroad Plaza, NY 42 continues through South Fallsburg as a residential street before leaving the hamlet.
Northeast of South Fallsburg, NY 42 drops the Main Street moniker, making a bend eastward past a large residential complex. Beginning a parallel of the Neversink River, NY 42 bends northward into the hamlet of Fallsburg, where CR 52 (Brickman Road) and CR 53 (Old Falls Road) intersect and terminate at the same junction. Through Fallsburg, NY 42 is a two-lane residential street alongside the Neversink. NY 42 bends away from the Neversink north of the hamlet, entering an industrial area next to a large pond, bending northwest into the hamlet of Woodbourne. In Woodbourne, NY 42 intersects with NY 52 and becomes a two-lane commercial street concurrency. The routes soon become residential as they pass through Woodbourne, crossing over the Neversink and NY 42 bends north away from NY 52 along the riverside.
Continuing north through the town of Fallsburg, NY 42 remains a two-lane residential street alongside the Neversink River. The Neversink forks eastward as NY 42 bends northeast, but both soon rejoin as it passes a small residential segment. At the junction with Hasbrouck Road, NY 42 darts eastward alongside a brook as a two-lane wooded residential road. At Couzines Road, NY 42 bends northeast again, passing a large pond, entering the hamlet of Hasbrouck. In Hasbrouck, NY 42 passes several residences before intersecting with the western terminus of CR 154 (Ulster Heights Road). After CR 154, NY 42 intersects with Thunder Hill Road, where it bends eastward once again, paralleling to the north of CR 154. The route bends northeast at a junction with Low Road, passing west of Beaverdam Pond. NY 42 continues northward away from the Pond into the town of Neversink.
In the town of Neversink, NY 42 continues northward as a two-lane residential/rural street, entering the Catskill State Park. After crossing into the park, NY 42 intersects with the western terminus of CR 156 (South Hill Road), where NY 42 turns northwest and enters the hamlet of Grahamsville. In Grahamsville, NY 42 passes several local commercial businesses before crossing over Chestnut Creek. A short distance into Grahamsville, NY 42 intersects with NY 55. This intersection serves as the northern terminus of the southern segment of NY 42.
Former middle segment
Upon its inception in the 1930 state highway renumbering, NY 42 was routed along a stretch of roadway through the Catskill State Park from Grahamsville to Shandaken, connecting to its current-day northern segment. This alignment consists of alignments of NY 55, Sullivan County Routes 19 and 157, Ulster County Route 47 and NY 28.
Sullivan County
In Grahamsville, NY 55 proceeds northwest through the hamlet as a two-lane commercial and residential street. Bending north, the route soon leaves Grahamsville for the hamlet of Unionville, also within the town of Neversink, passing the Town of Neversink Park. Through Unionville, NY 55 is a two-lane residential street proceeding westward, intersecting with Pepacton Hollow Road. At this junction, NY 55 bends southwest into the hamlet of Curry. In Curry, the route crosses over a brook and intersects with CR 19 (Claryville Road). At this junction, CR 19 proceeds northward as a two-lane residential street at the initial junction. The route becomes rural, passing east of the Neversink River, as a two-lane woods road through the town of Neversink. CR 19 intersects with Cummings Road, where it bends northeast and comes within of the Neversink.
Still known as Claryville Road, CR 19 continues northeast, running alongside the Neversink River, where it passes a dirt road bridge over the river. A short distance after, CR 19 intersects with Hunter Road, which also crosses over the Neversink nearby. The route soon parallels the winding river north into the hamlet of Claryville, becoming a two-lane residential street through the hamlet. After passing the Claryville Reformed Church and its namesake cemetery, CR 19 intersects with the southern terminus of CR 157 (Frost Valley Road). CR 157 proceeds west across the Neversink River as a two-lane rural street north of Claryville. CR 157 continues north for a short distance alongside the West Branch of the Neversink before crossing the county line into Ulster County.
Ulster County
After crossing the county line, Sullivan CR 157 becomes Ulster CR 47, but retains the Frost Valley Road moniker in the town of Denning. CR 47 proceeds north through Denning alongside the West Branch in spurts. The route bends with the river in multiple directions before maintaining a northeastern pattern through the town. Running through the West Branch's narrow valley, CR 47 enters a small section of non-dense woods, with several buildings through the hamlet of Frost Valley. After passing the Frost Valley YMCA, CR 47 leaves the hamlet. Returning to the dense woods, CR 47, bends northeast, then southeast then east as it remains alongside the West Branch. The route bends northeast again, running into large spurts of residences on the hills above the roadway or alongside. After passing the hamlet of Branch, CR 47 crosses the Shandaken town line.
In Shandaken, CR 47 becomes Oliverea Road, continuing northeast. The route remains the two-lane dense woods road, passing the hiking trailhead for Slide Mountain, the Catskills' highest peak, then the range's highest lake, Winnisook Lake, on the east side of the roadway. Here CR 47 reaches in elevation, making it one of the highest paved public roads in New York. After a dart to the north, CR 47 bends east and enters a large hairpin turn, where it begins a descent alongside the Esopus Creek. After the hairpin turn, CR 47 proceeds westward, crossing over Cascade Brook and the Stephen F. Fischer Memorial Cascade Brooke Bridge, opened in May 2012 after the previous culvert bridge was destroyed by Hurricane Irene in 2011. After the Stephen F. Fischer Memorial Cascade Brooke Bridge, CR 47 continues west through Shandaken, passing several residences before turning northward near Valley View Road. CR 47 bends northwest, crossing alongside the Esopus Creek past some residences and a tennis court on the western side of the highway. After another dart to the northeast, CR 47 enters the hamlet of Oliverea, where it intersects with McKinley Hollow Road east of the creek.
After Oliverea, CR 47 bends northward and soon northeast as it continues away from the hamlet. CR 47 then bends northeast past some residences and soon north into the hamlet of Big Indian (also known as Big Indian Hollow). In Big Indian, CR 47 passes several residences before turning northeast and descending into a valley. After the descent, CR 47 intersects with NY 28 east of Big Indian Park. CR 47 continues north past NY 28, but NY 28 proceeds eastward through Shandaken as a two-lane rural roadway, paralleling Esopus Creek to the north and passing a large parking area before entering the hamlet of Shandaken. In Shandaken, NY 28 intersects with the southern terminus of the northern segment of NY 42.
Northern segment
NY 42's northern segment proceeds northwest through the hamlet of Shandaken as a two-lane residential street, intersecting with the northern terminus of CR 47 (Creek Side Drive) at the shore of Esopus Creek. After CR 47, NY 42 passes south of Glen Brook Park, continuing northwest through the hamlet as a two-lane residential road. Before crossing under some power lines, NY 42 bends northeast, intersecting with Ford Road, where it turns northwest once again, paralleling the power lines. During this northwestern stretch alongside Halcott Mountain, NY 42 intersects with a former alignment of itself, which parallels to the west for a short distance. The route soon enters the hamlet of Bushnellville, where it becomes a two-lane residential street. Just after the intersection with Gooding Road, NY 42 bends northeast and crosses the county line into Greene County.
Upon crossing into Greene County, NY 42 is in the town of Lexington. Residences become more sporadic as NY 42 continues northward through Lexington, crossing under the power lines before bending northward through the dense woods of Halcott Mountain and Deep Notch, soon bending northeast into a large field area, where it enters the hamlet of West Kill. In West Kill, NY 42 intersects with the western terminus of CR 6 (Spruceton Road). NY 42 through West Kill consists of several residences along both sides of the highway before crossing over the namesake kill and bending northwest out of the hamlet. While running east of West Kill, NY 42 remains a two-lane residential roadway, crossing over the waterway once again and intersecting with Beechridge Road North.
At Beechridge Road North, NY 42 bends northeast along runs west of the West Kill before bending southeast into the hamlet of Lexington. In Lexington, NY 42 is a two-lane residential street that soon runs along Schoharie Creek through downtown. The two-lane street continues southeast until an intersection with Rappleyea Road, where NY 42 crosses the creek and intersects with the terminus of CR 13A. After CR 13A, NY 42 bends southeast then northeast through downtown Lexington and intersects with NY 23A. This junction serves as the northern terminus of the northern segment of NY 42, while the right-of-way continues north as CR 13 through the Catskill Park.
History
When NY 42 was originally assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, it was a continuous route extending along a previously unnumbered roadway from Port Jervis in the south to Lexington in the north via Monticello, Neversink, and Shandaken. The section of NY 42 between Neversink and Shandaken was eliminated due to its low traffic volume and maintenance difficulties arising from the road's high elevation and exposure to severe winter weather. Even today the portion in Ulster County is visibly affected by these conditions.
Flooding
In 2014, the town of Lexington's Flood Commission hired Milone & MacBroom, a New Paltz engineering firm, to evaluate various options related to West Kill's stream course between the hamlets of West Kill and Lexington. Two years later, after having run computer simulations of flood events at all frequency levels up to 500-year, the firm concluded that the only option which provided benefit worth the cost was to replace the lowest bridge over the West Kill on NY 42, just below where Loucks Road forks off to the west.
Milone & MacBroom explained that the former bridge, due to both the 45-degree angle at which it crossed the West Kill and its height over the stream, constricted the stream flow during 100-year floods. The firm indicated it was consulting with the state Department of Transportation on the design for a new bridge. It called for the bridge's lower chord to be raised a foot; the additional freeboard would allow more water to flow downstream during floods, thus lowering their levels upstream, away from homes and businesses along the road. In 2017, the bridge was replaced at a cost of $4.1 million, part of a larger ongoing project to replace bridges all over the state; a temporary bridge over the West Kill allowed traffic to continue using the route during construction.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
042
Transportation in Orange County, New York
Transportation in Ulster County, New York
Transportation in Greene County, New York
Transportation in Sullivan County, New York |
4500730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%E2%80%93Pakistan%20relations | India–Pakistan relations | India–Pakistan relations are the bilateral ties between the Republic of India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The two countries have a complex and largely hostile relationship that is rooted in a multitude of historical and political events, most notably the partition of British India in August 1947. The India–Pakistan border is one of the most militarised international boundaries in the world. Northern India and most of modern-day Pakistan overlap with each other in terms of their common Indo-Aryan demographic, natively speaking a variety of Indo-Aryan languages (mainly Punjabi, Sindhi, and Hindi–Urdu).
Two years after World War II, the United Kingdom formally dissolved British India, dividing it into two new sovereign nations: the Union of India and Pakistan. The partitioning of the former British colony resulted in the displacement of up to 15 million people, with the death toll estimated to have reached between several hundred thousand and one million people as scores of Hindus and Muslims migrated in opposite directions across the Radcliffe Line to reach India and Pakistan, respectively. In 1950, India emerged as a secular republic with a Hindu-majority population and a large Muslim minority. Shortly afterwards, in 1956, Pakistan emerged as an Islamic republic with a Muslim-majority population and a large Hindu minority; it later lost most of its Hindu population following its defeat in the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, which saw the secession of East Pakistan as the independent country of Bangladesh.
While both countries established full diplomatic ties shortly after their formal independence, their relationship was quickly overshadowed by the mutual effects of the partition as well as by the emergence of conflicting territorial claims over various princely states, with the most significant dispute being that of Jammu and Kashmir. Since 1947, India and Pakistan have fought three major wars and one undeclared war, and have also engaged in numerous armed skirmishes and military standoffs; the Kashmir conflict has served as the catalyst for every war between the two states, with the exception of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which instead occurred alongside the Bangladesh Liberation War.
There have been numerous attempts to improve the relationship, notably the Shimla summit, the Agra summit, and the Lahore summit, as well as various peace and co-operation initiatives. Despite those efforts, relations between the countries have remained frigid, following repeated acts of cross-border terrorism. According to a BBC World Service poll in 2017, only 5% of Indians view Pakistan's influence positively, with 85% expressing a negative view, while 11% of Pakistanis view India's influence positively, with 62% expressing a negative view. India has since successfully dehyphenated itself from Pakistan and has found creative ways and mechanisms to sidestep or corner Pakistan in international affairs. The "minimalist engagement" allows India to keep a "cold peace" with Pakistan and focus on other pressing issues and strategic challenges.
Seeds of conflict during independence
Massive population exchanges occurred between the two newly formed states in the months immediately following the partition. There was no conception that population transfers would be necessary because of the partitioning. Religious minorities were expected to stay put in the states they found themselves residing in. However, while an exception was made for Punjab, where the transfer of populations was organised because of the communal violence affecting the province, this did not apply to other provinces.
The partition of British India split the former British province of Punjab and Bengal between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's Punjab province; the mostly Hindu and Sikh eastern part became India's East Punjab state (later divided into the new states of Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the Partition saw many people displaced and much inter-communal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a retributive genocide. Total migration across Punjab during the partition is estimated at around 12 million people; around 6.5 million Muslims moved from East Punjab to West Punjab, and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Punjab to East Punjab.
According to the British plan for the partition of British India, all the 680 princely states were allowed to decide which of the two countries to join. With the exception of a few, most of the Muslim-majority princely-states acceded to Pakistan while most of the Hindu-majority princely states joined India. However, the decisions of some of the princely states would shape the Pakistan-India relationship considerably in the years to come.
Junagadh issue
Junagadh was a state on the south-western end of Gujarat, with the principalities of Manavadar, Mangrol and Babriawad. It was not contiguous to Pakistan and other states physically separated it from Pakistan. The state had an overwhelming Hindu population which constituted more than 80% of its citizens, while its ruler, Nawab Mahabat Khan, was a Muslim. Mahabat Khan acceded to Pakistan on 15 August 1947. Pakistan confirmed the acceptance of the accession on 15 September 1947.
India did not accept the accession as legitimate. The Indian point of view was that Junagadh was not contiguous to Pakistan, that the Hindu majority of Junagadh wanted it to be a part of India, and that the state was surrounded by Indian territory on three sides.
The Pakistani point of view was that since Junagadh had a ruler and governing body who chose to accede to Pakistan, it should be allowed to do so. Also, because Junagadh had a coastline, it could have maintained maritime links with Pakistan even as an enclave within India.
Neither of the states was able to resolve this issue amicably and it only added fuel to an already charged environment. Sardar Patel, India's Home Minister, felt that if Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan, it would create communal unrest across Gujarat. The government of India gave Pakistan time to void the accession and hold a plebiscite in Junagadh to pre-empt any violence in Gujarat. Samaldas Gandhi formed a government-in-exile, the Arzi Hukumat (in Urdu: Arzi: Transitional, Hukumat: Government) of the people of Junagadh. Patel ordered the annexation of Junagadh's three principalities.
India cut off supplies of fuel and coal to Junagadh, severed air and postal links, sent troops to the frontier, and occupied the principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad that had acceded to India. On 26 October, Nawab of Junagadh and his family fled to Pakistan following clashes with Indian troops. On 7 November, Junagadh's court, facing collapse, invited the Government of India to take over the State's administration. The Dewan of Junagadh, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, the father of the more famous Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, decided to invite the Government of India to intervene and wrote a letter to Mr. Buch, the Regional Commissioner of Saurashtra in the Government of India to this effect. The Government of Pakistan protested. The Government of India rejected the protests of Pakistan and accepted the invitation of the Dewan to intervene. Indian troops occupied Junagadh on 9 November 1947. In February 1948, a plebiscite held almost unanimously voted for accession to India.
Kashmir conflict
Kashmir was a Muslim-majority princely state, ruled by a Hindu king, Maharaja Hari Singh. At the time of the partition of India, Maharaja Hari Singh, the ruler of the state, preferred to remain independent and did not want to join either the Dominion of India or the Dominion of Pakistan.
Despite the standstill agreement with Pakistan, teams of Pakistani forces were dispatched into Kashmir. Backed by Pakistani paramilitary forces, Pashtun Mehsud tribals invaded Kashmir in October 1947 under the code name "Operation Gulmarg" to seize Kashmir. The Maharaja requested military assistance from India. The Governor General of India, Lord Mountbatten, required the Maharaja to accede to India before India could send troops. Accordingly, the instrument of accession was signed and acceped during 26–27 October 1947. The accession as well as India's military assistance were supported by Sheikh Abdullah, the state's political leader heading the National Conference party, and Abdullah was appointed as the Head of Emergency Administration of the state the following week.
Pakistan refused to accept the state's accession to India and escalated the conflict, by giving full-fledged support to the rebels and invading tribes. A constant replenishment of Pashtun tribes were organised, and provided arms and ammunition as well as military leadership.
Indian troops managed to evict the invading tribes from the Kashmir Valley but the onset of winter made much of the state impassable. In December 1947, India referred the conflict to the United Nations Security Council, requesting it to prevent the outbreak of a general war between the two fledgling nations. The Security Council passed Resolution 47, asking Pakistan to withdraw all its nationals from Kashmir, asking India to withdraw the bulk of its forces as a second step, and offering to conduct a plebiscite to determine the people's wishes. Though India rejected the resolution, it accepted a suitably amended version of it negotiated by the UN Commission set up for the purpose, as did Pakistan towards the end of 1948. A ceasefire was declared on the 1 January the following year.
However, India and Pakistan could not agree on the suitable steps for demilitarisation to occur as prelude to the plebiscite. Pakistan organised the rebel fighting forces of Azad Kashmir into a full-fledged military of 32 battalions, and India insisted that it should be disbanded as part of the demilitarisation. No agreement was reached and the plebiscite never took place.
Wars, conflicts and disputes
India and Pakistan have fought in numerous armed conflicts since their independence. There are three major wars that have taken place between the two states, namely in 1947, 1965 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. In addition to this was the unofficial Kargil War in 1999 and some border skirmishes. While both nations have held a shaky cease-fire agreement since 2003, they continue to trade fire across the disputed area. Both nations blame the other for breaking the cease-fire agreement, claiming that they are firing in retaliation for attacks. On both sides of the disputed border, an increase in territorial skirmishes that started in late 2016 and escalated into 2018 killed hundreds of civilians and made thousand homeless.
War of 1965
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 started following the culmination of skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 and Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on West Pakistan. The seventeen-day war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armored vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II. Hostilities between the two countries ended after a United Nations-mandated ceasefire was declared following diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and the United States, and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. Most of the battles were fought by opposing infantry and armoured units, with substantial backing from air forces, and naval operations. It ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.
War of 1971
Pakistan, since independence, was geo-politically divided into two major regions, West Pakistan and East Pakistan. East Pakistan was occupied mostly by Bengali people. After a Pakistani military operation and a genocide on Bengalis in December 1971, following a political crisis in East Pakistan, the situation soon spiralled out of control in East Pakistan and India intervened in favour of the rebelling Bengali populace. The conflict, a brief but bloody war, resulted in the independence of East Pakistan. In the war, the Indian Army invaded East Pakistan from three sides, while the Indian Navy used the aircraft carrier to impose a naval blockade of East Pakistan. The war saw the first offensive operations undertaken by the Indian Navy against an enemy port, when Karachi harbour was attacked twice during Operation Trident (1971) and Operation Python. These attacks destroyed a significant portion of Pakistan's naval strength, whereas no Indian ship was lost. The Indian Navy did, however, lose a single ship, when INS Khukri (F149) was torpedoed by a Pakistani submarine. 13 days after the invasion of East Pakistan, 93,000 Pakistani military personnel surrendered to the Indian Army and the Mukti Bahini. After the surrender of Pakistani forces, East Pakistan became the independent nation of Bangladesh.
Kargil War
During the winter months of 1998–99, the Indian army vacated its posts at very high peaks in Kargil sector in Kashmir as it used to do every year. Pakistani Army intruded across the Line of Control and occupied the posts. Indian army discovered this in May 1999 when the snow thawed. This resulted in intense fighting between Indian and Pakistani forces, known as the Kargil conflict. Backed by the Indian Air Force, the Indian Army regained many of the posts that Pakistan had occupied. Pakistan later withdrew from the remaining portion under international pressure and high casualties.
Other territorial claims
The relations are locked in other territorial claims such as the Siachen Glacier and Kori Creek.
Water disputes
The Indus Waters Treaty governs the rivers that flow from India into Pakistan. Water is cited as one possible cause for a conflict between the two nations, but to date issues such as the Nimoo Bazgo Project have been resolved through diplomacy.
Bengal refugee crisis (1949)
In 1949, India recorded close to 1 million Hindu refugees, who flooded into West Bengal and other states from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), owing to communal violence, intimidation and repression from authorities. The plight of the refugees outraged Hindus and Indian nationalists, and the refugee population drained the resources of Indian states, which were unable to absorb them. While not ruling out war, Prime Minister Nehru and Sardar Patel invited Liaquat Ali Khan for talks in Delhi. Although many Indians termed this appeasement, Nehru signed a pact with Liaquat Ali Khan that pledged both nations to the protection of minorities and creation of minority commissions. Khan and Nehru also signed a trade agreement, and committed to resolving bilateral conflicts through peaceful means. Steadily, hundreds of thousands of Hindus returned to East Pakistan, but the thaw in relations did not last long, primarily owing to the Kashmir conflict.
Insurgency in Kashmir (1989–present)
According to some reports published by the Council of Foreign Relations, the Pakistan military and the ISI have provided covert support to terrorist groups active in Kashmir, including the al-Qaeda affiliate Jaish-e-Mohammed. Pakistan has denied any involvement in terrorist activities in Kashmir, arguing that it only provides political and moral support to the secessionist groups who wish to escape Indian rule. Many Kashmiri militant groups also maintain their headquarters in Pakistan-administered Kashmir, which is cited as further proof by the Indian government.
Journalist Stephen Suleyman Schwartz notes that several militant and criminal groups are "backed by senior officers in the Pakistani army, the country's ISI intelligence establishment and other armed bodies of the state."
List of some insurgent attacks
Insurgents attack on Jammu and Kashmir State Assembly: A car bomb exploded near the Jammu and Kashmir State Assembly on 1 October 2001, killing 27 people on an attack that was blamed on Kashmiri separatists. It was one of the most prominent attacks against India apart from on the Indian Parliament in December 2001. The dead bodies of the terrorists and the data recovered from them revealed that Pakistan was solely responsible for the activity.
Qasim Nagar Attack: On 13 July 2003, armed men believed to be a part of the Lashkar-e-Toiba threw hand grenades at the Qasim Nagar market in Srinagar and then fired on civilians standing nearby killing twenty-seven and injuring many more.
Assassination of Abdul Ghani Lone: Abdul Ghani Lone, a prominent All Party Hurriyat Conference leader, was assassinated by an unidentified gunmen during a memorial rally in Srinagar. The assassination resulted in wide-scale demonstrations against the Indian occupied-forces for failing to provide enough security cover for Mr. Lone.
20 July 2005 Srinagar Bombing: A car bomb exploded near an armoured Indian Army vehicle in the famous Church Lane area in Srinagar killing four Indian Army personnel, one civilian and the suicide bomber. Terrorist group Hizbul Mujahideen, claimed responsibility for the attack.
Budshah Chowk attack: A terrorist attack on 29 July 2005 at Srinigar's city centre, Budshah Chowk, killed two and left more than 17 people injured. Most of those injured were media journalists.
Murder of Ghulam Nabi Lone: On 18 October 2005, a suspected man killed Jammu and Kashmir's then education minister Ghulam Nabi Lone. No Terrorist group claimed responsibility for the attack.
2016 Uri attack: A terrorist attack by four heavily armed terrorists on 18 September 2016, near the town of Uri in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, killed 18 and left more than 20 people injured. It was reported as "the deadliest attack on security forces in Kashmir in two decades".
2019 Pulwama attack: On 14 February 2019, a convoy of vehicles carrying security personnel on the Jammu Srinagar National Highway was attacked by a vehicle-bound suicide bomber in Lethpora near Awantipora, Pulwama district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. The attack resulted in the death of 38 Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) personnel and the attacker. The responsibility of the attack was claimed by the Pakistan-based Islamist militant group Jaish-e-Mohammed.
Insurgent activities elsewhere
The attack on the Indian Parliament was by far the most dramatic attack carried out allegedly by Pakistani terrorists. India blamed Pakistan for carrying out the attacks, an allegation which Pakistan strongly denied. The following 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff raised concerns of a possible nuclear confrontation. However, international peace efforts ensured the cooling of tensions between the two nuclear-capable nations.
Apart from this, the most notable was the hijacking of Indian Airlines Flight IC 814 en route New Delhi from Kathmandu, Nepal. The plane was hijacked on 24 December 1999 approximately one hour after takeoff and was taken to Amritsar airport and then to Lahore in Pakistan. After refuelling the plane took off for Dubai and then finally landed in Kandahar, Afghanistan. Under intense media pressure, New Delhi complied with the hijackers' demand and freed Maulana Masood Azhar from its captivity in return for the freedom of the Indian passengers on the flight. The decision, however, cost New Delhi dearly. Maulana, who is believed to be hiding in Karachi, later became the leader of Jaish-e-Mohammed, an organisation which has carried out several terrorist acts against Indian security forces in Kashmir.
On 22 December 2000, a group of terrorists belonging to the Lashkar-e-Toiba stormed the famous Red Fort in New Delhi. The Fort houses an Indian military unit and a high-security interrogation cell used both by the Central Bureau of Investigation and the Indian Army. The terrorists successfully breached the security cover around the Red Fort and opened fire at the Indian military personnel on duty killing two of them on spot. The attack was significant because it was carried out just two days after the declaration of the cease-fire between India and Pakistan.
In 2002, India claimed again that terrorists from Jammu and Kashmir were infiltrating into India, a claim denied by Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf, who claimed that such infiltration had stopped—India's spokesperson for the External Affairs Ministry did away with Pakistan's claim, calling it "terminological inexactitude". Only two months later, two Kashmiri terrorists belonging to Jaish-e-Mohammed raided the Swami Narayan temple complex in Ahmedabad, Gujarat killing 30 people, including 18 women and five children. The attack was carried out on 25 September 2002, just few days after state elections were held in Jammu and Kashmir. Two identical letters found on both the terrorists claimed that the attack was done in retaliation for the deaths of thousands of Muslims during the Gujarat riots.
Two car bombs exploded in south Mumbai on 25 August 2003; one near the Gateway of India and the other at the famous Zaveri Bazaar, killing at least 48 and injuring 150 people. Though no terrorist group claimed responsibility for the attacks, Mumbai Police and RAW suspected Lashkar-e-Toiba's hand in the twin blasts.
In an unsuccessful attempt, six terrorists belonging to Lashkar-e-Toiba, stormed the Ayodhya Ram Janmbhomi complex on 5 July 2005. Before the terrorists could reach the main disputed site, they were shot down by Indian security forces. One Hindu worshipper and two policemen were injured during the incident.
2001 Indian Parliament attack
The 2001 Indian Parliament attack was an attack at the Parliament of India in New Delhi on 13 December 2001, during which fourteen people, including the five men who attacked the building, were killed. The perpetrators were Lashkar-e-Taiba (Let) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) terrorists. The attack led to the deaths of five terrorists, six Delhi Police personnel, two Parliament Security Service personnel and a gardener, in total 14 and to increased tensions between India and Pakistan, resulting in the 2001–02 India–Pakistan standoff.
2001–02 India–Pakistan standoff
The 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff was a military standoff between India and Pakistan that resulted in the massing of troops on either side of the border and along the Line of Control (LoC) in the region of Kashmir. This was the first major military standoff between India and Pakistan since the Kargil War in 1999. The military buildup was initiated by India responding to a 2001 Indian Parliament attack and the 2001 Jammu and Kashmir legislative assembly attack. India claimed that the attacks were carried out by two Pakistan-based terror groups, the Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad, both of whom India has said are backed by Pakistan's ISI a charge that Pakistan denied. Tensions de-escalated following international diplomatic mediation which resulted in the October 2002 withdrawal of Indian and Pakistani troops from the international border.
2007 Samjhauta Express bombings
The 2007 Samjhauta Express bombings was a terrorist attack targeted on the Samjhauta Express train on 18 February. The Samjhauta Express is an international train that runs from New Delhi, India to Lahore, Pakistan, and is one of two trains to cross the India-Pakistan border. At least 68 people were killed, mostly Pakistani civilians but also some Indian security personnel and civilians.
2008 Mumbai attacks
The 2008 Mumbai attacks by ten Pakistani terrorists killed over 173 and wounded 308. The sole surviving gunman Ajmal Kasab who was arrested during the attacks was found to be a Pakistani national. This fact was acknowledged by Pakistani authorities. In May 2010, an Indian court convicted him on four counts of murder, waging war against India, conspiracy and terrorism offences, and sentenced him to death.
India blamed the Lashkar-e-Taiba, a Pakistan-based militant group, for planning and executing the attacks. Indian officials demanded Pakistan extradite suspects for trial. They also said that, given the sophistication of the attacks, the perpetrators "must have had the support of some official agencies in Pakistan". In July 2009 Pakistani authorities confirmed that LeT plotted and financed the attacks from LeT camps in Karachi and Thatta. In November 2009, Pakistani authorities charged seven men they had arrested earlier, of planning and executing the assault.
On 9 April 2015, the foremost ringleader of the attacks, Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi was granted bail against surety bonds of in Pakistan.
The Indian intelligence agency RAW is claimed to be working in cover to malign Pakistan and train & support insurgents for Balochistan conflict.
Weapons of mass destruction
India has a long history of development of nuclear weapons. Origins of India's nuclear program dates back to 1944, when started its nuclear program soon after its independence. In the 1940s–1960s, India's nuclear program slowly matured towards militarisation and expanded the nuclear power infrastructure throughout the country. Decisions on the development of nuclear weapons were made by Indian political leaders after the Chinese invasion and territorial annexation of northern India. In 1967, India's nuclear program was aimed at the development of nuclear weapons, with Indira Gandhi carefully overseeing the development of weapons. In 1971, India gained military and political momentum over Pakistan, after a successful military campaign against Pakistan. Starting preparations for a nuclear test in 1972, India finally exploded its first nuclear bomb in Pokhran test range, codename Smiling Buddha, in 1974. During the 1980s–90s, India began development of space and nuclear rockets, which marked Pakistan's efforts to engage in the space race with India. Pakistan's own program developed space and nuclear missiles and began uncrewed flight tests of its space vehicles in the mid-1990s, which continues in the present.
After the defeat in the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971, Pakistan launched its own nuclear bomb program in 1972, and accelerated its efforts in 1974, after India exploded its first nuclear bomb in Pokhran test range, codename Smiling Buddha. This large-scale nuclear bomb program was directly in response to India's nuclear program. In 1983, Pakistan achieved a major milestone in its efforts after it covertly performed a series of non-fission tests, codename Kirana-I. No official announcements of such cold tests were made by Pakistan government. Over the next several years, Pakistan expanded and modernised nuclear power projects around the country to supply its electricity sector and to provide back-up support and benefit to its national economy. In 1988, a mutual understanding was reached between the two countries in which each pledged not to attack nuclear facilities. Agreements on cultural exchanges and civil aviation were also initiated, also in 1988. Finally, in 1998, India exploded its second nuclear test (see: Pokhran-II) which invited Pakistan to follow the latter's step and performed its own atomic tests (see Chagai-I and Chagai-II).
Terrorism charges
Cross-Border Terrorism
Countries including India and the United States have demanded that Pakistan stop using its territory as a base for terrorist groups following multiple terrorist attacks by Islamic jihadists in Kashmir and other parts of India. The Pakistani government has denied the accusation and accused so-called "state-backed terror" in India.
Fugitives
India has accused some of the most wanted Indian fugitives, such as Dawood Ibrahim, of having a presence in Pakistan. On 11 May 2011, India released a list of 50 "Most Wanted Fugitives" hiding in Pakistan. This was to tactically pressure Pakistan after the killing of Osama bin Laden in his compound in Abbottabad. After two errors in the list received publicity, the Central Bureau of Investigation removed it from their website, pending review. After this incident, the Pakistani interior ministry rejected the list forwarded by India to Islamabad, saying it should first probe if those named in the list were even living in the country.
Talks and other confidence-building measures
After the 1971 war, Pakistan and India made slow progress towards the normalisation of relations. In July 1972, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto met in the Indian hill station of Shimla. They signed the Shimla Agreement, by which India would return all Pakistani personnel (over 90,000) and captured territory in the west, and the two countries would "settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations." Diplomatic and trade relations were also re-established in 1976.
1990s
In 1997, high-level Indo-Pakistan talks resumed after a three-year pause. The Prime Ministers of Pakistan and India met twice and the foreign secretaries conducted three rounds of talks. In June 1997, the foreign secretaries identified eight "outstanding issues" around which continuing talks would be focused. The conflict over the status of Kashmir, (referred by India as Jammu and Kashmir), an issue since Independence, remains the major stumbling block in their dialogue. India maintains that the entire former princely state is an integral part of the Indian union, while Pakistan insists that UN resolutions calling for self-determination of the people of the state/province must be taken into account. It however refuses to abide by the previous part of the resolution, which calls for it to vacate all territories occupied.
In September 1997, the talks broke down over the structure of how to deal with the issues of Kashmir, and peace and security. Pakistan advocated that the issues be treated by separate working groups. India responded that the two issues be taken up along with six others on a simultaneous basis.
Attempts to restart dialogue between the two nations were given a major boost by the February 1999 meeting of both Prime Ministers in Lahore and their signing of three agreements.
A subsequent military coup in Pakistan that overturned the democratically elected Nawaz Sharif government in October of the same year also proved a setback to relations.
2000s
In 2001, a summit was called in Agra; Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf turned up to meet Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee. The talks fell through.
On 20 June 2004, with a new government in place in India, both countries agreed to extend a nuclear testing ban and to set up a hotline between their foreign secretaries aimed at preventing misunderstandings that might lead to a nuclear war.
Baglihar Dam issue was a new issue raised by Pakistan in 2005.
After Dr. Manmohan Singh become prime minister of India in May 2004, the Punjab provincial Government declared it would develop Gah, his place of birth, as a model village in his honour and name a school after him. There is also a village in India named Pakistan, despite occasional pressure over the years to change its name the villagers have resisted. Violent activities in the region declined in 2004. There are two main reasons for this: warming of relations between New Delhi and Islamabad which consequently lead to a ceasefire between the two countries in 2003 and the fencing of the Line of Control being carried out by the Indian Army. Moreover, coming under intense international pressure, Islamabad was compelled to take action against the militants' training camps on its territory. In 2004, the two countries also agreed upon decreasing the number of troops present in the region.
Under pressure, Kashmiri militant organisations made an offer for talks and negotiations with New Delhi, which India welcomed.
India's Border Security Force blamed the Pakistani military for providing cover-fire for the terrorists whenever they infiltrated into Indian territory from Pakistan. Pakistan in turn has also blamed India for providing support to terrorist organisations operating in Pakistan such as the BLA.
In 2005, Pakistan's information minister, Sheikh Rashid, was alleged to have run a terrorist training camp in 1990 in N.W. Frontier, Pakistan. The Pakistani government dismissed the charges against its minister as an attempt to hamper the ongoing peace process between the two neighbours.
Both India and Pakistan have launched several mutual confidence-building measures (CBMs) to ease tensions between the two. These include more high-level talks, easing visa restrictions, and restarting of cricket matches between the two. The new bus service between Srinagar and Muzaffarabad has also helped bring the two sides closer. Pakistan and India have also decided to co-operate on economic fronts.
Some improvements in the relations are seen with the re-opening of a series of transportation networks near the India–Pakistan border, with the most important being bus routes and railway lines.
A major clash between Indian security forces and militants occurred when a group of insurgents tried to infiltrate into Kashmir from Pakistan in July 2005. The same month also saw a Kashmiri militant attack on Ayodhya and Srinagar. However, these developments had little impact on the peace process.
An Indian man held in Pakistani prisons since 1975 as an accused spy walked across the border to freedom 3 March 2008, an unconditional release that Pakistan said was done to improve relations between the two countries.
In 2006, a "Friends Without Borders" scheme began with the help of two British tourists. The idea was that Indian and Pakistani children would make pen pals and write friendly letters to each other. The idea was so successful in both countries that the organisation found it "impossible to keep up". The World's Largest Love Letter was recently sent from India to Pakistan.
2010s
In December 2010, several Pakistani newspapers published stories about India's leadership and relationship with militants in Pakistan that the papers claimed were found in the United States diplomatic cables leak. A British newspaper, The Guardian, which had the Wikileaks cables in its possession reviewed the cables and concluded that the Pakistani claims were "not accurate" and that "WikiLeaks [was] being exploited for propaganda purposes."
On 10 February 2011, India agreed to resume talks with Pakistan which were suspended after 26/11 Mumbai Attacks. India had put on hold all the diplomatic relations saying it will only continue if Pakistan will act against the accused of Mumbai attacks.
On 13 April 2012, following a thaw in relations whereby India gained MFN status in the country, India announced the removal of restrictions on FDI investment from Pakistan to India.
The Foreign Minister of Pakistan on 11 July 2012, stated in Phnom Penh that her country is willing to resolve some of the disputes like, Sir Creek and Siachen on the basis of agreements reached in past.
On 7 September 2012, Indian External Affairs Minister would pay 3-day visit to Pakistan to review the progress of bilateral dialogue with his Pakistani counterpart.
In August 2019, following the approval of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Bill in the Indian Parliament, which revoked the special status of Jammu and Kashmir, further tension was brought between the two countries, with Pakistan downgrading their diplomatic ties, closing its airspace, and suspending bilateral trade with India.
The Kartarpur Corridor was opened in November 2019.
2020s
On 25 February 2021, India and Pakistan issued a joint statement indicating that both sides agreed to stop firing at each other at the Line of Control (LOC, disputed de facto border) in Kashmir.
Despite this, the Indian government has rejected Pakistan's call for talks, stating that "Peace, prosperity can't coexist with terrorism".
Response to natural calamities
2001 Gujarat earthquake in India
In response to the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, Pakistani President Pervez Mushrraf sent a plane load of relief supplies from Islamabad to Ahmedabad. They carried 200 tents and more than 2,000 blankets. Furthermore, the President called Indian PM to express his 'sympathy' over the loss from the earthquake.
2005 earthquake in Pakistan
India offered aid to Pakistan in response to the 2005 Kashmir earthquake on 8 October. Indian and Pakistani High Commissioners consulted with one another regarding cooperation in relief work. India sent 25 tonnes of relief material to Pakistan including food, blankets and medicine. Large Indian companies such as Infosys offered aid up to $226,000. On 12 October, an Ilyushin-76 cargo plane ferried across seven truckloads (about 82 tons) of army medicines, 15,000 blankets and 50 tents and returned to New Delhi. A senior air force official also stated that they had been asked by the Indian government to be ready to fly out another similar consignment.
On 14 October, India dispatched the second consignment of relief material to Pakistan, by train through the Wagah Border. The consignment included 5,000 blankets, 370 tents, 5 tons of plastic sheets and 12 tons of medicine. A third consignment of medicine and relief material was also sent shortly afterwards by train. India also pledged $25 million as aid to Pakistan. India opened the first of three points at Chakan Da Bagh, in Poonch, on the Line of Control between India and Pakistan for earthquake relief work.
2022 Pakistan floods
Amid the 2022 Pakistan floods, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi expressed his "heartfelt condolences to families of the victims". As of 30 August, it has been reported that the government of India is considering sending relief aid to Pakistan.
Social relations
Cultural links
India and Pakistan, particularly Northern India and Eastern Pakistan, to some degree have similar cultures, cuisines and languages due to common Indo-Aryan heritage which span through the two countries and throughout much of the northern subcontinent which also underpin the historical ties between the two. Pakistani singers, musicians, comedians and entertainers have enjoyed widespread popularity in India, with many achieving overnight fame in the Indian film industry Bollywood. Likewise, Indian music and film are very popular in Pakistan. Being located in the northernmost region of South Asia, Pakistan's culture is somewhat similar to that of North India, especially the northwest.
The Punjab region was split into Punjab, Pakistan and Punjab, India following the independence and partition of the two countries in 1947. The Punjabi people are today the largest ethnic group in Pakistan and also an important ethnic group of northern India. The founder of Sikhism was born in the modern-day Pakistani Punjab province, in the city of Nankana Sahib. Each year, millions of Indian Sikh pilgrims cross over to visit holy Sikh sites in Nankana Sahib. The Sindhi people are the native ethnic group of the Pakistani province of Sindh. Many Hindu Sindhis migrated to India in 1947, making the country home to a sizeable Sindhi community. In addition, the millions of Muslims who migrated from India to the newly created Pakistan during independence came to be known as the Muhajir people; they are settled predominantly in Karachi and still maintain family links in India.
Relations between Pakistan and India have also resumed through platforms such as media and communications. Aman ki Asha is a joint venture and campaign between The Times of India and the Jang Group calling for mutual peace and development of diplomatic and cultural relations.
Geographic links
The India–Pakistan border is the official international boundary that demarcates the Indian states of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat from the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh. The Wagah border is the only road crossing between India and Pakistan and lies on the famous Grand Trunk Road, connecting Lahore, Pakistan with Amritsar, India. Each evening, the Wagah-Attari border ceremony takes place, in which the flags are lowered and guards on both sides make a pompous military display and exchange handshakes.
Linguistic ties
Hindustani is the lingua franca of North India and Pakistan, as well as the official language of both countries, under the standard registers Hindi and Urdu, respectively. Standard Urdu is mutually intelligible with standard Hindi. Hindustani is also widely understood and used as a lingua franca amongst South Asians including Sri Lankans, Nepalis and Bangladeshis, and is the language of Bollywood, which is enjoyed throughout much of the subcontinent.
Apart from Hindustani, India and Pakistan also share a distribution of the Punjabi language (written in the Gurmukhi script in Indian Punjab, and the Shahmukhi script in Pakistani Punjab), Kashmiri language and Sindhi language, mainly due to population exchange. These languages belong to a common Indo-Aryan family that are spoken in countries across the subcontinent.
Matrimonial ties
Some Indian and Pakistani people marry across the border at instances. Many Indians and Pakistanis in the diaspora, especially in the United States, intermarry, as there are large cultural similarities between the two countries respectively.
In April 2010 a high-profile Pakistani cricketer, Shoaib Malik married the Indian tennis star Sania Mirza. The wedding received much media attention and was said to transfix both India and Pakistan.
Sporting ties
Cricket and hockey matches between the two (as well as other sports to a lesser degree such as those of the SAARC games) have often been political in nature. During the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan General Zia-ul Haq travelled to India for a bout of "cricket diplomacy" to keep India from supporting the Soviets by opening another front. Pervez Musharaff also tried to do the same more than a decade later but to no avail.
From 2012, India stopped playing bilateral cricket series against Pakistan. Now it only plays against them in ICC and Asian Cricket Council events such as the Cricket World Cup, T20 World Cup, Asia Cup and ICC Champions Trophy. In 2017, the then Sports Minister of India, Vijay Goel opposed further bilateral series due to Pakistan's alleged sponsoring of terrorism, saying that "there cannot be sports relations between the two countries [while] there is terrorism from the Pakistani side." The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) also opposed any further series without the permission of the Indian government. The BCCI also does not allow Pakistani players to play in the Indian Premier League.
In tennis, Rohan Bopanna of India and Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi of Pakistan have formed a successful duo and have been dubbed as the "Indo-Pak Express".
Diasporic relations
The large size of the Indian diaspora and Pakistani diaspora in many different countries throughout the world has created strong diasporic relations.
British Indians and British Pakistanis, the largest and second-largest ethnic minorities living in the United Kingdom respectively, are said to have friendly relations with one another. It is quite common for a "Little India" and a "Little Pakistan" to co-exist in South Asian ethnic enclaves in overseas countries. There are various cities such as Birmingham, Blackburn and Manchester where British Indians and British Pakistanis live alongside each other in peace and harmony. Both Indians and Pakistanis living in the UK fit under the category of British Asian. The UK is also home to the Pakistan & India friendship forum. In the United States, Indians and Pakistanis are classified under the South Asian American category and share many cultural traits. In the US, intermarriage between Indians and Pakistanis is common.
The British MEP Sajjad Karim is of Pakistani origin. He is a member of the European Parliament Friends of India Group, Karim was also responsible for opening up Europe to free trade with India. He narrowly escaped the Mumbai attacks at Hotel Taj in November 2008. Despite the atrocity, Karim does not wish the remaining killer Ajmal Kasab to be sentenced to death. He said: "I believe he had a fair and transparent trial and I support the guilty verdict. But I am not a supporter of capital punishment. I believe he should be given a life sentence, but that life should mean life."
Trade links
The size of India-Pakistan trade is very small relative to the size of their economies and the fact that they share a contiguous border. Trade across direct routes has been curtailed formally, so the bulk of India-Pakistan trade is routed through Dubai.
See also
Foreign relations
Foreign relations of India
Foreign relations of Pakistan
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
History
History of India
History of the Republic of India
History of Pakistan
History of the Kashmir conflict
Human rights
Human rights in India
Human rights in Pakistan
Persecution of Hindus
Persecution of Muslims
Cultural issues
Hindi-Urdu controversy
Anti-Pakistan sentiment
Indophobia
Wars and skirmishes
Indo-Pakistani Wars
India–Pakistan border skirmishes
Sports
India-Pakistan cricket rivalry
India-Pakistan field hockey rivalry
References
Bibliography
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Further reading
Budania, Rajpal, "India's Pakistan Policy: A Study in the Context of Security," South Asian Studies, Vol.30:2,1995.
Burke, S.M.,Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota, 1974.
Brines Russel, The Indo-Pakistan Conflict, London, Pall Mall Press, 1968.
Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015) excerpt pp 370–83.
Thomas Powers, "The War without End" (review of Steve Coll, Directorate S: The CIA and America's Secret Wars in Afghanistan and Pakistan, Penguin, 2018, 757 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 7 (19 April 2018), pp. 42–43. "Forty-plus years after our failure in Vietnam, the United States is again fighting an endless war in a faraway place against a culture and a people we don't understand for political reasons that make sense in Washington, but nowhere else." (p. 43.) Pakistan's support of Afghanistan's Taliban guerrillas, including provision of sanctuary, relates to Pakistan's hope of acquiring India's Kashmir. (p. 42.)
External links
Aman ki Asha - A Peace initiative by Jang Group, Pakistan & Times of India
India-Pakistan Trade
Building a bridge of friendship
A Long Distance Relationship
Nuclear Proliferation in India and Pakistan from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Statement Re Indo-Pakistan Border Conference
Pakistan
Bilateral relations of Pakistan |
4500837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20Portugal | Religion in Portugal | Christianity is the predominant religion in Portugal, with Catholicism being its largest denomination.
Portugal is a secular state and its constitution guarantees freedom of religion.
Overview
According to the 2021 Census, 80.2% of the population of Portugal is Catholic, though in 2001 only about 19% attended Mass and took the sacraments regularly, while a larger number wish to have their children baptized, be married in a church, and receive Last Rites.
Portugal is one of the most religious countries in Europe, most Portuguese believe with certainty in the existence of God and religion is important in their lives. According to the Pew Research Center Portugal is the 9th most religious country out of 34 European countries, 40% of Portuguese Catholics pray daily, and 36% say religion is very important in their lives.
Although Church and State are formally separated since 1911, the Roman Catholic precepts continue to have a significant bearing in Portuguese society and culture. The educational and health care systems were for a long time the Church's preserve, and in many cases, whenever a building, bridge, or highway was opened, it received a blessing from the clergy. The Catholic Church in Portugal is also afforded certain rights and privileges in the country's law.
Demographics
According to the 2021 Census, 80.2% of the population aged 15 and older is Catholic, a figure very similar to that recorded in the 2011 Census, when 81.0% selected Catholicism as their religion. About 5% adhere to other forms of Christianity, with 2.1% being Protestant, 0.7% Jehovah's Witnesses, 0.7% Orthodox, and 1% members of other Christian churches. Just over 1% indicated belonging to non-Christian religions, with 0.4% being Muslim, 0.2% Hindu, 0.2% Buddhist and 0.3% members of other religions. 14% indicated not having any religion.
Census data show some regional differences. Catholicism is strongest in the Azores (91.6%), Madeira (90.9%) and the North region (88.1%). On the other hand, the Algarve (65.9%) and the Lisbon region (67.5%) have the lowest percentages. It is also in the regions of Lisbon and the Algarve that the highest proportions of members of other Christian churches, of other religions and of people without religious affiliation are found. Members of other Christian religions make up more than 10% of the Algarve's population. In the Lisbon metropolitan area and in the Algarve, more than 2% of the population follow non-Christian religions and the percentage of the non-religious population varies between around 6% in the Azores and Madeira and 23.1% in Lisbon.
In 124 of the 308 municipalities, over 90% of the population indicated being Catholic in the 2021 Census. The municipalities with the highest percentages are Mesão Frio (97.0%), Ribeira de Pena (96.5%), Resende (96.4%) and Baião (96.3%) in the North region, and Vila Franca do Campo (96.3%) in the Azores. The least Catholic municipalities are located in the Algarve and on the Alentejo coast with Lagos (55.2%), Vila do Bispo (56.1%), Sines (56.2%), Aljezur (56.3%) and Odemira (56.7%) with the lowest percentages . The municipalities with the highest proportions of members of other Christian denominations are Lagos (14.3%), Albufeira (13.2%), Portimão (12.7%), Loulé (11.3%) and São Brás de Alportel (11.0%), all in the Algarve. The municipalities with the highest proportion of followers of non-Christian religions are Odemira (16.5%), Albufeira (4.1%), Lisbon (3.9%), Odivelas (3.4%) and Amadora (3.2%), in the Alentejo, Algarve and Lisbon regions. With regard to the non-religious population, the highest percentages are registered in parts of the Alentejo and the Algarve with Sines (35.5%), Vila do Bispo (33.7%), Grândola (31.7%), Aljezur (31.5%) and Aljustrel (31.4%) recording the highest percentages. In 15 municipalities more than a quarter of the population is not religious. On the other hand, in 74 municipalities this percentage is less than 5%.
There is a very considerable difference in terms of religious composition between the inhabitants with Portuguese nationality and the foreign population residing in the country, which makes up 5.2% of the total population. 82.6% of residents of Portuguese nationality are Catholic, while only 36.4% of foreigners identify with the Catholic Church. Just over 3% of Portuguese nationals belong to other Christian denominations, a percentage that approaches 30% among foreign residents. Only 0.6% of residents of Portuguese nationality reported belonging to non-Christian religions, with this percentage being 12.3% among foreigners. As for the population without religious affiliation, the percentage is 13.7% among residents born in Portugal and 21.5% among residents born abroad.
History
As in most provinces of the Roman Empire, the religious beliefs and deities of the Pre-Roman populations mingled and coexisted with Roman mythology. In the Portuguese case, those Pre-Roman religions were basically Proto-Celtic or Celtic, chief amongst them that of the Lusitanians (see Lusitanian mythology).
Jewish populations have existed in the area, going back to the Roman era or even before that, and are directly related to Sephardi history.
The Roman Provinces of Lusitania (comprising most of Portugal south of the Douro river) and of Gallaecia (north of the Douro river) were first Christianized while part of the Roman Empire. During this period, Bracara Augusta (the modern city of Braga) became one of the most important episcopal centres, alongside Santiago de Compostela. Christianity was solidified when the Suevi and the Visigoths—Germanic tribes already Christianized—came into the Iberian Peninsula in the fifth century.
Early Visigoths followed the Arian heresy, but they joined Roman mainstream after the eighth century. The city of Braga played an important role in the religious history of the period, namely during the renunciation of the Arian and Priscillianist heresies. Two synods were held in Braga in the sixth century, marking the origin of its ecclesiastical significance. The Archbishops of Braga retains the title of Primate of Portugal, and long claimed supremacy over the whole of the churches of Hispania.
Braga had an important role in the Christianization of the whole Iberian Peninsula. The first known bishop of Braga, Paternus, lived during the end of the fourth century, although Saint Ovidius (d. 135 AD) is sometimes considered one of the first bishops of this city. In the early fifth century, Paulus Orosius, a friend of Saint Augustine, born in Braga, wrote several theological and historical works of great importance. In the sixth century, another influential figure was Saint Martin of Braga, a bishop of Braga who converted the Suevi from Arianism to Catholicism. He also founded an important monastery near Braga, in Dumio (Dume), now an archaeological site. Several Ecumenical Councils were held in Braga during this period, a sign of the religious importance of the city.
Christianity saw its importance diminish in southern Portugal during Moorish rule in the Al-Andalus period, beginning in 711 with the Umayyad conquest of Hispania, even if most of the population still followed Christianity according to the Mozarabic Rite. In the north, however, Christianity provided the cultural and religious cement that helped hold Portugal together as a distinctive entity, at least since the reconquest of Porto in 868 by Vímara Peres, the founder of the First County of Portugal. By the same token, Christianity was the rallying cry of those who rose up against the Moors and sought to drive them out. Hence, Christianity and the Catholic Church pre-dated the establishment of the Portuguese nation, a point that shaped relations between the two.
Under Afonso Henriques (r. 1139–1185), the first king of Portugal and the founder of the Portuguese Kingdom, church and state were unified into a lasting and mutually beneficial partnership. To secure papal recognition of his country, Afonso declared Portugal a vassal state of the Pope, and was as such recognized in 1179 through the papal bull Manifestis Probatum. The King found the Church to be a useful ally as he drove the Moors towards the South. For its support of his policies, Afonso richly rewarded the Church by granting it vast lands and privileges in the conquered territories. The Church became the country's largest landowner, and its power came to be equal to that of the nobility, the military orders, and even, for a time, the Crown. But Afonso also asserted his supremacy over the Church, a supremacy that — with various ups and downs — was maintained.
Although relations between the Portuguese State and the Catholic Church were generally amiable and stable, their relative power fluctuated. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the Church enjoyed both riches and power stemming from its role in the reconquest and its close identification with early Portuguese nationalism. For a time, the Church's position vis-à-vis the State diminished until the growth of the Portuguese Overseas Empire made its missionaries important agents of colonization (see, for example, Kingdom of Kongo).
Until the 15th century, some Jews occupied prominent places in Portuguese political and economical life. For example, Isaac Abrabanel was the treasurer of King Afonso V of Portugal. Many also had an active role in the Portuguese culture, and they kept their reputation of diplomats and merchants. By this time, Lisbon and Évora were home to important Jewish communities.
In 1497, reflecting events that had occurred five years earlier in Spain, Portugal expelled the Jews and the few remaining Moors — or forced them to convert. In 1536, the Pope gave King João III (r. 1521–1557) permission to establish the Portuguese Inquisition to enforce the purity of the faith. Earlier, the country had been rather tolerant, but now orthodoxy and intolerance reigned. The Jesuit Order was placed in charge of all education.
In the 18th century, anti-Church sentiment became strong. The Marquês de Pombal (r. 1750–1777) expelled the Jesuits in 1759, broke relations with the Holy See in Rome, and brought education under the State's control. Pombal was eventually removed from his office, and many of his reforms were undone, but anti-clericalism remained a force in Portuguese society. In 1821, the Inquisition was abolished, religious orders were banned, and the Church lost much of its property. Relations between Church and State improved in the second half of the 19th century, but a new wave of anti-clericalism emerged with the establishment of the Portuguese First Republic in 1910. Not only were Church properties seized and education secularized, but the Republic went so far as to ban the ringing of church bells, the wearing of clerical garb on the streets, and the holding of many popular religious festivals. With the outbreak of the First World War the Portuguese First Republic viewed it as a unique opportunity to achieve a number of goals: putting an end to the twin threats of a Spanish invasion of Portugal and of foreign occupation of the colonies and, at the internal level, creating a national consensus around the regime. These domestic objectives were not met and the armed forces, whose political awareness had grown during the war, and whose leaders had not forgiven the regime for sending them to a war they did not want to fight, seemed to represent, to conservative forces, the last bastion of "order" against the "chaos" that was taking over the country. By the mid-1920s the domestic and international scenes began to favour an authoritarian solution, wherein a strengthened executive might restore political and social order.
Estado Novo
Under the Estado Novo, the corporatist totalitarian regime of António de Oliveira Salazar (r. 1932–1968), the Church experienced a revival. Salazar was himself deeply religious and infused with Catholic precepts. Before studying law, he had been a seminarian; his roommate at the University of Coimbra, Manuel Gonçalves Cerejeira, later became Cardinal Patriarch of Lisbon. In addition, Salazar's corporatist principles and his constitution and labour statute of 1933 were infused with Roman Catholic precepts from the papal encyclicals Rerum novarum (1891) and Quadragesimo anno (1931).
Salazar's state claimed to base itself on the principles of traditional Roman Catholicism, with an emphasis on order, discipline, and authority. Class relations were supposedly based on harmony rather than the Marxist concept of conflict. The family, the parish, and Christianity were said to be the foundations of the State. Salazar went considerably beyond these principles, however, and established a full-fledged dictatorship. His corporate government, in the opinion of some, contained about equal blends of Roman Catholic principles and Benito Mussolini-like fascism.
In 1940, a Concordat governing Church–State relations was signed between Portugal and the Vatican. The Church was to be "separate" from the State but to enjoy a special position. The Concordat of 1940 reversed many of the anticlerical policies adopted during the First Republic, and the Catholic Church was given exclusive control over religious instruction in the public schools. Only Catholic clergy could serve as chaplains in the armed forces. Divorce, which had been legalized by the republic, was made illegal for those married in a Church service, but remained legal with respect to civil marriage. The Church was given formal "juridical personality," enabling it to incorporate and hold property.
Under Salazar, critics believe that Church and State in Portugal maintained a comfortable and mutually reinforcing relationship. While assisting the Church in many ways, however, Salazar insisted that it stay out of politics — unless it praised his regime. Dissent and criticism were forbidden; those clergy who stepped out of line — an occasional parish priest and once the Bishop of Porto — were silenced or forced to leave the country. The rest of the Roman Catholic Church hierarchy, led by Cardinal Manuel Gonçalves Cerejeira, a great friend and supporter of Salazar, remained silent on the issue.
Changes after the Revolution of 1974
In the Portuguese Constitution of 1976, after the Carnation Revolution of 1974 and the transition to democracy, Church and State were again formally separated. The Church continues to have a special place in Portugal, but for the most part, it has been disestablished. Other religions are now free to organize and practice their beliefs.
In addition to constitutional changes, Portugal became a more secular society. The practice of religion has since declined. The number of men becoming priests fell, as did charitable offerings and attendance at Mass. By the early 1990s, most Portuguese still considered themselves Roman Catholic in a vaguely cultural and religious sense, but only about one-third of them attended Mass regularly. Indifference to religion was most likely among men and young people. Regular churchgoers were most often women and young children.
The Church no longer had its former social influence. During the 19th century and on into the Salazar regime, the Church was one of the most powerful institutions in the country — along with the Army and the social and economic elite. In fact, military, economic, governmental, and religious influences in Portugal were closely intertwined and interrelated, often literally so. Traditionally, the first son of elite families inherited land, the second went into the army, and the third became a bishop. By the early 1990s, however, the Roman Catholic Church no longer enjoyed this pre-eminence but had fallen to seventh or eighth place in power among Portuguese interest groups.
By the 1980s, the Church seldom tried to influence how Portuguese voted, knowing such attempts would probably backfire. During the height of the revolutionary turmoil in the mid-1970s, the Church urged its communicants to vote for centrist and conservative candidates and to repudiate communists, especially in northern Portugal, but after that the Church refrained from such an overt political role.
The Church was not able to prevent the enactment of the constitution of 1976, which separated Church and State, nor could it block legislation liberalizing divorce or abortion, issues it regarded as moral and within the realm of its responsibility.
Religious practices
The practice of religion in Portugal has shown striking regional differences. Even in the early 1990s, 60 to 70 percent of the population in the traditionally Catholic North regularly attended religious services, compared with 10 to 15 percent in the historically anti-clerical South. In the Greater Lisbon Area, about 30 percent were regular churchgoers.
The traditional importance of Catholicism in the lives of the Portuguese is evident in the physical organization of almost every village in Portugal. The village churches are usually in prominent locations, either on the main square or on a hilltop overlooking the village. Many of the churches and chapels were built in the 16th century at the height of Portugal's colonial expansion, and were often decorated with wood and gold leaf from the conquests. In recent decades, however, they were often in disrepair, for there were not enough priests to tend them. Many were used only rarely to honor the patron saints of the villages.
Much of the country's religious life has traditionally taken place outside the formal structure and official domain of the Roman Catholic Church. This is especially true in rural areas where the celebration of saints' days and religious festivals is popular. The most famous religious event in Portugal has been the claimed apparition of the Virgin Mary to three children in Cova da Iria, in the village of Fátima, in 1917. Two of the children, Jacinta and Francisco Marto, were beatified in 2000 and canonized saints in 2017 by Pope Francis. The apparition of the Heavenly Mother in this small village in the district of Santarém has led hundreds of thousands of pilgrims to visit the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima each year, many in the hope of receiving healing.
Women tended to practice their religion more than men did, as evidenced by church attendance. The image of the Virgin, as well as that of Christ, were commonly displayed, even in labour union offices or on signs in demonstrations.
Other aspects of Portuguese folk religion were not approved by the official Church, including witchcraft, magic, and sorcery. Formal religion, folk beliefs, and superstition were frequently jumbled together. Particularly in the isolated villages of northern Portugal, belief in witches, witchcraft, and evil spirits was widespread. Some persons believed in the concept of the "evil eye" and feared those who supposedly possessed it. Again, women were the main practitioners. Almost every village had its "seers," practitioners of magic, and "healers." Evil spirits and even werewolves were thought to inhabit the mountains and byways, and it was believed that people must be protected from them. Children and young women were thought to be particularly vulnerable to the "evil eye."
As people became better educated and moved to the city, they lost some of these folk beliefs. But in the city and among educated persons alike, superstition could still be found, even in the early 1990s. Sorcerers, palm readers, and readers of cards had shops, particularly in poorer neighborhoods, but not exclusively so. In short, a strong undercurrent of superstition still remained in Portugal. The formal Church disapproved of superstitious practices but was powerless to do much about them.
In contrast to that of Spain, Roman Catholicism in Portugal was softer and less intense. The widespread use of folk practices and the humanization of religion made for a loving though remote God, in contrast to the harshness of the Spanish vision. In Portugal, unlike Spain, God and his saints were imagined as forgiving and serene. In Spain, the expressions depicted on the faces of saints and martyrs were painful and anguished; in Portugal they were complacent, calm, and pleasant.
Other Christians
Protestantism
For most of Portugal's history, few non–Roman Catholics lived in the country; those who did could not practice their religion freely. They had been kept out of the country for three centuries by the Inquisition. However, the British began settling in Portugal in the nineteenth century brought other Christian denominations with them. Most belonged to the Anglican Church of England, but others were Protestant Methodists, Congregationalists, Baptists, and Presbyterians. The establishment of a constitutional monarchy in 1834 granted limited religious toleration, and consequently led to the opening of an Anglican chapel (St. George's Church, Lisbon). A second chapel was opened in 1868. The Anglican mission coincided with the growing influence of the Old Catholic movement in Portugal. Congregations were created from Roman Catholic priests and laypeople who refused to accept the dogmas of the infallibility and universal ordinary jurisdiction of the Pope, as defined by the First Vatican Council in 1870. The Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church was formed as a result in 1880 (and has been a member church of the Anglican Communion since 1980); however, laws still restricted the activities of non–Roman Catholics. St Andrew's Church, Lisbon - a congregation of the Church of Scotland - was built in 1899.
The oldest Portuguese-speaking Protestant denomination is the Igreja Evangélica Presbiteriana de Portugal (Evangelical Presbyterian Church of Portugal), tracing its origins back to the work of a Scottish missionary on Madeira in the early 19th century.
By the early 1990s, only some 50,000 to 60,000 Anglicans and Protestants lived in Portugal, less than 1 percent of the total population. The 1950s and 1960s saw the arrival of Pentecostals, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah's Witnesses, all of whom increased in numbers more rapidly than the earlier arrivals did. All groups, however, were hampered by prohibitions and restrictions against the free exercise of their religions, especially missionary activities.
These restrictions were lifted after the Revolution of 1974. The constitution of 1976 guarantees all religions the right to practice their faith. Non–Roman Catholic groups came to be recognized as legal entities with the right to assemble. Portuguese who were both not Roman Catholics and were conscientious objectors had the right to apply for alternative military service. The Roman Catholic Church, however, still sought to place barriers in the way of missionary activities.
Eastern Orthodoxy
The Eastern Orthodox Church is present in small numbers in Portugal, mostly through diaspora from Eastern European countries with a native Eastern Orthodox population. Some are organised through local jurisdictions of their mother churches, most often headed from Spain or other neighbouring countries. These include:
The , part of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and based in Madrid. It was established in 2003 from part of the Greek Orthodox Metropolis of France.
The Serbian Orthodox Eparchy of Western Europe, based in Paris, has one missionary parish in Portugal.
The Romanian Orthodox Metropolis of Western and Southern Europe, based in Paris, has an auxiliary bishop in Spain and Portugal.
The Eparchy of Central and Western Europe of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church (with seat in Berlin), has one parish in Portugal.
The of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, headed from Geneva by Archbishop Michael (Donskoff), also has one parish in Portugal.
The Spanish-Portuguese Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, based in Madrid, claims 11 parishes in Portugal. It was established in December 2018 following the rupture of relations between Moscow and Constantinople. The latter had previously cared for Russian parishes through the Archdiocese of Russian Orthodox churches in Western Europe, based in Paris.
There is also a non-canonical jurisdiction, the Lusitanian Catholic Orthodox Church, which defines itself as both Independent Catholic and Eastern Orthodox. It does not have any recognition from the canonical jurisdictions above.
Other religions
Baháʼí Faith
The first visitor of the Baháʼí Faith to Portugal was in 1926. Its first Baháʼí Local Spiritual Assembly was elected in Lisbon in 1946. In 1962 the Portuguese Baháʼís elected their first National Spiritual Assembly. In 1963 there were nine assemblies. The population of the Baháʼí community Ain Portugal was estimated at some 2,100 members in 2010 according to the Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on World Christian Encyclopedia).
Sikhism
Many Sikhs started to emigrate to Portugal since the 1990's from Punjab, India for work in the agricultural, tourism and manufacturing sector. Many Sikhs have opened up Indian restaurants around Portugal. The Indian Embassy of Portugal has estimated there to be 35,000 Sikhs. Many of whom are currently unrecognised in the official census data due to lack of residency documentation.
Most Sikhs can be found in Lisbon, Porto and Albufeira where there are Gurdwaras (Sikh Place of Worship).
Hinduism
From the mid-1990s on there was an influx of Hindus of Nepalese origin in Portugal as a result of labour migration originated from that South Asian country. It is also possible to find in the Metropolitan Areas of all the regions several Hare Krishna communities, consisting mainly of non-Portuguese Europeans, Brazilians, US citizens and a few Portuguese. Besides this, there is a Hindu community of approximately 9,000 persons, which largely traces its origins to Indians who emigrated from the former Portuguese colonies of Lusophone Africa, particularly from Mozambique, and from the former colony of Goa and other possessions in Portuguese India.
Hindus in Portugal are, according to the Indian Embassy in Lisbon, mainly Gujaratis (Gujarati is taught at the Hindu Community Cultural Centre in Lisbon), Punjabis and Goans. The majority of the Hindus live in the Lisbon and Porto Metropolitan areas.
Judaism
The Jewish community in Portugal numbered between 500 and 1,000 as of the early 1990s. The community was concentrated in Lisbon, and many of its members were foreigners. The persecution of Portuguese Jewry had been so intense that until the twentieth century Portugal had no synagogue or even regular Jewish religious services (the Lisbon Synagogue was founded in 1904). The few Jewish Portuguese were hence isolated from the main currents of Judaism. Their community began to revive when larger numbers of foreign Jews (embassy personnel, business people, and technicians) began coming to Portugal in the 1960s and 1970s. In northern Portugal, there are a few villages where Marranos, descendants of Jews who converted to Christianity to avoid persecution and whose religion was a mixture of Judaism and Christianity, still exist (see Belmonte Jews) numbering several thousand.
Islam
Portugal's Muslim community consists of a small number of immigrants from Portugal's former colonies in Africa, namely Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau, and small numbers of recent immigrant workers from Northern Africa, mainly Morocco. In the 1991 census the number of Muslims in Portugal was under 10,000. The Muslim population in 2019 is approximately 65,000 people. The main Mosque in Portugal is the Lisbon Mosque. The majority of Muslims in the country are Sunnis, followed by approximately 5,000 to 7,000 Nizari Ismaili Shia Muslims. There is also a limited number of Ahmadiyya Muslims.
In 2015, Lisbon was chosen to be the global seat of the Nizari Shi'a community; the second largest Shi'a denomination in the world. Their spiritual leader, the Aga Khan IV, purchased the historical Mendonça Palace to use as its headquarters, as well as the headquarters of his foundation.
Buddhism
There is also a small population of between 50,000 and 80,000 Buddhists and Buddhist sympathisers (respectively) in Portugal. More than any other non-Christian denomination, and more than any other when it comes to sympathizers. A new Buddhist Vihara called Sumedharama, has been founded in July 2010 and located at north west of Lisbon, near Ericeira. The Bacalhôa Buddha Eden Oriental Park, near Bombarral, is also a recent Buddhist inspired garden, although not strictly a worshipping place; It was built as a protest to the destruction of the Bamyan Buddhas in Afghanistan in the early 2000s.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
There is a small population of Latter Day saints living in Portugal. The Church reports 45,576 members and 67 congregations. The Church also completed and dedicated its first temple in Portugal in 2019.
Irreligion
There are between 420,960 and 947,160 (4 to 9% of total population) atheist, agnostic, and irreligious people, according to other sources 6.5% of the population.
According to the 2021 Census, there were 1,237,130 (14.09%) people who specifically stated they were without religion.
Freedom of religion
In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.
See also
Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery
Cult of the Holy Spirit
Dissolution of the monasteries in Portugal
Fifth Empire
History of Roman Catholicism in Portugal
Sebastianism
Hinduism in Portugal
Protestantism in Portugal
References |
4500841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostasy%20in%20Christianity | Apostasy in Christianity | Apostasy in Christianity is the repudiation of Christ and the central teachings of Christianity by someone who formerly was a Christian (Christ-follower). The term apostasy comes from the Greek word apostasia ("ἀποστασία") meaning "rebellion", "state of apostasy", "abandonment", or "defection". It has been described as "a willful falling away from, or rebellion against, Christianity. Apostasy is the rejection of Christ by one who has been a Christian. …" "Apostasy is a theological category describing those who have voluntarily and consciously abandoned their faith in the God of the covenant, who manifests himself most completely in Jesus Christ." "Apostasy is the antonym of conversion; it is deconversion."
B. J. Oropeza, who has written one of the most exhaustive studies on the phenomenon of apostasy in the New Testament (3 Volumes, 793 pages), "uncovered several factors that result in apostasy." Some of these factors overlap, and some Christian communities were "susceptible to more than one of these." The first major factor in a believer committing apostasy (i.e., becoming an unbeliever) is "unbelief." Other factors potentially leading to apostasy include: "persecution," "general suffering and hardship," "false teachings and factions," "malaise," "indifference and negligence towards the things of God" (specifically, "the command to love one's neighbors"), and engaging in sinful acts ("vice-doing") or assimilating to the ungodly attitudes and actions reflected in a non-Christian culture.
Biblical teaching
For additional biblical teaching on the possibility of apostasy see
The Greek noun apostasia (rebellion, abandonment, state of apostasy, defection) is found only twice in the New Testament (Acts ; 2 Thessalonians ). However, "the concept of apostasy is found throughout Scripture." The related verb aphistēmi (go away, withdraw, depart, fall away) carries considerable theological significance in three passages (Luke 8:13; 1 Timothy 4:1; Hebrews 3:12).
In The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, Wolfgang Bauder writes:
1 Timothy 4:1 describes "falling away from the faith" in the last days in terms of falling into false, heretical beliefs. Lk. 8:13 probably refers to apostasy as a result of eschatological temptation. Here are people who have come to believe, who have received the gospel "with joy." But under the pressure of persecution and tribulation arising because of the faith, they break off the relationship with God into which they have entered. According to Hebrews 3:12, apostasy consists in an unbelieving and self-willed movement away from God (in contrast to Hebrews 3:14), which must be prevented at all costs. aphistēmi thus connotes in the passages just mentioned the serious situation of becoming separated from the living God after a previous turning towards him, by falling away from the faith. It is a movement of unbelief and sin, which can also be expressed by other words (cf. the par. to Luke 8:13 in Matthew 13:21; Mark 4:17; …). Expressions equivalent in meaning to the warning in 1 Timothy 4:1 include nauageō, suffer shipwreck, 1:19; astocheō miss the mark, 1:6; 6:21; 2 Timothy 2:18; cf. also aperchomai, go away, John 6:66; apostrephō, turn away; arneomai, deny; metatithēmi, change, alter; mē menein, do not abide, John 15:6; … [see also] the pictures of defection in Matthew 24:9–12, and Revelation 13."
Wolfgang Bauder goes on add that piptō, fall (1 Corinthians 10:12; Hebrews 4:11), and ekpiptō, fall off or from (Galatians 5:4; 2 Peter 3:17), is used figuratively in the New Testament to refer to "the consequent loss of salvation, rather than of a mere failure from which recovery can be made. It is a catastrophic fall, which means eternal ruin. If it were not so, all the warnings against falling would lose their threatening urgency. To fall into sin and guilt, as an expression of a total attitude, is to plunge into irrevocable misfortune."
The following passages where the verb skandalizō ("fall away from faith") and the noun skandalon ("enticement to unbelief, cause of salvation's loss, seduction"): are theologically important as well:
Heinz Giesen, in the Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament, writes:
In the passive voice σκανδαλίζω [skandalizō] more often means … "fall away from faith." In the interpretation of the parable of the sower (Mark 4:13–20 par. Matt 13:18–23) those identified with the seeds sown on rocky ground, i.e., those "with no root in themselves," the inconstant
ones, go astray to their own ruin when persecuted on account of the word, i.e., they fall away from faith (Mark 4:17 par. Matt 13:21). The Lukan parallel reads appropriately ἀφίστημι [aphistēmi, fall away] (8:13). In Matt 24:10 Jesus predicts that in the end time many will fall away [skandalizō]. The result is that they will hate one another, wickedness will be multiplied, and love will grow cold. Yet whoever endures in love until the end will be saved (vv. 11, 13).
… In the Johannine farewell address (John 16:1) σκανδαλίζω [skandalizō] does not only imply an "endangering of faith" … but rather "falling away from faith" entirely, from which the disciples and Christians are to be kept. … In the active voice σκανδαλίζω [skandalizō] means "cause someone to fall away from (or reject) faith," as in the saying of Jesus about the person who "causes one of these little ones who believe in me to sin [stumble]" (Mark 9:42 par. Matt 18:6/Luke 17:2). The Christian is enjoined to reject anything that might be an obstacle to faith, as emphasized in Mark 9:43,45,47 in metaphorical, hyperbolic language: Hand, foot, and eyein Jewish understanding the loci of lust or sinful desiresmust be given up if they threaten to become the cause of loss of faith and thus of salvation. This … underscores the seriousness of conviction within which one must persevere if one wishes to enter (eternal) life or the kingdom of God. … Matt 5:29, 30 also issues an exhortation to decisive action [cf. Matt 18:8, 9]. … According to 1 Cor 8:9 a Christian's freedom regarding eating food offered to idols reaches its limit when it becomes a stumbling block to one's brother (πρόσκομμα [proskomma]). Hence Paul emphasizes that he will never again eat meat if by doing so he causes his brother to fall and thus to lose salvation (σκανδαλίζω [skandalizō], v. 13a, b), since otherwise that weaker brother is destroyed by the knowledge of the "stronger" (v. 11). Whoever sins against his brothers sins also against Christ (v. 12). … Within the context of the protection of the "little ones" in the Church, i.e., probably the "weak ones" ([Matthew] 18:6–10), Jesus utters an eschatological threat ("woe!") against the world (alienated from God) because of temptations to sin (v. 7a); though he allows that such temptations must come (v. 7b), he finally hurls an eschatological "woe!" against the person by whom the temptation comes (v. 7c). σκάνδαλον [skandalon] used here of the temptation to fall away from faith. The parallel, Luke 17:1, like Matt 18:7b, also underscores that such temptations are unavoidable; nonetheless, the person by whom they come receives the eschatological "woe!" that already places him under divine judgment. … In Rom 14:13 Paul admonishes the "strong," whose position he fundamentally shares (v. 14), not to cause the "weak" any stumbling block to faith through eating habits . … In Rom 16:17 the σκάνδαλον [skandalon] are the various satanic activities of the false teachers who endanger the salvation of Church members, who are being seduced into falling away from correct teaching; such teachers also threaten both the unity and very existence of the Church. Similarly, in Rev 2:14 σκάνδαλον [skandalon] refers to a stumbling block to faith in the context of false teaching. According to 1 John 2:10 there is no cause for stumbling or sin in a believer who loves his brother … i.e., no cause for unbelief and thus a loss of salvation.
Paul Barnett notes that James warns his readers of the possibility of temptation leading to apostasy. While a person is not tempted by God to sin, they can be "lured and enticed by his own desires" to sin (James 1:13–15). He adds, "This letter has in mind a 'way' (hodos, James 5:20) of belief and behavior, from which one may be "led astray" (planasthe, James 1:16; i.e., by the influence of others) or 'stray from' (planēthē, James 5:19; i.e., by one's own decision). Either way the one who is away from the true path is in jeopardy in regard to his or her personal salvation (James 5:20)."
Barnett also mentions that "2 Peter addresses the grim situation of apostasy expressed by immorality (2 Peter 2:2–3, 14–16), under the influence of false teachers who have 'denied the master who bought them' (2 Peter 2:1, 17–22)." Furthermore, in the book of Revelation:
It is clear that the churches of Asia are subject to persecution and its accompanying pressure to apostatize that arise from a Jewish quarter in Smyrna and Philadelphia (Revelation 2:9) and from the emperor cult in Pergamum (Revelation 2:13). At the same time various false teachings are touching the churches of Ephesus (Revelation 2:6), Pergamum (Revelation 2:14–15) and Thyatira (Revelation 2:20). The language of "deception," that is, of being "led astray," is applied to the false prophetess, Jezebel (Revelation 2:20). Satan, the source of all these persecution and false teachings, is also "the deceiver of the whole world" (Revelation 12:9). The metaphor, "deception" (planaō), implies a path of truth from which one might be "turned aside." Against these Satan-inspired obstacles the reader are called upon to "conquer," that is, to overcome these problems.
Apostasy in the Letter to the Hebrews
The Epistle to the Hebrews is the classic text on the subject of apostasy in the New Testament. New Testament scholar Scot McKnight argues that the warning passages (2:1–4; 3:7–4:13; 5:11–6:12; 10:19–39; 12:1–29) should be read and interpreted "as an organic whole, each of which expresses four components of the author’s message." These four components are "(1) the subjects or audience in danger of committing the sin, (2) the sin that leads to (3) the exhortation, which if not followed, leads to (4) the consequences of that sin." McKnight concluded from his study that (1) the subjects of this letter were genuine "believers, persons who … had converted to Jesus Christ,” (2) The sin "is apostasy, a deliberate and public act of deconfessing Jesus Christ, a rejection of God's Spirit, and a refusal to submit to God and His will," (3) the exhortation is "to a persevering faithfulness to God and his revelation of the new covenant in Jesus Christ," (4) the consequences involve "eternal damnation if a person does not persevere in the faith." B. J. Oropeza concludes that apostasy threatens the community in Hebrews on two fronts: mistreatment by outsiders (persecution) and malaise involving reluctance to listen to godly exhortation.
Imagery of Apostasy in the Bible
The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery states that "There are at least four distinct images in Scripture of the concept of apostasy. All connote an intentional defection from the faith." These images are: Rebellion; Turning Away; Falling Away; Adultery.
Rebellion
"In classical literature apostasia was used to denote a coup or defection. By extension, the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Old Testament) always uses this word to portray a rebellion against God (; )."
Turning away
"Apostasy is also pictured as the heart turning away from God (Jeremiah 17:5–6) and righteousness (Ezekiel 3:20). In the OT it centers on Israel's breaking covenant relationship with God through disobedience to the law (Jeremiah 2:19), especially following other gods (Judges 2:19) and practicing their immorality (Daniel 9:9–11). … Following the Lord or journeying with him is one of the chief images of faithfulness in the Scriptures. … The …Hebrew root (swr) is used to picture those who have turned away and ceased to follow God ('I am grieved that I have made Saul king, because he has turned away from me,' 1 Samuel 15:11). … The image of turning away from the Lord, who is the rightful leader, and following behind false gods is the dominant image for apostasy in the Old Testament."
Falling away
"The image of falling, with the sense of going to eternal destruction, is particularly evident in the New Testament. … In his [Christ’s] parable of the wise and foolish builder, in which the house built on sand falls with a crash in the midst of a storm (Matthew 7:24–27) … he painted a highly memorable image of the dangers of falling spiritually."
Adultery
One of the most common images for apostasy in the Old Testament is adultery. "Apostasy is symbolized as Israel the faithless spouse turning away from Yahweh her marriage partner to pursue the advances of other gods (Jeremiah 2:1–3; Ezekiel 16). … 'Your children have forsaken me and sworn by god that are not gods. I supplied all their needs, yet they committed adultery and thronged to the houses of prostitutes' (Jeremiah 5:7, NIV). Adultery is used most often to graphically name the horror of the betrayal and covenant breaking involved in idolatry. Like literal adultery it does include the idea of someone blinded by infatuation, in this case for an idol: 'How I have been grieved by their adulterous hearts … which have lusted after their idols' (Ezekiel 6:9)."
Other images
A variety of colorful images are used to describe Israel's apostasy: "a rebellious ox, a prostitute, a wild vine, a stain that will not wash off, a camel in heat and a thief caught in thievery (Jeremiah 2:19–28)." Images of peril attend apostasy, for to have forsaken God is to come under his judgment (Exodus 22:20; Deuteronomy 6:14–15; 17:2–7). "The New Testament contains a host of images of apostasy, including a plant taking root among the rocks but withering under the hot sun of testing (Mark 4:5–6, 17 par.), or those who fall prey to the wiles of false teachers (Matthew 24:11), heretical beliefs (1 Timothy 4:1; 2 Timothy 4:3–4), worldliness and its defilement (2 Peter 2:20–22), and persecution (Matthew 24:9–10; Revelation 3:8). The Christian apostate is pictured as a branch that does not abide in the vine of Christ and thus withers and is cast into the fire (John 15:6). Animal behavior is evoked in a dog returning to its vomit or a clean pig returning to the mire (2 Peter 2:22)."
Views of the early church fathers
Paul Barnett says, "Believers in the era following that of the apostles probably suffered a greater intensity to turn aside from Christ than did their predecessors. They ... were vulnerable to Jewish reprisals as well as action from the state. Details of the pressure applied to Christians to apostatize is given from both Christian and non-Christian sources ... It is understandable, therefore, that the postapostolic literature should contain many warnings not to apostatize."
According to B. J. Oropeza, the warning passages in the New Testament describe at least three basic dangers which could lead a Christian to apostatize from Christ and the Christian faith:
Temptations: Christians were tempted to engage in various vices that were a part of their lives before they became Christians (idolatry, sexual immorality, covetousness, etc.).
Deceptions: Christians encountered various heresies and false teachings spread by false teachers and prophets that threatened to seduce them away from their pure devotion to Christ.
Persecutions: Christians were persecuted by the governing powers of the day for their allegiance to Christ. Many Christians were threatened with certain death if they would not deny Christ.
Persecution is highlighted in the Epistle to the Hebrews and the First Epistle of Peter. The issue of false teachers/teachings is found in the Johannine and Pauline epistles, in the Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude. A number of sections in the writings of Paul and James focus on vices and virtues. "These and other early texts helped to shape the trajectory of Christian response to the phenomenon of defection in the post-apostolic era. The Christians were to persevere through various types of opposition, standing firm against temptation, false doctrine, hardships and persecution."
The following translation from various early Christian writers is provided by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson in the Ante-Nicene Fathers.
Temptations: avoid vices and practice virtues
Clement of Rome (c. 96) writes to the Corinthian congregation whose unity has been threatened because a "few rash and self-confident persons" have kindled shameful and detestable seditions towards the established leaders (presbyters) in the congregation (1 Clement 1). This jealous rivalry and envy has caused righteousness and peace to depart from the community (1 Clement 3). The writer laments: "Every one abandons the fear of God, and is become blind in His faith, neither walks in the ordinances of His appointment, nor acts a part becoming a Christian, but walks after his own wicked lusts, resuming the practice of an unrighteous and ungodly envy, by which death itself entered into the world." (1 Clement 3) Since history has demonstrated that many evils have flowed from envy and jealousy (1 Clement 4–6), the Corinthians are exhorted to repent (1 Clement 7–8), yield obedience to God's "glorious will," and to "forsake all fruitless labors and strife, and envy, which leads to death" (1 Clement 9:1). Furthermore, they are to "be of humble mind, laying aside all haughtiness, and pride, and foolishness, and angry feelings" (1 Clement 13), and "to obey God rather than to follow those who, through pride and sedition, have become the leaders of a detestable emulation [jealous rivalry]" (1 Clement 14). He then warns, "For we shall incur no slight injury, but rather great danger, if we rashly yield ourselves to the inclinations of men who aim at exciting strife and tumults, so as to draw us away from what is good" (1 Clement 14; cf. 47). Clement bids his readers to cleave "to those who cultivate peace with godliness" (1 Clement 15), and to follow the humility and submission that Christ and other saints practiced (1 Clement 16–19), which brings peace and harmony with others (1 Clement 19–20). Clement then gives these exhortations and warnings:
Take heed, beloved, lest His many kindnesses lead to the condemnation of us all. [For thus it must be] unless we walk worthy of Him, and with one mind do those things which are good and well-pleasing in His sight. (1 Clement 21)
Since then all things are seen and heard [by God], let us fear Him, and forsake those wicked works which proceed from evil desires; so that, through His mercy, we may be protected from the judgments to come. For whither can any of us flee from His mighty hand? Or what world will receive any of those who run away from Him? (1 Clement 28)
Let us therefore earnestly strive to be found in the number of those who wait for Him, in order that we may share in His promised gifts. But how, beloved, shall this be done? If our understanding be fixed by faith towards God; if we earnestly seek the things which are pleasing and acceptable to Him; if we do the things which are in harmony with His blameless will; and if we follow the way of truth, casting away from us all unrighteousness and iniquity, along with all covetousness, strife, evil practices, deceit, whispering, and evil-speaking, all hatred of God, pride and haughtiness, vainglory and ambition. For they that do such things are hateful to God; and not only they that do them, but also those who take pleasure in those who do them. (1 Clement 35)
Why are there strifes, and tumults, and divisions, and schisms, and wars among you? Have we not [all] one God and one Christ? Is there not one Spirit of grace poured out upon us? And have we not one calling in Christ? Why do we divide and tear to pieces the members of Christ, and raise up strife against our own body, and have reached such a height of madness as to forget that "we are members one of another?" Remember the words of our Lord Jesus Christ, how He said, "Woe to that man [by whom offences come]! It were better for him that he had never been born, than that he should cast a stumbling-block before one of my elect. Yea, it were better for him that a millstone should be hung about [his neck], and he should be sunk in the depths of the sea, than that he should cast a stumbling-block before one of my little ones." Your schism has subverted [the faith of] many, has discouraged many, has given rise to doubt in many, and has caused grief to us all. And still your sedition continues. (1 Clement 46)
Those responsible for laying the foundation of this sedition are urged to submit to the presbyters, repent, and to lay aside their pride and arrogance. For it is better that they occupy a humble place in the flock of Christ, than being highly exalted and ultimately "cast out from the hope of His people" (1 Clement 57).
Similar to Clement, Ignatius of Antioch (c. 107) warns believers about following a schismatic person:
Keep yourselves from those evil plants which Jesus Christ does not tend, because they are not the planting of the Father. Not that I have found any division among you, but exceeding purity. For as many as are of God and of Jesus Christ are also with the bishop. And as many as shall, in the exercise of repentance, return into the unity of the Church, these, too, shall belong to God, that they may live according to Jesus Christ. Do not err, my brethren. If any man follows him that makes a schism in the Church, he shall not inherit the kingdom of God. (Epistle of the Philadelphians 3)
The author of the epistle of Barnabas (c. 100) both admonishes and warns his readers about coming dangers:
Since, therefore, the days are evil, and Satan possesses the power of this world, we ought to give heed to ourselves, and diligently inquire into the ordinances of the Lord. Fear and patience, then, are helpers of our faith; and long-suffering and continence are things which fight on our side. … We ought therefore, brethren, carefully to inquire concerning our salvation, lest the wicked one, having made his entrance by deceit, should hurl us forth from our [true] life. (Barnabas 2:1–2, 10).
Let us then utterly flee from all the works of iniquity, lest these should take hold of us; and let us hate the error of the present time, that we may set our love on the world to come: let us not give loose reins to our soul, that it should have power to run with sinners and the wicked, lest we become like them. (Barnabas 4:1–2)
We take earnest heed in these last days; for the whole [past] time of your faith will profit you nothing, unless now in this wicked time we also withstand coming sources of danger, as becomes the sons of God. That the Black One may find no means of entrance, let us flee from every vanity, let us utterly hate the works of the way of wickedness. … (Barnabas 4:9–10)
Let us be spiritually-minded: let us be a perfect temple to God. As much as in us lies, let us meditate upon the fear of God, and let us keep His commandments, that we may rejoice in His ordinances. The Lord will judge the world without respect of persons. Each will receive as he has done: if he is righteous, his righteousness will precede him; if he is wicked, the reward of wickedness is before him. Take heed, lest resting at our ease, as those who are the called [of God], we should fall asleep in our sins, and the wicked prince, acquiring power over us, should thrust us away from the kingdom of the Lord. (Barnabas 4:11–13)
In the last chapters of the epistle of Barnabas (18–21), the author sets two ways before Christians which are described in the metaphors of light and darkness (referring to abstaining from or the practicing of vices). Those who walk in the light "will be glorified in the kingdom of heaven" (Barnabas 21:1), and will be "safe in the day of judgment" (Barnabas 21:6). While those who walk in darkness will experience "eternal death with punishment" (Barnabas 20:1), and will be "destroyed with their works" (Barnabas 21:1).
"The Didache (c. 100) also maintains two ways: the way of life or death. The way of life is associated with loving God and one's neighbor. It involves abstaining from vices mentioned in the Ten Commandments or related to bodily lusts, sorcery, and idolatry (including meat sacrificed to idols). The way of death includes the practices of these vices (Didache 1–6).”
In Polycarp's epistle to the Philippians (2nd century) the vice of covetousness is a significant danger. Presbyters are advised to be "keeping far off from all covetousness" (Philippians 6). Polycarp expresses his grief over a former presbyter Valens and his wife who apparently committed some act of covetousness. He hopes that the Lord will grant them repentance. He enjoins his readers to "abstain from covetousness," and "every form of evil," and goes on to give this warning, "If a man does not keep himself from covetousness, he shall be defiled by idolatry, and shall be judged as one of the heathen" (Philippians 11). Polycarp says believers "ought to walk worthy of His commandments and glory," and that deacons are to be blameless, not slanderers or lovers of money, but temperate in all things, "walking according to the truth of the Lord" (Philippians 5). He then adds:
If we please Him in this present world, we shall receive also the future world, according as He has promised to us that He will raise us again from the dead, and that if we live worthily of Him, "we shall also reign together with Him," provided only we believe. In like manner, let the young men also be blameless in all things, being especially careful to preserve purity, and keeping themselves in, as with a bridle, from every kind of evil. For it is well that they should be cut off from the lusts that are in the world, since "every lust wars against the spirit;" [1 Peter 2:11] and "neither fornicators, nor effeminate, nor abusers of themselves with mankind, shall inherit the kingdom of God," [1 Corinthians 6:9–10] nor those who do things inconsistent and unbecoming. Wherefore, it is needful to abstain from all these things, being subject to the presbyters and deacons, as unto God and Christ. (Philippians 5)
In an ancient sermon (c. 150) the author exhorts his audience to pursue righteousness and abstain from vices:
Let us, then, not only call Him Lord, for that will not save us. For He saith, "Not everyone that saith to me, Lord, Lord, shall be saved, but he that worketh righteousness." Wherefore, brethren, let us confess Him by our works, by loving one another, by not committing adultery, or speaking evil of one another, or cherishing envy; but by being continent, compassionate, and good. We ought also to sympathize with one another, and not be avaricious. By such works let us confess Him, and not by those that are of an opposite kind. And it is not fitting that we should fear men, but rather God. For this reason, if we should do such [wicked] things, the Lord hath said, "Even though ye were gathered together to me in my very bosom, yet if ye were not to keep my commandments, I would cast you off, and say unto you, Depart from me; I know you not whence ye are, ye workers of iniquity." (2 Clement 4)
The author further summons his readers to "do the will of Him that called us," (2 Clement 5) and to consider
that the sojourning in the flesh in this world is but brief and transient, but the promise of Christ is great and wonderful, even the rest of the kingdom to come, and of life everlasting. By what course of conduct, then, shall we attain these things, but by leading a holy and righteous life, and by deeming these worldly things as not belonging to us, and not fixing our desires upon them? For if we desire to possess them, we fall away from the path of righteousness. (2 Clement 5)
The writer goes on to say that this present world (which urges one to "adultery and corruption, avarice and deceit"), is an enemy to the world to come (which "bids farewell to these things"), and thus, we cannot "be the friends of both" (2 Clement 6). Therefore,
Let us reckon that it is better to hate the things present, since they are trifling, and transient, and corruptible; and to love those [which are to come,] as being good and incorruptible. For if we do the will of Christ, we shall find rest; otherwise, nothing shall deliver us from eternal punishment, if we disobey His commandments. … How can we hope to enter into the royal residence of God unless we keep our baptism holy and undefiled? Or who shall be our advocate, unless we be found possessed of works of holiness and righteousness? (2 Clement 6)
Let us also, while we are in this world, repent with our whole heart of the evil deeds we have done in the flesh, that we may be saved by the Lord, while we have yet an opportunity of repentance. For after we have gone out of the world, no further power of confessing or repenting will there belong to us. Wherefore, brethren, by doing the will of the Father, and keeping the flesh holy, and observing the commandments of the Lord, we shall obtain eternal life. (2 Clement 8)
B. J. Oropeza writes:
If the warning against vices and the call to repentance marks a facet of apostasy in patristic writings of the late first and early second centuries, the Shepherd of Hermas epitomizes this aspect. Those who have sinned grievously and committed apostasy are beckoned to return. Falling away and repentance are portrayed in complex ways, and this perhaps complements the multifaceted nature of earliest Christian discourses on the issue. Contrary to the book of Hebrews, which seems to teach that baptized Christians are not given a second chance once they fall away (cf. Hebrews 6:4–6; 10:26–31), the Shepherd of Hermas affirms that apostates may be forgiven while a gap of time remains before the final eschaton. A refusal to respond to this offer will result in final condemnation. Those who have denied the Lord in the past are given a second chance, but those who deny him in the coming tribulation will be rejected "from their life" (Her. Vis. 2.2).
In the vision of the tower under construction (the church), numerous stones (believers) are gathered for the building. Among the rejected are those who are not genuine Christians; they received their faith in hypocrisy. Others do not remain in the truth, and others who go astray are finally burned in fire (Vis. 3.6–7). Some others are novices who turn away before they are baptized, and still others fall away due to hardships, being led astray by their riches. They may become useful stones, however, if they are separated from their riches. The penitents receive 12 commands; salvific life depends on their observance (Her. Man. 12.3–6). Repentance would become unprofitable for the Christian who falls again after restoration (Man. 4.1:8; 3:6).
In the Parables, rods of various shapes and sizes represent different kinds of believers: the faithful, rich, double-minded, doubtful-minded, and hypocritical deceivers. These are allowed to repent – if they do not, they will lose eternal life (Her. Sim. 8.6–11). Apostates and traitors who blaspheme the Lord by their sins are completely destroyed (Sim. 8.6:4). Another parable describes apostates as certain stones which are cast away from the house of God and delivered to women who represent 12 vices. They may enter the house again if they follow virgins who represent 12 virtues. Certain apostates became worse than they were before they believed and will suffer eternal death even though they had fully known God. Nevertheless, most people, whether apostates or fallen ministers, have an opportunity to repent and be restored (Sim. 9.13–15, 18ff). Hermas and his audience are to persevere and practice repentance if they wish to partake of life (Sim. 10.2–4).
Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 180) recounts how God has recorded the sins of men of old (David and Solomon)
for our instruction … that we might know, in the first place, that our God and theirs is one, and that sins do not please Him although committed by men of renown; and in the second place, that we should keep from wickedness. For if these men of old time, who preceded us in the gifts [bestowed upon them], and for whom the Son of God had not yet suffered, when they committed any sin and served fleshly lusts, were rendered objects of such disgrace, what shall the men of the present day suffer, who have despised the Lord’s coming, and become the slaves of their own lusts? And truly the death of the Lord became [the means of] healing and remission of sins to the former, but Christ shall not die again in behalf of those who now commit sin, for death shall no more have dominion over Him. … We ought not, therefore, as that presbyter remarks, to be puffed up, nor be severe upon those of old time, but ought ourselves to fear, lest perchance, after [we have come to] the knowledge of Christ, if we do things displeasing to God, we obtain no further forgiveness of sins, but be shut out from His kingdom. And therefore it was that Paul said, "For if [God] spared not the natural branches, [take heed] lest He also spare not thee" [Romans 11:21]… . (Against Heresies, Book 4:27.2)
Irenaeus proceeds to quote from 1 Corinthians 10:1–12, where Israel fell under the judgment of God for craving evil things, and then comments:
As then the unrighteous, the idolaters, and fornicators perished, so also is it now: for both the Lord declares, that such persons are sent into eternal fire; and the apostle says, "Know ye not that the unrighteous shall not inherit the kingdom of God? Be not deceived: neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, not effeminate, nor abusers of themselves with mankind, nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor extortioners, shall inherit the kingdom of God." [1 Corinthians 6:9–10] And as it was not to those who are without that he said these things, but to uslest we should be cast forth from the kingdom of God, by doing any such thing… . And again does the apostle say, "Let no man deceive you with vain words; for because of these things cometh the wrath of God upon the sons of mistrust. Be not ye therefore partakers with them." [Ephesians 5:6–7] (Against Heresies, Book 4:27.4)
Deceptions: watch out for false teachers and heresies
The "early Christians frequently believed that apostasy came by way of deceivers at the instigation of the devil, and terrible consequences awaited such people." The writings of Ignatius have several warnings about being on guard against false teachers and the heresy they disseminate. In the letter to the Christians at Ephesus, Ignatius is happy to report that "all live according to the truth, and that no sect has any dwelling-place among you. Nor, indeed, do you hearken to any one rather than to Jesus Christ speaking in truth" (Epistle to the Ephesians 6). He mentions that there are false teachers who "are in the habit of carrying about the name [of Jesus Christ] in wicked guile, while yet they practice things unworthy of God, whom you must flee as you would wild beasts. For they are ravening dogs, who bite secretly, against whom you must be on your guard" (Epistle to the Ephesians 7). The readers are further admonished to "Let not then any one deceive you" (Epistle to the Ephesians 8), and commended because "you did not allow [false teachers] to sow among you, but stopped your ears, that you might not receive those things [i.e., false doctrines] which were sown by them" (Epistle to the Ephesians 9). Ignatius then gives this solemn warning:
Do not err, my brethren. Those that corrupt families shall not inherit the kingdom of God. If, then, those who do this as respects the flesh have suffered death, how much more shall this be the case with any one who corrupts by wicked doctrine the faith of God, for which Jesus Christ was crucified! Such a one becoming defiled [in this way], shall go away into everlasting fire, and so shall every one that hearkens unto him. … Be not anointed with the bad odor of the doctrine of the prince of this world; let him not lead you away captive from the life which is set before you. And why are we not all prudent, since we have received the knowledge of God, which is Jesus Christ? Why do we foolishly perish, not recognizing the gift which the Lord has of a truth sent to us? (Epistle to the Ephesians 16–17)
In the letter to the Magnesians, Ignatius admonishes his readers, "Be not deceived with strange doctrines, nor with old fables, which are unprofitable" (Epistle to Magnesians 8). Later he writes: "I desire to guard you beforehand, that you fall not upon the hooks of vain doctrine, but that you attain to full assurance in regard to the birth, and passion, and resurrection which took place in the time of the government of Pontius Pilate, being truly and certainly accomplished by Jesus Christ, who is our hope, from which may no one of you ever be turned aside" (Epistle to Magnesians 11). In yet another letter, Ignatius entreats his readers to
use Christian nourishment only, and abstain from herbage of a different kind; I mean heresy. For those [that are given to this] mix up Jesus Christ with their own poison, speaking things which are unworthy of credit, like those who administer a deadly drug in sweet wine, which he who is ignorant of does greedily take, with a fatal pleasure leading to his own death. Be on your guard, therefore, against such persons. (Epistle to the Trallians 6–7)
Furthermore:
Stop your ears, therefore, when any one speaks to you at variance with Jesus Christ, who was descended from David, and was also of Mary; who was truly born, and ate and drank. He was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate; He was truly crucified, and [truly] died, in the sight of beings in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth. He was also truly raised from the dead, His Father quickening Him, even as after the same manner His Father will so raise up us who believe in Him by Christ Jesus, apart from whom we do not possess the true life. (Epistle to the Trallians 9)
"The final section of the Didache echoes the Synoptic tradition (Matthew 24:4–13, 15, 21–26; Mark 13:5ff; Luke 21:8ff; cf. 2 Thessalonians 2:3ff; Revelation 13:13–14) when it warns against apostasy through the deception of false prophets in the last days:"
Watch for your life's sake. Let not your lamps be quenched, nor your loins unloosed; but be ready, for you know not the hour in which our Lord comes. But often shall you come together, seeking the things which are befitting to your souls: for the whole time of your faith will not profit you, if you be not made perfect in the last time. For in the last days false prophets and corrupters shall be multiplied, and the sheep shall be turned into wolves, and love shall be turned into hate; for when lawlessness increases, they shall hate and persecute and betray one another, and then shall appear the world-deceiver as the Son of God, and shall do signs and wonders, and the earth shall be delivered into his hands, and he shall do iniquitous things which have never yet come to pass since the beginning. Then shall the creation of men come into the fire of trial, and many shall be made to stumble and shall perish; but they that endure in their faith shall be saved from under the curse itself. (Didache 16)
Tertullian argues that believers ought not to be surprised or alarmed at the existence of heresies since Christ and his apostles told us beforehand that they would arise and gave, "in anticipation, warnings to avoid them" (Prescription Against Heretics 4, cf. 1). Neither should believers be surprised that heresies "subvert the faith of some" (Prescription Against Heretics 1). Heresies are a trial to faith, giving faith the opportunity to be approved (Prescriptions Against Heretics 1). While heresies "are produced for the weakening and the extinction of faith," they have "no strength whenever they encounter a really powerful faith" (Prescriptions Against Heretics 2). According to Tertullian, heresy is whatever contradicts the "rule of faith" which he defends as
the belief that there is one only God, and that He is none other than the Creator of the world, who produced all things out of nothing through His own Word, first of all sent forth; that this Word is called His Son, and, under the name of God, was seen in diverse manners by the patriarchs, heard at all times in the prophets, at last brought down by the Spirit and Power of the Father into the Virgin Mary, was made flesh in her womb, and, being born of her, went forth as Jesus Christ; thenceforth He preached the new law and the new promise of the kingdom of heaven, worked miracles; having been crucified, He rose again the third day; (then) having ascended into the heavens, He sat at the right hand of the Father; sent instead of Himself the Power of the Holy Ghost to lead such as believe; will come with glory to take the saints to the enjoyment of everlasting life and of the heavenly promises, and to condemn the wicked to everlasting fire, after the resurrection of both these classes shall have happened, together with the restoration of their flesh. This rule, as it will be proved, was taught by Christ, and raises among ourselves no other questions than those which heresies introduce, and which make men heretics. (Prescription Against Heretics 13)
Tertullian sees heretics as ravenous wolves "lurking within to waste the flock of Christ" (Prescription Against Heretics 4). They pervert the Scriptures by interpreting them to suit their own purposes (Prescription Against Heretics 17, cf. 4, 38). Their teaching opposes the teaching "handed down from the apostles, the apostles from Christ, and Christ from God" (Prescription Against Heretics 37). While persecution makes martyrs, "heresy only apostates" (Prescription Against Heretics 4). In the face of heresies, which may cause a bishop or deacon to "have fallen from the rule (of faith)," the Christian must remain true to the faith, for "no one is a Christian but he who perseveres even to the end" (Prescription Against Heretics 3).
Christian apologist Justin Martyr engages in a dialogue with Trypho (c. 160), who says, "I believe, however, that many of those who say that they confess Jesus, and are called Christians, eat meats offered to idols, and declare that they are by no means injured in consequence" (Dialogue with Trypho 35). Justin's response highlights the importance of remaining faithful to "the true and pure doctrine of Jesus Christ" in the face of false teachers:
The fact that there are such men confessing themselves to be Christians, and admitting the crucified Jesus to be both Lord and Christ, yet not teaching His doctrines, but those of the spirits of error, causes us who are disciples of the true and pure doctrine of Jesus Christ, to be more faithful and steadfast in the hope announced by Him. For what things He predicted would take place in His name, these we do see being actually accomplished in our sight. For he said, "Many shall come in My name, clothed outwardly in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves." And, "There shall be schisms and heresies." [1 Corinthians 11:19] And, "Beware of false prophets, who shall come to you clothed outwardly in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves." And, "Many false Christ's and false apostles shall arise, and shall deceive many of the faithful." There are, therefore, and there were many, my friends, who, coming forward in the name of Jesus, taught both to speak and act impious and blasphemous things; and these are called by us after the name of the men from whom each doctrine and opinion had its origin. (For some in one way, others in another, teach to blaspheme the Maker of all things, and Christ … Yet they style themselves Christians. …) Some are called Marcians, and some Valentinians, and some Basilidians, and some Saturnilians, and others by other names; each called after the originator of the individual opinion. … So that, in consequence of these events, we know that Jesus foreknew what would happen after Him, as well as in consequence of many other events which He foretold would befall those who believed on and confessed Him, the Christ. For all that we suffer, even when killed by friends, He foretold would take place; so that it is manifest no word or act of His can be found fault with. Wherefore we pray for you and for all other men who hate us; in order that you, having repented along with us, may not blaspheme Him who, by His works, by the mighty deeds even now wrought through His name, by the words He taught, by the prophecies announced concerning Him, is the blameless, and in all things irreproachable, Christ Jesus; but, believing on Him, may be saved in His second glorious advent, and may not be condemned to fire by Him. (Dialogue with Trypho 35)
Clement of Alexandria (c. 195) advises against giving into heretical men and their heresies in writing:
He who hopes for everlasting rest knows also that the entrance to it is toilsome "and strait." And let him who has once received the Gospel, even in the very hour in which he has come to the knowledge of salvation, "not turn back, like Lot's wife," as is said; and let him not go back either to his former life, which adheres to the things of sense, or to heresies. … He, who has spurned the ecclesiastical tradition, and darted off to the opinions of heretical men, has ceased to be a man of God and to remain faithful to the Lord. (The Stromata, Book 7:16)
Cyprian (c. 251) bids his readers to "use foresight and watching with an anxious heart, both to perceive and to beware of the wiles of the crafty foe, that we, who have put on Christ the wisdom of God the Father, may not seem to be wanting in wisdom in the matter of providing for our salvation" (The Treatises of Cyprian 1:1). He cautions that "it is not persecution alone that is to be feared; nor those things which advance by open attack to overwhelm and cast down the servants of God," for we have an enemy who is to be more feared and guarded against because he secretly creeps in to deceive us under the appearance of peace (The Treatises of Cyprian 1:1). By following the example of the Lord in recognizing and resisting the temptations of the devil, Christians will not be "incautiously turned back into the nets of death," but go on to "possess the immortality that we have received" (The Treatises of Cyprian 1:2). Only by standing fast in learning and doing what Christ commanded does the Christian have security against the onslaughts of the world (The Treatises of Cyprian 1:2). He who does not "must of necessity waver and wander, and, caught away by a spirit of error … be blown about; and he will make no advance in his walk towards salvation, because he does not keep the truth of the way of salvation." (The Treatises of Cyprian 1:2)
Cyprian says the devil, when he see his idols forsaken and temples deserted by new believers, devises a fraud under "the Christian name to deceive the incautious" (The Treatises of Cyprian 1:3):
He has invented heresies and schisms, whereby he might subvert the faith, might corrupt the truth, might divide the unity. Those whom he cannot keep in the darkness of the old way, he circumvents and deceives by the error of a new way. He snatches men from the Church itself; and while they seem to themselves to have already approached to the light, and to have escaped the night of the world, he pours over them again, in their unconsciousness, new darkness; so that, although they do not stand firm with the Gospel of Christ, and with the observation and law of Christ, they still call themselves Christians, and, walking in darkness, they think that they have the light, while the adversary is flattering and deceiving, who, according to the apostle's word, transforms himself into an angel of light, and equips his ministers as if they were the ministers of righteousness, who maintain night instead of day, death for salvation, despair under the offer of hope, perfidy under the pretext of faith, antichrist under the name of Christ; so that, while they feign things like the truth, they make void the truth by their subtlety. This happens, beloved brethren, so long as we do not return to the source of truth, as we do not seek the head nor keep the teaching of the heavenly Master. (The Treatises of Cyprian 1:3)
Oropeza states,
In view of Eusebius (c. 260–340), Simon Magus was the author of heresy (cf. Acts 8:9–24), and the devil is to be blamed for bringing the Samaritan magician to Rome and empowering him with deceitful arts which led many astray (Eus. Hist. Eccl. 2.13). The magician was supposedly aided by demons and venerated as a god, and Helen, his companion, was thought to be his first emanation (Just. Apol. 1.26; Adv. Haer. 1.33; cf. Iren Haer. 1.23:1–4). Simon's successor, Menander of Samaria, was considered to be another instrument of the devil; he claimed to save humans from the aeons through magical arts. After baptism, his followers believed themselves to be immortal in the present life. It is stated that those who claim such people as their saviors have fallen away from the true hope (Eus. Hist. Eccl. 3.26). Basilides of Alexandria and Saturninus of Antioch followed Menander's ways. Adherents of the former declared that eating meat sacrificed to idols or renouncing the faith in times of persecution were matters of indifference. Carpocrates is labeled as the first of the Gnostics. His followers allegedly transmitted Simon’s magic in an open manner. Eusebius asserts that the devil’s intention was to entrap many believers and bring them to the abyss of destruction by following these deceivers (Hist. Eccl. 4.7).
Persecutions: perseverance and martyrdom
Oropeza writes:
The Martyrdom of Polycarp is sometimes considered to be the first of the "Acts of the Martyrs." In this document Polycarp is killed for refusing to confess Caesar as Lord and offer incense; he refuses to revile Christ (Mar. Pol. 8ff; similarly, Ign. Rom. 7). Other Christians did not always follow his example. Some fell into idolatry in the face of persecutions.
Stirred by his own experience under the Diocletian (c. 284–305) persecution, Eusebius wrote Collection of Martyrs and emphasized persecution and martyrdom in his History of the Church. He describes Christians who persevered and others who fell away. Polycarp and Germanicus were found to be faithful in the persecution at Smyrna (c. 160), but Quintus threw away his salvation in the sight of the wild beasts (Eus. Hist. Eccl. 4.15). During Marcus Aurelius' reign (c. 161–180), Eusebius affirms that the Christians confessed their faith despite their suffering from abuse, plundering, stoning, and imprisonment. It is recorded that in Gaul some became martyrs, but others who were untrained and unprepared (about 10 in number) proved to be "abortions" (εξετρωσαν), discouraging the zeal of others. A woman named Biblias, who had earlier denied Christ, confessed him and was joined with the martyrs. Certain defectors did likewise, but others continued to blaspheme the Christian faith, having no understanding of the "wedding garment" (i.e., Matthew 22:11ff) and no faith (Hist. Eccl. 5.1).
During the reign of Decius (c. 249–251), the Christians of Alexandria are said to have endured martyrdom, stoning, or having their belongings confiscated for not worshipping at an idol's temple or chanting incantations. But some readily made unholy sacrifices, pretending that they had never been Christians, while others renounced their faith or were tortured until they did (Hist. Eccl. 6.41). In his account of the Diocletian persecution, Eusebius commends the heroic martyrs but is determined to mention nothing about those who made shipwreck of their salvation, believing that such reports would not edify his readers (8.2:3). He recollects Christians who suffered in horrible ways which included their being axed to death or slowly burned, having their eyes gouged out, their limbs severed, or their backs seared with melted lead. Some endured the pain of having reeds driven under their fingernails or unmentionable suffering in their private parts (8.12).
Clement seeks to inspire perseverance in the midst of suffering with these words: "Let us, therefore, work righteousness, that we may be saved to the end. Blessed are they who obey these commandments, even if for a brief space they suffer in this world, and they will gather the imperishable fruit of the resurrection. Let not the godly man, therefore, grieve; if for the present he suffer affliction, blessed is the time that awaits him there; rising up to life again with the fathers he will rejoice for ever without a grief" (2 Clement 19).
Cyprian (c. 250), commands the presbyters and deacons to take care of the poor and "especially those who have stood with unshaken faith and have not forsaken Christ's flock" while in prison (The Epistles of Cyprian 5:2). These "glorious confessors" need to be instructed that
they ought to be humble and modest and peaceable, that they should maintain the honor of their name, so that those who have achieved glory by what they have testified, may achieve glory also by their characters. … For there remains more than what is yet seen to be accomplished, since it is written "Praise not any man before his death;" and again, "Be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life." [Revelation 2:10] And the Lord also says, "He that endures to the end, the same shall be saved." [Matthew 10:22]. Let them imitate the Lord, who at the very time of His passion was not more proud, but more humble. (The Epistles of Cyprian 5:2)
Ignatius's letter to the Christians in Rome gives valuable insight into the heart of a Christian who is prepared for martyrdom. Ignatius hopes to see them when he arrives as a prisoner. He fears that the love they have for him will, in some way, save him from certain death (Epistle to the Romans 1–2). Yet, he desires to "obtain grace to cling to my lot without hindrance unto the end" so that he may "attain to God" (Epistle to the Romans 1). He requests prayer for "both inward and outward strength" that he might not "merely be called a Christian, but really found to be one,"a Christian "deemed faithful" (Epistle to the Romans 3). He says:
I write to the Churches, and impress on them all, that I shall willingly die for God, unless you hinder me. … Allow me to become food for the wild beasts, through whose instrumentality it will be granted me to attain to God. I am the wheat of God, and let me be ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found the pure bread of Christ. Rather entice the wild beasts, that they may become my tomb, and may leave nothing of my body. … Then shall I truly be a disciple of Christ, when the world shall not see so much as my body. Entreat Christ for me, that by these instruments I may be found a sacrifice [to God]. … But when I suffer, I shall be the freed-man of Jesus, and shall rise again emancipated in Him. And now, being a prisoner, I learn not to desire anything worldly or vain. … And let no one, of things visible or invisible, envy me that I should attain to Jesus Christ. Let fire and the cross; let the crowds of wild beasts; let tearings, breakings, and dislocations of bones; let cutting off of members; let shatterings of the whole body; and let all the dreadful torments of the devil come upon me: only let me attain to Jesus Christ. All the pleasures of the world, and all the kingdoms of this earth, shall profit me nothing. It is better for me to die in behalf of Jesus Christ, than to reign over all the ends of the earth. "For what shall a man be profited, if he gain the whole world, but lose his own soul?" Him I seek, who died for us: Him I desire, who rose again for our sake. This is the gain which is laid up for me. … Permit me to be an imitator of the passion of my God. (Epistle to the Romans 4–6)
Tertullian believes that martyrdom is necessary at times in order for soldiers in God's army to obey the command to not worship idols.
If, therefore, it is evident that from the beginning this kind of worship [of idols] has both been forbiddenwitness the commands so numerous and weightyand that it has never been engaged in without punishment following, as examples so numerous and impressive show, and that no offense is counted by God so presumptuous as a trespass of this sort, we ought further to perceive the purport of both the divine threatenings and their fulfillments, which was even then commended not only by the not calling in question, but also by the enduring of martyrdoms, for which certainly He had given occasion by forbidding idolatry. … The injunction is given me not to make mention of any other god, not even by speakingas little by the tongue as by the handto fashion a god, and not to worship or in any way show reverence to another than Him only who thus commands me, whom I am both bid fear that I may not be forsaken by Him, and love with my whole being, that I may die for Him. Serving as a soldier under this oath, I am challenged by the enemy. If I surrender to them, I am as they are. In maintaining this oath, I fight furiously in battle, am wounded, hewn in pieces, slain. Who wished this fatal issue to his soldier, but he who sealed him by such an oath? (Scorpiace 4)
In the following chapter Tertullian maintains that "martyrdom is good," especially when the Christian faces the temptation to worship idols, which is forbidden. He goes on to write,
For martyrdom strives against and opposes idolatry. But to strive against and oppose evil cannot be ought but good. … For martyrdom contends with idolatry, not from some malice which they share, but from its own kindness; for it delivers from idolatry. Who will not proclaim that to be good which delivers from idolatry? What else is the opposition between idolatry and martyrdom, than that between life and death? Life will be counted to be martyrdom as much as idolatry to be death. … Thus martyrdoms also rage furiously, but for salvation. God also will be at liberty to heal for everlasting life by means of fires and swords, and all that is painful. (Scorpiace 5)
Tertullian has a long discussion on the certainty of persecutions and the reality of death for followers of Christ. Quoting extensively from the teachings of Jesus, Tertullian urges Christians towards faithful endurance in order to obtain final salvation with God.
When setting forth His chief commands, "Blessed are they who are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven." [Matthew 5:10] The following statement, indeed, applies first to all without restriction, then especially to the apostles themselves: "Blessed shall you be when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you, for my sake. Rejoice and be exceeding glad, since very great is your reward in heaven; for so used their fathers to do even to the prophets." [Matthew 5:11–12] So that He likewise foretold their having to be themselves also slain, after the example of the prophets. … The rule about enduring persecution also would have had respect to us too, as to disciples by inheritance, and, (as it were,) bushes from the apostolic seed. For even thus again does He address words of guidance to the apostles: "Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves;" [Matthew 10:16] and, "Beware of men, for they will deliver you up to the councils, and they will scourge you in their synagogues; and you shall be brought before governors and kings for my sake, for a testimony against them and the Gentiles," etc. [Matthew 10:17–18] Now when He adds, "But the brother will deliver up the brother to death, and the father the child; and the children shall rise up against their parents, and cause them to be put to death," [Matthew 10:21] He has clearly announced with reference to the others, (that they would be subjected to) this form of unrighteous conduct, which we do not find exemplified in the case of the apostles. For none of them had experience of a father or a brother as a betrayer, which very many of us have. Then He returns to the apostles: "And you shall be hated of all men for my name's sake." How much more shall we, for whom there exists the necessity of being delivered up by parents too! Thus, by allotting this very betrayal, now to the apostles, now to all, He pours out the same destruction upon all the possessors of the name, on whom the name, along with the condition that it be an object of hatred, will rest. But he who will endure on to the endthis man will be saved. By enduring what but persecutionbetrayaldeath? For to endure to the end is naught else than to suffer the end. And therefore there immediately follows, "The disciple is not above his master, nor the servant above his own lord;" [Matthew 10:24] because, seeing the Master and Lord Himself was steadfast in suffering persecution, betrayal and death, much more will it be the duty of His servants and disciples to bear the same, that they may not seem as if superior to Him, or to have got an immunity from the assaults of unrighteousness, since this itself should be glory enough for them, to be conformed to the sufferings of their Lord and Master; and, preparing them for the endurance of these, He reminds them that they must not fear such persons as kill the body only, but are not able to destroy the soul, but that they must dedicate fear to Him rather who has such power that He can kill both body and soul, and destroy them in hell [Matthew 10:28]. Who, pray, are these slayers of the body only, but the governors and kings aforesaidmen, I suppose? Who is the ruler of the soul also, but God only? Who is this but the threatener of fires hereafter, He without whose will not even one of two sparrows falls to the ground; that is, not even one of the two substances of man, flesh or spirit, because the number of our hairs also has been recorded before Him? Fear not, therefore. When He adds, "You are of more value than many sparrows," He makes promise that we shall not in vainthat is, not without profitfall to the ground if we choose to be killed by men rather than by God. "Whosoever therefore will confess in me before men, in him will I confess also before my Father who is in heaven; and whosoever shall deny me before men, him will I deny also before my Father who is in heaven." [Matthew 10:32–34] [What] if a Christian is to be stoned … burned … butchered … [or] put an end to by beasts … ? He who will endure these assaults to the end, the same shall be saved. … For what does He add after finishing with confession and denial? "Think not that I have come to send peace on earth, but a sword,"undoubtedly on the earth. "For I have come to set a man at variance against his father, and the daughter against her mother, and the mother-in-law against her daughter-in-law. And a man's foes shall be they of his own household." [Matthew 10:34–35] For so is it brought to pass, that the brother delivers up the brother to death, and the father the son: and the children rise up against the parents, and cause them to die. And he who endures to the end let that man be saved. [Matthew 10:22] So that this whole course of procedure characteristic of the Lord's sword, which has been sent not to heaven, but to earth, makes confession also to be there, which by enduring to the end is to issue in the suffering of death. In the same manner, therefore, we maintain that the other announcements too refer to the condition of martyrdom. "He," says Jesus, "who will value his own life also more than me, is not worthy of me," [Luke 14:26] that is, he who will rather live by denying, than die by confessing, me; and "he who finds his life shall lose it; but he who loses it for my sake shall find it." [Matthew 10:39] Therefore indeed he finds it, who, in winning life, denies; but he who thinks that he wins it by denying, will lose it in hell. On the other hand, he who, through confessing, is killed, will lose it for the present, but is also about to find it unto everlasting life. Who, now, should know better the marrow of the Scriptures than the school of Christ itself?the persons whom the Lord both chose for Himself as scholars, certainly to be fully instructed in all points, and appointed to us for masters to instruct us in all points. To whom would He have rather made known the veiled import of His own language, than to him to whom He disclosed the likeness of His own gloryto Peter, John, and James, and afterwards to Paul, to whom He granted participation in (the joys of) paradise too, prior to his martyrdom? Or do they also write differently from what they thinkteachers using deceit, not truth? Addressing the Christians of Pontus, Peter, at all events, says, "How great indeed is the glory, if you suffer patiently, without being punished as evildoers! For this is a lovely feature, and even hereunto were you called, since Christ also suffered for us, leaving you Himself as an example, that you should follow His own steps." [1 Peter 2:20–21] And again: "Beloved, be not alarmed by the fiery trial which is taking place among you, as though some strange thing happened unto you. For, inasmuch as you are partakers of Christ's sufferings, do you rejoice; that, when His glory shall be revealed, you may be glad also with exceeding joy. If you are reproached for the name of Christ, happy are you; because glory and the Spirit of God rest upon you: if only none of you suffer as a murderer, or as a thief, or as an evil-doer, or as a busybody in other men's matters; yet (if any man suffer) as a Christian, let him not be ashamed, but let him glorify God on this behalf." [1 Peter 4:12–14] John, in fact, exhorts us to lay down our lives even for our brethren, [1 John 3:16] affirming that there is no fear in love: "For perfect love casts out fear, since fear has punishment; and he who fears is not perfect in love." [1 John 4:18] What fear would it be better to understand (as here meant), than that which gives rise to denial? What love does he assert to be perfect, but that which puts fear to flight, and gives courage to confess? What penalty will he appoint as the punishment of fear, but that which he who denies is about to pay, who has to be slain, body and soul, in hell? And if he teaches that we must die for the brethren, how much more for the Lord,he being sufficiently prepared, by his own Revelation too, for giving such advice! For indeed the Spirit had sent the injunction to the angel of the church in Smyrna: "Behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison, that you may be tried ten days. Be faithful unto death, and I will give you a crown of life." [Revelation 2:10] Also to the angel of the church in Pergamus (mention was made) of Antipas, [Revelation 2:13] the very faithful martyr, who was slain where Satan dwells. Also to the angel of the church in Philadelphia [Revelation 3:10] (it was signified) that he who had not denied the name of the Lord was delivered from the last trial. Then to every conqueror the Spirit promises now the tree of life, and exemption from the second death; now the hidden manna with the stone of glistening whiteness, and the name unknown (to every man save him that receives it); now power to rule with a rod of iron, and the brightness of the morning star; now the being clothed in white raiment, and not having the name blotted out of the book of life, and being made in the temple of God a pillar with the inscription on it of the name of God and of the Lord, and of the heavenly Jerusalem; now a sitting with the Lord on His throne . … Who, pray, are these so blessed conquerors, but martyrs in the strict sense of the word? For indeed theirs are the victories whose also are the fights; theirs, however, are the fights whose also is the blood. But the souls of the martyrs both peacefully rest in the meantime under the altar, [Revelation 6:9] and support their patience by the assured hope of revenge; and, clothed in their robes, wear the dazzling halo of brightness, until others also may fully share in their glory. For yet again a countless throng are revealed, clothed in white and distinguished by palms of victory, celebrating their triumph doubtless over Antichrist, since one of the elders says, "These are they who come out of that great tribulation, and have washed their robes, and made them white in the blood of the Lamb." [Revelation 7:14] For the flesh is the clothing of the soul. The uncleanness, indeed, is washed away by baptism, but the stains are changed into dazzling whiteness by martyrdom. … When great Babylon likewise is represented as drunk with the blood of the saints, [Revelation 17:6] doubtless the supplies needful for her drunkenness are furnished by the cups of martyrdoms; and what suffering the fear of martyrdoms will entail, is in like manner shown. For among all the castaways, nay, taking precedence of them all, are the fearful. "But the fearful," says Johnand then come the others"will have their part in the lake of fire and brimstone." [Revelation 21:8] Thus fear, which, as stated in his epistle, love drives out, has punishment. (Scorpiace 9–12)
Readings from the early church fathers such as these led patristic scholar David Bercot to conclude: "Since the early Christians believed that our continued faith and obedience are necessary for salvation, it naturally follows that they believed that a 'saved' person could still end up being lost [through apostasy]."
Primary theological perspectives
There appears to be three primary perspectives on apostasy in Reformed Protestantism: Classical or Reformed Calvinism, Moderate Calvinism, Reformed Arminianism. Catholicism and Lutheranism also affirm the possibility of apostasy in Christianity.
Calvinism
According to John Calvin (1509–1564), once the Holy Spirit brings a person to regeneration (i.e., gives them spiritual life) this experience cannot be lost and leads to final salvation with God. In Calvin's theology, God has predestined to regenerate some (the elect) to eternal life and not to regenerate others (the non-elect) which ensures their eternal damnation (Calvin's Institutes 3.21:5; cf. 3.2:15–40, 14.6–9, 18–20, 24.6f.). The elect may fall away from God's grace temporarily, but the truly elect will eventually be restored and not plunge into final apostasy. Calvin believed that "The Lord uses the fear of final apostasy in order to safeguard true believers against it. Only the ones who ignore the threat are in real danger of falling away." Calvin viewed the passages on apostasy found in Hebrews (6:4–6; 10:26–29) as applying to those in the church having a false faithreprobates (i.e., unbelievers) who have never experienced regeneration. John Jefferson Davis writes:
Even though Calvin believes that regeneration is irreversible … he does not conclude that the Christian has any cause for spiritual complacency. Persevering in God's grace requires, on the human side, "severe and arduous effort." … The believer needs to continually feed his soul on the preaching of the Word and to grow in faith throughout the whole course of life. Since it is easy for the believer to fall away for a time from the grace of God, there is constant need for "striving and vigilance, if we would persevere in the grace of God." Calvin thus balances his theological certitudes with pastoral warnings. … The believer must continually exercise faith and obedience to make "his calling and election sure."
Others in the Reformed tradition followed Calvin's theology on election, regeneration, perseverance, and apostasy: Zacharias Ursinus (1534–1583); William Perkins (1558–1602); John Owen (1616–1683); John Gill (1697–1771); Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758); and George Whitefield (1714–1770). The Reformed confessions such as the Canons of the Synod of Dort (1619) and the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646) also express views parallel with Calvin's theology.
Moderate Calvinism
In his book, Reign of the Servant Kings: A Study of Eternal Security and the Final Significance of Man, Free Grace author Joseph Dillow seeks to chart a middle position between the Reformed Calvinist and Arminian position on apostasy. Dillow accepts "the Reformed position that those who are truly born again can never lose their salvation." But he also accepts the Arminian position that the warning passages concerning apostasy in the New Testament (e.g., Hebrews 6) are directed to genuine Christians, not merely professing Christians who are in reality unbelievers as reformed Calvinists assert. There are real dangers in these warning passages, but contrary to the Arminian view, it "is not [the] loss of salvation but severe divine discipline (physical death or worse) in the present time and loss of reward, and even rebuke, at the judgment seat of Christ." Dillow, like other Free Grace adherents, disagrees with reformed Calvinists and Arminians in holding that saving faith in Christ must continue in order for a person to obtain final salvation with God. The prominent authors for the Moderate Calvinist perspective are: R. T. Kendall; Zane C. Hodges; Charles C. Ryrie; Charles Stanley; Norman L. Geisler; and Tony Evans.
Arminianism
Arminianism derives its name from pastor and theologian James Arminius (1560–1609). Right up until his death, Arminius was undecided as to whether a believer could apostasize. However, he did affirm like Calvin that believers must continually exercise faith in order to obtain final salvation with God. After the death of Arminius, the Remonstrants maintained their leader's view that the believer has power through the indwelling presence of the Holy Spirit to be victorious over sin, Satan, and the world, and his uncertainty regarding the possibility of apostasy. This is evidenced in the fifth article drafted by its leaders in 1610. Sometime between 1610, and the official proceeding of the Synod of Dort (1618), the Remonstrants became fully persuaded in their minds that the Scriptures taught that a true believer was capable of apostasizing. They formalized their views in "The Opinion of the Remonstrants" (1618). Points three and four in the fifth article read:
True believers can fall from true faith and can fall into such sins as cannot be consistent with true and justifying faith; not only is it possible for this to happen, but it even happens frequently. True believers are able to fall through their own fault into shameful and atrocious deeds, to persevere and to die in them; and therefore finally to fall and to perish.
Arminian scholar Robert Picirilli remarks: "Ever since that early period, then, when the issue was being examined again, Arminians have taught that those who are truly saved need to be warned against apostasy as a real and possible danger." Important treatments regarding apostasy have come from the following Arminians: Thomas Olivers (1725–1799); Richard Watson (1781–1833); Thomas O. Summers (1812–1882); Albert Nash (1812–1900); and William Burt Pope (1822–1903).
Catholicism
In the Catholic Church, apostasy constitutes the "total repudiation of the Christian faith." Those who adhere to a position of apostasy incur a latae sententiae excommunication.
Lutheranism
The Smalcald Articles of Lutheranism teach that apostasy from the Christian faith can occur through loss of faith or through falling into a lifestyle characterized by mortal sin:
In the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Philip Melanchthon elucidates the topic of salvation, teaching that mortal sin and the presence of the Holy Spirit in a human are dichotomous:
Christian denominations that affirm the possibility of apostasy
The following Christian denominations affirm their belief in the possibility of apostasy in either their articles or statements of faith, or by way of a position paper.
Anabaptist Churches
Mennonite Church
Missionary Church
Eastern Orthodox Churches
Evangelical Congregational Church
General Baptists
General Association of General Baptists
National Association of Free Will Baptists
Lutheran Churches
Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod
Methodist Churches (Wesleyan-Arminianism)
Evangelical Wesleyan Church
The United Methodist Church
Free Methodist Church
The Salvation Army
Church of the Nazarene
Church of God (Anderson, Indiana)
Pentecostal Churches
Assemblies of God
Quakerism
Evangelical Friends Church - Eastern Region
Restorationist Churches
Churches of Christ
Roman Catholic Church
Theologians who affirmed the possibility of apostasy
Augustine, Aquinas, and Martin Luther
Theologians such as Augustine, Aquinas and Luther believed that some people who did not receive a gift of perseverance can lose the grace of baptismal regeneration and justification.
Augustine (354–430) believed in a specific gift of perseverance given to some baptized Christians. Augustine did not believe that someone can in this life know with infallible certitude that he is in fact among the elect, and that he will finally persevere. Thus, those who didn't receive the gift of perseverance can reject justification and lose baptismal regeneration.
As Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, (1225–1274) held that justified people can finally be lost. Similarly, Martin Luther (1483–1546) believed that salvation or
regeneration occurred through the waters of baptism. "But," noted the Reformer, "all of us do not remain with our baptism. Many fall away from Christ and become false Christians." In his commentary on 2 Peter 2:22 he writes as follows on apostates in the Church: "Through baptism these people threw out unbelief, had their unclean way of life washed away, and entered into a pure life of faith and love. Now they fall away into unbelief and their own works, and they soil themselves again in filth."
In his comments on Galatians 5:4, "Ye are fallen from grace," Luther writes, "To fall from grace means to lose the atonement, the forgiveness of sins, the righteousness, liberty, and life which Jesus has merited for us by His death and resurrection. To lose the grace of God means to gain the wrath and judgment of God, death, the bondage of the devil, and everlasting condemnation."
Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560)
Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560) wrote a commentary on Romans in 1540. On this particular passage: "Brothers, we are debtors, not to the flesh, to live according to the flesh. For if you live according to the flesh you will die, but if by the Spirit you put to death the deeds of the body, you will live" (Rom. 8:12–13, ESV), Melanchthon calls this "teaching about the new obedience." Paul gives this teaching so people "born again by faith" "may understand what the obedience in the saints is like, and what is the nature of the sin on account of which they fall from grace and lose faith and the Holy Spirit." This new obedience "acknowledges God, obeys him, and fights against the impulses of the flesh which carry a person along against the will of God." When Paul says "'If you mortify the actions of the flesh by the Spirit,' he testifies that there are in saints some sinful actions, namely, concupiscence [i.e., strong sexual desire; lust]; various evil desires; … being inflamed with desire for revenge; hatred; avarice [i.e., greed]; etc." These sins do not lead to "eternal death" when the saints fight against these sins by faith through Christ their mediator. It is
when those who had been sanctified indulge in and obey such desires, do not fight against them, and are without repentance. Such persons lose faith and the Holy Spirit and are condemned to eternal death unless they return to repentance. Thus when David had become an adulterer, he was without faith and the Holy Spirit, and would have been lost if he had not afterward been restored through repentance. Here belongs what is said in this passage: "If you will live according to the flesh," that is, if you will obey the evil desires, "you will die." The same thought is frequently repeated in Scripture. … 1 Cor. 6[:9]: "Do not be deceived; neither the immoral, nor idolaters, … will inherit the kingdom of God." Gal. 5[:21]: "Those who do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God." Col. 3[:6]: "On account of which the wrath of God is coming on the disobedient …"
Puritan John Goodwin demonstrated that Melanchthon fully supported the possibility of Christians committing apostasy:
"There are two errors … of fanatic men, which must briefly be confuted, who conceit that men regenerated cannot lapse” or fall, "and that though they do fall, and this against the light of their conscience, yet they are righteous," or in a state of justification. "This madness is to be condemned, and both instances and sayings from the scriptures of the apostles and prophets are opposed to it. Saul and David pleased God, were righteous, had the Holy Spirit given unto them, yet afterward fell, so that one of them perished utterly; the other returned again to God. There are many sayings" to the same point. And having cited, upon the said account, Matthew 12:43–44; 2 Peter 2:20–21; 1 Corinthians 10:12; Revelation 2:5., he subjoins: "These and the like sayings, being spoken of regenerate men, testify that they may fall, and that in case they fall against their consciences they please not God unless they be converted." Elsewhere thus: "Whereas it hath been said that sins remain in the regenerate, it is necessary that a difference be made; for certain it is that they who rush into sinful practices against conscience do not continue in grace, nor retain faith, righteousness, or the Holy Spirit; neither can faith stand with an evil purpose of heart against conscience." A little after: "But that they fall from grace, and shed faith and the Holy Spirit, and become guilty of the wrath of God and of eternal punishment, who commit sin against conscience, many sayings" in the Scriptures "clearly testify;" to which purpose he cites Galatians 5:19; 1 Corinthians 6:9, etc. … Writing upon the those words of the apostle [Paul], 1 Corinthians 10:12, "Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall,""But that in some who had the beginnings of faith, and afterwards falling, return not, that faith of theirs was true before it was lost" or shaken out, "the sayings of Peter, 2 Peter 2:20, testifieth."
Thomas Helwys (1550–1616)
Thomas Helwys "was an English lawyer and theologian who holds an important place in American, Arminian, and Baptist history." In 1611 Helwys "outlined a declaration of faith that characterized the theology of the General Baptists." Point seven affirms his belief in apostasy:
Men may fall away from the grace of GOD (Hebrews 12:15) and from the truth, which they have received and acknowledged (Hebrews 10:26) after they have tasted of the heavenly gift, and were made partakers of the HOLY SPIRIT, and have tasted of the good word of GOD, and of the powers of the world to come (Hebrews 6:4, 5). And after they have escaped from the filthiness of the World, may be tangled again therein and overcome (2 Peter 2:20). A righteous man may forsake his righteousness and perish (Ezekiel 18:24, 26). Therefore, let no man presume to think that because he has, or once had grace, therefore he shall always have grace. But let all men have assurance, that if they continue to the end, they will be saved. Let no man then presume; but let all work out their salvation with fear and trembling.
Simon Episcopius (1583–1643)
Simon Episcopius was the leader of the Remonstrants and primary author of "The Opinions of the Remonstrants 1618" and "The Arminian Confession of 1621." In the Confession the Remonstrants were "persuaded that none is to be easily condemned, or blotted out of the register of Christians who holds fast to faith in Christ, and in hope of the good things promised by him, [and who] seek from the heart to obey his commands … ." Furthermore,
Even if it is true that those who are adept in the habit of faith and holiness can only with difficulty fall back to their former profaneness and dissoluteness of life (Hebrews 6), yet we believe that it is entirely possible, if not rarely done (Hebrews 6:4; Revelation 2 & 3; 2 Peter 2:18; Ezekiel 18:24; Hebrews 4:1–2; 10:28–29; 10:38–39; 1 Timothy 1:19–20; Romans 11:18) that they fall back little by little and until they completely lack their prior faith and charity. And having abandoned the way of righteousness, they revert to their worldly impurity which they had truly left, returning like pigs to wallowing in the mud and dogs to their vomit, and are again entangled in lusts of the flesh which they had formerly, truly fled. And thus totally and at length also they are finally torn from the grace of God unless they seriously repent in time.
John Goodwin (1594–1665)
John Goodwin was a Puritan who "presented the Arminian position of falling away in Redemption Redeemed (1651)." Goodwins work was primarily dedicated to refuting the Calvinist doctrine of limited atonement, but he digresses from his main topic and spends 300 pages attempting to disprove the Calvinist doctrine of unconditional perseverance.
Thomas Grantham (1634–1692)
Thomas Grantham "was the English General Baptists’ foremost leader in the late seventeenth-century, during which time his Christianismus Primitivus [meaning: 'ancient Christianity'] served as the primary text for General Baptist theology." In it he writes,
That such who are true believers, even branches of Christ the vine, and that in the account of Christ whom he exhorts to abide in him, or such who have Charity out of a pure heart, and of a good conscience, and of faith unfeigned, 1 Timothy 1:5, may nevertheless for want of watchfulness, swerve and turn aside from the same, and become dead branches, cast into the fire, and burned [John 15:6]. But such who add unto their Faith Virtue, and unto Virtue Knowledge, and unto Knowledge Temperance, &c. such shall never fall [2 Peter 1:5–10], for they are kept by the power of God though Faith unto Salvation [1 Peter 1:5].
John Wesley (1703–1791)
John Jefferson Davis writes,
In the treatise "Predestination Calmly Considered" Wesley observed that believers might infer from their own experience of grace that it is impossible to finally fall away. Nevertheless, whatever assurance God might give to particular souls "I find no general promise in holy writ, that none who once believes shall finally fall." Scripture, and not personal experience or inferences drawn from it, states Wesley, must be decisive in the matter. In his treatise "Serious Thoughts on the Perseverance of the Saints" Wesley allows that the apostle Pauland many believers todaywere fully persuaded of their final perseverance. Nevertheless such an assurance does not prove that every believer will persevere or that every believer enjoys such assurance. Based on his reading of Hebrews 6:4, 6; 10:26–29; 2 Peter 2:20–21 and other NT texts, Wesley is persuaded that a true believer can make shipwreck of his faith and perish everlastingly.
Twenty-first century
Poland
In Poland there is no formal state sanctioned legal way to withdraw from any religious organization in which person is affiliated. Those who wish to undergo apostasy must rely on the internal procedures set by their particular religious organization.
, the procedure for apostasy in the Catholic Church in Poland is a procedure defined on 19 February 2016. The earlier procedure were defined in 2008. Procedure rule in 2016 eliminated necessity of committing apostasy in the presence of two witnesses. It can only be done in person, by delivering an application to a church parish priest in person. The procedure cannot be done by email, post or state administrative services. Apostasy gained in popularity during the October 2020 Polish protests, however the amount of apostasy increased marginally not affecting significantly so as to being compared to the percentage of believers acknowledged by church. In the terrain of the Archdiocese of Krakow about 460 apostasies were committed in 2020.There is no official statistic of apostasy led by the Catholic Church nationwide. Earlier church counted statistics informed about 1050 committed apostasies between 2006-2009. The "apostasy meter" shows that since the protests which took place in October 2020 about 3000 people underwent apostasy.The procedure is criticising for not withdrawing apostate from the church registry member. After having done apostasy procedure a proper notation is only written in baptismal book ( which is a document which presents chronologically somebodies events in his/her "church life" like the date of baptism/receiving first communion and chrismation or eventually taking a marriage vow or being sanctified as a priest) about committing apostasy. This act does not affect in any lawful effects and that person does not stop being recognised as Catholic by the church.
United States
Out of all Americans who identify as unaffiliated including atheists and agnostics, 41% were raised Protestant and 28% were raised Catholic according to the 2014 Pew Religious Landscape survey.
Implications
Michael Fink writes:
Apostasy is certainly a biblical concept, but the implications of the teaching have been hotly debated. The debate has centered on the issue of apostasy and salvation. Based on the concept of God's sovereign grace, some hold that, though true believers may stray, they will never totally fall away. Others affirm that any who fall away were never really saved. Though they may have "believed" for a while, they never experienced regeneration. Still others argue that the biblical warnings against apostasy are real and that believers maintain the freedom, at least potentially, to reject God's salvation.
McKnight says that "apostasy ought not to be used as a continual threat so much as an occasional warning of the disaster that Christians may bring upon themselves if they do not examine themselves. As a warning, apostasy can function as a moral injunction that strengthens commitment to holiness as well as the need to turn in complete trust to God in Christ through his Spirit." Some argue that the desire for salvation shows one does not have "an evil, unbelieving heart" leading to apostasy. As Fink puts it, "persons worried about apostasy should recognize that conviction of sin in itself is evidence that one has not fallen away."
Penalties
In old times canon law, apostasy a fide, defined as total repudiation of the Christian faith, was considered as different from a theological standpoint from heresy, but subject to the same penalty of death by fire by decretist jurists. The influential 13th century theologian Hostiensis recognized three types of apostasy. The first was conversion to another faith, which was considered traitorous and could bring confiscation of property or even the death penalty. The second and third, which was punishable by expulsion from home and imprisonment, consisted of breaking major commandments and breaking the vows of religious orders, respectively.
A decretal by Boniface VIII classified apostates together with heretics with respect to the penalties incurred. Although it mentioned only apostate Jews explicitly, it was applied to all apostates, and the Spanish Inquisition used it to persecute both the Marano Jews, who had been converted to Christianity by force, and to the Moriscos who had professed to convert to Christianity from Islam under pressure.
Temporal penalties for Christian apostates have fallen into disuse in the modern era.
See also
List of former Christians
Christian atheism
Backsliding
Arminian doctrine of individual apostasy, see Conditional Preservation of the Saints
Christian heresy
Conversion to Christianity
Eternal sin
Great Apostasy
Rejection of Jesus
Religious trauma syndrome
Julian the Apostate
Apostasy in other religions
Apostasy in Islam
Apostasy in Judaism
Notes and references
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Atwood, Craig D., Hill, Samuel S., and Mead, Frank S. Handbook of Denominations in the United States, 12th Edition (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005).
Bercot, David W, editor. A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs: A Reference Guide to More Than 700 Topics Discussed by the Early Church Fathers (Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1998).
Bercot, David W. Will the Real Heretics Please Stand Up: A New Look at Today's Evangelical Church in the Light of Early Christianity (Amberson: Scroll Publishing Company, 1989).
Bromiley, Geoffrey W, general editor. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (Grand Rapids: Williams B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979).
Brown, Colin, editor, The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, 3 Volumes (Grand Rapids: Regency Reference Library/Zondervan, 1975–1978).
Davis, John Jefferson. "The Perseverance of the Saints: A History of the Doctrine," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 34:2 (June 1991), 213–228.
Draper, Charles W., Brand, Chad, England, Archie, editors. Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003).
Early, Joe Jr. The Life and Writings of Thomas Helwys (Macon: Mercer University Press, 2009).
Ellis, Mark A. translator and editor, The Arminian Confession of 1621 (Eugene: Pickwick Publications, 2005).
Elwell, Walter A. and Comfort, Philip W. editors, Tyndale Bible Dictionary (Wheaton: Tyndale House Publishers, 2001).
Gilbrant, Thoralf, and Ralph W. Harris, eds. The Complete Biblical Library: New Testament, 16 Volumes (Springfield: The Complete Biblical Library, 1986–1991).
Leeuwen, Van Marius Th., Stanglin, Keith D. and Tolsma, Marijke, editors. Arminius, Arminianism, and Europe: Jacobus Arminius (1559/60–1609) (London: Brill, 2009).
Luther, Martin. Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians (1535), translated by Theodore Graebner (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1949). Obtained from Project Wittenberg at Galatians Commentary (5:1–13) – Martin Luther
Marshall, I. Howard. Kept by the Power of God: A Study of Perseverance and Falling Away (Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship, Inc., 1969).
Martin, Ralph P. and Davids, Peter H., editors, Dictionary of the Later New Testament and its Developments, (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1997).
McKnight, Scot. "The Warning Passages of Hebrews: A Formal Analysis and Theological Conclusions," Trinity Journal 13:1 (1992): 21–59.
Melanchthon, Philip. Annotations on the First Epistle to the Corinthians, translated by John Patrick Donnelly (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1995).
Muller, Richard A. Dictionary of Greek and Latin Theological Terms: Drawn Principally from Protestant Scholastic Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1985).
Oropeza, B. J. Paul and Apostasy: Eschatology, Perseverance, and Falling Away in the Corinthian Congregation (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000).
Oropeza, B. J. Apostasy in the New Testament Communities (3 Vols. Eugene: Cascade, 2011–2012).
Pfürtner, Stephen. Luther and Aquinas on Salvation (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1964).
Ryken, Leland, Wilhoit, Jim, Longman, Tremper, Duriez, Colin, Penny, Douglas, Reid, Daniel G., editors, Dictionary of Biblical Imagery (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998).
Summers, Thomas O. Systematic Theology: A Complete Body of Wesleyan Arminian Divinity, Consisting of Lectures on the Twenty-Five Articles of Religion (Nashville: Methodist Episcopal Church, South, 1888).
Vanhoozer, Kevin J. editor, Dictionary of Theological Interpretation of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House Company, 2005).
External links
"Early Christian Writers on Apostasy and Perseverance" by Steve Witzki
Apostasy
Christian hamartiology
Christian terminology
Christianity and other religions
Disengagement from religion
Arminianism
Christian soteriology |
4500892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Dakota%20State%20Bison | North Dakota State Bison | The North Dakota State Bison are the athletic teams of North Dakota State University (NDSU), which is located in the city of Fargo, North Dakota. The teams are often called the "Thundering Herd". The current logo is a bison.
Sports sponsored
A member of the Summit League, North Dakota State University sponsors teams in eight men's and eight women's NCAA sanctioned intercollegiate sports: The football team competes as a member of the Missouri Valley Football Conference. The wrestling team competes as an affiliate member of the Big 12 Conference.
In the past, North Dakota State has been a member of the North Central Conference, the Great West Football Conference, and the United Soccer Conference. It has also been an independent.
National championships
The Bison have won twenty-nine NCAA national championships, both at the Division I and Division II levels.
Team
Individual
The Bison have won two individual event championships, all at the Division I level.
Source:
Individual sports
Football
The Bison football team, which since 1993 played their home games at the Fargodome, was a dominant force in Division II. Through January 2022, they have won 17 NCAA National titles. Eight were at the Division II level (1965, 1968, 1969, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1988, and 1990) before moving up to Division I-AA (now FCS) in 2004 where they have won nine national championships (2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021). NDSU is the only team at any level of NCAA football to have won five straight national championships. The program was the winningest in the history of the NCAA Division II North Central Conference, with 17 outright championships and 27 total league football titles. The program has also been quite successful since moving up to the D1 FCS classification. In 2006 the Bison posted a 10–1 record that included a win over FBS Ball State. During a 2006 game against FBS Minnesota, NDSU led for much of the game, but a last-second field goal attempt was blocked by Minnesota, resulting in a 10–9 loss. The following season, the Bison won their first Great West Football Conference championship and achieved the number 1 ranking in major FCS polls for a majority of the season. During this season the 2007 Bison football team defeated FBS members Central Michigan University and the University of Minnesota. In 2010 the Bison defeated the FBS Kansas Jayhawks, 6–3, for their first win over a Big 12 program. The Bison won the 2011 FCS national championship, defeating Sam Houston State University, 17–6. The 2011 title was their ninth overall. The Bison returned to the FCS championship game in 2012 and soundly defeated Sam Houston State University in a rematch of the 2011 title game, 39–13. Expectations were high entering the 2013 season. The season commenced with a game against the Kansas State Wildcats, the reigning Big 12 Champions. The Bison took a quick lead, but let a 7–7 halftime score get away from them; trailing 21–7 in the third quarter. The Bison finished the game with an 18-play 80-yard drive that used minutes, leaving 28 seconds on the clock for the Wildcats, trailing by 3. NDSU Linebacker Grant Olson intercepted the first pass attempt by the Wildcats, sealing their 7th win over FBS teams since their move to FCS. ESPN College GameDay broadcast an episode from Fargo. The Bison finished the season 15–0 with a victory over the Towson Tigers, 35–7. Despite a cast of new coaches, the 2014 Bison finished the season with a 15–1 record, including another win over Big 12 Iowa State and won their fourth consecutive national championship. ESPN College GameDay was broadcast from Fargo for the 2nd consecutive year.
In 2016, the Bison upset AP-ranked 13 Iowa at Kinnick Stadium. This still stands as NDSU's most notable win, and one of the highest profile upsets in Division I football history. Despite the impressive win, the remainder of the season would not be like the previous years for the Bison. NDSU would give up the Dakota Marker for the first time since the 2009 season. They would also see their national title streak end at five after a loss to James Madison in the semifinals at the Fargodome, who would eventually win the National Championship that season.
In the 2017 season, NDSU would return to the title game and avenge their loss the previous season, defeating James Madison in Frisco 17-13. The 2018 season would see one of the Bison's most dominant seasons, especially since 2013, when the team went 15-0 for the second time in program history. The team only played one team in a one score game (the Dakota Marker game against #3 South Dakota State), and accomplished a score differential of 28.9 points). Before the team's eventual victory over South Dakota State in the FCS semifinals, coach Chris Klieman was announced as the next head coach at Kansas State. Klieman was allowed to finish out his season at NDSU, beating SDSU in the semis and then Eastern Washington in the National Championship game.
The 2019 season started a new leaf for NDSU, with Matt Entz being announced as the next head coach for the Bison after previously serving as the team's defensive coordinator the last several seasons. As far as the on-field product was concerned, it was one of the best in program history again. With Trey Lance at the helm for the Bison in his redshirt freshman season, NDSU achieved a 16-0 record for the first time in program history and for only the second time in Division I football history (1894 Yale being the only other program to reach the mark). This was highlighted by the National Championship game win against James Madison in which NDSU won on a game-sealing interception in the redzone with under five seconds remaining. Unfortunately after the season ended, the COVID-19 pandemic hit and the 2020 FCS season was postponed to the Spring of 2021. This wouldn't be the first unfortunate thing to happen to the school in that academic year, as the football team would have a very rare year in the team's history, going 7-3 in the shortened season. The Bison also ended their national championship streak of 3 titles (between 2018 and 2020) after they lost to eventual champion Sam Houston in the FCS quarterfinals.
The 2021 season could be categorized as a "return to their roots" type season for NDSU, after the team went 14-1. The team's only loss being in the Dakota Marker game in Brookings to 4th ranked SDSU. The Bison dominated their way to their ninth national championship, beating playoff rival James Madison in the semifinals in a close game, and then beating Montana State in the title game 38-10.
However, in the 2022 season the Bison would stumble again. The team went 12-3, losing more than 1 game in a season for only the second time since 2011. NDSU lost their first game to an FBS opponent since losing to Minnesota in 2009, after they lost a three-point game at Arizona. The blows would continue as the team not only did not reclaim the Dakota Marker (losing 23-21 at home to 2nd ranked South Dakota State), but would fall to the Jackrabbits again in the National Championship game.
Men's Basketball
The Bison basketball program includes a men's and a women's team. The teams play at the Scheels Center inside the Sanford Health Athletic Complex (SHAC). They won five NCAA National Championships during the decade (1991, 1993–1996). The men's basketball team won an upset victory over the University of Wisconsin on January 21, 2006, potentially increasing its chances of being accepted into a conference. The Bison also upset Marquette University on their home court at their tournament, 64–60, on December 2, 2006.
On February 28, 2009, the Bison men's basketball team captured the Summit League regular-season championship, the school's first at the Division I level, by defeating Oral Roberts 75–72 in Tulsa, OK. Two weeks later, NDSU earned its first men's basketball NCAA berth by winning the Summit League Tournament played at Sioux Falls, SD. The Bison defeated Centenary 83–77 in the tourney quarterfinals, stopped Southern Utah 79–67 in the semifinals, and edged Oakland 66–64 in the championship game. The Bison traveled to Minneapolis for a first-round game with the defending national champions, the Kansas Jayhawks, and fell 84–74. NDSU's tournament appearance marked the first time in almost 35 years that a Division I men's program qualified for the tournament in its first season of eligibility.
2013 NDSU season highlights included a win over Notre Dame for their first ever win over an ACC team. NDSU advanced to the NCAA tournament for a 2nd time and received a #12 seed. They defeated #5 Oklahoma 80–75 in a second-round matchup of the NCAA basketball tournament and fell to San Diego State, one win short of the Sweet 16.
In 2014, NDSU won the Summit League Tournament and advanced to their 3rd NCAA basketball tournament as a #15 seed, eventually falling to #2 seed Gonzaga 86–76.
Several years later, the Bison men's team surprised the Summit League and won the conference tournament, advancing to the NCAA tournament for the fourth time in program history. NDSU would be handed the 16 seed in the East, and was selected to play in the First Four. The Bison beat NC Central in the program's second tournament win, before falling to top-seeded Duke in the first round.
The Bison appeared ready to repeat as champions in the Summit League in the 2019-20 season. They tied South Dakota State for the regular season title, and then won the Summit League tournament for the fifth time in program history. Unfortunately, the NCAA tournament was canceled amid the COVID-19 pandemic.
NDSU would continue to appear in the conference tournament title game, but came up short in the 2020-21 season (loss to Oral Roberts), the 2021-22 season (loss to South Dakota State), and in the 2022-23 season (loss to Oral Roberts).
Women's Basketball
North Dakota State's women's basketball team is the school's only basketball team to win a national championship at any level and is the school's only other program to win at least five national titles besides the football team.
The women's basketball team was a dominant force in Division II throughout the 1990s, as the Bison won five Division II titles. However, since the school emerged from reclassification in 2008, the team has not accomplished much.
The Bison have only made it past the quarterfinal round of the Summit League tournament three times. NDSU has also ended the season with a winning record only three times since entering Division I.
Recently, the Bison have started to change under head coach Jory Collins. In Collins' second season as Bison head coach, NDSU went 15-9 overall and 9-7 in Summit League play, as the program's third Division I season with a winning record. His time at NDSU has also featured 2 out of the program's 3 total Summit League tournament wins.
Wrestling
The Bison wrestling program had success under coach Bucky Maughan, winning four NCAA Division II team National Championships (1988, 1998, 2000, 2001). Maughan retired in 2011 after 37 years and his successor is two-time NCAA All-American Roger Kish. Kish led the 2013–14 NDSU to career highs in rankings and tournament placement since the Bison joined the Division I ranks. In 2013, NDSU earned its first D1 All American and four through 2015. The team is a member of the Big 12 Conference.
In 2023, the Bison earned their next highest ranking in their Division I era at No. 15 before losing to No. 10 Minnesota.
Volleyball
The 2008–2009 season was when the school first became fully eligible for Division I competition. In December 2008 NDSU's women's volleyball team captured the Summit League's regular season and tournament championships (doing so with a perfect league record) to become the first program at the school to earn a berth in a Division I NCAA tournament. The Bison dropped their opening round match to the University of Minnesota.
Softball
In the spring of 2009, the Bison women's softball team won the Summit League tournament in Macomb, Illinois, becoming the school's third team to appear in an NCAA tournament in the calendar year. In its opening game in May, the Bison upset 9th-ranked Oklahoma, 1–0, in an 11-inning game that spanned two days due to a weather delay. The Bison won the regional with victories over Tulsa, 3–2 and 4–1, to advance to the Super Regional (Sweet Sixteen) of the tournament, where they were eliminated.
Since that season, the Bison have reached nine more NCAA tournaments, including a streak of six straight tournaments from 2014-19. However, the team has not reached a Super Regional since 2009.
Recently, the Bison stumbled since the COVID-19 pandemic caused the 2020 season to abruptly end after just a month. NDSU has not reached the NCAA tournament since 2019, and has not won the Summit League regular season title since 2019.
Baseball
The NDSU baseball team plays their home games at Newman Outdoor Field on the north side of campus. The team has not had a large amount of success compared to their Spring counterpart: NDSU's softball team. While the Bison won three North Central Conference titles while in Division II, after the school moved up to Division I in 2008 the team has only won the Summit League twice.
The Bison advanced to their first NCAA tournament in 2014 after winning the Summit League baseball tournament for the first time. However, they would go winless in their first national appearance. Later in 2021, NDSU would win the Summit League tournament for the second time in program history, upsetting Oral Roberts to advance to the program's second NCAA tournament appearance in Division I. This time, the Bison found their first national tournament win in a 6-1 victory over Nevada at the Stanford Regional.
While the 2022 season did not see the Bison return to the NCAA tournament, the team did achieve yet another first. The team won the Summit League regular season title for the first time in program history, finishing with a 17-5 record in conference play which was another high for the program. In the Summit League tournament, the team fell to fourth seeded Omaha to be eliminated from the tournament.
The following season, 2023, the team hosted their first Summit League tournament. In that tournament, NDSU entered as the 2nd seed. The Bison lost to South Dakota State to start the tournament, beat Omaha, but lost to the Jacks again to be eliminated in the final elimination game for the second year in a row.
Soccer
The North Dakota State Bison women's soccer team plays their home games at Dacotah Field nestled in between the school's training facility/basketball arena and the indoor track facility on the North side of campus.
The NDSU soccer program has only been in existence since 1995, when the program played their first season under coach Gordon Henderson in Division II. The team played at two different sites while in Division II. The Bison started at Cardinal Muench Seminary's field off of NDSU's campus. Then after the 1996 season, the team moved on campus for the first time playing on a field part of the Ellig Sports Complex on the northwest side of campus.
While in Division II, the team played in their first and only Division II tournament. In the 1999 season, the Bison placed second in the North Central Conference regular season. Since the conference did not have a full-league tournament, the top two teams were good enough to make the full Division II tournament. After that, the NCC started a conference tournament, in 2000 NDSU was the runner-up in the final game and missed the national tournament. Between that season and 2004, the Bison wouldn't finish high enough to make the conference tournament and did not see another Division II tournament. After the 2003 season, NDSU started their reclassification to Division I. During their reclassification years, the Bison started as Division I independents, joined the United Soccer Conference, and then finally joined the Summit League which has served as their conference of the future.
Starting in 2008, the Bison emerged from reclassification and finished 7th in the Summit League and missed the conference tournament. But then in 2009, the team made their first Summit League tournament, and lost in the championship game.
In 2010, the Bison women's soccer team achieved the program's first NCAA tournament bid with a victory over Western Illinois in the Summit League tournament final.
Since that magical 2010 season, NDSU would make the conference tournament 8 consecutive seasons, which included 4 runner-ups. However, the team could not get over the hump of winning the final game and hasn't reached a Division I tournament since 2010.
Under current head coach Mike Regan, the Bison have made two Summit League tournaments in his 5 seasons in Fargo, including 3 straight seasons of missing the tournament.
Mascot
"Thundar" is the official mascot of NDSU athletics. The mascot, which resembles the American Bison, comes from the term "thundering herd," a nickname given to NDSU athletic teams since changing its name from "Aggies" to "Bison" in 1919. While some form of a "Bison Mascot" has been used at NDSU athletic events since the mid-1960s, "Thundar" did not become the official mascot of the university until 1991.
Media
NDSU athletics radio coverage rights are held by Radio FM Media with games also airing on the 24-station Bison Radio Network. TV rights for the Bison are held by Forum Communications, a Fargo-based communications company that owns TV stations affiliated with ABC, for all sports.
In addition to broadcast rights, the NDSU Bison also receive dedicated print coverage in Bison Illustrated. The monthly magazine brings readers behind the scenes coverage of NDSU teams, players, coaches, administration, and alumni. The magazine is distributed free of charge in locations around the Fargo-Moorhead area and is available via paid subscription for out-of-state readers.
References
External links |
4500915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20South%20Georgia%20and%20the%20South%20Sandwich%20Islands | History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands | The history of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is relatively recent. When European explorers discovered the islands, they were uninhabited, and their hostile climate, mountainous terrain, and remoteness made subsequent settlement difficult. Due to these conditions, human activity in the islands has largely consisted of sealing, whaling, and scientific surveys and research, interrupted by World War II and the Falklands War.
17th to 19th century
The South Atlantic island of South Georgia, situated south of the Antarctic Convergence, was the first Antarctic territory to be discovered. It was first visited in 1675 by Antoine de la Roché, an English merchant born in London to a French father. He left Hamburg in 1674 as a passenger on a 350-ton vessel bound for Peru. During the return journey, it was en route to Salvador in Brazil around Cape Horn. While trying to navigate through the Le Maire Strait near Staten Island, it was driven off course far to the east. In April 1675, the vessel found refuge in a bay of an unknown island where it anchored for 14 days. La Roché published a report of his voyage in London in 1678 in which he described the new land. That report is now lost but shortly afterwards, in 1690, Captain Francisco de Seixas y Lovera, a Spanish mariner, published an account of La Roché's discovery in his Descripcion geographica, y derrotero de la region austral Magallanica. After this, cartographers started to depict "Roché Island" on their maps. Roché Island is almost certainly South Georgia, despite the discrepancies in the coordinates given, which can be accounted for by the navigational difficulties experienced by all sailors at the time.
Sir Edmund Halley in HMS Paramore (or Paramour) made a major scientific discovery in what is now the South Georgia EEZ in January 1700, discovering and describing the Antarctic Convergence.
In 1756, the island was sighted and named 'San Pedro' by the Spanish vessel León under Captain Gregorio Jerez sailing in the service of the French company Sieur Duclos of Saint-Malo, with the merchant and mariner Nicolas Pierre Duclos-Guyot on board.
These early visits resulted in no sovereignty claims. In particular―unlike the case of the Falkland Islands―Spain never claimed South Georgia. The latter anyway fell within the 'Portuguese' portion of the world as envisaged by the 1494 Tordesillas Treaty concluded between Spain and Portugal.
The mariner Captain James Cook in accompanied by made the first landing, survey and mapping of South Georgia. As mandated by the Admiralty, on 17 January 1775 he took possession for Britain and renamed the island 'Isle of Georgia' for King George III. German naturalist Georg Forster, who accompanied Cook during their landings in three separate places at Possession Bay on that day, wrote: "Here Captain Cook displayed the British flag, and performed the ceremony of taking possession of those barren rocks, in the name of his Britannic Majesty, and his heirs forever. A volley of two or three muskets was fired into the air." Nowadays the date of 17 January is celebrated as Possession Day, a public holiday in SGSSI.
The group of Shag Rocks and Black Rock forming the west extremity of the British overseas territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is situated 270 km or 150 nmi west by north of the South Georgian mainland. Probably discovered in 1762 by the Spanish ship Aurora, these rocks appeared on early maps as Aurora Islands, were visited and renamed by the American sealer James Sheffield in the Hersilia in 1819, and mapped by HMS Dartmouth in 1920.
South Georgia's coast and waters have been surveyed by a number of expeditions since those of Cook and Bellingshausen. In particular, the extensive oceanographic investigations carried out by the Discovery Committee from 1925 to 1951 yielded an enormous amount of scientific results and data, including the discovery of the Antarctic Convergence. The first land-based scientific expedition on South Georgia was the 1882–83 German Polar Year expedition at Moltke Harbour, Royal Bay.
During the late 18th century and throughout the 19th century, South Georgia was inhabited by English and Yankee sealers, who used to live there for considerable periods of time and sometimes overwintered. The first fur seals from the island were taken in 1786 by the English sealing vessel Lord Hawkesbury, while the first commercial visit to the South Sandwich Islands was made in 1816 by another English ship, the Ann.
The sealers pursued their trade in a most unsustainable manner, promptly reducing the fur seal population to near extermination. As a result, sealing activities on South Georgia had three marked peaks in 1786–1802, 1814–23, and 1869–1913 respectively, decreasing in between and gradually shifting to elephant seals taken for oil. More efficient regulation and management were practised in the second sealing epoch, 1909–64.
During the 19th century, the effective, continuous and unchallenged British possession and government for South Georgia was provided for by the British Letters Patent of 1843, revised in 1876, 1892, 1908 and 1917, with the island appearing in the Colonial Office Yearbook since 1887. From 1881 on, Britain regulated the economic activities and conservation by administrative acts such as the Sealing Ordinances of 1881 and 1899. South Georgia was governed by the United Kingdom as a Falkland Islands Dependency, a distinct entity administered through the Falkland Islands but not part of them in political or financial respect. These constitutional arrangements stayed in place throughout the second half of the 19th century and most of the 20th century, until South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands were incorporated as a distinct British overseas territory in 1985.
20th century
In the early 20th century South Georgia experienced a new rush of economic activity and settlement. Following a 1900 advertisement by the Falklands Government the entire island was leased to a Punta Arenas company, and a subsequent conflict of interests with the Compañía Argentina de Pesca which had started whaling at Grytviken since December 1904 was settled by the British authorities with the company applying for and being granted British whaling lease.
South Georgia became the world's largest whaling centre, with shore bases at Grytviken (operating 1904–64), Leith Harbour (1909–65), Ocean Harbour (1909–20), Husvik (1910–60), Stromness (1912–61) and Prince Olav Harbour (1917–34). The companies involved included Compañía Argentina de Pesca, Christian Salvesen Ltd (UK), Albion Star (South Georgia) Ltd. (Falkland Islands), the Norwegian whaling companies Hvalfangerselskap Ocean, Tønsberg Hvalfangeri and Sandefjord Hvalfangerselskap, as well as the Southern Whaling and Sealing Company (South Africa). The Japanese companies Kokusai Gyogyo Kabushike Kaisha and Nippon Suisan Kaisha sub-leased respectively Grytviken in 1963–64 and Leith Harbour in 1963–65, the last seasons of South Georgia whaling.
The spread of Norwegian whaling industry to Antarctica in the early 20th century motivated Norway, right after its independence from Sweden in 1905, to pursue territorial expansion not only in the Arctic claiming Jan Mayen and Sverdrup Islands, but also in Antarctica. Norway claimed Bouvet Island and looked further south, formally inquiring of the British Foreign Office about the international status of the area between 45° and 65° south latitude and 35° and 80° west longitude. Following a second such diplomatic démarche by the Norwegian Government dated 4 March 1907, the United Kingdom replied that the areas were British based on discoveries made in the first half of the 19th century, and issued the 1908 Letters Patent incorporating the British Falkland Islands Dependencies with a permanent local administration in Grytviken established in 1909.
Britain's 1908 Letters Patent established constitutional arrangements for its possessions in the South Atlantic, including the formal annexation of the South Sandwich Islands. The Letters Patent listed these possessions as "the groups of islands known as South Georgia, the South Orkneys, the South Shetlands, and the Sandwich Islands, and the territory known as Graham's Land, situated in the South Atlantic Ocean to the south of the 50th parallel of south latitude, and lying between the 20th and the 80th degrees of west longitude". In 1917 the Letters Patent were modified, applying the "sector principle" used in the Arctic; the new scope of the Falkland Islands Dependencies was extended to comprise "all islands and territories whatsoever between the 20th degree of west longitude and the 50th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 50th parallel of south latitude; and all islands and territories whatsoever between the 50th degree of west longitude and the 80th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 58th parallel of south latitude", thus reaching the South Pole. The 1908 Letters Patent were not disputed by Argentina at the time, but in 1948 Argentina conceived an argument that they were invalid on the grounds that they allegedly encompassed parts of the South American mainland as well as the Falklands, making the latter dependencies of themselves.
All whaling stations on South Georgia operated under whaling leases applied for by each company and granted by the Governor of the Falkland Islands and Dependencies. On behalf of the Compañía Argentina de Pesca, the application was filed with the British Legation in Buenos Aires by the company's president Pedro Christophersen and Captain Guillermo Nuñez, a technical advisor and shareholder in the company who was also Director of Armaments of the Argentine Navy.
From 1906 on the Argentine company was operating in compliance with its whaling and sealing leases granted by the Falklands Governor. That continued until Grytviken was sold to Albion Star (South Georgia) Ltd. in 1960, closed in 1964, and eventually purchased by Christian Salvesen Ltd.
Carl Anton Larsen, the founder of Grytviken was a naturalised Briton born in Sandefjord, Norway. In his application for British citizenship, filed with the British Magistrate of South Georgia and granted in 1910, Captain Larsen wrote: "I have given up my Norwegian citizens rights and have resided here since I started whaling in this colony on 16 November 1904 and have no reason to be of any other citizenship than British, as I have had and intend to have my residence here still for a long time." His family in Grytviken included his wife, three daughters and two sons.
As the manager of Compañía Argentina de Pesca, Larsen organised the construction of Grytviken ― a remarkable undertaking accomplished by a team of 60 Norwegians since their arrival on 16 November until the newly built whale oil factory commenced production on 24 December 1904. Larsen also established a meteorological observatory at Grytviken, which from 1905 was maintained in cooperation with the Argentine Meteorological Office under the British lease requirements of the whaling station until these changed in 1949.
Larsen chose the whaling station's site during his 1902 visit while in command of the ship Antarctic of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1901–03) led by Otto Nordenskjöld. On that occasion, the name Grytviken ('Pot Cove') was given by the Swedish archaeologist and geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson who surveyed part of Thatcher Peninsula and found numerous artefacts and features from sealers' habitation and industry, including a shallop and several try-pots used to boil seal oil. One of those try-pots, having the inscription 'Johnson and Sons, Wapping Dock London' is preserved at the South Georgia Museum in Grytviken.
Larsen was also instrumental, with his brother, in introducing Reindeer to South Georgia in 1911 as a resource for hunting for the people employed in the whaling industry.
Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. During the whaling era, the population usually varied from over 1000 in the summer (over 2000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. At the height of the whaling industry about 6000 men, mostly Norwegians and Swedes, worked at the stations and, with the men working on the whale-catchers, factory ships and supply vessels, there could be three times the population when the whaling fleets were at anchor in the harbours. The first census conducted by the British Stipendiary Magistrate James Wilson on 31 December 1909 recorded a total population of 720, including 3 females and 1 child. Of them, 579 were Norwegian, 58 Swedes, 32 Britons, 16 Danes, 15 Finns, 9 Germans, 7 Russians, 2 Dutchmen, 1 Frenchman and 1 Austrian. In subsequent available censuses the population was 1337 (24 April 1921), and 709 (26 April 1931, includes the South Shetland Islands).
Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was Fridthjof Jacobsen whose wife Klara Olette Jacobsen gave birth to two of their children in Grytviken; their daughter Solveig Gunbjörg Jacobsen was the first child ever born in Antarctica, on 8 October 1913. Several more children were born on South Georgia, even recently aboard visiting private yachts.
There are some 200 graves on the island dating from 1820 onwards, including that of the famous Antarctic explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton (died 1922) whose British Antarctic Expedition (1908–09) established the route to the South Pole subsequently followed by Robert Scott. In one of the most remarkable small boat journeys in maritime history (probably rivalled only by that of Bounty's Lieutenant William Bligh), in 1916 Shackleton crossed Scotia Sea in the 7 m or 23' James Caird to reach South Georgia and organise the successful rescue of his expedition team stranded on Elephant Island following the loss of their ship Endurance. In the process, Shackleton accompanied by Frank Worsley and Tom Crean trekked the island's glaciated and rugged terrain between King Haakon Bay and the Stromness whaling station.
Another Antarctic explorer with a special place in South Georgia's history was Duncan Carse. His comprehensive 1951–57 South Georgia Survey resulted in the classical 1:200000 topographic map of South Georgia, occasionally updated but never superseded since its first publication by the British Directorate of Overseas Surveys in 1958. For several months in 1961, Carse experimented on living alone at a remote location, Ducloz Head on the southwest coast of the island. Mount Carse, the island's third highest peak is named for him.
A magistrate conducting the local British administration has been residing in South Georgia ever since November 1909 (except for 22 days in 1982). The 1908 British Letters Patent was transmitted to the Argentine Foreign Ministry and was formally acknowledged on 18 March 1909 without objections. Argentina also recognised de facto the British permanent local administration set up in 1909, with commercial and naval Argentine vessels that visited the island in the subsequent years duly complying with normal harbour, customs, immigration and other procedures.
During the Second World War the whaling stations were closed excepting Grytviken and Leith Harbour. Most of the British and Norwegian whaling factories and catchers were destroyed by German raiders, while the rest were called up to serve under Allied command. The resident British Magistrates (W. Barlas and A.I. Fleuret) attended to the island's defence throughout the War. The Royal Navy armed the merchant vessel Queen of Bermuda to patrol South Georgian and Antarctic waters, and deployed two four-inch (102 mm) guns at key locations protecting the approaches to Cumberland Bay and Stromness Bay, i.e. to Grytviken and Leith Harbour respectively. These batteries (still present) were manned by volunteers from among the Norwegian whalers who were trained for the purpose.
Sovereignty dispute and Falklands War
According to the Papal Bull Inter caetera, issued by Pope Alexander VI on 4 May 1493, the dividing line between the crowns of Spain and Portugal had found the longitude 36 º 8'O, cutting South Georgia (according to other sources in longitude 35 º W). But with the entry into force of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, the island was in the Portuguese hemisphere. Regarding the South Sandwich Islands, both the bull and the Treaty were within the Portuguese hemisphere.
The first official announcement of an Argentine claim of South Georgia was made in 1927 at the International Postal Bureau in Bern. The first definitive Argentine claim of sovereignty over the South Sandwich Islands was made in 1938, when the President of Argentina ratified the 1934 Cairo Postal Convention. Since then, Argentina has maintained her claims of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands but repeatedly (in 1947, 1951, 1953, 1954 and 1955) refused to have them resolved by the International Court of Justice or by an independent arbitral tribunal.
The Argentine naval station Corbeta Uruguay was clandestinely built on Thule Island, in the South Sandwich Islands on 7 November 1976 and was subject to a number of official British protests, the first of them on 19 January 1977. Arrangements to legitimise the station were discussed in 1978 but failed. At an early stage of the Falklands Conflict, 32 special forces troops from Corbeta Uruguay were brought by the Argentine Navy ship Bahía Paraíso to South Georgia and landed at Leith Harbour on 25 March 1982.
Joined by the corvette ARA Guerrico, on 3 April the Bahía Paraiso attacked the platoon of 22 Royal Marines deployed at Grytviken. The two-hour battle resulted in the Guerrico being damaged and an Argentine helicopter shot down. The Argentine forces sustained three men killed and a number of wounded, with one wounded on the British side. The British commanding officer Lieutenant Keith Mills was awarded a Distinguished Service Cross for the defence of South Georgia. While the British Magistrate and other civilians and military present in Grytviken were removed from South Georgia, another 15 Britons remained beyond Argentine reach. The losses suffered at Grytviken prevented Argentina from occupying the rest of the island, with Bird Island base, and field camps at Schlieper Bay, Lyell Glacier and St. Andrews Bay remaining under British control.
On 25 April 1982 the Royal Navy damaged and captured the Argentine submarine Santa Fe at South Georgia. The Argentine garrison in Grytviken under Lieut.-Commander Luis Lagos surrendered without returning fire, as did the detachment in Leith Harbour commanded by Captain Alfredo Astiz on the following day. Nowadays the date of 26 April is celebrated as Liberation Day, a public holiday in SGSSI.
One of the most famous and legendary signals of the entire Falklands War was made by the British forces' commander after the Argentine surrender at Grytviken: "Be pleased to inform Her Majesty that the White Ensign flies alongside the Union Jack in South Georgia. God save the Queen."
Finally, the Argentine personnel were removed from the South Sandwich Islands by on 20 June 1982. The recapture of South Georgia, even more remote than the Falkland Islands, and in foul weather conditions proved a major boost to British ambitions in the Falklands War, and a blow to those of Argentina.
Due to evidence of an unauthorised visit to Thule Island, the closed station Corbeta Uruguay was destroyed in January 1983.
Since the Falklands War, the United Kingdom maintained a small garrison of Royal Engineers on South Georgia until March 2001, when the island reverted to civilian rule. However, Argentina continues to claim South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.
Recent history
In 1985, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands ceased to be Falkland Islands dependencies and became a separate British overseas territory.
Due to its remote location and harsh climate, South Georgia had no indigenous population when first discovered. While the island has been inhabited during the last two centuries, with some settlers residing for decades there and children being born and raised, no families have become established for more than one generation so far. The present permanent centres of population include Grytviken, King Edward Point and Bird Island. King Edward Point is the port of entry, and residence of the British Magistrate and harbour, customs, immigration, fisheries, and postal authorities; it is commonly referred to as 'Grytviken' in association with the derelict whaling station situated just 800 m away. The government of the islands maintains field huts at Sörling Valley, Dartmouth Point, Maiviken, St. Andrews Bay, Corral Bay, Carlita Bay, Jason Harbour, Ocean Harbour, and Lyell Glacier.
Since the 1990s, the islands have become a popular tourist destination, with cruise ships visiting on a fairly regular basis. To protect the territory's unique environment, on 23 February 2012 its government created the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protection Area, one of the world's largest marine reserves, comprising .
Old maps
L'Isle, Guillaume de & Henry A. Chatelain. (1705/19). Carte du Paraguai, du Chili, du Detroit de Magellan. Paris. (Map featuring Roché Island.)
Seale, Richard W. (ca. 1745). A Map of South America. With all the European Settlements & whatever else is remarkable from the latest & best observations. London. (Map featuring Roché Island.)
Jefferys, Thomas. (1768). South America. London. (Map featuring Roché Island.)
Joseph Gilbert. (1775). Isle of Georgia with Clerke's Isles and Pickersgill's Isle. Plan with panorama. In: Charts, and views of headlands, taken during Captain Cook's Second Voyage, 1772–1774. British Library.
Cook, James. (1777). Chart of the Discoveries made in the South Atlantic Ocean, in His Majestys Ship Resolution, under the Command of Captain Cook, in January 1775, W. Strahan and T. Cadel, London.
A. Arrowsmith. (1794). Map of the World on a Globular Projection, Exhibiting Particularly the Nautical Researches of Capn. James Cook, F.R.S. with all the Recent Discoveries to the Present Time. London.
See also
Anthony de la Roché
History of the Falkland Islands
Notes
References
Capt. Francisco de Seixas y Lovera, Descripcion geographica, y derrotero de la region austral Magallanica. Que se dirige al Rey nuestro señor, gran monarca de España, y sus dominios en Europa, Emperador del Nuevo Mundo Americano, y Rey de los reynos de la Filipinas y Malucas, Madrid, Antonio de Zafra, 1690. (Narrates the discovery of South Georgia by the Englishman Anthony de la Roché in April 1675 (Capítulo IIII Título XIX page 27 or page 99 of pdf); Relevant fragment.)
William Ambrosia Cowley, Cowley's Voyage Round the Globe, in Collection of Original Voyages, ed. William Hacke, James Knapton, London, 1699.
George Forster, A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years 1772, 3, 4 and 5 (2 vols.), London, 1777.
James Cook, A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World. Performed in His Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, In the Years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775. In which is included, Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the Separation of the Ships. Volume II. London: Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1777. (Relevant fragment)
Capt. Isaac Pendleton, South Georgia; Southatlantic Ocean: Discovered by the Frenchman La Roche in the year 1675, 1802, reproduced by A. Faustini, Rome, 1906. (The second map of South Georgia; Pendleton was misled about the nationality of la Roché who, being an Englishman born in London, had a French father.)
South Georgia, Topographic map, 1:200000, DOS 610 Series, Directorate of Overseas Surveys, Tolworth, UK, 1958.
Otto Nordenskjöld, Johan G. Andersson, Carl A. Larsen, Antarctica, or Two Years Among the Ice of the South Pole, London, Hurst & Blackett, 1905.
R.K. Headland, South Georgia: A Concise Account. Cambridge: British Antarctic Survey, 1982. 30 pp.
R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984.
Roger Perkins, Operation Paraquat, Picton (Chippenham), 1986, (Describes the Argentine invasion and defeat of 1982)
Sally Poncet and Kim Crosbie, A Visitor's Guide to South Georgia, Wildguides 2005,
Historia de las Relaciones Exteriores Argentinas, Obra dirigida por Carlos Escudé y Andrés Cisneros, desarrollada y publicada bajo los auspicios del Consejo Argentino para las Relaciones Internacionales (CARI), GEL/Nuevohacer (Buenos Aires), 2000.
Capt. Hernán Ferrer Fougá. El hito austral del confín de América. El cabo de Hornos. (Siglos XVI-XVII-XVIII). (Primera parte). Revista de Marina, Valparaíso, 2003, No. 6.
External links
Official website of South Georgia
South Georgia Heritage Trust
King Edward Point Base
Bird Island Base
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
Falkland Islands in World War II
Whaling in Antarctica |
4501180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Hansen | Robert Hansen | Robert Christian Boes Hansen (February 15, 1939 – August 21, 2014), known in the media as the Butcher Baker, was an American serial killer. Between 1971 and 1983, Hansen abducted, raped, and murdered at least seventeen women in and around Anchorage, Alaska; he hunted many of them down in the wilderness with a Ruger Mini-14 and a knife. He was arrested and convicted in 1983 and was sentenced to 461 years without the possibility of parole. He died in 2014 of natural causes due to lingering health conditions at age 75.
Early life
Hansen was born in Estherville, Iowa, at Coleman Hospital on February 15, 1939, the elder of two children to an American mother and a Danish father. His mother was Edna Margret Hansen née Petersen (October 27, 1916 – April 24, 2005) and his father was Christian "Chris" Hansen (September 16, 1907 – August 12, 1983) who owned a bakery in the town. Robert was employed at the bakery. The family moved to Richmond, California in 1942, but returned to Iowa in 1949, settling in Pocahontas. In his youth, he was painfully shy, had a stutter and severe acne that left him permanently scarred.
Throughout childhood and adolescence, Hansen was described as being quiet and a loner and he had a difficult relationship with his domineering father. He started to practice both hunting and archery and often found refuge in these pastimes. In 1957, Hansen enlisted in the United States Army Reserve and served for one year before being discharged. He later worked as an assistant drill instructor at a police academy in Pocahontas, Iowa. There, he began a relationship with a younger woman. He married her in the summer of 1960.
First crimes
On December 7, 1960, Hansen was arrested for burning down a Pocahontas County Board of Education school bus garage, revenge for his unpopularity in high school. He served twenty months of a three-year prison sentence in Anamosa State Penitentiary. During his incarceration, he was diagnosed with manic depression with periodic schizophrenic episodes. The psychiatrist who made the diagnosis noted that Hansen had an "infantile personality" who was obsessed with getting back at people he felt had wronged him. Hansen's wife filed for divorce while he was incarcerated.
Over the next few years, Hansen was jailed several times for petty theft. In 1967, he moved to Anchorage, Alaska, with his second wife, whom he had married in 1963 and with whom he had two children. In Anchorage, he was well liked by his neighbors and set several local hunting records.
In December 1971, Hansen was arrested twice: first for abducting and attempting to rape an unidentified housewife and then for raping an unidentified prostitute. He pleaded no contest to assault with a deadly weapon in the offense involving the housewife; the rape charge involving the prostitute was dropped as part of a plea bargain. Hansen was sentenced to five years in prison; after serving six months of his sentence, he was placed on a work release program and released to a halfway house. In 1976, Hansen pleaded guilty to larceny after he was caught stealing a chainsaw from an Anchorage Fred Meyer store. He was sentenced to five years in prison and required to receive psychiatric treatment for his bipolar disorder. The Alaska Supreme Court reduced his sentence, and he was released with time served.
Murders and capture
Hansen is believed to have begun killing around 1972. His modus operandi was to pick up a prostitute in his car and force her at gunpoint to his home, where he would rape her; he would then take her out to a secluded area and "hunt" her as if she were wild game before shooting or stabbing her. It is believed by authorities that Hansen's first murder victim was 18-year-old Celia van Zanten. Van Zanten was kidnapped on December 22, 1971, and froze to death in the wilderness after escaping from her abductor; her body was discovered on December 25. Van Zanten's abduction occurred three days after Hansen assaulted a prostitute and four days before the prostitute turned him in. While there are some similarities to Hansen's modus operandi and Van Zanten's abduction, there is no conclusive evidence that he was her attacker and he himself denied involvement in her death.
On June 13, 1983, Hansen offered 17-year-old Cindy Paulson $200 to perform oral sex; when she got into the car, he pulled out a gun and drove her to his home in Muldoon. There, he held her captive and proceeded to rape and torture her. She later told police that after Hansen chained her by the neck to a post in the house's basement, he took a nap on a nearby couch. When he awoke, he put her in his car and took her to Merrill Field airport, where he told her that he intended to "take her out to his cabin" (a shack in the Knik River area of the Matanuska-Susitna Valley accessible only by boat or bush plane). Paulson, crouched in the back seat of the car with her wrists cuffed in front of her body, saw a chance to escape when Hansen was busy loading the cockpit of his airplane, a Piper PA-18 Super Cub. While Hansen's back was turned, Paulson crawled out of the back seat, opened the driver's side door and ran toward nearby Sixth Avenue.
Paulson later told police that she had left her blue sneakers on the passenger side floor of the sedan's backseat as evidence that she had been in the car. Hansen panicked and chased her, but Paulson made it to Sixth Avenue first and managed to flag down a passing truck. The driver, Robert Yount, alarmed by Paulson's disheveled appearance, stopped and picked her up. He drove her to the Mush Inn, where she jumped out of the truck and ran inside. While she pleaded with the clerk to phone her boyfriend at the Big Timber Motel, Yount continued on to work, where he called the police to report the barefoot, handcuffed girl.
When Anchorage Police Department (APD) officers arrived at the Mush Inn, they were told that Paulson had taken a cab to the Big Timber Motel. APD officers arrived at Room 110 of the Big Timber Motel and found Paulson, still handcuffed and alone. She was taken to APD headquarters, where she described the perpetrator. Hansen, when questioned by APD officers, denied the accusation, stating that Paulson was just trying to cause trouble for him because he would not pay her extortion demands. Although Hansen had several prior run-ins with the law, his meek demeanour and humble occupation as a baker, along with an alibi from his friend John Henning, kept him from being considered as a serious suspect.
Detective Glenn Flothe of the Alaska State Troopers had been part of a team investigating the discovery of several bodies in and around Anchorage, Seward and the Matanuska-Susitna Valley area. The first of the bodies was found by construction workers near Eklutna Road. The body, dubbed Eklutna Annie by investigators, has never been identified. Later that year, the body of Joanna Messina was discovered in a gravel pit near Seward and in 1982 the remains of 23-year-old Sherry Morrow were discovered in a shallow grave near the Knik River. Flothe believed all three women had been murdered by the same perpetrator.
Flothe contacted Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Special Agent John Douglas and requested help with an offender profile based on the three recovered bodies. Douglas thought the killer would be an experienced hunter with low self-esteem, have a history of being rejected by women, and would feel compelled to keep "souvenirs" of his murders, such as a victim's jewelry. He also suggested that the assailant might stutter. Using this profile, Flothe investigated possible suspects until he reached Hansen, who fit the profile and owned a plane.
Supported by Paulson's testimony and Douglas's profile, Flothe and the APD secured a warrant to search Hansen's plane, vehicles, and home. On October 27, 1983 investigators uncovered jewelry belonging to some of the missing women as well as an array of firearms in a corner hideaway of Hansen's attic. Also found was an aeronautical chart with 37 little "x" marks on it, hidden behind Hansen's headboard. Many of these marks matched sites where bodies had been found previously (others were discovered later at the locations marked on Hansen's murder map).
When confronted with the evidence found in his home, Hansen denied it as long as he could, but he eventually began to blame the women and tried to justify his actions. Eventually confessing to each item of evidence as it was presented to him, he admitted to a spree of attacks against Alaskan women starting in 1971. Hansen's earliest victims were girls or young women, usually between ages 16 and 19 and not prostitutes, unlike the victims who led to his discovery.
Victims
Hansen is known to have raped and assaulted over thirty Alaskan women and to have murdered at least seventeen, ranging in age from 16 to 41, although based on evidence law enforcement suspect that Hansen killed at least twenty-one female victims.
The following is a list of Hansen's known victims and several other additional women who have been mentioned as possible victims. Of these eighteen women, Hansen was only formally charged with the murders of four: Sherry Morrow, Joanna Messina, Eklutna Annie and Paula Goulding. He was also charged with the kidnapping and rape of Cindy Paulson.
Celia Beth van Zanten, then 18-years-old, was at home with two of her three older brothers on December 22, 1971. The three of them shared a house on Knik Avenue in south Anchorage, close to Northern Lights Boulevard, with their older brother and cousin. Her parents resided in a different home in Anchorage. In the late evening, Beth left her house and walked a few blocks to the nearby BI-LO supermarket. The BI-LO closed at 9:00 p.m., and she left at 8:30. Between 8:45 and 9:00 p.m., a witness spotted Beth go to the BI-LO. At around 9:00 p.m., a neighbour claimed to have spotted her on Northern Lights Boulevard. She never reached the BI-LO. Her disappearance was reported two days later. On December 25, 1971, her body was discovered at Chugach State Park, close to Anchorage. Her chest had been sliced with a knife, and she had been bound and subjected to a sexual assault. She had been dumped, still alive, into a deep ravine before passing away from exposure. According to forensic evidence, she attempted to climb back up the slope but was unable to do so due to her bindings. Hansen has been accused of killing her because of an "x" on his aircraft map but he denied responsibility for both her death and other women's homicides who were not involved in the prostitution.
Megan Siobhan Emerick, then 17, vanished on July 7, 1973, in Seward, Alaska. She was last spotted leaving a dorm laundry room while attending the boarding school Seward Skill Center. She has not been seen or heard from since. Megan left behind all of her personal items, including her identification. Before contacting the police, her roommate conducted a three-day search for her. Hansen denied killing her to authorities, but he did admit he was in Seward on the day Megan vanished. Due to an "x" on his aircraft map in the Seward region, he is thought to be responsible. Apparently, Hansen admitted to a former inmate that he transported Megan to a cabin in the Seward region that was only reachable by boat, where he killed and buried her.
On July 5, 1975 Mary Kathleen Thill, aged 22, disappeared from Seward, Alaska. Her husband was away working on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline and she lived on Lower Point Road. She was driven into town by a friend, who then dropped her off at a local bakery. Between 1:30 and 2:00 pm, a different acquaintance saw her by a waterfall on Lowell Point Road. She has not been seen or heard from since. Hansen acknowledged being in Seward on the day Thill vanished but denied killing her. An "x" on his aviation chart in the vicinity of Resurrection Bay raised suspicions about him. Hansen admitted to killing her and discarding her body in Resurrection Bay, according to a former prisoner.
The remains of Eklutna Annie were discovered buried next to a power line in a wooded area, one mile south of South Eklutna Lake Road in Eklutna, Anchorage, Alaska on July 21, 1980. Hansen admitted to stabbing her in the back after she made an effort to flee from his car. She was either a topless dancer or a prostitute, according to Hansen, who also claimed that that she was his first murder victim. Despite his claim that Eklutna Annie might have come from Kodiak, Alaska, troopers think she might have arrived in Alaska via California. Her body had already been largely consumed by wildlife when it was found in a shallow grave near Eklutna Lake Road.
Local topless dancer 24-year-old Joanne Messina went out to dinner with Hansen on May 19, 1980, while she was working in Seward, Alaska. Before she offered him sex in exchange for cash, Hansen claimed that everything was going smoothly. Hansen refused to pay and refused to release her, so he drove her and her dog to a distant place by the Snow River. He hit her with a .22 calibre revolver before shooting her twice and the dog once. He brought Messina's body to a gravel pit nearby and dumped gravel over her body. The dog and Messina's belongings were thrown into the woods, and the gun was thrown into the Snow River. On July 8, 1980, her severely decomposed body was found after it had been eviscerated by wildlife.
On June 28, 1980, Roxane Easland, then 24-years-old, vanished. She had been residing at the Budget Motel on Spenard Road in Anchorage, Alaska, with her boyfriend for the previous two weeks. On that day, she was scheduled to meet an unnamed man downtown on 4th Avenue. She has not been seen or heard from since. Although Hansen admitted to killing her, her body was never discovered.
At the nightclub she worked at in Anchorage, Lisa Futrell met and was subsequently kidnapped by Hansen on September 6, 1980. When the 41-year-old failed to return home following her September 7 shift at the club, her two younger housemates reported her missing. Her body was discovered on May 9, 1984, buried next to a gravel pit south of the former Knik Arm Bridge.
Sherry Morrow, a 23-year-old topless dancer who would receive $300 for nude images, told friends she was seeing a photographer on November 17, 1981. She was never seen again. A shallow grave was discovered by hunters on the banks of the Knik River, which borders Anchorage, on September 12, 1982. Morrow, who was reported missing a year earlier, was identified from the remains. She had received three gunshot wounds to the back, and cartridges discovered close to the body revealed that a .223 Ruger Mini-14 hunting rifle had been used to deliver the shots. An odd feature was that although the body was found fully clothed, there were no bullet holes in the clothing, suggesting that Sherry had been naked when shot, and had been redressed after death before being buried.
At 11:00 p.m. on December 2, 1981, Andrea Mona "Fish" Altiery, 24, was last seen boarding a taxi to go to the Boniface Mall in Anchorage, Alaska. She intended to meet an unnamed male for a photo shoot and to perform exotic dances. She has not been seen or heard from since. When authorities searched Hansen's house, several of Altiery's possessions, including her fish necklace, were discovered. Hansen claimed that after he met her, he threatened her with a gun and abducted her, blindfolding and handcuffing her. Near the Knik Arm Bridge, they took a car to a service road off Palmer Highway. He unbound her there and abused her sexually. He killed her with a .22 Browning automatic pistol after she retaliated. He then stole Altiery's necklace, weighted a duffel bag with gravel, tied it to the dead woman and threw her off the bridge and into the Knik River. Her body was never found.
Sue Luna, a 23-year-old exotic dancer, voluntarily agreed to a $300 photo shoot offer with a nightclub patron. On May 26, 1982, she met Hansen in a diner parking lot in Anchorage, Alaska. The following day, Luna was reported missing. Hansen had abducted and killed Luna then buried Luna in the Knik River. She was discovered on April 24, 1984. Hansen had her flee into the forest while hunting her like an animal while she was stripped naked. She had been shot to death.
The partial skeletal remains of Robin Pelkey, then 19, were found on April 25, 1984, in Palmer, Alaska, close to Horseshoe Lake. It was determined that she had been stabbed and shot. It is unknown if she was involved in sexual activity, as Hansen went for women fitting that description. In October 2021, forensic genealogy was used to determine her identity. She had the moniker "Horseshoe Harriet" before she was identified. Early in the 1980s, Pelkey resided in Anchorage, Alaska, and she vanished on July 19, 1983.
DeLynne "Sugar" Renee Frey, a 22-year-old former resident of Anchorage, Alaska, was last seen sometime in March 1983 but was not immediately reported missing. She was abducted and killed by Hansen. She was buried as "Jane Doe" in an Anchorage cemetery after her body was discovered on a Knik River sandbar by a pilot trying out new tires on August 20, 1985. It was not until 1989 that she was identified when an Alaska State Trooper recognised her jewelery in a case file photo.
Paula Goulding, 30, was a dancer in Anchorage when, on April 25, 1983, Hansen offered her money before kidnapping her. He drove her to his aircraft, shackled her, and demanded she exit the aircraft under threat of being shot. She fought with him and attempted to get away once they reached a remote spot, according to Hansen. She fled, and he fired a .223 rifle at her, killing her. On September 2, 1983, she was discovered on the Knik River, buried in a shallow grave. She had been wounded in the back, but because her clothing was unharmed, it is possible that she was shot while still naked and then clothed before being buried.
Cindy Paulson, 17, met Hansen on June 13, 1983, in Anchorage. After agreeing to pay for sex, Hansen instead pulled a .357 Magnum on her and kidnapped her. She was taken to his home, bound and sexually assaulted before Hansen took her to the Merrill Field, where his airplane was. Hansen left Paulson alone in his car while he began loading his plane, threatening to kill her if she ran away. She ran away, toward Fifth Avenue. There, she was picked up by a passing driver, Robert Yount. Yount took Paulson to a safe location and shortly after, called police. At about the same time, a security guard at the Merrill Field noticed some suspicious activity and although he made no contact, he noted the license tag for Hansen's car. Police located and interviewed Paulson about the attack.
On July 10, 1981, dancer Malai Larsen, aged 28, was reported missing from Anchorage, Alaska. On April 24, 1984, her body was discovered in a parking lot close to the Knik Arm Bridge.
Dancer Teresa Watson, 22, was last seen in Anchorage on March 25, 1983. She informed her roommate that she would meet a man who would give her $300 in exchange for an hour or two of company. At Scenic Lake, Hansen abducted her and killed her. Hansen was unable to bury her since the earth in the region was still frozen. He abandoned her where she had died. She was discovered on May 17, 1984.
24-year-old Angela Lynn Feddern was last seen on Fourth Avenue in Anchorage sometime in February 1983. She was not reported missing until May. The owner of a nightclub reported that Feddern, one of his dancers, had gone missing. Hansen had kidnapped and murdered her. Feddern's body was found on April 26, 1984, on a small lake near the larger Figure Eight Lake.
20-year-old Tamera "Tami" Pederson was a dancer at a nightclub in Anchorage. The last her family heard from her was during a phone call on August 7, 1982, where she claimed to have had been offered money to pose for photographs. She was kidnapped and murdered by Hansen. Her body was not found until after Hansen confessed and pointed to her body's location on a map. She was found 1.5 miles from the Old Knik Bridge on April 29, 1984.
Imprisonment and death
Once arrested, Hansen was charged with assault, kidnapping, multiple weapons offenses, theft and insurance fraud. The last charge was related to a claim filed with the insurance company over the alleged theft of some trophies; he used the proceeds to purchase his plane. At trial, he claimed he later recovered the trophies in his backyard but forgot to inform the insurer.
Hansen entered into a plea bargain after ballistics tests returned a match between bullets found at the crime scenes and Hansen's rifle. He pleaded guilty to the four homicides the police had evidence for (Morrow, Messina, Goulding, and Eklutna Annie) and provided details about his other victims in return for serving his sentence in a federal prison, along with no publicity in the press. Another condition of the plea bargain was his participation in deciphering the markings on his aviation map and locating his victims' bodies. Hansen confirmed the police theory of how the women were abducted, adding that he would sometimes let a potential victim go if she convinced him that she would not report him to police. He indicated that he began killing in the early 1970s.
Hansen showed investigators 17 grave sites in and around Southcentral Alaska, 12 of which were unknown to investigators. There remained marks on his map that he refused to give up, including three in Resurrection Bay, near Seward. Authorities suspect two of these marks belong to the graves of Mary Thill and Megan Emrick, whom Hansen has denied killing. The remains of 12 of a probable 21 to 37 victims were exhumed by the police and returned to their families.
Hansen was sentenced to 461 years in prison without the possibility of parole. He was first imprisoned at the United States Penitentiary, Lewisburg in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. In 1988, he was returned to Alaska and briefly incarcerated at Lemon Creek Correctional Center in Juneau. He was also imprisoned at Spring Creek Correctional Center in Seward until May 2014, when he was transported to the Anchorage Correctional Complex for health reasons. Hansen died on August 21, 2014, aged 75, at Alaska Regional Hospital in Anchorage, due to natural causes from lingering health conditions.
In popular culture
Films
Naked Fear (2007), about a serial killer who hunts naked abducted women in the remote wilderness of New Mexico, is loosely based on Robert Hansen.
In The Frozen Ground (2013), John Cusack portrayed Hansen opposite Nicolas Cage as Sergeant Jack Halcombe (a character based on Glenn Flothe) and Vanessa Hudgens as victim-survivor Cindy Paulson.
Documentaries
The FBI Files episode "Hunter's Game" (1999) depicts Hansen's murderous rampage.
Crime Stories featured a full 2007 episode of the case.
The Alaska: Ice Cold Killers episode "Hunting Humans" (January 25, 2012) on Investigation Discovery covered the Hansen case.
Hidden City season 1, episode 12 ("Anchorage: Robert Hansen's Most Dangerous Game, the Legend of Blackjack Sturges, Eskimo Hu"; airdate February 21, 2012) on the Travel Channel covered the Hansen case.
Mark of a Killer season 2, episode 6 "Hunted to Death" on Oxygen covered the Hansen case.
The Butcher Baker: Mind of a Monster aired on September 2, 2020, on Investigation Discovery.
Very Scary People season 3 episodes 3 and 4, "The Butcher Baker: Terror In The Wilderness part 1" and "The Butcher Baker: The Girls Who Got Away part 2", on Crime and Investigation aired June 5, 2022.
World’s Most Evil Killers series 7, episode 2 on Sky Crime tells Hansen’s story.
TV series
"Mind Hunters" and "The Woods", two 2005 episodes of the CBS TV series Cold Case, were inspired by Hansen's crimes.
In Criminal Minds, season 5, episode 21 ("Exit Wounds"; airdate May 12, 2010), Hansen is referred to by name.
Hansen's crimes inspired Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, season 13, episode 15 ("Hunting Ground"; airdate February 22, 2012), which depicts a serial killer who hunts women like wild game before killing them.
Kurt Caldwell, known as the Runaway Killer, played by Clancy Brown in Dexter: New Blood was loosely based on Hansen.
Two 2014 episodes of Silent Witness, series 17, 5 & 6, "In a Lonely Place" depict a serial killer who abducts rapes and then kills women by hunting them in a remote forest area.
Other
The case was covered in two parts on September 25, 2021, and October 2, 2021 by the Casefile True Crime Podcast
The case was covered in two parts on February 6, 2019, and February 13, 2019, by Morbid: A True Crime Podcast
In 2023, the electronic industrial band SKYND released a song titled, and about, Robert Hansen
See also
List of serial killers by number of victims
List of serial killers in the United States
References
Further reading
External links
1939 births
2014 deaths
1960 crimes in the United States
20th-century American criminals
American kidnappers
American male criminals
American murderers of children
American people of Danish descent
American people convicted of arson
American people convicted of murder
American people convicted of theft
American people who died in prison custody
American rapists
American serial killers
Crimes against sex workers in the United States
Criminals from Iowa
History of women in Alaska
Military personnel from Iowa
People convicted of murder by Alaska
People from Anchorage, Alaska
People from Estherville, Iowa
People from Pocahontas County, Iowa
People with bipolar disorder
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Prisoners who died in Alaska detention
Serial killers from Alaska
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Violence against women in the United States |
4501200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian%20Empire | Parthian Empire | The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conquering the region of Parthia in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) under Andragoras, who was rebelling against the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates I ( BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now central-eastern Turkey, to present-day Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and the Han dynasty of China, became a center of trade and commerce.
The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings," as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals.
The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the Seleucids in the west and the Scythians in the north. However, as Parthia expanded westward, they came into conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia, and eventually the late Roman Republic. Rome and Parthia competed with each other to establish the kings of Armenia as their subordinate clients. The Parthians destroyed the army of Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, and in 40–39 BC, Parthian forces captured the whole of the Levant except Tyre from the Romans; Mark Antony led a Roman counterattack. Several Roman emperors invaded Mesopotamia in the Roman–Parthian Wars of the next few centuries, capturing the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Frequent civil wars between Parthian contenders to the throne proved more dangerous to the Empire's stability than foreign invasion, and Parthian power evaporated when Ardashir I, ruler of Istakhr in Persis, revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler, Artabanus IV, in 224 AD. Ardashir established the Sasanian Empire, which ruled Iran and much of the Near East until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century AD, although the Arsacid dynasty lived on through branches of the family that ruled Armenia, Iberia, and Albania in the Caucasus.
Native Parthian sources, written in Parthian, Greek and other languages, are scarce when compared to Sasanian and even earlier Achaemenid sources. Aside from scattered cuneiform tablets, fragmentary ostraca, rock inscriptions, drachma coins, and the chance survival of some parchment documents, much of Parthian history is only known through external sources. These include mainly Greek and Roman histories, but also Chinese histories, prompted by the Han Chinese desire to form alliances against the Xiongnu. Parthian artwork is viewed by some historians as a valid source for understanding aspects of society and culture that are otherwise absent in textual sources.
History
Origins and establishment
Before Arsaces I founded the Arsacid dynasty, he was chieftain of the Parni, an ancient Central Asian tribe of Iranian peoples and one of several nomadic tribes within the confederation of the Dahae. The Parni most likely spoke an eastern Iranian language, in contrast to the northwestern Iranian language spoken at the time in Parthia. The latter was a northeastern province, first under the Achaemenid Empire, and then the Seleucid Empire. After conquering the region, the Parni adopted Parthian as the official court language, speaking it alongside Middle Persian, Aramaic, Greek, Babylonian, Sogdian and other languages in the multilingual territories they would conquer.
Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain. A. D. H. Bivar concludes that this was the year the Seleucids lost control of Parthia to Andragoras, the appointed satrap who rebelled against them. Hence, Arsaces I "backdated his regnal years" to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased. However, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe. Homa Katouzian and Gene Ralph Garthwaite claim it was the year Arsaces conquered Parthia and expelled the Seleucid authorities, yet Curtis and Maria Brosius state that Andragoras was not overthrown by the Arsacids until 238 BC.
It is unclear who immediately succeeded Arsaces I. Bivar and Katouzian affirm that it was his brother Tiridates I of Parthia, who in turn was succeeded by his son Arsaces II of Parthia in 211 BC. Yet Curtis and Brosius state that Arsaces II was the immediate successor of Arsaces I, with Curtis claiming the succession took place in 211 BC, and Brosius in 217 BC. Bivar insists that 138 BC, the last regnal year of Mithridates I, is "the first precisely established regnal date of Parthian history." Due to these and other discrepancies, Bivar outlines two distinct royal chronologies accepted by historians. A fictitious claim was later made from the 2nd-century BC onwards by the Parthians, which represented them as descendants of the Achaemenid king of kings, Artaxerxes II of Persia ().
For a time, Arsaces consolidated his position in Parthia and Hyrcania by taking advantage of the invasion of Seleucid territory in the west by Ptolemy III Euergetes (r. 246–222 BC) of Egypt. This conflict with Ptolemy, the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC), also allowed Diodotus I to rebel and form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia. The latter's successor, Diodotus II, formed an alliance with Arsaces against the Seleucids, but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of Seleucus II Callinicus (). After spending some time in exile among the nomadic Apasiacae tribe, Arsaces led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia. Seleucus II's successor, Antiochus III the Great (), was unable to immediately retaliate because his troops were engaged in putting down the rebellion of Molon in Media.
Antiochus III launched a massive campaign to retake Parthia and Bactria in 210 or 209 BC. Despite some victories he was unsuccessful, but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II. The latter was granted the title of king (Greek: basileus) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior. The Seleucids were unable to further intervene in Parthian affairs following increasing encroachment by the Roman Republic and the Seleucid defeat at Magnesia in 190 BC. Priapatius () succeeded Arsaces II, and Phraates I () eventually ascended the Parthian throne. Phraates I ruled Parthia without further Seleucid interference.
Expansion and consolidation
Phraates I is recorded as expanding Parthia's control past the Gates of Alexander and occupied Apamea Ragiana. The locations of these are unknown. Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor Mithridates I (r. c. 171–132 BC), whom Katouzian compares to Cyrus the Great (d. 530 BC), founder of the Achaemenid Empire.
Relations between Parthia and Greco-Bactria deteriorated after the death of Diodotus II, when Mithridates' forces captured two eparchies of the latter kingdom, then under Eucratides I (r. c. 170–145 BC). Turning his sights on the Seleucid realm, Mithridates invaded Media and occupied Ecbatana in 148 or 147 BC; the region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a rebellion there led by Timarchus. This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of Babylonia in Mesopotamia, where Mithridates had coins minted at Seleucia in 141 BC and held an official investiture ceremony. While Mithridates retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene and occupied Susa. By this time, Parthian authority extended as far east as the Indus River.
Whereas Hecatompylos had served as the first Parthian capital, Mithridates established royal residences at Seleucia, Ecbatana, Ctesiphon and his newly founded city, Mithradatkert (Nisa), where the tombs of the Arsacid kings were built and maintained. Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty. Ctesiphon may not have become the official capital until the reign of Gotarzes I (r. c. 90–80 BC). It became the site of the royal coronation ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids, according to Brosius.
The Seleucids were unable to retaliate immediately as general Diodotus Tryphon led a rebellion at the capital Antioch in 142 BC. However, by 140 BC Demetrius II Nicator was able to launch a counter-invasion against the Parthians in Mesopotamia. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania. There Mithridates treated his captive with great hospitality; he even married his daughter Rhodogune of Parthia to Demetrius.
Antiochus VII Sidetes (r. 138–129 BC), a brother of Demetrius, assumed the Seleucid throne and married the latter's wife Cleopatra Thea. After defeating Diodotus Tryphon, Antiochus initiated a campaign in 130 BC to retake Mesopotamia, now under the rule of Phraates II (r. c. 132–127 BC). The Parthian general Indates was defeated along the Great Zab, followed by a local uprising where the Parthian governor of Babylonia was killed. Antiochus conquered Babylonia and occupied Susa, where he minted coins. After advancing his army into Media, the Parthians pushed for peace, which Antiochus refused to accept unless the Arsacids relinquished all lands to him except Parthia proper, paid heavy tribute, and released Demetrius from captivity. Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to Syria, but refused the other demands. By spring 129 BC, the Medes were in open revolt against Antiochus, whose army had exhausted the resources of the countryside during winter. While attempting to put down the revolts, the main Parthian force swept into the region and killed Antiochus at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BC. His body was sent back to Syria in a silver coffin; his son Seleucus was made a Parthian hostage and a daughter joined Phraates' harem.
While the Parthians regained the territories lost in the west, another threat arose in the east. In 177–176 BC the nomadic confederation of the Xiongnu dislodged the nomadic Yuezhi from their homelands in what is now Gansu province in Northwest China; the Yuezhi then migrated west into Bactria and displaced the Saka (Scythian) tribes. The Saka were forced to move further west, where they invaded the Parthian Empire's northeastern borders. Mithridates was thus forced to retire to Hyrcania after his conquest of Mesopotamia.
Some of the Saka were enlisted in Phraates' forces against Antiochus. However, they arrived too late to engage in the conflict. When Phraates refused to pay their wages, the Saka revolted, which he tried to put down with the aid of former Seleucid soldiers, yet they too abandoned Phraates and joined sides with the Saka. Phraates II marched against this combined force, but he was killed in battle. The Roman historian Justin reports that his successor Artabanus I (r. c. 128–124 BC) shared a similar fate fighting nomads in the east. He claims Artabanus was killed by the Tokhari (identified as the Yuezhi), although Bivar believes Justin conflated them with the Saka. Mithridates II (r. c. 124–91 BC) later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in Sakastan.
Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia, the Parthian governor of Babylonia, Himerus, was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer Characene, then ruled by Hyspaosines from Charax Spasinu. When this failed, Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127 BC and occupied Seleucia. Yet by 122 BC, Mithridates II forced Hyspaosines out of Babylonia and made the kings of Characene vassals under Parthian suzerainty. After Mithridates extended Parthian control further west, occupying Dura-Europos in 113 BC, he became embroiled in a conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia. His forces defeated and deposed Artavasdes I of Armenia in 97 BC, taking his son Tigranes hostage, who would later become Tigranes II "the Great" of Armenia (r. c. 95–55 BC).
The Indo-Parthian Kingdom, located in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BC. Bivar claims that these two states considered each other political equals. After the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana visited the court of Vardanes I (r. c. 40–47 AD) in 42 AD, Vardanes provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo-Parthia. When Apollonius reached Indo-Parthia's capital Taxila, his caravan leader read Vardanes' official letter, perhaps written in Parthian, to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality.
Following the diplomatic venture of Zhang Qian into Central Asia during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC), the Han Empire of China sent a delegation to Mithridates II's court in 121 BC. The Han embassy opened official trade relations with Parthia via the Silk Road yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu. The Parthian Empire was enriched by taxing the Eurasian caravan trade in silk, the most highly priced luxury good imported by the Romans. Pearls were also a highly valued import from China, while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices, perfumes, and fruits. Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts; in 87 AD Pacorus II of Parthia sent lions and Persian gazelles to Emperor Zhang of Han (r. 75–88 AD). Besides silk, Parthian goods purchased by Roman merchants included iron from India, spices, and fine leather. Caravans traveling through the Parthian Empire brought West Asian and sometimes Roman luxury glasswares to China. The merchants of Sogdia, speaking an Eastern Iranian language, served as the primary middlemen of this vital silk trade between Parthia and Han China.
Rome and Armenia
The Yuezhi Kushan Empire in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia's eastern border. Thus, from the mid-1st century BC onwards, the Arsacid court focused on securing the western border, primarily against Rome. A year following Mithridates II's subjugation of Armenia, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the Roman proconsul of Cilicia, convened with the Parthian diplomat Orobazus at the Euphrates river. The two agreed that the river would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome, although several historians have argued that Sulla only had authority to communicate these terms back to Rome.
Despite this agreement, in 93 or 92 BC Parthia fought a war in Syria against the tribal leader Laodice and her Seleucid ally Antiochus X Eusebes (r. 95–92? BC), killing the latter. When one of the last Seleucid monarchs, Demetrius III Eucaerus, attempted to besiege Beroea (modern Aleppo), Parthia sent military aid to the inhabitants and Demetrius was defeated.
Following the rule of Mithridates II, his son Gotarzes I succeeded him. He reigned during a period coined in scholarship as the "Parthian Dark Age," due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns. It is only with the beginning of the reign of Orodes II in , that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced. This system of split monarchy weakened Parthia, allowing Tigranes II of Armenia to annex Parthian territory in western Mesopotamia. This land would not be restored to Parthia until the reign of Sinatruces (r. c. 78–69 BC).
Following the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War, Mithridates VI of Pontus (r. 119–63 BC), an ally of Tigranes II of Armenia, requested aid from Parthia against Rome, but Sinatruces refused help. When the Roman commander Lucullus marched against the Armenian capital Tigranocerta in 69 BC, Mithridates VI and Tigranes II requested the aid of Phraates III (r. c. 71–58). Phraates did not send aid to either, and after the fall of Tigranocerta he reaffirmed with Lucullus the Euphrates as the boundary between Parthia and Rome.
Tigranes the Younger, son of Tigranes II of Armenia, failed to usurp the Armenian throne from his father. He fled to Phraates III and convinced him to march against Armenia's new capital at Artaxarta. When this siege failed, Tigranes the Younger once again fled, this time to the Roman commander Pompey. He promised Pompey that he would act as a guide through Armenia, but, when Tigranes II submitted to Rome as a client king, Tigranes the Younger was brought to Rome as a hostage. Phraates demanded Pompey return Tigranes the Younger to him, but Pompey refused. In retaliation, Phraates launched an invasion into Corduene (southeastern Turkey) where, according to two conflicting Roman accounts, the Roman consul Lucius Afranius forced the Parthians out by either military or diplomatic means.
Phraates III was assassinated by his sons Orodes II of Parthia and Mithridates IV of Parthia, after which Orodes turned on Mithridates, forcing him to flee from Media to Roman Syria. Aulus Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Syria, marched in support of Mithridates to the Euphrates, but had to turn back to aid Ptolemy XII Auletes (r. 80–58; 55–51 BC) against a rebellion in Egypt. Despite losing his Roman support, Mithridates managed to conquer Babylonia, and minted coins at Seleucia until 54 BC. In that year, Orodes' general, known only as Surena after his noble family's clan name, recaptured Seleucia, and Mithridates was executed.
Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of the triumvirs, who was now proconsul of Syria, invaded Parthia in 53 BC in belated support of Mithridates. As his army marched to Carrhae (modern Harran, southeastern Turkey), Orodes II invaded Armenia, cutting off support from Rome's ally Artavasdes II of Armenia (r. 53–34 BC). Orodes persuaded Artavasdes to a marriage alliance between the crown prince Pacorus I of Parthia (d. 38 BC) and Artavasdes' sister.
Surena, with an army entirely on horseback, rode to meet Crassus. Surena's 1,000 cataphracts (armed with lances) and 9,000 horse archers were outnumbered roughly four to one by Crassus' army, comprising seven Roman legions and auxiliaries including mounted Gauls and light infantry. Using a baggage train of about 1,000 camels, the Parthian army provided the horse archers with a constant supply of arrows. The horse archers employed the "Parthian shot" tactic: feigning retreat to draw enemy out, then turning and shooting at them when exposed. This tactic, executed with heavy composite bows on the flat plain, devastated Crassus' infantry.
With some 20,000 Romans dead, approximately 10,000 captured, and roughly another 10,000 escaping west, Crassus fled into the Armenian countryside. At the head of his army, Surena approached Crassus, offering a parley, which Crassus accepted. However, he was killed when one of his junior officers, suspecting a trap, attempted to stop him from riding into Surena's camp. Crassus' defeat at Carrhae was one of the worst military defeats of Roman history. Parthia's victory cemented its reputation as a formidable if not equal power with Rome. With his camp followers, war captives, and precious Roman booty, Surena traveled some 700 km (430 mi) back to Seleucia where his victory was celebrated. However, fearing his ambitions even for the Arsacid throne, Orodes had Surena executed shortly thereafter.
Emboldened by the victory over Crassus, the Parthians attempted to capture Roman-held territories in Western Asia. Crown prince Pacorus I and his commander Osaces raided Syria as far as Antioch in 51 BC, but were repulsed by Gaius Cassius Longinus, who ambushed and killed Osaces. The Arsacids sided with Pompey in the civil war against Julius Caesar and even sent troops to support the anti-Caesarian forces at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC.
Quintus Labienus, a general loyal to Cassius and Brutus, sided with Parthia against the Second Triumvirate in 40 BC; the following year he invaded Syria alongside Pacorus I. The triumvir Mark Antony was unable to lead the Roman defense against Parthia due to his departure to Italy, where he amassed his forces to confront his rival Octavian and eventually conducted negotiations with him at Brundisium.
After Syria was occupied by Pacorus' army, Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade Anatolia while Pacorus and his commander Barzapharnes invaded the Roman Levant. They subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as Ptolemais (modern Acre, Israel), with the lone exception of Tyre. In Judea, the pro-Roman Jewish forces of high priest Hyrcanus II, Phasael, and Herod were defeated by the Parthians and their Jewish ally Antigonus II Mattathias (r. 40–37 BC); the latter was made king of Judea while Herod fled to his fort at Masada.
Despite these successes, the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive. Publius Ventidius Bassus, an officer under Mark Antony, defeated and then executed Labienus at the Battle of the Cilician Gates (in modern Mersin Province, Turkey) in 39 BC. Shortly afterward, a Parthian force in Syria led by general Pharnapates was defeated by Ventidius at the Battle of Amanus Pass.
As a result, Pacorus I temporarily withdrew from Syria. When he returned in the spring of 38 BC, he faced Ventidius at the Battle of Mount Gindarus, northeast of Antioch. Pacorus was killed during the battle, and his forces retreated across the Euphrates. His death spurred a succession crisis in which Orodes II chose Phraates IV (r. c. 38–2 BC) as his new heir.
Upon assuming the throne, Phraates IV eliminated rival claimants by killing and exiling his own brothers. One of them, Monaeses, fled to Antony and persuaded him to invade Parthia. Antony defeated Parthia's Judaean ally Antigonus in 37 BC, installing Herod as a client king in his place.
The following year, when Antony marched to Theodosiopolis, Artavasdes II of Armenia once again switched alliances by sending Antony additional troops. Antony invaded Media Atropatene (modern Iranian Azerbaijan), then ruled by Parthia's ally Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, with the intention of seizing the capital Praaspa, the location of which is now unknown. However, Phraates IV ambushed Antony's rear detachment, destroying a giant battering ram meant for the siege of Praaspa; after this, Artavasdes II abandoned Antony's forces.
The Parthians pursued and harassed Antony's army as it fled to Armenia. Eventually, the greatly weakened force reached Syria. Antony lured Artavasdes II into a trap with the promise of a marriage alliance. He was taken captive in 34 BC, paraded in Antony's mock Roman triumph in Alexandria, Egypt, and eventually executed by Cleopatra VII of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.
Antony attempted to strike an alliance with Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, whose relations with Phraates IV had recently soured. This was abandoned when Antony and his forces withdrew from Armenia in 33 BC; they escaped a Parthian invasion while Antony's rival Octavian attacked his forces to the west. After the defeat and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra in 30 BC, Parthian ally Artaxias II reassumed the throne of Armenia.
Peace with Rome, court intrigue and contact with Chinese generals
Following the defeat and deaths of Antony and Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian consolidated his political power and in 27 BC was named Augustus by the Roman Senate, becoming the first Roman emperor. Around this time, Tiridates II of Parthia briefly overthrew Phraates IV, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads. Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates' sons with him. In negotiations conducted in 20 BC, Phraates arranged for the release of his kidnapped son. In return, the Romans received the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war. The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Augustus hailed the return of the standards as a political victory over Parthia; this propaganda was celebrated in the minting of new coins, the building of a new temple to house the standards, and even in fine art such as the breastplate scene on his statue Augustus of Prima Porta.
Along with the prince, Augustus also gave Phraates IV an Italian slave-girl, who later became Queen Musa of Parthia. To ensure that her child Phraataces would inherit the throne without incident, Musa convinced Phraates IV to give his other sons to Augustus as hostages. Again, Augustus used this as propaganda depicting the submission of Parthia to Rome, listing it as a great accomplishment in his Res Gestae Divi Augusti. When Phraataces took the throne as Phraates V (r. c. 2 BC – 4 AD), Musa ruled alongside him, and according to Josephus, married him. The Parthian nobility, disapproving of the notion of a king with non-Arsacid blood, forced the pair into exile in Roman territory. Phraates' successor Orodes III of Parthia lasted just two years on the throne, and was followed by Vonones I, who had adopted many Roman mannerisms during time in Rome. The Parthian nobility, angered by Vonones' sympathies for the Romans, backed a rival claimant, Artabanus II of Parthia (r. c. 10–38 AD), who eventually defeated Vonones and drove him into exile in Roman Syria.
During the reign of Artabanus II, two Jewish commoners and brothers, Anilai and Asinai from Nehardea (near modern Fallujah, Iraq), led a revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia. After defeating the latter, the two were granted the right to govern the region by Artabanus II, who feared further rebellion elsewhere. Anilai's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a gentile. Following this, Anilai became embroiled in an armed conflict with a son-in-law of Artabanus, who eventually defeated him. With the Jewish regime removed, the native Babylonians began to harass the local Jewish community, forcing them to emigrate to Seleucia. When that city rebelled against Parthian rule in 35–36 AD, the Jews were expelled again, this time by the local Greeks and Aramaeans. The exiled Jews fled to Ctesiphon, Nehardea, and Nisibis.
Although at peace with Parthia, Rome still interfered in its affairs. The Roman emperor Tiberius (r. 14–37 AD) became involved in a plot by Pharasmanes I of Iberia to place his brother Mithridates on the throne of Armenia by assassinating the Parthian ally King Arsaces of Armenia. Artabanus II tried and failed to restore Parthian control of Armenia, prompting an aristocratic revolt that forced him to flee to Scythia. The Romans released a hostage prince, Tiridates III of Parthia, to rule the region as an ally of Rome. Shortly before his death, Artabanus managed to force Tiridates from the throne using troops from Hyrcania. After Artabanus' death in 38 AD, a long civil war ensued between the rightful successor Vardanes I and his brother Gotarzes II. After Vardanes was assassinated during a hunting expedition, the Parthian nobility appealed to Roman emperor Claudius (r. 41–54 AD) in 49 AD to release the hostage prince Meherdates to challenge Gotarzes. This backfired when Meherdates was betrayed by the governor of Edessa and Izates bar Monobaz of Adiabene; he was captured and sent to Gotarzes, where he was allowed to live after having his ears mutilated, an act that disqualified him from inheriting the throne.
In 97 AD, the Chinese general Ban Chao, the Protector-General of the Western Regions, sent his emissary Gan Ying on a diplomatic mission to reach the Roman Empire. Gan visited the court of Pacorus II at Hecatompylos before departing towards Rome. He traveled as far west as the Persian Gulf, where Parthian authorities convinced him that an arduous sea voyage around the Arabian Peninsula was the only means to reach Rome. Discouraged by this, Gan Ying returned to the Han court and provided Emperor He of Han (r. 88–105 AD) with a detailed report on the Roman Empire based on oral accounts of his Parthian hosts. William Watson speculates that the Parthians would have been relieved at the failed efforts by the Han Empire to open diplomatic relations with Rome, especially after Ban Chao's military victories against the Xiongnu in eastern Central Asia. However, Chinese records maintain that a Roman embassy, perhaps only a group of Roman merchants, arrived at the Han capital Luoyang by way of Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) in 166 AD, during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) and Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD). Although it could be coincidental, Antonine Roman golden medallions dated to the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and his predecessor Antoninus Pius have been discovered at Oc Eo, Vietnam (among other Roman artefacts in the Mekong Delta), a site that is one of the suggested locations for the port city of "Cattigara" along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea) in Ptolemy's Geography.
Continuation of Roman hostilities and Parthian decline
After the Iberian king Pharasmanes I had his son Rhadamistus (r. 51–55 AD) invade Armenia to depose the Roman client king Mithridates, Vologases I of Parthia (r. c. 51–77 AD) planned to invade and place his brother, the later Tiridates I of Armenia, on the throne. Rhadamistus was eventually driven from power, and, beginning with the reign of Tiridates, Parthia would retain firm control over Armenia—with brief interruptions—through the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia. Even after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Arsacid line lived on through the Armenian kings. However, not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians, it as well continued through the Georgian kings with the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and for many centuries afterwards in Caucasian Albania through the Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania.
When Vardanes II of Parthia rebelled against his father Vologases I in 55 AD, Vologases withdrew his forces from Armenia. Rome quickly attempted to fill the political vacuum left behind. In the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 AD, the commander Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo achieved some military successes against the Parthians while installing Tigranes VI of Armenia as a Roman client. However, Corbulo's successor Lucius Caesennius Paetus was soundly defeated by Parthian forces and fled Armenia. Following a peace treaty, Tiridates I traveled to Naples and Rome in 63 AD. At both sites the Roman emperor Nero (r. 54–68 AD) ceremoniously crowned him king of Armenia by placing the royal diadem on his head.
A long period of peace between Parthia and Rome ensued, with only the invasion of Alans into Parthia's eastern territories around 72 AD mentioned by Roman historians. Whereas Augustus and Nero had chosen a cautious military policy when confronting Parthia, later Roman emperors invaded and attempted to conquer the eastern Fertile Crescent, the heart of the Parthian Empire along the Tigris and Euphrates. The heightened aggression can be explained in part by Rome's military reforms. To match Parthia's strength in missile troops and mounted warriors, the Romans at first used foreign allies (especially Nabataeans), but later established a permanent auxilia force to complement their heavy legionary infantry. The Romans eventually maintained regiments of horse archers (sagittarii) and even mail-armored cataphracts in their eastern provinces. Yet the Romans had no discernible grand strategy in dealing with Parthia and gained very little territory from these invasions. The primary motivations for war were the advancement of the personal glory and political position of the emperor, as well as defending Roman honor against perceived slights such as Parthian interference in the affairs of Rome's client states.
Hostilities between Rome and Parthia were renewed when Osroes I of Parthia (r. c. 109–128 AD) deposed the Armenian king Sanatruk and replaced him with Axidares, son of Pacorus II, without consulting Rome. The Roman emperor Trajan (r. 98–117 AD) had the next Parthian nominee for the throne, Parthamasiris, killed in 114 AD, instead making Armenia a Roman province. His forces, led by Lusius Quietus, also captured Nisibis; its occupation was essential to securing all the major routes across the northern Mesopotamian plain. The following year, Trajan invaded Mesopotamia and met little resistance from only Meharaspes of Adiabene, since Osroes was engaged in a civil war to the east with Vologases III of Parthia. Trajan spent the winter of 115–116 at Antioch, but resumed his campaign in the spring. Marching down the Euphrates, he captured Dura-Europos, the capital Ctesiphon and Seleucia, and even subjugated Characene, where he watched ships depart to India from the Persian Gulf.
In the last months of 116 AD, Trajan captured the Persian city of Susa. When Sanatruces II of Parthia gathered forces in eastern Parthia to challenge the Romans, his cousin Parthamaspates of Parthia betrayed and killed him: Trajan crowned him the new king of Parthia. Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east. On Trajan's return north, the Babylonian settlements revolted against the Roman garrisons. Trajan was forced to retreat from Mesopotamia in 117 AD, overseeing a failed siege of Hatra during his withdrawal. His retreat was—in his intentions—temporary, because he wanted to renew the attack on Parthia in 118 AD and "make the subjection of the Parthians a reality," but Trajan died suddenly in August 117 AD. During his campaign, Trajan was granted the title Parthicus by the Senate and coins were minted proclaiming the conquest of Parthia. However, only the 4th-century AD historians Eutropius and Festus allege that he attempted to establish a Roman province in lower Mesopotamia.
Trajan's successor Hadrian (r. 117–138 AD) reaffirmed the Roman-Parthian border at the Euphrates, choosing not to invade Mesopotamia due to Rome's now limited military resources. Parthamaspates fled after the Parthians revolted against him, yet the Romans made him king of Osroene. Osroes I died during his conflict with Vologases III, the latter succeeded by Vologases IV of Parthia (r. c. 147–191 AD) who ushered in a period of peace and stability. However, the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 AD began when Vologases invaded Armenia and Syria, retaking Edessa. Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) had co-ruler Lucius Verus (r. 161–169 AD) guard Syria while Marcus Statius Priscus invaded Armenia in 163 AD, followed by the invasion of Mesopotamia by Avidius Cassius in 164 AD. The Romans captured and burnt Seleucia and Ctesiphon to the ground, yet they were forced to retreat once the Roman soldiers contracted a deadly disease (possibly smallpox) that soon ravaged the Roman world. Although they withdrew, from this point forward the city of Dura-Europos remained in Roman hands. When Roman emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211 AD) invaded Mesopotamia in 197 AD during the reign of Vologases V of Parthia (r. c. 191–208 AD), the Romans once again marched down the Euphrates and captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon. After assuming the title Parthicus Maximus, he retreated in late 198 AD, failing as Trajan once did to capture Hatra during a siege.
Around 212 AD, soon after Vologases VI of Parthia (r. c. 208–222 AD) took the throne, his brother Artabanus IV of Parthia (d. 224 AD) rebelled against him and gained control over a greater part of the empire. Meanwhile, the Roman emperor Caracalla (r. 211–217 AD) deposed the kings of Osroene and Armenia to make them Roman provinces once more. He marched into Mesopotamia under the pretext of marrying one of Artabanus' daughters, but the marriage was not allowed. Consequently Caracalla made war on Parthia, conquering Arbil and sacking the Parthian tombs there. Caracalla was assassinated the next year on the road to Carrhae by his soldiers. At the Battle of Nisibis, the Parthians were able to defeat the Romans, but both sides suffered heavy losses. After this debacle, the Parthians made a settlement with Macrinus (r. 217–218) where the Romans paid Parthia over two-hundred million denarii with additional gifts.
The Parthian Empire, weakened by internal strife and wars with Rome, was soon to be followed by the Sasanian Empire. Indeed, shortly afterward, Ardashir I, the local Iranian ruler of Persis (modern Fars Province, Iran) from Istakhr began subjugating the surrounding territories in defiance of Arsacid rule. He confronted Artabanus IV at the Battle of Hormozdgān on 28 April 224 AD, perhaps at a site near Isfahan, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire. There is evidence, however, that suggests Vologases VI continued to mint coins at Seleucia as late as 228 AD.
The Sassanians would not only assume Parthia's legacy as Rome's Persian nemesis, but they would also attempt to restore the boundaries of the Achaemenid Empire by briefly conquering the Levant, Anatolia, and Egypt from the Eastern Roman Empire during the reign of Khosrau II (r. 590–628 AD). However, they would lose these territories to Heraclius—the last Roman emperor before the Arab conquests. Nevertheless, for a period of more than 400 years, they succeeded the Parthian realm as Rome's principal rival.
Native and external sources
Local and foreign written accounts, as well as non-textual artifacts, have been used to reconstruct Parthian history. Although the Parthian court maintained records, the Parthians had no formal study of history; the earliest universal history of Iran, the Khwaday-Namag, was not compiled until the reign of the last Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III (r. 632–651 AD). Indigenous sources on Parthian history remain scarce, with fewer of them available than for any other period of Iranian history. Most contemporary written records on Parthia contain Greek as well as Parthian and Aramaic inscriptions. The Parthian language was written in a distinct script derived from the Imperial Aramaic chancellery script of the Achaemenids, and later developed into the Pahlavi writing system.
The most valuable indigenous sources for reconstructing an accurate chronology of Arsacid rulers are the metal drachma coins issued by each ruler. These represent a "transition from non-textual to textual remains," according to historian Geo Widengren. Other Parthian sources used for reconstructing chronology include cuneiform astronomical tablets and colophons discovered in Babylonia. Indigenous textual sources also include stone inscriptions, parchment and papyri documents, and pottery ostraca. For example, at the early Parthian capital of Mithradatkert/Nisa in Turkmenistan, large caches of pottery ostraca have been found yielding information on the sale and storage of items like wine. Along with parchment documents found at sites like Dura-Europos, these also provide valuable information on Parthian governmental administration, covering issues such as taxation, military titles, and provincial organization.
The Greek and Latin histories, which represent the majority of materials covering Parthian history, are not considered entirely reliable since they were written from the perspective of rivals and wartime enemies. These external sources generally concern major military and political events, and often ignore social and cultural aspects of Parthian history. The Romans usually depicted the Parthians as fierce warriors but also as a culturally refined people; recipes for Parthian dishes in the cookbook Apicius exemplifies their admiration for Parthian cuisine. Apollodorus of Artemita and Arrian wrote histories focusing on Parthia, which are now lost and survive only as quoted extracts in other histories. Isidore of Charax, who lived during the reign of Augustus, provides an account of Parthian territories, perhaps from a Parthian government survey. To a lesser extent, people and events of Parthian history were also included in the histories of Justin, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, Cassius Dio, Appian, Josephus, Pliny the Elder, and Herodian.
Parthian history can also be reconstructed via the Chinese historical records of events. In contrast to Greek and Roman histories, the early Chinese histories maintained a more neutral view when describing Parthia, although the habit of Chinese chroniclers to copy material for their accounts from older works (of undetermined origin) makes it difficult to establish a chronological order of events. The Chinese called Parthia Ānxī (Chinese: 安 息, Old Chinese pronunciation: 'ansjək), perhaps after the Greek name for the Parthian city Antiochia in Margiana (Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ). However, this could also have been a transliteration of "Arsaces", after the dynasty's eponymous founder. The works and historical authors include the Shiji (also known as the Records of the Grand Historian) by Sima Qian, the Han shu (Book of Han) by Ban Biao, Ban Gu, and Ban Zhao, and the Hou Han shu (Book of Later Han) by Fan Ye. They provide information on the nomadic migrations leading up to the early Saka invasion of Parthia and valuable political and geographical information. For example, the Shiji (ch. 123) describes diplomatic exchanges, exotic gifts given by Mithridates II to the Han court, types of agricultural crops grown in Parthia, production of wine using grapes, itinerant merchants, and the size and location of Parthian territory. The Shiji also mentions that the Parthians kept records by "writing horizontally on strips of leather," that is, parchment.
Government and administration
Central authority and semi-autonomous kings
Compared with the earlier Achaemenid Empire, the Parthian government was notably decentralized. An indigenous historical source reveals that territories overseen by the central government were organized in a similar manner to the Seleucid Empire. They both had a threefold division for their provincial hierarchies: the Parthian marzbān, xšatrap, and dizpat, similar to the Seleucid satrapy, eparchy, and hyparchy. The Parthian Empire also contained several subordinate semi-autonomous kingdoms, including the states of Caucasian Iberia, Armenia, Atropatene, Gordyene, Adiabene, Edessa, Hatra, Mesene, Elymais, and Persis. The state rulers governed their own territories and minted their own coinage distinct from the royal coinage produced at the imperial mints. This was not unlike the earlier Achaemenid Empire, which also had some city-states, and even distant satrapies who were semi-independent but "recognised the supremacy of the king, paid tribute and provided military support", according to Brosius. However, the satraps of Parthian times governed smaller territories, and perhaps had less prestige and influence than their Achaemenid predecessors. During the Seleucid period, the trend of local ruling dynasties with semi-autonomous rule, and sometimes outright rebellious rule, became commonplace, a fact reflected in the later Parthian style of governance.
Nobility
The King of Kings headed the Parthian government. He maintained polygamous relations, and was usually succeeded by his first-born son. Like the Ptolemies of Egypt, there is also record of Arsacid kings marrying their nieces and perhaps even half-sisters; Queen Musa is said by Josephus to have married her own son, though this would be an extreme and isolated case. Brosius provides an extract from a letter written in Greek by King Artabanus II in 21 AD, which addresses the governor (titled "archon") and citizens of the city of Susa. Specific government offices of Preferred Friend, Bodyguard and Treasurer are mentioned and the document also proves that "while there were local jurisdictions and proceedings to appointment to high office, the king could intervene on behalf of an individual, review a case and amend the local ruling if he considered it appropriate."
The hereditary titles of the hierarchic nobility recorded during the reign of the first Sasanian monarch Ardashir I most likely reflect the titles already in use during the Parthian era. There were three distinct tiers of nobility, the highest being the regional kings directly below the King of Kings, the second being those related to the King of Kings only through marriage, and the lowest order being heads of local clans and small territories.
By the 1st century AD, the Parthian nobility had assumed great power and influence in the succession and deposition of Arsacid kings. Some of the nobility functioned as court advisers to the king, as well as holy priests. Strabo, in his Geographica, preserved a claim by the Greek philosopher and historian Poseidonius that the Council of Parthia consisted of noble kinsmen and magi, two groups from which "the kings were appointed." Of the great noble Parthian families listed at the beginning of the Sassanian period, only two are explicitly mentioned in earlier Parthian documents: the House of Suren and the House of Karen. The historian Plutarch noted that members of the Suren family, the first among the nobility, were given the privilege of crowning each new Arsacid King of Kings during their coronations.
Military
The Parthian Empire had no standing army, yet were able to quickly recruit troops in the event of local crises. There was a permanent armed guard attached to the person of the king, comprising nobles, serfs and mercenaries, but this royal retinue was small. Garrisons were also permanently maintained at border forts; Parthian inscriptions reveal some of the military titles granted to the commanders of these locations. Military forces could also be used in diplomatic gestures. For example, when Chinese envoys visited Parthia in the late 2nd century BC, the Shiji maintains that 20,000 horsemen were sent to the eastern borders to serve as escorts for the embassy, although this figure is perhaps an exaggeration.
The main striking force of the Parthian army was its cataphracts, heavy cavalry with man and horse decked in mailed armor. The cataphracts were equipped with a lance for charging into enemy lines, but were not equipped with bows and arrows which were restricted to horse archers. Due to the cost of their equipment and armor, cataphracts were recruited from among the aristocratic class who, in return for their services, demanded a measure of autonomy at the local level from the Arsacid kings. The light cavalry was recruited from among the commoner class and acted as horse archers; they wore a simple tunic and trousers into battle. They used composite bows and were able to shoot at enemies while riding and facing away from them; this technique, known as the Parthian shot, was a highly effective tactic. It appears that most of the Parthian army was cavalry, for tactical and strategic reasons. The light cavalry is thought to have carried a sword into battle as well, while cataphracts likely were also armed with short swords or knives. The Parthians also made use of the camel in armed combat.
The heavy and light cavalry of Parthia proved to be a decisive factor in the Battle of Carrhae where a Parthian force defeated a much larger Roman army under Crassus.
Light infantry units, composed of levied commoners and mercenaries, were used to disperse enemy troops after cavalry charges.
The Parthians do not appear to have ever used war chariots in battle. However, royal Parthian women accompanied the king on military campaigns and were known to have ridden on chariots and wagons. Similarly, the Parthians appeared to have used war elephants infrequently. There is one mention, by Tacitus and Cassius Dio, of the use of one war elephant by Vologases I during the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63.
The size of the Parthian army is unknown, as is the size of the empire's overall population. However, archaeological excavations in former Parthian urban centers reveal settlements which could have sustained large populations and hence a great resource in manpower. Dense population centers in regions like Babylonia were no doubt attractive to the Romans, whose armies could afford to live off the land. The largest army raised by the Parthians appears to have been 50,000.
Currency
Usually made of silver, the Greek drachma coin, including the tetradrachm, was the standard currency used throughout the Parthian Empire. The Arsacids maintained royal mints at the cities of Hecatompylos, Seleucia, and Ecbatana. They most likely operated a mint at Mithridatkert/Nisa as well. From the empire's inception until its collapse, drachmas produced throughout the Parthian period rarely weighed less than 3.5 g or more than 4.2 g. The first Parthian tetradrachms, weighing in principle around 16 g with some variation, appear after Mithridates I conquered Mesopotamia and were minted exclusively at Seleucia.
Society and culture
Hellenism and the Iranian revival
Although Greek culture of the Seleucids was widely adopted by peoples of the Near East during the Hellenistic period, the Parthian era witnessed an Iranian cultural revival in religion, the arts, and even clothing fashions. Conscious of both the Hellenistic and Persian cultural roots of their kingship, the Arsacid rulers styled themselves after the Persian King of Kings and affirmed that they were also philhellenes ("friends of the Greeks"). The word "philhellene" was inscribed on Parthian coins until the reign of Artabanus II. The discontinuation of this phrase signified the revival of Iranian culture in Parthia. Vologases I was the first Arsacid ruler to have the Parthian script and language appear on his minted coins alongside the now almost illegible Greek. However, the use of Greek-alphabet legends on Parthian coins remained until the collapse of the empire.
Greek cultural influence did not disappear from the Parthian Empire, however, and there is evidence that the Arsacids enjoyed Greek theatre. When the head of Crassus was brought to Orodes II, he, alongside Armenian king Artavasdes II, were busy watching a performance of The Bacchae by the playwright Euripides (c. 480–406 BC). The producer of the play decided to use Crassus' actual severed head in place of the stage-prop head of Pentheus.
On his coins, Arsaces I is depicted in apparel similar to Achaemenid satraps. According to A. Shahbazi, Arsaces "deliberately diverges from Seleucid coins to emphasize his nationalistic and royal aspirations, and he calls himself Kārny/Karny (Greek: Autocrator), a title already borne by Achaemenid supreme generals, such as Cyrus the Younger." In line with Achaemenid traditions, rock-relief images of Arsacid rulers were carved at Mount Behistun, where Darius I of Persia (r. 522–486 BC) made royal inscriptions. Moreover, the Arsacids claimed familial descent from Artaxerxes II of Persia (r. 404–358 BC) as a means to bolster their legitimacy in ruling over former Achaemenid territories, i.e. as being "legitimate successors of glorious kings" of ancient Iran. Artabanus II named one of his sons Darius and laid claim to Cyrus' heritage. The Arsacid kings chose typical Zoroastrian names for themselves and some from the "heroic background" of the Avesta, according to V.G. Lukonin. The Parthians also adopted the use of the Babylonian calendar with names from the Achaemenid Iranian calendar, replacing the Macedonian calendar of the Seleucids.
Religion
The Parthian Empire, being culturally and politically heterogeneous, had a variety of religious systems and beliefs, the most widespread being those dedicated to Greek and Iranian cults. Aside from a minority of Jews and early Christians, most Parthians were polytheistic. Greek and Iranian deities were often blended together as one. For example, Zeus was often equated with Ahura Mazda, Hades with Angra Mainyu, Aphrodite and Hera with Anahita, Apollo with Mithra, and Hermes with Shamash. Aside from the main gods and goddesses, each ethnic group and city had their own designated deities. As with Seleucid rulers, Parthian art indicates that the Arsacid kings viewed themselves as gods; this cult of the ruler was perhaps the most widespread.
The extent of Arsacid patronage of Zoroastrianism is debated in modern scholarship. The followers of Zoroaster would have found the bloody sacrifices of some Parthian-era Iranian cults to be unacceptable. However, there is evidence that Vologases I encouraged the presence of Zoroastrian magi priests at court and sponsored the compilation of sacred Zoroastrian texts which later formed the Avesta. The Sasanian court would later adopt Zoroastrianism as the official state religion of the empire.
Although Mani (216–276 AD), the founding prophet of Manichaeism, did not proclaim his first religious revelation until 228/229 AD, Bivar asserts that his new faith contained "elements of Mandaean belief, Iranian cosmogony, and even echoes of Christianity ... [it] may be regarded as a typical reflection of the mixed religious doctrines of the late Arsacid period, which the Zoroastrian orthodoxy of the Sasanians was soon to sweep away."
There is scant archaeological evidence for the spread of Buddhism from the Kushan Empire into Iran proper. However, it is known from Chinese sources that An Shigao (fl. 2nd century AD), a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist monk, traveled to Luoyang in Han China as a Buddhist missionary and translated several Buddhist canons into Chinese.
Art and architecture
Parthian art can be divided into three geo-historical phases: the art of Parthia proper; the art of the Iranian plateau; and the art of Parthian Mesopotamia. The first genuine Parthian art, found at Mithridatkert/Nisa, combined elements of Greek and Iranian art in line with Achaemenid and Seleucid traditions. In the second phase, Parthian art found inspiration in Achaemenid art, as exemplified by the investiture relief of Mithridates II at Mount Behistun. The third phase occurred gradually after the Parthian conquest of Mesopotamia.
Common motifs of the Parthian period include scenes of royal hunting expeditions and the investiture of Arsacid kings. Use of these motifs extended to include portrayals of local rulers. Common art mediums were rock-reliefs, frescos, and even graffiti. Geometric and stylized plant patterns were also used on stucco and plaster walls. The common motif of the Sasanian period showing two horsemen engaged in combat with lances first appeared in the Parthian reliefs at Mount Behistun.
In portraiture the Parthians favored and emphasized frontality, meaning the person depicted by painting, sculpture, or raised-relief on coins faced the viewer directly instead of showing his or her profile. Although frontality in portraiture was already an old artistic technique by the Parthian period, Daniel Schlumberger explains the innovation of Parthian frontality:
'Parthian frontality', as we are now accustomed to call it, deeply differs both from ancient Near Eastern and from Greek frontality, though it is, no doubt, an offspring of the latter. For both in Oriental art and in Greek art, frontality was an exceptional treatment: in Oriental art it was a treatment strictly reserved for a small number of traditional characters of cult and myth; in Greek art it was an option resorted to only for definite reasons, when demanded by the subject, and, on the whole, seldom made use of. With Parthian art, on the contrary, frontality becomes the normal treatment of the figure. For the Parthians frontality is really nothing but the habit of showing, in relief and in painting, all figures full-face, even at the expense (as it seems to us moderns) of clearness and intelligibility. So systematic is this use that it amounts to a complete banishment de facto of the side-view and of all intermediate attitudes. This singular state of things seems to have become established in the course of the 1st century A.D.
Parthian art, with its distinct use of frontality in portraiture, was lost and abandoned with the profound cultural and political changes brought by the Sasanian Empire. However, even after the Roman occupation of Dura-Europos in 165 AD, the use of Parthian frontality in portraiture continued to flourish there. This is exemplified by the early 3rd-century AD wall murals of the Dura-Europos synagogue, a temple in the same city dedicated to Palmyrene gods, and the local Mithraeum.
Parthian architecture adopted elements of Achaemenid and Greek architecture, but remained distinct from the two. The style is first attested at Mithridatkert/Nisa. The Round Hall of Nisa is similar to Hellenistic palaces, but different in that it forms a circle and vault inside a square space. However, the artwork of Nisa, including marble statues and the carved scenes on ivory rhyton vessels, is unquestionably influenced by Greek art.
A signature feature of Parthian architecture was the iwan, an audience hall supported by arches or barrel vaults and open on one side. Use of the barrel vault replaced the Hellenic use of columns to support roofs. Although the iwan was known during the Achaemenid period and earlier in smaller and subterranean structures, it was the Parthians who first built them on a monumental scale. The earliest Parthian iwans are found at Seleucia, built in the early 1st century AD. Monumental iwans are also commonly found in the ancient temples of Hatra and perhaps modeled on the Parthian style. The largest Parthian iwans at that site have a span of 15 m (50 ft).
Clothing and apparel
The typical Parthian riding outfit is exemplified by the famous bronze statue of a Parthian nobleman found at Shami, Elymais. Standing 1.9 m (6 ft), the figure wears a V-shaped jacket, a V-shaped tunic fastened in place with a belt, loose-fitting and many-folded trousers held by garters, and a diadem or band over his coiffed, bobbed hair. His outfit is commonly seen in relief images of Parthian coins by the mid-1st century BC.
Examples of clothing in Parthian inspired sculptures have been found in excavations at Hatra, in northwestern Iraq. Statues erected there feature the typical Parthian shirt (qamis), combined with trousers and made with fine, ornamented materials. The aristocratic elite of Hatra adopted the bobbed hairstyles, headdresses, and belted tunics worn by the nobility belonging to the central Arsacid court. The trouser-suit was even worn by the Arsacid kings, as shown on the reverse images of coins. The Parthian trouser-suit was also adopted in Palmyra, Syria, along with the use of Parthian frontality in art.
Parthian sculptures depict wealthy women wearing long-sleeved robes over a dress, with necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and headdresses bedecked in jewelry. Their many-folded dresses were fastened by a brooch at one shoulder. Their headdresses also featured a veil which was draped backwards.
As seen in Parthian coinage, the headdresses worn by the Parthian kings changed over time. The earliest Arsacid coins show rulers wearing the soft cap with cheek flaps, known as the bashlyk (Greek: kyrbasia). This may have derived from an Achaemenid-era satrapal headdress and the pointy hats depicted in the Achaemenid reliefs at Behistun and Persepolis. The earliest coins of Mithridates I show him wearing the soft cap, yet coins from the latter part of his reign show him for the first time wearing the royal Hellenistic diadem. Mithridates II was the first to be shown wearing the Parthian tiara, embroidered with pearls and jewels, a headdress commonly worn in the late Parthian period and by Sasanian monarchs.
Language
As culturally and religiously tolerant as the Parthians were, they adopted Greek as their official language, while Aramaic remained the lingua franca in the empire. The native Parthian language, Middle Persian, and Akkadian were also used.
Literature and music
It is known that during the Parthian period the court minstrel (gōsān) recited poetic oral literature accompanied by music. However, their stories, composed in verse form, were not written down until the subsequent Sassanian period. In fact, there is no known Parthian-language literature that survives in original form; all of the surviving texts were written down in the following centuries. It is believed that such stories as the romantic tale Vis and Rāmin and epic cycle of the Kayanian dynasty were part of the corpus of oral literature from Parthian times, although compiled much later. Although literature of the Parthian language was not committed to written form, there is evidence that the Arsacids acknowledged and respected written Greek literature.
Women in the Parthian Empire
There are very few written and archeological sources about the position of women in the Parthian Empire, and the fragmentary information that does exist is only about royal women, whose position shows many similarities to their predecessors in the Achaemenid Empire and their successors in the Sasanian Empire.
The Parthian kings were polygamous and had several wives with the title "queen" (referred to with the Babylonian spelling šarratu or the Greek basilisse), as well as concubines. It is known that kings often married their sisters, but it is unknown if they were the kings' full sisters or half sisters. According to Roman sources, Parthian kings had harems full of female slaves and hetairas secluded from contact with men, and royal women were not allowed to participate in the royal banquets. Whether the royal women lived in seclusion from men is unknown, as no evidence of that has been found, but it is known that women at least participated in the royal banquets as entertainers, as women are shown in archeological images entertaining at such occasions with music and dance.
It is assumed that royal Parthian women could own and manage their own property, land and manufactures, as could their predecessors in the Achaemenid and Seleucid Empire and their successors in the Sasanian Empire. It is fully attested that royal women, as well as noblewomen, accompanied their husbands in battle with their own entourage. This was the reason why female members of the royal family could sometimes be taken captive by enemies and had to be ransomed, such as the famous occasion when the daughter of King Osroes was held captive by emperor Trajan from the occupation of Ctesiphon in 116 until 129, but also the reason why kings sometimes killed the women of his company after a defeat to prevent them from being taken prisoners.
Royal women appear to have been less included in royal representation. Artwork depicts royal women dressed similarly to those of the Achaemenid period: in long-sleeved, many-folded dresses tied by a belt, with a tiara or a veil hanging down their back. While their names and titles did appear in official documents, Parthian women were rarely depicted in art. Only two royal women were ever depicted on Parthian coins: queen Musa of Parthia and queen Anzaze of Elymais. Only two women are known to have ruled the Parthian Empire, one as monarch and one as regent. Musa of Parthia is the only woman confirmed to have ruled as queen regnant of the Parthian Empire, while Rinnu, mother of underage king Phraates II, is the only other woman believed to have been a ruler, in her case as a queen regent instead of a queen regnant.
See also
Pahla
Parthians
Assyria (Roman province)
Baghdad Battery
Battle of Nisibis (217)
Romans in Persia
History of Iran
Inscription of Parthian imperial power
List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties
Augustus' Eastern policy
Notes
References or sources
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Further reading
External links
Various articles from Iran Chamber Society (Parthian Empire, The Art of Parthians, Parthian Army)
Parthia.com (a website featuring the history, geography, coins, arts and culture of ancient Parthia, including a bibliographic list of scholarly sources)
Former countries in Asia
Former empires in Asia
Seleucid Empire successor states
States and territories established in the 3rd century BC
States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century
247 BC
240s BC establishments
224 disestablishments
Empires and kingdoms of Iran
Arsacid dynasty
Ancient history of Afghanistan
Ancient history of Pakistan
Classical Anatolia
Ancient history of the Caucasus
History of Turkmenistan
Ancient Near East
History of West Asia
Former empires |
4501205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddy%20Finucane | Paddy Finucane | Wing Commander Brendan Eamonn Fergus Finucane, (16 October 1920 – 15 July 1942), known as Paddy Finucane amongst his colleagues, was an Irish Second World War Royal Air Force (RAF) fighter pilot and flying ace—defined as an aviator credited with five or more enemy aircraft destroyed in aerial combat.
Born into a Catholic family, Finucane grew up during the period also known as the "early troubles" and the Irish Civil War. In 1936, the family moved to England, where he developed an interest in aviation. Finucane was keen to fly, applied to join the RAF and was accepted for training as a pilot in August 1938. After a shaky training career, in which he crash-landed on one occasion, he received news that he had completed flight training. In June–July 1940, he began conversion training on the Supermarine Spitfire. On 13 July, Finucane was posted to No. 65 Squadron at RAF Hornchurch.
Finucane's first victory was scored on 12 August 1940 during the Battle of Britain. During the campaign, he was credited with two enemies destroyed, two probably destroyed and one damaged. Promoted to acting flight lieutenant in April 1941, he joined No. 452 Squadron flying offensive patrols over France—known as the Circus offensive. During this period, Finucane had his most successful period of operations, destroying 20 German aircraft, sharing in the destruction of three, with two damaged and another two probably destroyed from 4 January to 13 October 1941.
In January 1942, Finucane was promoted to the rank of squadron leader in No. 602 Squadron. Within six months, he was credited a further six individual victories bringing his tally to 28. Four more were damaged, four were shared destroyed and two credited as individual probable victories and one shared probable. In June 1942, he became the RAF's youngest wing commander in its history. Finucane was appointed to lead the Hornchurch Wing.
On 15 July 1942, Finucane took off with his flight for a mission over France. His Spitfire was damaged by ground-fire. Finucane attempted to fly back to England across the English Channel but was forced to ditch into the sea and subsequently vanished. After his death, Finucane's brother Raymond served in No. 101 Squadron RAF and survived the war.
Finucane was credited with 28 aerial victories, five probably destroyed, six shared destroyed, one shared probable victory, and eight damaged. Included in his total were 23 Messerschmitt Bf 109s, four Focke-Wulf Fw 190s and one Messerschmitt Bf 110. Official records differ over the exact total. After the war, two of Finucane's victories that were credited as probables had, in fact, been destroyed, but were not officially included. His total victory count could be as high as 32. Some sources credit him this figure.
Early life
Brendan Finucane was born on 16 October 1920, the first child of Thomas and Florence Finucane of 13 Rathmines Road, Rathmines, Dublin, Ireland. His mother was English, originally from Leicester. Her mother had travelled across Canada at a young age, and Florence moved to Dublin to seek her own adventure. She accepted the risks associated with living in the city. In 1919, she met Thomas Andrew Finucane, who had been involved in the Irish Rebellion. Thomas Finucane had been taught mathematics at college by Éamon de Valera, leader of the Irish opposition. As a member of the Irish Volunteers, he served under de Valera's command in the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin. Thomas' father, Brendan Finucane's grandfather, was an Irishman who had served in the King's Own Scottish Borderers on the North-West Frontier Province. Thomas Finucane had ceased his political activism shortly before the couple married in October 1919, and after Florence had converted to Catholicism.
The couple moved to Drumcondra in October 1919, where Thomas found a job as a bank cashier. The job did not pay well, but the two managed on his meagre wages. In early 1920, they moved to Grove Road in the Rathmines district, and Brendan was born in October. Soon afterwards, Brendan and his mother were nearly killed, when caught in cross-fire between the temporary constables employed by the Royal Irish Constabulary, known as the "Black and Tans", and the Irish Republican Army (IRA). In 1921, Brendan's brother Raymond was born, followed by sisters Clare and Monica, and a brother, Kevin. The household was somewhat split over religious and political issues. Their father was a teetotaller and a strict Catholic. Their mother, however, encouraged the elder brothers to adopt a more liberal leaning in life. Brendan was educated at Synge Street and Marlborough Street. At 10, Brendan showed a keen interest in sport, particularly rugby.
In summer 1932, the Finucane brothers were taken to an air show at Baldonnel and had a 10-minute flight. Brendan expressed his desire to become a pilot, an ambition which strengthened during holiday visits to air shows at Swaythling and Eastleigh airfields. In August 1933, the family moved to New Grange Road, Cabra. Brendan started school at the Christian Brothers O'Connell School, a distinguished Roman Catholic school in North Richmond Street. There he became a successful rugby player, rower and a champion boxer. Among his classmates were future Gaelic football stars Michael O'Hehir and Philip Greene.
After a visit to England in July 1936 Thomas Finucane, now a company director, decided to establish an office in the West End of London. In November 1936, the family moved to England permanently and bought a house at 26 Castlegate, Richmond, which was then in Surrey and is now in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. Brendan was sent to Cardinal Vaughan Memorial School. Brendan completed his schooling with good qualifications. He started in an office job as an accountant, which he loathed. In 1937, the RAF began offering short-service commissions (SSC) to lower-class persons who met the academic standard. It offered a four-year term as a junior rank, on squadron service with flying lessons. A further six years would be spent on the reserve list. In November 1937, Brendan approached his father about joining the British Armed Forces. Despite his Republican past, the senior Finucane agreed, believing a military career would provide a sense of direction lacking in his own youth. His parents cashed in their insurance policies, even though they needed the money and Thomas Andrew Finucane had been made unemployed.
Royal Air Force
In April 1938, aged 17 and a half (the minimum application age), Finucane handed in his application to the Air Ministry at Kingsway, London, on his way to work. Eight weeks later, in June 1938, he was invited for an interview. He showed a keenness to fly, sound school leaving certificate qualifications and a good sporting record. After waiting two months, in August 1938 Brendan Finucane was ordered to report to the 6 Elementary and Reserve Flying Training School at Sywell in Northamptonshire. He arrived on 28 August.
Within days, Finucane had taken to the skies with his instructor, flying the de Havilland Tiger Moth trainer. Finucane was slow to come to grips with handling the aircraft and he suffered a series of mishaps. During his training, on 7 September, he nearly flew into an airfield boundary hedge. He struggled with landing. Four days later, his tyre burst on a landing approach. The Moth bounced up into the air and Finucane barely recovered to make a heavy landing, although this time he was praised by his instructor. As they climbed out, they saw that the landing gear had been destroyed. Further heavy contact, said Finucane, "[and] there would have been no more Brendan or Mr. Morris!"
Roland Morris was an experienced instructor, with more than 2,000 hours. He was critical of Finucane's habit of trying to force the aircraft to do what he wanted, instead of coaxing it. Despite a series of blunders, Finucane wanted to fly solo. At that time, Finucane was five hours flight training behind the rest of his group, but he made a successful solo trip on 21 September, after the completion of 14:05 hours piloting. The flight was not without fault; Finucane nearly stalled the aircraft after taking off.
Finucane was now one of the 45 pilots in his class to have completed 100 hours of piloting time on aircraft since joining the RAF. After completing basic flight training on 28 October 1938, Finucane was classed as an average pilot, but deemed to be competent enough to be assigned to advanced flying school. With effect from the following day, he was granted a short-service commission as an acting pilot officer (on probation) and sent to 8 Flying Training School, RAF Montrose in Scotland. On 12 November, he left King's Cross railway station travelling on the Flying Scotsman to Glasgow, arriving at Montrose after a 10-hour journey.
At Montrose, Finucane struggled with the more powerful Hawker Hart which was used for advanced training. His positioning in the air was poor and he struggled to hold a good landing pattern. One of his instructors remarked, "the ground was never quite where Paddy expected it to be!" After failing a test with Squadron Leader Dickie Legg, his situation was reviewed. Legg was persuaded to keep him after Finucane showed improvement and a steely determination.
Finucane moved on to the Hawker Fury on 21 March 1939. On 23 June, he was classed as average again, but with low marks: 2,010 out of 3,400 or 59 per cent. Pilot ability was assessed as 400 out of 750; officer qualities 450 of 750; and in the written exams 837 of 1,300. Examined in navigation, meteorology, engine mechanics, and armament, he achieved marks of 77, 54, 50, and 65 percent. At this time, he flew radio-controlled aircraft for the Targeting Section. On 10 July, he crashed a Queen Bee on a transport flight to Gosport in bad weather, which did not improve his standing as a pilot. He escaped with a cut thumb. On 29 August, he was re-graded as a pilot officer (on probation), with the service number 41276.
World War II
Finucane spent the winter of 1939–40 gaining as much flight practice as possible. He was unable to gain any hours in fighter aircraft. He was abruptly transferred to the practice and parachute test flight centre at RAF Henlow. He had to settle for making trips around airfields in an antiquated Vickers Virginia, as a co-pilot ferrying engineers and ground crew from 16 September 1939. That month German forces invaded Poland on 1 September, prompting Britain and France to declare war on Germany, and beginning the war in Europe. Finucane's piloting skills were far from being at the acceptable level for a fighter pilot. He continued in this trend until May 1940, when he was assigned to flying Miles Magister training aircraft.
In May, German forces began the Battle of the Netherlands and the Battle of Belgium which fell quickly. In June France collapsed. Fighter Command now needed an influx of pilots, after losses in Western Europe. Finucane's flying had improved and on 27 June 1940, he was posted to 7 Operational Training Unit (7 OTU), at RAF Hawarden near Chester. Finucane was to convert onto Supermarine Spitfires, while awaiting a fighter squadron posting. Finucane made his first flight in a Spitfire on 3 July 1940 and made 26 such flights in nine days. The pilots were tested on radio transmission, handling, formation flying and aerobatics. On 11 July 1940 he was permitted just one firing practice. At the end of his stay at 7 OTU, he had logged 2 hours 40 minutes on the Magister, 2 hours 25 minutes on the Fairey Battle, 15 minutes on the Hawker Hurricane and 22 hours and 20 minutes on the Spitfire.
Battle of Britain
Finucane was posted to No. 65 Squadron at RAF Hornchurch on 12 July 1940, arriving the next day, just as the Battle of Britain was getting under-way. No. 65 Squadron boasted several aces, including Bill Franklin who had destroyed 10 enemy aircraft. Finucane called him the scruffiest man in the squadron, but was envious of Franklin's skill and was keen to emulate him. Anxious to get more experience, Finucane loitered around dispersal hoping to build up flight time on the Spitfire by asking as many senior officers for as many hours practice as was possible. Finucane was granted a few flights to improve his handling of the fighter before he was assigned to B Flight or Green Section.
On 24 July, the squadron moved to a satellite airfield RAF Rochford in Essex. The following day, he became operational. The Battle of Britain was slowly escalating and air fighting increased with a series of German air attacks against British shipping in the English Channel, a phase of the battle termed Kanalkampf by the Luftwaffe. Finucane's first scramble came on 25 July 1940. Flying Spitfire N3128 code YT-W, he took off at 08:45. The Spitfire was worn, having served in combat since April. It developed a glycol leak whilst climbing and the cockpit filled with escaping vapour from the cooling liquid condensing on the hot engine. Suddenly his radio transmission failed. Still, he managed a wheels-up landing at Rochford. 65 Squadron was in action again at 12:20 and engaged enemy aircraft but suffered no losses.
For the next few days, Finucane did not scramble. On 1 August, he was assigned Spitfire R6818 which had been taken on charge by the unit on 26 July. On 12 August, he took off to intercept a raid at 11:30. Climbing to , off North Foreland, the squadron attacked 30 Messerschmitt Bf 109s several thousand feet below them. Evading a German counterattack Finucane dived upon a formation of 12 enemy fighters. He fired from , causing one Bf 109 to crash into the Channel. The victory was witnessed by Sergeant Orchard in Finucane's flight. He landed at 11:45. While the squadron was refuelling and assembling for another patrol at RAF Manston, the airfield came under a low-level attack by Messerschmitt Bf 110s and Dornier Do 17s covered by Bf 109s. The Bf 110s were led by Hauptmann Walter Rubensdörffer, commanding Erprobungsgruppe 210. 18 Do 17s from Kampfgeschwader 2 supported them. Not many of the Spitfires got airborne. Alongside Jeffrey Quill, Finucane took off downwind as the first bombs started to fall. Both Quill and Finucane sighted Bf 109s and engaged. Quill hit a Bf 109 and Finucane fired on two, claiming a probable and one damaged. According to another account Quill had taken off without permission when he heard reverberations to his right. He saw a hangar roof with a mountain of earth flying sky-ward and a Bf 110 pulling out of a dive. He fired at, but missed, a Bf 109. One Spitfire was damaged in the attack. Finucane's first claim may be one of two III./Jagdgeschwader 54 Bf 109s shot down over the Channel by an unknown British fighter unit. One pilot was unhurt, the other, a Leutnant Eberle was wounded in action. No losses for Bf 109s were incurred on the second air battle.
On 13 August, the Luftwaffe began an all-out assault on RAF airfields. Christened Adlertag (Eagle Day), the raids saw the heaviest fighting thus far. Scrambling at 16:00 to intercept an incoming raid near Dover, 65 Squadron encountered large numbers of Bf 109s from Jagdgeschwader 51 led by Hannes Trautloft. Finucane claimed a Bf 109 shot down and damaged another, leaving the Messerschmitt streaming smoke. Finucane lost contact with it in cloud and he claimed as a probable. One Bf 109 was lost from JG 51 and the pilot wounded. Two more were 80 percent damaged. 65 Squadron suffered no losses. On 18 August Finucane was involved in the large air battles that characterised the campaign. 65 Squadron engaged Heinkel He 111 bombers from Kampfgeschwader 1 downing one of their number.
On 28 August, the squadron was moved to RAF Turnhouse near Edinburgh to rest, having lost two pilots killed in action, one missing in action and four Spitfires between 14 and 27 August. While at Turnhouse, on 3 September, Finucane was confirmed in his rank and promoted to flying officer. A squadron report on 9 September noted that Finucane was learning quickly and showing signs of becoming an efficient combat leader; "I have great hopes of this officer. He is keen and intelligent and shows likelihood of becoming a very efficient leader. Is being trained as a leader and is learning quickly."
65 Squadron remained in the battle until its end in October 1940, but Finucane gained no further successes. On 8 November the unit transferred to RAF Leuchars and then on 29 November back to No. 11 Group RAF in the south at RAF Tangmere near Chichester in West Sussex. The squadron remained idle for the winter as The Blitz and the German night attacks began and lasted in to the following spring. Finucane billeted near Oving. While drinking at a nearby pub, overlooking the harbour, an air raid began on Southampton. Finucane heard the drone of German bombers over the Isle of Wight in the distance and watched as the pathfinders marked the city. They clambered into a Wolseley Hornet two-seater car and headed into the town to seek out acquaintances of a squadron-mate. After seeing the destruction in the city Finucane said "Until this war is won we must shoot every Jerry from the sky."
Channel Front
By early 1941, the Luftwaffe rarely appeared in daylight and Finucane spent most of his operational time patrolling the Channel coast. On 4 January 1941 at 09:50 off Selsey Bill, he caught and shot down a Bf 110 at . It took 15 minutes and four attacks to bring it down. The Bf 110 crashed into the Channel. Off St. Catherine's Point on 19 January, Finucane was one of two Spitfires that intercepted a Junkers Ju 88 at . They chased the Ju 88 to within of Cherbourg and broke off for lack of fuel. They left the Ju 88 on fire in both engines and flying at 50 feet. The pilot had proven a skilful opponent. The Ju 88 flew low-level skidding turns and into the sun where the glare prevented the British pilots from gaining a clear view. The rear gunner was also firing accurately, hitting Finucane's fighter with a few well-placed rounds. The Ju 88 was credited as shared destroyed. The share was with Sergeant H. Orchard.
In November 1940 Air Marshal Sholto Douglas became Air Officer Commanding (AOC) RAF Fighter Command. On 8 December 1940 a directive from the Air Staff called for Sector Offensive Sweeps. It ordered hit-and-run operations over Belgium and France. The operations were to be conducted by three squadrons to harass German air defences. On 10 January 1941 'Circus' attacks were initiated by sending small bomber formations protected by large numbers of fighters. The escalation of offensive operations throughout 1941 was designed to draw up the Luftwaffe as Douglas' Command took an increasingly offensive stance. Trafford Leigh-Mallory, AOC 11 Group, promulgated Operations Instruction No. 7, which he had written on 16 February. Leigh-Mallory outlined six distinct operations for day fighters: 'Ramrod' (bomber escort with primary goal the destruction of the target); 'Fighter Ramrod' (the same goal where fighters escorted ground-attack fighters); Roadstead (bomber escort and anti-shipping operations); Fighter Roadstead (the same operation as Roadstead but without bombers) along with Rhubarb and Circus operations.
On 5 February, Finucane participated in the third Circus operation. 65 supported 610 and 302 Squadron over Saint-Omer. Leading high cover, Finucane claimed another Bf 109 over Cap d'Alprech as three German fighters attempted to attack the other squadrons from behind. It was seen to crash into woodland. On 26 February 1941, 65 Squadron was posted to Kirton in Lindsey. The airfield was located in Lincolnshire in No. 12 Group RAF's sector where air-to-air combat was very uncommon in daylight. The stay at Lindsey was short. On 14 April 1941, Finucane was posted as a Flight Commander to the newly formed Australian No. 452 Squadron RAAF, the first RAAF squadron to serve in Fighter Command. He was promoted to acting flight lieutenant the same day.
The following day, 15 April, he flew his final sortie with 65 Squadron flying support for 266 Squadron and 402 Squadron. On the way back in the afternoon he claimed one Bf 109 destroyed. This, his fifth victory, made him an official fighter ace. However, according to other accounts, only two Bf 109s were involved in the brief air battle. Finucane's and 65's likely opponents in the battle was Adolf Galland, Geschwaderkommodore (wing commander) Jagdgeschwader 26 and future General der Jagdflieger (General of Fighter Forces). Galland had taken off with his wingman and a crate containing lobster loaded into the fuselage of his Bf 109 to deliver to Jagdfliegerführer 2 Theo Osterkamp for his birthday at Luftflotte 2 headquarters. En route, Galland took a detour over the English coast and attacked several flights of Spitfires, claiming two 266 squadrons shot down. Galland's landing-gear fell down during the battle, possibly leading Finucane to claim it as destroyed. Both German pilots returned to France, their machines undamaged. Finucane was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) on 25 April.
Finucane's start at No. 452 was unimpressive. On 3 May 1941 while on a recognition flight with his new commanding officer, Squadron Leader Roy Dutton, Finucane got too close and his propeller sliced through Dutton's tailplane. Finucane radioed Dutton immediately. Dutton attempted to abandon the aircraft but was too low and crash-landed, cracking several ribs but surviving. Finucane excused himself from error asserting that his Spitfire was the only one with a metal propeller—the others being elder Mark I's with wooden mounts—which gave him extra speed. In tight formation, this had caused the collision. Despite the incident, he was Gazetted on 13 May and given temporary command of the squadron while Dutton was injured. While at 452 Finucane became a popular commander and encouraged a more relaxed atmosphere, which he believed would help him get more out of the Australian pilots. He was now in command of 23 pilots, 16 fighters and 130 ground crew.
The squadron re-equipped with Mk. II's in May 1941 and Finucane was assigned serial P8038, formerly of No. 303 Squadron RAF, on 21 May. It was the first of four Spitfires to carry the Shamrock emblem as his personal insignia. Jimmy Firth, his airframe rigger and 'Speedy' Moore, a Canadian engine fitter, were attempting to put an outline of the design on. Poorly done, it attracted the attention of Maurice Pownhall a professional in Lithography. Using green dope he completed the emblem on the forward left part of the cockpit fairing panel. Finucane approved and the Shamrock stayed.
On 11 July 1941 Fighter Command conducted Circus Number 44. 12 Group flew as the lower echelon with Spitfire squadrons 452, 65 and 266. Two 11 Group wings from RAF Biggin Hill encompassing 72, 92 and 609 Squadrons and the incomplete RAF Kenley wing with 485 and 602. There was so much competition in the squadron to fly on its first Circus operation that Finucane had to draw lots. The squadron re-fuelled at West Malling after staging down to the coast through England. Flying as the middle-squadron at 18,000 ft Finucane's flight crossed the coast east of Dunkirk at 14:45 GMT. Over Poperinghe the wing split into four groups and headed to Cassel. The sole charge was a Bristol Blenheim of No. 60 Group RAF which was to act as a decoy. Five miles west of Lille at 15:00 GMT they were engaged by elements of Jagdgeschwader 2 and JG 26. Finucane engaged 8 Bf 109s and other units engaged three flights of 10 Bf 109s in total. Finucane was able to position himself behind a straggler after firing 90 rounds the Bf 109 was hit and the pilot bailed out. Fighter Command claimed seven destroyed, two probably destroyed and seven damaged for three Spitfires. Circus 45 took place 40 minutes later. Finucane's success was the first victory for the squadron.
Kenley Wing
On 21 July 452 was moved to Kenley on a plateau near Kenley Common just south of London in East Surrey. There it joined 602 (City of Glasgow) and 485 (New Zealand) Squadron. These fighter units were to form the nucleus of the new Kenley Wing. From here, they were to fly many intensive operations over the summer period. The squadrons were bolstered by experienced Non-commissioned officers but were relatively inexperienced units. One of them, 602, was commanded by the seasoned Squadron Leader Al Deere. While there Finucane developed a friendship with the Australian pilot Keith Truscott, who joined 452 in May 1941. The two frequented Oddeninos restaurant on Regent Street, a favourite among pilots in blacked-out London. Lew Stone the dance band leader played there. One evening he met Jean Woolford who was to become his fiancé. Whatever time Finucane could spend on leave was spent in Kew Gardens or Richmond Park with her.
After a period of air-to-air exercises and practice the Wing undertook a Circus operation on 3 August 1941. In the evening the Wing crossed out over RAF Manston at 18,000 ft and then dropped to 13,000 ft over the coast at Gravelines and set course for Saint-Omer. Near Ambleteuse five Bf 109Fs were sighted one thousand feet above and in front travelling past the Spitfires. The German fighters shadowed the flight before three detached and dived to attack, curving in from behind. The Spitfires turned into them. Finucane missed with his first burst of fire and chased the leading Bf 109 into cloud while following the Bf 109's condensation trail. Hitting the enemy with another burst from 200 yards the Bf 109 burst into flames. He sighted another formation of 18 Bf 109s above and climbed to attack supported by six Spitfires. Finucane scored hits on the tail unit of one which went down vertically and into a cloud layer at 2,000 ft at which point contact was lost. Finucane claimed one destroyed and one probably destroyed. The operation elevated his tally to 7. The day was best remembered in Fighter Command for the loss of Flight Lieutenant Eric Lock who was shot down by ground-fire in the morning patrol.
On 9 August Finucane was involved with Circus 68 in which five Wings escorted five Blenheims from No. 2 Group RAF to a power station at Gosnay four miles south-west of Béthune. Kenley's three squadrons shared the target support role with Tangmere Wing 610, 616 and 41 Squadrons led by Wing Commander Douglas Bader. The escort wing was 71, 222, and 111 squadrons from North Weald and the escort cover wing was 403, 603 and 611 from Hornchurch while Northolt Wing committed 306, 308 and 315. With thick cloud cover they abandoned the Gosnay operation and moved to a secondary target at Gravelines. The Luftwaffe provided severe resistance and large air battles developed over the coast. Finucane and 452 were positioned as the lower squadron in the Kenley Wing at 20,000 ft with Finucane leading 'A' Flight—a section of four Spitfires. Over Saint Omer at 11:32 Finucane engaged eight Bf 109s and with a long four-second burst of machine gun and cannon-fire from 100 yards one of the Messerschmitts caught fire and went into a spin. Finucane then shared two others with Keith Chisholm. The squadron lost three pilots—Jay O'Bryne became a prisoner of war while Barry Haydon and Geoff Chapman were shot down. Bader was also captured after being shot down by friendly-fire.
Over the next few days 452 re-equipped with Spitfire VBs which had two Hispano-Suiza HS.404 calibre cannon in each wing to supplement four 7.7 mm (0.303 in) Browning machine guns. Finucane chose AB852 because it had the code W adorned on the fuselage. The Spitfire that Finucane damaged in the collision with Dutton earlier also had this letter. Superstition compelled him to fly with a W-decorated fighter for good luck. On Saturday 16 August 1941 Finucane celebrated his greatest success in this machine. Circus 73 began at 07:25, and once again the wing was sent to Saint Omer. Near Gravelines eight to ten Bf 109s engaged 485 squadron. At the customary 100 yards a two-second burst—his second—put the first enemy aircraft into a spin. Pilot Officer Truscott witnessed it diving steeply at 1,000 ft and spinning. At midday 452, 602 and 485 participated in Circus 74 but made no claims. At 17:45 Circus 75 yielded another response from the Luftwaffe. Kenley performed the role of escort wing. Eight Bf 109s engaged at 9,000 ft and 452 claimed seven. Finucane engaged one which caught fire and emitted a lot of white smoke. He then opened fire on another from 10 yards after his gun sight failed. The Bf 109 lost its tail unit. The day's successes were victory numbers 9, 10 and 11.
On 19 August Circus 81 once again targeted the Gosnay power station escorting six 2 Group Blenheims. JG 2 and JG 26—the only Luftwaffe wings in the west—reacted. A series of dogfights started at 18,000 ft and ended near 4,000 ft. Finucane claimed one destroyed and one probable. One fell near Gosnay the other was left pouring black smoke at only 500 ft in the Calais area. Truscott claimed a third but 452 lost two pilots—Bill Eccleton and Dick Gazzard. The squadron attracted attention through its successes and Sholto Douglas visited them on 21 August. The following day Finucane was awarded a Bar to the DFC. The citation read, "Flight Lieutenant Finucane has been largely responsible for the fighting spirit of the unit." Circus 85 on 27 August 1941 was meant as an escort mission but the Blenheims of No. 139 Squadron RAF arrived at the rendezvous 30 minutes early and veered off to England. Four wings crossed the coast at 07:12 at 18,000 ft. The Germans reacted and there followed a large air battle which the squadron claimed four Bf 109s—two by Finucane. 452 Squadron were now the most successful in Fighter Command in August.
Finucane took leave in early September and his award for a second Bar was gazetted on 9 September. Circus 100B was flown on 20 September 1941. A three-pronged attack was planned involving 23 squadrons and 270 Spitfires with bomber units acting as decoys. The Kenley wing was to provide escort for bombers hitting marshalling yards at Abbeville. 452 was one of three squadrons flying high cover. Immediately after crossing the coast at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme they were engaged by enemy aircraft. Finucane hit a Bf 109 which exploded forcing him to fly through the debris but within minutes 452 had lost three Spitfires. Finding himself and his wingman, Sergeant Chisholm alone he shot down a Bf 109 that attempted to attack his squadron-mate. He followed it briefly and it caught fire while emitting white smoke. Another Bf 109 turned in to attack Finucane but was shot down by Chisholm. Fighting their way back to the Channel Finucane dived and shot down a Bf 109 which went into a spin before he lost sight of it at approximately 500 ft. Three successes had inflated Finucane's tally to 17.
In command
The success of 452 and its highest scoring pilot Brendan Finucane brought fame and publicity and information about the squadron's exploits was released by the Air Ministry to the press. That same day, Sunday 21 September 1941, 452 escorted Blenheims to Gosnay once more on Circus 101. 452 met resistance and Bf 109s engaged the Wing. Finucane claimed two at around 15:25 GMT. Chisholm witnessed the first one explode and the second victory burst into flames and dived out of control. The Air Ministry released the details of the operation to the press that night. The Daily Herald had planned to use the headline "Finucane wants 3 for his 21st – 21 for his 21st birthday". Editions were changed overnight to "Finucane wants one more". The Daily Mail, a believer in publishing fighter pilots' exploits since the First World War, ran the headline "Spitfire Finucane shoots down 20 Nazis" [sic]. Most of the headlines carried pictures of the squadron in the aftermath of Circus 100B and the stories elevated Finucane to national hero status.
On 2 October 1941, 452 Squadron was joined by 485 from Kenley. The Tangmere Wing's 41, 616 and 129 Squadrons followed to participate in another Circus operation. These formations flew from Mardyck to Boulogne at 22,000 ft to tempt the Luftwaffe to send fighter units into battle. III./JG 26 scrambled to intercept with a staffel (squadron) of Bf 109s. Engaging in battle Finucane shot the wing off one Messerschmitt Bf 109 and damaged another while a third attacked him and was promptly dispatched into the Channel. Finucane followed it down to 6,000 ft but could not ascertain the result because he was attacked by five Bf 109s. A series of barrel rolls and steep climbing turns effected his escape. The engagement took place approximately three miles from the French coast. Upon returning the airfield Finucane's Spitfire was painted to include his initials on the shamrock and 21 Swastika emblems encircling it. Finucane was not pleased with the decoration and ordered it removed. On 4 October he was given temporary command of the squadron when his commanding officer went on leave. On 11 October, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (gazetted 21 October) for 21 enemy aircraft shot down.
The next day Circus 107 took place and 452 participated. Blenheims attacked the port of Boulogne protected by 19 squadrons from six wings. Between Le Touquet and mid-Channel at 12:20 the RAF formations were engaged by approximately 50 Bf 109s. Finucane falsely claimed a Bf 109 S.W. Le Touquet 12.22-40 hrs. at 20,000 ft., but it was his no. 2 Sgt Roderick Aeneas Chisholme (Red 2) in Spitfire Mk.VB W3520, who bailed out and was captured. He was shot down either by Hptm. Seifert or Priller, both Luftwaffe Experten. Chisholm escaped in 1942 and spent the next three years evading recapture through Poland, Nazi Germany and France to Paris until the city was liberated in 1944. On 12 October 1941 Circus 108A yielded two victories—one over Saint Omer and another just out to sea off Boulogne. Attempting a third attack Finucane hit a Bf 109 in a climbing attack but stalled and had to dive out of the fight. Truscott, according to his own logbook, shot at a German pilot in a parachute. The attack was frowned upon but the Australian argued leaving an enemy to live to fight again was unwise.
Circus 108A cost Fighter Command 8 fighters for 15 claims. The squadron celebrated with a night of drinking. Walking back to their quarters Finucane jumped Croydon Town hall's stone balustrade parapet which hid an 18-foot drop the other side which broke his heel bone and put him in hospital for several weeks. Finucane was treated in Horton Hospital which specialised in combat wounds. While recovering Finucane was sent messages of congratulations by Trafford Leigh-Mallory AOC 11 Group. The Air Ministry sought to take advantage of Finucane's reputation by asking him to assist with morale and propaganda activities. On 22 October he read out an Air Ministry-approved description of his service for the BBC radio programme The World Goes By from his hospital bed. Finucane was moved to RAF Halton in Wendover, Buckinghamshire on 14 November 1941. On 22 November he moved to the former luxury Palace Hotel in Torquay. Upon arrival Finucane was asked to leave for London to receive the DSO and two bars to the DFC on 25 November with his brother and parents. That day King George VI personally decorated Finucane at Buckingham Palace.
On 20 January 1942, Finucane was given command of 602 Squadron at RAF Redhill. Five days later Group Captain Victor Beamish arrived as the new station commander. Beamish promoted Finucane instantly to the rank of squadron leader. Beamish had flown in the Battle of Britain and had then been posted to II Group as Group Captain Operations in 1941. Beamish frequently asked for an operational command and eventually Leigh-Mallory relented and gave him Redhill. Beamish was ordered not to fly on operations but usually flew whenever he felt like it. Beamish was killed on operations just two months later. Finucane observed 602's Glasgow traditions by reviving the squadron badge which pictured the Scottish lion rampant in red.
On 12 February 1942 station commander Beamish took off and headed over the English Channel with wingman for an early morning patrol. Reaching mid-Channel they sighted many ships and realised they had over-flown strong German naval forces. The German navy (Kriegsmarine) were in the midst of Operation Cerberus. The naval squadron consisting of the capital ships and and the heavy cruiser along with escorts. The operation ran a British blockade and sailed from Brest in Brittany to their home bases in Germany via the Channel. The Luftwaffe protected the ships with Operation Donnerkeil, an air superiority plan. The British counter-plan, Operation Fuller was put into action at 11:30 after Beamish had landed and reported the enemy position. Within five minutes Finucane was ordered to take-off on a Roadstead operation. Seven of 602 Squadron fired on warships and caught the images on cine gun-camera. The German operation was a success and on 19 February 1942 Finucane was ordered to London with his former squadron-mate Keith Truscott. He gave evidence before the Fuller Enquiry which reported on the failure to prevent the break-out before Air Chief Marshal Edgar Ludlow-Hewitt and Vice Admiral Hugh Binney.
On 20 February 1942 Finucane flew a two-Spitfire sortie to Dunkirk, France. The last few days had been monotonous and Finucane was eager to fly and asked Dick Lewis—a 29-year-old Australian who had put his age down so he was accepted for pilot training—to fly as his wingman. At 10:55 GMT Finucane took off and headed over Manston toward France. Off the coast, they strafed a small ship and turned north to return home. Finucane spotted two aircraft taking off from Mardyck but lost sight of them. Both Spitfires dropped to sea level. Minutes later two enemy fighters came towards them. They were identified as Focke-Wulf Fw 190s. The Fw 190 had a higher performance than the Spitfire V in all departments other than turning circle and was more heavily armed. Finucane scored hits on the first Fw 190's wing but the enemy quickly gained the advantage and Finucane's Spitfire was hit with six machine gun rounds which blew a piece of fuselage into the cockpit and into his leg. Blood loss induced dizziness and Lewis protected his leader from six more astern attacks. In the last attack the two Fw 190s came from opposite directions. Lewis was able to claim one shot down and the other gave up over the mid-Channel. They taxied to 452's dispersal where Finucane passed out after shutting down the engine. On 2 March Finucane went on leave after spending over a week in hospital. No claim or loss was recorded by JG 26, the resident German fighter unit.
Death
Finucane returned to operations on 13 March; 602 had been strengthened by the arrival of Flight Lieutenant James Harry Lacey, an established fighter pilot with considerable combat experience. Lacey commanded several flights in 602 over the spring and summer, 1942. By coincidence, Lacey also ended the war on 28 aerial victories. He flew with Finucane and 602 on Circus 114 which targeted the railway yards at Hazebrouck. Finucane fought an Fw 190 from 23,000 to 8,000 ft. He claimed it shot down and it was witnessed by Sergeant Paul Green. Fighter Command claimed eight for the loss of six. JG 26 recorded no losses in the battle and the Germans issued a communiqué on losses. Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal requested proof from Sholto Douglas to demonstrate Fighter Command's claims were accurate. Douglas issued him with combat reports from the Kenley Wing which stated two German aircraft were seen to hit the ground and one pilot bailed out. These claims cannot be substantiated through German losses. One source records a loss of Bf 109 from I./JG 26.
Finucane claimed three more successes in the spring, one Fw 190 on 26 March while escorting 24 Douglas Boston from 88 and 107 squadrons to attack Le Havre docks; another on 28 March and one Bf 109 and another Fw 190 on 17 May 1942. Four aircraft were claimed as shared, two probably destroyed and four damaged. Life magazine filmed the squadron's sortie on 26 March, as the fighters took off and landed. This operation was significant as Finucane's unit was also making use of gun camera footage to help verify combat claims. Finucane used footage to verify two claims on 2 April. Despite two clear images of two Fw 190s being hit he was credited only with one damaged. 602 had been prompted to use the cameras because the Command thought the squadron's claims were excessive and the pilots were over stating their success. The Air Ministry also accelerated a plan to introduce the Spitfire IX to restore qualitative parity with the Fw 190 which was inflicting many losses against British fighters; primarily through German pilots taking full advantage of its superior performance over the Spitfire V. Finucane took at least one flight in the Spitfire IX, in the personal aircraft of commanding officer W. G. G. Duncan Smith, 64 Squadron, on 26 June 1942.
Finucane had completed 108 fighter operations over France by the fourth week of June 1942. On 27 June, Leigh-Mallory, with the approval of Sholto Douglas, promoted Finucane to wing commander. Finucane became the youngest wing commander in the RAF, and was to lead the Hornchurch Wing. Duncan Smith later said, that though he admired Finucane, he resented the young fighter pilot's appointment and felt as an older, experienced leader, he could have led the wing himself. Duncan Smith also felt the press gave the young pilot too much attention. Nevertheless, the two maintained a cordial relationship. In his short time as wing commander of Hornchurch, Finucane made a few alterations to the formation. The most notable was to tighten flying discipline, loosen formation flying and increase low-level navigation skills.
On 15 July, Finucane was killed at the age of 21 while leading the Hornchurch Wing in a fighter "Ramrod"—ground attack—operation targeting a German Army camp at Étaples, France. Finucane took off with his wing at 11:50. The attack was timed to hit the Germans at lunchtime. Crossing the French coast at Le Touquet, they targeted machine gun positions. Finucane was hit in the radiator at 12:22. His wingman, Alan Aikman, notified him of the white plume of smoke and Finucane acknowledged it with a thumbs up. Standard regulations insisted the wing carry on the mission even if the leader was in trouble. Radio silence was maintained so the enemy radio-interception services would not know a person of importance was hit.
Finucane flew slowly out to sea, talking calmly to Aikman as he glided along in his ailing Spitfire. Finally, approximately off Le Touquet, he broke radio silence and sent his last message. Aikman, flying alongside Finucane, saw him pull back the canopy, and before taking off his helmet, say "This is it, Butch". It was a well–executed landing, but the waves were difficult to predict and the Spitfire's nose struck the water and disappeared in a wall of spray. Before he hit the water, Aikman and Keith Chisholm of 452 Squadron saw him release, or perhaps tighten, his parachute release harness and straps. If Finucane had released them it is possible he could have been thrown forward onto the gun-sight and killed, or knocked unconscious and drowned; the circumstances remain unknown.
Memorials
Over 2,500 people attended his memorial at Westminster Cathedral. A rose was planted in the memorial garden in Baldonnel Aerodrome in Dublin (home of the Irish Air Corps) where Brendan and his brother Ray first flew. Finucane's name is also inscribed on the Air Forces Memorial at Runnymede. The memorial commemorates airmen who were lost in the Second World War and who have no known grave. The Battle of Britain Memorial on London's Embankment also includes his name as one of The Few. A number of streets in Bushey are named after Battle of Britain pilots, including Finucane Rise. There is a small estate, Finucane Court, with a plaque dedicated to him in Richmond, London. The Finucane family donated Brendan Finucane's uniform to the Royal Air Force Museum London.
Personal life
Finucane and his family worshipped at Our Lady of Loreto and St Winefride's, Kew, where he was an altar server.
He was engaged to Jean Woolford, who lived two doors away from his home in Catelgate, Richmond. She subsequently married, in 1944, another airman, Flying Office Edward Crang from New Zealand.
Summary of career
Air victories
RAF Fighter Command claims against the main British opponents in 1941 and 1942—Jagdgeschwader 26 (Fighter Wing 26) and Jagdgeschwader 2 (Fighter Wing 2) —are very difficult to verify. Only two of the 30 volumes of War Diaries produced by JG 26 survived the war. Historian Donald Caldwell has attempted to use what limited German material is available to compare losses and air victory claims but acknowledges the lack of sources leave the possibility for error. From June 1941 to the spring, 1942, Fighter Command claimed 711 enemy aircraft while losing 411. According to available German records, the loss to JG 2 and JG 26 were reportedly 103.
Awards
13 May 1941 – "in recognition of gallantry displayed in flying operations against the enemy" Finucane was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross
9 September 1941 – Acting Flight Lieutenant Brendan Finucane DFC (41276) of No. 452 (RAAF) Squadron is awarded a Bar to the Distinguished Flying Cross for gallantry displayed in flying operation against the enemy:
26 September 1941 – Acting Flight Lieutenant Brendan Finucane DFC (41276) of No. 452 (RAAF) Squadron is awarded a second Bar to the Distinguished Flying Cross for gallantry displayed in flying operation against the enemy::
21 October 1941 – Acting Flight Lieutenant Brendan Finucane DFC (41276) of No. 452 (RAAF) Squadron is awarded a Distinguished Service Order for gallantry displayed in flying operation against the enemy:
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Jackson, Robert. (1976). Fighter Pilots of World War II. New York: St. Martin's Press. .
Philpott, Bryan. (1989). Famous Fighter Aces. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge. .
. (republished Somerton, Somerset, UK: Crécy Publishing, 1992, ).
Further reading
External links
RTÉ radio documentary on Brendan "Paddy" Finucane
Battle of Britain Memorial – the Spitfire MkVb BM308
1920 births
1942 deaths
Aviators from Dublin (city)
Aviators killed by being shot down
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Irish World War II flying aces
Non-British Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
People educated at Cardinal Vaughan Memorial School
People educated at Synge Street CBS
People from Rathmines
People from Richmond, London
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)
Royal Air Force personnel killed in World War II
Royal Air Force pilots of World War II
Royal Air Force wing commanders
The Few
Wing leaders
Irish officers of the Royal Air Force
Military personnel from County Dublin |
4501411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Baker%20%28British%20politician%29 | Peter Baker (British politician) | Peter Arthur David Baker MC (20 April 1921 – 14 November 1966) was a British soldier, author, publisher and Conservative politician who served as a member of parliament (MP) for South Norfolk. He is chiefly remembered as the last Member of Parliament to be expelled from the House of Commons by resolution of the House, after his conviction for forgery, and as the inspiration behind the eccentric character of publisher Martin York in Muriel Spark's novel A Far Cry From Kensington.
Baker's arrest and trial received extensive international media coverage.
Early life and family
Baker was born on 20 April 1921 in Willesden, north west London. He was the son of Major Reginald Poynton Baker (1896–1985) of Loddenden Manor, Staplehurst, Kent, and his first wife Gwendolyn Emily Christabel Baker née Webb (1897–1962). Baker's father later became a successful movie producer based at Ealing Studios. Baker tried to create a fictional connection with the Tudor Bakers of Sissinghurst Castle, Kent, whose members included Sir John Baker, a Chancellor of the Exchequer and Speaker of the House of Commons in the 16th century; Sir Richard Baker, an author who was also a Member of Parliament; Sir Samuel White Baker, the discoverer of Lake Albert; and his younger brother, Valentine Baker, a famous soldier who also spent some time in Wormwood Scrubs Prison.
Baker made another bogus claim, mentioning in his memoirs that St. Luke's Chapel, otherwise known as St-Mary-in-the-Marsh and situated inside Norwich Cathedral, had been the site since 1586 of his family weddings and christenings. In fact, it was only used on one occasion by his ancestors, in June 1744 for a quiet wedding. Nevertheless, this Lady chapel was chosen by Baker as the venue for his youngest daughter's christening.
On 5 June 1948, Baker married Gloria Mae Heaton-Armstrong, daughter of Colonel Charles George William Stacpool Heaton-Armstrong, in Kensington.
The Heaton-Armstrong family belonged to the Anglo-Irish Protestant landowning class and were related to soldier and MP Sir Thomas Armstrong. Armstrong was involved in the Rye House Plot.
Education and military service
Baker was educated at Eastbourne College. He was preparing to study at the University of Cambridge until the imminent outbreak of World War II led him to enlist in the Royal Artillery. Although he could have taken an immediate commission, Baker and a friend who had joined up at the same time determined to serve at least six months in the ranks before accepting a posting to an Officer Cadet Training Unit in Catterick Garrison in March 1940. He was then posted to an artillery regiment based in Lockerbie, Dumfriesshire, and served for fourteen months across southern Scotland. He was commissioned as a 2nd Lieutenant on 7 September 1940. Considering the job of an artillery officer boring, Baker accepted in October 1941 a posting to be a Staff Captain in Military Intelligence based at the War Office. He hoped that the new appointment would make it more likely that he could obtain an overseas posting. After four months he applied for a transfer, although it took a further six months to persuade his superiors to let him leave.
Phantom
He was assigned to the GHQ Liaison Regiment (known as Phantom), a mysterious unit established by Major-General George Frederick Hopkinson, commander of the 1st Airborne Division. Phantom was renowned for the unusual selection of brilliance, nobility and idiosyncrasy, wit, achievements and even criminality exhibited by its officers. Following training and exercises in Britain, Baker was assigned in June 1943 to the Phantom unit in North Africa at camp Bugeaud in Bône, Algeria. The unit consisted of three squadrons (E, K and H) and the Assault Detachment under the command of Major Mervyn Sydney Bobus Vernon (1912–1991) of the Grenadier Guards. Baker joined E squadron, which was headed by Major Hugh Fraser. E squadron was supposed to have followed the Assault Detachment (led by Christopher Mayhew) into Sicily, but the invasion turned out to be much easier than anticipated.
At the end of August, E squadron was ordered to Bizerta to be ready to take part in the invasion of Italy. The squadron's role was to carry out long-range reconnaissance, which it did initially from Taranto. Baker, with a small team, drove an unarmoured and lightly armed jeep up to a hundred miles from the forward base to discover the location of German troops. Late in 1943, the squadron withdrew to Trani, where Baker developed abdominal pains; he was flown back to Britain before Christmas, and was given four weeks' sick leave before being passed as fit for sedentary duty only.
He was then recruited by MI9, and was offered and accepted the command of a small reconnaissance and intelligence unit which was part of Intelligence School 9 (Western European Area). I.S.9 (W.E.A.) was a small executive branch formed by Airey Neave and Jimmy Langley (after the war IS 9 was transformed into the 23 SAS Regiment based in the Midlands). Baker's role was to run and reorganise resistance groups and escape routes in France and Belgium in preparation for the forthcoming landings in France on D-Day; his section was attached to 21st Army Group under the ultimate command of SHAEF. Assembling near Portsmouth at the end of May 1944, and crossed into France on D-Day itself (with the unit's support equipment crossing seven days later).
In Operation Marathon, Baker was part of the group, led by Airey Neave, that rescued a group of 152 Allied pilots who were hidden in the Fréteval Forest near Châteaudun. Upon their return, they discovered that 10 escapees were unaccounted for, and Baker returned to save the others. He followed the Allied armies into Paris and Brussels when they were liberated, before arriving in the Netherlands and basing himself in Eindhoven in September 1944. He was told to find a member of the Dutch resistance who could cross behind the German defences in Holland to act as a liaison between the allies and the resistance in preparation of the allied landings during Operation Market Garden. It was strongly suggested that Baker would make use of a member of Bernhard von Lippe-Biesterfeld's entourage by the name of Christiaan Lindemans, who turned out to be a double-agent codenamed 'King Kong'.
Taken prisoner
In early October, Baker and Neave moved their unit to just west of Nijmegen, and Neave obtained permission to send Baker (codenamed 'Harrier') through enemy lines to make contact with the Dutch Resistance. Baker was ordered to wear his British Army uniform and not leave his safe house during the day. On 11 October, Neave accompanied Baker to the River Waal, where he crossed in a canoe, and eventually made contact with the Resistance. The same canoe was used to bring out Dutch diplomat Herman van Roijen (later Dutch foreign minister) with critical intelligence information for his government in exile.
He stayed at a farmhouse where he was hosted by local resistance member Fekko Ebbens and his family. Baker was joined there a day or two later by Private First Class Theodore Bachenheimer (from the 504th Parachute Infantry of the US Army). Baker disobeyed orders by exchanging his military uniform for civilian clothes upon the insistence of the local resistance. Baker and PFC Bachenheimer walked around the area during the day and within sight of German troops.
On the night of 16–17 October, the house was raided by German forces who had already been surveilling the farm. Baker and Bachenheimer were arrested while sleeping and taken away as prisoners of war. Fekko Ebbens, the head of the Ebbens family was executed some months later as reprisal for an attack on German troops by the Dutch resistance. Baker's superiors were furious that his disobedience threatened the rescue, Operation Pegasus, of hundreds of British paratroopers stranded in German-controlled territory.
Escape attempt
After interrogation in a primary school in Tiel, Baker and Bachenheimer were taken to a transit camp at Culemborg, and were then marched 45 km on foot to another transit camp near Amersfoort. From there, a five-day train journey took Baker to Stalag XI-B at Bad Fallingbostel where he was to stay until sent on to Oflag 79 in Braunschweig. During the journey, PFC Bachenheimer escaped, but was shot by German forces near the village of 't Harde on the night of 22–23 October. Baker was forced to abandon his own plans to escape from the train, but on arriving at Fallingbostel noticed that escape was possible there. He joined with a Belgian officer and a Malagasy French liaison officer named Jacques Hannebicque to make plans.
Baker claimed that his group of three passed themselves off as French prisoners and joined a work party which was sent out of the prison camp to collect firewood on the morning of 7 November. When the party got to the wood they broke away and started walking west. Baker claimed that "the most effective way to pass unsuspected was to salute everybody in uniform", whether military or civilian. The three had got 60 km away from their camp after two days, when they were detected by a German soldier, and failed in their bluff of being 'Men of confidence' (who were trusted to take charge of other prisoners of war). Baker decided to reveal his real identity long before he was given over to the Gestapo, to avoid mistreatment in their hands; however he believed they were only saved from being shot as spies when the farmer where they were discovered objected to the shooting happening on his land. He was sent to Stalag X-B at Sandbostel where he was interrogated with violence, and then spent 35 days in solitary confinement in multiple prisons before finally going to Oflag 79. His fellow escapee Hannebicque survived the war and later became a writer and photographer.
Arising out of his escape plans, Baker said he and his colleagues were court-martialed for forging leave passes. The Gestapo and the prosecution initially asked for the death penalty, but later altered it to six weeks in a punishment camp. They were actually sentenced to twenty-eight days' solitary confinement, of which twenty-five days were deducted because they had only previously had a sentence of ten days. During the spring of 1945, rations ran short in the camp as the Allied armies moved closer, and the camp was liberated on 12 April 1945 by the US Ninth Army. Baker gained permission to make his own way home and drove in a requisitioned Mercedes to Venlo, from where he flew to Ghent and then back to London. He weighed 7 stone 2 lbs when he returned to England.
On 2 August 1945, Captain Peter Baker (148257) of the Intelligence Corps, Staplehurst, Kent was awarded the Military Cross in recognition of gallant and distinguished services in North-West Europe.
Post-war
As early as 1940 Baker had found himself in charge of editing a broadsheet of poems, including some he had written himself. The collection was known as the Resurgam Poets. Baker later adopted the pseudonym Colin Strang to edit two anthologies and write poetry reviews for newspapers and magazines, until he was posted to Africa. In early 1944, while he was in Britain, Baker's poem sequence "The Land of Prester John" was published, to what he thought was a poor critical reception.
After the war Baker, became a publisher with financial backing from his father; the company he founded, Falcon Press, was named after the armoured car which Baker had used during the war. As wartime paper rationing was continuing and Falcon Press was a newcomer without a large quota, he printed books in several foreign countries instead. The business was initially successful, enabling Baker to build up a "minor business empire" including four publishing companies, printing works, a wine merchants and a whisky distillery, aircraft research company, and a property business. Muriel Spark worked for Falcon Press from 1951. When Falcon Press ran into debt, Baker and Robert Maxwell (then making his name as a leading British publisher) planned to merge their respective publishing businesses; however the plans fell through. Maxwell eventually bought the British Book Centre in New York from Baker in 1952.
He was a frequent visitor at the Thursday Club, a raffish luncheon club located at Wheeler's oyster bar, in Old Compton Street, London, a men's eating and drinking group dedicated to "Absolute Inconsequence"; other members included the actors David Niven, James Robertson Justice and Peter Ustinov, the future Duke of Edinburgh, the intelligence officer Kim Philby, celebrity photographer Stirling Henry Nahum, (known as Baron) and Baker's friend, Colonel Sean Fielding, editor of Tatler magazine and later of the Daily Express. Baker was also a member of the Junior Carlton Club.
Political career
While a prisoner of war, Baker wrote an essay "in political diagnosis" to explain to a fellow prisoner why he supported the Conservative Party. After the war, he published the essay as "The Silent Revolution". He added an epilogue written late in 1945, giving some of his diary entries for the latter part of the war and reflecting on the impact of peace on the purposefulness of the wartime generation. At the same time, he also completed his war memoirs, which he had begun writing while a prisoner of war; the resulting book was titled Confession of Faith, and was also published by his own publishing company Falcon Press in 1946.
Persuaded by his friend James Thomas, at the time vice-chairman of the Conservative Party, to enter active politics, Baker agreed to let his name go forward for selection as the Conservative Party candidate for South Norfolk. The South Norfolk division was not far from where he had grown up, but Baker found that the local Conservatives were divided between an official Conservative Association and an Independent Conservative Association. The South Norfolk Independent Conservative Association had been set up by supporters of John Holt Wilson in 1944, after a dispute over the previous selection. Although feelings between the two Associations were still tense, both participated in the selection. Baker won easily, beating Eric Smith and John Holt Wilson. He had already decided that he needed to reunify local Conservatives, and brokered a joint constitution in which officers of both would be represented at every level. His solution was accepted despite breaking most of the model rules sent by Conservative Central Office.
Parliament
In the 1950 general election, Baker gained the seat with 18,143 votes, defeating the Labour candidate, Christopher Mayhew (15,714 votes), who was the poll favourite. Aged 28, he was then the youngest MP ("Baby of the House"). He was returned again in the 1951 general election and took an interest in agricultural matters in Parliament. In June 1953, Baker invited US Senator Joseph McCarthy to visit England and see Democracy at work and offered to let McCarthy stay at his London home or at his house in Pulham St Mary, Norfolk. He later became chairman of an ill-fated movement called the Company of Commonwealth Venturers whose main goal was to promote a 'new Elizabethan Age' among Commonwealth countries. Baker improvised a Pageant to fill the Royal Albert Hall in 1954, 15,000 supporters requested the 8,000 seats available.
Health
When he had arrived back in Britain at the end of the war, Baker's doctor had given him a check-up and told him to take six months' rest, the first half in bed, as his heart was in a poor condition. The military authorities also recommended two small operations. Baker disregarded their advice and entered business.
Baker suffered a nervous breakdown in 1954, which he ascribed to his excessive workload as both a member of parliament and a businessman single-handedly running many companies (which were in financial difficulties). He claimed to have had multiple day-time blackouts and to have attempted suicide twice before he became a voluntary patient in a nursing home. In May 1954, he announced that he would not seek re-election due to ill-health. While in the nursing home, he agreed to revise his war memoirs Confession of Faith and add his post-war life story, which he intended to be published under the title Testament of Faith.
Downfall
Falcon Press began to encounter financial difficulties in the early 1950s. The official receiver was called in to Falcon Press (London) Ltd in 1954, and discovered a total deficiency of £290,823. A creditors' meeting in July 1954 was told that the company was "well on the rocks" by March 1950, and so often had a sheriff's officer attended at the company offices that the staff had bought a wreath on learning of his death. With Baker himself in the nursing home, his father (who was also a director) claimed that high production costs, insufficiently selective choice of books to publish and insufficient sales pressure, were responsible for the failure.
When Baker's companies came into financial trouble, he forged signatures on letters purporting to guarantee their debts. Baker was arrested and charged with seven counts of uttering forged documents, and pleaded guilty to six of the counts. Prosecuting counsel were Christmas Humphreys and Mervyn Griffith-Jones, while Baker was defended by Richard Levy and James Burge.
He was subsequently convicted on all seven counts and was sentenced at the Old Bailey to seven years imprisonment. Immediately on his imprisonment at HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs, Baker was given permission by the Prison Governor to write to the Speaker of the House of Commons. Explaining that he had discovered he was "unable to vacate my seat in any way while the matter was sub judice", he stated that he was not going to appeal and therefore "you can now dispossess me of my seat without delay". The Leader of the House of Commons, Harry Crookshank, then put down a motion "That Mr. Peter Arthur David Baker be expelled this House" which was agreed without a division on 16 December 1954. In the subsequent by-election in January 1955, South Norfolk elected Conservative John Hill as its new MP.
Prison
His literary agent, Anthony Blond, and publisher, John Calder, were allowed to visit Baker occasionally to discuss the publication of his book, for which he had left only "a chaotic welter of hand-written chapters, and extracts from articles, newspaper interviews and broadcasts" which Blond and Calder had to assemble into a logical sequence. Blond and Calder eventually published the book under the title My Testament, which Baker had not approved. While in Wormwood Scrubs, Baker met up with Raymond Blackburn, a former MP who had also been imprisoned for fraud. Baker had not known Blackburn well when in Parliament (Blackburn had been a Labour MP) but had become friendly with him afterwards.
On 12 May 1955, during the general election campaign, Baker was taken from prison to the Bankruptcy court for his public examination. His liabilities were stated as £335,598 8s 10d, and he had assets of £10 19s 1d. Baker presented the court with 212 pages of evidence, and spent three hours in the witness box. He blamed his bankruptcy on the withdrawal of support by Sir Bernard Docker, and at the end of his evidence he asserted that his plea of guilty had been incorrect.
Appeal
During his evidence, Baker had told the court that he intended to petition for a retrial; he had previously decided that he would only do so after he had been expelled from the House of Commons, and a by-election in South Norfolk and a general election had been held. As he was bankrupt, his legal case was funded by friends including William Rees-Mogg, Anthony Nutting, William Teeling, Martha Gellhorn and his legal adviser Hugh Quennell.
Baker duly petitioned to the Home Secretary in May 1955, asking for either a retrial, an appeal out of time (with permission to change his plea to not guilty), a public inquiry, or an immediate release. Talks between Baker's solicitors and the Home Office were inconclusive, so Baker's solicitors applied to the Court of Criminal Appeal. Mr Justice Donovan refused Baker permission for leave to appeal out of time against his conviction on the papers, so Baker renewed his appeal at a hearing in the Court of Criminal Appeal on 21 November 1955. The hearing was adjourned on application of Baker's counsel, because they were not ready.
Baker later claimed that Hugh Quennell had obtained assurances that the Home Office intended to procure his release by March 1956 at the outside, and so he reluctantly agreed to withdraw his appeal and let the Home Office proceed. The appeal was withdrawn on 16 December, his solicitors announcing that there were legal and technical difficulties in appealing after a guilty plea and in arranging a new trial. Baker's memorandum to the Home Office was met only with an official rejection.
Second appeal
At the end of 1956, Baker prepared a second application for leave to appeal, with his solicitor Brian Hetreed preparing a large bundle of documents and witnesses (including, according to Baker, two former Chief Justices). However junior counsel John Mathew was doubtful of the chances of a retrial unless Baker had been insane when he pleaded guilty. On 28 January 1957, Baker was indeed refused leave to appeal, to argue for a change of plea, for extension of time, to call new witnesses and to produce new evidence, with the Lord Chief Justice Lord Goddard pointing out that his plea of guilty must stand. Immediately after this appeal was dismissed, Baker was transferred from Wormwood Scrubs to HM Prison Leyhill, an open prison.
From there Baker sent a request to the Speaker of the House of Commons asking that his case be referred to the Committee of Privileges, to inquire into why he pleaded guilty and to allegations of perjury and withholding of evidence. He claimed to have received "more than seventy letters of encouragement" when his request was publicised. His attempts to circumvent restrictions on letters from prison were detected and resulted in his transfer back to closed conditions, first at Horfield and then back to Wormwood Scrubs.
Release
Baker was released from Wormwood Scrubs on 23 October 1959, being met at the prison gates by his father and by Lord Pakenham. Shortly after his release he gave an interview to the Daily Express, in which he declared his intention to bring back his wife and children from Australia, where they had moved without warning in the summer of 1958, leaving no address but arranging for letters to be forwarded through a bank.
On 4 November, Baker called a press conference on "the weaknesses of justice and prison administration in Britain", which he explained as an apology for hiding from the press, and an attempt to prove that this was not from fear.
Later life
Baker's creditors received only 0.1611d. in the £ (or 0.067%), in the first dividend paid after his bankruptcy; when he applied for discharge from bankruptcy on 17 December 1959, the discharge was suspended. In April 1962, his discharge from bankruptcy was allowed after a two years and six months suspension. A supplemental dividend was paid to creditors in May 1963 of 0.196d. in the £ (or 0.08%), making less than 0.15% in total.
In February 1960, Baker asked Robert Maxwell for an appointment as a Director of his new publishing company; Maxwell refused. He wrote his prison memoirs, published under the title Time Out of Life by Heinemann in 1961; in them Baker claimed his financial downfall was caused by his financial guarantors repudiating their signatures, and that he had always believed them to be genuine. He could not explain why he had pleaded guilty. The book included a foreword from Pakenham, by then the Earl of Longford, who praised it as a "valuable contribution" to understanding the prison system.
In March 1961, he was cleared of causing death by dangerous driving, having knocked down a pedestrian on a crossing in the Strand; Baker said that he overtook a taxi whose driver had signalled to him that it was safe to do so. He was divorced from his wife in November 1961, on grounds of her desertion.
Attempts to overturn his conviction or to hold an inquiry continued. In September 1963, Baker persuaded Earl Attlee, the former Labour Prime Minister, to support an inquiry. Baker unsuccessfully petitioned for a Royal Pardon in 1965. On 4 April 1966, his creditors filed a new bankruptcy petition against him; a receiving order was made on 22 July 1966, and on 26 September, he was again adjudicated a bankrupt. He died in hospital in Eastbourne on 14 November 1966, aged 45.
Literary depiction
Baker is depicted as Martin York in Muriel Spark's novel A Far Cry from Kensington. York, like Baker, is sentenced to seven years' imprisonment "for multiple forgeries and other types of fraud"; the date of his imprisonment is also 1 December 1954. In the novel, Nancy Hawkins (based on Spark) describes how Martin York frequently makes promises to publish books written by his friends, but the books they write are not always acceptable, and she turns down one manuscript from a friend of York's who had been offered a contract during a drinking session. York relays to Hawkins advice to send a cheque for a random amount in income tax, so that it cannot be tallied with any amount owing and results in the taxpayers' file being passed around and eventually lost. She describes seeing York signing documents in his own handwriting but in other people's names. York remarks to Hawkins that "if it is widely enough believed that you have money and wealth, it is the same thing as having it. The belief itself creates confidence and confidence, business."
Works
The Beggar's Lute (set of twenty-one poems), Favil Press, 1940
Confession of Faith, Falcon Press, 1946
The Silent Revolution, Falcon Press, 1946
Land and Empire, Falcon Press, 1948
My Testament, John Calder, London, 1955
Time Out of Life, Heinemann, London, 1961
Notes
See also
References
External links
The Peerage.com: Peter Arthur David Baker
Diss Community Partnership: Hero and Shyster The Fallen MP
1921 births
1966 deaths
British Army personnel of World War II
British World War II prisoners of war
British fraudsters
British politicians convicted of fraud
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Intelligence Corps officers
Recipients of the Military Cross
UK MPs 1950–1951
UK MPs 1951–1955
Royal Artillery officers
People from Willesden
People educated at Eastbourne College
Expelled members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
20th-century British memoirists
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany
People from Staplehurst
Military personnel from Middlesex
Royal Artillery soldiers
War Office personnel in World War II |
4501615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Incredible%20Melting%20Man | The Incredible Melting Man | The Incredible Melting Man is a 1977 American science fiction horror film directed and written by William Sachs. The plot concerns an astronaut whose body begins to melt after he is exposed to radiation during a space flight to Saturn, driving him to commit murders and consume human flesh to survive. During post-production, the producers reshot scenes without Sachs' participation. The film starred Alex Rebar as the main character, alongside Burr DeBenning as a scientist trying to help him and Myron Healey as a United States Air Force general seeking to capture him. While writing and shooting, Sachs was influenced by Night of the Living Dead. With the changes by the producers, the final film has been described as a remake of First Man into Space (1959), which in turn was directly influenced by The Quatermass Xperiment, even though Sachs had never seen either of those films.
The screenplay which Sachs dramatized was originally intended as a parody of horror films, but comedic scenes were edited out during production and new horror scenes added. Sachs claimed that the producers decided during shooting that a straight horror film would be more financially successful, and that the film suffered as a result. The Incredible Melting Man was produced by American International Pictures, which also handled the theatrical distribution, while Columbia Pictures handled international rights under the Columbia-EMI-Warner Distributors label. The film includes several homages to science fiction and horror films of the 1950s. Makeup artist Rick Baker provided the gory makeup effects for the film. He originally created four distinct stages of makeup design so that the main character's body would appear to melt gradually, but the stages were ultimately cut from the final film.
The film was commercially successful, but it received largely negative reviews, although even critical reviews complimented Baker's makeup effects. According to writer/director Sachs, many scenes that were re-shot and changed by the producers proved problematic due to their inferior acting. The Incredible Melting Man was featured in the comedy It Came from Hollywood (1982) and inspired the makeup effects for a scene in the science fiction-action film RoboCop (1987). It was also featured in a season 7 episode of the comedy television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 and episode 108 of RedLetterMedia'''s 'Best of The Worst' strand.
Plot
During a space flight to Saturn, three astronauts are exposed to a blast of radiation which kills two of them and seriously injures the third, Colonel Steve West. Back in a hospital on Earth, West awakens and is horrified to find the flesh on his face and hands melting away. Hysterical, he attacks and kills a nurse (Bonnie Inch), then escapes the hospital in a panic. Dr. Loring and Dr. Theodore "Ted" Nelson, a scientist and friend of West, discover that the nurse's corpse is emitting feeble radiation, and realize West's body has become radioactive. Nelson believes West has gone insane, and concludes he must consume human flesh in order to slow the melting. Nelson calls General Michael Perry, a United States Air Force officer familiar with West's accident, and the general agrees to help Nelson find him.
West attacks and kills a fisherman in a wood, then encounters there and frightens a little girl, Carol, but she escapes unharmed. Nelson and Perry arrive at the crime scene where the fisherman's body was found. Sheriff Neil Blake suspects that Nelson knows something, but Nelson tells the sheriff nothing because Perry had earlier informed him that any information about West was classified. Later that night, Nelson returns home to his pregnant wife Judy, who tells him that her elderly mother Helen and Helen's boyfriend Harold are coming over for dinner. On their way, however, Helen and Harold are killed by West.
When Blake finds the bodies, he calls Nelson, who comes out to identify them. After Blake angrily demands an explanation, Nelson reluctantly reveals West's condition. Nelson believes West is somehow getting stronger the more his body decomposes. Back at Nelson's house, West attacks and kills Perry, although Judy is not harmed. Nelson and Blake arrive just as West escapes. West then stumbles upon the home of a married couple. West kills the man and attacks his wife, but she drives him away after chopping his arm off with a cleaver. Blake receives a call about the attack and takes Nelson with him to investigate.
They track West to a giant power plant. Blake tries to shoot West with a shotgun, but West throws the sheriff into power lines, killing him. West knocks Nelson over a railing, leaving the doctor hanging on the side. Nelson appeals to West, reminding him that they were friends, and West decides to pull Nelson to safety. Two armed security guards then arrive and, in a panic, fatally shoot Nelson in the face as he tries to protect West. An infuriated West kills the security guards and stumbles away. After collapsing against the side of a building, he slowly, and completely, melts away. The next morning, a janitor finds his gory remains and casually mops them into a garbage can. Enthusiastic radio reports announce the next manned mission to Saturn.
Cast
Production
WritingThe Incredible Melting Man was written and directed by filmmaker William Sachs. The idea for the film came to him when his mother, working in the office of a spray paint company, showed him "gooey stuff" which was used as a basis for spray paint and jokingly suggested that he should do a film featuring that material. During writing, Sachs was influenced by The Night of the Living Dead and wanted to give the film a 1950s horror film feeling. But the final film, with its structure changed by the producers in post-production, has been described by some sources – including the film magazine Cinefantastique and the 1995 book Cult Science Fiction Films – as a remake of First Man into Space (1959), another film about an astronaut who becomes a monster after an accident in space. Science fiction film historian Gene Wright suggested that the final film was heavily influenced by The Quatermass Xperiment (1955), a British horror film about an astronaut who begins mutating into an alien organism after a spaceflight. Sachs, however, had never seen either of those films, and his original screenplay had a very different structure. He had originally written the script for The Incredible Melting Man as a parody of horror films. According to Michael Adams, a film reviewer who interviewed Sachs, this was the reason that the film mixed horror with comedic moments, such as when Steve West's detached ear gets stuck on a tree, and when a janitor sweeps West's melted body into a garbage can at the end of the film. Adams claims that this explains several comedic lines of dialogue otherwise inconsistent with the rest of the film, including one moment when homeless men notice the melting West and say to each other, "You think we've got trouble, look at that dude". In Sachs' original version, the film opened with the wide-angle shot of the nurse running through the hallway; this would not have been in slow motion, unlike the final film, where the producers played it back slowed down. Only later would viewers have gradually learned the background of the melting man. All the scenes showing the astronauts in space and the lead character in the hospital were re-shot during post-production without influence by the director, and Sachs criticized both the acting in those scenes and how they restructure the film. There are logical problems in the final film due to the re-shot scenes; it is never fully explained how West's spacecraft returned to Earth from Saturn when West himself was so seriously injured and the other two members of his crew were both killed.
Welch D. Everman, author of Cult Science Fiction Films, pointed to several homages in the movie to science fiction and horror films of the 1950s. The title itself is a reference to the Jack Arnold film The Incredible Shrinking Man (1957), and the final scene when a radio report advertises another trip to Saturn, thus hinting that another accident could occur, was a common device in 1950s horror films. One difference, noted by Everman, is that in the 1950s films, government cover-ups and secret agendas were often ascribed to the good of the general public, whereas The Incredible Melting Man, like many late 1970s films of its genre, suggested otherwise. Variety described the script, in addition to its horror elements, as "a human story attempting to leave a moral message as to whether society or the horrible creature it is chasing is really the most destructive".
Casting
Alex Rebar, in one of only a handful of film appearances throughout his acting career, starred as Steve West. Burr DeBenning played Dr. Ted Nelson, and General Michael Perry was portrayed by Myron Healey, who was, Everman notes, often cast as a villain in 1950s science fiction films. Film director Jonathan Demme played the small role of Matt Winters, one of West's victims. Rainbeaux Smith, best known for her appearances in B movies and exploitation films, appeared in The Incredible Melting Man as a model who finds one of West's victims while trying to avoid a photographer seeking to take explicit photos of her.
Filming
Producer Max Rosenberg, best known for his horror and supernatural films, provided the financing for The Incredible Melting Man. Samuel W. Gelfman was the film's producer, and American International Pictures served as both the production company and the distributor. According to Sachs, Gelfman and Rosenberg decided during shooting that a straight horror film would be more financially successful than a parody, so many of the comedic scenes were edited out and new horror scenes were shot and added to the film. Sachs said he felt the film was taken away from him, and that it suffered as a result because the producers tried to make it both a comedy and horror film, thus failing at both. Sachs said of the decision, "How can a serious horror movie end with the monster being shoveled into a garbage can?"
Makeup artist Baker provided the special makeup effects for The Incredible Melting Man, which included the gradual melting of Steve West. Rebar wore facial appliances that simulated melting flesh, and his hands and feet were fitted with liquid substances that dropped off as he walked, creating the appearance that West's body was falling apart. During one scene, a murdered fisherman's severed head falls down a waterfall and smashes on the rocks below. To create the effect, Baker used a gelatin head with a wax skull and fake blood inside, which burst out upon impact.
Baker created four distinct stages of makeup design so that West would appear to melt gradually as time passed. However, after the film went through two separate stages of editing, these makeup stages were ultimately eliminated from the final cut, and the character looks generally the same throughout the film. Richard Meyers, author of The World of Fantasy Films, said actor Rebar was impatient and uncooperative with the extensive makeup sessions required for the effects, and thus did not wear all of the facial appliances Baker designed. This, Meyers said, might have been an additional factor in the lack of makeup effect stages in the final film. The version of the film shot by Sachs had not included any scenes with West before he sustained the radiation poisoning that caused his body to melt. Such scenes were, however, re-shot later by the producers without Sachs' participation.
Harry Woolman worked on the special effects along with Baker, and Willy Curtis worked as the film's cinematographer. Some scenes included photography errors, including one in which light shines through a kitchen window from outside even though it is supposed to be nighttime. Michel Levesque provided art direction, and the musical score was composed by London Philharmonic Orchestra conductor Arlon Ober.
During post-production, as the producers decided to change the film into a more serious horror film, they filmed numerous scenes for that purpose without the participation of the director. Among those scenes is the entire prologue of the astronauts in space and West waking up in a hospital—these are the only scenes in which Rebar's face is seen without makeup. Additionally, the film was extensively re-edited by the producers. Sachs criticized the acting in those re-shot scenes, as well as the change of tone they bring into the film along with the re-editing by the producers.
Release
Distribution
The distribution of The Incredible Melting Man was handled by American International Pictures, with the involvement of film producer and distributor Irwin Yablans, who specialized primarily in B movies and low-budget horror films. A trailer released for the film attempted to build tension by not revealing the monster right away. Instead, it showed portions of the scene immediately before the nurse is murdered, in which she runs down a hallway screaming and then crashes through a glass window trying to escape from West, who is only shown towards the end of the trailer. In some advertisements, the monster from the film was described as "the first NEW horror creature". As a promotional gimmick, candles were made and sold to advertise the film.
One poster for the film included the statement: "Rick Baker, the new master of special effects, who brought you the magic of The Exorcist and gave you the wonder of King Kong, now brings you his greatest creation, The Incredible Melting Man". Although Baker assisted with the effects in The Exorcist (1973), Dick Smith was the makeup artist who primarily worked on that film, not Baker. Exorcist director William Friedkin was so angry about the poster that, upon seeing it on an associate's wall, he tore it down and ripped it to pieces. Baker, who did not know about the poster in advance, was horrified by the publicity campaign and publicly apologized for it, claiming: "Dick wanted some help so I first went out to do some work on the dummy whose head turns around 360 degrees. I really didn't do anything creative, I just did labor".
ReceptionThe Incredible Melting Man received largely negative reviews. It holds an 8% rotten rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. It has ranked among the Bottom 100 list of films on the Internet Movie Database, although there have also been very favorable reviews. The New York Post attested to Sachs' "simple mastery of the medium". Tom Buckley of The New York Times described it as poorly written and directed, calling it one of many poor summer films released "to fill the need of drive-in operators for something cheap to put on the screen for the kids in the cars to ignore or laugh at". The Globe and Mail writer Robert Martin praised Baker's makeup effects and said director Sachs did an efficient job building tension. However, Martin strongly criticized the script and the acting, claiming "logic and character are jettisoned in favor of suspense and horror," and said the film's positive elements were not strong enough to outweigh the negatives. John Foyston of The Oregonian strongly condemned the film as gratuitously gory with thin, motiveless characters. He declared it worse than the horror film Manos: The Hands of Fate (1966), which is widely considered one of the worst films ever made. Rick Worland, a film professor at the Meadows School of the Arts who wrote a book about horror films, said there was "little to recommend" about The Incredible Melting Man besides Baker's makeup effects. Richard Meyers, a novelist who also wrote about science-fiction films, called the film muddled and dull: "Although the movie didn't have to be a sage examination of outer space diseases, it should at least have been exciting". Meyers complimented Baker's visual effects, but said his work was undermined by poor filming and actor Rebar's impatience with the makeup effects.
A 1985 review in the book The Motion Picture Guide said, "The film tries to balance horror against morality but ends up shaky at best". The review described the special effects as "all right, but not nearly as gruesome as the film pretends they are". In a review written shortly after the film was released, Variety wrote that the film "more often than not succeeds in telling a story and sustaining audience interest," and that the script included not only horrors, but also a human story with a moral message about society. However, the review also called the dialogue "trite," described some scenes as "technically incorrect," and said the film disappointed by lingering on the ordinary characters rather than on the monster. Gene Wright, who wrote a book about science fiction films, said the film "attempts to blend pathos with awesome horror, but can't resist going for the gut with a surfeit of gore". Blockbuster Inc.'s Guide to Movies and Videos gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4, and described it as "unexciting and contrived, though Rick Baker's gross-out makeup is undeniably effective". In The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Movies, Phil Hardy described it as a better-than-average but "spotty" film, and said director William Sachs injected a sense of "grisly humor" into it. However, Hardy said the central concept inspired more laughter than terror, and called the special effects "only routine".
Some reviews were more positive. Welch D. Everman, author of Cult Science Fiction Films, compared the relationship between West and Nelson to that of Victor Frankenstein and his monster in Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein. Everman wrote, "This is the kind of movie we've come to expect from AIP — cheaply made, nasty, and lots of fun". John W. Bowen of the Belleville Intelligencer said he enjoyed the "camp" style of the film, adding, "It's both inexplicable and sad this brain-damaged yet fiercely determined little drive-in bottom feeder never garnered more than a tiny cult following over the years". A 1978 critique in The Review of the News said, "Films like The Incredible Melting Man are not made to be good; they are made to be scary. For anyone looking to raise goosebumps on their flesh, this one is sufficient to give you your money's worth". Matt Maiellaro, co-creator of the Cartoon Network series Aqua Teen Hunger Force, said the film inspired him to start making films himself, adding, "When I was eight, I watched The Incredible Melting Man and knew that horror movies were going to be big religion in my life". Z movie director Tim Ritter said he was partially inspired to enter show business by watching a trailer for The Incredible Melting Man at age 9. Ritter said, "I was too young to see the movie, but the trailer really got into my imagination".
Home releaseThe Incredible Melting Man was released on VHS in 1986 by Vestron Video, and was rereleased in 1994 by Orion Pictures Library, although unlike other Orion VHS releases, it was not digitally remastered. In September 2000, The Incredible Melting Man was once again released on VHS as part of "Midnite Movies", a line of B movies and exploitation films released to home video by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Although currently unavailable on DVD in Region 1, it was released in Region 2 by CMV Laservision on February 2, 2003. In addition to the home video and DVD releases, The Incredible Melting Man has been featured in several film festivals, including the 1987 Visions Film Festival at the Enmore Theatre in Sydney, Australia; the 2007 B-Fest in Chicago; the 2008 Horrorama Movie Festival in Englewood, Colorado; and the 2010 Groovy B-Movie Marathon in Durham, North Carolina. Scream Factory released the film on Blu-ray in 2013.
Legacy
The film appeared in It Came from Hollywood, a 1982 comedy film featuring a compilation of clips from more than 100 B movies from the 1930s to the 1970s, which are shown between scripted segments performed by comedians. Baker's effects from The Incredible Melting Man inspired the makeup effects for a scene in the science fiction-action film RoboCop (1987). During the scene, Emil Antonowsky (Paul McCrane) attempts to ram RoboCop with his van, but instead accidentally drives into a vat of toxic waste, causing the flesh to melt off his face and hands. These effects were conceived and designed by special makeup effects artist Rob Bottin, who was inspired by Baker's work on The Incredible Melting Man and dubbed the RoboCop effects "the Melting Man" as a homage to the production.
A poster for the film appeared in the 1990 comedy Home Alone on the bedroom wall of character Keven McCallister's brother Buzz.The Incredible Melting Man was featured and lampooned in an episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000.'' The film appeared in the fourth episode of the show's seventh season, which was broadcast on Comedy Central on February 24, 1996. Michael J. Nelson, the show's head writer, spoke disparagingly about the film while describing it to the press: "The plot is – and I'm not kidding here – the plot is, a guy is melting. That's the plot".
See also
"I Am the Doorway", a short story by Stephen King with a similar concept
References
Notes
Bibliography
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External links
The Incredible Melting Man at Rotten Tomatoes
1977 films
1977 horror films
1970s American films
1970s English-language films
1970s science fiction horror films
1970s monster movies
American body horror films
American International Pictures films
American monster movies
American science fiction horror films
American splatter films
Films about astronauts
Films about cannibalism
Films directed by William Sachs
Saturn in film |
4502002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqwacore | Taqwacore | Taqwacore is a subgenre of punk music dealing with Islam, its culture, and interpretation. Originally conceived in Michael Muhammad Knight's 2003 novel, The Taqwacores, the name is a portmanteau of "hardcore" and the Arabic word "taqwa" (تقوى), which is usually translated as "piety" or the quality of being "God-fearing", and thus roughly denotes reverence and love of the divine. The scene is composed mainly of young Muslim artists living in the US and other Western countries, many of whom openly reject traditionalist interpretations of Islam, and thus live their own lifestyle within the religion or without.
History
Muslim punk music dates at least to the 1979 founding of British band Alien Kulture. In the 1990s, Nation Records act Fun-Da-Mental and Asian Dub Foundation emerged, solidifying the first examples of UK Muslim generated punk. In an interview, Aki Nawaz, founder of Nation Records, stated that "Islam for me was more punk than punk" Knight's novel was instrumental in encouraging the growth of a contemporary North American Muslim punk movement, and many bands who used the term taqwacore were ones that traveled with Knight on the ISNA tour featured in the documentary. Thus, the taqwacore community is almost inseparable with Knight and his literature.
The first bands to use the term taqwacore are The Kominas, Vote Hezbollah and the Sagg Taqwacore Syndicate. Other bands on the scene include, Secret Trial Five, Fedayeen, Sarmust, KB and other bands under SG-Records.
When Kourosh Poursalehi first read The Taqwacores, he took it to be a true account of real Muslims in the United States. He composed a song to Michael Muhammad Knight's poem "Muhammad was a Punk Rocker", and sent it to Knight in New York. Knight was extremely happy with what he heard, knowing that his book had reached real Muslims similar to himself, and he played the song over and over. They ended up meeting in Boston, where with Basim Usmani, the Kominas were formed, and the seeds of their tour were planted.
Pourlaselhi was heavily influenced by the Fearless Iranians from Hell, as he was from the San Antonio area, and the band was also from Texas. He later went on to form the band Vote Hezbollah.
A group of self-identified taqwacore bands traveled in a caravan style tour around the United States as a sort of recreation of Michael Muhammad Knight's original novel in 2007. This was the basis of the documentary on the movement. Bands that appeared in the film are as follows:
The Kominas members. The Kominas is a Pakistani punk band from the suburbs of Boston, Massachusetts. The members include Basim Usmani (bass and vocals), Shahjehan Khan (guitar and vocals), Arjun Ray (guitar and vocals), and Karna Ray (drums).
Al-Thawra, a heavy metal Arab band from Chicago featuring Marwan
Diacritical
Vote Hezbollah, fronted by Kourosh, an Iranian from San Antonio
Secret Trial Five, an all-female Canadian punk rock band fronted by Sena, a Pakistani lesbian from Vancouver
Secret Trial Five, however, have stated that they do not associate themselves with taqwacore:
There is not a definitive "taqwacore sound", and the scene is much more diverse now (2011) than the fictional one portrayed in Knight's novel, with artists incorporating various styles, ranging from punk to hip-hop, and musical traditions from the Muslim world; the Kominas describe their sound as "Bollywood punk", Sagg Taqwacore Syndicate are rap and techno inspired music while Al-Thawra uses the term "raicore", based on North African Arabic Raï music. The genre of music is much more specific to topics of consideration, self-labeling, political framework, and ideology.
Links to the novel
The Taqwacores is about punk Islam, where Michael Muhammad Knight imagined a community of Muslim radicals: mohawked Sufis, riot grrrls in burqas with band patches, skinhead Shi’as, but did not limit the term taqwacore to only these groups.
The concept of an individual's Islam is historically popular with Sufism and was solidified in a new American style with the publication of Michael Muhammad Knight's novel. The novel focus's on a household of individual "punk" characters who live their lives according to their own interpretation of Islam.
One fictitious character in the novel named Fasiq, an Indonesian Muslim, openly smokes cannabis while reading the Quran. His personal interpretation of Surat Al-Hijr is that the smoking of cannabis is permissible in Islam. Ayats 19 and 20 state:
In the novel, Fasiq determines that since Allah sent down everything that is well balanced, and that humans can use them, cannabis is well balanced and permissible.
Many band members in the recent documentary Taqwacore: The Birth of Punk Islam can be seen smoking hashish while in Pakistan.
Disenchantment
With bands reporting disenchantment with the role of taqwacore in their lives, the author himself wrote of confusion and self disenchantment in his book titled "Osama Van Halen" where he writes himself as a fictional character.
"Michael Muhammad Knight then looked at Amazing Ayyub and immediately, clearly, understood him to be the last lonely survivor of an extinct race"
"Amazing Ayyub made his niyya, read Ya Sin, and vanished. Beyond its function as an invisibility spell, Ya Sin doubled as a prayer for the dead and dying."
The disenchantment and desire to reach a conclusion or catharsis of creating a personal Islam for Michael Muhammad Knight started with his Taqwacore project. The extreme nature of his fictional characters spoke to young Muslims around the world, and sparked a movement of "Taqwacore" labeled bands. Although some bands were happy to be labeled as such, and others did reluctantly, the labeling of a punk band led to problems, much like any labeling can lead to problems.
The Kominas, while still labeled taqwacore, have expressed discontent with their reviews focusing on the Muslim aspect of their music instead of aesthetics or politics.
The all-female punk band Secret Trial Five wrote a song dedicated to their hate of the term Taqwacore, titled "We're not Taqwacore" and can be heard on stage at one performance calling Taqwacore "bullshit", although many of their messages are consistent with the Taqwacore movement. Their lyrics read:
rather hang with taliban
than dick around with drunks
muhammad wasn't white
and neither is this fight
and we weren't birthed
by michael knight
After Knight's novel that experimented in his self-beheading, his discontent was not an end for his exploration in individualistic Islam
Knight's personal disenchantment came to a catharsis in his latest book Why I am a Five Percenter. In a public lecture at the University of Texas, he spoke of how his personal research in the community of the Five Percenter's led him to become a part of their community. This history of the Five Percenters allows him to feel empowered in his personal interpretation of Islam. He writes about his "conversion" and experiences in the community in his book.
Themes
Taqwacore as coined had a definite bond with Islam, Progressive Islam and Islam and Anarchism. Many of the members of Taqwacore bands are Muslims, through their own interpretations of the religion. Some members, however, are not Muslim. The overarching theme of individual interpretation, as well as a break from Imams, Mainstream Islam, and Classical interpretations of the Qur'an are very prevalent in the music, yet some bands have bent or broken this initial tie with the overarching theme of Taqwacore, as their music deals with more issues than simply Islamic interpretation. Much of Taqwacore is rooted in the spirit of Punk: that of rebellion, political commentary, and activism.
The Kominas are one of the most famous taqwacore bands, and they have reached the digital ears of people all over the world, and have become interests of many academic articles and press.
Wendy Hsu writes that "Over-emphasizing the band members as “Muslim”, the press has overlooked the non-Islamic sides of the band’s music, image, and membership." She also writes that taqwacore is not limited to music but is "forming a network of friends, artists, bloggers, filmmakers, and other enthusiasts around the self-identified label of taqwacore."
The bands political messages are also linked with cultural questions, multiculturalism, and the interaction of the east and the west. Al-Thawra initially labeled themselves as "raicore", yet another portmanteau combining North African and Algerian raï music and hardcore. He talks about his music and its cultural considerations, linking the ways in which Algerian Chaabi music can be considered rebel music, much like punk itself.
Fun-Da-Mental are an explicitly political and controversial band with an outspoken concern with social justice (particularly in regard to Britain's treatment of its Asian and Afro-Caribbean citizens) and have been described as "articulat(ing) eclectically a kind of militant Islamic-influenced, pro-Black anti-racist identity politics."
"Vote Hezbollah does not promote violence or support any violent organizations. Peace, unity, and truth are our only strengths.”
Controversy
Knight is criticized for his participation in provocative articles, disrespectful attitude toward leaders of the American Muslim community, open admission of past apostasy (chronicled in his essay "Forget what is and is not Islam" in Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out), heretical attitudes, embrace of the Nation of Islam and Nation of Gods and Earths and often rebellious treatment of Muhammad.
Knight developed a reputation for his Muslim WakeUp! articles, particularly accounts of the Islamic Society of North America's annual convention, in which he wrote of giving a "stink palm" to famous imam Siraj Wahhaj and Cat Stevens and engaging in a romantic encounter with a young Muslim woman.
At the 2005 convention of the Islamic Society of North America, Knight and the Kominas fraudulently obtained media passes and sneaked into the press conference of Karen Hughes, Under Secretary for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs in the U.S. Department of State. They were taken outside and questioned by a State Department agent, but allowed back in by ISNA officials. It was later learned that the ISNA staff was concerned over Knight's jacket bearing the Alternative Tentacles logo.
During the Taqwacore tour that is featured in the documentary film, the group ended at the annual ISNA convention in Chicago. They played on stage using forged media passes at an open mic event. When viewed in the film, many of the younger audience at first were confused, but later cheered for the bands. When the all-female band Secret Trial Five played on stage, security was called and the group was forced off stage. This was due to the ISNA convention rules of "no-female singers". The ragged group gathered outside of the building and broke a guitar on the pavement.
The taqwacore groups also dealt with discrimination on the road of their tour. Other drivers flipped them off, or cursed at them.
The taqwacore groups thus responded to their alienation, both from the Muslim community and from without. The Kominas performed songs with controversial lyrics such as "suicide bomb the gap," and "Rumi was a homo." These were comments on social issues that spread through both the Muslim community and outside of the community in America. The latter was a commentary on an Anti-Gay Imam from Brooklyn. The musicians also started a joke band named "Box Cutter Surprise", referencing the knives used to hijack planes on September 11. Marwan Kamel, from a band on tour called Al-Thawra, Arabic for "revolution," said that the members created the group to shock audiences. These sentiments were also fueled by Knight's original desire to "find what people are pissed about and talk about it".
In academia
The social movement linked with Knight's novels as well as the musical subculture raised great interest in the academic world. Along with punk, the subgenre has been a subject of cultural studies, religious studies, and more. The novel has allegedly been taught at a number of university courses.
Michael Muhammad Knight also gives public lectures from time to time on the varying subjects of his books, most recently (2011) on his book that deals with the history of the Five Percenters.
Many academic articles, dissertations and masters theses have been written on the topic.
In Heavy metal Islam: rock, resistance, and the struggle for the soul of Islam''''
, Mark Levine writes about the relationship of heavy metal and Islam and its history. While not the same specific genre of music, the book covers a wide variety of topics and talks about crowds at shows "dressed in strange combinations of metal, hip-hop, and punk attire." His book addresses the issues that arise with the combination of two seemingly separate cultures, in vivid imagery. He says that "one can see a teenager with green spiky hair and baggy hip-hop style clothing standing next to one in goth makeup, and a few feet away yet another in a black metal T-shirt who’s watching the show with his mother or aunt who may be dressed in a black, full-length abaya." An abaya is a traditional cloak, or over garment worn in the Arab world by women for modesty, and also worn in different styles.
Another paper written by a number of masters students at the Roskilde University write in Looking for Cultural Space Discourses of Identity Formation on the case of Taqwacore, on populations, groups, and individuals belonging in society. They write about a sense of belonging and how identity is formed in relation to the taqwacore movement, stating that "the questions of social inclusion or exclusion have raised new lines of connection within societies" and that this happens more often when individuals "sense of belonging transcends national borders linking to other cultural and social geographies and groupings", which is an essential theme in taqwacore music and the taqwacore movement. Many ideas of belonging to more than one culture is presented in taqwacore music through satire or dark humor.
In Abraham Ibrahim's work on the Queer community of Muslims, “Sodomized by Religion”: Fictional Representations of Queer Muslims in the West, he explores different representations of characters that have been systematically oppressed by the orthodox Islamic community. He writes about a few different works, including Michael Muhammad Knight's work "Bilal's Bread" and a film titled A Touch of Pink he writes that "the security concerns about Muslims in the West are remarkably similar to the suspicions about homosexuals: they are not “true” members of the community, and they are quite possibly in league with foreign subversives"
Francis Stewart explores the role of punk in spiritual life in her article “Punk Rock Is My Religion” An Exploration of Straight Edge punk as a Surrogate of Religion.
She questions the role of the Straight Edge music ideology in individuals lives, and how it potentially may relate to the taqwacore movement. As one fictional character in the novel was a Straight Edge rocker, many of the real life musicians involved in the taqwacore scene are as well. She writes about the differences between their lifestyle and traditionally proscribed Islamic lifestyles staying that "as with many within hardcore and Straight Edge the religion that is practiced or found amongst individuals within Taqwacore is not that proscribed by or expected within Islamic dogma." Their lifestyles are personalized, "touring bands do not perform salat five times day and although shows will open with a communal prayer, it is men and women praying together so constitutes haram." Their actions are often the opposite of orthodox Islam. Some may be straight edge, which may be in accordance with traditional Islam, but some "will drink and smoke" and perform other acts that may be considered forbidden or "haram" in Islam, "Yet they still consider themselves Muslim’s and some would even describe themselves as religious Muslims."
In Abdou Mohamad's masters thesis for Queen's University titled "ANARCA-ISLAM", he explores what he considers to be a close knit relationship between Islam, Islamic law, and Anarchism. Anarchism has historically been associated with the punk movement, and is a reoccurring slogan in many punk rock, hardcore, and metal songs. Abdou observes that "as taken from academic texts by non- Muslims, is the recognition that resonances exist between Islam and anarchism." He considers the two as "not identical, but neither are they necessarily incompatible."
John Hutnyk writes more specifically about the band that is considered to be taqwacore by some Fun-Da-Men-Tal in "THE DIALECTICS OF EUROPEAN HIP-HOP: Fun^da^mental and the deathening silence."
In his article, Hutnyk writes about the role of hip-hop and Islam in a political agenda within the musical world. He writes that "The politics of Fun^da^mental is the politics of hip-hop, crossed with a punk Islam" and that the messages that are presented in their music encapsulate many different issues. These include "interventions around race and representation", the historic and recent deciding factor that started "the war of ‘terror’", as well as what he calls "a radical version of human rights activism."
Amil Khan addresses similar issues, but on a wider spectrum in his book titled The Long Struggle: The Seeds of the Muslim World's Frustration.
In his book, he writes, similar to other authors, about the Conversation and relationship between orthodox Islam, westernization, and the results of such. He comments on the orthodox community, arguing that "Even within the most orthodox communities, groups are taking up differing positions on various points, like the use of violence or the interaction between Muslims and non-Muslims", showing that a conversation exists even in what many view as a succinct group. He shows that what some Muslims call the Ummah, or the unified Muslim world, is in fact extremely divided. He says that when Muslims gather at different events, "the audience at any of these events includes the most obviously observant in traditional robes, city workers in neat trim beards, punk rock Muslim teenagers and the merely curious", showing the multitude of lifestyles amongst Muslims.
See also
Liberal movements within Islam
Jihadism and hip-hop
References
External links
"Young Muslims Build a Subculture on an Underground Book", New York Times, December 2008
"Islamic Street Preachers: From Boston to Lahore & Beyond", Guardian, April 2007
Photography by Kim Badawi on Taqwacore, Pangea Magazine''
The Taqwacores (book) webpage at Autonomedia
"Muhammad Rocked the Casbah by Lydia Craft", "Texas Observer"
Official Website
/ Review of the Documentary
Punk rock genres
Multiculturalism and Islam |
4502136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitty%20Clive | Kitty Clive | Catherine Clive (née Raftor; 5 November 1711 – 6 December 1785) Catherine ‘Kitty’ Clive (1711-1785, active 1728-1769) was a first songster and star comedienne of British playhouse entertainment. Clive led and created new forms of English musical theatre. She was celebrated both in high-style parts – singing, for instance, Handel’s music for her in Messiah, Samson, and The Way of the World – and in low-style ballad opera roles. Her likeness was printed and traded in unprecedented volume. She championed women’s rights throughout her career.
An image crisis in the late 1740s forced Clive to quit serious song and instead lampoon herself on stage. Though this self-ridicule won Clive public favour back, and she reigned as first comedienne until her retirement in 1769, the strategy’s very success caused her musical legacy to be slighted and forgotten. A definitive biography of Clive by Berta Joncus appeared in 2019.
Background
Clive was the daughter of William Raftor (variant spelling: Rafter), a dispossessed Jacobite Catholic landowner from Kilkenny, Ireland who emigrated to London and married Elizabeth Daniell, a leather-seller’s daughter. The precise date of Clive’s birth and her baptismal name are unclear: historians have noted the baptismal record of 'Ellenor Raftor,' 15 July 1711, in the Registers of St Paul’s Covent Garden, and proposed that her name had been changed from Ellenor to Catherine. However it has been more recently discovered that Eleanor, daughter of William Rafter, was buried 30 January 1713/14, as recorded in the burial register of St Giles in the Fields. Clive wrote late in life that she had been born on 15 November 1711. She may have been born one or two years earlier, as the marriage allegation for her marriage to George Clive in 1731 stated she was a "spinster aged upwards of twenty one years."
Clive’s earliest biographer, Drury Lane prompter William Chetwood, relates how she first came to perform at that theatre. The wild popularity of Lincoln’s Inn Fields’ The Beggar’s Opera and its 17-year-old star Lavinia Fenton from January 1728 inspired Drury Lane manager Colley Cibber to hire his own 17-year-old soprano-actress. Clive auditioned for Cibber at the instigation of his son Theophilus and of Chetwood, who was the younger Cibber’s housemate. Clive’s singing master Henry Carey, who created her earliest vehicles, may also have had a hand in the audition: he had been Drury Lane’s composer from 1714 to 1717, and from 1723 had begun again to supply it with music.
Unlike Fenton, Clive was a gifted and professionally trained musician. For her official debut (2 January 1729) she played Dorinda in The Tempest, singing the Purcellian air ‘Dear pretty Youth’. English airs, in masques especially, quickly became central to Clive’s repertory. Later that month Cibber launched his own form of ballad opera, a ‘pastoral’ which, with Clive leading its comic subplot, was meant to compete with The Beggar’s Opera. Titled Love in Riddle, it came close to being hissed of the boards on its first night – a fate it avoided, by report, only because of the charm of Clive’s singing.
Clive’s popular breakthrough in ballad opera would not come until two and a half years later, when she first played Nell in The Devil to Pay (6 August 1731). This was a production of the Drury Lane Summer Company, an ad hoc group performing after the regular season and run by Theophilus Cibber. The Irish player Charles Coffey helped ‘operatize’ an old farce called The Devil of a Wife (1686), which extolled wife-beating. It was almost certainly Coffey who both chose the piece’s polite common tunes and wrote its spirited verses for Clive. Through her performance of these numbers, Clive transformed her role – in the playbook an abused, submissive cobbler’s wife – into that of a sprightly heroine who enraptured audiences. To showcase ‘Nell’ during the 1731-32 regular season, The Devil to Pay was swiftly cut down into a sentimental afterpiece with a climactic duet, arranged from a Handel aria, for Clive and Irish tenor Charles Stoppelaer. During the 1730s Francis Hayman painted Clive in performance Nell; this huge oil, which was engraved several times, hung in the supper boxes at Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens. The Clive-centred afterpiece version of The Devil to Pay was later translated and exported to Paris and Leipzig, where it seeded the new genres of opéra comique and Singspiel.
Successes and image wars
In the wake of Clive’s acclaim as Nell, the Cibbers father and son began from 1732 to mount a series of Clive comic vehicles written by Henry Fielding, whose 1730 ballad opera The Author’s Farce at a fringe theatre had made a splash. Fielding’s Clive vehicles departed sharply from the vocal and stage lines Carey had until then helped create for his former pupil. Instead of Anglicized high-style airs, Fielding reset low common tunes, rich in sexual innuendo. Instead of sprightly, upright heroines, Fielding’s dramatis personae for Clive lost their maidenheads, their morals, and their minds. Fielding botched Clive’s first-ever spoken principal part, The Covent Garden Tragedy (1 June 1732). Fielding set this mock-tragedy in the Rose Tavern, an infamous brothel whose real-life personnel he lightly fictionalized, with Clive as the chief doxy. Audiences recoiled, and the show closed. Fielding, backed by summer manager Theophilus, had then to scramble to get up an ‘operatized’ version of Molière’s The Mock Doctor (23 June 1732), whose wife-beating scenes were co-extensive with the action of The Devil to Pay. A hit, The Mock Doctor ushered in Clive’s new line of smart female protagonists in translated French comedies. This stage type was to be mined throughout her career by Fielding, later Clive vehicle writers, and Clive herself. In his adaptation of Molière’s The Miser (1733) and of Regnard’s The Intriguing Chambermaid (1734), Fielding cemented Clive’s ownership of precocious chambermaid roles. From 1733, several engravers printed Clive’s actual likeness; previously the only available image of ‘Miss Rafter’ had been a mezzotint of a half-naked nymph from a seventeenth-century oil.
In the spring of 1733 Clive became embroiled in her first clash with theatre managers. Theophilus Cibber, angered not to have inherited the management of Drury Lane from his father, persuaded most of its players to quit and join his rival company. Clive stayed on at Drury Lane – possibly to gain new parts, particularly those formerly owned by recently deceased star comedienne Anne Oldfield – as did Fielding, who continued to write Clive vehicles. In the ensuing court battle, Chief Justice Philip Yorke sided with Theophilus Cibber, who returned with his company in March 1734 to co-manage Drury Lane alongside a new investor, Charles Fleetwood. During the rebellion Clive had been attacked in the press as ‘Miss Prudely Crotchet’, a scheming songster who pretended to modesty while arrogantly advancing her ambition. Fielding had defended Clive, praising her real and imagined qualities in his playbook introductions.
Appearing on a theatre bill dated 5 October 1733 for the first time as 'Mrs. Clive,' she was assumed to have married in 1733 the non-practicing barrister George Clive, scion of Shropshire landed gentry and uncle of the later Major-General Robert Clive (‘Clive of India’). The marriage actually took place on 30 March 1731 at the church of St Mary le Savoy. This marriage was almost certainly a sham, from Kitty’s side to win a respectable name while shielding her earnings from any husband, from George’s side to disguise his passionate interest in men; George Clive went on to live with an older barrister who left him a considerable inheritance.
In 1734 the Molière translator James Miller supplanted Fielding as Drury Lane’s writer of Clive vehicles. Miller’s respect for Clive’s onstage brilliance materialized in his brittle French-sourced parts and witty epilogues for her; these included The Coffee House (1738, after Jean-Baptiste Rousseau), whose ‘Life of a Beau’ – Carey wrote the music, Miller the words – became one of Clive’s, and the era’s, most celebrated songs.
In November 1736 Clive again opposed Theophilus Cibber, who wished to give to his new wife Susannah (house composer Thomas Arne’s sister) roles understood to belong to Clive, starting with Polly in The Beggar’s Opera. For weeks Clive fought Cibber in the press; an ad hominem stage burlesque of the conflict was published, in two versions to keep up with unfolding events. Clive ultimately prevailed, winning over a hostile Drury Lane audience on 31 December 1736 with an extemporized stage speech, an event which testifies to her compelling presence as a performer.
From 1738 to 1743 Clive was at the zenith of her stardom as Britain’s first songster. Her music and vehicles circulated nationally in print. Comus (1738) – a vehicle for Clive, Susannah Cibber, and Irish tragedienne James Quin – took London by storm, and also Dublin on summer tour in 1741. While in Dublin Clive trained up a song in Irish Gaelic, and subsequently delivered the first-ever performance of this then-forbidden language on a licensed British stage. In London, from 1738 Clive established herself as a leading Shakespearean comedienne (often with song) in revivals often instigated by the Shakespeare Ladies Club. Clive’s Portia opposite Charles Macklin’s Shylock in The Merchant of Venice (14 February 1741) entered stage lore. Handel gifted Clive an air for her 1740 season benefit – the only such composition of his career – setting for her ‘Love’s but a Frailty’ from Congreve’s The Way of the World. Handel then engaged Clive to lead his 1743 oratorio company. Handel wrote the role of Delilah in Samson to Clive’s stage line and reputation, and gave her a brief bespoke solo in Messiah. These evoked Clive’s most renowned sung parts: as Euphrosyne, Goddess of Mirth, in Comus, and as the Arcadian shepherdess Phillida in a series of ballad operas; they provoked Clive’s later friend Horace Walpole to complain that Handel was hiring ‘goddesses from farces’.
Clive added ‘Life of a Beau’ to her parts seemingly at will. This air captures her public profile. Sung originally in propria persona (‘Miss Kitty’) in Miller’s The Coffee House, the air profiles Clive as a pert, rational, propitious female patriot calling for war against Spain. ‘Life of a Beau’ identifies the enemy at home as queer opera connoisseurs who lament the departure of the castrato Farinelli, who had in fact quit London for the Spanish court. Apart from their popularity, Clive’s repeated, self-instigated staging of homophobia may have helped screen the irregularity of her arrangement with George Clive.
Image crisis
By the early 1740s Clive was the Drury Lane company’s top-paid player, and this precipitated her gravest career crisis. Charles Fleetwood, by now manager, was a gambling addict who began diverting the wages of company members to pay his debts.
By 1743 Clive was desperate. She, Macklin and rising star David Garrick incited their fellow players to quit – but, due to the Licensing Act of 1737, which banned all but the two licensed playhouses, and to collusion between the managers of these two playhouses – the rebel players become homeless. Fleetwood had struck a deal with Covent Garden manager John Rich to either refuse employment to the rebels or hire them at lower salaries. Clive and her followers, who included her singing partner John Beard and her protégée Mary Edwards, crossed over to Covent Garden only to find themselves doubly victimized: not only was Rich offering less than Fleetwood, but he also wouldn’t pay.
A press war raged, particularly after Garrick returned to Drury Lane after having vowed (according to Macklin) to act only in concert with the other rebel players. Clive defended herself in the pamphlet The Case of Mrs. Clive (1744). In response, Fleetwood charged Clive and Garrick with earning above their social station, and published Clive’s annual income of about £700 (something like £140,000 today). With this disclosure, earlier assertions that Clive was greedy, vain, and jealous gained new currency, and overshadowed her eventual return to Drury Lane. An illustrated ballad of 1746 pretended to report on a ‘Scuffle’ in the green room between the male supporters of Clive and rival comedienne Peg Woffington, and that same year Susannah Cibber published subtly insulting reports about Clive. By 1747, according to Samuel Foote, Clive’s once-storied ‘Popularity’ seemed now ‘of Little Consequence’.
Caricatures, stage writings and post-1750 career
David Garrick, now co-manager of Drury Lane, strove to recover Clive’s following. Revising his 1740 Clive vehicle Lethe, in 1749 Garrick created the character of ‘Mrs Riot’ – an in propria persona role for Clive, with songs by Arne, that mocked Clive’s alleged foibles and perhaps also hinted at the same-sex desire suggested by Clive’s vitriol against men in epilogues, her declarations of love to her protégée Jane Pope in post-retirement letters, and posthumous claims that Clive was a ‘Sapphist’. As Garrick’s Mrs. Riot, a mannish gambler untethered from spousal control, Clive was formidable; helped by lots of puffing from Garrick, Lethe became a stage staple. And Clive found a new popularity in self-wounding roles, typically as a blousy, aged Fine Lady. Clive’s new parts, in for instance Catherine and Petruchio (1754), High Life Below Stairs (1759) and The Clandestine Marriage (1766), also dramatized her overreach.
Since 1740, Clive had protested publicly against anti-female bias, especially the bias against women writers. Clive’s first self-authored afterpiece, The Rehearsal, or Bayes in Petticoats (1750), championed female playwrights, and she occasionally led new comedies written by women, such as Frances Sheridan’s The Dupe (1763) and Elizabeth Griffith’s The Platonick Wife (1765) and School for Rakes (1769). Clive channeled her musicianship after 1750 into burlesque, either baiting herself (as in the 1749 mock-pastoral The Chaplet and its 1751 sequel The Shepherd’s Lottery and the 1754 London ‘Prentice, an ‘operetta’ with music by Willem DeFesch) or ‘taking off’ reigning Italian prima donne – as she had first done in Fielding’s Miss Lucy in Town (1742) – in mock musical numbers for which she earned separate billing in advertisements.
Clive’s writings contain crucial evidence about her career, her reliance on Irish theatre personnel in London, and the 18th century British playhouse generally. In addition to her 1744 pamphlet and her earlier letters to the press, from 1750 she added her own afterpieces to her season benefits. In The Rehearsal, she re-versified a c1740 masque by Boyce to tie off her career as a serious singer. Her other afterpieces – Every Woman in her Humour (1760) and Sketch of a Fine Lady’s Return from a Rout (1763) – are not easily available, nor is her extant correspondence.
Clive retired from the stage in 1769. By 1754 she had taken up residence at Little Strawberry Hill, a cottage provided for her by her friend Horace Walpole, who named it "Clive's Den" or Cliveden. In a letter written Sept. 7, 1782 to Earl Harcourt, Walpole remarked, "Dame Cliveden is the only heroine amongst all us old dowagers; she is so much recovered that she ventures to go out cruising on all the neighbours, and has made a miraculous draught of fishes." In a letter to his friend George Montagu, he wrote "Strawberry is in perfection...the orange-trees are loaded with blossoms, the Gallery all sun and gold, Mrs. Clive all sun and vermilion." Clive was in great demand at card parties and conversational soirees. Boswell quoted his friend Samuel Johnson who said of her, "Clive, Sir, is a good thing to sit by; she always understands what you say." She died on December 6, 1785, and was buried in the churchyard at St Mary's Church, Twickenham. A plaque to her memory is affixed to the outside wall of the church with a poem written by her friend, the actress Jane Pope.
Selected performances
Rosella in The Village Opera by Charles Johnson (1729)
Phillida in Love in a Riddle by Colley Cibber (1729)
Kitty in The Humours of Oxford by James Miller (1730)
Dulceda in Bayes's Opera by Gabriel Odingsells (1730)
Nell in The Devil to Pay by Charles Coffey (1731)
Chlose in The Lottery by Henry Fielding (1732)
Mercury in Timon in Love by John Kelly 1733)
Maria in The Man of Taste by James Miller (1735)
Liberia in The Universal Passion by James Miller (1737)
Violetta in Art and Nature by James Miller (1738)
Miss Kitty in The Coffee House by James Miller (1738)
Rosamond in Rosamond by Thomas Arne (1740)
Tag in Miss in Her Teens by David Garrick (1747)
Mrs. Riot in Lethe by David Garrick (1749)
Kitty in High Life Below Stairs by James Townley (1759)
Muslin in The Way to Keep Him by Arthur Murphy (1760)
Lady Freelove in The Jealous Wife by George Coleman the Elder (1761)
Lady Beverly in The School for Lovers by William Whitehead (1762)
Mrs. Heidelberg in The Clandestine Marriage by George Coleman the Elder (1766)
Sift in The Widowed Wife by William Kenrick (1767)
Mrs Winifred in The School for Rakes by Elizabeth Griffith (1769)
References and sources
References
External links
1711 births
1785 deaths
English dramatists and playwrights
English sopranos
English women dramatists and playwrights
18th-century British women writers
English women writers
18th-century English actresses
English stage actresses
Actresses from London
Singers from London
English people of Irish descent
Writers from London
18th-century English writers
18th-century British women opera singers |
4502354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tz%20database | Tz database | The tz database is a collaborative compilation of information about the world's time zones, primarily intended for use with computer programs and operating systems. Paul Eggert has been its editor and maintainer since 2005, with the organizational backing of ICANN. The tz database is also known as tzdata, the zoneinfo database or the IANA time zone database (after the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority), and occasionally as the Olson database, referring to the founding contributor, Arthur David Olson.
Its uniform naming convention for time zones, such as America/New_York and Europe/Paris, was designed by Paul Eggert. The database attempts to record historical time zones and all civil changes since 1970, the Unix time epoch. It also includes transitions such as daylight saving time, and also records leap seconds.
The database, as well as some reference source code, is in the public domain. New editions of the database and code are published as changes warrant, usually several times per year.
Data structure
File formats
The tz database is published as a set of text files which list the rules and zone transitions in a human-readable format. For use, these text files are compiled into a set of platform-independent binary files—one per time zone. The reference source code includes such a compiler called zic (zone information compiler), as well as code to read those files and use them in standard APIs such as localtime() and mktime().
Definition of a time zone
Within the tz database, a time zone is any national region where local clocks have all agreed since 1970. This definition concerns itself first with geographic areas which have had consistent local clocks. This is different from other definitions which concern themselves with consistent offsets from a prime meridian. Therefore, each of the time zones defined by the tz database may document multiple offsets from UTC, typically including both standard time and daylight saving time.
In the time zone text files, each time zone has one or more "zone lines" in one of the time zone text files. The first zone line for a time zone gives the name of the time zone; any subsequent zone lines for that time zone leave the name blank, indicating that they apply to the same zone as the previous line. Each zone line for a zone specifies, for a range of date and time, the offset to UTC for standard time, the name of the set of rules that govern daylight saving time (or a hyphen if standard time always applies), the format for time zone abbreviations, and, for all but the last zone line, the date and time at which the range of date and time governed by that line ends.
Daylight saving time (DST) rules
The rules for daylight saving time are specified in named rule sets. Each rule set has one or more rule lines in the time zone text files. A rule line contains the name of the rule set to which it belongs, the first year in which the rule applies, the last year in which the rule applies (or "only" if it applies only in one year or "max" if it is the rule then in effect), the type of year to which the rule applies ("-" if it applies to all years in the specified range, which is almost always the case, otherwise a name used as an argument to a script that indicates whether the year is of the specified type), the month in which the rule takes effect, the day on which the rule takes effect (which could either be a specific day or a specification such as "the last Sunday of the month"), the time of day at which the rule takes effect, the amount of time to add to the offset to UTC when the rule is in effect, and the letter or letters to use in the time zone abbreviation (for example, "S" if the rule governs standard time and "D" if it governs daylight saving time).
Names of time zones
The time zones have unique names in the form "Area/Location", e.g. "America/New_York". A choice was also made to use English names or equivalents, and to omit punctuation and common suffixes. The underscore character is used in place of spaces. Hyphens are used where they appear in the name of a location. The Area and Location names have a maximum length of 14 characters.
Area
Area is the name of a continent, an ocean, or "Etc". The continents and oceans used are Africa, America, Antarctica, Arctic, Asia, Atlantic, Australia, Europe, Indian, and Pacific.
The oceans are included since some islands are hard to connect to a certain continent. Some are geographically connected to one continent and politically to another. See also Boundaries between continents.
The special area of "Etc" is used for some administrative zones, particularly for "Etc/UTC" which represents Coordinated Universal Time. In order to conform with the POSIX style, those zone names beginning with "Etc/GMT" have their sign reversed from the standard ISO 8601 convention. In the "Etc" area, zones west of GMT have a positive sign and those east have a negative sign in their name (e.g "Etc/GMT-14" is 14 hours ahead of GMT).
Location
Location is the name of a specific location within the area – usually a city or small island.
Country names are not normally used in this scheme, primarily because they would not be robust, owing to frequent political and boundary changes. The names of large cities tend to be more permanent. Usually the most populous city in a region is chosen to represent the entire time zone, although another city may be selected if it is more widely known, and another location, including a location other than a city, may be used if it results in a less ambiguous name. In the event that the name of the location used to represent the time zone changes, the convention is to create an alias in future editions so that both the old and new names refer to the same database entry.
In some cases the Location is itself represented as a compound name, for example the time zone "America/Indiana/Indianapolis". Three-level names include those under "America/Argentina/...", "America/Kentucky/...", "America/Indiana/...", and "America/North_Dakota/...".
The location selected is representative for the entire area. However, if there were differences within the area before 1970, the time zone rules only apply in the named location.
Examples
Example zone and rule lines
These are rule lines for the standard United States daylight saving time rules, rule lines for the daylight saving time rules in effect in the US Eastern Time Zone (called "NYC" as New York City is the city representing that zone) in some years, and zone lines for the America/New_York time zone, as of release version tzdata2011n of the time zone database. The zone and rule lines reflect the history of DST in the United States.
# Rule NAME FROM TO TYPE IN ON AT SAVE LETTER/S
Rule US 1918 1919 - Mar lastSun 2:00 1:00 D
Rule US 1918 1919 - Oct lastSun 2:00 0 S
Rule US 1942 only - Feb 9 2:00 1:00 W # War
Rule US 1945 only - Aug 14 23:00u 1:00 P # Peace
Rule US 1945 only - Sep 30 2:00 0 S
Rule US 1967 2006 - Oct lastSun 2:00 0 S
Rule US 1967 1973 - Apr lastSun 2:00 1:00 D
Rule US 1974 only - Jan 6 2:00 1:00 D
Rule US 1975 only - Feb 23 2:00 1:00 D
Rule US 1976 1986 - Apr lastSun 2:00 1:00 D
Rule US 1987 2006 - Apr Sun>=1 2:00 1:00 D
Rule US 2007 max - Mar Sun>=8 2:00 1:00 D
Rule US 2007 max - Nov Sun>=1 2:00 0 S
....
# Rule NAME FROM TO TYPE IN ON AT SAVE LETTER
Rule NYC 1920 only - Mar lastSun 2:00 1:00 D
Rule NYC 1920 only - Oct lastSun 2:00 0 S
Rule NYC 1921 1966 - Apr lastSun 2:00 1:00 D
Rule NYC 1921 1954 - Sep lastSun 2:00 0 S
Rule NYC 1955 1966 - Oct lastSun 2:00 0 S
# Zone NAME GMTOFF RULES FORMAT [UNTIL]
Zone America/New_York -4:56:02 - LMT 1883 November 18, 12:03:58
-5:00 US E%sT 1920
-5:00 NYC E%sT 1942
-5:00 US E%sT 1946
-5:00 NYC E%sT 1967
-5:00 US E%sT
Data stored for each zone
For each time zone that has multiple offsets (usually due to daylight saving time), the tz database records the exact moment of transition. The format can accommodate changes in the dates and times of transitions as well. Zones may have historical rule changes going back many decades (as shown in the example above).
Zone.tab
The file zone.tab is in the public domain and lists the zones. Columns and row sorting are described in the comments of the file, as follows:
# This file contains a table with the following columns:
# 1. ISO 3166 2-character country code. See the file `iso3166.tab'.
# 2. Latitude and longitude of the zone's principal location
# in ISO 6709 sign-degrees-minutes-seconds format,
# either +-DDMM+-DDDMM or +-DDMMSS+-DDDMMSS,
# first latitude (+ is north), then longitude (+ is east).
# 3. Zone name used in value of TZ environment variable.
# 4. Comments; present if and only if the country has multiple rows.
#
# Columns are separated by a single tab.
# The table is sorted first by country, then an order within the country that
# (1) makes some geographical sense, and
# (2) puts the most populous zones first, where that does not contradict (1).
Data before 1970
Data before 1970 aims to be correct for the city identifying the region, but is not necessarily correct for the entire region. This is because new regions are created only as required to distinguish clocks since 1970.
For example, between 1963-10-23 and 1963-12-09 in Brazil only the states of Minas Gerais, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo had summer time. However, a requested split from America/Sao_Paulo was rejected in 2010 with the reasoning that, since 1970, the clocks were the same in the whole region.
Time in Germany, which is represented by Europe/Berlin, is incorrect for the year 1945 when the Trizone used daylight saving time rules different from Berlin's.
Coverage
Zones covering multiple post-1970 countries
There are two zones that cover an area that was covered by two countries after 1970. The database follows the definitions of countries as per ISO 3166-1, whose predecessor, ISO 3166, was first published in 1974.
Asia/Aden – two countries until 1990: North Yemen (ISO 3166-1: YE; capital Sana'a) and South Yemen (People's Republic, ISO 3166-1: YD, ISO 3166-3: YDYE; capital: Aden).
Europe/Berlin – two countries until 1990: East Germany (ISO 3166-1: DD, ISO 3166-3: DDDE) and West Germany (ISO 3166-1: DE)
Maintenance
The tz reference code and database is maintained by a group of volunteers. Arthur David Olson makes most of the changes to the tz reference code. Paul Eggert makes most of the changes to the tz database. Proposed changes are sent to the tz mailing list, which is gatewayed to the comp.time.tz Usenet newsgroup. Source files are distributed via the IANA FTP server. Typically, these files are taken by a software distributor like Debian, compiled, and then the source and binaries are packaged as part of that distribution. End users can either rely on their software distribution's update procedures, which may entail some delay, or obtain the source directly and build the binary files themselves. The IETF has published , "Procedures for Maintaining the Time Zone Database" documenting best practices based on similar principles.
Unix-like systems
The standard path for the timezone database is /usr/share/zoneinfo/ in Linux distributions, macOS, and some other Unix-like systems.
Usage and extensions
Boundaries of time zones
Geographical boundaries in the form of coordinate sets are not part of the tz database, but boundaries are published by Eric Muller in the form of vector polygons. Using these vector polygons, one can determine, for each place on the globe, the tz database zone in which it is located.
Use in other standards
The Unicode Common Locale Data Repository (CLDR) refers to zones in the tz database. However, as the name for a zone can change from one tz database release to another, the CLDR assigns the UN/LOCODE for the city used in the name for the zone, or an internally-assigned code if there is no such city for the zone, to a tzdb zone.
Use in software systems
The tz database is used for time zone processing and conversions in many computer software systems, including:
BSD-derived systems, including FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, DragonFly BSD, macOS, and iOS (they also use the reference TZ database processing code as their TZ POSIX API implementation);
the GNU C Library and systems that use it, including GNU, most Linux distributions, BeOS, Haiku, Nexenta OS, and Cygwin;
System V Release 4-derived systems, such as Solaris and UnixWare;
AIX 6.1 and later (earlier versions of AIX, starting with AIX 5.2, include zoneinfo, for support of third-party applications such as MySQL, but do not use it themselves);
Android
several other Unix systems, including IRIX, Tru64, SunOS 4.x, and UNICOS/mp;
OpenVMS;
the Java Runtime Environment since release 1.8 (2014), see java.time.ZoneId
the Perl modules DateTime::TimeZone and DateTime::LeapSecond since 2003;
PHP releases since 5.1.0 (2005);
the Ruby Gem TZInfo;
the Python standard library zoneinfo module, and the third-party pytz package;
the JavaScript language specification for Internationalization explicitly specifies the usage of IANA Time Zone names for API, and recommends the usage of the time zone data as well.
Numerous libraries also available: timezone-js, BigEasy/TimeZone, WallTime-js and moment-timezone;
the Pandas (Python) module pandas – Python Data Analysis Library;
the .NET Framework libraries NodaTime, TZ4Net and zoneinfo ;
the Haskell libraries timezone-series and timezone-olson;
the Erlang module ezic;
The Go standard library time package;
The Rust crate chrono-tz;
The Squeak Smalltalk time package;
The C++ libraries Boost and Qt, and C++20 chrono standard library's std::chrono::tzdb;
The Delphi and Free Pascal library TZDB;
The Free Pascal library PascalTZ;
The Tool Command Language has a clock command using tzdata;
Oracle releases since 10g (2004);
PostgreSQL since release 8.0 (2005);
the Microsoft SQL Server library SQL Server Time Zone Support
MongoDB since release 3.6;
the Dart/Flutter Timezone package in pub;
embedded software such as the firmware used in IP clocks.
The Olson timezone IDs are also used by the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository (CLDR) and International Components for Unicode (ICU). For example, the CLDR Windows–Tzid table maps Microsoft Windows time zone IDs to the standard Olson names, although such a mapping cannot be perfect because the number of time zones in Windows systems is significantly lower than in the IANA TZ database.
History
The project's origins go back to 1986 or earlier.
2011 lawsuit
On 30 September 2011, a lawsuit, Astrolabe, Inc. v. Olson et al., was filed concerning copyright in the database. As a result, on 6 October 2011, the database's mailing list and FTP site were shut down. The case revolved around the database maintainers' use of The American Atlas, by Thomas G. Shanks, and The International Atlas, by Thomas G. Shanks and Rique Pottenger. It complained of unauthorised reproduction of atlas data in the timezone mailing list archive and in some auxiliary link collections maintained with the database, though it did not actually point at the database itself. The complaint related only to the compilation of historical timezone data, and did not cover extant tzdata world timezone tables.
This lawsuit was resolved on 22 February 2012 after the involvement of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, when Astrolabe voluntarily moved to dismiss the lawsuit without having ever served the defendants and agreed to a covenant not to sue in the future.
Move to ICANN
ICANN took responsibility for the maintenance of the database on 14 October 2011. The full database and a description of plans for its maintenance are available online from IANA.
See also
List of tz database time zones
Time zone
Daylight saving time
References
External links
General
.
(deprecated, see Official IANA sources below)
.
.
tz mailing list at ICANN
"A literary appreciation of the Olson/Zoneinfo/tz database" by Jon Udell
Official IANA sources
Home page
FTP
rsync, at rsync://rsync.iana.org/tz/
Man pages
(gives the syntax of source files for the tz database)
(gives the format of compiled tz database files) |
4502366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow%20Conference%20%281942%29 | Moscow Conference (1942) | The Second Moscow Conference (Codename: BRACELET) between the major Allies of World War II took place from August 12, 1942, to August 17, 1942.
Prelude
On July 30, 1942, Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden passed a message to Prime Minister Winston Churchill from the British Ambassador to the Soviet Union, Sir Archibald Clark Kerr. It stated -
The ambassador suggested it would be advantageous that Churchill and Soviet leader Stalin should meet. Eden noted in his diary, 'Took the telegram round to Winston...and he jumped at it'. Churchill proposed to Stalin travelling via Cairo to meet him at Astrakhan 'or similar convenient meeting place'. Stalin replied with a formal invitation to meet but stated that Moscow was the only suitable place. This was due to neither himself or his senior staff feeling able to leave the capital during the period of 'intense struggle'.
Eden expressed concerns for the health of the Prime Minister. When told by Eden of the Prime Minister's plans Oliver Harvey wrote, 'But what gallantry of the old gentleman, setting off at 65 across Africa in the heat of mid-summer!'
Churchill set aside health concerns, feeling it was his duty to make the journey. He, along with Sir Alexander Cadogan of the Foreign Office who was to travel with him, were given tests at Farnborough on 31 July for high altitude flying. They were exposed to the equivalent of flying at 15,000 feet while wearing oxygen masks and passed fit.
Churchill and his party departed RAF Lyneham shortly after midnight on 1 August 1942 in a Liberator bomber (number AL504), codenamed Commando and piloted by William J. Vanderkloot. Arriving at Gibraltar at dawn, they spent the day there before travelling on to Cairo.
Churchill's wife Clementine who had watched his departure, later wrote to her husband -
Churchill arrived in Egypt on 4 August, where he stayed at the British Embassy in Cairo. While in Egypt he took the decision to relieve Claude Auchinleck as Commander-in-Chief. The command split, creating Near East and Middle East commands. Auchinleck was to be replaced by Harold Alexander as C-in-C Near East. Lieutenant-general William Gott was to become Commander of the Eighth Army. However, when he was killed the decision was made to appoint Bernard Montgomery. While in Egypt he inspected troops and positions before departing for Tehran after midnight on 10 August.
After meetings in the city, the journey was continued to Moscow on August 12. The party arrived at 17.00 the same day after a 10 and a half hour flight.
Moscow
12 August 1942
The British delegation led by Churchill and Cardogan was met by Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and Chief of Staff, Marshal Boris Shaposhnikov. Upon arrival Churchill and American representative Averell Harriman inspected an honour guard. Churchill then addressed the assembly saying,
State Villa No. 7 was allocated to Churchill while Harriman stayed at the US Embassy. Of the villa, Churchill wrote, 'Everything was prepared with totalitarian lavishness'. He was supplied with an aide-de-camp and 'a number of veteran servants in white jackets and beaming smiles'.
Churchill was collected from the villa at 19.00 and taken to the Kremlin and his first meeting with Stalin. The initial meeting was had by only a small party consisting of Churchill, Major Charles Dunlop (Embassy Interpreter), Clark Kerr and Harriman. This was due to the aeroplane carrying the rest of the delegation having to return to Tehran because of a technical fault.
Churchill reported back to London that the first two hours 'were bleak and sombre'. Stalin reported grave problems on the Eastern Front and that the Germans were making 'a tremendous effort to get to Baku and Stalingrad'. The conversation moved on to the possibility of a second front in 1942, which the Soviets were hoping for. Churchill reported that after an 'exhaustive Anglo-American examination', the western allies did not feel able to launch an attack across the English Channel in September 1942. However, he was able to report that preparations were in hand for a landing by 48 divisions in 1943. Churchill added that even by the time the 1943 operation was ready it was conceivable that the Germans may be able to field a stronger force to oppose them. At this the minutes of the meeting note, 'Stalin's face crumpled into a frown'.
After further conversation regarding a Second Front in France, Stalin said that the British 'should not be so afraid of the Germans'. He went on to ask, 'Why were we [the British] so afraid of the Germans?' Churchill offered 1940 and the German failure to land troops as a comparable situation, saying that Hitler 'was afraid of the operation'. Stalin disagreed but consented to allow the respective generals to go into the details of the operation.
Churchill turned to the subject of bombing Germany, stating "If need be, as the war went on, we hoped to shatter almost every dwelling in almost every German city". This improved Stalin's mood and Churchill to the subject of a second front in 1942. He relayed to Stalin that the Western Allies had decided on another operation, as France was not the only area to attack. He had been authorised to share this secret by President Roosevelt with Stalin. At this, the minutes record, 'M. Stalin sat up and grinned'. Churchill then proceeded to outline the details of the Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, Operation Torch.
The British were nervous that Stalin and Hitler might make separate peace terms; Stalin insisted that would not happen. Churchill explained how Arctic convoys bringing munitions to Russia had been intercepted by the Germans; there was a delay now so that future convoys would be better protected. He apologetically explained there would be no second front this year—no British-American invasion of France—which Stalin had been urgently requesting for months. The will was there, said Churchill, but there was not enough American troops, not enough tanks, not enough shipping, not enough air superiority. Instead the British, and soon the Americans, would step up bombing of German cities and railways. Furthermore, there would be Operation Torch in November. It would be a major Anglo-American invasion of North Africa, which would set the stage for an invasion of Italy and perhaps open the Mediterranean for munitions shipments to Russia through the Black Sea. The talks started out on a very sour note but after many hours of informal conversations, the two men understood each other and knew they could cooperate smoothly.
Once Churchill had completed his explanation of the Operation Torch and the strategy to open up the Mediterranean, Stalin said, "May God help this enterprise to succeed". The minutes record that at this point Stalin's 'interest was now at a high pitch'.
The conversation continued until this first meeting of Stalin, Churchill and Harriman drew to a close at 22.40 after three hours and forty minutes. Churchill later signalled to his deputy in London, Labour leader Clement Attlee -
13 August 1942
On the second day Churchill began with a meeting at the Kremlin with Commissar for Foreign Affairs, Molotov. Churchill took Molotov over the various operations in the West, across the abandoned Operation Sledgehammer and Operation Round-Up to the buildup of American forces in Britain, Operation Bolero. The discussion took in the upcoming Operation Torch and the possibilities for Operation Jupiter, the proposed Anglo-Soviet landing in Norway. Churchill, in a telegraph to London, said 'He [Molotov] listened affably but contributed nothing'. As he was leaving Churchill turned to Molotov and said, "Stalin will make a great mistake to treat us roughly when we have come so far". To which Molotov replied, "Stalin is a very wise man. You may be sure that, however he argues, he understands all. I will tell him what you say".
The aircraft carrying the remainder of the British delegation arrived at 17.00 and they joined Churchill for his second meeting with Stalin at 23.00. Stalin opened the meeting with an aide-memoire attacking the abandoning of plans for a Second Front in 1942. Churchill listened to the document being translated and stated he would reply in writing but that 'we [Britain and America] have made up our minds upon the course to be pursued and that reproaches were vain'. Stalin attacked the British military effort, "You British are afraid of fighting. You should not think the Germans are supermen. You will have to fight sooner or later. You cannot win a war without fighting". Harriman passed Churchill a note urging him not to take Stalin's words seriously, as he had behaved in the same way during the Moscow Conference in 1941.
Churchill called for Colonel Ian Jacob to enter the room and take down what was being said. Churchill expressed his 'disappointment that Stalin should apparently not believe the sincerity of his statements, and distrust his motives'. Churchill then launched into what Harriman described as 'the most brilliant' of his wartime speeches. Even the translator 'got so enthralled by Winston's speech that he put his pencil down'. So swept up in the moment Churchill didn't leave space for the interpreter to relay the last part and Dunlop was not able to relay them verbatim. Stalin laughed, not having heard much of the speech, and said -
Churchill got Dunlop to get the precise wording from Jacob's minutes and relay it to Stalin. Churchill wrote to Attlee of the encounter, 'I repulsed all his contentions squarely but without taunts of any kind. I suppose he is not used to being contradicted repeatedly but he did not become at all angry or even animated. On one occasion I said, "I pardon that remark only on account of the bravery of the Russian troops."'
14 August 1942
After having lunch with guests including General Brooke and US Ambassador William H. Standley, Churchill retired for his usual afternoon rest. He returned to the Kremlin at 21.00 for his third meeting with Stalin.
They went straight into a dinner of around 100 guests. Shortly after sitting, Molotov made a toast to Churchill's health. Churchill in turn replied with a toast to Stalin and he toasted President Roosevelt's heath, as well as that of Harriman. The toasts continued with Stalin going over to click glasses with those whose health he had toasted. This left the Prime Minister without opportunity for conversation with the Soviet leader.
After nearly four hours, Stalin took Churchill into a neighbouring room for coffee and liquors. They were also photographed together and with Harriman. Stalin proposed a film screening but at this Churchill retired to his allocated villa to rest. As he telegraphed to Attlee he, 'was afraid we should be drawn into a lengthy film and was fatigued'.
After shaking hands with Stalin, Churchill took his leave. Stalin hurried after his guest and escorted him through the halls of the Kremlin to the front door, where they again shook hands. Ambassador Clark Kerr reported to Eden -
15 August 1942
Churchill called for Colonel Jacob at 09.00 to discuss the stormy encounter of 13 August. He had second thoughts about the meeting, wondering if Stalin, 'had perhaps not meant to be as insulting as he [Churchill] first thought'. Jacob recommended another meeting, one-to-one. However, given the importance of the discussion and that Dunlop had been found wanting, Jacob suggested 'we [the British] should fit him [Churchill] out' with a bilingual member of the British Military Mission. Major Arthur Herbert Birse was recommended to which Churchill agreed.
Born in St. Petersburg to British parents in 1891, Birse had native fluency in Russian which came from his schooling in the country. This was contrary to the practice of other British families there who sent their children back to the UK for their education. He joined the British Military Mission in Russia in 1917 as an interpreter. However, following the Bolshevik Revolution he moved to the UK and worked for a bank. This saw him sent to Poland and Italy where he learned those languages too. He returned to the military with the outbreak of war and was sent to Russia following the German invasion.
The Prime Minister's car entered the Kremlin just before 19.00 and the pair were escorted to a large conference room to meet Stalin. The four, Churchill, Birse, Stalin and his interpreter Vladimir Pavlov, sat at the head of the table. Churchill thanked Stalin "for all the courtesy and hospitality" before stating -
Stalin replied that their "personal exchange of views has been of the most importance" and that "the fact that we have met is of very great value". While acknowledging that they have had some disagreement he felt that in meeting "the ground has been prepared for future agreement". The discussion moved onto the American buildup of troops in the UK, which in August 1942 stood at 85,000, against a target of 1 million. They then moved on to Operation Torch and the benefits to Russia, which Churchill acknowledged would be affected 'indirectly'. Churchill also explained a planned 'reconnaissance in force' which was the approaching Dieppe Raid. This was described as an action to "make Germany anxious about a attack from across the Channel" with "some 8,000 men with 50 tanks". Stalin then took Churchill over the situation on the Eastern Front along with plans to defend the Caucasus and block the German drive towards the Baku Oilfields. The discussions left Churchill feeling, as he explained in a telegram to Attlee, that there was 'an even chance' of the Caucasus being held but General Brooke 'will not go as far as this'.
Stalin's Apartment
Churchill rose to leave, he was due to dine with General Władysław Anders of the Polish Armed Forces in the East to discuss their deployment to the Middle East. Stalin asked when he and Churchill would meet again. To this Churchill explained that he would be leaving at dawn. Stalin met this news with the question, "Why do you not come over to my apartment in the Kremlin and have some drinks?" Churchill consented and Stalin led the way to his apartment, which Churchill described as being 'of moderate size, simple, dignified, and four in number'. They were joined by his daughter Svetlana and Molotov. When Churchill realised he was to stay for a dinner and not just drinks he instructed Birse to telephone to his villa and let Anders know. The party dined from 2.30 until 2.30 the following morning [16 August]. The discussions were wide-ranging, covering topics from the supply of lorries to the Red Army, the Napoleonic Wars, the Duke of Marlborough and the introduction of Collective Farms in the Soviet Union. Sir Alexander Cadogan entered at around 01.00 [16 August] with the draft communiqué from the conference. At this moment a suckling pig arrived, Cadogan declined Stalin's invitation to join him and Stalin ate the pig by himself.
Cadogan described the scene in a letter to Lord Halifax -
The Soviet leader then went to an adjoining room to receive reports from the front. When he returned at around 2.30 the final communiqué had been agreed and Churchill took his leave. He had a 30 minutes drive to the villa, General Anders to meet and a 'splitting headache, which for me [Churchill] was very unusual'. After this there was the long drive back to the airport for his return to the UK.
16 August 1942
Churchill finally made it back to State Villa No. 7 at 03.15 on the morning of 16 August. General Anders was still awaiting the Prime Minister along with the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) General Brooke. Churchill said, "Ah! my poor Anders. I have been detained by M. Stalin and now I must fly off, but you come along to Cairo and we shall have a talk there". Anders had already flown to Moscow from Tashkent and made preparations to carry on to Cairo as if, as General Brooke recalled, 'it was in the next street'.
Churchill bathed and then relayed the content of his discussions to Ambassador Clark Kerr and Colonel Jacob. Jacob recorded that, 'The Prime Minister was very tired and lay talking with his eyes shut. Nevertheless, he was very satisfied with the way things had gone, and felt that his visit had turned out a great success'.
Molotov arrived at the villa at 04.30 to escort the party to the airfield where they arrived by 05.00. As dawn was breaking a band played Internationale, God Save the King and the Star Spangled Banner as the Prime Minister stood to attention and saluted. The party departed in a formation of four Liberator bombers at 05.30 after ceremonies were completed.
Churchill telegraphed to Attlee -
Returning via Tehran and Cairo, where he held further meetings, Churchill arrived back at RAF Lyneham to be greeted by Clementine on the evening of 24 August 1942.
The Times of 18 August reported the talks. They were described as being done 'in an atmosphere of cordiality and complete sincerity'.
See also
Anglo-Soviet Agreement
Anglo-Soviet Treaty of 1942
Russia–United Kingdom relations#Second World War
Diplomatic history of World War II
First Moscow Conference (1941)
Third Moscow Conference (1943)
Fourth Moscow Conference (1944) (TOLSTOY)
List of World War II conferences
References
World War II conferences
Soviet Union–United Kingdom relations
Soviet Union–United States diplomatic conferences
Diplomatic conferences in the Soviet Union
1942 conferences
1942 in the Soviet Union
1942 in international relations
1942 in Moscow |
4502477 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor%20Henry%20Anderson | Victor Henry Anderson | Victor Henry Anderson (May 21, 1917 – September 20, 2001) was an American priest and poet. He was co-founder of the Feri Tradition, a modern Pagan new religious movement established in California during the 1960s. Much of his poetry was religious in nature, being devoted to Feri deities.
Born in Clayton, New Mexico, to a working-class family, Anderson was left visually impaired during childhood. His family regularly moved around within the United States during his early years, with Anderson claiming that encounters with Mexican, Hawaiian, and Haitian migrants led to him gaining an early understanding of these various cultures' magical practices. The family eventually settled in Oregon, and Anderson later claimed that it was here that he was initiated into a tradition of witchcraft by an African woman. He later claimed that, in 1932, he joined a magico-religious group known as the Harpy Coven which was based in Ashland and which dissolved in the 1940s. According to his description, the group was devoted to a god and goddess, Setan and Lilith, and were influenced by both American folk magic and Huna.
In 1944, he married Cora Cremeans in Bend, Oregon, and, inspired by the writings of English Wiccan Gerald Gardner, they founded the Mahaelani Coven, gaining followers of what became known as the Feri tradition. One of their first initiates was Gwydion Pendderwen, who was a significant influence on the development of the tradition, and who introduced elements from Alexandrian Wicca in to it. Anderson was a professional accordion player and wrote poetry for various American Pagan magazines. In 1970, he published his first book of poetry, Thorns of the Blood Rose, which contained devotional religious poetry dedicated to the Goddess; it won the Clover International Poetry Competition Award in 1975. Anderson continued to promote the Feri tradition until his death, at which point April Niino was appointed as the new Grandmaster of the tradition.
Early life
Childhood: 1917–1931
Anderson was born on May 21, 1917, at the Buffalo Horn Ranch in Clayton, New Mexico. His parents were Hilbart Alexander Anderson (1883–1952) and Mary Frances Anderson (née Smith, 1886–1973). Regarding his ethnic ancestry, he later stated that "I am mostly Irish and Spanish with some Native American, including Polynesian". He also claimed that his maternal great-grandmother had been one of the Blue Fugates, a community living in Appalachia whose skin had a blueish coloration due to methemoglobinemia. Anderson became almost completely blind when he was two years old, either because of an accident or untreated diabetes. By 1920, the family were living in Burkburnett, Wichita County, Texas, where a sister, Elsie Glenan Anderson, was born in February. Here, Hilbart worked as a floor worker on some of the many oil rigs in the town. From there they moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico, where they were recorded as living in the 1923–24 directory, and where Anderson later claimed that he had made many friends among Mexican migrant children. Anderson's later wife claimed that he was also instructed in how to use his etheric vision by "Mexican Witches" during childhood. The family next moved to Olustee, Oklahoma, where Hilbart's brother resided.
After several months in Oklahoma they proceeded to the area around Ashland, Oregon, where Anderson claimed to have befriended Hawaiian and Haitian migrant families who were working as fruit pickers. Anderson often claimed that he had been instructed in the magical practices of Hawaiian Kahuna and Haitian Vodou, with his later wife referring to him as both "one of the last Kahuna" and "a priest of Voudou". He claimed to have been instructed in Vodou by Haitians who were working in southern Oregon. While living in that state he attended a school for the blind, although despite this was largely self-educated. The family moved around the state in the coming years; in August 1928 they were living in Pinehurst, where Hilbert was recorded as working as an engineer at a lumber mill in the 1930 census. By the 1940 census, the family were recorded as living in East Phoenix, Jackson county, Oregon, with Higbert adding that he had also been living there in 1935. At this point, Hilbert was working as a millwright and Mary as a trained nurse. In 1942 they were recorded as living in Ashland, and it was here that they attended the First Baptist Church, before relocating to Bend prior to 1944.
Anderson claimed to be initiated into a tradition of witchcraft in 1926 by a woman "of the Fairy race", whom he elsewhere referred to as "a priestess from Africa".
Anderson informed the journalist Margot Adler that when he was nine years old he encountered a small old woman sitting in the centre of a circle containing brass bowls of herbs. He alleged that he instinctively stripped naked and that she then sexually initiated him into a witchcraft tradition, during which he had a vision of a goddess and a horned god. After the vision, he claimed that they sat in the circle and she instructed him in the magical use of the various herbs, after which he was washed in butter, oil, and salt, before putting his clothes on and returning home. The Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White described this as being "difficult to accept as a literal account", but suggested that Anderson may have undergone a significant spiritual experience with an older woman in 1926, which was subsequently "embellished into the later tale" that he told Adler. A woman who knew Anderson, Cornelia Benavidez, later stated that "He says that he became friends with a woman in the circus who was a fire dancer and when she got older worked the stands. She somehow joined the circus in South Africa and made her way to the US. When he first met her she was 60 years old and he was a nine-year-old boy. He knew her for 15 years". Researcher William Wallworth provided potential supporting evidence for this claim when he noted that a number of the circuses that performed in Oregon during the 1920s and 1930s had Africans in their travelling retinues.
The Harpy Coven: 1932–1943
Anderson claimed that in 1932 he was initiated into a witchcraft group in Ashland that he called the Harpy Coven, although remains the only source testifying to the group's existence. Research into the coven was later conducted by Valerie Voigt, the coordinator of the Pagan, Occult, and Witchcraft Special Interest Group of the United States branch of Mensa, who was also one of Anderson's students and who asked him about the group. According to her claims, the group were led by two figures, known as Maybelle "Cardea" Warren and Jerome Warren, with other members being Jim Murdoch, Patricia Fern, Tom C. ("Arven"), and Ruth D., the latter of whom was a preacher's wife. As related by Voigt, most of them had been immigrants from the Southern states, mainly from Alabama.
According to Voigt, the coven placed an emphasis on practical magic rather than worship, theology, ethics, or ritual, and were eclectic in their practices, mixing Huna with forms of American folk magic. She noted that they did not worship a goddess but held to a belief in a god who was opposed to the God of Christianity. Moreover, she claimed that they met together for both outdoor and indoor meetings, according to the phases of the moon. According to Voigt's account, Anderson also claimed that on occasion, the coven used a naked woman as their altar, and that the group disbanded after World War II broke out.
After the Pagan studies scholar Aidan A. Kelly published a summary of Voigt's research, Anderson released an open letter dated to August 21, 1991, refuting many of Kelly's claims and referring to it as "the stupid drivel of those who have only a shallow grasp of their alleged research." He stated that contrary to Kelly's assertions, the Harpy Coven had worshiped a goddess, who was known as Lilith, and that "we did not think of her as merely the Goddess, but as God Herself".
He added that the coven also venerated a consort of the Goddess, who was known as Setan, but "although the Goddess tells us that away from the sweet influence of her love, he is the most terrible of all spirits, he is not the fallen angel or 'Satan' of Christianity or Islam". Kelly later stated that the Harpy Coven might "have been self-trained or may have descended from an earlier person or group".
Later life: 1944–2001
Anderson met Cora Ann Cremeans in Bend, Oregon, in 1944; they married three days later, on May 3, claiming that they had encountered each other before in the astral realm. Born in Nyota, Alabama, in January 1915, Cora had been exposed to folk magical practices from childhood; reputedly, her Irish grandfather was a "root doctor" who was known among locals as the "druid". The Andersons claimed that one of their first acts after their marriage was the erection of an altar. The following year, a son was born, and they named him Victor Elon, with the latter being the Hebrew word for oak; Cora claimed that she had received the name in a dream. After the birth, a ritual was held to dedicate the infant to the Goddess. In 1948, the family moved to Niles, California, later that year purchasing a home in San Leandro. There, Anderson became a member of the Alameda Lodge of the Fraternal Order of Eagles, and he subsequently remained so for forty years. Victor earned his living as a musician, playing the accordion at events, while Cora worked as a hospital cook. It has been claimed that Anderson could speak Hawaiian, Spanish, Creole, Greek, Italian, and Gothic.
In the mid-1950s Victor and Cora read Witchcraft Today, a 1954 book by English Wiccan Gerald Gardner, with Cora claiming that Victor corresponded with Gardner for a time. The Pagan studies scholar Chas S. Clifton has suggested that the Andersons used Gardner's work as a "style guide" for the development of their own tradition of modern Pagan witchcraft. Similarly, Kelly stated that the Andersons' tradition "began to more and more resemble that of the Gardnerians" as the couple learned more about the latter, adopting elements from it.
Anderson was in correspondence with the Italian-American Wiccan Leo Martello, who encouraged Anderson to found his own coven. Circa 1960, the Andersons founded a coven, naming it Mahaelani, after the Hawaiian word for the full moon. Throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Andersons initiated a number of individuals into the coven. One of these was Gwydion Pendderwen, a friend of their son who shared their interest in the esoteric. Pendderwen contributed to the development of what came to be known as the Feri tradition, with some members of the lineage viewing him as its co-founder. Pendderwen noted that he had first met the family when, aged thirteen, he got into a fight with Victor Elon, although the two later became friends. Pendderwen was particularly influenced by Welsh mythology, and on a visit to Britain he spent time with the Alexandrian Wiccans Alex Sanders and Stewart Farrar, subsequently introducing various Alexandrian elements into Feri Wicca. In the early 1970s, the Andersons established a new coven with Pendderwen and his initiate, Alison Harlow. After Pendderwen married, his wife also joined this coven, although it disbanded in 1974.
Anderson's teaching
Over the next four decades, the Andersons would initiate between twenty-five and thirty people into their tradition.
Anderson has been described as one of the "founding teachers" and the "seminal voice" of the Feri tradition, although – according to Feri initiate Storm Faerywolf – he preferred to refer to himself as "Grand Master and a fairy chief". The original word that the Andersons used for their tradition was Vicia, "pronounced as in Italian." She added that "the name Fairy became accidentally attached to our tradition because Victor so often mentioned that word in speaking of nature spirits and Celtic magic". Early initiates alternately spelled the name of the tradition as Fairy, Faery, or Faerie, although Anderson began using the spelling Feri during the 1990s to differentiate it from other witchcraft traditions of the same name; not all practitioners followed his example. Cora claimed that Feri was the word's original spelling, adding that it meant "the things of magic". Anderson also referred to his form of Wicca as the Pictish tradition. In their writing, the Andersons mixed terminology adopted from Huna, Gardnerian Wicca, and Voodoo, believing that all reflected the same underlying magico-religious tradition. It drew heavily upon the huna system developed by Max Freedom Long. According to one Feri initiate, Corvia Blackthorn:
"The Andersons' teaching method was very informal. There were no classes in an academic sense, only conversations and the occasional ritual, usually followed by a home-cooked meal. Discussions with Victor were non-linear and overflowing with information. Someone once aptly remarked that talking to Victor was like to trying to drink from a fire hose. Often the connecting threads and underlying patterns in the information didn't become apparent until later on. There was also a non-verbal component to Victor's teaching. He was a true shaman, and had the ability to shift the consciousness of his students on a level well below the surface of conversation."
According to Kelly:
"Studying with Victor presented some unusual problems. He demanded as much respect as any working-class grandfather might. One could ask for clarification, but to even hint that one disagreed with him, or worse yet, to contradict him, would result in an immediate and permanent order to leave. One was tempted to ask such forbidden questions because Victor lived in mythic time and was totally uninterested in other people's concepts of logic or consistency ... Another student told me that when Victor read a new book and believed it was true, then he considered it to have always been true and would rethink his history accordingly."
According to one initiate, Jim Schuette, Anderson was "a taskmaster. He took pride in testing his students."
One of those initiated into the Anderson's Feri tradition was Starhawk, who incorporated ideas from the Feri tradition when creating Reclaiming. She also included aspects from it in her 1979 book, The Spiral Dance, including mention of the Iron and Pearl Pentagram and the three souls, all of which originated within Feri Wicca.
Another prominent initiate was Gabriel Carillo (Caradoc ap Cador), who in the late 1970s developed a written body of Feri teachings, and began offering paid classes in the tradition in the 1980s, generating the Bloodrose lineage; doing so generated controversy among Feri initiates, with critics believing that it was morally wrong to charge for teaching.
Poetry and final years
In 1970 Anderson privately published Thorns of the Blood Rose, which contained poems that he had authored over the previous 25 years. He stated that "every poem is a love letter to the Goddess". Money to publish the book had come from Cora's savings, with sales barely covering the costs of publication, so a second printing was not possible at that time.
In 1975, this book received the Clover International Poetry Competition Award, and in 1980 it was republished by Pendderwen, who also put some of Anderson's poems to music for his own 1975 album, Songs for the Old Religion. Anderson also contributed work to Pagan magazines like Witch Eye, Green Egg, and Nemeton. Anderson had assembled a group of poems to be published as a second book, released posthumously as Lilith's Garden in 2005.
To honor her fiftieth wedding anniversary, in 1994 Cora authored a book titled Fifty Years in the Feri Tradition, deeming it a tribute to her husband. It has been termed "the definitive written work on Feri thealogy and thought". In 1998, Cora had a stroke and was left largely bedridden by its effects.
At the time of his death, he was still running a coven, which was known as Nostos or Blue Circle. He died at his home on September 20, 2001. He was survived by his wife, son, and various grandchildren and great-grandchildren. Cora then appointed a woman named Anaar, or April Niino, to be the new Grandmaster of the Feri tradition in summer 2003. The tradition itself survived, with various publications appearing that discussed the practice of magic from a Feri perspective.
Teachings
Anderson's Feri Wicca tradition theistically revolved around a Goddess, who was named Mari after the Basque folkloric character. In Feri theology, Mari was accompanied by a male consort, a Horned God named Krom. Krom was also viewed as a union of two separate entities, the Divine Twins. Cora claimed that the Goddess had created these Twins, "not because she had to have male help, but because in her divine lust she desired them".
According to Anderson, the name Mari meant "mother of water", and he described both Mari and Krom as having been the deity names of "the tiny dark aborigines of Scotland, Ireland, and the ancient British Isles". The God was also referred to as Melek Taus. He stressed the view that these deities were real entities, rather than Jungian archetypes, the latter being a view that had been espoused by other Pagans.
Systems of morality in Feri revolved largely around the idea of kala; Cora stated that this term was borrowed from the Hawaiian language and that it meant "keep[ing] oneself clean and bright and free from complexes within and without".
Cora stated that the Feri tradition had "a code of honor and sexual morality which is as tough and demanding as the Bushido of Japan and of Shinto". She added that while Christian missionaries would understand Feri as a "sex cult", "we do not behave like a bunch of slavering mad dogs in heat". Initiation into Feri was a sexual act, and according to Cora "in initiation you literally marry the Goddess, her dual consort and the Gods, whether you are male or female". It involved a male priest giving the female initiate the names of the God and Goddess upon orgasm. If the female initiate was already betrothed to another, or did otherwise not wish to have intercourse with the priest, then a ritual known as the Intentions of the Heart took place. In this, her next sexual act with another person would be considered her initiation. When a female initiated a male, there was a similarly sexual component although according to Cora, "there are some important differences".
The Andersons taught that there were three parts of the soul, with Doyle White believing that they had adopted this belief from those of Hawaii. Cora stated that the first part of the soul inhabited "the etheric body or double", surrounding and penetrating the physical body, extending about 2 cm from human flesh and colored either "a misty blue-gray" or "a lovely electric pink". According to her, the second part of the soul inhabited the aura and extended 8 to 9 inches from the physical body. She believed that the third part of the soul was "the Godself" and lived in the top of the aura, appearing as a blue, white or gold ball of light. The Andersons also expressed a belief in reincarnation, believing that the allocation of one's future births were organized by karma. They taught that between incarnations, a soul could travel to one of nine etheric globes surrounding the Earth, in which existed "well-defined classes of nature spirits" which included gnomes, sylphs, undines, and salamanders.
Cora described Feri as the "direct survival of old Stone Age religion", reflecting a trend within the Wiccan community for retaining faith in the witch-cult hypothesis long after it was academically discredited by historians. The Andersons believed that the Witchcraft religion had emerged in Africa and been spread throughout the world, believing that Feri Wicca was essentially the same as Sami indigenous religion, Voudou, and Santeria. She believed that the ritual tools of "the Craft" were "very much alike throughout the world in both time and place". She listed the ritual tools as an athame "to raise or focus power", a binding cord for use in "ritual liberation and unbinding", as well as a scourge "to raise power", although the latter was never used to whip human beings. A chalice is used in rituals, symbolizing "the yoni female receptacle of the life force", with an accompanying stone or wax phallus which is sometimes dipped into the chalice during rituals. A stone or wooden egg "honors the cosmic egg which God held in her womb". Cora stated that in their rituals "power is raised and used in magic operations for the good of our human race, our ecology, or for necessary martial purposes".
According to Adler, Anderson had "a very poetic way of looking at the world". Alison Harlow had informed her that Anderson's claims about his origins often changed, with Doyle White commenting that "Anderson believed that the telling of spiritual 'truths' through stories was more important than factual accounts of the past".
Anderson described Feri witchcraft as "a devotional science", and his wife called him "an Einstein of the occult". Cora claimed that the couple were "scientists in the truest sense".
Adler noted that some of the "hallmarks" of the Feri tradition were its "shamanic practices and sexual mysticism". It only involved one initiation. There is no set book of liturgy in the tradition, with teachings being passed down orally.
Practitioner Storm Faerywolf noted that "the Feri tradition is less about specific practices and more about energetic experience".
Bibliography
References
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
Witchvox obituaries
"Feri FAQ" by Valerie Walker
"So, just what is the Feri tradition?" by Niklas Gander
"The Faery Tradition" by Anna Korn
"The Faery Tradition: an interview with Andraste" by Leah Samul
1917 births
2001 deaths
American accordionists
American modern pagans
American occultists
Poets from New Mexico
American blind people
Feri Tradition
Modern pagan religious leaders
20th-century occultists
People from Union County, New Mexico
20th-century American poets
People from Wichita County, Texas
Modern pagan poets
20th-century accordionists
Blind poets
American writers with disabilities |
4503630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Define%20the%20Great%20Line | Define the Great Line | Define the Great Line is the fifth studio album by American rock band Underoath. It was released on June 20, 2006, through Tooth & Nail Records. Five months after the release of their fourth studio album They're Only Chasing Safety, the band were already in the process of working towards its follow-up. Recording took place between January and March 2006 at Zing Recording Studios in Westfield, Massachusetts, and Glow in the Dark Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, with Adam Dutkiewicz of Killswitch Engage, Matt Goldman and the band as producers. Define the Great Line is predominantly a metalcore and emo album, which has also been tagged as Christian metal, post-metal and post-hardcore. The variety of styles was an unintentional move by the band, who took influence from At the Drive-In, Beloved and Cult of Luna, among others.
Preceded by festival appearances and a headlining tour in the United States, "Writing on the Walls" was released as the first single from Define the Great Line on June 27, 2006. Underoath headlined the main stage of Warped Tour, though dropped off because of tension within the band. They toured Central and South America and Canada, prior to joining the international edition of the Taste of Chaos tour. "In Regards to Myself" appeared as the second single in the midst of this on November 27, 2006, followed by the third single "You're Ever So Inviting" on January 23, 2007. Underoath spent the first half of the year touring the North America with Taking Back Sunday, Norma Jean, and Maylene and the Sons of Disaster. They appeared on Warped Tour again, and closed the year with another headlining US tour, which saw drummer Aaron Gillespie temporarily replaced by Kenny Bozich.
Define the Great Line received generally favorable reviews from music critics, many of whom highlighted the various musical styles, and praised Spencer Chamberlain for his growth as a vocalist. The album peaked at number two on the Billboard 200, becoming the highest charting Christian release on said chart since 1997. It was certified gold in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America by the end of 2006; the music video for "Writing on the Walls" was nominated for a 2007 Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video. Define the Great Line has been re-pressed on vinyl and performed in its entirety over the years.
Background and recording
Underoath released their fourth studio album They're Only Chasing Safety in June 2004 through Solid State Records. By November 2004, the band had started writing new material for their next album. In April 2005, Underoath had around six new songs, and were performing one of them live around this time. They wrote while on tour; in between treks, they practiced together and recorded demos. Around this time, the band expressed a desire to work with another producer other than James Wisner, who had worked on their preceding three albums. Alongside this, they mentioned that the new songs they had were heavier than their past work and were influenced by the work of Codeseven. In September 2005, they announced that they would be recording their next album in early 2006. Despite being courted by major labels for a few months, they opted to sign with Solid State's parent company Tooth & Nail Records. Drummer Aaron Gillespie said they had better distribution, while vocalist Spencer Chamberlain said that both Solid State and Tooth & Nail shared the same mailing list.
By this point, They're Only Chasing Safety had sold close to 500,000 copies in the United States, selling at a rate of 4,500 per week. Underoath closed out 2005 playing a four-date tour dubbed Come & Live; profits from each show benefitted a separate charity. The shows led into the recording sessions for the band's next album. Define the Great Line was recorded at Zing Recording Studios in Westfield, Massachusetts, and Glow in the Dark, Atlanta, Georgia, with Adam Dutkiewicz of Killswitch Engage, Matt Goldman and the band serving as producers. Dutkiewicz had seen the band live before, and was aware of the sound they were attempting to get. Chamberlain said they had been looking for someone to capture their sound better, which he said was not well-represented on They're Only Chasing Safety. They entered the studios with 19 songs written, which they planned to pare down to 10 or 11. Dutkiewicz pushed the band to toy with different delay and effects pedals. Sessions began in January 2006 and wrapped up two months later in March 2006. Chris Lord-Alge, with assistance from Keith Armstrong, mixed the recordings at Resonate Music in Burbank, California, before the album was mastered by Tom Baker at Precision Mastering in Los Angeles, California.
Composition and lyrics
Musical style
While most commonly cited as metalcore and emo, the sound of Define the Great Line has also been tagged as Christian metal, post-metal and post-hardcore. Indie Vision Music Brandon J. noted influences Beloved, the Chariot and Maylene and the Sons of Disaster, while Chamberlain highlighted At the Drive-In and Glassjaw. The album's slower parts recalled the work of Cult of Luna and Isis. It abandoned the pop choruses of the They're Only Chasing Safety and instead demonstrated a heavier and more eclectic range of styles. The band themselves said that the heavier style was "nothing super intentional, they [the songs] just came out that way when we went to write". Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms described the album as "an impressively versatile project where metal riffs and emo breakdowns, screamo noise and memorable hooks collide in a veritable sonic feast," and AllMusic described the band as finding the centre point between "throat-shredding grindcore and My Chemical Romance/From Autumn to Ashes-style emo-punk". Chamberlain explained that he switched from a higher pitched scream to a lower pitched one as it felt more natural for him.
Define the Great Line was noted as a turning point for Underoath, with AllMusic commenting that "while the tendency to dissolve into the abyss of angtsy emo-pop was still there," there was a "darkness lurking in the nooks and crannies between the crackling snare hits and heavy 'drop-d' riffing" that would be fully realized on their sixth studio album Lost in the Sound of Separation (2008). Alternative Press mentioned that the band had updated its "early, brutal style with weird time changes and post-metal ambience". Andree Farias of The Fish said the album" not only redefines the sound of Underoath, but also has the potential of redefining the hardcore emo genre". Brandon J. said the guitarwork was "merciless and somewhat chaotic, and the vocals range from the usual middle to high screams all the way to a deep and very powerful growl".
Title and lyrical themes
The title of the album, according to keyboardist Christopher Dudley, comes from "defining that line for yourself between becoming the man or the woman that you want to be and the man or the woman other people want you to be". Aaron Burgess of Alternative Press used the title as an example of how on this album Underoath seemed "acutely aware of the line that separates their spiritual core from the painful reality of being human," and how "even successful musicians need help staying on the right side of that line".
For its lyrics, the band maintained its focus on Christianity and personal struggles, and according to Josh Taylor of Jesus Freak Hideout the big difference was "the frequency at which God is addressed by name," though all of these mentions were in "exclamations of desperation". The main lyrical themes of the album expressed pain, weariness, and frustration, "but not without the awareness that things need to change". These themes were praised by AllMusic reviewer James Christopher Monger, which stated that "while Underoath explore their faith with both reverence and suspicion, something that sets them apart from the polarizing righteousness of many CCM acts, their crossover potential remains huge, as the prevailing themes of isolation, anger, introspection, and the quest for self-confidence are universal".
Drowned in Sound writer Raziq Rauf said there was "no reason to treat the explicitly religious content" of the release differently from other emo albums, as it "covers the same bases of heartache, frustration and the inevitable exhaustion that results". According to the band the lyrics were personal to Chamberlain, relating aspects of his life that have affected him over the years. Burgess noted Chamberlain's lyrical presence, saying that "between Chamberlain's deeply troubled writing and [...] Gillespie's, Define sounds like a group-therapy session put to tape"
Songs
The mathcore track "In Regards to Myself" opens the album, with Chamberlain expressing the rawest vocals from the band since their second studio album Cries of the Past (2000). It was reminiscent of the work of labelmates Norma Jean, with a number of dissonant guitar parts. "A Moment Suspended in Time" showcase Brandell, McTague, and Smith's contributions to the band. "There Could Be Nothing After This" deals with leaving the past behind in lieu of a life of faith. The metalcore track "You're Ever So Inviting" is followed by "Sálmarnir", a song that consists of the Bible passage Psalm 50 being recited in Russian by a friend of the members. The title comes from the Icelandic word for "Psalms"; for its second half, Dudley is head repeating it in English in the manner of a Televangelist, backed by the crowd noise. Its ambient electronica sound, powered by Dudley's keyboard parts, recalled the work of Sigur Rós.
"Returning Empty Handed" opens with a quiet instrumental passage, which gives way to a heavier section, before ending acoustically; over the course of its duration, it changes from mathcore to post-metal. The first half of "Casting Such a Thin Shadow", which moves with a space rock pace, touches on post-rock and post-metal in the style of Pelican. It is mainly instrumental until Chamberlain's voice appears four minutes in, which eventually climaxes with his screaming vocals. "Moving for the Sake of Motion" opens with a double bass roll from Gillespie, while it evokes the sound of Failure On-era (2003) Beloved; "Writing on the Walls" also takes influence from Beloved. "Everyone Looks So Good from Here" is another metalcore song. The album closes with the seven minute long "To Whom It May Concern", which features several tempo changes.
Release and promotion
On March 6, 2006, Underoath's next album was announced for release in three months' time. On April 17, 2006, the release was titled Define the Great Line, and "Sálmarnir" was posted on the band's PureVolume account, followed by "Writing on the Walls" at the end of May, and "In Regards to Myself" in June. The music video for "Writing on the Walls" premiered on MTV's Overdrive program on June 13, 2006. According to Dudley, it was influenced by 1960s theatrical films, "depict[ing] a murder mystery in a surrealistic gothic-tinged setting". Define the Great Line was made available for streaming through MTV2's website on June 15, 2006, and released a week later on June 20, 2006, through Tooth & Nail Records. A special edition included a DVD with a making-of documentary on the album. The booklet conveys the story of a man traversing through a desert landscape, who eventually hallucinates and dies. To promote it, the band appeared on MTV's T-Minus Rock and Headbangers Ball, and Fuse's Steven's Untitled Rock Show. Listening parties were held at Hot Topic stories, which was the first time in that company's history. "Writing on the Walls" was released to radio on June 27, 2006.
The music video for "In Regards to Myself" premiered through Yahoo! Music on September 12, 2006; the track was released as a single on November 27, 2006. The video is a critic on people idolizing popstars, with the band being seen partway through playing in a never-ending series of corridors. A DVD version was released that included videos for both "Writing on the Walls" and "In Regards to Myself". Both were filmed in Sweden with the production team Popcore Films; Anders Forsman handled the former, while Linus Johansson did the latter. They opted to shoot them back-to-back due to the restraints of touring. "You're Ever So Inviting" was released to radio on January 23, 2007. On May 14, 2007, the music video for "You're Ever So Inviting", which was filmed in Sweden with Popcore Films earlier in the year, was posted online. In July 2007, the band released their first video album titled 777, which included footage from the 2006 Warped Tour, Taste of Chaos and The Bamboozle Festival. On September 12, 2007, a music video was released for "A Moment Suspended in Time". It was also directed by Popcore Film and was filmed in Sweden.
Reissues and full-album performances
Define the Great Line was included in the Play Your Old Stuff: An Underoath Anthology (2011) three-CD set, alongside their third studio album The Changing of Times (2002) and They're Only Chasing Safety. Define the Great Line was packaged with They're Only Chasing Safety as a two-LP set to promote the band's Rebirth Tour in 2016, during which they performed both albums in full. Both albums were then included with Lost in the Sound of Separation as part of the Underoath Observatory (2021) vinyl box set. Coinciding this, Underoath performed all three albums in their entireties as part of the Underoath: Observatory livestream series. "In Regards to Myself", "You're Ever So Inviting", and "Writing on the Walls" were included on the band's second compilation album Anthology: 1999–2013 (2012). "In Regards to Myself" and "Writing on the Walls" were included on third compilation album Icon (2014).
Touring
Underoath appeared at the Groezrock festival in Belgium, and the Give it a Name festival in the United Kingdom in April and May 2006, respectively. They then went on a headlining US tour; Poison the Well and As Cities Burn served as main support, while Spitfire and Sincebyman appeared on select dates. The trek included an appearance at The Bamboozle festival. The band headlined the main stage of the Warped Tour, but left it in July 2006 due to issues between band members. Kerrang! reported that this was due to Fat Mike of NOFX making disparaging remarks about the band's religious beliefs. Mike claimed that Chamberlain had been doing cocaine and consuming alcohol on their tour bus, which Underoath's manager denied. Discussing it with MTV, Mike said to have made fun of several bands on the trek without issue. In an interview with Rock Sound, McTague said: "That's society as a whole; politically we cannot get along, religions cannot get along [...] We just need to come to the point where we realise everyone is not going to be like us". Dudley said they re-grouped after a few days and talked about their issues, which helped stop them from breaking up. In September 2006, Underoath went on a tour of Central and South America, which led into a Canadian tour with support from Silverstein, Moneen, and He Is Legend.
In October and November 2006, the group went on the international edition of the Taste of Chaos tour, visiting New Zealand, Australia, Japan and Europe. Between February and April 2007, the band went on a North American tour alongside Taking Back Sunday. In May 2007, the band headlined the short Dirty South Tour in the US, with support from Norma Jean, Maylene and the Sons of Disaster, and the Glass Ocean, before playing a few shows in Australia with Emery in June 2007. From early July to late August 2007, the band went on the Warped Tour. Between late September and early November, the band went on a headlining US tour with support from Every Time I Die, Maylene and the Sons of Disaster, and Poison the Well. During the Las Vegas, Nevada date of the trek, Gillespie was forced to have emergency surgery as he had contracted an infection in his hand. The Almost drummer Kenny Bozich filled for Gillespie's parts; he had been hiking around Utah when he was asked to cover for Gillespie. Bozich listened to the band's songs on the flight over, managing to make it 25 minutes before they went on stage. Chamberlain and McTague covered Gillespie's vocal sections; he re-joined Underoath four days later.
Reception
Define the Great Line was met with generally favorable reviews from music critics. It is seen as Underoath's big breakthrough into the mainstream by Cummings, while Taylor referred to it as the most anticipated album that year. Both Cummings and Taylor called the album the best hardcore album of the year; Taylor giving the album a near-perfect rating and Cummings gave it a perfect score.
The Kern County Kid of HM called the album "nearly perfect," stating that it was "like one harsh line in the sand that dares its audience to embrace the band on its own terms". Monger described Define the Great Line as a "mammoth production that exemplifies how far Christian metal has come since the days of Stryper and Bloodgood", and called it "blistering and occasionally majestic". Taylor saw it as a release which "somehow still contains the accessibility of their last effort, but kicks everything up a notch". Farias said it said the album "sounds huge, far removed from the tamer and thinner feel of its predecessor" as "every component of the Underoath machine is amplified a hundredfold". Rock Hard Boris Kaiser noted that the band have "become a whole lot angrier and more violent" than with They're Only chasing Safety. Doug Van Pelt of CCM Magazine said the band "topped itself with an engaging, high quality album" as Goldman and Dutkiewixz "helped the band expand its sound". Spin reviewer Nick Catucci said the new album "adds an extra dose of melody to the dual-guitar, scream-and-sing attack".
Burgess said Chamberlain's stage presence was "fully realized here" as his "throat-shedding roar distinguishes much of Define". He added that Gillespie acts as the "beautiful melodic counterpart to Chamberlain's crushing heaviness". Sputnikmusic staff member John Hanson said Chamberlain used to be an "atrocious screamer", and with the new album, "he has improved somewhat", while Gillespie was a "far more enjoyable vocalist to listen to, even though he could possibly be a tad bit generic". Cummings praised Chamberlain's "stunning repertoire of guttural growls, smooth emoting and nerve-jangling screams". Rauf lambasted Chamberlain's "holier-than-thou preaches" that were in "fewer spurts and shrieks that we're used to," as he used a "greater range of impressive roars and screams" to convey them. Fish was thankful that Chamberlain was "no longer an indiscriminate, undecipherable yeller," but instead a "versatile vocalist" that can bounce "impeccably between feral shrieks, bestial growls, and melodic tones". Punknews.org staff member Brian Shultz noted that there was less singing than with the previous album, "thus providing a nice dynamic as opposed to a chorus".
Define the Great Line debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 charts, selling over 98,000 copies in its first week. It became the highest-charting Christian release since You Light Up My Life: Inspirational Songs by LeAnn Rimes reached the top spot in 1997. Alongside this, it had the biggest first-week sales of any release on Tooth & Nail Records. Define the Great Line was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in November 2006 for selling 500,000 copies. "Writing on the Walls" was nominated for a 2007 Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video. In 2017, Loudwire ranked the album 24th on its list of the "25 Greatest Metalcore albums of all-time". Kerang listed Define the Great Line as one of the “21 Greatest Metalcore Albums of All-Time,” specifically highlighting Chamberlin’s “lacerating, confessional vocals” and Gillespie’s “melodic style” drumming.
Track listing
Lyrics by Spencer Chamberlain and Aaron Gillespie, music by Underoath.
Personnel
Personnel per booklet, except where noted.
Underoath
Spencer Chamberlain – unclean vocals
James Smith – guitar
Timothy McTague – guitar
Grant Brandell – bass guitar
Christopher Dudley – keyboards
Aaron Gillespie – drums, clean vocals
Production and design
Adam Dutkiewicz – producer
Matt Goldman – producer
Underoath – producer
Chris Lord-Alge – mixing
Keith Armstrong – assistant
Chandler Owen – art direction, packaging
Jeff Gros – photography
Tom Baker – mastering
Charts
Certifications
References
Citations
Sources
2006 albums
Underoath albums
Tooth & Nail Records albums
Albums produced by Adam Dutkiewicz
Post-metal albums |
4503815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/ARC-5 | AN/ARC-5 | The AN/ARC-5 Command Radio Set is a series of radio receivers, transmitters, and accessories carried aboard U.S. Navy aircraft during World War II and for some years afterward. It is described as "a complete multi-channel radio transmitting and receiving set providing communication and navigation facilities for aircraft. The LF-MF-HF components are designed to transmit and receive voice, tone-modulated, and continuous wave (cw) signals." Its flexible design provided AM radiotelephone voice communication and Modulated continuous wave (MCW) and Continuous wave (CW) Morse code modes, all of which are typical capabilities in other Navy aircraft communication sets of the period. It was an improvement of the Navy's ARA/ATA command set. Similar units designated SCR-274-N were used in U.S. Army aircraft. The Army set is based on the ARA/ATA, not the later AN/ARC-5. The ARA/ATA and SCR-274-N series are informally referred to as "ARC-5", despite small differences that render all three series incompatible. Like the AN/ARC-5, the ARA/ATA and SCR-274-N had AM voice communication and two-way MCW and CW Morse code capability.
History
The AN/ARC-5 command set was used by the US Navy from the latter part of World War II into the post-war era. It was fitted in many different aircraft types for communication between aircraft, navigation, and communication back to base. Units were available that covered much of the MF, HF, and VHF spectrum. Despite the use of octal base vacuum tubes, they were compact, rugged and light weight. Many became surplus after the war and were often converted for amateur radio use. The term 'ARC-5', while correctly applied to the AN/ARC-5 series, has also come to be a generic, though incorrect, term for the ARA/ATA and SCR-274-N command set units, including those designed by the Aircraft Radio Corporation in the late 1930s.
The antecedent of the AN/ARC-5 system was the U.S. Navy's ARA/ATA system, initially deployed in 1940. The designations ARA and ATA are a pre-World War II Navy equipment nomenclature. The major units of the ARA are five receivers covering 0.19 to 9.1 MHz, each unit with its own dynamotor power supply. The major units of the ATA are five transmitters covering 2.1 to 9.1 MHz, using a common transmitter dynamotor/screen modulator unit. Most units were made by the Aircraft Radio Corporation (USN manufacturer's code CBY). Many units were also made by Stromberg-Carlson (USN manufacturer's code CCT).
To equip US Army Air Corps planes, the US Army adopted in 1941 a reduced set of radios from the ARA/ATA range. Designated SCR-274-N, these Army radios were electrically almost identical to their ARA/ATA counterparts, except for receiver output and modulator sidetone audio transformer output impedance. Structurally and in appearance, they were virtually identical except for most later units being left unpainted aluminum in contrast to the black wrinkle finish of the Navy sets. The designation SCR-274-N is a pre-World War II Army equipment nomenclature. The Army never acquired the ARA 1.5 to 3.0 MHz receiver, nor the ATA 2.1 to 3.0 MHz transmitter. Initially, it did not acquire the 3.0 to 4.0 MHz transmitter, nor the 0.52 to 1.5 MHz receiver, but the need to communicate on the common civil airfield frequency of 3.105 MHz plus the anticipated USAAF use of the AN/ARR-1 homing adapter (see below) compelled adding these units to the SCR-274-N. Early Army units were made by Aircraft Radio Corporation, but the vast majority was made by Western Electric, plus a few by Colonial Radio and others.
In late 1943, the U.S. Navy fielded an improved and more flexible set of its ARA/ATA radios under the new Joint Army-Navy (JAN) nomenclature of AN/ARC-5. Structurally and in appearance, the AN/ARC5 series is almost identical to the former units but both receivers and transmitters are somewhat different electrically. A receiver and transmitter were added that provide four-channel crystal-controlled VHF-AM operation, along with a rarely encountered set of transmitters that provide coverage of 0.5 to 2.1 MHz.
The main units of both the Navy and the Army systems were usually installed in three-receiver racks and two-transmitter racks. Units not in service could be stored on board the aircraft, just as one would store tuning units of other types of radio equipment.
Specifications
The following is a table of ARA/ATA, SCR-274-N, and AN/ARC-5 major components that could comprise a typical three-receiver, two-transmitter installation, with other configurations also being possible. In addition, several miscellaneous components are listed. A blank in the component ID column indicates that no equivalent unit existed for that system. A.R.C. refers to Aircraft Radio Corporation.
Notes:
(1)Also component of RAV system. (2)Also component of RAT system. (3)Also component of RAT-1 and RAV systems.
(*) A (basic model) or B (1st revision). (#) No letter (basic model) or A (revision).
(@) A (basic model) or AM (field modified to remove vacuum capacitor).
LF/MF/HF receivers all use an almost identical 6-tube superhet design: r.f. amplifier (12SK7), converter (12K8), two i.f. stages (two 12SK7's(4), or 12SK7/12SF7(5)), diode detector/BFO (12SR7), and one audio stage (12A6). Transmitters use four tubes: 1626 oscillator, two 1625 finals, and 1629 magic-eye tuning. The latter allows a check of the dial calibration by giving a visual indication, viewable by raising a small cover, when the oscillator's frequency matches that of an internal crystal.
(4)ARA and SCR-274-N. (5)AN/ARC-5.
Compatibility between systems
Audio frequency receiver output and modulator sidetone impedance for the ARA/ATA and the AN/ARC-5 is 300 to 600 ohms. In the SCR-274-N "-A" version, the receiver and modulator impedance is 4000 ohms, while "-B" and later version units have a 250 ohm tap on the AF transformers which can be connected.
ARA/ATA units and equivalent SCR-274-N units are interchangeable between systems, aside from audio impedance differences. However, AN/ARC-5 units generally are not interchangeable with the units of the earlier systems.
In contrast to ARA and SCR-274-N receivers, all AN/ARC-5 receivers have automatic volume control and a modified tube complement. The AN/ARC-5 navigation receivers have terminals and a switch to connect a DU-series direction finding loop to the receiver, and have a special audio line for an MX-19/ARC-5 adapter to allow the receiver to serve as an LF/MF localizer for the Navy's short-lived AN/ARN-9 Air-Track (related to ZA, ZAX) instrument landing system. These two capabilities were rarely if ever utilized. Otherwise, equivalent receivers of all three systems can interchange as a unit.
Few transmitter components of the AN/ARC-5 are interchangeable with ATA or SCR-274-N equivalent units. Mechanically, the transmitter rear power connector is slightly different, so inserting the wrong transmitter in a rack can damage either the rack or the transmitter power connector. Electrically, AN/ARC-5 transmitters use high-level final amplifier plate modulation, and the output tank circuit is shunt high voltage fed. The two earlier systems use less effective screen modulation, and the output circuit is series high voltage fed. The only electrical components of the AN/ARC-5 transmitter system that are interchangeable with the earlier systems are the dynamotor and the antenna relay.
Unlike earlier systems, none of the AN/ARC-5 control boxes have audio jacks for the microphone, headphone, or key. A separate jack box is used instead. AN/ARC-5 transmitter control boxes contain no Morse key.
Homing adaptors and VHF
The broadcast band receiver in all of these command sets is intended to host a homing adapter for the Navy ZB/YE homing system. The homing adapter demodulates a signal near 246 MHz that is modulated with a broadcast band carrier. The output is sent to the broadcast band receiver tuned to the modulating frequency to further demodulate the carrier for voice messages or for a Morse code letter indicating to the pilot his bearing from the homing transmitter. All broadcast band receivers came with a power adapter to supply power to the homing adapter. The adapter under the Navy nomenclature system is the ZB-series. The identical unit under JAN nomenclature is the AN/ARR-1. This system was used by both the Navy extensively and the Army much less so. To put the system into operation on the aircraft, the beacon band receiver would be replaced in the rack by the broadcast band receiver. The antenna post is connected to the output of the homing adapter, and a power cable is connected from the homing adapter to the broadcast band receiver. The normal control that had been used for the beacon band receiver also serves this homing system without further reconfiguration.
Western Electric developed the AN/ARR-2, an all-in-one homing receiver that replaced the broadcast band receiver and external homing adapter and had other enhancements as well. The R-4A/ARR-2 uses the same dynamotor as the AN/ARC-5 sets, fits in the same racks, and can be controlled by special AN/ARC-5 control boxes. The AN/ARR-2 replaced the earlier R-24/ARC-5 and R-1/ARR-1 combo in AN/ARC-5 installations.
Western Electric developed a four-channel crystal-controlled VHF-AM receiver and transmitter for the U.S. Army's SCR-274-N system. The Army did not adopt these VHF components to any extent because of the move to a common British/American VHF capability in the form of the Bendix SCR-522 VHF-AM set. That remained Army policy until the arrival of the AN/ARC-3. The Navy adopted modified versions of the Western Electric units as the R-28/ARC-5 receiver and T-23/ARC-5 transmitter. The T-126/ARC-5 is a late variant of the T-23 which allowed the four channels to be grouped in a 100 to 146 MHz tuning range, smaller than the T-23's.
Typical configuration
A typical installation of ARA/ATA or SCR-274-N sets would consist of a 3.0 to 6.0 MHz, a .19 to .55 MHz, and a 6.0 to 9.1 MHz receiver in a three-unit rack. Any two transmitters covering the desired frequency ranges would be in the transmitter rack. The two transmitters would be fixed-tuned before take-off, with the pilot able to select the desired transmitter and control the mode (Voice, MCW, CW) at the transmitter control box. The receivers were tuned at the pilot's control box by electrical cables and long mechanical tuning shafts, allowing remote control of power, mode, frequency, and volume.
AN/ARC-5 set composition and control differed markedly from the earlier systems. Three-unit receiver racks were still predominant, but the receiver line-up was quite different. One receiver would usually be a R-4A homing receiver, another the VHF R-28/ARC-5, and the last an MF/HF communication receiver. The transmitter rack would hold a VHF T-23/ARC-5 and an MF/HF transmitter corresponding to the MF/HF receiver. Frequency-stabilized versions of the AN/ARC-5 communications receivers usually have a yellow circle-S stamped on the front panel. Such receivers were not remotely tuned by the pilot, but were instead lock-tuned to the associated transmitter's frequency before take-off. AN/ARC-5 navigation receivers are not so stabilized, and if installed in the rack a control that allows remote tuning is required.
Because of these characteristics, AN/ARC-5 close equivalents to the control boxes of the ARA/ATA and SCR-274-N are rare or never existed. The most common AN/ARC-5 receiver remote control box is the C-38/ARC-5, which allows control only of audio volume of the VHF and MF/HF receivers. No power, mode, or frequency controls are present. The C-38 also has controls for the R-4A homing receiver. A common AN/ARC-5 transmitter control box C-30A/ARC-5 has controls for selecting the MF/HF transmitter or the VHF transmitter, and a switch to select the channel for both the VHF transmitter and receiver. Mode controls are normally set for voice and covered.
The typical AN/ARC-5 three-receiver, two-transmitter installation reflects system capabilities that are quite sophisticated compared to the earlier systems, allowing VHF homing, four channel VHF-AM communications, and one channel MF/HF-AM communications. All unnecessary controls have been eliminated to simplify operation of this more capable system.
Aircraft Radio Corporation, along with Stromberg-Carlson, made most AN/ARC-5 units except for the Western Electric VHF units.
Legacy
The AN/ARC-5 certainly represents the climax development of the pre-war MF/HF command set. But its VHF AN/ARC-5 set and the AN/ARR-2 homing adapter presaged a move toward higher frequencies. During World War II, the Navy began a slow movement toward VHF-AM for command functions in theaters where it made sense, beginning with the Western Electric WE-233A commercial airline set which was later re-designated the AN/ARC-4. By 1943 they began deploying their own AN/ARC-1 ten-channel VHF-AM set in increasing numbers, but hedged their bets with the AN/ARC-5 VHF sets in certain aircraft. This experimentation even caused them to contract for and officially nomenclature a continuously tunable AN/ARC-5 VHF capability from Aircraft Radio Corporation for evaluation purposes, shown in the above chart, but by that time (latter part of 1944) channelized equipment became the preferred technology to reduce aircrew "fiddling" with controls, so it was not pursued beyond the evaluation quantities. By late war, the discovery of "ducting" in the lower VHF band (that allowed Japanese tactical radio intercepts over long distances under certain conditions) drove development of the AN/ARC-12 (UHF version of the AN/ARC-1) and AN/ARC-27 sets in currently-used UHF-AM military aircraft band. However, it is important to understand that this gradual movement to VHF was not accomplished overnight, and there were still pockets of documented HF command set employment through war's end, especially in smaller aircraft.
In terms of longevity, the AN/ARR-2 continued into service well into the 1950s, and the beacon band R-23A/ARC-5 receiver was still to be found in some older US Navy aircraft as late as the 1970s.
Amateur radio use
After World War II, surplus HF receivers and transmitters of the AN/ARC-5 family were extensively used in amateur radio stations. According to CQ magazine publisher Wayne Green, they first appeared for public purchase in March 1947, with thousands eventually becoming available, making them "by far the most popular surplus item to appear on the market." Green's magazine alone published some 47 articles on converting command sets to amateur use over the following 10 years, reprinting them in a compendium in 1957. Interest has continued into the 21st century.
Other users
The T-16 and T-17 transmitters which operated in the standard broadcast band were very hard to find on the surplus market but were used by some as low power "pirate" AM stations with the addition of a modulation transformer in the B+ line and a suitable audio amplifier which was a 50 watt PA, guitar, or 'HI-FI home entertainment amplifier. The tuning system would allow the rig to be loaded into almost any kind of vertical or dipole antenna for neighborhood and beyond AM broadcasting. The on air fidelity of the unit was very good.
One T-17 was used on 1580 by three different operators at three different locations in the Chicago suburbs as a pirate station in the 1960s with the local FCC office raiding each station at its location. The last raided operator repurposed the ARC5 as a driver for an ultrasonic nebulizer.
Gallery
See also
AN/ART-13
AN/ARR-11 (BC-348)
References
Further reading
NavAER 08-5Q-95 Handbook of OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS for MODEL AN/ARC-5 Aircraft Radio Equipment, 21 February 1944
AN 16-30ARC5-2, Handbook of MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS for MODEL AN/ARC-5 Aircraft Radio Equipment VOLUME 1 LF MF HF Components, 15 December 1954
AN 08-10-195, Handbook of MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS for MODEL AN/ARC-5 Aircraft Radio Equipment VOLUME 2 VHF Components, 10 April 1945
NavAER 08-5Q-261, Handbook of OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS for MODEL AN/ARR-2 Aircraft Radio Equipment, 1 May 1944
AN 16-30ARR2-2, Handbook of MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS for MODEL AN/ARR-2 Aircraft Radio Equipment, 1 May 1954
TO 12R2-3SCR274-2, Handbook, MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS, RADIO SET SCR-274-N, 25 July 1956
External links
Identifying Command Set "ARC-5" Transmitters
Military radio systems of the United States
World War II American electronics
Military electronics of the United States
Aircraft stations
Military equipment introduced from 1940 to 1944 |
4503966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design%20thinking | Design thinking | Design thinking refers to the set of cognitive, strategic and practical procedures used by designers in the process of designing, and to the body of knowledge that has been developed about how people reason when engaging with design problems.
Design thinking is also associated with prescriptions for the innovation of products and services within business and social contexts.
Background
Design thinking has a history extending from the 1950s and '60s, with roots in the study of design cognition and design methods. It has also been referred to as "designerly ways of knowing, thinking and acting" and as "designerly thinking". Many of the key concepts and aspects of design thinking have been identified through studies, across different design domains, of design cognition and design activity in both laboratory and natural contexts.
The term design thinking has been used to refer to a specific cognitive style (thinking like a designer), a general theory of design (a way of understanding how designers work), and a set of pedagogical resources (through which organisations or inexperienced designers can learn to approach complex problems in a designerly way). The different uses have given rise to some confusion in the use of the term.
As a process of designing
An iterative, non-linear process, design thinking includes activities such as context analysis, user testing, problem finding and framing, ideation and solution generating, creative thinking, sketching and drawing, prototyping, and evaluating.
Core features of design thinking include the abilities to:
deal with different types of design problems, especially ill-defined and 'wicked' problems
adopt solution-focused strategies
use abductive and productive reasoning
employ non-verbal, graphic/spatial modelling media, for example, sketching and prototyping.
Wicked problems
Designing deals with design problems that can be categorized on a spectrum of types of problems from well-defined problems to ill-defined ones to problems that are wickedly difficult. In the 2010s, the category of super wicked global problems emerged as well. Wicked problems have features such as no definitive formulation, no true/false solution, and a wide discrepancy between differing perspectives on the situation. Horst Rittel introduced the term in the context of design and planning, and with Melvin Webber contrasted this problem type with well-defined or "tame" cases where the problem is clear and the solution available through applying rules or technical knowledge. Rittel contrasted a formal rationalistic "first generation" of design methods in the 1950s and 1960s against the need for a participatory and informally argumentative "second generation" of design methods for the 1970s and beyond that would be more adequate for the complexity of wicked problems.
Problem framing
Rather than accept the problem as given, designers explore the given problem and its context and may re-interpret or restructure the given problem in order to reach a particular framing of the problem that suggests a route to a solution.
Solution-focused thinking
In empirical studies of three-dimensional problem solving, Bryan Lawson found architects employed solution-focused cognitive strategies, distinct from the problem-focused strategies of scientists. Nigel Cross suggests that "Designers tend to use solution conjectures as the means of developing their understanding of the problem".
Abductive reasoning
In the creation of new design proposals, designers have to infer possible solutions from the available problem information, their experience, and the use of non-deductive modes of thinking such as the use of analogies. This has been interpreted as a form of Peirce's abductive reasoning, called innovative abduction.
Co-evolution of problem and solution
In the process of designing, the designer's attention typically oscillates between their understanding of the problematic context and their ideas for a solution in a process of co-evolution of problem and solution. New solution ideas can lead to a deeper or alternative understanding of the problematic context, which in turn triggers more solution ideas.
Representations and modelling
Conventionally, designers communicate mostly in visual or object languages to translate abstract requirements into concrete objects. These 'languages' include traditional sketches and drawings but also extend to computer models and physical prototypes. The use of representations and models is closely associated with features of design thinking such as the generation and exploration of tentative solution concepts, the identification of what needs to be known about the developing concept, and the recognition of emergent features and properties within the representations.
As a process for innovation
A five-phase description of the design innovation process is offered by Plattner, Meinel, and Leifer as: (re)defining the problem, needfinding and benchmarking, ideating, building, and testing. Plattner, Meinel, and Leifer state: "While the stages are simple enough, the adaptive expertise required to choose the right inflection points and appropriate next stage is a high order intellectual activity that requires practice and is learnable."
The process may also be thought of as a system of overlapping spaces rather than a sequence of orderly steps: inspiration, ideation, and implementation. Projects may loop back through inspiration, ideation, and implementation more than once as the team refines its ideas and explores new directions.
Inspiration
Generally, the design innovation process starts with the inspiration phase: observing how things and people work in the real world and noticing problems or opportunities. These problem formulations can be documented in a brief which includes constraints that gives the project team a framework from which to begin, benchmarks by which they can measure progress, and a set of objectives to be realized, such as price point, available technology, and market segment.
Empathy
In their book Creative Confidence, Tom and David Kelley note the importance of empathy with clients, users, and customers as a basis for innovative design. Designers approach user research with the goal of understanding their wants and needs, what might make their life easier and more enjoyable and how technology can be useful for them. Empathic design transcends physical ergonomics to include understanding the psychological and emotional needs of people—the way they do things, why and how they think and feel about the world, and what is meaningful to them.
Ideation: divergent and convergent thinking
Ideation is idea generation. The process is characterized by the alternation of divergent and convergent thinking, typical of design thinking process.
To achieve divergent thinking, it may be important to have a diverse group of people involved in the process. Design teams typically begin with a structured brainstorming process of "thinking outside the box". Convergent thinking, on the other hand, aims for zooming and focusing on the different proposals to select the best choice, which permits continuation of the design thinking process to achieve the final goals.
After collecting and sorting many ideas, a team goes through a process of pattern finding and synthesis in which it has to translate ideas into insights that can lead to solutions or opportunities for change. These might be either visions of new product offerings, or choices among various ways of creating new experiences.
Implementation and prototyping
The third space of the design thinking innovation process is implementation, when the best ideas generated during ideation are turned into something concrete.
At the core of the implementation process is prototyping: turning ideas into actual products and services that are then tested, evaluated, iterated, and refined. A prototype, or even a rough mock-up helps to gather feedback and improve the idea. Prototypes can speed up the process of innovation because they allow quick identification of strengths and weaknesses of proposed solutions, and can prompt new ideas.
Applications
In the 2000s and 2010s there was a significant growth of interest in applying design thinking across a range of diverse applications—for example as a catalyst for gaining competitive advantage within business or for improving education, but doubts around design thinking as a panacea for innovation have been expressed by some critics (see ).
In business
Historically, designers tended to be involved only in the later parts of the process of new product development, focusing their attention on the aesthetics and functionality of products. Many businesses and other organisations now realise the utility of embedding design as a productive asset throughout organisational policies and practices, and design thinking has been used to help many different types of business and social organisations to be more constructive and innovative. Designers bring their methods into business either by taking part themselves from the earliest stages of product and service development processes or by training others to use design methods and to build innovative thinking capabilities within organisations.
In education
All forms of professional design education can be assumed to be developing design thinking in students, even if only implicitly, but design thinking is also now explicitly taught in general as well as professional education, across all sectors of education. Design as a subject was introduced into secondary schools' educational curricula in the UK in the 1970s, gradually replacing and/or developing from some of the traditional art and craft subjects, and increasingly linked with technology studies. This development sparked related research studies in both education and design.
In the K–12 education sector, design thinking is used to enhance learning and promote creative thinking, teamwork, and student responsibility for learning. A design-based approach to teaching and learning has been developed more widely throughout education.
New courses in design thinking have also been introduced at the university level, especially when linked with business and innovation studies. A notable early course of this type was introduced at Stanford University in 2003, the Hasso Plattner Institute of Design, known as the d.school. Design thinking can now be seen in International Baccalaureate schools across the world, and in Maker Education organizations.
In computer science
Design thinking has been central to user-centered design and human-centered design—the dominant methods of designing human-computer interfaces—for over 40 years. Design thinking is also central to recent conceptions of software development in general.
Criticisms
Some of the diverse and popularized applications of design thinking, particularly in the business/innovation fields, have been criticized for promoting a very restricted interpretation of design skills and abilities. Lucy Kimbell accused business applications of design thinking of "de-politicizing managerial practice" through an "undertheorized" conception of design thinking. Lee Vinsel suggested that popular purveyors of design consulting "as a reform for all of higher education" misuse ideas from the fields that they purport to borrow from, and devalue discipline-specific expertise, giving students "'creative confidence' without actual capabilities". Natasha Iskander criticized a certain conception of design thinking for reaffirming "the privileged role of the designer" at the expense of the communities that the designer serves, and argued that the concept of "empathy" employed in some formulations of design thinking ignores critical reflection on the way identity and power shape empathetic identification. She claimed that promoting simplified versions of design thinking "makes it hard to solve challenges that are characterized by a high degree of uncertainty—like climate change—where doing things the way we always have done them is a sure recipe for disaster".
History
Drawing on psychological studies of creativity from the 1940s, such as Max Wertheimer's "Productive Thinking" (1945), new creativity techniques in the 1950s and design methods in the 1960s led to the idea of design thinking as a particular approach to creatively solving problems. Among the first authors to write about design thinking were John E. Arnold in "Creative Engineering" (1959) and L. Bruce Archer in "Systematic Method for Designers" (1963–64).
In his book "Creative Engineering" (1959) Arnold distinguishes four areas of creative thinking: (1) novel functionality, i.e. solutions that satisfy a novel need or solutions that satisfy an old need in an entirely new way, (2) higher performance levels of a solution, (3) lower production costs or (4) increased salability. Arnold recommended a balanced approach—product developers should seek opportunities in all four areas of design thinking: "It is rather interesting to look over the developmental history of any product or family of products and try to classify the changes into one of the four areas ... Your group, too, might have gotten into a rut and is inadvertently doing all of your design thinking in one area and is missing good bets in other areas."
Although L. Bruce Archer's "Systematic Method for Designers" (1963–64) was concerned primarily with a systematic process of designing, it also expressed a need to broaden the scope of conventional design: "Ways have had to be found to incorporate knowledge of ergonomics, cybernetics, marketing and management science into design thinking". Archer was also developing the relationship of design thinking with management: "The time is rapidly approaching when design decision making and management decision making techniques will have so much in common that the one will become no more than the extension of the other".
Arnold initiated a long history of design thinking at Stanford University, extending through many others such as Robert McKim and Rolfe Faste, who taught "design thinking as a method of creative action", and continuing with the shift from creative engineering to innovation management in the 2000s. Design thinking was adapted for business purposes by Faste's Stanford colleague David M. Kelley, who founded the design consultancy IDEO in 1991.
Bryan Lawson's 1980 book How Designers Think, primarily addressing design in architecture, began a process of generalising the concept of design thinking. A 1982 article by Nigel Cross, "Designerly Ways of Knowing", established some of the intrinsic qualities and abilities of design thinking that also made it relevant in general education and thus for wider audiences. Peter G. Rowe's 1987 book Design Thinking, which described methods and approaches used by architects and urban planners, was a significant early usage of the term in the design research literature. An international series of research symposia in design thinking began at Delft University of Technology in 1991. Richard Buchanan's 1992 article "Wicked Problems in Design Thinking" expressed a broader view of design thinking as addressing intractable human concerns through design, reprising ideas that Rittel and Webber developed in the early 1970s.
Timeline
See also
Creativity techniques
Lateral thinking
Reflective practice
Systems thinking
User experience
Lists
List of thought processes
List of creative thought processes
References
Further reading
Brooks, Frederick. The Design of Design. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley, Pearson Education, 2010.
Cross, Nigel (ed.). Developments in Design Methodology. Chichester, UK; New York: Wiley, 1984.
Curedale, Robert. Design Thinking Process and Methods. 5th Edition. Design Community College Press, CA, 2019
Kelly, Tom. Ten Faces of Innovation. London: Profile, 2006.
Lawson, Bryan. Design in Mind. Oxford, UK: Butterworth, 1994.
Lewrick, Michael, Patrick Link, Larry Leifer. The Design Thinking Playbook. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2018.
Liedtka, Jeanne. Designing for Growth: A Design Thinking Tool Kit For Managers. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011.
Liedtka, Jeanne. Solving Problems with Design Thinking: Ten Stories of What Works. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.
Lupton, Ellen. Graphic Design Thinking: Beyond Brainstorming. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011. .
Martin, Roger L. The Design of Business: Why Design Thinking is the Next Competitive Advantage. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2009.
Mootee, Idris. Design Thinking for Strategic Innovation. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2013.
Nelson, George. How to See: a Guide to Reading Our Man-made Environment. San Francisco, CA: Design Within Reach, 2006.
Schön, Donald. Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987.
Design |
4504149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchip%20Technology | Microchip Technology | Microchip Technology Incorporated is a publicly listed American corporation that manufactures microcontroller, mixed-signal, analog, and Flash-IP integrated circuits. Its products include microcontrollers (PIC, dsPIC, AVR and SAM), Serial EEPROM devices, Serial SRAM devices, embedded security devices, radio frequency (RF) devices, thermal, power and battery management analog devices, as well as linear, interface and wireless products.
Its corporate headquarters is located in Chandler, Arizona. Its wafer fabs are located in Tempe, Arizona, Gresham, Oregon, and Colorado Springs, Colorado. The company's assembly/test facilities are in Chachoengsao, Thailand, and Calamba and Cabuyao, Philippines. Sales for the 2023 fiscal year were billion.
Microchip Technology offers support and resources to educators, researchers and students in an effort to increase awareness and knowledge of embedded applications. Support includes access to labs, curricula and course materials, one-on-one consultations, online resources (e.g., code examples, textbook recommendations), training at regional training centers, silicon donations, assistance finding low cost development tools, free versions of Microchip programming tools and product discounts.
History
Microchip Technology was founded in 1987 when General Instrument spun off its microelectronics division as a wholly owned subsidiary.
The newly formed company was a supplier of programmable non-volatile memory, microcontrollers, digital signal processors, card chip on board, and consumer integrated circuits.
An initial public offering (IPO) later in the year was canceled because of the October 1987 stock market crash.
Microchip Technology became an independent company in 1989 when it was acquired by a group of venture capitalists led by Sequoia Capital.
In the same year, Microchip Technology announced the release of small, inexpensive 8-bit reduced instruction set computing (RISC) microcontrollers for $2.40 apiece whereas most RISC microcontrollers were 32-bit devices selling for hundreds of dollars.
In 1990, 60% of Microchip Technology's sales were from the disc drive industry and the product portfolio relied heavily on commodity EEPROM products.
The company was losing US$2.5 million per quarter, had less than 6 months of cash in reserve, had exhausted lines of credit, and was failing to control expenses.
Early in the year, the venture capital investors accepted an offer to sell Microchip Technology to Winbond Electronics Corporation of Taiwan for $15M. Winbond Electronics backed out of the deal after the Taiwanese stock market decrease in May 1990. Vice President of Operations, Steve Sanghi, was named president and chief operating officer of Microchip Technology in 1990.
After several quarters of losses, Sanghi oversaw Microchip Technology's transition from selling commodity-based products to specialized chips, such as the RISC technology.
Microchip Technology conducted an IPO in 1993, which Fortune magazine cited as the best performing IPO of the year with a stock appreciation of 500% and over $1bn in market capitalization.
At the end of 2015, Microchip Technology posted its 100th consecutive quarter of profitability.
In-line with the general consolidation of the semiconductor industry, Microchip Technology purchased 17 semiconductor manufacturers from 2007 through 2017.
Products
Microchip Technology offers 8-bit microcontrollers, 16-bit PIC microcontrollers, dsPIC digital signal controllers, analog and interface products, security authentication products, timing/communication/real-time clock and calendar products, real-time clock and calendar devices, memory products, wireless products, high-throughput USB and Ethernet interfaces, MOST technology, embedded controllers and super I/O devices, touch, multi-touch and 3D gesture control products, power over Ethernet systems and ICs, and field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs).
8-bit microcontrollers
Microchip Technology's 8-bit portfolio consists of over 1,200 devices constructed under two architectures: PIC microcontrollers or AVR microcontrollers. Key features of the 8-bit microcontrollers are Core Independent Peripherals, low-power performance with picoPower and eXtreme Low Power (XLP) technology and EMI/EMC performance.
16-bit microcontrollers
The 16-bit microcontrollers, such as the PIC24, offer an upgrade over the 8-bit devices in features and peripherals (e.g., more memory, additional pins). The 16-bit microcontrollers are constructed under the PIC microcontroller architecture.
32-bit microcontrollers
Microchip Technology's 32-bit product portfolio run at up to 600 DMIPs with up to 2048 KB Flash and 512 KB RAM with 32 MB integrated DDR2 dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) or 128 MB externally addressable options. The 32-bit portfolio addresses advanced graphics and Internet of things (IoT) applications.
32-bit microprocessors
The 32-bit Arm microprocessors were designed for applications beyond the 32-bit microcontrollers with 600 MHz (942 DMIPS) operation, support for up to 512 MD of external DDR2 or DDR3 DRAM and power down to 0.3 mW sleep. Available peripherals and users interfaces include gigabit Ethernet MAC addresses, USBs, hardware video decoding, capacitive sensing, 12-bit CMOS sensors, I²S audio interfaces and 24-bit graphic LCD controllers with overlays.
Analog and interface products
Microchip Technology offers a broad portfolio of analog products that address thermal management, power management, battery management, mixed-signal, linear, interface, safety and security needs. Products includes stand-alone analog and interface devices which support a variety of bus interfaces and analog features on microcontrollers, digital signal controllers, microprocessors and FPGAs. The power products include silicon diodes, MOSFETs, insulated-gate bipolar transistors, silicon carbide MOSFETs and Schottky diodes.
Digital signal controllers
The dsPIC product family of digital signal controllers includes a digital signal processor engine with up to 100 MIPS of motor control that offers variable speeds, constant torque PI control and field oriented control. The dsPIC family also offers dual cores equipped with pulse-width modulation, analog-to-digital converters, programmable gate arrays and the capability for live firmware updates and provides permanent-magnet motors (see also Synchronous motor#Permanent-magnet), alternating current induction motor (see also induction motor) and brushless DC (see also Brushless DC electric motor) motor control in industrial, medical, automotive and consumer applications.
Embedded controllers and super I/O
Microchip Technology offers computer-related products including embedded controllers based on enhanced serial peripheral interface (eSPI) bus technology, Input/Output (I/O) devices, keyboard controllers and root of trust, secure boot and authentication and system management devices. Common applications include traditional computing applications (e.g., laptop computers) and embedded computing, such as interactive kiosks, networking equipment, and automated teller machines.
Memory products
Microchip Technology offers a wide range of memory products that includes serial EEPROM, serial SRAM, serial flash, serial NvSRAM, serial EERAM, parallel EEPROM, parallel one-time programmable flash, parallel flash and CryptoMemory devices.
Programming and development tools
Microchip Technology offers a variety of programming tools and other tools to support the use of microcontrollers, digital signal controllers, and microprocessors. The MPLAB and Atmel Studio ecosystems include integrated development environments, compilers, configurators, programmers (e.g., MPLAB PICkit™), in-circuit emulators (e.g., MPLAB devices), and debuggers. A range of PIC devices support in-circuit programming (both for FLASH and OTP memory devices).
Security and authentication products
Microchip Technology offers crypto element devices that provide authentication, data integrity, and confidentiality in a variety of applications, such as disposables, accessories and nodes. The crypto element devices use ultra-secure, hardware-based cryptographic countermeasures including tamper detection.
Timing, communication and real-time clock and calendar products
Microchip Technology offers oscillators, clock generators, clock and data distribution products and real-time clock and calendar devices. The oscillator product line offer low jitter and low power online-configurable products with quartz-based or MEMS silicon-based resonator options. The clock generation product line offer online-configurable, single chip, multiple-frequency clock tree options. The clock and data distribution product line offers buffers, logic translators and multiplexers. The packet network synchronization product line includes ITU-T/IEEE® standards-compliant digital phase-locked loops for synchronous Ethernet as well as IEEE 1588 based applications. The real-time clock and calendar devices offer a battery back-up capability, digital timing, and on-board EEPROM and SRAM memory.
USB
USB products include smart hub controllers, power delivery and charging, transceivers/switches, flash memory controllers and security products.
Networking
Ethernet interface products
Microchip Technology Ethernet products include Ethernet PHYs controllers for media-independent interface (MMI) interfacing, switches, controllers and bridge devices.
Wireless products
Microchip Technology's offerings focus on lower-power operation designed for sensing or command and control products. Wireless products support Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LoRa technology, IEEE 802.15.4 (e.g., Zigbee and MiWi wireless networking protocols) and proprietary 2.4 GHz and sub-GHz communication.
Power ICs
Microchip Technology produce a wide range of Power Management Integrated Circuits (PMICs).
Product milestones
In April 2009, Microchip Technology announced the nanoWatt XLP microcontrollers, claiming the world's lowest sleep current. Microchip Technology had sold more than 6 billion microcontrollers as of 2009.
As of 2011, Microchip Technology ships over a billion processors every year. In September 2011, Microchip Technology shipped the 10 billionth PIC microcontroller.
Acquisitions
KeeLoq technology and patents
KeeLoq technology enhances security in wireless and remote controlled systems through the use of infrared, radio frequency, microwave transmission and secure smart cards, and may be used to enable keyless vehicle entry, garage doors openers, home security systems, pre-paid phone cards, electronic tagging, passive transponders, point of sale readers, and other applications. The KeeLoq technology, patents and marketing rights were acquired by Microchip Technology on November 20, 1995, from Nanoteq of South Africa for $10M in cash. Microchip Technology used the purchase to create the Secure Data Products Group.
Puyallup wafer facility
The Puyallup wafer facility located in Puyallup, Washington (near Tacoma) was a 92-acre semiconductor manufacturing complex owned by Matsushita Electric Industrial Company. Matsushita Electric purchased the facility in 1993 and ceased production in December 1998. Microchip Technology announced the execution of an agreement to buy the complex on May 24, 2000. Microchip Technology expected to hire 100 employees before year end and 1,000 employees in total. The new facility was expected to double Microchip Technology's manufacturing capacity and support about $1.5bn in annual sales. The $80M acquisition was completed on July 26, 2000. Microchip Technology's plans were never realized due to the early 2000s recession. As a result, the company put the facility up for sale for $94M. Microchip Technology announced the sale of the Puyallup facility, which had become known as Fab 3, on October 19, 2007, for $30M from an unsolicited offer.
TelCom Semiconductor
TelCom Semiconductor was a publicly traded company out of Mountain View, California that offered analog and mixed-signal products for a variety of applications, including power and thermal management. TelCom Semiconductor was spun out of Teledyne Industries in 1993 through a management buyout. Microchip Technology announced plans to purchase TelCom Semiconductor on October 27, 2000, in an all stock deal for $300M. The acquisition was intended to accelerate Microchip Technology's stand-alone analog integrated circuit offerings and enable the company to attach additional analog products to microcontroller sales. TelCom Semiconductor employed about 300 employees and, in 1999, posted $57.3M in revenue and $13.1 in net income.
Hampshire Company
Hampshire Company was a privately held company that sold large-format universal touch screen controller electronics and related software. Microchip Technology announced the acquisition of Hampshire Company on October 15, 2008. The terms of the deal are confidential. The acquisition was intended to extend Microchip Technology's expertise in universal touch screen controller technology and accelerate R&D efforts.
HI-TECH Software
HI-TECH Software was an Australian-based company that provides ANSI C compilers and development tools. Founded in 1984, the company is best known for its HI-TECH C PRO compilers with whole-program compilation technology, or Omniscient Code Generation (OCG). HI-TECH Software was bought by Microchip on 20 February 2009, whereupon it refocused its development effort exclusively on supporting Microchip products.
Supported manufacturers and architectures:
Microchip PIC10, PIC12, PIC14, PIC16, PIC18, PIC24, PIC32 and dsPIC
Cypress PSoC's
Silicon Laboratories MCUs
8051 MCUs
Z80 for CP/M and Z80 cross compiler.
ZeroG Wireless
ZeroG Wireless, founded by Thomas H. Lee, was a fabless semiconductor company from Sunnyvale, California that was privately held and developed low-power, embedded Wi-Fi chips. On February 17, 2009, a partnership between ZeroG Wireless and Microchip Technology was announced for the production of ZeroG development kits designed to provide Wi-Fi capabilities for Microchip Technology's PIC microcontrollers. Microchip Technology announced the acquisition of ZeroG Wireless on January 11, 2010, for an undisclosed amount. The deal was intended to enhance Microchip Technology's wireless offerings by providing a Wi-Fi product for their PIC microcontrollers.
Silicon Storage Technology (SST)
Silicon Storage Technology, Inc. (SST) was a Sunnyvale, California, United States, technology company producing non-volatile memory devices and related products.
SST supplied NOR flash and other integrated circuits for high-volume applications.
Bing Yeh co-founded SST in August 1989, and served as its chief executive.
Starting in February 2010, private equity firm Cerberus Capital Management and public company Microchip Technology both made offers to acquire SST.
In April 2010, Microchip completed the acquisition for about $292M.
Microchip sold several SST flash memory assets to Greenliant Systems (founded by Yeh) in May of that year.
Ident Technology
Ident Technology AG was a German company that developed capacitive sensing technology. The acquisition of Ident Technology was revealed in Microchip Technology's fourth fiscal quarter (ending March 31, 2012) and full fiscal year financial results. The amount paid for the acquisition was not disclosed.
Roving Networks
Roving Networks was a Los Gatos, California, United States, privately held, fabless semiconductor company that provided embedded low-power Wi-Fi and Bluetooth products, including some that connected to smartphones using the iOS and Android operating systems. In a confidential deal, Microchip Technology announced the acquisition of Roving Networks on April 19, 2012
Standard Microsystems Corporation
Standard Microsystems Corporation manufactured semiconductors including controllers for embedded networking, Ethernet controllers, and flash media cards. In August 2012, Microchip acquired Standard Microsystems Corporation (SMSC). Among SMSC's assets were those it had previously acquired from Symwave, a start-up that specialized in USB 3.0 chips, and two hi-fi wireless audio companies—Kleer Semiconductor and Wireless Audio IP BV.
Novocell Semiconductor
Novocell Semiconductor, Inc. offered non-volatile-memory intellectual property. Microchip Technology, through its Silicon Storage Technology (SST) subsidiary, signed a definitive agreement on June 3, 2013, to acquire Novocell Semiconductor. The terms of the agreement are confidential. The acquisition expanded the product portfolio of SST from a focus on high-density memory to also include low-density one-time programmable and multi-time programmable memory.
EqcoLogic
EqcoLogic was a privately held, fabless semiconductor company based out of Belgium that was spun out from Vrije Universiteit Brussel and sold equalizer and coaxial transceiver products. Microchip Technology announced the acquisition of EqcoLogic on February 10, 2014. The terms of the acquisition are confidential and were not expected to have a material impact on Microchip Technology's quarterly financials. The acquisition was expected to enhance Microchip Technology's penetration in the automotive and industrial markets for embedded applications.
ISSC Technologies
ISSC Technologies (ISSC) was a Taiwan based developer of Bluetooth system on chip products for wireless headset, speaker, connectivity and human interface device products. Microchip Technology announced the signing of a definitive agreement to acquire ISSC on May 22, 2014. The terms of the agreement stipulated that Microchip Technology would acquire all outstanding shares of ISSC for approximately $4.74 per share at a total equity value of about $328.5M and a total enterprise value of about $34.2M after accounting for ISSC's cash and investments. Microchip Technology announced the completion of its tend offer to acquire the outstanding shares of ISSC on July 14, 2014. The ISSC acquisition represents the first major overseas acquisition completed by Microchip Technology and was funded with the use of a portion of Microchip Technology's foreign cash.
Supertex
Supertex was a mixed signal semiconductor manufacturer that focused on high voltage analog and mixed signal products for use in the following industries: medical, LED lighting, display, industrial and telecommunications. Microchip Technology announced the execution of a definitive agreement to acquire Supertex, Inc. on February 10, 2014, for $33 per share in cash. The total equity value was $394M and the total enterprise value after excluding Supertex's cash and investments was approximately $148M. The acquisition was expected to expand Microchip Technology's expertise in high voltage analog and mixed signal technologies and reach into the medical, industrial and lighting industries. Microchip Technology announced the completion of the acquisition on April 1, 2014, with 98.4% of the Supertex shares that voted approving the merger.
Micrel
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4504155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengrism | Tengrism | Tengrism (also known as Tengriism, Tengerism, or Tengrianism) is an ethnic Turkic, Yeniseian, Mongolic religion originating in the Eurasian steppes, based on shamanism and animism. It generally involves the titular sky god Tengri, who is not considered a deity in the usual sense but a personification of the universe. According to some scholars, adherents of Tengrism view the purpose of life to be in harmony with the universe.
It was the prevailing religion of the Tujue, Xianbei, Bulgars, Xiongnu, Huns and possibly the Hungarians, as well as the state religion of several medieval states: the First Turkic Khaganate, the Western Turkic Khaganate, the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, Old Great Bulgaria, the First Bulgarian Empire, Volga Bulgaria, Khazaria, and the Mongol Empire. In the Irk Bitig, a ninth century manuscript on divination, Tengri is mentioned as (God of Turks). According to many academics, Tengrism was, and to some extent still is, a predominantly polytheistic religion based on the shamanistic concept of animism, and was first influenced by monotheism during the imperial period, especially by the 12th–13th centuries. Abdulkadir Inan argues that Yakut and Altai shamanism are not entirely equal to the ancient Turkic religion.
The term also describes several contemporary Turkic and Mongolic native religious movements and teachings. All modern adherents of "political" Tengrism are monotheists. Tengrism has been advocated for in intellectual circles of the Turkic nations of Central Asia (Kyrgyzstan with Kazakhstan) and Russia (Tatarstan, Bashkortostan) since the dissolution of the Soviet Union during the 1990s. Still practiced, it is undergoing an organized revival in Buryatia, Sakha (Yakutia), Khakassia, Tuva and other Turkic nations in Siberia. Altaian Burkhanism and Chuvash Vattisen Yaly are contemporary movements similar to Tengrism.
The term tengri (compare with Kami) can refer to the sky deity Tenger Etseg – also Gök Tengri; Sky father, Blue sky – or to other deities. While Tengrism includes the worship of personified gods (tngri) such as Ülgen and Kaira,Tengri is considered an "abstract phenomenon".
In Mongolian folk religion, Genghis Khan is considered one of the embodiments, if not the main embodiment, of Tengri's will.
Terminology and relationship with shamanism
The forms of the name Tengri () among the ancient and modern Turkic and Mongolic are Tengeri, Tangara, Tangri, Tanri, Tangre, Tegri, Tingir, Tenkri, Tangra, Teri, Ter, and Ture. The name Tengri ("the Sky") is derived from ("daybreak") or Tan ("dawn"). Meanwhile, Stefan Georg proposed that the Turkic Tengri ultimately originates as a loanword from Proto-Yeniseian *tɨŋgɨr- "high". Mongolia is sometimes poetically called the "Land of Eternal Blue Sky" () by its inhabitants. According to some scholars, the name of the important deity Dangun (also Tangol) (God of the Mountains) of the Korean folk religion is related to the Siberian Tengri ("Heaven"), while the bear is a symbol of the Big Dipper (Ursa Major).
The word "Tengrism" is a fairly new term. The spelling Tengrism for the religion of the ancient Turks is found in the works of the 19th century Kazakh Russophone ethnographer Shoqan Walikhanov. The term was introduced into a wide scientific circulation in 1956 by Jean-Paul Roux and later in the 1960s as a general term of English-language papers.
Tengrianism is a reflection of the Russian term, ("Tengriánstvo"). It is introduced by Kazakh poet and turkologist Olzhas Suleymenov in his 1975 book AZ-and-IA. Since the 1990s, Russian-language literature uses it in the general sense, as for instance, reported in 1996 ("so-called Tengrianism") in the context of the nationalist rivalry over Bulgar legacy.
The spellings Tengriism, Tangrism, Tengrianity are also found from the 1990s. In modern Turkey and, partly, Kyrgyzstan, Tengrism is known as the or ("Sky God religion"); the Turkish (sky) and (God) correspond to the Mongolian (blue) and (sky), respectively. Mongolian is used in a 1999 biography of Genghis Khan.
In the 20th century, a number of scientists proposed the existence of a religious imperial khagan cult in the ancient Turkic and Mongolian states. The Turkish historian of religion Ziya Gökalp (1876–1924) wrote in his The History of Turkish Holy Tradition and Turkish Civilization that the religion of the ancient Turkic states could not be primitive shamanism, which was only a magical part of the religion of the ancient Türks (see a historiography of the problem: ).
The nature of this religion remains debatable. According to many scholars, it was originally polytheistic, but a monotheistic branch with the sky god Kök-Tengri as the supreme being evolved as a dynastical legitimation. It is at least agreed that Tengrism formed from the diverse folk religions of the local people and may have had diverse branches.
It is suggested that Tengrism was a monotheistic religion only at the imperial level in aristocratic circles, and, perhaps, only by the 12th-13th centuries (a late form of development of ancient animistic shamanism in the era of the Mongol empire).
According to Jean-Paul Roux, the monotheistic concept evolved later out of a polytheistic system and was not the original form of Tengrism. The monotheistic concept helped to legitimate the rule of the dynasty: "As there is only one God in Heaven, there can only be one ruler on the earth ...".
Others point out that Tengri itself was never an Absolute, but only one of many gods of the upper world, the sky deity, of polytheistic shamanism, later known as Tengrism.
Tengrism differs from contemporary Siberian shamanism in that it was a more organized religion. Additionally the polities practicing it were not small bands of hunter-gatherers like the Paleosiberians, but a continuous succession of pastoral, semi-sedentarized khanates and empires from the Xiongnu Empire (founded 209 BC) to the Mongol Empire (13th century). In Mongolia it survives as a synthesis with Tibetan Buddhism while surviving in purer forms around Lake Khovsgol and Lake Baikal. Unlike Siberian shamanism, which has no written tradition, Tengrism can be identified from Turkic and Mongolic historical texts like the Orkhon inscriptions, Secret History of the Mongols, and Altan Tobchi. However, these texts are more historically oriented and are not strictly religious texts like the scriptures and sutras of sedentary civilizations, which have elaborate doctrines and religious stories.
On a scale of complexity Tengrism lies somewhere between the Proto-Indo-European religion (a pre-state form of pastoral shamanism on the western steppe) and its later form the Vedic religion. The chief god Tengri ("Heaven") is considered strikingly similar to the Indo-European sky god *Dyḗus and the East Asian Tian (Chinese: "Sky; Heaven"). The structure of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion is actually closer to that of the early Turks than to the religion of any people of neolithic European, Near Eastern or Mediterranean antiquity.
The term "shamanism" was first applied by Western anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the Turkic and Mongolic peoples, as well as those of the neighbouring Tungusic and Samoyedic-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions across the world, some Western anthropologists began to also use the term in a very broad sense. The term was used to describe unrelated magico-religious practices found within the ethnic religions of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, as they believed these practices to be similar to one another.
Terms for 'shaman' and 'shamaness' in Siberian languages:
'shaman': saman (Nedigal, Nanay, Ulcha, Orok), sama (Manchu). The variant /šaman/ (i.e., pronounced "shaman") is Evenk (whence it was borrowed into Russian).
'shaman': alman, olman, wolmen (Yukagir)
'shaman': (Tatar, Shor, Oyrat), (Tuva, Tofalar)
The Buryat word for shaman is бөө (böö) , from early Mongolian böge.
'shaman': ńajt (Khanty, Mansi), from Proto-Uralic *nojta (cf. Sámi noaidi)
'shamaness': (Mongol), (Yakut), udagan (Buryat), udugan (Evenki, Lamut), odogan (Nedigal). Related forms found in various Siberian languages include utagan, ubakan, utygan, utügun, iduan, or duana. All these are related to the Mongolian name of Etügen, the hearth goddess, and Etügen Eke 'Mother Earth'. Maria Czaplicka points out that Siberian languages use words for male shamans from diverse roots, but the words for female shaman are almost all from the same root. She connects this with the theory that women's practice of shamanism was established earlier than men's, that "shamans were originally female".
Buryat scholar Irina S. Urbanaeva developed a theory of Tengrist esoteric traditions in Central Asia after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the revival of national sentiment in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia.
Historical Tengrism
The first time the name Tengri was recorded in Chinese chronicles was from the 4th century BC as the sky god of the Xiongnu, using the Chinese form 撑犁 (Cheng-li).
Tengrism formed from the various Turkic and Mongolic folk religions, which had a diverse number of deities, spirits and gods. Turkic folk religion was based on Animism and similar to various other religious traditions of Siberia, Central Asia and Northeast Asia. Ancestor worship played an important part in Tengrism.
The cult of Heaven-Tengri is fixed by the Orkhon, or Old Turkic script used by the Göktürks ("celestial Turks") and other early khanates during the 8th to 10th centuries.
Tengrism was the religion of several medieval states, such as the Göktürk Khaganate, Western Turkic Khaganate, Old Great Bulgaria, Danube Bulgaria, Volga Bulgaria, and Eastern Tourkia (Khazaria) Turkic beliefs contains the sacral book Irk Bitig from Uyghur Khaganate.
Tengrism also played a large role in the religion of Mongol Empires as the primary state spirituality. Genghis Khan and several generations of his followers were Tengrian believers and "Shaman-Kings" until his fifth-generation descendant, Uzbeg Khan, turned to Islam in the 14th century. Old Tengrist prayers have come to us from the Secret History of the Mongols (13th century). The priests-prophets (temujin) received them, according to their faith, from the great deity/spirit Munkh Tenger.
Tengrism was probably similar with the folk traditions of the Tungusic peoples, such as the Manchu folk religion. Similarities with Korean shamanism and Wuism as well as Japanese Shinto are also evident.
According to Hungarian archaeological research, the religion of the Magyars (Hungarians) until the end of the 10th century (before Christianity) was a form of Tengrism and Shamanism.
Tengrists view their existence as sustained by the eternal blue sky (Tengri), the fertile mother-earth spirit (Eje) and a ruler regarded as the chosen one by the holy spirit of the sky. Heaven, earth, spirits of nature and ancestors provide for every need and protect all humans. By living an upright, respectful life, a human will keep his world in balance and perfect his personal Wind Horse, or spirit. The Huns of the northern Caucasus reportedly believed in two gods: Tangri Han (or Tengri Khan), considered identical to the Persian Esfandiyār and for whom horses were sacrificed, and Kuar (whose victims are struck by lightning).
Traditional Tengrism was more embraced by the nomadic Turks than by those residing in the lower mountains or forests. This belief influenced Turkic and Mongol religious history since ancient times until the 14th century, when the Golden Horde converted to Islam. Since then, Tengrism was mostly submerged by other religious ideas. Traditional Tengrism persists among the Mongols and in some Turkic and Mongolic influenced regions of Russia (Sakha, Buryatia, and Tuva) in parallel with other religions.
Orkhon inscriptions
According to the Orkhon inscriptions, Tengri played a big role in choices of the kaghan, and in guiding his actions. Many of these were performed because "Heaven so ordained" ().
Arghun's letters
Arghun expressed the association of Tengri with imperial legitimacy and military success. The majesty (suu) of the khan is a divine stamp granted by Tengri to a chosen individual through which Tengri controls the world order (the presence of Tengri in the khan). In this letter, "Tengri" or "Mongke Tengri" ("Eternal Heaven") is at the top of the sentence. In the middle of the magnified section, the phrase Tengri-yin Kuchin ("Power of Tengri") forms a pause before it is followed by the phrase Khagan-u Suu ("Majesty of the Khan"):
Arghun expressed Tengrism's non-dogmatic side. The name Mongke Tengri ("Eternal Tengri") is at the top of the sentence in this letter to Pope Nicholas IV, in accordance with Mongolian Tengriist writing rules. The words "Tngri" (Tengri) and "zrlg" (zarlig, decree/order) are still written with vowel-less archaism:
Tengrism in the Secret History of the Mongols
Tengri is mentioned many times in the Secret History of the Mongols, written in 1240. The book starts by listing the ancestors of Genghis Khan starting from Borte Chino (Blue Wolf) born with "destiny from Tengri". Borte Chino was either a heavenly wolf, a real man with the totemic name of a wolf or Modu Chanyu. Bodonchar Munkhag the 9th generation ancestor of Genghis Khan is called a "son of Tengri". When Temujin was brought to the Qongirat tribe at 9 years old to choose a wife, Dei Setsen of the Qongirat tells Yesugei the father of Temujin (Genghis Khan) that he dreamt of a white falcon, grasping the sun and the moon, come and sit on his hands. He identifies the sun and the moon with Yesugei and Temujin. Temujin then encounters Tengri in the mountains at the age of 12. The Taichiud had come for him when he was living with his siblings and mother in the wilderness, subsisting on roots, wild fruits, sparrows and fish. He was hiding in the thick forest of Terguun Heights. After three days hiding he decided to leave and was leading his horse on foot when he looked back and noticed his saddle had fallen. Temujin says "I can understand the belly strap can come loose, but how can the breast strap also come loose? Is Tengri persuading me?" He waited three more nights and decided to go out again but a tent-sized rock had blocked the way out. Again he said "Is Tengri persuading me?", returned and waited three more nights. Finally he lost patience after 9 days of hunger and went around the rock, cutting down the wood on the other side with his arrow-whittling knife, but as he came out the Taichiud were waiting for him there and promptly captured him. Toghrul later credits the defeat of the Merkits with Jamukha and Temujin to the "mercy of mighty Tengri" (paragraph 113).
Khorchi of the Baarin tells Temujin of a vision given by "Zaarin Tengri" where a bull raises dust and asks for one of his horns back after charging the ger cart of Jamukha (Temujin's rival) while another ox harnessed itself to a big ger cart on the main road and followed Temujin, bellowing "Heaven and Earth have agreed to make Temujin the Lord of the nation and I am now carrying the nation to you". Temujin afterward tells his earliest companions Boorchi and Zelme that they will be appointed to the highest posts because they first followed him when he was "mercifully looked upon by Tengri" (paragraph 125). In the Battle of Khuiten, Buyuruk Khan and Quduga try using zad stones to cause a thunderstorm against Temujin but it backfires and they get stuck in slippery mud. They say "the wrath of Tengri is upon us" and flee in disorder (paragraph 143). Temujin prays to "father Tengri" on a high hill with his belt around his neck after defeating the Taichiud at Tsait Tsagaan Tal and taking 100 horses and 50 breastplates. He says "I haven't become Lord thanks to my own bravery, but I have defeated my enemies thanks to the love of my father mighty Tengri". When Nilqa Sengum the son of Toghrul Khan tries to convince him to attack Temujin, Toghrul says "How can I think evil of my son Temujin? If we think evil of him when he is such a critical support to us, Tengri will not be pleased with us". After Nilqa Sengum throws a number of tantrums Toghrul finally relents and says "I was afraid of Tengri and said how can I harm my son. If you are really capable, then you decide what you need to do".
When Boorchi and Ogedei return wounded from the battle against Toghrul, Genghis Khan strikes his chest in anguish and says "May Eternal Tengri decide" (paragraph 172). Genghis Khan tells Altan and Khuchar "All of you refused to become Khan, that is why I led you as Khan. If you would have become Khan I would have charged first in battle and brought you the best women and horses if high Khukh Tengri showed us favor and defeated our enemies". After defeating the Keraits Genghis Khan says "By the blessing of Eternal Tengri I have brought low the Kerait nation and ascended the high throne" (paragraph 187). Genghis sends Subutai with an iron cart to pursue the sons of Togtoa and tells him "If you act exposed though hidden, near though far and maintain loyalty then Supreme Tengri will bless you and support you" (paragraph 199). Jamukha tells Temujin "I had no trustworthy friends, no talented brothers and my wife was a talker with great words. That is why I have lost to you Temujin, blessed and destined by Father Tengri." Genghis Khan appoints Shikhikhutug chief judge of the Empire in 1206 and tells him "Be my eyes to see and ears to hear when I am ordering the empire through the blessing of Eternal Tengri" (paragraph 203). Genghis Khan appoints Muqali "Gui Wang" because he "transmitted the word of Tengri when I was sitting under the spreading tree in the valley of Khorkhunag Jubur where Hotula Khan used to dance" (paragraph 206). He gives Khorchi of the Baarin 30 wives because he promised Khorchi he would fulfill his request for 30 wives "if what you say comes true through the mercy and power of Tengri" (paragraph 207).
Genghis mentions both Eternal Tengri and "heaven and earth" when he says "By the mercy of Eternal Tengri and the blessing of heaven and earth I have greatly increased in power, united all the great nation and brought them under my reins" (paragraph 224). Genghis orders Dorbei the Fierce of the Dorbet tribe to "strictly govern your soldiers, pray to Eternal Tengri and try to conquer the Khori Tumed people" (paragraph 240). After being insulted by Asha Khambu of the Tanguts of being a weak Khan Genghis Khan says "If Eternal Tengri blesses me and I firmly pull my golden reins, then things will become clear at that time" (paragraph 256). When Asha Khambu of the Tangut insults him again after his return from the Khwarezmian campaign Genghis Khan says "How can we go back (to Mongolia) when he says such proud words? Though I die I won't let these words slip. Eternal Tengri, you decide" (paragraph 265). After Genghis Khan "ascends to Tengri" (paragraph 268) during his successful campaign against the Tangut (Xi Xia) the wheels of the returning funeral cart gets stuck in the ground and Gilugdei Baatar of the Sunud says "My horse-mounted divine lord born with destiny from Khukh Tengri, have you abandoned your great nation?" Batu Khan sends a secret letter to Ogedei Khan saying "Under the power of the Eternal Tengri, under the Majesty of my uncle the Khan, we set up a great tent to feast after we had broken the city of Meged, conquered the Orosuud (Russians), brought in eleven nations from all directions and pulled on our golden reins to hold one last meeting before going our separate directions" (paragraph 275).
Contemporary Tengrism
A revival of Tengrism has played a role in search for native spiritual roots and Pan-Turkism ideology since the 1990s, especially, in Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, some autonomous republics of the Russian Federation (Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Buryatia, Yakutia, and others), among the Crimean Karaites and Crimean Tatars.
After the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, and especially after the proclamation of the Republic in 1923, a nationalist ideology of Turanism and Kemalism contributed to the revival of Tengrism. Islamic censorship was abolished, which allowed an objective study of the pre-Islamic religion of the Turks. The Turkish language was purified of Arabic, Persian and other borrowings. A number of figures, while they did not officially abandon Islam, adopted Turkic names, such as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Atatürk — "father of Turks") and the historian of religion and ideologist of the Kemalist regime Ziya Gökalp (Gökalp — "sky hero").
The prominent Turkish writer and historian Nihal Atsız was Tengrist and the ideologue of Turanism. The followers of Tengrism in the paramilitary organisation Grey Wolves, mainly inspired by his work, replace the Arabic designation of the god "Allah" with the Turkish "Tanri" in the oath and pronounce: "Tanrı Türkü Korusun" (Tengri, bless the Türks!).
The most famous modern ideologues and theorists of Tengrism are (1944–2018), (1938–2003), Aron Atabek, (1955–2010), Rafael Bezertinov, Shagdaryn Bira, , (1947–2018), Mongush Kenin-Lopsan, (1958–2016), Choiun Omuraliyev, Dastan Sarygulov, and Olzhas Suleimenov.
The poet, literary critic and Turkologist Olzhas Suleimenov, the eulogist of the Kazakh national identity, in his book AZ-and-IA that was banned after publication in 1975 in Soviet Kazakhstan, USSR, presented Tengrism ("Tengrianstvo") as one of the most ancient religions in the world.
Tengrism has very few active adherents, but its revival of an ethnic religion reached a larger audience in intellectual circles. Former Presidents of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev and Kyrgyzstan Askar Akayev have called Tengrism the national, "natural" religion of the Turkic peoples. So, during the 2002 trip to Khakassia, Russia, Akayev spoke out that a visit to the Yenisei River and the runic steles constituted "a pilgrimage to a holy place for the Kyrgyz" just as the pilgrimage to Mecca. Presenting Islam as foreign to the Turkic peoples, as Semitic religion together with Christianity and Judaism, adherents are found primarily among the nationalistic parties of Central Asia. Tengrism may be interpreted as a Turkic version of Russian neopaganism, which is already well-established. It is partly similar to the new religious movements, such as New Age.
In Tatarstan, the only Tengrist periodical Beznen-Yul (Our Path) appeared in 1997, and also works a theorist of Tengrist movement Rafael Bezertinov. He writes:
Today it's hard to even say who the modern Turks and Mongols. Their names are 90% Arabic, Persian, Greek, Jewish, etc; religion is Semitic (Arabic, Christian, Jewish) and Indian; many do not know their philosophy and traditions; live by the laws and lifestyle of the West; clothes and their food is western; the alphabet is western; forgotten your kind and ancestors; they do not know the history of their folk; many city residents do not speak their native language. Who are they really and what do they have own for today? Only hereditary genes ...
The Yakut philologist Lazar Afanasyev-Teris, PhD founded Tengrist organisation "Kut-Siur" (now Aiyy Faith) in 1990–1993. The headquarters of the International Fund of Tengri Research is also located in Yakutsk.
Several Kyrgyz politicians are advocating Tengrism to fill a perceived ideological void. Dastan Sarygulov, secretary of state and former chair of the Kyrgyz state gold-mining company, established in 2005 the Tengir Ordo—a civic group promoting the values and traditions of Tengrism—and an International scientific center of Tengrist studies. He based on the ideas of one of the first ideologists of pre-Islamic religion in the post-Soviet space, the Kyrgyz writer Choiun Omuraliyev alias Choiun uulu Omuraly, described in his book Tengrism (1994).
Another Kyrgyz proponent of Tengrism, Kubanychbek Tezekbaev, was prosecuted for inciting religious and ethnic hatred in 2011 with statements in an interview describing Kyrgyz mullahs as "former alcoholics and murderers".
At the same time, the Kyrgyz authorities do not go for the official registration of "Tengirchilik" (Теңирчилик) and other Tengrist associations.
The ideology of de-Judaization and the revival of Tengrism is imbued with the works of the leaders of the Crimean Karaites and Krymchaks of Crimea, who traditionally professed forms of Judaism (Igor Achkinazi (1954–2006), (1922–2019), and others).
They are related to Tengrism or are part of it also movements within the framework of the anti-shamanistic Burkhanism (Ak Jang) that arose in 1904 in Altai (its famous proponents were the painter Grigory Gurkin and poet , 1938–2020) and the ethnic faith Vattisen Yaly in Chuvashia, Russia.
Some of the Slavic Bulgarian proponents of the Native Faith in Bulgaria identify themselves with the descendants of the Turkic Bulgars and revive Tengrism. They are incorporated into the "Tangra Warriors Movement" (Bulgarian: Движение "Воини на Тангра").
Articles on Tengrism have been published in social-scientific journals. In 2003 in Bishkek, the Tengir Ordo Foundation held the first international scientific symposium on Tengrism "Tengrism—the worldview of the Altaic peoples". The conference "Tengrism as a new factor for the identity construction in Central Asia" was organized by the French Institute for Central Asia Studies in Almaty, Kazakhstan, 25 February 2005. Since 2007, every two years, International scientific conferences "Tengrism and the epic heritage of Eurasian nomads: origins and modernity" have been held in Russia, Mongolia and other countries (the first was sponsored by the Ministry of Culture and Spiritual Development of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia)).
Symbols and holy places
A symbol used by many Tengrists, representing the runic spelling of god Tengri and "shangrak" (an equilateral cross in a circle), depicting the roof opening of a yurt, and a shaman's drum.
Many world-pictures and symbols are attributed to folk religions of Central Asia and Russian Siberia. Shamanistic religious symbols in these areas are often intermixed. For example, drawings of world-pictures on Altaic shamanic drums.
See also:
Flag of Chuvashia
Flag of Kazakhstan
Flag of Kyrgyzstan
Flag of Sakha Republic
Göktürk coins
Gun Ana — the sun (featured in most flags)
Tree of Life
The tallest mountain peaks usually became sacred places. Since the time of the Turkic Khaganate, this is Otgontenger in Mongolia—perhaps, the Otuken of the old inscriptions, state ceremonies are held were. Among others: Belukha (or Üch-Sümer) in Russia's Altai, Khan Tengri alias Jengish Chokusu in Kyrgyzstan (not to be confused with the modern Khan Tengri), and Burkhan Khaldun in Mongolia, associated with the name of Genghis Khan. Symbolic mountains are man-made shrines-ovoos.
Beliefs
Tengrism was an animistic all-encompassing system of belief that includes medicine, religion, a reverence of nature, and ancestor worship. Turkic spiritual wisdom has no finalized condition, but is dialogical and discursive. Tengrism as a monotheistic religion developed only at the imperial level in aristocratic circles.
Gods
Tengrism is centered on the worship of the Tengri (gods) and the sky deity Tengri (Heaven, God of Heaven). This is similar to Taoism and Tengri is often linked to the Chinese Tian. Kök Tengri (Blue Sky) is the sky deity and often considered as the highest god, similar to Susanoo. It is known as Tangara to the Yakut. While Gök Tengri always remains abstract, never depicted in anthropomorphic or zoomorphic forms, other deities are often personified.
"Itugen, an earth or fertility deity" often accompanied Tengri.
The total number of deities believed to exist varies from population to population. Deities may be related to natural aspects of the world, such as earth, water, fire, the sun, the moon, stars, air, clouds, wind, storms, thunder and lightning, and rain and rainbows. Animals were thought to be totemistic symbols for specific gods, like the sheep being associated with fire, cows with water, horses with wind, and camels with earth.
Other deities include:
Umay (The Turkic root umāy originally meant 'placenta, afterbirth') is the goddess of fertility and virginity. Umay resembles earth-mother goddesses found in various other world religions and is the daughter of Tengri.
Öd Tengri is the god of time. However, he is not discussed often in Tengrist texts.
Boz Tengri, like Öd Tengri, is not known much. He is seen as the god of the grounds and steppes and is a son of Kök Tengri.
Kayra is the primordial god of highest sky, upper air, space, atmosphere, light, and life, and is a son of Kök Tengri.
Ülgen is the son of Kayra and Umay and is the god of goodness. The Aruğ (Arı) denotes "good spirits" in Turkic and Altaic mythology. They are under the order of Ülgen and do good things on earth.
Mergen is the son of Kayra and the brother of Ülgen. He represents mind and intelligence and sits on the seventh floor of the sky.
Erlik is the god of death and the underworld, known as Tamag.
Ay Dede is the moon god.
Another god is Natigai, who was the god of pregnancy, children, livestock, wives, and health.
The highest group in the pantheon consisted of 99 tngri (55 of them benevolent or "white" and 44 terrifying or "black"); 77 "earth-spirits"; and others. The tngri were called upon only by leaders and great shamans and were common to all the clans. After these, three groups of ancestral spirits dominated. The "Lord-Spirits" were the souls of clan leaders to whom any member of a clan could appeal for physical or spiritual help. The "Protector-Spirits" included the souls of great shamans and shamanesses. The "Guardian-Spirits" were made up of the souls of smaller shamans and shamanesses and were associated with a specific locality (including mountains, rivers, etc.) in the clan's territory. Non-human beings (İye), neither necessarily personified nor deitified, are revered as sacred essence of things. These beings include natural phenomena such as sacred trees or mountains.
Three-world cosmology
The Tengrist cosmology proposes a division between the upper worlds (heaven), the Earth, and the world of darkness (underworld). These worlds are inhabited by different beings, often spirits or deities. A shaman (kam) could through mental powers communicate with these spirits. The worlds are not entirely separated, they have constant influence on the Earth.
In Turkic mythology within Siberian Central Asian religious systems there is the "celestial world", the ground to which "Earth-Water" (Yer-Su) belongs too, and the "underworld" ruled by the spirits beneath the earth. They are connected through the "Tree of Worlds" or Tree of Life in the center of the worlds.
The celestial and the subterranean world are divided into seven layers, although there are variations (the underworld sometimes nine layers and the celestial world 17 layers). Shamans can recognize entries to travel into these realms. In the multiples of these realms, there are beings, living just like humans on the earth. They also have their own respected souls and shamans and nature spirits. Sometimes these beings visit the earth, but are invisible to people. They manifest themselves only in a strange sizzling fire or a bark to the shaman.
Heavenly world
The heavens are inhabited by righteous souls, the Creator and the protector deities. The celestial world has many similarities with the earth, but as undefiled by humans. There is a healthy, untouched nature here, and the natives of this place have never deviated from the traditions of their ancestors. This world is much brighter than the earth and is under the auspices of Ulgen another son of Tengri. Shamans can also visit this world.
On some days, the doors of this heavenly world are opened and the light shines through the clouds. During this moment, the prayers of the shamans are most influential. A shaman performs his imaginary journey, which takes him to the heavens, by riding a black bird, a deer or a horse or by going into the shape into these animals. Otherwise he may scale the World-Tree or pass the rainbow to reach the heavenly world.
Subterranean world
The underworld is the abode of wicked souls, devils and evil deities. There are many similarities between the earth and the underworld and its inhabitants resemble humans, but have only two souls instead of three. They lack the "Ami soul", that produces body temperature and allows breathing. Therefore, they are pale and their blood is dark. The sun and the moon of the underworld give far less light than the sun and the moon of the earth. There are also forests, rivers and settlements underground.
Erlik Khan (Mongolian: Erleg Khan), one of the sons of Tengri, is the ruler of the underworld. He controls the souls here, some of them waiting to be reborn again. Extremely evil souls were believed to be extinguished forever in Ela Guren. If a sick human is not dead yet, a shaman can move to the underworld to negotiate with Erlik to bring the person back to life. If he fails, the person dies.
Souls
It is believed that people and animals have many souls. Generally, each person is considered to have three souls, but the names, characteristics and numbers of the souls may be different among some of the tribes: For example, Samoyeds, a Uralic tribe living in the north of Siberia, believe that women consist of four and men of five souls. Since animals also have souls, humans must respect animals.
According to Paulsen and Jultkratz, who conducted research in North America, North Asia and Central Asia, two souls of this belief are the same to all people:
Nefes (Breath or Nafs, life or bodily spirit)
Shadow soul / Free soul
There are many different names for human souls among the Turkic and the Mongolic peoples, but their features and meanings have not been adequately researched yet.
Among Turks: Özüt, Süne, Kut, Sür, Salkin, Tin, Körmös, Yula
Among Mongols: Sünesün, Amin, Kut, Sülde
In addition to these spirits, Jean Paul Roux draws attention to the "Özkonuk" spirit mentioned in the writings from the Buddhist periods of the Uighurs.
Julie Stewart, who devoted her life to research in Mongolia described the belief in the soul in one of her articles:
Amin: Provides breathing and body temperature. It is the soul which invigorates. (The Turkish counterpart is probably Özüt)
Sünesün: Outside of the body, this soul moves through water. It is also the part of soul, which reincarnates. After a human died, this part of the soul moves to the world-tree. When it is reborn, it comes out of a source and enters the new-born. (Also called Süne ruhu among Turks)
Sülde: It is the soul of the self that gives a person a personality. If the other souls leave the body, they only loss consciousness, but if this soul leaves the body, the human dies. This soul resides in nature after death and is not reborn.
Anthropology
Humans are the product of (father) heaven and (mother) earth. Records of Old Turkish inscriptions tell about the beginning of humans as follows:
By that, Tengrism favors an ecocentric theological system over an anthropocentric one. Humans are considered to be part of nature rather than above. Thus, Tengrism sanctifies human's relationship with nature (which might be personified or not) and their relationship with the sky. Contrary to Abrahamic account on anthropogeny, Tengrism doesn't place humans above nature, rather considers mankind as part of nature without any special rank assigned by God.
Some people are believed to inherited spiritual powers, called kam or baksy in Kazakh (shamans). The kam is believed to mediate between nature and humans. A shaman might (mentally) transform herself into an animal, hence, transferring wisdom of animals towards humans.
Creation Story
There is no unified creation story among Tengrist beliefs. Jens Peter Laut states that Tengrism is based on a constantization of the world rather than on traditional doctrines. However, it is possible to reconstruct beliefs by passed down narratives. According to the "Fire Prayer", it is implied that heaven and earth were once one, but separated later, giving birth to Fire (Od). After the separation of heaven and earth, life on earth came into being; through the rains of the heavens, then from earth sproud various life forms. For that reason, heaven is associated with father and earth with mother.
Tengrism and Buddhism
The 17th century Mongolian chronicle Altan Tobchi (Golden Summary) contains references to Tengri. Tengrism was assimilated into Mongolian Buddhism while surviving in purer forms only in far-northern Mongolia. Tengrist formulas and ceremonies were subsumed into the state religion. This is similar to the fusion of Buddhism and Shinto in Japan. The Altan Tobchi contains the following prayer at its very end:
The figure of the God of War (Daichin Tengri) was iconographically depicted in Buddhist-influenced form and carried into battle by certain armies even in the modern era. During the Napoleonic Wars the Kalmyk prince Serebzhab Tyumen (1774-1858) and 500 Kalmyks of his Second Cavalry Regiment, as well as 500 Kalmyks of the First Regiment of Prince Jamba-Taishi Tundutov, carried the yellow banner of Daichin Tengri (as well as Okhin Tengri) through the battles of Borodino, Warsaw, Leipzig, Fère-Champenoise (1814) as well as the capture of Paris. In early 1921 the Buddhist Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg (1886-1921) was reportedly recognized as the God of War (Daichin Tengri) by the Bogd Khan of Mongolia. James Palmer in his book "The Bloody White Baron" quotes Ossendowski who claims that Baron Ungern's imminent death in 130 days was foretold on three separate occasions. First by two monks in the "Shrine of Prophecies" of Urga (Ulaanbaatar) who cast dice and came up with the number 130, then by the Bogd Khan himself who said "You will not die but you will be incarnated in the highest form of being. Remember that, Incarnated God of War, Khan of grateful Mongolia" and finally by a female shaman in the ger of the Buryat prince Djambolon. Ossendowski relates:
Tengrism and Islam
Tengrism is based on personal relationship with the gods and spirits and personal experiences, which cannot be fixiated in writings; thus there can be no prophet, holy scripture, place of worship, clergy, dogma, rite and prayers. In contrast, orthodox Islam is based on a written corpus. Doctrines and religious law derive from the Quran and are explained by hadith. In this regard, both belief systems are fundamentally distinct.
When Turks converted to Islam, they probably assimilated their beliefs to Islam via Sufism, identifying Dervishes as something akin to shamans. In the writings of Ahmad Yasawi, both Tengrist elements as well as Islamic themes can be found. For example, Muhammad features as the prototype of human's way to unite with God, while simultaneously referring to God as both kok tangir (Gök Tengri) or Allah. According to Yasawi, humans should seek to purify their soul to harmonize with God and the world. Turkic and Mongolic peoples in Central Asian largely converted to Islam during the fourteenth century. However, they were not focusing on the laws, memorization and conformity offered by Islam, but were focused on the inwardly and personal experience. Thus, many scholars argued for a syncretism between Orthodox-Islam, Sufism, and pre-Islamic Turkic religion.
Recently, the syncretism-theory has been challenged. Scholars argued that an orthodox Islam simply did not existed during the Medieval period and has been a product of Modernization, thus there has been no strong distinction between Islam and Pre-Islamic Turkic beliefs when the first Turkic empires converted. First contact between shamanistic Turks and Islam took place during the Battle of Talas against the Chinese Tang dynasty. Many shamanistic beliefs were considered as genuinely Islamic by many average Muslims and are still prevalent today. Turkic Tengrism further influenced parts of Sufism and Folk Islam, especially Alevism with Bektashi Order, whose affiliation to Islam became disputed in the late Ottoman period.
Modern Tengrists see themselves as separate from the Abrahamic religions. According to some modern believers, by praying to the god of Islam the Turkic peoples would give their energy to the Jews and not to themselves (Aron Atabek). It excludes the experiences of other nations, but offers Semitic history as if it were the history of all humanity. The principle of submission (both in Islam as well as in Christianity) is disregarded as one of the major failings. It allows rich people to abuse the ordinary people and makes human development stagnant. They advocate Turanism and abandonment of Islam as an Arab religion (Nihal Atsız and others). Prayer from the heart can only be in native language, not Arabic. On the contrary, others assert that Tengri is indeed synonymous with Allah and that Turkic ancestors did not leave their former belief behind, but simply accepted Allah as new expression for Tengri. Shoqan Walikhanov asserts, only the names but not the thoughts became Islamic. Thus, "Gök Tengri" (the "blue Sky") was called Allah, the "spirit of the earth" Shaitan, demons became div, peri or jinn, but the idea behind them remained shamanic.
Aron Atabek draws attention to how the Islamization of the Kazakhs and other Turkic peoples was carried out: runic letters were destroyed, physically persecuted shamans, national musical instruments were burned and playing on them was condemned, etc.
Muslim Turkic scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari, around the year 1075, whom he considered Tengrists as "infidel", offered this view: "The infidels — may God destroy them! — call the sky Tengri, also anything that is imposing in their eyes call Tengri, such as a great mountain or tree, and they bow down to such things."
Sociologist Rakhat Achylova studied how aspects of Tengrism were adopted into a Kyrgyz form of Islam.
Tengrism and Christianity
Hulegu Khan sent a letter in Latin to King Louis IX of France on April 10, 1262, from his capital Maragheh in Iran. Kept in the Vienna National Library as MS 339 it is both an invitation for joint operations against the Mamluks as well as an imperious command to submit. The letter provides key insights into the Mongols' understanding of Tengrism's relationship to Christianity as well as furnishing one of the first Latin transcriptions of Tengri. Only a few sentences from the lengthy letter are shown below (those with relevancy to Tengrism):
The letter largely propounds the usual Mongol ideology and understanding of Tengrism with mentions of the supreme shaman Kokochu Teb Tengri. All meanings of Tengri including the sky, the most high God and "a god" are implied in the letter. Jesus Christ is called Misicatengrin or Messiah-Tengri in the letter. The Misica is from Syriac mshiha (Messiah, Christ) as opposed to Arabic masih. Another Syriac word in the letter is Barachmar (greetings). This points to the well-known Nestorian heritage within the Mongol Empire which used Syriac as its liturgical language. The Mongolian letter of Arghun Khan to Pope Nicholas IV (1290) also uses the word Misica for Christ. William of Rubruck reported that Arig Boke, brother of Hulegu Khan, used the word Messiah near Karakorum in 1254 (Then they began to blaspheme against Christ, but Arabuccha stopped them saying: "You must not speak so, for we know that the Messiah is God"). There are elements of syncretism between Tengrism and Nestorian Christianity with overlapping notions of monotheism and a traditional view of Christ as Misicatengrin probably dating back to the Keraite conversion in 1007. In Hulegu's letter Tengrism takes the overarching, non-dogmatic role and contains Nestorianism as a compatible subset, in line with the religious pluralism practiced by the Mongols. Hulegu himself was not strictly a Christian, although his wife, his general Kitbuqa and mother were Nestorians. He was a Tengriist whose Nestorian interests were of the Mongol, syncretic type. His successor Abaqa Khan would take part in the Ninth Crusade with the future King Edward of England in 1271 and also storm the Krak des Chevaliers in February 1281 with the Hospitallers of Margat.
Due to the claim that there is only one eternal Tengri in heaven, many Christians believed Tengri refers to the Christian God. However, it is clear from a letter by Güyük Khan, sent to the Pope, that the Mongols won't convert to Christianity, because they wouldn't obey the word of Möngke Tengri (Eternal God).
Contemporary Age
Mongolia
In Mongolia, Tengrism has not died out and is still practised by about 2.5 percent of the population. The Western peoples and Southern peoples are known to have the highest number of Tengrism practitioners. In Mongolian, Tengrism is often referred to as “бөө мөргөл” or “böö mörgöl”.
In an interview about Mongolian shamanism, Tengrism is explained as the belief that the universe has its own order, that no one could change that order, and that one can only live in harmony with it by understanding the heavenly powers and how it affects human lives, and regulating one's life according to that. The "Great Khan" is quoted saying: "I am doing this work with the grace of the Eternal Heaven.", which is interpreted as stating that his actions are not accidental, but that the universe was calculated to be appropriate for doing such act.
Modern revival
"Tengrism" is the term for a revival of Central Asian shamanism after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
In Kyrgyzstan, Tengrism was suggested as a Pan-Turkic national ideology following the 2005 presidential elections by an ideological committee chaired by state secretary Dastan Sarygulov. Kyrgyzstan counts not less than 50,000 followers of Tengri today.
Murat Auezov, former head of the National Public Library of Kazakhstan, regards Tengrism as a manifestation of an worldview in which mankind is identified with nature, in contrast to anthropocentric religions.
According to Kazakh writer Ulyana Fatyanova, Tengrism doesn't have a specific set of laws, the laws of Tengri can't be broken, as Tengri's laws are the laws of the universe (which might include physics, karma, spirits, gods and so on.)
See also
Nardoqan
Heaven worship
Hungarian Native Faith
Manzan Gurme Toodei
Religion in China
List of Tengrist movements
List of Tengrist states and dynasties
Uralic neopaganism
Footnotes
Bibliography
Secondary sources
—— (2005). 'Political Background of the Old Turkic Religion' in: Oelschlägel, Nentwig, Taube (eds), "Roter Altai, gib dein Echo!" (FS Taube), Leipzig, pp. 260–65.
Vol. 149 (149-1), pp. 49–82; Vol. 149 (149-2), pp. 197–230; Vol. 150 (150-1), pp. 27–54; Vol. 150 (150-2), pp. 173–212.
——. Tengri. In: Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. 13, pp. 9080–82.
Modern Tengrist authors
Further reading
Shaimerdinova, N. "Tengrism in the life of Turkic peoples". In: Religion and State in the Altaic World: Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference (PIAC), Friedensau, Germany, August 18–23, 2019. Edited by Oliver Corff, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2022, pp. 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110730562-016
External links
International Fund of Tengri Research — official website
TÜRIK BITIG — Turkic Inscriptions and Manuscripts, and Learn Old Turkic Writings — website of Language Committee of Ministry of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan
Turkic mythology
Asian shamanism
Asian ethnic religion
Polytheism
Mongol mythology
Mongolian shamanism
Siberian shamanism |
4504326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20Assembly%20of%20the%20British%20Virgin%20Islands | House of Assembly of the British Virgin Islands | The House of Assembly of the British Virgin Islands, until 2007 known as the Legislative Council, has 15 members: 13 directly elected for four-year terms (nine in single-seat constituencies and four "at large"), and two ex officio members (the Attorney General and a Speaker chosen from outside the house).
Sittings of the House of Assembly are divided into "terms" with each term following from a general election. The House of Assembly is presently sitting its fourth term, but the first term of the House of Assembly followed the 15th term of the old Legislative Council. Accordingly, in aggregate the legislature is sitting its 19th term since the restoration of democracy in the Territory. Each term has a series of "sittings". At the end of each sitting the House is either prorogued until the next sitting, or dissolved for a general election.
The Corine George-Massicote was elected Speaker of the House on 26 May 2022. The official record is Hansard.
Latest elections
History
The history of legislatures in the British Virgin Islands can be roughly divided into two: colonial legislatures in the 18th and 19th centuries, and then a hiatus, followed by the modern legislature after the re-introduction of democracy in 1950.
Colonial legislatures
There was no attempt to impose any form of local legislature prior to the British taking control of the islands in 1672. But in 1735 the Governor of the Leeward Islands, William Matthew, sought to establish executive councils and legislative assemblies in Virgin Gorda and Tortola. The assemblies were to consist of nine members, elected by the free inhabitants of the islands. After the elections, it was determined that the governor had no such power and therefore the assemblies were ultra vires and were never called into session (although the councils did take up their duties).
During the 18th and 19th centuries the British Virgin Islands had a number of legislative councils, but these proved to be largely ineffective, and the last one was formally dissolved in 1901.
Between 1747 and 1754 Lieutenant Governor James Purcell pressed for some form of formal government in the British Virgin Islands, but in this he was rebuffed by Governor George Thomas. But by 1773 the new Leeward Islands Governor, Sir Ralph Payne, was instructed to introduce a system of representative government in the Virgin Islands, consisting of a governor, an appointed council, and an elected assembly. On 30 November 1773 legislation was introduced which provided for, amongst other things, an eleven-member assembly (eight for Tortola, two for Virgin Gorda and one for Jost Van Dyke), with various qualification to vote or to stand. The assembly opened on 31 January 1774, but got off to an inauspicious start. After an impassioned speech from Governor Payne about the need for immediate action to pass laws for good government, the legislature (consisting of plantation owners) almost immediately fell into stalemate with the governor over a tax bill and confirmation of land titles. Accordingly, the legislature refused to pass legislation to establish a court system. Powers were eventually conferred on the governor to create a court system directly, which led to further mistrust and division between the plantation owners in the legislature on the one hand, and the governor and the newly appointed judge on the other.
In around 1783 the legislature was reconstituted with 15 members and districts were redrawn, and a certain amount of détente emerged. In 1815 (after the abolition of the trade in African slaves, but prior to the abolition of slavery itself) the territory was inhabited by an increasing number of free blacks who petitioned for civil rights, and in 1818 their request was granted and free black men were permitted to vote, although they could still only vote for white landowners. It appears that this may not have been so much of a great leap forward in civil rights so much as an attempt to shore up interest in the legislature, which was being increasingly abandoned and marginalised by the plantation owners at this time.
By 1867, when the Territory was struck by a fierce hurricane, "all pretence to the operation of a Legislative Council in which there were elected representatives came to an end". Legislation was passed reconstituting the assembly again so that it consisted of three official members and three appointed members, but with no elections. In 1871 a single federal colony consisting of all the Leeward Islands was created, and tellingly the Virgin Islands was not given a seat at this assembly. In 1902 the Federal Council formally abolished the local Virgin Islands legislature and council, neither of which had met for many years by that time. It was grimly noted that the legislature "had practically nothing of any real importance ... to legislate about and the functions of the executive was the maintenance of law and order and the collection of taxes from miserably poor people".
1950 onwards
The first Legislative Council of modern times was formed in 1950 pursuant to the Constitution Act, 1950. It had eight members: two ex officio members, two nominated members and four elected members. Requirements for standing for election included income, property, and a deposit (forfeited with failure to garner a certain percentage of votes). The four members were elected in 1950 on a Territory-wide basis.
In 1954 the existing constitutional provisions were replaced by the Constitution and Elections Ordinance, 1954 which expanded the elected membership to six, divided amongst five district seats (with Road Town having two representatives).
The 1967 Constitution expanded the elected membership to seven, with each district having a single representative. In 1977 the Elections Ordinance increased the number of district seats to nine.
Pursuant to the Elections Act, 1994 the British Virgin Islands introduced four Territorial at-large seats in addition to the nine district seats, making a total of 13 elected members to sit alongside the two ex officio members (the Speaker and the Attorney General). The introduction of the Territorial at-large seats was bitterly opposed by the Chief Minister of the day, Lavity Stoutt.
Modern legislatures
Qualifications
Qualifications for membership
Qualifications to be elected as a member of the House of Assembly are now regulated by article 65 of the Constitution (there are no similar restrictions in relation to the two appointed members). Broadly speaking this requires that the candidate must be a second generation Belonger, and must either be domiciled in the British Virgin Islands or have completed a period of residence.
In order to be elected as a member of the House, a person must either be a Virgin Islander (as defined) over the age of 21, and otherwise qualified to vote in the Territory. For these purposes a "Virgin Islander" means a Belonger who is either:
a person who was born in the British Virgin Islands to a mother or father who was a British Overseas Territories Citizen (by birth or descent);
a person who was born in the British Virgin Islands to a mother or father who was also a Belonger (by birth or descent); or
a person who was born outside of the British Virgin Islands to a mother or father who was also a Belonger (by birth or descent) provided that one of his or grandparents also belonged to the British Virgin Islands by birth.
A person may also be qualified to stand for election if they were qualified to stand under the previous Constitution on the date of the last election before it was repealed. The restrictions under the earlier constitution were much more relaxed (a person only needed to be a Belonger, over the age of 21, and resident and domiciled in the British Virgin Islands), and preserving them was intended to preserve the right of any sitting members of the House from accidentally being disqualified. However, the wording used suggests that any person who was so qualified on the day the 2007 constitution came into effect remains so qualified (i.e. any Belonger who was born before 1986 and was resident and domiciled in the British Virgin Islands on the date the 2007 constitution came into effect).
However, a person shall be disqualified from being elected (regardless of where they are born) if they are not domiciled in the British Virgin Islands unless:
in the case of a person who has never been domiciled in the British Virgin Islands, they have resided in the Territory for at least 5 years immediately before the date of their nomination for election; or
in the case of a person who was formerly domiciled in the British Virgin Islands, but have lived outside of the Territory for at least 10 years, they have resided in the Territory for at least 3 years immediately before the date of their nomination for election.
The High Court has jurisdiction to hear and determine any questions relating to the eligibility of a person to stand for election as a member. An application to the court may be made by any person who is (a) a registered voter in the relevant district, (b) a person who was a candidate in that district, or (c) the Attorney General.
There are no residency or similar restrictions as to who may stand for any particular district seat. Accordingly, a candidate could stand for election in a district where they did not live, and, theoretically, had never been to.
Disqualifications from membership
A person is disqualified from being elected as a member of the House if:
they hold any public office;
they are declared bankrupt in any country;
they are adjudged to be of unsound mind in any country;
a sentence of death has been imposed upon them, or if they have served a term of imprisonment of at least 12 months within the previous five years;
they are disqualified or suspended under the laws of the British Virgin Islands relating to elections offences; or
they are a party to, or a partner in a firm, or director or manager of company, with any contract with the Government for a public service (unless they have published a notice in the Gazette or other British Virgin Islands newspaper disclosing the nature of the contract and their interest).
Qualifications for voters
Qualifications to be registered as a voter in the British Virgin Islands are now regulated by article 68 of the Constitution. A person is qualified to vote if they are a Belonger aged 18 or older, and are resident in either the British Virgin Islands or the United States Virgin Islands.
However a person is disqualified from voting if:
they are adjudged to be of unsound mind under British Virgin Islands law;
a sentence of death has been imposed upon them, or if they are serving a term of imprisonment of at least 12 months; or
they are disqualified or suspended under the laws of the British Virgin Islands relating to elections offences.
Persons are registered to vote in the Territorial district which they reside within.
District seats
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The current district seats are as follows:
At-large seats
At-large seats were reintroduced in 1994 pursuant to the Elections Act, 1994. The At-large seats were in addition to the District seats. Candidates had been elected to At-large seats in the 1950 general election, but not subsequently.
At present four seats in the House of Assembly are elected on a Territory-wide basis and these are referred to as the At-large seats. Accordingly, at each general election every voter may cast up to five votes: one in relation to the representative for their District, and up to four in favour of candidates standing for the At-large seats (each voter may only vote for any candidate one time - it would not be possible to vote for the same At-large candidate four times). Accordingly, in recent times the At-large seats have tended to work as a swing vote - if one party is more popular than the other Territory-wide, then they will normally win most or all of the At-large seats, which helps ensure that the winning party has a working majority.
The present At-large representatives in the House of Assembly are Sherie de Castro, Neville Smith, Shereen Flax-Charles and Carvin Malone (all elected for the first time in 2019, and all members of the ruling Virgin Islands Party).
Terms
The House of Assembly normally sits in four-year terms. A new term must commence within three months of the dissolution of the House from the previous term. The Governor, acting in accordance with the advice of the Premier, may dissolve the House at any time (thereby calling a "snap election"). However the Governor must dissolve the House within four years of the date when the House first meets after a general election unless it has been dissolved sooner. Once the House is dissolved a general election must be held after at least 21 days, but not more than two months after the dissolution of the House. The next sitting of the House must commence within three months of the dissolution (i.e. a minimum of 28 days and a maximum of 41 days after the general election, depending upon the date of dissolution and the calendar date that the election fell upon).
The House must also be prorogued at least once per calendar year, and this is normally done over the summer.
Powers
The principal power of the House of Assembly is as a legislature. The House is vested with power to enact laws for the Territory. The House also, by implication, has power to amend and revoke existing laws. However, no Bill may be brought before the House, and the House shall not proceed on any Bill, which makes provision for imposing or increasing any tax, or imposing or increasing any charge on the revenues or other funds of the Territory except upon the recommendation of the Minister of Finance.
In 2014 the House of Assembly passed the Law Revision Act, 2014. That legislation purports to confer direct power on the Attorney General to amend primary legislation, ostensibly to tidy up and modernise existing laws. However, it is not yet clear whether the House of Assembly has constitutional power to delegate its law making (and law amending) powers in this manner.
Procedures
A quorum in the House is constituted by seven members. If a sufficient number of members leave a sitting session and do not return such that the number remaining falls below a quorum, the sitting shall be adjourned.
All questions decided by the House are decided by a majority of votes. However, on certain specific matters, only the elected members of the House are eligible to vote:
in an election of the Speaker or Deputy Speaker;
on a motion for the removal of the Speaker or Deputy Speaker; or
on a motion of no confidence.
The House has power to make, amend and revoke Standing Orders for the regulation and orderly conduct of its own business and the dispatch of business. The Speaker or, in her absence, the Deputy Speaker, presides over proceedings. Where both the Speaker and Deputy Speaker are absent, the members of the House may choose any one from amongst their number who is not a Minister to preside.
See also
List of speakers of the House of Assembly of the British Virgin Islands
References
External links
Virgin Islands
British Virgin Islands
Government of the British Virgin Islands |
4504417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briskeby%20Stadion | Briskeby Stadion | Briskeby Stadion, previously known as Briskeby gressbane, is an all-seater football stadium located at Briskebyen in Hamar, Norway. It is home to the Norwegian First Division side Hamarkameratene (Ham-Kam) and is owned by Hamar Municipality. The venue has artificial turf, three stands and a capacity for 8,068 spectators. It was used for the 1938 Norwegian Football Cup Final—which saw the venue's record 14,500 spectators—and has also hosted five Norway national under-21 football team matches between 1984 and 2011.
Construction started in 1934 and the venue opened on 28 June 1936 as the first home venue for Briskebyen FL. The club merged with Hamar AIL in 1946 to form Ham-Kam. The new club has played since 1970 played 22 seasons in the top tier, having been relegated eight times, most recently in 2008. Ham-Kam's record home attendance is 11,500, dating from a 1976 match against Lillestrøm. In 1984, the club house was rebuilt with luxury boxes and a new 2,400-seat East Stand was built. The investments lead the club into financial distress, and in 1993 the municipality had to purchase the venue to save the club. Planning of a new or upgraded venue started in 2001, construction started in 2007 and the first stage was completed the following year. It cost 111 million Norwegian krone (NOK), having suffered large cost overruns.
History
Construction and early years
Freidig was established in 1918 as a local team for Briskebyen in what was then the municipality of Vang. At the time there was a severe lack of pitches in Hamar, so the club was forced to sneak into unused venues and play until they were chased by the groundskeeper. The club was accepted as a member of the Football Association of Norway (NFF) in 1927, changing its name to Briskebyen FL. This forced it to formalize its pitch renting so it would have a single home venue for each season. In 1928 and 1929, it played at Vangsbanen, from 1930 through 1933 at Ottestad bane, and from 1934 at Hamar stadion.
As the club was dissatisfied with this arrangement, it launched plans to establish its own venues. First it needed to secure a lot, and in the late 1920s lied its eyes on a parcel of land owned by Hamar Jernstøperi. However, the lot was sold to Oplandske Kreditbank in 1930 and the club had to negotiate purchasing the lot from the bank. The club established a new committee to look into the stadium issue. Hamar IL was invited to become part-owner of the venue, but they chose to remain at Hamar stadion. As Briskebyen was not able to secure a partner to share the costs with, opposition towards the project grew within the club. Yet, the decision to build the venue was taken by Briskebyen FL's annual meeting on 15 April 1934, with construction starting on 26 April.
The venue was estimated to cost NOK 26,500. Financing included a NOK 3,000 grant from NFF, NOK 1,500 from the municipality and NOK 1,800 from the club. The rest was secured through various charity events, 320 of 1,500-man-days being volunteer work and a NOK 8,000 loan from NFF. Construction in 1934 consisted of removing of earthwork and laying sewer pipes. The following year, of rock was blasted and the pitch was sown on 3 and 4 September. Construction of the terraces and dressing rooms took place in 1936. Work was not concluded until the morning of the inauguration match on 28 June 1936, when the last fence was mounted. Briskeby was the first grass pitch in Hedmark and was inaugurated with a match against Lyn, who won 4–1. The venue cost NOK 32,036.28, leaving the club with a debt of NOK 18,688.93. The venue was awarded the 1938 Norwegian Football Cup Final, which required additional upgrades, largely conducted through volunteer work.
The venue was confiscated by the German occupation forces during World War II, who built a cold storage facility south of the pitch. In 1945, after five years of occupation, the pitch was in a detrimental state. The stadium received a major renovation, including a new pitch and replacing half the wooden terraces with concrete stands. The cold facility was converted to a club house and a basement was dug out and used as a changing room. In 1946, parts of Vang, including Briskebyen, were amalgamated with Hamar. The same year, Hamar Municipality signed an agreement with the club whereby municipal subsidies would cover the operating costs in exchange for the club allocating training time to other clubs.
Debt and municipalization
In 1982, the club decided that it would build a new 2,400-seat stand on the eastern long side. A low construction cost was secured because the construction industry was going through a slump. The costs were covered by NOK 2.5 million in national lottery grants and NOK 2 million in loan, which was planned to be repaid through increased sponsor and ticket revenues from increased attendance. The upgrade also included a reconstruction of the club house to facilitate luxury boxes. They were made available for sponsors, who were allowed to bring guests. The boxes and the vestibule became an important informal meeting area for the town's political and business elite.
The new stand became a financial burden for the club. Operating costs increased after Norwegian clubs were allowed to wage players from 1984. In addition, interest rates rose quickly, making the club unable to meet its financial obligations. At the same time, the club experienced falling attendance. In 1985, the club's auditor warned that the club was heading into financial distress. In 1986, the club spent NOK 1 million to build terraces between the club house and the pitch on the northern short side, and terraces on the southern short side. In 1990, Hamar Municipality gave Ham-Kam a grant of NOK 1.7 million in an attempt to save the club's finances, in part because of the club's debt on the venue.
In 1993, Ham-Kam proposed selling the stadium, including its lot, for NOK 6 million, to pay off its debt. In addition, NFF required that the stadium be renovated for NOK 2 million. The club launched the sales plans to the municipality in September 1993, stating that if they did not purchase the venue, the club would probably be forced to file for bankruptcy. At the time, Lillestrøm and Brann were the only other top division clubs to own their own stadiums. Ham-Kam's three star players, Vegard Skogheim, Petter Belsvik and Ståle Solbakken, threatened to sign with other clubs within days unless the municipality saved the club.
On 20 October 1993, the municipal council voted in favor of purchasing the stadium. The proposal was supported by the Labour Party and Centre Party, who had 28 of 49 councilors, but opposed by the rest of the council. Along with two banks, the municipality established a limited company which would own the venue. The municipality and banks would pay for the club's debt of NOK 5.4 million, and take over the stadium's operating costs of roughly NOK 1 million per year. Ham-Kam would have to pay rent on the stadium. The transaction took place on 26 January 1994, and included a clause granting Ham-Kam the right to buy back the stadium at a later date. The municipality issued a loan of NOK 4 million to Ham-Kam in 2003 to allow them to install floodlighting at Briskeby.
Stadion
By 2001 NFF was in the process of implementing new stadium requirements in the top leagues, and Briskeby would no longer be permitted to be used in the top tier. Ham-Kam entered an alliance with Totalprosjekt—a real estate development company working on Lillestrøm's Åråsen Stadion—who presented a concept to finance a new venue: The municipality would transfer property to a limited company jointly owned by the municipality and the major sports clubs, the real estate would be re-regulated to increase their value, and the company would use this capital to build a new professional and a new recreational stadium. Parallel with this, a municipal commission made a report that recommended a consolidation in the number of venues in town and the conversion of gravel and grass fields to artificial turf. The commission recommended that a new professional football venue be built either at Briskeby or Hamar stadion.
Hamar Sportsanlegg (HSA) was established in 2003 to execute the plan. It was owned 34 percent by the municipality, and 22 percent each by Ham-Kam, Hamar IL and Storhamar Dragons. In 2004, Storhamar's share was transferred to Hamar Olympiske Anlegg, a municipal company which owns Vikingskipet Olympic Arena and Hamar Olympic Amphitheater. A report estimated the technical value of Briskeby to NOK 6 million, while the sales price of the lot was estimated at NOK 30 million. The municipal council voted on 18 February 2004 to transfer the ownership of the two stadiums to the new company. Ham-Kam rented the venues from HSA, with HSA's deficit for the first four years being covered by the municipality. Of the NOK 20.8 million in value transferred to the company, NOK 14.5 million was paid by HSA taking over the municipality's obligation to build a new athletics venue should Hamar stadion be closed, and NOK 5 million was debt.
In October 2004, Totalprosjekt presented the concept Skibladner Stadion, which would have been located on Tjuvholmen, a peninsula which sticks out into Mjøsa. In addition to a 9,000-seat stadium, the project included a cultural center with an 800-seat auditorium and a 22-story hotel. However, Tjvuholmen is a popular recreational areas and a process to regulate the area as such had just been completed. The location would also cause problems for the railway, who wanted to expand Hamar Station. The Tjvuholmen project was rejected by the municipal executive committee on 8 December, and on 16 March 2005, the municipal council voted to continue working on a new venue at Briskeby. This caused Totalproject to leave the project.
In 2004, Biong Arkitekter was contracted to design the stadium, with Byggeråd as structural engineers. Five proposals for Briskeby were launched, estimated to cost between NOK 61 and 150 million. Three of them retained the current alignment and would give a capacity of between 8,800 and 10,200 spectators, and two of these again contained commercial and residential properties within the stadium complex. The two other proposals involved turning the pitch 90 degrees, which would give the least encroachment on neighbor properties. The residents' association demanded that an impact study be made and that more specific plans be presented before municipal approval. The municipality concluded that neither were required. The municipal council passed a regulation plan on 1 February 2006, which involved building a 10,200 seat venue, but with the smaller of the two possible commercial property sizes. The residents' association appealed to the county governor, who reject the appeal on 1 September.
At the time NFF awarded an annual license to clubs which permitted them to play in the top two divisions. This included a series of criteria that the home venue needed to meet. As Briskeby was severely substandard to the criteria, Ham-Kam was required to apply for annual exemptions. These were only awarded to clubs who were actively working on upgrading or building new venues. If an exception was not granted, the club would either be relegated to the Second Division (the third tier), or would have to play their home games at an approved stadium in another town.
In December 2006, HSA sold Briskeby to a new company, Briskeby Gressbane AS (BG), which was owned 50 percent each by Ham-Kam and HSA. Another company, Briskeby Eiendom 1 AS (BE1), was established and owned 66 percent by HSA and 34 percent by BG. The latter was also given 50 percent of the shares in Hamar stadion. BG was non-commercial and was to own the stadium itself, while BE1 was commercial and was to rent out the commercial property. The two shared board, managing director and accountant. In May 2007, NCC was awarded the contract to build the new venue by BG and BE1. Although NCC was NOK 8 million more expensive than the cheapest bid, they offered four months shorter construction time. Briskeby's lot needed to be expanded, which was done by purchasing neighbor lots for NOK 34 million. Hamar stadion and the neighbor lot Fuglsetmyra were sold for NOK 295 million in June 2007, of which NOK 9 million was paid to BG and another NOK 175 million was a guarantee which would be paid after the lot was re-regulated.
Construction was financed through a loan of NOK 218 million from Handelsbanken, which was secured on the revenue which would be generated from the sale of Hamar stadion and Fuglsetmyra. However, the bank was not willing to lend money secured on the basis of sales price of Hamar stadion being based on the re-regulation of the lot. The municipality was pressed on time by the possibility of NFF denying Ham-Kam the right to play at Briskeby. Hamar Energi Holding AS (HEH), which owns Hamar Municipality's share of Eidsiva Energi, had large assets. Both HEH and BE1 had as chair Hans Kolstad, who proposed that HEH could issue a guarantee of NOK 75 million for BG and BE1—which was issued in September 2007. This allowed construction to start, but the project was still under-financed by NOK 50 million. HEH therefore issued another guarantee the same month, for NOK 58.75 million. Because of delays in the regulation work, HEH issued another two guarantees, NOK 60 million in March and NOK 25 million in June 2008.
In August 2007, the stadium was planned to be built in three stages, with a combined budget of NOK 156.6 million. The first stage would involve the northern and western sides and cost NOK 78.4 million, the second stage would involve the eastern side and cost NOK 43.0 million, while the third stage would involve the southern side and cost NOK 35.1 million. After construction started, BG changed two specifications, moving public rest rooms from the basement to the ground floor, and changing the angle of roof. Both of these gave increased construction costs and alteration of the architectural design plans.
During this entire period, BE1 was insolvent. The bank, therefore, required that the entire sales price of Hamar stadion be transferred to BG, even though NOK 50 million was to go to the construction of Børstad Idrettspark (BIP). Therefore, Hamar Municipality decided to finance BIP to secure sufficient funding for Briskeby, essentially subsidizing Briskeby with a further NOK 50 million. In 2007, BG paid NOK 3.4 million in compensation to Ham-Kam for lost ticket sales during the construction time and for the club house, which would be demolished.
In 2008, Ham-Kam tried to sell the naming rights of the stadium for between NOK 5 and 8 million per year, but neither of their main sponsors, Eidsiva Energi and Sparebanken Hedmark, were interested. The first stage of the stadium opened on 10 August 2008, after which further construction was terminated. Stage one cost NOK 92.5 million to build and NOK 19 million for purchase of real estate. By April 2010, BG had combined negative assets, debt and received grants of NOK 240 million. Of this, NOK 78 million was written-off bad debts to BE1 and NOK 19 million was purchase of lots. On 25 September 2009, Hamar Municipality bought HSA, BG, BIP and BE1 for NOK 73,000. In December 2009, the municipality increased the share capital in BG with NOK 16 million and in BE1 with NOK 32 million.
With then opening of the venue, Ham-Kam rented , consisting of of lounges and for its offices, for which the team played NOK 2 to 3 million per year. In the 2010 season, Ham-Kam played in the Second Division, resulting in the entire VIP area remaining unused. Artificial turf was laid on the stadium in August 2011.
In August 2011, an investigation of the HSA affair was initiated by the municipality, with the investigation costing NOK 7 million. The report concluded that a large number of illegal action had been taken in the process: HSA had used money reserved for sport for commercial development; irregular executive work in HEH and lack of correction were conducted after errors were discovered in 2007; important instructions from the municipal council were not followed; illegal executive work was undertaken in the holding companies; BE1 did not file for bankruptcy after it had lost its equity; the use of an unnecessarily complex company structure; violation on the laws of public sector procurements; violation on European Economic Area law on public grants; expensive consulting contracts, without tender, which gave the consultants too much influence on the process; and that the board composition in the companies was in violation with good corporate governance practices.
Facilities
The new section of Briskeby has the same style and building materials as the two other main sports venues in Hamar, Vikingskipet and Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre, which were built for the 1994 Winter Olympics. The venue has capacity for 8,068 spectators and has club seating 600 people. The pitch is artificial turf. Around the pitch are 180 digital advertising board. There are two scoreboard screens. The stands have 13 concession stands, all which are built to allow a view of the pitch while standing in a queue.
Events
The venue was home ground for Briskebyen from its opening. In its inaugural season, the club was newly relegated to Class B, as most of the club's effort had gone to building the venue. From 1937 the club again played in Class A. The venue was also used for matches where a mixed Briskebyen and Hamar IL played friendlies against foreign teams. No official matches were played during the Second World War.
In April 1946, Briskebyen FL merged with Hamar AIL to create Hamarkameratene.
Ham-Kam remained at lower levels in the league system until the 1960s, when it was promoted to the Second Division (then the second tier) after the 1967 season. Ham-Kam was promoted to the First Division (then the top tier) ahead of the 1970 season. They have since played in the top league in the periods 1970–74, 1976–77, 1979, 1981–84, 1986–87, 1992–95, 2004–06 and 2008. The club's eight relegation from the top league is a Norwegian record. After the 2009 season, the club was further relegated to the Second Division, but returned to the First Division (now the second tier) in 2011. For a Ham-Kam match, the record attendance is 11,500, which dates from 27 May 1976 league match against Lillestrøm.
The venue hosted the 1938 Norwegian Football Cup Final on 16 October 1938, where Fredrikstad beat Mjøndalen 3–2. The match attracted 14,500 spectators, which still stands as Briskeby's record attendance. Briskeby has hosted five Norway national under-21 football team matches, having played 0–0 against Poland on 28 August 1984, 3–0 against Switzerland on 2 June 1992, 2–1 against Switzerland on 16 August 2005, 2–1 against Hungary on 28 May 2010 and 1–4 against Sweden on 2 June 2011.
References
Bibliography
External links
Briskeby Stadion - Nordic Stadiums
Notes
Football venues in Norway
Eliteserien venues
Norwegian Cup Final venues
Sports venues in Hamar
1936 establishments in Norway
Event venues established in 1936
Hamarkameratene |
4504649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20Cincinnati%20people | List of University of Cincinnati people | This is a list of encyclopedic people associated with the University of Cincinnati in the United States of America.
Notable alumni
Those listed include graduates of the University, as well as attendees.
David Applebaum, Israeli physician
Frank P. Austin, celebrity interior designer
Jeff Austin, musician, Yonder Mountain String Band
Juan N. Babauta, graduate, governor of United States Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands
Judith Baker, judoka
Theda Bara, silent-film actress
Shari Barkin, pediatrician
John Bardo, educator, President of Wichita State University, Chancellor of Western Carolina University.
John Barrett, graduate, CEO and President of Western & Southern Financial Group
Rachel Barton Butler, playwright
Kathleen Battle, graduate, Grammy Award-winning singer of New York Metropolitan Opera
Shoshana Bean, musical theater graduate, Broadway actress
Stanley Rossiter Benedict, inventor of Benedict's reagent
Raoul Berger, professor at the UC Berkeley School of Law and Harvard Law School, early theorist of originalism
Thomas Berger, A&S graduate, author of Little Big Man
Matt Berninger, lead vocalist and founder of band The National
Theodore Berry, graduate, Mayor of Cincinnati 1972–76; member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity
Michael Bierut, DAAP graduate, partner at Pentagram New York
John Shaw Billings, M.D. 1860, began process to organize world's medical literature, now PubMed
Eula Bingham, occupational health scientist
Lee Bowman, graduate, actor in films such as Love Affair, Cover Girl and Bataan
Barnett R. Brickner, rabbi
Frank Brogan, Chancellor of State University System of Florida; former President of Florida Atlantic University
Henry T. Brown, chemical engineer; first African American to earn a BS degree in chemical engineering at the University of Cincinnati
Robert Burck, "naked cowboy" of Times Square in New York City; NYC mayoral candidate
Liz Callaway, singer and actress
David Canary, A&S graduate, multiple Emmy-winning actor on All My Children since 1983
Salmon P. Chase, 23rd Governor of Ohio, U.S. Treasury Secretary 1861–64, Chief Justice 1864-73
Robin T. Cotton, ENT specialist and professor
Dennis Courtney, aka Denis Beaulne, Broadway actor (Peter Pan, Starlight Express, director, choreographer
Chase Crawford, actor and producer
E. Jocob Crull, Montana politician and colonel, rival of Jennette Rankin (first female member of U.S. Congress)
Cherien Dabis, filmmaker, screenwriter, The L Word, Amreeka
David Daniels, singer
Charles G. Dawes, law graduate, 30th Vice President of the United States, winner of Nobel Peace Prize
Scott Devendorf, bass guitarist, founder of band The National
Jonathan Dever, former member of Ohio House of Representatives
Vinod Dham, graduate, "father" of Pentium computer chip (MS Eng, 77)
John Price Durbin, Chaplain of the Senate, president of Dickinson College
Jennifer Eberhardt, social psychologist, MacArthur Fellow
Randy Edelman, music graduate, composer of movie scores, received BMI's Outstanding Career Achievement Award
Margaret Elizabeth Egan, librarian and communication scholar
Suzanne Farrell, prima ballerina, recipient of Kennedy Center Honors and Presidential Medal of Freedom
Hattie V. Feger, professor of education at Clark Atlanta University, 1931-1944
Abraham J. Feldman (1893–1977), rabbi
Mark "Markiplier" Fischbach, YouTube personality/media star
Stephen Flaherty, music graduate, Tony-winning composer (Ragtime, Once on This Island)
Frederick W. Franz, Jehovah's Witness, president of Watchtower Society
Paul Gilger, architecture graduate, architect, conceived Jerry Herman musical revue Showtune, designed Industrial Light & Magic film studio for George Lucas
Samuel H. Goldenson, rabbi
Leon Goldman, pioneer in laser medicine
Alexander D. Goode, one of Four Chaplains
Michael Graves, architecture graduate, architect
Moses J. Gries, rabbi
Louis Grossmann, rabbi
Michael Gruber, stage actor, singer, and dancer
Beth Gylys, poet and professor
Victor H. Haas, 1st Director of NIAID
Albert Hague, music graduate, composer of score for How the Grinch Stole Christmas, won nine Tony Awards for Redhead in 1959
Victor W. Hall, U.S. Navy Rear Admiral
Hollis Hammonds, artist and academic
Earl Hamner, graduate, writer, creator of The Waltons
Walt Handelsman, A&S graduate, Pulitzer Prize-winning political cartoonist
Dorian Harewood, drama graduate, film and television actor, voice artist
Randy Harrison, drama graduate, actor, Queer as Folk
Mary Hecht, BA 1952, American-born Canadian sculptor
James G. Heller, rabbi and composer
Maximilian Heller, rabbi
Bob Herbold, former Microsoft COO
Louise McCarren Herring, engineering graduate, pioneer of non-profit cooperative credit union movement
Al Hirt, trumpeter and bandleader
Ronald Howes, inventor of Easy-Bake Oven
Sarah Hutchings, composer
Bruce Edwards Ivins, microbiologist; key suspect in 2001 anthrax terror attacks, leaving five people dead
Ali Jarbawi, Palestinian politician and academic
James Kaiser, electrical engineer who developed Kaiser window for digital signal processing, winner of IEEE Jack S. Kilby Signal Processing Medal
Jerry Kathman, President and CEO of LPK
Charles Keating, criminal (Keating Five scandal); virulent anti-pornography activist
Robert Kistner, gynecologist
Bradley M. Kuhn, M.S. 2001, software freedom activist
James Michael Lafferty, division CEO in Procter and Gamble, Coca-Cola, and British American Tobacco; current CEO of Fine Hygienic Holding. Olympic Track and Field Coach.
Sean Lahman, historian and sports writer
Kenesaw Mountain Landis, federal judge and first Commissioner of Major League Baseball
William Lawrence, Congressman, first vice president of American Red Cross
Christopher W. Lentz, U.S. Air Force Brigadier General
Liang Sili, academician of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Emil W. Leipziger, rabbi
Abraham Lubin, hazzan
Charlie Luken, law graduate, politician and former Mayor of Cincinnati
Judah Leon Magnes, rabbi, Chancellor/President of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem 1925-1948
Michael Malatin, entrepreneur in field of hospital valet parking
Beverly Malone, nurse and president of American Nurses Association
Steven L. Mandel, anesthesiologist
Jack Manning, actor, stage director, acting teacher
Marco Marsan, author
Kevin McCollum, graduate, Tony-winning Broadway producer (Rent, Avenue Q, The Drowsy Chaperone)
Guy McElroy (M.A. 1972), art historian and curator
Martin A. Meyer, rabbi
Gregory Mixon, (Ph.D. 1989), American historian
Julian Morgenstern, rabbi, Hebrew Union College professor and president
Lena Beatrice Morton, literary scholar
Pamela Myers, musical theater graduate, Tony-nominated stage and screen actor
Morris Newfield, rabbi
Sandra Novack, author
Michele Pawk, musical theater graduate, Tony-winning Broadway actress (Hollywood Arms, Cabaret)
Archimedes Plutonium, (B.A. as Ludwig Hansen, 1972), notable Usenet personality
Paul Polman, CEO of Unilever
Jennie Porter, first black person to receive a Ph.D. from the University of Cincinnati and became the first black female public school principal in Cincinnati
James B. Preston, neurophysiologist
Faith Prince, musical theater graduate, Tony-winning Broadway actress (Guys and Dolls)
Lee Roy Reams, musical theater graduate, Tony-nominated actor, dancer
Michael E. Reynolds, champion of the "earthship" sustainable construction movement
Dennis L. Riley (born 1945), politician in New Jersey General Assembly, represented 4th Legislative District 1980-90
Diana Maria Riva, drama graduate, screen actor
Anne Mason Roberts (1910-1971), HUD official in the 1960s
Michael Robinson, activist for civil right and human rights
Mitch Rowland - Grammy award-winning songwriter & lead guitarist in Harry Styles' band
Jerry Rubin, activist
Nipsey Russell, actor, comedian, game show panelist, Tin Man in film version of The Wiz
Rajiv Satyal, comedian, host and speaker; named the university's radio-station-turned-media group "BearCast"
Linda Schele, art and education major, expert on Mayan inscriptions and hieroglyphics
Robert P. Schumaker, creator of AZFinText, a news-aware high-frequency stock prediction system
Jean Schmidt, Congresswoman from Ohio, 2005–13
Teddi Siddall, drama graduate, screen actor
Abram Simon, rabbi
Yvette Simpson, law graduate, 2011-2017 Cincinnati City Councilwoman
George Speri Sperti, inventor
Joseph B. Strauss, engineering graduate, designed Golden Gate Bridge
Thomas Szasz, psychiatrist and author of The Myth of Mental Illness
Bob Taft, law graduate, 1999-2007 Governor of Ohio
William Howard Taft, law graduate, 27th President of the United States, Supreme Court Chief Justice
Christian Tetzlaff, professional violinist
Paul Tibbets, pilot of B-29 plane that dropped atom bomb over Hiroshima
Dwight Tillery, politician, former Mayor of Cincinnati
Tom Tsuchiya, sculptor, most notable for the bronze plaques for the National Baseball Hall of Fame
Tom Uttech, painter
Anne Valente, novelist and short-story writer
David Bell, author
Rodney Van Johnson, education graduate, actor (soap opera Passions)
Sigismund von Braun, German diplomat, older brother of Wernher von Braun
David J. Williams, Director of Architecture, musician
Clarence A. Winder, civic leader, Mayor of Pasadena, California in 1950s
Chris Wanstrath, co-founder and former CEO of GitHub
Louis Wolsey, rabbi
George Zepin, rabbi
Martin Zielonka, rabbi
Dylan Mulvaney, actress and social media personality
Athletics
Jim Ard, basketball player for 1976 NBA champion Boston Celtics, sixth overall selection of 1970 NBA draft
Skeeter Barnes, Major League Baseball player for Cincinnati Reds, Montreal Expos, St. Louis Cardinals and Detroit Tigers
Connor Barwin, NFL defensive end for Los Angeles Rams, selected 2nd round (46th overall) in 2009 NFL Draft
Bob Bell, NFL defensive end for Detroit Lions and St. Louis Cardinals
Corie Blount, basketball player, Chicago Bulls, first round pick in 1993 NBA draft
Ron Bonham, basketball player, 1962 NCAA champion with Cincinnati Bearcats, 2-time NBA champion with Boston Celtics
Vaughn Booker, NFL defensive end for Kansas City Chiefs, Green Bay Packers and Cincinnati Bengals
Ed Brinkman, All-Star baseball player, Washington Senators and Detroit Tigers
Tony Campana, MLB player for Chicago Cubs
Jim Capuzzi, NFL defensive back and quarterback, played for Green Bay Packers
Brent Celek, NFL tight end for Philadelphia Eagles, selected 5th round (162nd overall) in 2007 NFL Draft, Super Bowl LII Champion
Antonio Chatman, NFL wide receiver, played for Cincinnati Bengals and Green Bay Packers
Trent Cole, NFL defensive end for Philadelphia Eagles 2005–14, selected 5th round (146th overall) in 2005 NFL Draft
Zach Collaros, CFL quarterback, 3-time Grey Cup champion (2012, 2019, 2021)
Cris Collinsworth, law graduate, Emmy-winning sports commentator, NFL wide receiver
Bryan Cook, NFL safety for Kansas City Chiefs, Super Bowl LII Champion
Greg Cook, graduate, NFL quarterback for Cincinnati Bengals
Pat Cummings, NBA player, New York Knicks, Milwaukee Bucks, Dallas Mavericks
Ralph Davis, basketball player, 17th pick of 1960 NBA draft
Zach Day, MLB pitcher
Connie Dierking, basketball player, fifth overall selection of 1958 NBA draft
Jacob Eisner (born 1947), Israeli basketball player
Jason Fabini, NFL offensive tackle, New York Jets
Nate Fish, baseball player and coach
Andre Frazier, NFL linebacker, played for Cincinnati Bengals and Pittsburgh Steelers, 2-time Super Bowl Champion (XL, XLIII)
Danny Fortson, basketball player, 10th overall pick of 1997 NBA draft
Rich Franklin, professional mixed martial artist, former UFC middleweight champion, V.P. of Asian MMA organization ONE Championship
Sauce Gardner, NFL cornerback, New York Jets, selected 1st round (4th overall) in 2022 NFL Draft
Yancy Gates (born 1989), basketball player for Ironi Nahariya of Israeli Premier League
Antonio Gibson, USFL NFL safety, Philadelphia Stars and New Orleans Saints
Mardy Gilyard, CFL wide receiver
Marcellus Greene, NFL and Canadian Football League player
Tyjuan Hagler, football linebacker for NFL's Indianapolis Colts
Ian Happ, MLB player for Chicago Cubs
Josh Harrison, MLB player for Pittsburgh Pirates
Jim Herman, professional golfer, who plays on the PGA tour, 3 professional wins.
Paul Hogue, basketball player, 2-time NCAA champion with Cincinnati Bearcats, 2nd overall pick of 1962 NBA draft
Candice Holley, basketball player
Jim Holstein, pro basketball player, college head coach
Kevin Huber, NFL punter, played for Cincinnati Bengals
Miller Huggins, Hall of Fame baseball player and manager; managed champion New York Yankees teams of 1920s
George Jamison, NFL linebacker, played for Detroit Lions
DerMarr Johnson, basketball player
Lewis Johnson, graduate, track & field broadcaster
Ed Jucker, basketball player, coach of Cincinnati Bearcats' 2-time national champions
Rich Karlis, NFL placekicker, played for Denver Broncos
Brendon Kay, football player
Tinker Keck, XFL football player
Jason Kelce, NFL center for Philadelphia Eagles, Super Bowl LII Champion
Travis Kelce, NFL tight end for Kansas City Chiefs, 2-time Super Bowl Champion (LIV, LVII)
Sean Kilpatrick (born 1990), NBA player for Chicago Bulls, and for Hapoel Jerusalem of the Israeli Basketball Super League
Sandy Koufax, Hall of Fame baseball pitcher, 4-time World Series champion
Steve Logan, basketball player
Kenyon Martin, basketball player for New York Knicks, top pick in 2000 NBA draft
Jason Maxiell, former NBA power forward, played for Detroit Pistons
Urban Meyer, former head football coach for The Florida Gators, and The Ohio State Buckeyes. Winner of the 2007, and 2009 BCS Championship with Florida as well as the 2014 CFP Championship with Ohio State.
Joe Morrison, NFL running back and wide receiver for New York Giants
Haruki Nakamura, NFL safety for Baltimore Ravens, Carolina Panthers
Elbie Nickel, NFL tight end, played for Pittsburgh Steelers
Ray Nolting, NFL running back, played for Chicago Bears
Jim O'Brien, NFL placekicker for Baltimore Colts, Super Bowl V champion
Tom O'Malley, NFL quarterback, played for Green Bay Packers
Brig Owens, NFL defensive back, played for Washington Redskins
Ruben Patterson, NBA player, Portland Trail Blazers, Milwaukee Bucks
David Payne, 110m hurdler, 2008 Olympic silver medalist
Isaiah Pead, NFL running back, played for St. Louis Rams, Pittsburgh Steelers, and Miami Dolphins
Tony Pike, NFL quarterback, played for Carolina Panthers
Desmond Ridder, NFL quarterback for Atlanta Falcons
Oscar Robertson, Hall of Fame basketball player, NBA champion and MVP
Tom Rossley, former football head coach at SMU, offensive coordinator for Green Bay Packers
Kelly Salchow, former Olympic rower (2004 and 2008 Olympic Games), Women's Quadruple Sculls
Kenny Satterfield, professional basketball player, 2001–12
Kerry Schall, competed on reality show The Ultimate Fighter 2, professional MMA fighter
Lance Stephenson, basketball player for Los Angeles Lakers
Andrew Stewart, football player
Clint Stickdorn, football player
Tom Thacker, basketball player, NCAA and NBA champion, top pick of 1963 NBA draft
Jordan Thompson, Olympic gold medalist volleyball player and member of the United States national team.
Bill Talbert, tennis player, 5-time U.S. Open champion, International Tennis Hall of Fame
Tony Trabert, tennis player, Wimbledon and U.S. Open champion, International Tennis Hall of Fame
Jack Twyman, basketball player, College Basketball Hall of Fame, 6-time NBA All-Star
Brandon Underwood, NFL safety, Super Bowl XLV champion
Nick Van Exel, basketball player, 1998 NBA All-Star
LaDaris Vann, football player
Roland West, basketball player
James White, NBA guard/forward for New York Knicks, NBA champion
Bob Wiesenhahn, basketball player, 1961 NCAA champion with Cincinnati Bearcats, 11th overall pick of 1961 NBA draft
John Williamson (born 1986), basketball player for Maccabi Kiryat Gat B.C. of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Eric Wilson, football player
Mary Wineberg, 2008 Olympic gold medalist, 4 × 400 m relay
George Winn, NFL running back
Derek Wolfe, NFL defensive end, Baltimore Ravens
D. J. Woods, Canadian Football League wide receiver, Ottawa Redblacks
Mike Woods, All-American and NFL player
Tony Yates, basketball player for two-time national champion Cincinnati Bearcats, head coach 1983-89
Kevin Youkilis, 3-time All-Star, Gold Glove winner, 2-time World Series champion, MLB player 2004-13
Curtis Young, NFL defensive end, Green Bay Packers
Notable faculty
Neil Armstrong (until death), astronaut, professor of aerospace engineering
Kamala Balakrishnan, immunologist, professor of transplantation medicine
Carl Blegen, first scientific explorer of Troy
Tanya Froehlich, pediatrician
Karen L. Gould (born 1948), President of Brooklyn College
Michael Griffith, author
Kay Kinoshita, physicist
Santa Ono, biomedical scientist, 28th President of University of Cincinnati, 15th President of University of British Columbia, 15th President of the University of Michigan
Neil Rackham, author of Spin Selling
George Rieveschl, inventor of diphenhydramine (Benadryl)
Albert Sabin, developed the oral live polio vaccine
Vernon L. Scarborough, Mesoamerican archaeologist, professor, and anthropology department head
Herman Schnieder, father of co-operative education
Donald Shell, inventor of Shell sort
Gabriel P. Weisberg, art historian
References
UC Magazine on Famous Alumni
University of Cincinnati people
University of Cincinnati |
4504713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20Scotland%2C%202001 | List of Statutory Instruments of Scotland, 2001 | This is a complete list of Scottish Statutory Instruments in 2001.
1-100
Cattle (Identification of Older Animals) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/1)
Advice and Assistance (Assistance by Way of Representation) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/2)
Specified Risk Material Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/3)
Specified Risk Material Order Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/4)
National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/6)
Budget (Scotland) Act 2000 (Amendment) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/7)
Act of Sederunt (Ordinary Cause Rules) Amendment (Commercial Actions) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/8)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 6) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/9)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/10)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/11)
A1 Trunk Road (Dolphingstone Southbound Off-Slip Road) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/13)
A1 Trunk Road (Haddington West Interchange to Haddington East Interchange) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/14)
A77 Trunk Road (Turnberry) (40 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/15)
Smoke Control Areas (Exempt Fireplaces) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/16)
General Teaching Council (Scotland) Election Scheme 2001 Approval Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/18)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Pension Sharing on Divorce) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/23)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/24)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Central Borders) Designation Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/25)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Stewartry) Designation Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/26)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Argyll Islands) Designation Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/27)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Machair of the Uists and Benbecula, Barra and Vatersay) Designation Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/28)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Shetland Islands) DesignationAmendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/29)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Breadalbane) Designation Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/30)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Western Southern Uplands) Designation Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/31)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Central Southern Uplands) Designation Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/32)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Cairngorms Straths) Designation Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/33)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Loch Lomond) Designation Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/34)
European Communities (Matrimonial Jurisdiction and Judgments) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/36)
Housing Revenue Account General Fund Contribution Limits (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/37)
Coffee Extracts and Chicory Extracts (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/38)
Designation of UHI Millennium Institute (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/39)
Highland and Islands Agricultural Processing and Marketing Grants Etc. (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/40)
Number of Inner House Judges (Variation) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/41)
Legal Aid (Scotland) Act 1986 Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/42)
Advice and Assistance (Assistance by Way of Representation) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/43)
Non-Domestic Rate (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/44)
Diseases of Animals (Approved Disinfectants) Amendment (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/45)
A80 Trunk Road (Muirhead Traffic Lights) (30 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/46)
A80 Trunk Road (Muirhead and Moodiesburn) (50 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/47)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/49)
Less Favoured Area Support Scheme (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/50)
Diseases of Animals (Approved Disinfectants) Amendment (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/51)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/52)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/53)
Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors (Professional Conduct) (Amendment) Rules 2001 Approval (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/54)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/55)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/56)
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/57)
National Health Service (Primary Care) Act 1997 (Commencement No. 7) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/58)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/59)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/60)
Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/61)
National Health Service (General Ophthalmic Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/62)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/63)
Discontinuance of Legalised Police Cells (Portree) Rules 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/64)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (Amendment No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/65)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory and Controlled Area) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/66)
National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/67)
Budget (Scotland) Act 2000 (Amendment) (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/68)
National Health Service (Dental Charges) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/69)
National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/70)
Non-Domestic Rates (Levying) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/71)
National Health Service (Personal Medical Services) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/72)
Restriction on Pithing (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/73)
Police Grant (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/74)
Adults with Incapacity (Public Guardian's Fees) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/75)
Adults with Incapacity (Certificates from Medical Practitioners) (Accounts and Funds) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/76)
Adults with Incapacity (Supervision of Welfare Attorneys by Local Authorities) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/77)
Adults with Incapacity (Countersignatories of Applications for Authority to Intromit) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/78)
Adults with Incapacity (Evidence in Relation to Dispensing with Intimation or Notification) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/79)
Adults with Incapacity (Certificates in Relation to Powers of Attorney) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/80)
Adults with Incapacity (Scotland) Act 2000 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/81)
Civil Legal Aid (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/82)
Gaming Act (Variation of Fees) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/83)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/84)
National Health Service (Choice of Medical Practitioner) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/85)
Specified Risk Material Amendment (No. 2) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/86)
Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Prescription of Offices, Ranks and Positions) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/87)
National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/88)
Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) (Charges) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/89)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory and Controlled Area) Amendment (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/90)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (Amendment) (No. 3) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/91)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 2) (Assistance In Investigations Undertaken by European Commission Into Certain Prohibited Practices and Abuses) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/92)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 1) (Procedure for Offers to Make Amends) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/93)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/95)
Local Government Finance (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/96)
A1 Trunk Road (Haddington West Interchange to Haddington East Interchange) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/97)
Defamation Act 1996 (Commencement No. 3 and Transitional Provision) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/98)
Environmental Protection Act 1990 (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/99)
National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/100)
101-200
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (No. 3) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/101)
Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 (Commencement No. 4) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/102)
Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/103)
Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/104)
National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) Amendment (No. 2) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/105)
A74(M) Motorway (Northbound and Southbound Off-Slip Roads at Junction 14 (Elvangort and Crauford) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/106
A74(M) Motorway, (Northbound Off-Slip Road at Junction 15 (Beattock) and Southbound Off-Slip Road at Junction 16 (Johnstonbridge)) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/107)
A74(M)/M74 Motorway (Northbound and Southbound Off-Slip Roads at Junction 13 (Abington)) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/108)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory Orders) General Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/109)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (Amendment) (No. 4) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/110)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) (No. 3) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/111)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/112)
Ethical Standards in Public Life etc. (Scotland) Act 2000 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/113)
Domestic Water and Sewerage Charges (Reduction) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/114)
Valuation for Rating (Plant and Machinery) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/115)
Salmon Conservation (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/116)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Quota and Third Country Fishing Measures) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/117)
National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/119)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/120)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) (Scotland) (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/121)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (Amendment) (No. 5) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/122)
Civil Legal Aid (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/123)
Advice and Assistance (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/124)
Liquor Licensing (Fees) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/125)
Highlands and Islands Enterprise Area of Operation (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/126)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/127)
Limited Liability Partnerships (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/128)
Housing Support Grant (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/129)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) (Scotland) (No. 3) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/130)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/131)
Transport (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 1, Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/132)
A84 Trunk Road (Kilmahog) (40 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/ 133)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/134)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 3 ) (Fees of Shorthand Writers) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/135)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Shorthand Writers in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/136)
NHS 24 (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/137)
National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) Amendment (No. 3) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/138)
Civil Defence (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/139)
Fisheries and Aquaculture Structures (Grants) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/140)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/141)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Applications, Statutory Applications and Appeals etc. Rules) Amendment (Adults with Incapacity) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/142)
Act of Sederunt (Child Support Rules) Amendment 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/143)
Act of Sederunt (Ordinary Cause Rules) Amendment (European Matrimonial and Parental Responsibility Jurisdiction and Judgments) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/144)
Welfare of Animals (Slaughter or Killing) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/145)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory and Controlled Area) Amendment (No. 3) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/146)
A68 Trunk Road (Soutra Hill) (Side Roads) Order S.S.I. 2001/147)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (Amendment) (No. 6) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/148)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (Amendment) (No. 7) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/149)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/150)
Western Isles Salmon Fishery District Designation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/151)
Teachers' Superannuation (Pension Sharing on Divorce) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 152)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 3) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/153)
A95 Trunk Road (Kinveachy Junction Improvements) (Side Roads) Order S.S.I. 2001/154)
A1 Edinburgh to Berwick Upon Tweed Trunk Road (Southbound On-Slip at the Bankton Interchange, Southbound Off-Slip at the B6363 Gladsmuir Interchange, Southbound On-Slip at the B6363 Gladsmuir Interchange) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/155)
A1 Edinburgh to Berwick Upon Tweed Trunk Road (Northbound Off-Slip at the A198 Bankton Interchange, Northbound On-Slip at the B6363 Gladsmuir Interchange, Northbound Off-Slip at the B6363 Gladsmuir Interchange) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/156)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 4) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/157)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 4) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/158)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory and Controlled Area) Amendment (No. 4) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/159)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Marking of Meat and Meat Products) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/160)
Plant Protection Products Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/161)
Milk and Milk Products (Pupils in Educational Establishments) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/162)
Fees in the Registers of Scotland Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/163)
Town and Country Planning (Limit of Annual Value) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/164)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 5) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/165)
Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000 (Commencement No. 5) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/166)
Transport (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/167)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 6) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/168)
Gelatine (Intra-Community Trade) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/169)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment (No. 3) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/170)
Animal By-Products Amendment (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/171)
European Communities (Service of Judicial and Extrajudicial Documents) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/172)
Sex Offenders (Notification Requirements) (Prescribed Police Stations) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/173)
Inshore Fishing (Prohibition of Fishing and Fishing Methods) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/174)
Water (Prevention of Pollution) (Code of Practice) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/175)
Trunk Roads (Restricted Roads) (Wigtownshire) (Variation) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/176)
A1 Edinburgh to Berwick Upon Tweed Trunk Road (Northbound On-Slip at the Oaktree Interchange, Northbound Off-Slip at the Oaktree Interchange) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/177)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 5) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/178)
Artificial Insemination of Cattle (Emergency Licences) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/179)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 5) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/180)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment (No. 4) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/181)
A1 Edinburgh to Berwick Upon Tweed Trunk Road (Southbound On-Slip at the Oaktree Interchange, Southbound Off-Slip at the Oaktree Interchange) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/182)
A1 Edinburgh to Berwick Upon Tweed Trunk Road (Haddington East Interchange to the Oaketree Interchange) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/183)
A90 (M90) Trunk Road (Glamis Junction) (Side Roads) Order S.S.I. 2001/184)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/186)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory and Controlled Area) Amendment (No. 5) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/187)
Sex Offenders (Notice Requirements) (Foreign Travel) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/188)
Rendering (Fluid Treatment) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/189)
Sex Offenders (Notification Requirements) (Prescribed Police Stations) (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/190)
Education (Graduate Endowment and Student Support) (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/191)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No.5) Amendment (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/192)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 7) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/193)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 6) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/194)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/195)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 6) Amendment (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/196)
A90 (M90) Trunk Road (Kirriemuir Junction) (Side Roads) Order S.S.I. 2001/197)
Designation of Bell College of Technology (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/199)
201-300
Plant Protection Products Amendment (No. 2) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/202)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 5) Amendment (No. 3) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/203)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory and Controlled Area) Amendment (No. 6) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/204)
Part-Time Sheriffs (Removal Tribunal) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/205)
Control of Pollution (Silage, Slurry and Agricultural Fuel Oil) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/206)
Water Supply (Water Quality) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/207)
Crofting Community Development Scheme (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/208)
Sports Grounds and Sporting Events (Designation) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/209)
Education (Student Loans) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/210)
Education (Student Loans) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/211)
Sweeteners in Food Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/212)
A1 Trunk Road (Thistly Cross to West of Bowerhouse Junction Dualling) (Side Roads) Order S.S.I. 2001/213)
Child Minding and Day Care (Registration and Inspection Fees) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/214)
Nursing Homes Registration (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/215)
Nurses Agencies (Increase of Licence Fees) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 216)
Justices of the Peace (Tribunal) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/S.S.I. 2001/217)
Existing Facilities in Quality Partnership Schemes (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/218)
Public Service Vehicles (Registration of Local Services) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/219)
Agricultural Processing and Marketing Grants (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/220)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/221)
Education (Assisted Places) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/222)
St Mary's Music School (Aided Places) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/223)
Air Quality Limit Values (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/224)
Suckler Cow Premium (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/225)
Agricultural Subsidies (Appeals) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/226)
Repayment of Student Loans (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/227)
Education (Student Loans) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/228)
Students' Allowances (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/229)
Gaming Act (Variation of Fees) (No.2) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/230)
BSE Monitoring (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/231)
Lerwick Harbour Revision Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/232)
A76 Trunk Road (Crossroads Junction Improvement) (Side Roads) Order S.S.I. 2001/233)
Bell College of Technology (Scotland) Order of Council 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/234)
Adoption (Intercountry Aspects) Act 1999 (Commencement No. 6) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/235)
Adoption of Children from Overseas (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/236)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/237)
Water Supply (Water Quality) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/238)
A85 Trunk Road (St Fillans) (30 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/240)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/241)
Protection of Wrecks (Designation) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/242)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 2) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/243)
Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/244)
Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/245)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory and Controlled Area) Amendment (No. 7) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/246)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 5) Amendment (No. 4) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/247)
Control of Pollution (Silage, Slurry and Agricultural Fuel Oil) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/248)
Plant Health (Great Britain) Amendment (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/249)
Sea Fish (Specified Sea Areas) (Regulation of Nets and Other Fishing Gear) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/250)
Public Service Vehicles (Registration of Local Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/251)
Beef Labelling (Enforcement) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/252)
Registered Establishments (Fees) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/253)
A82 Trunk Road (Invermoriston) (40 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/254)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 3) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/255)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/256)
Products of Animal Origin (Import and Export) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/257)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory Orders) General Amendment (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/258)
Farm Business Development (Scotland) Scheme 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/259)
Local Government Finance (Scotland) (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/260)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Control of Vaccination) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/261)
Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (Aird Mhor, Barra) Harbour Empowerment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/262)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) (Declaratory Orders) General Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/264)
Consumer Protection Act 1987 (Product Liability) (Modification) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/265)
Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/266)
Home Energy Efficiency Scheme Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/267)
A85 Trunk Road (West Hintingtower/Lochty) (40 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/268)
A84/A85 Trunk Road (Callander) (30 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/269)
A9 Trunk Road (Stafford Street, Helmsdale) (Temporary Prohibition of Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/270)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 2) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/271)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 5) Amendment (No. 5) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/272)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/273)
Convention Rights (Compliance) (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/274)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 5) Amendment (No. 6) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/275)
Processed Animal Protein (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/276)
A90 Trunk Road (Aberdeen to Dyce Millennium Cycle Route) (Redetermination of Means of Exercise of Public Right of Passage) Order S.S.I. 2001/277)
Graduate Endowment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/280)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/281)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic, Paralytic and Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/282)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 3) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/284)
A1 Trunk Road (East of Haddington to Dunbar) Special Road (Variation) Scheme S.S.I. 2001/285)
A1 Trunk Road (East of Haddington to Dunbar) Special Road (Side Roads) (Variation) Order S.S.I. 2001/286)
Specified Risk Material Amendment (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/287)
Specified Risk Material Amendment (No. 3) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/288)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 4) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/289)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment (No. 5) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/290)
Teachers' Superannuation (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/291)
Teachers' Superannuation (Additional Voluntary Contributions) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/292)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/294)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 5) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/295)
A9 Trunk Road (Ballinling) (Temporary 50 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/296)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) (Scotland) (No. 4) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/297)
Right to Time Off for Study or Training (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/298)
Rural Stewardship Scheme (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/300)
301-400
National Health Service Trusts (Membership and Procedure) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/301)
Health Boards (Membership and Procedure) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/302)
Scottish Social Services Council (Appointments, Procedure and Access to the Register) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/303)
Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/304)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No.4) (Miscellaneous) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/305)
Criminal Legal Aid (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/306)
Criminal Legal Aid (Fixed Payments) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/307)
Land Registration (Scotland) Act 1979 (Commencement No. 15) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/309)
Firemen's Pension Scheme (Pension Sharing on Divorce) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/310)
Education (Student Loans) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/311)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Declaratory (No. 5) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/312)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Radioactivity in Sheep) Partial Revocation (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/313)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/314)
Parole Board (Scotland) Rules 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/315)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 6) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/316)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/317)
Highlands and Islands Agricultural Programme and Rural Diversification Programme (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/319)
Building Standards (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/320)
Farm and Conservation Grant Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/321)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 7) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/322)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Registered Social Landlords) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/326)
Education and Training (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/329)
Fishing Vessels (Decommissioning) (Scotland) Scheme 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/332)
Potatoes Originating in Germany (Notification) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/333)
Feeding Stuffs and the Feeding Stuffs (Enforcement) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/334)
Fossil Fuel Levy (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/335)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 1, Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/336)
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/337)
Argyll and Clyde Acute Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/338)
Ayrshire and Arran Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/339)
Ayrshire and Arran Acute Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/340)
Borders General Hospital National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/341)
Fife Acute Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/342)
Dumfries and Galloway Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/343)
Borders Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/344)
Dumfries and Galloway Acute and Maternity Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/345)
Grampian Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/346)
Forth Valley Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/347)
Forth Valley Acute Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/348)
Fife Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/349)
Grampian University Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/350)
Greater Glasgow Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/351)
Highland Acute Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/352)
Highland Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/353)
Lomond and Argyll Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/354)
Lothian Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/355)
Lanarkshire Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/356)
Lanarkshire Acute Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/357)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Marking of Meat, Meat Products, Minced Meat and Meat Preparations) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/358)
Lothian University Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/359)
North Glasgow University Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/360)
Renfrewshire and Inverclyde Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/361)
South Glasgow University Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/362)
Tayside Primary Care National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/363)
Tayside University Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/364)
West Lothian Healthcare National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/365)
Yorkhill National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/366)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 2) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/367)
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/368)
North of Scotland Water Authority (River Lochy Abstraction Scheme) Water Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/369)
A7 Trunk Road (Sandbed and Albert Bridge, Hawick) (Temporary One Way Traffic) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/371)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 8) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/374)
A828 Trunk Road (Appin/Tynnbbie) (40 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/379)
A828 (Portnaroish) (40 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/380)
Criminal Legal Aid (Scotland) (Prescribed Proceedings) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/381)
Advice and Assistance (Assistance by Way of Representation) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/382)
Processed Animal Protein (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/383)
Protection of Wrecks (Designation) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/384)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/387)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 9) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/388)
Glasgow Science Centre Pedestrian Bridge Scheme 2001 Confirmation Instrument S.S.I. 2001/389)
Abolition of the Intervention Board for Agricultural Produce (Consequential Provisions) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/390)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/391)
Legal Aid (Employment of Solicitors) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/392)
Legal Aid (Scotland) Act 1986 (Commencement No. 4) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/393)
Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 2) Amendment (No. 4) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/394)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/395)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Transfer of Scottish Homes Property etc.) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/396)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 2, Transitional Provisions, Savings and Variation) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/397)
A82 Trunk Road (Invermoriston) (40 mph Speed Limit) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/398)
Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 (Commencement No. 3 and Transitional Provisions) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/400)
401-494
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (Recovery of Costs) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/401)
The Holyrood Park Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/405)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 10) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/406)
The Northern College of Education (Closure) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/407)
The Diligence against Earnings (Variation) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/408)
The Fish Health Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/409)
The Pensions Appeal Tribunals (Scotland) (Amendment) Rules 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/410)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 2) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/411)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/412)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 2) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/413)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 3) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/414)
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 2) Amendment (No. 5) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/415)
The Mortgage Rights (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement and Transitional Provision) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/418 (C. 18))
The Mortgage Rights (Scotland) Act 2001 (Prescribed Notice) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/419)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 11) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/420)
The Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/421)
The Colours in Food Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/422)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 12) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/423)
The Scottish Social Services Council (Consultation on Codes of Practice) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/424)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 13) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/425)
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 3) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/429)
The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/430)
The Local Government (Exemption from Competition) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/431)
The Local Government Act 1988 (Competition) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/432)
The Smoke Control Areas (Authorised Fuels) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/433)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/434)
The Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/435)
The National Health Service (Superannuation Scheme, Injury Benefits and Compensation for Premature Retirement) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/437)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Solicitors in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/438)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Sheriff Officers) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/439)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Messengers-At-Arms) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/440)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 5) (Fees of Solicitors) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/441)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Order 2001 Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/442)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/443)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 3) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/444)
The Beef Special Premium (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/445)
The Local Government Act 1988 (Competition) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/446)
The Community Care (Direct Payments) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/447)
The Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Satellite Monitoring Measures) (Scotland) Order 2000 Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/448)
The Inshore Fishing (Prohibition of Fishing for Cockles) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/449)
The Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment) (No. 2) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/450)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 14) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/451)
The Plant Protection Products Amendment (No. 3) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/454)
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/455)
The International Criminal Court (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/456 (C. 20))
The Fraserburgh Harbour Revision (Constitution) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/457)
The Sheep and Goats Spongiform Encephalopathy (Compensation) Amendment (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/458)
The Police Pensions (Pension Sharing on Divorce) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/459)
The Local Government Pension Scheme (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/460)
The Police Pensions (Additional Voluntary Contributions and Increased Benefits) (Pension Sharing) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/461)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/462)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic, Paralytic and Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/463)
The Legal Aid (Scotland) Act 1986 (Availability of Solicitors) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/464)
The National Health Service (Scotland) (Superannuation Scheme and Additional Voluntary Contributions) (Pension Sharing on Divorce) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/465)
The Road Traffic (NHS Charges) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/466)
The Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 3, Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/467 (C. 21))
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 13) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/468)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 9) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/469)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 11) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/470)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 10) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/471)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 6) (Scotland) Order 2001 Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/472)
The Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 4) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/473)
The Ethical Standards in Public Life etc. (Scotland) Act 2000 (Commencement No. 2 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/474 (C. 22))
The Children (Scotland) Act 1995 (Commencement No.4) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/475 (C. 23))
The Panels of Persons to Safeguard the Interests of Children (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/476)
The Curators ad Litem and Reporting Officers (Panels) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/477)
The Children’s Hearings (Legal Representation) (Scotland) Rules 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/478)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedural Rules Amendment) (Convention Rights (Compliance) (Scotland) Act 2001) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/479)
The Budget (Scotland) Act 2001 (Amendment) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/480)
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease Declaratory (Controlled Area) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment (No. 6) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/481)
The Police Act 1997 (Commencement No. 8) (Scotland) Order 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/482 (C. 24))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Scotland) (No. 3) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/483)
The Rural Diversification Programme (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/484)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedural Rules Amendment No.2) (Terrorism Act 2000 and Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/486)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 6) (Terrorism Act 2000) 2001 (S.S.I. 2001/494)
External links
Scottish Statutory Instrument List
Scottish Draft Statutory Instrument List
2001
Statutory Instruments
Scotland Statutory Instruments |
4504840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GT%20Bicycles | GT Bicycles | GT Bicycles is an American company that designs and manufactures BMX, mountain, and road bicycles. GT is a division of the Dutch conglomerate Pon Holdings, which also markets Cannondale, Schwinn, Mongoose, IronHorse, DYNO, and RoadMaster bicycle brands; all manufactured in Asia.
GT was founded in 1972, by Gary Turner and Richard Long in Santa Ana, California, and was noted at its inception for spearheading the prominence of BMX bicycles, later for developing a range of bikes around its "triple triangle" design, and at the end of its independent history, winning a commission to manufacture a $30,000 carbon fiber "Superbike" for the 1996 Summer games. GT sponsored numerous race teams and individuals, including noted riders Rebecca Twigg and Juli Furtado.
In 1998, the company went public and subsequently merged with Questor Partners, then owner of Schwinn. The conglomerate went bankrupt in 2001 and was acquired by Pacific Cycle, which was in turn acquired by Dorel Industries in 2004.
On October 11, 2021 Dorel Industries sold their entire bike division to Pon Holdings for $810 million. This includes GT, Schwinn, Mongoose among other brands.
Company History
Origins 1972-1979
In 1972, professional drag racer and experienced welder Gary Turner built a bicycle frame for his son Craig Turner in his Fullerton, California garage to race at the BMX track. Most frames used during this period were modified Schwinn Stingrays which were heavy and broke easily under the stress of BMX racing and jumping. Gary Turner made his frames from 4130 chrome-moly tubing, the same tubing used in building chassis for dragsters which is stronger and lighter than regular carbon steel. Craig's bike was noticed at the BMX track, and Gary soon began making frames for other kids.
In 1976, Gary Turner began producing frames for Pedals Ready, a Pro Shop at the Western Sports-A-Rama BMX track in Orange County, California, named and marketed as Pedals Ready/GT. These were the first commercially distributed frames by Turner, and one of the first sponsored riders to use them was Greg A. Hill, whose father owned the Pedals Ready bike shop. Aware of the popularity of Gary Turner’s BMX frames, Richard Long contacted Turner in 1977 about supplying his Anaheim, California bicycle shop. Turner agreed and the foundation of GT Bicycles was born. These early frames did not posses the GT brand and were simply called "Gary Turner", as seen by the frame stickers. Things happened fast and soon Richard and Gary invested in a manufacturing warehouse dedicated to making top quality Cro-moly BMX frames in Santa Ana, California. In 1979 they incorporated into GT Bicycles, Inc. GT standing for the initials of its founder, Gary Turner. Richard sold his bike shop and began selling frames as fast as possible to bicycle distributors across the USA and into Europe. Richard headed the business and marketing aspects of the company while Gary was the engineer and production head.
GT Bicycles Inc.
In 1980, GT Bicycles Inc. released their first bike, the GT Pro, and began to sponsor BMX racers such as Lee Medlin and Denny Davidow. GT’s first magazine ad appeared in Bicycle Motocross Action (BMX Action) in the January 1980 issue.
For the 1981 season, GT released five models: Junior, Expert, 24, 26 and Pro. The models would stay this way until 1984, when their first freestyle bike was released, the Pro Performer.
In 1983, GT signed freestyle BMX riders Bob Morales and Eddie Fiola to design and eventually ride a new freestyle bike the Pro Performer. At the time, the Performer was the only other dedicated freestyle bike besides the Haro Freestyler. The unique bent down tube was instantly recognizable and a design and marketing game changer which became a trademark look for GT. Bob Morales eventually left GT to focus on his own company DYNO Designs while Eddie Fiola became arguably the most famous and popular BMX personality of the 1980s until his contract was not renewed in 1987.
In 1985, GT bought BMX accessories and apparel company Dyno. Bob Morales said "GT Bicycles made an offer to buy Dyno. I accepted their offer because Dyno was severely under-capitalized and in need of investment. I negotiated a contract with GT to design bicycle frames and components and to consult on a marketing strategy for them." Morales developed a line of Dyno frames and bicycles for GT. Dyno also produced a line of clothing apparel and shoes under the Dyno brand. 1985 also saw GT produce their first Mountain bike for the emerging sport and market.
Robinson Racing was acquired by GT Bicycles in 1987 from founder Chuck Robinson due to financial troubles with the company. Chuck went to work for GT and did promotion for them as well as heading up the South America sales because he spoke Spanish as well as other languages. Robinson Racing was founded in the late 1970s after Chuck worked for DG BMX and Webco Bikes Inc.
In 1989, GT Bicycles acquired Auburn Cycles, another company that Bob Morales started along with Todd Huffman only one year earlier. Originally, Auburn was going to be Honda Cycles but the Honda Motor Corp. pulled out at the last minute, declining to license the name. Bob and Todd continued with the project and Huffman came up with the Auburn name with Bob designing the original logo. When Auburn merged into GT, Huffman was hired by GT to manage the brand in addition to his Marketing Director title. GT produced Auburn frames and bicycles until 1997.
The same year, GT acquired Powerlite. Powerlite was founded in 1977 by Steve Rink in Orange County, California as a frame for the Peddlepower bike shop called the Peddlepower SR. In early 1979, this would change and the decals would read Powerlite. The company name was resurrected as an independent in 2002 as Powerlite Bicycles USA, which produces BMX racing bikes and accessories.
Ownership Change & Public Offering
With lost public interest in the sport of BMX and declining sales, Long and Turner sold a controlling interest to Boston-based investment firm Bain Capital in 1993, which then took the company public in October 1995.
In 1996, GT won the commission to manufacture a highly aerodynamic bike design that would later become known as the "Superbike" and later banned by Olympic regulations. A byproduct of a year-long development program with the U.S. national team known as Project '96, the bike featured a carbon graphite frame with no top tube, extremely thin seat and downtubes, a seat tube with a deep cutout to accommodate the rear wheel, as well as differently sized aerodynamic wheels. Describing the bike, the U.S. Cycling Federation's track endurance coach Craig Griffin said "it's so thin and light, and it's as strong as anything built. It's so aerodynamic that when you look at it from the front, it disappears." Controversially, just prior to the 1996 Summer Olympics, Rebecca Twigg quit the team, citing her Superbike's ill fit as one of the reasons for departing.
On October 11, 1996, GT announced that it had reached an agreement with Nike whereby Nike would be an official sponsor for all of GT's bicycle racing teams in 1997. Under the new agreement, all GT team athletes would use Nike shoes and after-race apparel. This new sponsorship agreement represented an expansion of Nike's current sponsorship as the official shoe of the GT mountain bike team by then CEO Michael Haynes. GT Bicycles had the first and the only mountain bike and BMX teams that are sponsored by Nike. GT had a total of 57 athletes on various teams in 1997, including nine mountain bike racers, 32 BMX racers and 16 freestyle/GT Bicycle Air Show performers.
A week before GT's debut at the 1996 Summer Olympics, GT co-founder Richard Long was killed on July 12 in a motorcycle accident on his Honda Valkyrie en route to a national championship series race for the National Off-Road Bicycle Association at Big Bear Lake in the San Bernardino mountains.
At the time of Long's death, GT maintained an office at the factory in Santa Ana as well as a factory in Huntington Beach — and manufactured 600,000 bicycles annually under the GT, Powerlite, Robinson and Dyno brands, distributed bikes, parts and accessories via its Riteway network and had annual revenues of $150 million.
Less than two years after Long's death, in 1998, Bain Capital sold GT to another investment group, Questor Partners, which at the time also owned Schwinn, for $175 million. Nearly five years to the day that Richard Long had died, Questor would file for bankruptcy on June 27, 2001, and was acquired by Pacific Cycle, which was in turn acquired by Canadian company Dorel Industries in 2004, and subsequently acquired by Pon Holdings in 2021.
Teams
As well as the manufacturing of bicycles, GT Bikes sponsored several teams competing in BMX, mountain and road competitions.
GT Factory BMX Racing Team
There are currently two riders on the BMX Race Team: Jonas Harmon and Dougie Butcher which compete in competitions held globally.
GT BMX Freestyle Team (GT Air Show)
Along with Team Haro, Team GT helped shape the future of BMX Freestyle and helped pioneer a sport once deemed nothing more than a fad. GT produced some of the first Freestyle specific bikes in their early Pro Performer and World Tour models. Later highly successful models were the Pro Freestyle Tour, which saw the first use of mountain bike style brake mounts for use of Dia-Compe 990, the Dyno Pro Compe - one of the most ridden flatland frames of the early Nineties. GT was also there for the birth of street riding in the late Eighties with the GT Aggressor (Designed in California, but frames made in Taiwan) and Dyno Slammer bashguard models. GT also designed and sold the first flatland specific bike in the USA: the GT Show.
The GT BMX brand and team riders appear in the 'HellTrack' starting lineup scene in the BMX cult-classic film Rad. Famous names from the ranks of Teams past include X-Games Champions Dave Mirra, Jay Miron, Jamie Bestwick, along with pioneers Eddie 'King of the Skateparks' Fiola, Brian 'Rad Dad' Scura inventor of the Gyro, aka SST Oryg, Trevor Meyer, Joey 'Phenom' Phee, Martin 'The Chairman' Aparijo, Josh 'Dr. Air' White, Dino DeLuca, Dave Voelker, Brett Hernandez, Kevin Jones, Mark Eaton, Gary Pollak, Kevin 'The Gute' Gutierrez, Ruben Castillo, Robert Castillo, Jason Geoffery, Terryll Loffler, Bill Neuman, Goro Tamai, Krys Dauchy, and Adam Jung.
GT Bike's current Freestyle Team includes the riders: Dan Conway, Albert Mercado, Leandro Moriera, Tate Roskelley, 'Mad' Mike Guth, Rob Wise and Brian Kachinsky.
Mountain Team
Eight riders in the Mountain Team, compete in global competitions including downhill, four-cross, trials, freeride and dirt jumping. The riders in the team are: Marc Beaumont, Hans Rey, Eric Carter, Roger Rinderknecht, Kevin Aiello, and Tyler McCaul. In 2012, GT added Kyle Strait, Dan Atherton, Gee Atherton, and Rachel Atherton to the team.
Hans Rey has been sponsored by GT since 1987.
Road Team
GT Bikes briefly served as team sponsors and bike supplier for Jelly Belly professional cycling team. After the 2009 season, the team ended their relationship with GT and began riding Focus bikes.
Lotto pro cycling team (now Lotto-Belisol) at one time had Easton aluminium tubing GT frames. The team now rides on Ridley carbon frames.
Co – Factory Team
The Co – Factory Team was founded in 2008. The team is composed of riders from across the US riding for local dealer teams that represent GT Bicycles.
Notable past Factory team members
Gary Ellis, Greg Hill, Rick Webb, Trevor Meyer, Geoff Scofield, Tommy Brackens, Mike King, Gabe Weed, Lee Medlin, Andy Patterson, "Chicken" George Seevers, Dave Voelker, Alexis Vergara, Terry Tenette, Randy Stumpfhauser, Thomas Allier, Mike Luna, In Hee Lee, Dave Brumlow, David Milham, Tom Haugen, Eddie Livingston, Danny Nelson, Josh White, Eddie Fiola, and Bob Morales. Past mountain bike team riders include Eric Carter, and Brian Lopes.
Dyno Girls
In the Questor Partners era 1998-2001, GT Bicycles published a Kustom Kruisers Katalog, featuring the Dyno Kustom Kruisers and “The Loveley and Talented Dyno Girls” (from the Brand Model and Talent Agency, of Santa Ana, California). The team of Dyno Girls consisted of: Amy (not Weber), Brooke, Mikyla and Theresa in 1999; Brooke (shake w/ fries), Gabrielle, Linda, Mikyla and Tiffany (T-bucket) in 2000; Amy Weber, Denise, Jill and Kelly in 2001.
Models
Beach Cruisers
Dyno Glide
Dyno Deluxe (springer fork)
Moto Glide (purple, multi-speed)
Ultra Glide (tank)
Glide Seven (derailer)
Dyno Deuce (red or black, with flames)
Moon Eyes® (yellow/black; promotional)
Von Franco (orange)hu
Taboo Tiki (green)
Dyno Roadster (stretch)
BMX Racing
16 (1981-1984)
24 (1981-1995)
Expert (1981-1985)
Gary Turner (1976–79)
Hot Wheels (2001)
Interceptor (1986-2012, 2013-2015 frame only)
Interceptor Jr. (1990-1995)
Interceptor 26 (2013-2014)
Junior (1983-1984)
Mach One (1984-2012, 2017)
Mach One 16FW (2016-)
Mach One 24 (1997-2013)
Mach One Junior (2001-2008, 2010-2012, 2018-)
Mach One Mini (1992-1997, 2009-2012, 2017-)
Mach One Expert (2009-2012, 2015, 2018-)
Mach One Pro (2009-2011, 2015-)
Mach One Pro 24 (2009, 2011, 2015-)
Mach Two (1995-1998)
Mini (1981-1984)
Power Series (1998-2018)
Power Series 0.5 (2001)
Power Series 1.0 (1998-2001)
Power Series 3.0 (1998-2001)
Power Series 24 (1993-2014)
Power Series Expert (2001-2012)
Power Series Expert XL (2013)
Power Series Jr. (2010-2012)
Power Series Micro (2009-2012)
Power Series Mini (2012)
Power Series Pro (2009-2011)
Power Series Ultra Box (2009)
Power Series Ultra Box 2 (2009)
Power Series Ultra Box Team (2009)
Power Series XL (2009-2010)
Power Series Pro XL (2011-2012)
Pro (1980-1984) Frame and fork only in 1985-1986
Pro Elite Frame & Fork (1992-1995)
Pro Series (1984-1996, 1998-2017)
Pro Series 24 (1998-2007, 2013-2017)
Pro Series Expert (2013-2015)
Pro Series Expert XL (2014)
Pro Series Jr. (1990-1996, 2013-2016)
Pro Series Micro (1999-2001, 2013-2017)
Pro Series Mini (1998-2001, 2013-2016)
Pro Series Pro 24 (2013-)
Pro Series Team (1987-1996)
Pro Series XL (1998-2016)
Pro Series XXL (1998-2016)
Raider (1997)
Speed Series (1996-?)
Speed Series 20 (2017)
Speed Series 24 (1997-2016)
Speed Series Jr. (1997-2003)
Speed Series Team (1996-1999)
Speed Series Team Expert (1999)
Speed Series XL (1996-2015)
Speed Series Expert (2018-)
Speed Series Expert XL (2018-)
Speed Series JR (2018-)
Speed Series Micro (2018-)
Speed Series Mini (2018-)
Speed Series Pro (2013-)
Speed Series Pro 24 (2013-)
Speed Series Pro 26 (2013)
Speed Series Pro XL (2011-)
Speed Series Pro XXL (2014-)
Speed Series Pro XXXL (2014-)
Team I (1983)
Team II (1983)
Team Series (1984–85)
BMX Dirt/Trail
Bump (1999-2014)
Cage (2013-2014 Frame only)
Fly (2001-2014)
Fly 18" (2012-2014)
Fly 16" (2012-2014)
Fueler (1994-2014)
Fueler 22 (2020-)
Steed (2010) Frame only
Thumper (2000-2005)
XR (2001)
BMX Freestyle
Aggressor (1990-1991)
Aggressor Team (1990-1991)
Air (2008-2016, 2019-)
Bestwick Pro (2001-2006)
BK (2016)
BK Team (2016-2020)
BK Team Compe (2017-2020)
BK Team Signature (2016-2020)
BK XL (2016)
Calafia (2009-2011)
Compe (2009-2011, 2013-2014)
Conway Team (2018-)
Conway Team Compe (2018-)
Conway Team Signature (2019-)
DLSY (2015)
DLSY Signature (2015)
DLSY XL (2015)
El Centro (2009-2011)
El Centro 18 (2009-2011)
El Centro 16 (2009-2011)
Encore (2005, 2008-2009)
Finale (2005-2011)
Grind (2001)
JPL Team (2018)
JPL Team Compe (2018)
La Chiva (2010 Frame only, 2011)
Mercado Team (2019-)
Mercado Team Compe (2019-)
Performer (1985-)
Performer Jr. 18" (1986-1995, 2015-)
Performer Lil 16" (2017-)
Phelan - Team Comp, Team (2017)
Pro Performer (1984-1989, 1997-2000) The 1997 model was only available in Europe and Australia.
Pro Freestyle Tour (1987-1997)
Pro Freestyle Tour Team (1987-1997)
Pro World Tour (1985-1986)
Ricochet (2012, 2014)
Vertigo (1988-2008)
Show (1998-2002)
Slammer (2009-)
Slammer XL (2016)
Tour (1998-2006)
Tour 2 (1999-2001)
Voelker (2001)
Wise (2015-2016)
Wise Team (2016-2017)
Wise Team Compe(2015)
Wise Signature (2016-2017)
Wise Team Signature (2016-2017)
Wise XL (2015-2016)
Zone (2009-2014)
Zoot (1987-1988) A freestyle scooter in both 12" and 14" models.
BMX Heritage/Retro
Performer 26 (2013-2014, 2018-)
Pro Performer (2018-)
Pro Performer 26 (2014, 2017-)
Pro Performer 29 (2018-)
Pro Series 24 (2020-)
Pro Series 26 (2020-)
Pro Series 29 (2018-)
Street Performer 29 (2018-)
Road and Mountain
Aggressor (Polished aluminum hardtail)
Aggressor 20 and 24 (Boys version of the hardtail adult bike)
Arrowhead (Aluminum hardtail)
Avalanche (All Mountain hardtail)
Backwoods (Aluminum hardtail)
Borrego (Steel hardtail)
Bravado (True Temper chromoly steel hardtail - higher spec compared to Karakoram)
Bullet (1993-1995)
CHUCKER (Aluminum dirt jumper)
Chucker (Freeride/dirt jump hardtail)
Course (Very rare road, Reynolds 853)
Crossover line (1991) consisting of Tachyon (drop bars) and Continuum (flat bars) which had very rare 700D wheel sizes and SunTour/DiaCompe components
DHi (Downhill bikes)
Distortion (Dual suspension slopestyle and 4X bike)
Edge (Road Series)
Force
Fury (Unique full carbon downhill frame)
Grade (Gravel bike line)
GTR Series 2.0 (Road, comfort,carbon fiber, Ultegra)
Helion (Full suspension cross country)
Hybrid 20 (1988-1991) BMX and MTN bike crossover
Hybris 24 (1990)
iT-1 (Downhill/freeride dual suspension)
Karakoram (Steel hardtail)
Kashmir 1.0 - 3.0(CroMo/Steel hardtail)
La Bomba (4X hardtail)
Laguna 20 and 24 (Girls version of the Aggressor 20 and 24)
Lightning
Lightning (Titanium hardtail)
Little Timber (1995)
GT Full Suspension Mountain Bike Development - RTS, LTS, and XCR I-Drive Series Developed in conjunction with Jim Busby, Suspension Design Engineer
See "Full Travel - GT's Suspension Development Story", published on Youtube in several parts EP 1-5.
LTS (Full suspension)
Marathon
Outbound (1995)
Outpost (Mountain hardtail)
Palomar
Pantera (All mountain hardtail)
Psyclone (Fillet brazed steel hardtail)
Psyclone (Hardtail - hand made steel frame from GT Tech Shop, True Temper and Reynolds 853)
RAGE
RAVE
Rebound (Hardtail - steel, and then later aluminum)
Richter 8 (Steel hardtail)
Ricochet
RTS (Full suspension)
Ruckus (Freeride hardtail and Duallys also Dirtbikes)
Saddleback Mountain (Hardtail)
Sanction
Sensor
Slipstream (Comfort)
STS (Carbonbikes)
Talera (Mountain hardtail)
Tempest
Tequesta (Steel hardtail)
Timberline/Nomad (Comfort)
Transeo (Crossover)
Vantara (Hardtail - steel and chormoly)
Vengeance
Xizang (1991, Hand polished titanium hardtail)
Xizang 9r (2012, titanium hartail, 29")
Zaskar (Hardtail - aluminum and recently carbon fibre)
ZR Series road bikes with a numerical designation, the lowest being the best spec'd bike (i.e., a ZR 1.0 was a better quality bike than a ZR 4.0)
ZRX (Cyclocross)
Trial
Ricochet (1988)
GT also manufactured a series of highly regarded Track bikes
GTB (General Track Bike)
GT Pulse
Jamie Skinner
See also
GT Factory Racing, aka Atherton Racing
List of BMX bicycle manufacturers
References
External links
Company website
GT Bicycles History
The 1996 GT Olympic Superbike
Czech official website
Mountain bike manufacturers
Cycle manufacturers of the United States
American companies established in 1979
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1979 |
4505311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20town%20tramway%20systems | List of town tramway systems | This is a list of cities that have, or once had, town tramway (urban tramway, or streetcar) systems as part of their public transport system. Due to excessive size, the original list has been divided into separate articles, based on geographical locations.
Africa
Asia (exclusive of Japan)
Japan
Europe (exclusive of countries having separate lists)
Austria
Belarus
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Lithuania
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Central America
North America (exclusive of countries having separate lists)
Canada
Mexico
United States
South America (exclusive of Argentina, Brazil and Chile)
Argentina
Brazil
Chile
Oceania
This page also provides references and links for all parts of the list.
Criteria for inclusion
A "town tramway service" is defined as:
a passenger transport service,
provided to the general public,
operated within or close to towns, cities or villages,
operated with railbound vehicles,
operated on tracks built entirely or largely within public streets and roads.
Determining which towns "had trams" (or "streetcars") requires subjective judgment to some degree.
No "universal" distinctions can be made between "town tramways" and other light railways because "tramway" and "railway" practices (and laws) varied considerably between countries. For example, the prevailing European standard to distinguish between "steam tramways" and "light railways, worked by steam traction" is based on rolling stock type. Lines worked by enclosed "tramway type" locomotives are classified as "steam tramways," and those worked by unenclosed locomotives are classified as "light railways." By this standard, virtually all Japanese examples of "steam tramways" would be classified as "light railways," because none (based on the photographic record) used European-type enclosed locomotives. Also in Japan, many of today's suburban electric railways were built under "tramway" concessions ("licenses") and were eventually changed to "railway" concessions. These lines had many "tramway" characteristics as built but few today.
Some town tramway systems had lines or groups of lines that were geographically isolated from the "main" system. Long-lived examples (i.e. excepting those during formative or closing years) are tabulated if known. Examples include Volgograd, Russia and New York City, US.
Opening and closing dates
"Opening date" is that upon which public passenger service was first offered. Test runs and inaugural ceremonies often occurred before this "opening date."
"Closing date" is the last "full" day on which passenger service was offered to the public. Service often extended into the small hours (i.e. past midnight) of the next day. Closure ceremonies and farewell excursions were sometimes held following the end of public service. Some lines were closed following damage suffered as the result of storms, earthquakes or war. In some such cases, closure was not made permanent for some time following the actual last day of public service. Again, the actual "last day of operation" is tabulated.
Operation of some systems was interrupted for prolonged periods (one year or longer) for various reasons, including natural- or man-made catastrophe, financial difficulty or conflict between tramway undertakings and local authorities. These are tabulated if known. Other systems (virtually all of them "small") operated only on a seasonal basis. Again, these facts are tabulated if known.
In some cases, goods (freight) service continued following closure of passenger operation. These have not been tabulated because of incomplete information. Goods service over town tramway systems is a potential category for a separate list.
Suburban tramways, rural tramways and interurbans
Many town tramway networks extended across municipal boundaries. "Suburban" municipalities have, in general, not been tabulated separately except in cases of dedicated "local" or "town" services. Examples include Footscray, Australia. A general exception to this principle is the UK, where tramways operated as separate municipal undertakings by adjacent towns are tabulated (and grouped by region). Examples include Glasgow and environs.
"Suburban" extensions of town tramway networks are tabulated where known. Lines having a "rural" or "interurban" character are generally not tabulated.
Many suburban, rural and intercity light railway undertakings operated dedicated "local" or "town" service within on-line towns. These are tabulated if known.
Many suburban, rural and intercity (interurban) light railway services carried "local" passengers within various towns. Such towns are not tabulated.
The rural tramway networks of Belgium, France and The Netherlands, and US "interurban" and "rural trolley" lines (the latter found mostly in New England states) have generally not been tabulated. These categories fully deserve their own lists.
"Paper tramways" and unknown tramways
Many towns planned tramways that were not built. So-called "paper tramways" are beyond the scope of this list. However, in a small number of cases, construction of a town tramway system was started (and, in a very few cases, completed) but the system did not open for public service. These are tabulated if known. Examples include Ajaccio (Corsica), France and Ulricehamn, Sweden.
Specific to the US, it is not unknown to find examples of tramways, listed in historic documents among operating systems, that did not in fact exist. It is also not uncommon to find picture postcards, dating from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, showing tramcars operating in towns where tramways did not exist. (Similar circumstances are likely to exist for other countries.) Certain examples are tabulated, primarily because they appear in well-known historic records and tabulations.
It is believed to be very likely that the historic record does not include "all" public town tramways that ever existed. Town tramways that escaped notice by historians (and regulatory authorities) are thought to have been 1.) located away from Europe, and 2.) worked by some form of traction other than electricity (e.g. horse, steam). Likely countries include Brazil (because of geographic size and incomplete records related to tramways), Mexico (because of its large number of horse- and mule-worked tramways) and the US (because of geographic size and lack of centralized records related to tramways). It is believed to be unlikely, but possible, that the historic record does not include all electric town tramways that ever existed.
See also
List of interurbans
List of largest tram and light rail transit systems ever
List of largest currently operating tram and light rail transit systems
List of tram and light rail transit systems
Tram and light rail transit systems
List of metro systems
Rapid transit
List of trolleybus systems
Trolleybus
Sources
Books
Accattatis, Antonio. 2007. "Linee tranviarie a Torino" (). Firenze: Phasar Edizioni.
Arrivetz, Jean. 1956. "Les Tramways Français" (No ISBN). Lyon: Editions Omni-Presse.
Bett, W. C., and J. C. Gillam. 1962. "Great British Tramway Networks (4th Edition)" (). London: Light Railway Transport League.
Blower, James M., and Robert S. Korach. 1966. "The NOT&L Story" (CERA Bulletin 109) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Brimson, Samuel. 1983. "The Tramways of Australia" (). Sydney: Dreamweaver Books.
Brinson, Carroll. 1977. "Jackson: A Special Kind of Place" (LCCN 77-081145) (No ISBN). Jackson, Mississippi: City of Jackson.
Buckley, R. J. 1984. "Tramways and Light Railways of Switzerland and Austria" (). Milton Keynes, UK: Light Rail Transit Association.
Canfield, Joseph M. (ed.) 1965. "Electric Railways of Northeastern Ohio" (CERA Bulletin 108) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Canfield, Joseph M. (ed.) 1968. "West Penn Traction" (CERA Bulletin 110) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Canfield, Joseph M. 1969. "Badger Traction" (CERA Bulletin 111) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Canfield, Joseph M. 1972. "TM: The Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Company" (CERA Bulletin) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Carlson, Norman (ed.), with Robert J. Levis (Research Coordinator). 1975. "Iowa Trolleys" (CERA Bulletin 114) (No ISBN). *Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Chandler, Allison. 1963. "Trolley Through the Countryside" (No ISBN). Denver: Sage Books.
Chandler, Allison, and Stephen D. Maguire, with Mac Sebree. 1980. “When Oklahoma Took The Trolley” (Interurbans Special 71) (). Glendale (CA), US: Interurban Press.
Charlton, E. Harper. 1955. "Street Railways of New Orleans" (Interurbans Specian No. 17, No ISBN). Los Angeles: Interurbans.
Cox, Harold E. 1991. "Diamond State Trolleys - Electric Railways of Delaware." Forty Fort (PA), US: Harold E. Cox.
Davies, W. K. J. 1986. "100 years of the Belgian vicinal: SNCV/NMVB, 1885-1985 : a century of secondary rail transport in Belgium" (). Broxbourne, UK: Light Rail Transit Association.
Dyer, Peter, and Peter Hodge. 1988. "Cane Train: The Sugar-Cane Railways of Fiji" (). Wellington: New Zealand Railway and Locomotive Society Inc.
"Electric Railways of Indiana Part II, The" (CERA Bulletin 102) (No ISBN). 1958. Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
"Electric Railways of Michigan, The" (CERA Bulletin 103) (No ISBN). 1959. Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Fetters, Thomas. 1978. "Palmetto Traction: Electric Railways of South Carolina" (No ISBN) Forty Fort (PA), US: Harold E. Cox.
Fletcher, Ken. 1995. "Centennial State Trolleys: The Life and Times of Colorado Streetcars" (). Golden (CO), US: Colorado Railroad Museum.
Gragt, Frits van der. 1968. "Europe's Greatest Tramway Network" (No ISBN). Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill.
Hamm, Edward. 1992. "The Public Service Trolley Lines in New Jersey" (). Poli (IL), US: Transportation Trains.
Harper, James P. 1953. "Electric Railways of Wisconsin" (CERA Bulletin 97) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Hennick, Louis C., and E. Harper Charlton. 1999. "Street Railways of Louisiana" (). Gretna (LA), US: Pelican.
Hilton, George W. 1997. "The Cable Car in America: A New Treatise upon Cable or Rope Traction As Applied to the Working of Street and Other Railways," Revised Edition (). Stanford (CA), US: Stanford University Press.
Howarth, W. Des. 1971. "Tramway Systems of Southern Africa" (No ISBN). Johannesburg: published by the author.
Janssen, William C. 1954. "The Illinois Traction System" (CERA Bulletin 98) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Keenan, David. 1979. "Tramways of Sydney" (). Sans Souci (NSW), Australia: Transit Press.
King, B. R., and J. H. Price. 1995. "The Tramways of Portugal (4th Edition)" (). London: Light Rail Transit Association.
Krambles, George. 1952. "Electric Railways of Ohio" (CERA Bulletin 96) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Kramer, Frederick A., with Ed Wadhams. "Connecticut Company's Streetcars" (). Newton (NJ), US: Carstens.
MacCowan, Ian. 1992. "The Tramways of New South Wales" (). Oakleigh (Victoria) Australia: published by the author.
McCarthy, Ken. 1983. "Steaming Down Argent Street: A History of the Broken Hill Steam Tramways 1902-1926" (). Sutherland (NSW), Australia: The Sydney Tramway Museum.
Misek, Frank J. 1956. "The Electric Railways of Iowa" (CERA Bulletin 100) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Misek, Frank J. (ed.). 1958. "The Electric Railways of Indiana Part I" (CERA Bulletin 101) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Misek, Frank J. (ed.). 1960. "The Electric Railways of Indiana Part III" (CERA Bulletin 104) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Molloy, D. Scott. 1998. "All Aboard: The History Of Mass Transportation In Rhode Island" (). Mount Pleasant (SC), US: Arcadia.
Morrison, Allen. 1989. "The Tramways of Brazil - A 130-Year Survey" () . New York: Bonde Press.
Morrison, Allen. 1992. "The Tramways of Chile - 1858 - 1978" () . New York: Bonde Press.
Morrison, Allen. 1996. "Latin America by Streetcar: A Pictorial Survey of Urban Rail Transport South of the U.S.A." (). New York: Bonde Press.
Myers, Rex. 1970. "Montana’s Trolleys: Book 1, Helena" (No ISBN). Los Angeles: Interurbans.
Olson, Russell L. 1976. "The Electric Railways of Minnesota" (No ISBN). Hopkins (MN), US: Minnesota Transportation Museum.
Orr, Richard. 1996 O&CB: Streetcars of Omaha and Council Bluffs (). Omaha: published by the author.
Pabst, Martin. 1989. "Tram & Trolley in Africa" (). Krefeld: Röhr Verlag GMBH.
Peschkes, Robert. "World Gazetteer of Tram, Trolleybus, and Rapid Transit Systems."
Part One, Latin America (). 1980. Exeter, UK: Quail Map Company.
Part Two, Asia+USSR / Africa / Australia (). 1987. London: Rapid Transit Publications.
Part Three, Europe (). 1993. London: Rapid Transit Publications.
Part Four, North America (). 1998. London: Rapid Transit Publications.
Reifschneider, Felix E. 1947. "Toonervilles of the Empire State" (No ISBN). Orlando (FL), U.S.: published by the author.
Reifschneider, Felix E. 1948. "Trolley Lines of the Empire State" (No ISBN). Orlando (FL), U.S.: published by the author.
Röhr, Gustav. 1986. "Schmalspurparadies Schweiz," Band 1: Berner Oberland, Jura, Westschweiz, Genfer See, Wallis (). Aachen: Schweers + Wall.
Schramm, Jack E., and William H. Henning. 1978. "Detroit's Street Railways, Volume I" (CERA Bulletin 117) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Schramm, Jack E., William H. Henning and Thomas J. Devorman. 1980. "Detroit's Street Railways, Volume II" (CERA Bulletin 120) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Schramm, Jack E., William H. Henning and Andrews, Richard R. 1984. "Detroit's Street Railways, Volume III: When Eastern Michigan Rode the Rails" (CERA Bulletin 123) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Schweers, Hans. 1988. "Schmalspurparadies Schweiz," Band 2: Nordostschweiz, Mittelland, Zentralschweiz, Graubünden, Tessin (). Aachen: Schweers + Wall.
Sluiter, J.W. e.a. "Overzicht van de Nederlandsche Spoor- en Tramwegbedrijven" Derde, geheel herziene en uitgebreide druk (). 2002 NVBS / uitgeverij Matrijs.
"Smaller Electric Railways of Illinois, The" (CERA Bulletin 99) (No ISBN). 1955. Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.
Stewart, Graham. 1985. "When Trams Were Trumps in New Zealand" (). Wellington: Grantham House Publishing.
Stewart, Graham. 1993 "The End of the Penny Section" (revised and enlarged edition) (). Wellington: Grantham House Publishing.
"Straßenbahnatlas ehem. Sowjetunion / Tramway Atlas of the former USSR" (). 1996. Berlin: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Blickpunkt Straßenbahn, in conjunction with Light Rail Transit Association, London.
"Straßenbahnatlas Rumänien" (compiled by Andreas Günter, Sergei Tarknov and Christian Blank; ). 2004. Berlin: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Blickpunkt Straßenbahn.
Swett, Ira, with Fred Fellow. 1954. “Interurbans of Utah” (Interurbans Special 15) (No ISBN). Los Angeles: Interurbans.
Swett, Ira. 1970. "Montana's Trolleys 2: Butte, Anaconda, BAP" (Interurbans Special 50) (No ISBN). Los Angeles: Interurbans.
Swett, Ira. 1970. "Montana's Trolleys - III: Billings, Bozeman, Great Falls, Missoula, Proposed Lines, The Milwaukee Road (Interurbans Special 51) (No ISBN). Los Angeles: Interurbans.
"Tramway & Light Railway Atlas - Germany 1996" (). 1995. Berlin: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Blickpunkt Straßenbahn, in conjunction with Light Rail Transit Association, London.
Turner, Keith. 1996. "The Directory of British Tramways: Every Passenger-Carrying Tramway, Past and Present" (). Somerset, UK: Haynes.
Waller, Michael H., and Peter Walker. 1992. "British & Irish Tramway Systems since 1945" (). Shepperton (Surrey), UK: Ian Allan Ltd.
Periodicals
Motor Coach Age. Paramus (NJ), US: The Motor Bus Society. Quarterly.
Tramways & Urban Transit. Peterborough, UK: LRTA Publishing Ltd. Monthly.
Transit Australia. Sydney: Transit Australia Publishing. Monthly.
External links
Assotram - Tramvies i troleibusos a Catalunya i Espanya/Trams & trolleybuses in Catalonia and Spain
Canadian Paper Electric, Street and Radial Railways (David Wyatt)
Development of Streetcar Systems in North Carolina (Walter R. Turner)
Electric Transport in Latin America - past & present (Allen Morrison)
(Elektrotransport v gorodakh byvshego SSSR, Dmitry Zinoviev)
The Era of the Horse Drawn Car (J. Douglas Cummins)
Historia del tranvia en Argentina
Historisch Genootschap de Blauwe Tram (G. J. Groenveld and J. A. Geijp).
Mass Transit in Rhode Island (D. Scott Molloy)
North American Light Rail System Maps & Details (Light Rail Central)
Site officiel du Musée des Transports Urbains, Interurbains et Ruraux (AMTUIR)
Straßenbahnen Jugoslawien (Blickpunkt Straßenbahn)
Tram Views of Asia, from the collection of John Rossman (Allen Morrison)
World Rail Transit List (David Wyatt)
Tram transport-related lists |
4505414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateshgah%20of%20Baku | Ateshgah of Baku | The Ateshgah of Baku (from , Ātashgāh, ), often called the "Fire Temple of Baku", is a castle-like religious temple in Surakhany town (in Surakhany raion), a suburb in Baku, Azerbaijan.
Based on Persian and Indian inscriptions, the temple was used as a Hindu, Sikh, and Zoroastrian place of worship. "Ātash" (آتش) is the Persian word for fire. The pentagonal complex, which has a courtyard surrounded by cells for monks and a tetrapillar-altar in the middle, was built during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was abandoned in the late 19th century, probably due to the dwindling of the Indian population in the area. The natural eternal flame went out in 1969, after nearly a century of usage of the petroleum and gas in the area, but is now lit by gas piped from the nearby city.
The Baku Ateshgah was a pilgrimage and philosophical centre of Zoroastrians from Northwestern Indian subcontinent, who were involved in trade with the Caspian area via the famous "Grand Trunk Road". The four holy elements of their belief were: ateshi (fire), badi (air), abi (water), and heki (earth). The temple ceased to be a place of worship after 1883 with the installation of petroleum plants (industry) at Surakhany. The complex was turned into a museum in 1975. The annual number of visitors to the museum is 15,000.
The Temple of Fire "Ateshgah" was nominated for List of World Heritage Sites, UNESCO in 1998 by Gulnara Mehmandarova. On December 19, 2007, it was declared a state historical-architectural reserve by decree of the President of Azerbaijan.
Etymology
The Persian toponym Atashgah (with Russian/Azerbaijani pronunciation: Atashgyakh/Ateshgah) literally means "home of fire." The Persian-origin term atesh (آتش) means "fire", and is a loanword in Azerbaijani; it is etymologically related to the Vedic अथर्वन् atharvan. Gah (گاہ) derives from Middle Persian and means "throne" or "bed" and it is cognate with Sanskrit gṛha गृह for "house", which in popular usage becomes gah. The name refers to the fact that the site is situated atop a now-exhausted natural gas field, which once caused natural fires to spontaneously burn there as the gas emerged from seven natural surface vents. Today, the fires in the complex are fed by gas piped in from Baku, and are only turned on for the benefit of visitors.
Surakhani, the name of the town where the Ateshgah is located, likely means "a region of holes" (سراخ/suraakh is Persian for "hole"), but might perhaps be a reference to the fire glow as well (سرخ/sorkh/surkh is Persian for "red"). A historic alternative name for Azerbaijan as a whole has been Odlar Yurdu, Azeri for "land of fires". The etymology in Sanskrit for Surakhany is "mine of the gods" from sura which stands for the "gods", who stand in opposition to the asuras, the demons.
Surakhany in Tati (the language of Surakhany, close to Persian) means “hole with the fountain”.
History
Surakhany is located on the Absheron peninsula, which is famous for being a locality where oil oozes naturally from the ground and flames burn perpetually — as at Yanar Dag — fed by natural hydrocarbon vapours issuing from the rock.
Sarah Ashurbeyli notes that the Atsh is distorted Atesh (“fire”) and Atshi-Baguan means “Fires of Baguan”, referring to Baku. The word Baguan comes from the word Baga, which means “God” in Old Persian, and Bhaga, भग, also means "God" in Sanskrit.
"Seven holes with eternal fires" were mentioned by German traveler Engelbert Kaempfer, who visited Surakhany in 1683.
Estakhri (10th century) mentioned that not far from Baku (i.e., on the Apsheron Peninsula) lived fire worshippers. This was confirmed by Movses Daskhurantsi in his reference of the province of Bhagavan (“Fields of the Gods” i.e., “Fire Gods”).
In the 18th century, Atashgah was visited by Zoroastrians. The Persian handwriting Naskh inscription over the entrance aperture of one of the cells, which speaks about the visit of Zoroastrians from Isfahan:
Persian inscription:
Transliteration of Persian inscription:
ātaši saf kešide hamčon dak
jey bovāni reside tā bādak
sāl-e nav-e nozl mobārak bād goft
xāne šod ru *sombole sane-ye hazār-o-sad-o-panjāh-o-haštom
Translation:
Fires stand in line
Esfahani Bovani came to Badak [Baku]
"Blessed the lavish New Year", he said:The house was built in the month of Ear in year 1158.The 1158 year corresponds to 1745 AD. Bovan (modern Bovanat) is the village near Esfahan. The word Badak is a diminutive of Bad-Kubeh. (The name of Baku in the sources of the 17th and 18th centuries was Bad-e Kube). At the end of the reference is the constellation of Sombole /Virgo (August–September). In the name of the month the master mistakenly shifted the “l” and “h” at the end of the word. According to Zoroastrian calendar Qadimi New Year in 1745 AD was in August.
Interesting information about Zoroastrianism in Baku is given by D. Shapiro in A Karaite from Wolhynia meets a Zoroastrian from Baku. Avraham Firkowicz, a Karaite collector of ancient manuscripts, wrote about his meeting in Darband in 1840 with a fire-worshipper from Baku. Firkowicz asked him “Why do you worship fire?” The fire-worshipper replied that he worshipped not fire, but the Creator symbolised by fire - a “matter” or abstraction (and hence not a person) called Q’rţ’. Pahlavi Q’rţ’ (from Avestan kirdar or Sanskrit kṛt and कर्ता) signifies “one who does” or “creator”.
Structure
Some scholars have speculated that the Ateshgah may have been an ancient Zoroastrian shrine that was decimated by invading Islamic armies during the Muslim conquest of Persia and its neighboring regions. It has also been asserted that, "according to historical sources, before the construction of the Indian Temple of Fire (Atashgah) in Surakhany at the end of the 17th century, the local people also worshipped at this site because of the 'seven holes with burning flame'."
Fire is considered sacred in Hinduism and Zoroastrianism (as Agni and Atar, respectively), and there has been debate on whether the Atashgah was originally a Hindu structure, or a Zoroastrian one. The trident mounted atop the structure is usually a distinctly Hindu sacred symbol (as the Trishula, which is commonly mounted on temples) and has been cited by Zoroastrian scholars as a specific reason for considering the Atashgah as a Hindu site. However, an Azerbaijani presentation on the history of Baku, which calls the shrine a "Hindu temple", identifies the trident as a Zoroastrian symbol of "good thoughts, good words and good deeds". even though the trident symbol is not associated with Zoroastrianism
One early European commentator, Jonas Hanway, bucketed Zoroastrians, Sikhs, and Hindus together with respect to their religious beliefs: "These opinions, with a few alterations, are still maintained by some of the posterity of the ancient Indians and Persians, who are called Gebers or Gaurs, and are very zealous in preserving the religion of their ancestors; particularly in regard to their veneration for the element of fire." Geber is a Persian term for Zoroastrians, while Gaurs are a priestly Hindu caste. A later scholar, A. V. Williams Jackson, drew a distinction between the two groups. While stating that "the typical features which Hanway mentions are distinctly Indian, not Zoroastrian" based on the worshipers' attires and tilakas, their strictly vegetarian diets and open veneration for cows, he left open the possibility that a few "actual Gabrs (i.e. Zoroastrians, or Parsis)" may also have been present at the shrine alongside larger Hindu and Sikh groups.
Indian local residents and pilgrims
In the late Middle Ages, there were significant Indian communities throughout Central Asia. In Baku, Indian merchants from the Multan region of Punjab controlled much of the commercial economy (see also Multani Caravanserai). Much of the woodwork for ships on the Caspian was also done by Indian craftsmen. Some commentators have theorized that Baku's Indian community may have been responsible for the construction or renovation of the Ateshgah.
As European academics and explorers began arriving in Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, they documented encounters with dozens of Hindus at the shrine as well as Sikh pilgrims en route in the regions between North India and Baku.
Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin's Reise durch Russland (1771) is cited in Karl Eduard von Eichwald's Reise in den Caucasus (Stuttgart, 1834) where the naturalist Gmelin is said to have observed Yogi austerities being performed by devotees. Geologist Eichwald restricts himself to a mention of the worship of Rama, Krishna, Hanuman and Agni. In the 1784 account of George Forster of the Bengal Civil Service, the square structure was about 30 yards across, surrounded by a low wall and containing many apartments. Each of these had a small jet of sulphurous fire issuing from a funnel "constructed in the shape of a Hindu altar." The fire was used for worship, cooking and warmth, and would be regularly extinguished.
"The Ateshgyakh Temple looks not unlike a regular town caravansary - a kind of inn with a large central court, where caravans stopped for the night. As distinct from caravansaries, however, the temple has the altar in its center with tiny cells for the temple's attendants - Indian ascetics who devoted themselves to the cult of fire - and for pilgrims lining the walls."
Zoroastrian local residents and pilgrims
There are some data that in addition to the Hindus in the temple were present Zoroastrians (Parsis and Guebres) and Sikhs. Chardin in the 17th century reported about Persian Guebres, which worshiped forever burning fire that was in two days' journey from Shemakha (on the Apsheron).
Engelbert Kaempfer, who visited Surakhany in 1683, wrote that among people who worshiped fire, two men are descendants of Persians who migrated to India.
French Jesuit Villotte, who lived in Azerbaijan since 1689, reports that Ateshgah revered by Hindus, Sikhs, and Zoroastrians, the descendants of the ancient Persians.
German traveler Lerch who visited the temple in 1733, wrote that here there are 12 Guebres or ancient Persian fire worshipers».
J. Hanway visited Baku in 1747 and left few records of Ateshgah. People, who worshiped fire in Ateshgah he calls "Indians", "Persians" and “Guebres”.
S. Gmelin, who visited Ateshgah in 1770, wrote that in the present Ateshgah lived Indians and descendants of the ancient Guebres.
In 1820 the French consul Gamba visits the temple. According to Gamba here lived Hindus, Sikhs, and Zoroastrians, the followers of Zoroaster.
The Englishman Ussher visited Ateshgah in September 19, 1863 He calls it "Atash Jah" and said that there are pilgrims from India and Persia. German Baron Max Thielmann visited the temple in October 1872 and in his memoirs he wrote that Parsi community of Bombay sent here a priest who after a few years will be replaced. His presence is necessary, because here come the pilgrims from the outskirts of Persia (Yazd, Kerman) and from India and remain in this sacred place for several months or years.
In 1876 English traveler James Bruce visited Ateshgah. He noted that the Bombay Parsi Punchayat provides a permanent presence in the temple of their priest. Pierre Ponafidine visited the temple at the same time and mentioned about two priests from Bombay. E. Orsolle, who visited the temple after Bruce, said that after Parsi priest died in 1864, the Parsi Punchayat of Bombay a few years later sent another priest here, but the pilgrims who came here from India and Iran have already forgotten the sanctuary, and in 1880 there was nobody.
O'Donovan visited the temple in 1879 and refers about religious worship of Guebres.
In 1898 in the «Men and Women of India» magazine was published an article entitled "The ancient Zoroastrian temple in Baku. Author calls Ateshgah as "Parsi temple," and notes that the last Zoroastrian priest was sent there for about 30 years ago (that is, in the 1860s.). J. Henry in 1905, in his book also noted that 25 years ago (i.e. about in 1880) in Surakhani died last Parsi priest.
The Parsi author J.J. Modi who visited the site in 1925 was emphatic that it was not a Zoroastrian temple because of its design and other considerations. He believed it was a Hindu temple.
Inscriptions and likely period of construction
There are several inscriptions on the Ateshgah. They are all in either Sanskrit or Punjabi, with the exception of one Persian inscription that occurs below an accompanying Sanskrit invocation to Lord Ganesha and Jwala Ji. Although the Persian inscription contains grammatical errors, both the inscriptions contain the same year date of 1745 Common Era (Samvat/संवत 1802/१८०२ and Hijri 1158/١١٥٨). Taken as a set, the dates on the inscriptions range from Samvat 1725 to Samvat 1873, which corresponds to the period from 1668 CE to 1816 CE. This, coupled with the assessment that the structure looks relatively new, has led some scholars to postulate the 17th century as its likely period of construction. One press report asserts that local records exist that state that the structure was built by the Baku Hindu traders community around the time of the fall of the Shirvanshah dynasty and annexation by the Russian Empire following the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723).
The inscriptions in the temple in Sanskrit (in Nagari Devanagari script) and Punjabi (in Gurmukhi script) identify the site as a place of Hindu and Sikh worship, and state it was built and consecrated for Jwala Ji, the modern Hindu fire deity. Jwala (जवाला/ज्वाला) means flame in Sanskrit (c.f. Indo-European cognates: proto-Indo-European guelh, English: glow, Lithuanian: zvilti) and Ji is an honorific used in the Indian subcontinent. There is a famed shrine to Jwala Ji in the Himalayas, in the settlement of Jawalamukhi, in the Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, India to which the Atashgah bears strong resemblance and on which some scholars (such as A. V. Williams Jackson) suggested the current structure may have been modeled. However, other scholars have stated that some Jwala Ji devotees used to refer to the Kangra shrine as the 'smaller Jwala Ji' and the Baku shrine as the 'greater Jwala Ji'. Other deities mentioned in the inscriptions include Ganesha and Shiva. The Punjabi language inscriptions are quotations from the Adi Granth, while some of the Sanskrit ones are drawn from the Sat Sri Ganesaya namah text.
Examination by Zoroastrian priests
In 1876, James Bryce visited the region and found that "the most remarkable mineral product is naphtha, which bursts forth in many places, but most profusely near Baku, on the coast of the Caspian, in strong springs, some of which are said to always be burning." Without referencing the Atashgah by name, he mentioned of the Zoroastrians that "after they were extirpated from Persia by the Mohammedans, who hate them bitterly, some few occasionally slunk here on pilgrimage" and that "under the more tolerant sway of the Czar, a solitary priest of fire is maintained by the Parsee community of Bombay, who inhabits a small temple built over one of the springs".
The temple was examined in the late 19th and early 20th century by Parsi dasturs, some of whom had also visited the Jwala Ji at Kangra in the Himalayas. Based on the inscriptions and the structure, their assessment was that the temple was a Hindu and Sikh shrine. In 1925, a Zoroastrian priest and academic Jivanji Jamshedji Modi traveled to Baku to determine if the temple had indeed been once a Zoroastrian place of worship. Until then (and again today), the site was visited by Zoroastrian pilgrims from India. In his Travels Outside Bombay, Modi observed that "not just me but any Parsee who is a little familiar with our Hindu or Sikh brethren's religion, their temples and their customs, after examining this building with its inscriptions, architecture, etc., would conclude that this is not a [Zoroastrian] Atash Kadeh but is a Hindu Temple whose Brahmins (priests) used to worship fire (Sanskrit: Agni)."
Besides the physical evidence indicating that the complex was a Hindu place of worship, the existing structural features are not consistent with those for any other Zoroastrian or Sikh places of worship (for instance, cells for ascetics, fireplace open to all sides, ossuary pit and no water source. It cannot be ruled out that the site may once have been a Zoroastrian place of worship. As a Hindu temple it is taken to belong to one of four major fire Jwala Ji temples.
J. Unvala visited temple in 1935 and noted that its structure is pure Sasanian style.
Exhaustion of the natural gas
The fire was once fed by a vent from a subterranean natural gas field located directly beneath the complex, but heavy exploitation of the natural gas reserves in the area during Soviet rule resulted in the flame going out in 1969. Today, the museum's fire is fed by mains gas piped in from Baku city..
Claimed visit by Tsar Alexander III
There were local claims made to a visiting Zoroastrian dastur in 1925 that the Russian Tsar Alexander III who was in Baku in 1888 witnessed Hindu fire prayer rituals at this location. However, the latter claim had not been verified.
Public recognition
An illustration of the Baku Fire Temple was included on two denominations of Azerbaijan's first issue of postage stamps, released in 1919. Five oil derricks appear in the background.
By a presidential order issued in December 2007, the shrine complex, which had hitherto been officially associated with the "Shirvanshah Palace Complex State Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve" (Государственного историко-архитектурного музея-заповедника «Комплекс Дворца Ширваншахов») was declared as a distinct reserve by the Azerbaijani government (the "Ateshgah Temple State Historical Architectural Reserve, Государственным историко-архитектурным заповедником «Храм Атешгях»'').
In July 2009, the Azerbaijani President, Ilham Aliyev, announced a grant of AZN 1 million for the upkeep of the shrine.
In April 2018, the former External Affairs Minister of India, Sushma Swaraj, visited and paid her respects to the shrine.
Gallery
See also
Qobustan, Baku
Yanar Dag
Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan
Hinduism in Azerbaijan
List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan
References
Further reading
External links and photographs
Indian Inscriptions on the Fire Temple at Bāku (1908)
“Atəşgah məbədi” - official web-site of museum fire temple Atashgah (in Azeri)
Sanskrit invocation to Lord Shiva in an Atashgah inscription, with the Hindu devotional-form of the Swastika on top
Punjabi inscription on the Atashgah beginning with Ik Onkar Satnam"
The cremation pit on the Atashgah premises
18th-century Hindu temples
Museums established in 1975
Monuments and memorials in Azerbaijan
Museums in Baku
Former religious buildings and structures in Azerbaijan
Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan
Fire temples in Azerbaijan
Hindu temples in Azerbaijan
Hinduism in Azerbaijan
Gurdwaras
Persistent natural fires
History museums in Azerbaijan
Chahartaqis |
4505462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow%20White%27s%20Enchanted%20Wish | Snow White's Enchanted Wish | Snow White's Enchanted Wish is a dark ride at the Disneyland, Tokyo Disneyland, and Disneyland Paris theme parks, and formerly at the Magic Kingdom. Located in Fantasyland, it is one of the few remaining attractions that was operational on Disneyland's opening day in 1955, although it has seen several different redesigns over its history. The ride's story is based on Disney's 1937 film, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, their first animated feature film.
The Disneyland version was originally known as Snow White and Her Adventures before its 1983 redesign, when it was renamed Snow White's Scary Adventures. It was rethemed again in 2021 with its current name. The Tokyo Disneyland is named Snow White's Adventures, which was also the original name of the now-closed Magic Kingdom version. The Disneyland Paris version is called Blanche Neige et les Sept Nains: L'Attraction (Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs: The Attraction).
History
Snow White's Enchanted Wish opened on Disneyland's opening day as Snow White and Her Adventures. Imagineers designed the ride so that guests assumed the viewpoint of the main character, Snow White. Few people understood this concept, and some wondered why Snow White was not featured in the ride.
During the 1983 season, all of the Fantasyland dark rides were completely redesigned as part of a large overhaul of the area. This attraction, then renamed Snow White's Scary Adventures, and the other dark rides were modified to include the main characters of the films they represented. Snow White appeared once in the attraction. The outdoor facade was made to resemble the Evil Queen's castle from the movie.
When the Witch offered guests the poisoned apple in one scene, guests frequently tried (and sometimes managed) to steal the apple and bring it home as a souvenir. When Fantasyland was reopened in 1983, they solved the issue by replacing it with an image of an apple projected by means of a parabolic mirror.
Magic Kingdom's original version of this ride, like their early version of Peter Pan's Flight, also put the guests in the role of the story's main character (Snow White). Around Christmas of 1994, a less frightening version of the ride took its place; appearances of Snow White were also added. The redesigned ride took some cues from the version at Disneyland Paris, including increasing the capacity of each vehicle from four to six passengers. On February 23, 2012, Disney announced that the ride would close on May 31. Two years after its closure, another Snow White attraction opened, Seven Dwarfs Mine Train.
On January 7, 2020, the attraction at Disneyland closed for an extended refurbishment. Walt Disney Imagineering installed new scenes and updated the attraction's audio and visual technology. Its exterior was also refreshed to complement the nearby Sleeping Beauty Castle. On December 21, 2020, the film's 83rd anniversary, Disney announced that the ride would be renamed Snow White's Enchanted Wish, and would include state-of-the-art audio and visual technology, including new music, LED black lighting, laser projections, and a new animation system. Other new elements include a dancing Snow White, the scent of pies baking, a new queue with storybooks, and the evil Queen’s collection of spell books and bubbling potions. The ride officially reopened to the public on April 30, 2021, the same day Disneyland allowed guests to return to the park following its lengthy closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Attraction summary
Disneyland
1955 version
The version of the Snow White dark ride that opened along with Disneyland on July 17, 1955—uniquely titled Snow White and her Adventures—was designed by Claude Coats and Ken Anderson, both of whom were largely responsible for the look of the 1937 feature film. The original ride was shorter than the version that replaced it (at a duration of approximately ninety seconds), contained cruder animation and audio, and relied far more on two-dimensional plywood "flats" for scenery than any other iteration of the attraction. Quite notably, Snow White herself did not appear in the ride, as riders themselves were meant to assume the role and perspective of the titular heroine. Contemporary opening-day dark rides Mr. Toad's Wild Ride and Peter Pan's Flight similarly lacked in-ride appearances of their titular characters, but in the case of Snow White in particular, the concept eluded most guests, leaving many confused as to why Snow White did not appear. In response, a single Snow White figure was eventually added to one of the interior scenes in the early 1970s, as photographic evidence suggests.
As with the Peter Pan and Mr. Toad rides, the loading queue of the original Snow White attraction was set within a wide opening in the front wall of the show building, and its exterior façade consisted of colorful, patterned canvas awnings akin to those of a medieval jousting tournament. (This aesthetic was uniform across the entirety of Fantasyland prior to 1983.) Spanning the entire front wall of the space housing the ride's interior was a detailed mural illustrating most of the scenes in the attraction, as well as the cast of the 1937 film. Directly in front of the mural was the ride's loading line, where guests boarded one-seat ride vehicles embellished to appear as hand-carved wooden benches rendered in the style of the Dwarfs' furniture from the film. The vehicles were replaced with two-seat versions in the 1960s.
Upon release by a ride operator, guests were shuttled forth and made a ninety-degree turn toward the gaping, wood-timber entrance to the Dwarfs' diamond mine at the far-left end of the mural. All was dark at first, but riders soon found themselves venturing through underground tunnels fitted with numerous rows of wooden beams. Here, gems of every color studded the rock walls and shone brilliantly under ultraviolet light. Guests soon approached a forced-perspective mural of a seemingly endless mineshaft continuing into the unseen distance before turning around and passing into the mine's gem vault. The huge vault door was held open by Dopey (rendered as a plywood flat), who peeked out from behind it, grinning at riders as they passed. Inside the vault was the Dwarfs' vast stock of precious jewels, piled high into glistening mounds within kegs and mine carts. Guests continued deeper into the mine, where the other dwarfs were seen picking away at ore by lantern light to an instrumental variant of the Dig-a Dig Dig song. Heading to the left, riders encountered Dopey once again (this time a fully dimensional animated figure like the other six dwarfs), who pointed worriedly to a wooden sign reading, "BEWARE OF THE WITCH."
Guests then passed under a final set of wooden timbers, exiting the diamond mine into the serene forest, where many animals such as deer, birds, and rabbits looked on from behind the trees. Ahead was a fork in the road marked by a wooden sign pointing in one direction to the Dwarfs' cottage and to the Queen's castle in the other. For a moment guests approached a forced-perspective mural of the distant woodland cottage, but turned instead into the direction of the castle. The scene then quickly shifted from a peaceful and pleasant forest into one of gnarled tree roots, dead vines, and muddy colors as riders passed under two vultures perched overhead. Guests then turned left toward the open entrance to the sinister stone castle and passed through. Directly ahead, within the castle's dim interior, was a passage leading back outside, where another wooden sign signified the Dwarfs' cottage. As guests advanced toward the open doorway, however, a wrought-iron portcullis slammed shut in front of it, blocking the way out. Ahead, at the end of a dark, straight corridor, a skeleton chained to the wall rattled as guests approached it, moaning, "Go back..."
Riders then veered away under a stone arch and saw the hunched shadow of the lurking Witch right in front of them, creeping across a stone wall plastered with a large spider web. Hanging strings simulating cob webs brushed against guests' faces as they passed under another arch, and rounding a sharp turn, riders encountered the Witch herself at her cauldron. Stationed near her massive spell book, the cloaked peddler held a newly poisoned apple over her brew by its stem. She turned to face guests as they approached her, croaking, "Have an apple, dearie?" before riders were jolted away into a dark corner. Guests came face to face with the old hag once more in the next chamber; this time she emerged from behind a large stone column, again offering her deadly fruit as she delivered a grim laugh. Guests then escaped the dungeon by crashing through a solid masonry wall, and, after a short interval of darkness, found themselves threading through the frightful woods. Here were many looming and gnarled trees, each with a grotesque, menacing face embedded into its bark; the trees' arm-like branches were fixed in dramatic clawing and grasping postures. Beyond the forest was the thatched-roof home of the Seven Dwarfs, complete with warm light emanating from its windows. As riders drew near the inviting cottage, its front door swung open only to reveal the Witch inside, poisoned apple still in hand. Finally, in a scene mirroring the climax of the film, riders approached a tall cliff on which the old peddler was seen one last time. She cackled maniacally, attempting to pry a boulder onto guests from above. Just as the huge rock began to tilt forward, however, the wicked crone was struck down by a simulated bolt of lightning, meeting her demise with a wretched shriek just before guests escaped through a camouflaged set of crash doors within the rock surface below her. After a final short stretch of darkness, guests returned to the loading area to disembark.
In January 1961, a number of updates were made to the Snow White dark ride by a team of Imagineers headed by Yale Gracey. These included improved, rebuilt figures of the Witch replacing several of the cruder models present on opening day, fully dimensional trees in the dark forest scene replacing the original plywood flats, and various new details such as ambient sound effects. Snow White and her Adventures ceased operation in December 1981 for a major overhaul coinciding with the New Fantasyland project, a dramatic reimagining of Fantasyland where most of its attractions and architecture were improved with far more intricate theming and superior technology. The updated Snow White attraction, Snow White's Scary Adventures, opened in May 1983.
1983 version
Guests entered the ride building through the Evil Queen's castle. Overlooking the entrance was a high window whose curtains are parted every few minutes by the Evil Queen. A metal, gold-colored apple next to a spellbook that was within reach of guests standing in the queue. Touching the apple caused the disembodied voice of the Queen to cackle menacingly. Guests wound their way through a dungeon inside the castle, passing by a book of poisons. The book read, "One taste of the poisoned apple and the victim's eyes will close forever in the Sleeping Death." Like most of the dark rides, the boarding area was dominated by a large mural depicting characters from the movie.
The ride vehicles resemble mine carts and feature the names of each of the Seven Dwarfs, much like their beds in the film. When guests boarded the ride vehicles, they entered the Dwarfs' cottage first. Here, the music and yodeling from "The Silly Song" can be heard, while birds, chipmunks, and other forest creatures perform housekeeping tasks such as hanging a clothesline and washing the dishes. Guests passed Snow White followed by some of her animal friends climbing the stairs to the second floor of the cottage. The guests then moved past the Dwarfs, who are performing "The Silly Song".
When guests left the cottage, they passed by the Queen who says "Soon I'll be fairest in the land." They then enter the Dwarfs' diamond mine, which is full of jewels of many colors. Guests passed under a branch with two vultures perched on it and enter the Queen's castle. There, they see the Queen as she stands before a mirror with her back to the guests and beautiful reflection saying, "Magic Mirror on the wall..." She then turns and faces the guests. They see that she has become an ugly, green-eyed, toothless witch with a wart on her nose. "With this disguise, I'll fool them all!" she adds. This effect is achieved by two models—one queen and one witch—rotating on different sides of the 'mirror', which is actually a sheet of transparent glass. Projections and LED lights created the effect of cobwebs and electricity running through the walls. Guests continued to pass through the castle laden with skeletons. Nearby, the Witch was accompanied by a raven in a dungeon where she was creating a poisoned apple for Snow White. She headed for the Dwarfs' cottage in a small boat.
Guests wound their way through a menacing forest. Here, trees had ugly faces and branches like talons or grasping hands. Bats flew everywhere and logs resembled snapping crocodiles. The guests then turned toward the Seven Dwarfs' cottage. The door opened to reveal the Witch, who offered the guests the apple. Guests turned towards a mountainside where the Dwarfs pursued the Witch. Nearby, the Witch tried to roll a boulder down the mountain to crush the Dwarfs below. However, a strike of lightning caused her to tumble to her death; her scream was heard as guests exited the area.
Returning to the boarding and debarkation area, guests passed a giant book featuring a silhouette of Snow White and her Prince with his horse as they wander away towards a castle. The words at the bottom of this picture read, "And they lived happily ever after." The guests then disembarked from the ride vehicles and return to Fantasyland.
The installation at Disneyland was manufactured by Arrow Development.
This version of the attraction closed in January 2020.
2021 version
Walt Disney Imagineering's intention was to make the ride less scary and to balance the "three core audiences" of adults, teens, and kids. They went on to say that the latest version of the ride also tells the complete story instead of the ride's 1983 version, which mostly concluded on a cliffhanger, and that the new ending makes it clear that Snow White and the Prince are the ones who lived "happily ever after". The project had an unlikely start when Walt Disney Imagineering intern David Borning brought in a model and sold the office on the idea.
Guests once again enter the ride building through the Evil Queen's castle, now repainted and refurbished to complement the color scheme of Sleeping Beauty Castle. The spellbook and apple are replaced by a different book telling the story of Snow White. As guests make their way into the queue, the once-resided dungeon has been reimagined into Snow White's room containing various outfits, books, another storybook telling her story, and doves. The boarding area is now refreshed with more greenery, forest creatures, and a new projection on the window of the Dwarfs' cottage showing the silhouettes of Snow White and the Dwarfs dancing.
The guests' journey again begins in the Dwarfs' cottage, but with the added scent of apple pie. Guests pass Snow White's animal friends on the staircase watching the Dwarfs, who are performing "The Silly Song", with Snow White now dancing alongside Sneezy and Dopey.
As guests leave the cottage and into the woods passing by the Evil Queen peering into the cottage saying "These Dwarfs can't hide Snow White from me." The guests pass through the woods as the projection shows the Dwarfs marching to work while singing "Heigh-Ho". As guests enter the Dwarfs' mine Dopey is spotted waving at guests in a mine cart with diamonds in his eyes. The mine is now shimmering with shiny diamonds, new projections, and Doc admiring and inspecting diamonds.
Exiting the mine, guests pass under the two vultures and into the Evil Queen's castle. There, they see the Queen as she stands before her Magic Mirror with her back to the guests. She then turns and faces the guests. They see that she has become the Evil Witch. The guests then make their way through the laboratory passing by chemicals and experiments made by the Evil Queen. Guests now encounter the Witch accompanied by her raven in a dungeon where she is creating a poisoned apple for Snow White with enhanced lighting and projections added. Passing by the castle tunnel where the Witch previously appeared on a boat now features a magic mirror projection showing Snow White taking a bite of the poison apple only to have the mirror shatter into pieces right after.
Now relocated and altered, guests come across the Dwarfs pursuing the Witch on the cliff, now featuring a projection showing the Witch running from the Dwarfs. Turning the corner, entering the forest shows the Prince giving the kiss to Snow White to reawaken her from the poison apple. As guests make their way towards the cottage lies the storybook saying "True Love's Kiss Awakened Snow White and the good Dwarfs danced for joy." Now featuring the all new ending scene, guests pass by Snow White reunited with all her animal friends with her Prince standing with his horse awaiting her.
Returning to the loading/unloading area, guests pass the giant book featuring a silhouette of Snow White and her Prince with his horse as they wander away towards a castle. The words at the bottom of this picture read, "And they lived happily ever after" and "Snow White's wish had come true!" The guests then disembark from the ride vehicles and return to Fantasyland.
Magic Kingdom
The original version of the ride at Magic Kingdom in Florida which ran from 1971 to 1994 was very different, and considerably more frightening. Snow White was not seen at all, and the Dwarfs showed up only briefly in one scene. The queue was similar to Tokyo Disneyland's current queue. It featured the Dwarfs' mine, with their cottage visible in the distance. Guests began by entering the castle in a scene very much like the 1994 ride; however, there was no part where Snow White was seen cleaning. Instead, riders saw a side of the Dwarfs' cottage as "I'm Wishing" played in the background. Upon entering, with the queen watching in a nearby window, the guests saw a mirror, but not the magic one. The Queen transformed into the Witch, proclaiming, "Mirror Mirror on the wall, I am the fairest one of all!" Guests passed through the dungeon with skeletons, then saw the Witch at the cauldron preparing the poisoned apple. The riders then "crashed" through the dungeon walls and escaped through the forest with the tree monsters and the crocodile logs (still bumping into the Witch, who was on a boat). Soon, guests arrived in the Dwarfs' cottage to see the animals peering in at them. They then passed the Dwarfs (in their only appearance) walking up the stairs to their room to investigate a frightening shadow. The Witch was waiting in the doorway with the apple. Riders would then exit the cottage, back into the woods, and pass by two ominous vultures. The final scene was the diamond mine, where the Witch appeared several more times. Her final appearance was on top of a doorway, pushing an enormous jewel onto the riders (in much the same way as she tries to crush the Dwarfs with a huge rock near the end of the film). Riders would then enter a room full of flashing cartoon-like strobe lights (similar to Alice in Wonderland at Disneyland in California prior to 1984) with the Witch's cackling echoing in their ears. Guests then disembarked. Ginny Tyler did the voice of the Witch in this version, while Mel Blanc, Paul Frees, Hal Smith, Hans Conried, and Dallas McKennon did the voices of the Dwarfs.
On October 14, 1994, the Magic Kingdom attraction was closed in order to undergo a redesign in order to be similar to the Disneyland version, but in a different order with a few new scenes. The attraction re-opened on December 16, 1994, with a much lighter tone. Guests boarded the ride by a mural depicting the characters of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, and began their ride in the Queen's courtyard where Snow White was seen working outside. The Queen watched her (and the guests) from her window. Inside the castle, the scene was similar to the Disneyland version (with the Queen turning into the Witch and working at the cauldron), although the Magic Mirror (voiced by Tony Jay) was added who said, "Alas! Snow White is the fairest one of all," to which the Queen (voiced by Louise Chamis) replied, "Never!" The ride continued into the forest where the Huntsman (a newly added character in this version of the attraction, and voiced by Peter Renaday) tells Snow White to "run away and never come back! Go!" and strobe lighting effects that resembled lightning lit up Snow White running through the tree monsters, and then into the Dwarfs' cottage where the "Dwarfs' Yodel Song" played. In a new scene, the riders then passed the Witch giving Snow White the apple, then emerged from the cottage as she gloated that she was the fairest one of all. From there, guests rode through the mine where the two of the Dwarfs (Bashful and Sneezy) called to them to stop the Witch. After the scene where the Witch tried to drop a rock on the dwarfs, there was a new ending with the Prince waking Snow White and then leading her away on his horse as two of the Dwarfs waved goodbye. Dopey was seen above the bridge, waving to all the passengers. Guests then traveled through the open doors under the bridge and disembarked.
Tokyo Disneyland
Tokyo Disneyland represents a mix of the American versions at the time of the park's opening, although it is mostly based on the original Walt Disney World version. It begins in the castle where the Queen transforms into the Witch, moving on to the dungeon and passing her on the boat. After going through the forest, guests enter the cottage where the Dwarfs perform The Silly Song, with Snow White watching from the stairs, similar to the 1983 Disneyland version. Exiting the cottage, guests find the Witch outside waiting for them, then enter the mines, which is portrayed as a mix of both American versions. The cart approaches the cottage again and encounters the Witch with the apple. The ride ends like Disneyland's 1983 version, with the Dwarfs and Witch on the cliff, although without the "happy ending" afterwards.
Disneyland Park (Paris)
Disneyland Park (Paris)'s ride is nearly identical to the 1983 Disneyland version, the only major difference being that it includes a happy ending similar to the 1994 Walt Disney World version. However, in this variation, instead of passing the Prince waking Snow White, then Dopey on an arch, all the Dwarfs, the Prince and Snow White are on an arch, with Snow White sitting on the Prince's horse and waving the guests goodbye. To the guests' left, the Prince's castle is seen above the clouds. The ride is called Blanche Neige et les Sept Nains, French for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.
Gallery
See also
List of Disneyland attractions
List of Magic Kingdom former attractions
List of Tokyo Disneyland attractions
List of Disneyland Park (Paris) attractions
References
External links
Disneyland website
Tokyo Disneyland website
Disneyland Park (Paris) website
Amusement rides introduced in 1955
Amusement rides introduced in 1971
Amusement rides introduced in 1983
Amusement rides introduced in 2021
Amusement rides introduced in 1992
Amusement rides manufactured by Arrow Dynamics
Disneyland
Magic Kingdom
Tokyo Disneyland
Works based on Snow White
Disneyland Park (Paris)
Dark rides
Audio-Animatronic attractions
Snow White (franchise) in amusement parks
Fantasyland
Amusement rides that closed in 2012
Amusement rides that closed in 2020
1955 establishments in California
2020 disestablishments in California
1971 establishments in Florida
2012 disestablishments in Florida
1983 establishments in Japan
1992 establishments in France
Fiction about witchcraft |
4505469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Traxler | Brian Traxler | Brian Lee Traxler (September 26, 1967 – November 19, 2004) was a first baseman in Major League Baseball (MLB) who played for the Los Angeles Dodgers during their 1990 season. Listed at and , Traxler batted and threw left-handed. Throughout his career, he was one of the most popular players on his baseball teams.
Born in Waukegan, Illinois, Traxler began playing baseball while just a toddler. After an All-State career at Waukegan East High School, he attended the University of New Orleans, where he set a school record with 49 home runs in a three-year career. Drafted by the Dodgers in the 16th round of the 1988 MLB draft, he was called up to join the team in 1990. Playing in nine games for Los Angeles, he had one hit, a double against Dennis Martínez.
Most of Traxler's time in the Dodger system was spent with the Triple-A Albuquerque Dukes, with whom Traxler played from 1989 through 1993. He batted over .300 with the team in 1992 and ranked among the Pacific Coast League leaders in several categories in 1993, but he was not called up to the major leagues, as fellow first base prospect Eric Karros had won the Rookie of the Year Award in 1992. Blocked by Karros, Traxler headed to Japan in 1994, playing one season for the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks, where he was the only foreign All-Star for the season. He returned to Albuquerque for one final season in 1995.
From 1996 through 2000, Traxler played independent baseball for several teams, as well as a half season with the Ho-Hsin Whales of the Chinese Professional Baseball League in 1998. Retiring after the 2000 season, he served as a hitting instructor from 2001 through 2004 for minor league teams in the Dodgers' system, though his contract was not renewed after the 2004 season. Traxler expected to look for another coaching job at the upcoming Winter Meetings, but he died of alcohol-related liver disease on November 19 at the age of 37.
Early life
Brian Lee Traxler was born in Waukegan, Illinois, on September 26, 1967 to parents Floyd (nicknamed "Sandy") and Ruth. His father was employed for over 20 years as the chief operator of the North Shore Sanitary District. Brian was the oldest of three siblings, with sisters Kelly and Stacey born two and four years later, respectively.
Both Traxler's parents were athletic, and they purchased Brian his first baseball glove when he was eight months old. His father started playing baseball with him while he was a toddler, and by the age of four, he was demonstrating "keen hand-eye coordination," according to Traxler biographer Rory Costello. He started playing tee-ball at the age of five, usually demonstrating the ability of someone a year or more older. When he turned 10, he started playing sandlot ball from eight o'clock in the morning to six o'clock in the evening in the summer months, a practice he continued for six years.
Traxler was an all-state outfielder for Waukegan East High School. He also played basketball and golf for the high school, but not football, because his parents were worried about him getting hurt. Additionally, Traxler played American Legion Baseball for Homer Dahringer Post 281. A left-hander, he was mainly used as a first baseman, though he also was used as a pitcher and left fielder. Though one Major League Baseball (MLB) team offered Traxler a contract when he graduated from Waukegan East in 1985, his parents wanted him to attend college, in order for him to have a backup plan in case an injury derailed his baseball career. Northwestern University offered him a scholarship, but he attended the University of New Orleans (UNO), wanting to play baseball in a warmer area.
College
At UNO, Traxler exhibited a deep understanding of the game of baseball. Tom Schwaner, the head baseball coach for the Privateers, used Traxler as his unofficial hitting coach. Though first base remained his position, he played every position except second base and shortstop with the Privateers. "He didn’t have the stuff [for pitching]," Schwaner recalled, "but he had the moxie." In one game, he threw a shutout against Wichita State University, a highly-ranked team at the time.
Traxler had a stellar career with the Privateers. He was hit in the head by a pitch in a 1986 game, resulting in a concussion, but he still hit 15 home runs that year. Next season, he hit 20 as the Privateers reached the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) South Division II Regional Tournament. He was a candidate to play in the 1987 Pan American Games for Team USA, but shin splints kept him from participating. He finished his junior season in 1988 with 14 home runs as the Privateers advanced to the NCAA Central Regional, where they were eliminated by the University of Michigan Wolverines. In his three seasons with the Privateers, Traxler set school records for total bases (438), home runs (49), and runs batted in (RBI) (206).
Early minor league career (1988-1990)
Traxler was selected by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 16th round of the 1988 MLB draft. The 400th overall pick, he was a long shot to reach the major leagues, but his chances were aided when fellow first base prospect Eric Karros negotiated for a higher-paying contract. Because of the delay, Traxler was sent to the Single-A Vero Beach Dodgers of the Florida State League to begin his career while Karros was sent to the Rookie-level Great Falls Dodgers of the Pioneer League, even though Karros had been drafted 10 rounds higher. In 72 games with Vero Beach, Traxler batted .292 with 30 runs scored, 76 hits, two home runs, and 34 RBI.
In 1989, Traxler began the year with the Double-A San Antonio Missions of the Texas League. He batted .346 with 37 runs scored, 79 hits, nine home runs, and 44 RBI in 63 games. Midway through the season, he was promoted to the Triple-A Albuquerque Dukes of the Pacific Coast League (PCL). In 64 games with the Dukes, he batted .301 with 33 runs scored, 72 hits, three home runs, and 30 RBI. Following the minor league season, Traxler played winter baseball with the Leones del Caracas of the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. Nicknamed "El Gordito" by the fans, a reference to his heavy build, he batted .301 with four home runs and 39 RBI in 57 games.
Entering the 1990 season, baseball analyst Bill James described Traxler as an "absolutely square prospect…can hit, and could have a big year at Albuquerque this year. I don’t know how good he’ll be at the major league level, but he’s fun to watch." The Dodgers were worried about the fact that he weighed over 200 pounds, and manager Tommy Lasorda advised him to get in better shape. Traxler responded by losing 20 pounds. He began the season with Albuquerque, as his first seven appearances were in a Dukes uniform.
Los Angeles Dodgers (1990)
On April 22, 1990, Jeff Hamilton of the Dodgers was placed on the disabled list with a torn rotator cuff. With Kal Daniels temporarily unavailable due to a twisted side, the Dodgers desired another left-handed bat on the roster. They purchased Traxler's contract from Albuquerque and promoted him to the major leagues. He made his MLB debut on April 24, 1990, replacing Eddie Murray at first base after the veteran was ejected from the game by umpire Harry Wendelstedt. In his lone at bat of the contest, he struck out against Bob Tewksbury, but the Dodgers defeated the St. Louis Cardinals 3–0. Traxler got his first and only start in the major leagues at first base on May 8 against the Montreal Expos. He had no hits in two at bats before being pinch-hit for in the seventh inning by John Shelby as the Dodgers lost 9–1. Still batting .000 after his first six games, Traxler got his first career hit on May 10 with a pinch-hit double against Dennis Martínez in an 8–2 loss to the Expos. He would have had another double on May 13 against David Cone of the New York Mets, but the game was rained out, and the statistics from the game did not count. In his ninth game for the Dodgers, on May 21, he played first base for only the third time when he replaced Mickey Hatcher for the final two innings of a 12–3 loss to the Mets. Traxler's family hoped to see him play when the Dodgers travelled to Chicago to take on the Cubs at Wrigley Field on May 23, but the Dodgers sent Traxler back to Albuquerque the day before so that they could activate Pat Perry from the disabled list. In nine games with the Dodgers, he batted .091 with one hit and four strikeouts in 11 at bats.
Albuquerque Dukes (1990-1993)
Traxler would remain at Albuquerque for the rest of the 1990 season. Bone spurs in his elbow limited him to 98 games with the Triple-A club. He batted .277 with 43 runs scored, 88 hits, seven home runs, and 53 RBI. Traxler had the bone spurs removed in 1991, but the Dodgers sent him back to San Antonio to recover. He spent most of the season with the Double-A team, batting .256 with 50 runs scored, 97 hits, seven home runs, and 61 RBI in 103 games. Traxler also played 18 games for Albuquerque, batting .357 with three runs scored, 10 hits, one home run, and eight RBI. During the 1990-91 offseason, Traxler had skipped playing winter ball because his first child was born. However, he followed up the 1991 season by playing for the Tigres del Licey of the Dominican Winter League. In 47 games, he batted .266 with three home runs and 16 RBI as the Tigres reached the playoffs.
During the 1992 season, Traxler played 127 games for Albuquerque. He batted .303 with 58 runs scored, 119 hits, 11 home runs, and 58 RBI. However, in the major leagues, Karros had taken over from Murray as the everyday first baseman and won the National League (NL) Rookie of the Year Award, diminishing Traxler's chances of returning to the major leagues with the Dodgers. After the season, Traxler returned to the Leones del Caracas, but he batted just .217 this time while only playing 27 games.
Traxler had continued to pitch occasionally, making one appearance on the mound in 1990 and 1992 for Albuquerque. In 1993, he pitched two games for the Dukes, winning one of them, though his earned run average (ERA) was 11.57. Traxler again played 127 games for Albuquerque in 1993, ranking among the PCL leaders in several categories. His .333 batting average was fourth in the league (behind Jim Lindeman's .362, teammate Jerry Brooks's .344, and Brian Johnson's .339), his 81 runs scored were ninth, his 147 hits were fifth, his 36 doubles were tied with Kurt Abbott and Luis López for third (behind James Mouton's 42 and Steve Hosey's 40), his 16 home runs were tied with four other players for eighth, and his 83 RBI were ninth in the league. Despite his strong season, he was not called up by Los Angeles in September. This time, he went to Puerto Rico for winter ball, playing with the Indios de Mayagüez. In 27 games, he batted .256 with three home runs and 16 RBI.
Fukuoka Daiei Hawks (1994)
Entering the 1994 season, the Colorado Rockies were interested in acquiring Traxler, though they only planned to use him as a pinch hitter. Instead, Traxler cut his season in Puerto Rico short, signing with the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks of the Japanese Pacific League in Nippon Professional Baseball. In Fukuoka, he was used as the everyday first baseman. He had seven RBI in his first game with the team. After a strong first half, he became the only foreign player named to the Japanese All-Star Game. The fans nicknamed him "Koro Koro-chan" (a reference to his heavy build), and a custom solid ceramic figurine (not a bobblehead) the team created sold 6,000 units, prompting the team to make figurines of some other players.
Traxler did not hit quite as well in the second half of the season, finishing the year with a .263 average, 15 home runs, and 29 RBI in 129 games. He did not return to Fukuoka in 1995, as the Hawks replaced him with former NL Most Valuable Player (MVP) Kevin Mitchell at first base.
Last season with the Dukes, independent baseball (1995-1997)
Traxler returned to the Dodgers organization in 1995, playing one final season for Albuquerque. In 110 games, he batted .283 with 46 runs scored, 100 hits, 11 home runs, and 50 RBI. As this was his sixth year in the minors for the Dodgers, he became a minor league free agent after the season. In his six seasons with the Dukes, Traxler set team records for most games played (544), doubles (122), and total bases (829) in a career. He was inducted into the Albuquerque Professional Baseball Hall of Fame in 2011.
In 1996, Traxler joined the independent-league Fargo-Moorhead RedHawks for their inaugural 1996 season. According to Fargo manager Doug Simunic, Traxler "kind of got us started as an organization. He was one of the first guys we signed and he showed a lot of guys how things were supposed to be done." That year, Traxler was one of the top hitters in the Northern League, batting .335 (fifth) with 110 hits (fifth), 16 doubles, and 16 home runs while driving in 75 runs (tied for fifth with Peter Kuld) and scoring 73 times (sixth) in 83 games. In 1997, he followed with a .298 average, 12 doubles, three home runs, 37 RBI, and 29 runs scored in 42 games. With the team not doing as well as it had the year before, the RedHawks decided to release Traxler on July 17, along with six other players. Team management felt that Traxler, who typically served as the cleanup hitter, was not getting enough clutch hits. Traxler said of the release, "I’m not bitter about it, just give me a reason. Give me a real reason." He finished the season with the Northern League's Sioux Falls Canaries, batting .313 with 16 runs scored, 42 hits, three home runs, and 21 RBI in 37 games. In 79 games combined between the two teams, he batted .304 with 45 runs scored, 95 hits, six home runs, and 58 RBI.
Ho-Hsin Whales, last seasons (1998-2000)
Over the winter between the 1997 and 1998 seasons, Traxler drove a sugar beet truck to make money. He started the 1998 season with the Somerset Patriots of the newly formed, independent Atlantic League of Professional Baseball. Though primarily playing at first base, Traxler also was used as a designated hitter for the team, which played all its games on the road since its new stadium would not be finished until 1999. In 37 games, he batted .256 with 12 runs scored, 33 hits, five home runs, and 26 RBI.
Traxler's contract with Somerset included a clause that allowed him to opt out if he got offered a spot on a team at a higher level. He took advantage of this clause in early July, when he went to Taiwan to join the Ho-Hsin Whales of the Chinese Professional Baseball League. In 43 games, he batted .287 with 17 runs scored, 37 hits, two home runs, and 21 RBI.
In 1999, Traxler returned to Somerset. On June 19, he hit two home runs in an inning against the Bridgeport Bluefish at The Ballpark at Harbor Yard. For the season, he batted .250 with 34 runs scored, 97 hits, 12 home runs, and 61 RBI in 109 games. Though the scorecard still described him as 5'10" and 200 lbs, author Bob Golon described Traxler as weighing more than 250 lbs. Manager Sparky Lyle later said, "He was by far the best hitter we’ve ever had here."
Traxler returned to Sioux Falls in 2000, playing with the Canaries until the team released him on June 28. In 28 games, he batted .222 with 10 runs scored, 22 hits, three home runs, and 12 RBI.
Final years
Following his playing days, he became a hitting instructor in the Dodgers minor league system. He served at Great Falls in 2001 and 2002, then helped the Vero Beach Dodgers in 2003. Though he remained in Vero Beach in 2004, it was for the rookie-level Gulf Coast League Dodgers. After the 2004 season, the Dodgers did not renew Traxler's contract. Traxler planned to look for another position at the upcoming Winter Meetings.
On November 4, 2004, Traxler was taken to North Central Baptist Hospital in San Antonio, Texas, with alcohol-related liver disease. He slipped into a coma before dying 15 days later at the age of 37. A memorial service was held for him on December 1, and his remains were cremated and scattered at V. J. Keefe Memorial Stadium and Privateer Park. Friend Josh Buchholz recalled that the Dodgers had Traxler in a treatment program at one time. "It was not much else besides beer, just years and years of lifestyle," Buchholz said. "Brian had his demons, and they crept in."
Personal life
Traxler met his wife, Gabriela “Gabby” Aguayo, in 1989 while he was playing for the Missions. She was a souvenir seller at V. J. Keefe Memorial Stadium. They were married on February 3, 1990. A woman who "loved baseball" by her own admission, she would hit him ground balls and pitch batting practice for him during his offseason workouts. The couple had one daughter, Ashley. Over the winter in 1996–97, the couple separated for what Costello calls "family reasons." "His love was for the game,” Gabby explained. “Without the game, he wouldn't have been who he was. It's a very tough lifestyle; I admire families that can stay with it. But we made the decision together. We remained very good friends and I don't regret it.” They officially divorced in 1999. Towards the end of Brian's life, Gabby came to visit him several times while he was ill in the hospital. Ashley inherited her parents' love of sports, as she went on to play fastpitch softball.
Over the course of his career, Traxler was always a popular player with the fans. He never turned down autograph requests, waiting until lines were empty before he stopped signing. He was "gregarious and approachable, the type of player that fans of all stripes could relate to," according to the Home News Tribune. Off the field, he was a frequent partier who always enjoyed the nightlife. "I like to have a few beers once in a while and I eat what I want to eat," he described himself once, though baseball historian Frank Russo observed that he engaged in "heavy beer consumption".
Sources
External links
Baseball Almanac
The Baseball Gauge
Venezuela Winter League
Former RedHawks star Brian Traxler dies at 37
Dodger Thoughts: One Hit … And Much More
1967 births
2004 deaths
Albuquerque Dukes players
Alcohol-related deaths in Texas
American expatriate baseball players in Japan
American expatriate baseball players in Taiwan
Deaths from liver disease
Fargo-Moorhead RedHawks players
Fukuoka Daiei Hawks players
Indios de Mayagüez players
Koos Group Whales players
Leones del Caracas players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball first basemen
New Orleans Privateers baseball players
Sportspeople from Waukegan, Illinois
Baseball players from Lake County, Illinois
San Antonio Missions players
Sioux Falls Canaries players
Somerset Patriots players
Tigres del Licey players
American expatriate baseball players in the Dominican Republic
University of New Orleans alumni
Vero Beach Dodgers players |
4505682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Brown%20%28American%20football%20executive%29 | Mike Brown (American football executive) | Michael Brown (born August 10, 1935) is an American football executive who is the owner of the Cincinnati Bengals in the National Football League (NFL). The son of Bengals co-founder Paul Brown, he joined the Bengals upon their founding in 1968 and assumed ownership after his father's death in 1991. Before beginning his career as a football executive, he played quarterback at Dartmouth.
Early life
Brown is the only living son of Paul Brown. His brother, Pete, was the senior vice-president of Bengals' player personnel until his death in 2017. His older brother, Robin, died of cancer in 1978.
Brown graduated from Dartmouth College in 1957, where he played quarterback for their football team, and from Harvard Law School in 1960. He played nine games for the Big Green in 1956. In an unusual meeting between future sports owners, eventual New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner hired him to a summer job as a deck hand for Kinsman Marine Transit Company.
Brown eventually followed his father into football management. Paul Brown founded the Bengals, then an American Football League (AFL) team, in 1968. (This was several years after Paul Brown was dismissed as Cleveland Browns head coach in a well-publicized falling out with Art Modell.) He began his executive duties with the Bengals as assistant general manager. Along with personnel decisions, he was a spokesman for the team on issues of league rules and team policy.
Taking over the team
Brown assumed ownership responsibilities upon his father's death in August 1991 and has remained in the ownership position since. His first significant move as owner was to fire popular coach Sam Wyche after the 1991 season (although he originally claimed that Wyche resigned). Days later, Brown hired Dave Shula to be head coach, making Shula (at the time) the second youngest NFL head coach in history and making Dave and Don Shula the first father-son to lead different NFL teams in the same year. Going into 1993, Brown sought to negotiate a new lease with Cincinnati to keep the Bengals in the city.
Construction of a new stadium deal
Initially, Brown rejected advances from other cities to discuss moving the team. By 1995, he argued that Riverfront Stadium's small seating capacity and lack of luxury boxes was hindering the Bengals' success.
In 1995, he announced that Cincinnati had breached its lease agreement when it was late by one week in paying $167,000 in concession receipts. He threatened to move the team to Baltimore if Cincinnati or Hamilton County would not fund a new stadium. The leverage of this threat proved successful as Cincinnati's City Council and the Hamilton County Commissioners opted to fund the new Paul Brown Stadium with a proposed county sales tax increase, which needed voter approval. (Modell eventually, and controversially, moved the Browns to Baltimore and renamed it to the Ravens, but a new Cleveland team resumed the Browns' history.) In 1996, Hamilton County voters passed a one-half percent sales tax increase to fund the building of a new facility for the Bengals and a second new facility for the Major League Baseball Cincinnati Reds. The Bengals filed suit against the county for the right to manage it in 2000. County commissioners agreed to let a Bengals' subsidiary run the stadium, and it opened later that year.
In 2007, Hamilton County Commissioner Todd Portune (a former Cincinnati City Council member, though not Commissioner at the time the parties executed the lease), filed a lawsuit in federal district court against the NFL, the Bengals and the other 31 NFL teams. Portune felt, among other things, that published revenues from 1995 to 1999 contradicted Brown's claims of financial distress. The Hamilton County Board of Commissioners eventually was substituted as the plaintiff in the case. Fans supporting Portune cited what they felt was the broken promise that the Bengals would "be more competitive" with a new stadium. The Bengals have had only eight winning seasons out of 22 since the stadium opened, with five of those seasons occurring from 2011 to 2015.
Rick Eckstein, co-author of "Public Dollars, Private Stadiums," described the Hamilton County arrangement as "the single most lopsided stadium deal since 1993" and questioned Bob Bedinghaus' role with the team after having been County Commissioner when the deal was reached. A 2008 Forbes survey suggested the team's rankings in direct revenues had dropped since the stadium's construction (placing the team 21st in total value at the time at $941 million).
The organization's lease is due to expire in 2026. In 2020, Hamilton County and the Bengals agreed to split costs on an architectural needs assessment of the stadium.
On-the-field struggles
Since Brown became owner, the team has eight winning seasons out of 30, a winning percentage of .418 (199-278-4) in the regular season, and no playoff wins in seven appearances from 1991 to 2020. In 2008, the Bengals set a record for the most games needed under one specific owner to attain 100 wins (288). In 2010, the team set a record for the fewest games needed to lose 200 (both considering and not considering playoffs) under one specific owner (314).
The Bengals hold a number of distinctions for the time frame of Brown's ownership: It is the only team with three nine-game-or-more losing streaks. It also holds six of the twenty-five 0-6 starts (24%) and four of the thirteen 0-8 starts (31%) in that time. The Bengals have gone winless in October nine different times in twenty-two years under five different head coaches (Sam Wyche, the first under his ownership, was originally hired by his father).
The franchise's winless playoff record from 1991 to 2020 was the longest active drought in the four major North American sports. One of the few successful coaches during Brown's tenure was Marvin Lewis, who was his first to have winning seasons, playoff appearances, division titles, and an overall winning record at 131-129-3 (.504). All seven of the Bengals postseason appearances with Lewis, however, ended in first-round losses.
Zac Taylor, Lewis' successor, was the first head coach under Brown to win a playoff game, which he achieved in 2021. The team also won the franchise's first road playoff game and advanced to Super Bowl LVI, although they lost to the Los Angeles Rams.
In 2009, Yahoo sports ranked Brown as the second worst owner in the NFL. In 2015, Rolling Stone ranked Mike Brown as the 9th worst sports owner.
Philosophy
During Marvin Lewis' tenure as head coach, Brown began to cede more of the day-to-day control over football matters to a committee composed of Lewis, executive vice president Katie Blackburn (Brown's daughter), and several other members of the Brown family. This preceded a five-year run of playoff appearances (2011–2015).
Tolerance of off field conduct
In the mid-to-late 2000s, the Bengals were involved in a series of disciplinary measures with a variety of players. In 2005, the Bengals drafted Chris Henry and Odell Thurman, each considered exceptionally talented but possible disciplinary hazards during their college careers. The following year, they were among nine Bengals players arrested for various offenses. Brown cut several "problem players" in 2008 including Henry and Thurman, but re-signed Henry later that year. This came after five arrests of Henry and Brown's statement earlier in the year that Henry's "conduct could no longer be tolerated." One fan protested by purchasing an electronic billboard along the Cincinnati interstate reading "CHRIS HENRY AGAIN? ARE YOU SERIOUS?" Henry died during a domestic dispute on December 17, 2009. Commenting on his death, Brown defended his decision to re-sign Henry, noting that "We knew him in a different way than his public persona." Posthumously, it was discovered that Chris Henry was suffering from a progressive degenerative brain disease known as chronic traumatic encephalopathy, or CTE. According to a West Virginia University research study, the CTE may have contributed to Chris Henry's troubled behavior and, ultimately, his death.
Later in 2008, the Bengals signed running back Cedric Benson, whom the Chicago Bears had waived, in part, due to his off-field activities. In 2009, the team added Larry Johnson to provide depth for the position after the Kansas City Chiefs released him for "detrimental conduct." Johnson had also experienced recent legal difficulties. Benson was among 2009's leading NFL rushers, while Johnson saw limited action.
In recent years, Brown claims to have rethought this approach. Talking about the team's second appearance on Hard Knocks, Brown stated, "We have a different team now than we had a few years ago. We want the public to see them. We think they're good people. We think the public will be taken by them, will like them. It gives us a boost."
Brown has commented that the league's current attitude towards discipline is a change from a past "boys will be boys" attitude. Brown's father welcomed tailback Stanley Wilson back to the Bengals in 1988 after two drug suspensions. Wilson relapsed the night before Super Bowl XXIII and his absence in short-yardage situations affected the Bengals' efforts in one of the tightest Super Bowl games in NFL history that Cincinnati ultimately lost.
Loyalty issues
Brown is historically reluctant to fire personnel after multiple losing seasons. His first hire as head coach, David Shula, lost fifty games faster than any NFL coach in history (69 games); Shula was hired over Kansas City Chiefs defensive coordinator Bill Cowher, presumably due to Brown seeing similarities with himself and Shula in the same manner that their respective fathers (Don Shula and Paul Brown) overshadow them in many aspects. Cowher would take the head coaching position with the rival Pittsburgh Steelers that same offseason and would go on to have a 22–9 career record against the Bengals, the most wins he would have against any team as a head coach, including an 8–1 record against Shula. Cowher also beat the Bengals in the 2006 wild card game as well and went on to win a Super Bowl title that year. Shula's successor, Bruce Coslet, resigned with a 21–39 record in 2000; Brown had yet to fire him.
Cincinnati's first winning seasons and postseason appearances during Brown's ownership came under head coach Marvin Lewis, who obtained a 131-122-3 regular season record with the team and helped the Bengals return to competitiveness. However, Brown was criticized for continuing to retain Lewis after the Bengals lost all seven of the playoff games they appeared in during Lewis' tenure. Following five consecutive opening-round postseason losses from 2011 to 2015, an NFL first, and back-to-back losing seasons in 2016 and 2017, Lewis received a two-year contract extension, which received harsh criticism from the media and fans. When Brown and Lewis mutually parted ways in 2018, Lewis' 16-year tenure became the most of an NFL head coach to not win a playoff game as well as the most playoff losses without a win in NFL history.
Brown also values his family's connection with the franchise; evident in his choosing to name Paul Brown Stadium after his father rather than to sell corporate naming rights for it. Daughter Katie Blackburn is the executive president of the team and her husband Troy is a VP with additional family members among the front office staff. From 1994 to 2000, the Bengals paid out over $50 million to the Brown family members of Bengals staff in salaries.
Former Bengals receiver Cris Collinsworth argues Brown's loyalty played a role in a decision to not persuade Boomer Esiason out of retiring despite a productive 1997 season. Esiason became a color analyst on ABC's Monday Night Football. Collinsworth suggested Brown "thought he was doing the right thing by Boomer" and did not want to cost him the MNF job. Collinsworth contrasted this attitude to other NFL owners, like the Dallas Cowboys' Jerry Jones, whom Collinsworth felt "would have flown Boomer down to the Bahamas on his personal jet, offered to kiss his ring and signed him right there."
Scouting
Brown employs a very small scouting staff. A 2008 comparison between the Bengals' scouting department and five AFC teams with a .540+ winning percentage since 1991 showed the winning teams employing five or more scouts whereas the Bengals employed only one. Since then, the Bengals have added two additional scouts (Marvin Lewis originally claimed when hired that Brown assured him of a retooled scouting staff).
Emphasis on the quarterback
Brown has publicized his belief that a "bell cow" quarterback is a necessity in turning a team into a winner. In a 1999 interview, he remarked "If you don't have a productive quarterback, you won't go anywhere...I know it doesn't seem that simple, but it is." Comparing quarterbacks to other positions on a football team, Brown has said "He's the hub of the wheel...like a queen on a chessboard. These other guys are like rooks or bishops or other pieces that are not quite as valuable. Some are more valuable than others. That's just a fact."
Brown turned down then-Saints coach Mike Ditka's offer of nine draft picks for one in the 1999 NFL draft against then-coach Coslet's advice. Coslet wanted as many draft picks as possible to help the Bengals' defense. Instead, Brown overruled Coslet and selected University of Oregon quarterback Akili Smith. Smith only played 22 games in his NFL career and is generally regarded as a draft bust. Coslet later regretted that he "didn't insist hard enough" in trying to persuade Brown to accept the Saints' offer.
Before the 1992 Draft, press reports stressed the Bengals' need for either a cornerback or defensive lineman. Brown himself had been quoted the day before the draft as stating "we would dearly love to get a top defensive lineman, they're at a premium, and it's less true of other positions." Instead, the Bengals selected Houston quarterback David Klingler. Then Bengals quarterback Boomer Esiason and strong-safety David Fulcher both openly questioned the move the next day, arguing the team needed help on defense. Klingler later became regarded as a bust. Esiason has since revealed that he had actually demanded a trade at the end of the 1991 season, which may have influenced Brown to select Klingler (Esiason was traded to the New York Jets in 1993).
Brown placed a great deal of responsibility on Carson Palmer, calling him the Bengals' "lead dog" and stating "as he goes, we go." Palmer holds a number of team records and three Pro Bowl selections. The Bengals were 46-51 (.474) with Palmer as starter. Palmer threatened retirement from football if the Bengals did not trade him during the 2011 offseason. Brown insisted that he wouldn't "reward" Palmer's demands, arguing that Palmer made a commitment to the organization when he received a contract extension. Brown released Carson's younger brother, Jordan from the team on August 27, 2011. On October 18, 2011, the Bengals finally traded Carson Palmer to the Oakland Raiders for a 2012 first round draft pick and a conditional second round 2013 pick if Oakland made it to the AFC Championship game in 2011 or 2012 (which they did not). Palmer later said in the NFL Network documentary series A Football Life that after the 2010 season, he told Brown that the Bengals needed to modernize and hire a general manager and that he and Brown got into a heated argument over it. He said that Brown 'is a very, very, very stubborn man'.
Andy Dalton was taken in the 2011 NFL Draft and became the first quarterback in franchise history to lead the team to the playoffs five years in a row, although the Bengals were eliminated in the first round each year. Dalton did not play in what became the fifth consecutive loss due to injury.
"Carl Pickens Clause"
In 1998, the Bengals cut punter Lee Johnson. Brown attempted to fine Johnson after cutting him for "conduct detrimental to the team" in relation to comments Johnson had made about the organization and the 1998 season. A reporter asked Johnson after a Bengals loss "if you were a fan, would you have come here today?" to which Johnson replied "No, no way...why would you? You're saying (losing) is OK. I guess if you've got nothing else to do. I'd sell my tickets." This fine resulted in a dispute with the NFL players union, whose counsel remarked "A fine is a disciplinary measure, you discipline someone to try and make sure they're a better employee in the future. How can you do that if you've fired them?"
In 2000, the Bengals instituted a "loyalty clause," which allows the Bengals to deny various bonuses to players depending on the remarks they make about the Bengals. The ability to enact such a clause appears justified under the collective bargaining agreement which states an NFL team can fine a player one week's salary and suspend him without pay for up to four weeks for any action the club considers detrimental to the team. Brown responded that the clause would only be enacted under extreme circumstances. He wrote an editorial for the Cincinnati Enquirer, citing team cohesion as his main motivation for the clause.
It is often dubbed the "Carl Pickens Clause," stemming from the 2000 offseason. Brown renewed Bruce Coslet's contract despite his 21–36 Bengals record. Pickens responded, "I don't understand it. We're trying to win; we're trying to turn this thing around out there. And they bring (Coslet) back." Pickens finished his career with the Tennessee Titans.
Over the years since the clause, Bengals players have commented on a negative atmosphere within the organization, notably Takeo Spikes, Jeff Blake, and Jon Kitna.
The most vocal critic of the Bengals since the clause was instituted was Corey Dillon. In 2001, after becoming the sixth player in NFL history to rush for 1,000 yards or more in five consecutive seasons, he remarked "at the end of the season, what do I have to feel good about? Nothing at all. It's not cool." After a fifth losing season with the team in 2002, he remarked ""I'm tired of it, six years of this B.S. I ain't lying to you. I'm sick of this crap, period." Dillon demanded a trade at the end of the 2003 season after throwing most of his gear to the fans during the last home game of the season. He went on to win a Super Bowl with the New England Patriots in the following season.
Frugality
In 1994, agent Leigh Steinberg described Brown as "in a lonely fight for economic rationality in the NFL" and "a Don Quixote-type figure pushing back the forces of salary madness." In the 2000s, Brown proved reluctant to finish free agent signings or trades. Warren Sapp (in 2004), Shaun Rogers (in 2008), and Johnathan Joseph (in 2011) being notable examples.
Agent Drew Rosenhaus described it as a "matter of hours" before the Bengals would sign Sapp, only a day before the Raiders signed him. Sapp accused the Bengals of "playing with the money" on the original deal they offered him, deferring more money to incentives rather than in guarantees. The Associated Press reported a completed trade between Cincinnati and the Detroit Lions on February 29, 2008, for Rogers. However, the trade fell through and the next day, it was confirmed that the Lions instead traded Rogers to the Cleveland Browns.
Former Bengals players and beat writers have also remarked on other spendthrift aspects of the organization as compared to other NFL franchises, such as not supplying sports drinks and providing undersized towels or used equipment for the players.
Criticism
Organizers from MikeBrownSucks organized a boycott of a December 2001 regular season game and fans visiting this site as well as another site, SaveTheBengals.com, paid for planes to fly a banner in the Cincinnati area calling for Brown's resignation.
Who Dey Revolution (WDR) has staged "Project Mayhem" since 2008 in an effort to persuade Brown to make changes to the Bengals. These steps ranged from calling the Bengals "JERK line" to report Brown's behavior as abusive to purchasing billboards displaying a request for a general manager to merchandise and ticket donations/boycotts and letter-writing campaigns. The website's purchase and distribution of 1000 urinal cakes at a Bengals' home game advertised Brown's lifetime regular season record of 98–186–1 to that point.
WDR published a comic strip titled "The Lost Generation", presenting Mike Brown in a Charlie Brownesque caricature, presumably to correlate Brown's track record to the famous cartoon character's history of hard luck and failure.
"All My Bengals" was a popular satirical radio skit, hosted by 700 WLW Radio personality Gary Burbank.
Despite these protests, the Bengals have remained popular within Cincinnati. A November 21, 2010, game vs. the Buffalo Bills marked the first time since November 2003 that network affiliates and DirectTV were legally obliged to "black out" the Bengals game within a 75-mile radius of Paul Brown Stadium for lack of ticket sales. The remaining home games against the New Orleans Saints, Cleveland Browns, and San Diego Chargers were also blacked out. Prior to this, the team sold out 57 straight games, a club record.
Response
Several people cast Brown sympathetically in response to fan and media criticism. After a surprising upset of the Kansas City Chiefs in 2003, Marvin Lewis tearfully awarded the game ball to Brown and told his players "he has put up with so much for you guys." Some former Bengals dismiss notions that Brown is unconcerned with winning. Boomer Esiason, now a CBS analyst, refers to Brown as a "nice man" who is simply over his head running the team. In 1998 interviews, Cris Collinsworth and Bengals radio analyst Dave Lapham also rejected notions that Brown did not care about winning. Collinsworth remarked "I don't think anybody could be suffering more over this than Mike is."
Personal life
Brown is married. He has been considered reclusive as very little is known about his personal life. He has at least two children. His daughter, Katie Blackburn, serves as the Bengals' executive vice president. She is also the first woman to be a chief contract negotiator in the NFL.
Brown admitted to an affinity for Ohio State football players. His father Paul coached the Buckeyes to their first national championship in 1942.
Brown's net worth was estimated at $2.1 billion by Forbes in 2022.
Philanthropy
In 2008, Brown and the Bengals donated $250,000 to assist the Cincinnati Park Board in paying for Cincinnati Riverfront Park. He has contributed to a number of Republican campaigns, including several Presidential bids.
In 2017, Brown and his family received the Pillar Award for Community Service's Kent Clapp CEO Leadership Award. The award recognizes a top executive for his or her passion toward philanthropy and honors the late Kent Clapp, CEO of Medical Mutual, who died in a 2008 plane crash.
References
External links
Stadium Deal
Living people
1935 births
American football quarterbacks
Cincinnati Bengals executives
Cincinnati Bengals owners
Dartmouth Big Green football players
National Football League general managers
National Football League team presidents
Harvard Law School alumni
Brown family (Cincinnati Bengals)
Players of American football from Massillon, Ohio |
4506084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity%20in%20Australia | Christianity in Australia | Christianity is the largest religion in Australia, with a total of 43.9% of the nation-wide population identifying with a Christian denomination in the 2021 census. The first presence of Christianity in Australia coincided with the colonial invasion and beginning of the frontier wars in what came to be known as New South Wales in 1788.
The Christian footprint in Australian society and culture remains broad, particularly in areas of social welfare and education provision and in the marking of festivals such as Easter and Christmas. Though the Australian Constitution of 1901 protects freedom of religion and separation of church and state, the Church of England held legal privileges in the early colonial period, when Catholicism in particular was suppressed, and sectarianism was a feature of Australian politics well into the 20th century, as was collaboration by church and state in seeking the conversion of the indigenous population to Christianity. Today, the Catholic Church is second only to government itself as a provider of government-funded social services, through organisations such as Catholic Social Services Australia and the St Vincent De Paul Society. The Anglican Church's Anglicare network is similarly engaged in areas such as emergency relief, aged care, family support service and help for the homeless. Other denominations assist through networks like UnitingCare Australia and the Salvation Army, and around a quarter of students attend church owned schools.
Historically significant Australian Christians have included the Reverend John Dunmore Lang, Saint Mary MacKillop, Catherine Helen Spence, Pastor David Unaipon, the Reverend John Flynn, Pastor Sir Doug Nicholls and General Eva Evelyn Burrows of the Salvation Army. High-profile contemporary Australian Christians include Tim Costello; Baptist minister and current CEO of World Vision Australia; Frank Brennan, Jesuit human rights lawyer; John Dickson, historian and founder of The Centre for Public Christianity; Phillip Aspinall the current Archbishop of Brisbane, Philip Freier the current Anglican Primate of Australia and Archbishop of Melbourne; and recent Prime Ministers John Howard, Kevin Rudd, Tony Abbott and Scott Morrison.
Like much of the Western world, Australia has been affected by the widespread decline in religiosity that has lowered the number of professing Christians and a diversifying immigration intakes that have lowered the overall percentage that Christians comprise in the Australian population, resulting in a national census decline from 96.1% at the time of the Federation of Australia in the , to 43.9% in the Census.
According to the 2021 census, religious distribution is as follows:
None 38.9%
Protestant 17.7%
Anglican 9.8%
Uniting Church 2.7%
Presbyterian and Reformed 1.6%
Baptist 1.4%
Pentecostal 1.0%
Lutheran 0.6%
other Protestant 0.5%
Catholic 20.0%
other Christian 3.7%
Muslim 3.2%
Hindu 2.7%
Buddhist 2.4%
Orthodox 2.3%
Eastern Orthodox 2.1%
Oriental Orthodox 0.2%
Other 0.9%
Sikh 0.8%
Jewish 0.4%
unspecified 9.6%.
Post-war immigration has grown the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia and there are large and growing Pentecostal groups, such as Sydney's Hillsong Church. According to the , Queensland (56.03%) and New South Wales (55.18%) had Christian majorities, while the lowest proportion of Christians were found in the Northern Territory (47.69%) and the Australian Capital Territory (45.38%).
History
Introduction of Christianity
Before European contact, indigenous people had performed the rites and rituals of the animist religion of the Dreamtime. Portuguese and Spanish Catholics and Dutch and English Protestants were sailing into Australian waters from the seventeenth century.
Among the first Catholics known to have sighted Australia were the crew of a Spanish expedition of 1605–6. In 1606, the expedition's leader, Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, landed in the New Hebrides and, believing it to be the fabled southern continent, he named the land: Austrialis del Espiritu Santo ("Southern Land of the Holy Spirit"). Later that year, his deputy Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through Australia's Torres Strait. The English navigator James Cook's favourable account of the fertile east coast of Australia in 1770 ultimately ensured that Australia's Christian foundations were to reflect the British denominations (with their Protestant majority and largely Irish, Catholic minority).
The permanent presence of Christianity in Australia began with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. The Reverend Richard Johnson of the Church of England was licensed as chaplain to the Fleet and the settlement. In early colonial times, Church of England clergy worked closely with the governors. Johnson was charged by the governor, Arthur Phillip, with improving "public morality" in the colony, but he was also heavily involved in health and education.
According to Manning Clark, the early colonial officials of the colony had disdain for the "consolations of religion", but shared a view that "the Protestant religion and British institutions were the finest achievements of the wit of man for the promotion of liberty and a high material civilization." Thus they looked to Protestant ministers as the "natural moral policemen of society", of obvious social use in a convict colony for preaching against "drunkenness, whoring and gambling". Chaplain Johnson was an evangelical priest of the Church of England, the first of a series of clergymen, according to Clark, through whom "evangelical Christianity dominated the religious life of Protestant Christianity in Australia throughout the whole of the nineteenth century".
Chaplain Johnson led what is regarded as his first service under a tree in Sydney Cove on the first Sunday after arrival, 3 February 1788. On 7 February 1788, Arthur Phillip was sworn in over the Bible as the first Governor of the colony, and delivered a speech to the convicts counselling the Christian virtues of marriage and an end to promiscuity. Johnson celebrated the colony's first Lord's Supper in an officer's tent on Sunday 17 February 1788.
Johnson's successor, the Reverend Samuel Marsden (1765–1838), had magisterial duties and so was equated with the authorities by the convicts. He became known as the "flogging parson" for the severity of his punishments.
Early history of the Catholic Church in Australia
Some of the Irish convicts had been transported to Australia for political crimes or social rebellion in Ireland. This was due to the colonisation of the Irish people by the English, and resultant dispossession and cruel conditions forced on them by the English. Irish Catholics had been forced to pay tithes to the protestant churches, even though they were Catholics. Authorities were prejudiced against Catholics and Catholic convicts were compelled to attend Church of England services, with no provision or respect for Catholicism.
One-tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic and at least half of them were born in Ireland. A small proportion of British marines were also Catholic. Other groups were also represented, for example, among the Tolpuddle martyrs were a number of Methodists.
It was the crew of the French explorer La Pérouse who conducted the first Catholic ceremony on Australian soil in 1788 – the burial of Father Louis Receveur, a Franciscan friar, who died while the ships were at anchor at Botany Bay, while on a mission to explore the Pacific. The first Catholic priest colonists arrived in Australia as convicts in 1800 – James Harold, James Dixon and Peter O'Neill, who had been convicted for "complicity" in the Irish 1798 Rebellion. Dixon was conditionally emancipated and permitted to celebrate Mass. On 15 May 1803, in vestments made from curtains and with a chalice made of tin he conducted the first Catholic Mass in New South Wales. The Irish led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804 alarmed the British authorities and Dixon's permission to celebrate Mass was revoked. Fr Jeremiah Flynn, an Irish Cistercian, was appointed as Prefect Apostolic of New Holland (Australia) and set out from Britain for the colony uninvited. Watched by authorities, Flynn secretly performed priestly duties before being arrested and deported to London. Reaction to the affair in Britain led to two further priests being allowed to travel to the colony in 1820 – John Joseph Therry and Philip Conolly. The foundation stone for the first St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney was laid on 29 October 1821 by Governor Lachlan Macquarie.
The absence of a Catholic mission in Australia before 1818 reflected the legal disabilities of Catholics in Britain. The government therefore endorsed the English Benedictines to lead the early church in the colony. William Bernard Ullathorne (1806–1889) was instrumental in influencing Pope Gregory XVI to establish a Catholic hierarchy in Australia. Ullathorne was in Australia from 1833 to 1836 as vicar-general to Bishop William Morris (1794–1872), whose jurisdiction extended over the Australian missions.
Foundations of diversification and equality
The Church of England lost its legal privileges in the Colony of New South Wales by the Church Act of 1836. Drafted by the Catholic attorney-general John Plunkett, the act established legal equality for Episcopalians, Catholics and Presbyterians and was later extended to Methodists. Nevertheless, social attitudes were slow to change. Catholic laywoman Caroline Chisholm (1808–1877) faced discouragements and anti-papal feeling when she sought to establish a migrant women's shelter and worked for women's welfare in the colonies in the 1840s, though her humanitarian efforts later won her fame in England and great influence in achieving support for families in the colony.
John Bede Polding, a Benedictine monk, was Sydney's first Catholic bishop (and then archbishop) from 1835 to 1877. Polding requested a community of nuns be sent to the colony and five Irish Sisters of Charity arrived in 1838. The sisters set about pastoral care in a women's prison and began visiting hospitals and schools and establishing employment for convict women. The sisters went on to establish hospitals in four of the eastern states, beginning with St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney in 1857 as a free hospital for all people, but especially for the poor. At Polding's request, the Christian Brothers arrived in Sydney in 1843 to assist in schools. In 1857, Polding founded an Australian order of nuns in the Benedictine tradition – the Sisters of the Good Samaritan – to work in education and social work. While Polding was in office, construction began on the ambitious Gothic Revival designs for St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne and the final St Mary's Cathedral in Sydney.
Since the 19th century, immigrants have brought their own expressions of Christianity with them. Particular examples are the Lutherans from Prussia who tended to settle in the Barossa Valley, South Australia and in Queensland, Methodists in South Australia, with notable pockets coming from Cornwall to work the copper mines in Moonta. Other groups included the Presbyterian, Congregationalist and Baptist churches. Establishing themselves first at Sevenhill, in the newly established colony of South Australia in 1848, the Jesuits were the first religious order of priests to enter and establish houses in South Australia, Victoria, Queensland and the Northern Territory. While the Austrian Jesuits traversed the Outback on horseback to found missions and schools, Irish Jesuits arrived in the east in 1860 and had by 1880 established the major schools which survive to the present.
In 1885, Patrick Francis Moran became Australia's first cardinal. Moran believed that Catholics' political and civil rights were threatened in Australia and, in 1896, saw deliberate discrimination in a situation where "no office of first, or even second, rate importance is held by a Catholic".
The Churches became involved in mission work among the Aboriginal people of Australia in the 19th century as Europeans came to control much of the continent and the majority of the population was eventually converted. Colonial clergy such as Sydney's first Catholic archbishop, John Bede Polding, strongly advocated for Aboriginal rights and dignity
With the withdrawal of state aid for church schools around 1880, the Catholic Church, unlike other Australian churches, put great energy and resources into creating a comprehensive alternative system of education. It was largely staffed by nuns, brothers and priests of religious orders, such as the Christian Brothers (who had returned to Australia in 1868); the Sisters of Mercy (who had arrived in Perth in 1846); Marist Brothers, who came from France in 1872 and the Sisters of St Joseph, founded in Australia by Saint Mary MacKillop and Fr Julian Tenison Woods in 1867. MacKillop travelled throughout Australasia and established schools, convents and charitable institutions but came into conflict with those bishops who preferred diocesan control of the order rather than central control from Adelaide by the Josephite order. MacKillop administered the Josephites as a national order at a time when Australia was divided among individually governed colonies. She is today the most revered of Australian Catholics, canonised by Benedict XVI in 2010.
Also from Britain came the Salvation Army (its members sometimes called "Salvos" in Australia), which had been established in the slums of East London in 1865 to minister to the impoverished outcasts of the city. The first Salvation Army meeting in Australia was held in 1880. Edward Saunders and John Gore led the meeting from the back of a greengrocer's cart in Adelaide Botanic Park with an offer of food for those who had not eaten. The Salvos also involved themselves in finding work for the unemployed and in re-uniting families. In Melbourne from 1897 to 1910, The Army's Limelight Department was established as Australia's first film production company. From such diverse activities, The Salvos have grown to be one of Australia's most respected charitable organisations, with a 2009 survey by Sweeney Research and the advertising group Grey Global finding the Salvation Army and the nation's Ambulance Service to be Australia's most trusted entities. Australia's George Carpenter was General of the Salvation Army (worldwide leader) from 1939 to 1946 and Eva Burrows during the 1980s and 1990s.
Commonwealth of Australia
Section 116 of the Australian Constitution of 1901 provided for freedom of religion. With the exception of the indigenous population, descendants of gold rush migrants and a small but significant Lutheran population of German descent, Australian society was predominantly Anglo-Celtic, with 40% of the population being Church of England, 23% Catholic, 34% other Christian and about 1% professing non-Christian religions. The first census in 1911 showed 96.1 per cent identified themselves as Christian.
Sectarianism in Australia tended to reflect the political inheritance of Britain and Ireland. Until 1945, the vast majority of Catholics in Australia were of Irish descent, causing the Anglo-Protestant majority to question their loyalty to the British Empire. The Church of England remained the largest Christian church until the 1986 census. After World War II, the ethnic and cultural mix of Australia diversified and the Church of England gave way to the Catholic Church as the largest. The number of Anglicans attending regular worship began to decline in 1959 and figures for occasional services (baptisms, confirmations, weddings and funerals) started to decline after 1966.
Further waves of migration and the gradual winding back of the White Australia Policy, helped to reshape the profile of Australia's religious affiliations over subsequent decades. The impact of migration from Europe in the aftermath of World War II led to increases in affiliates of the Orthodox churches, the establishment of Reformed bodies, growth in the number of Catholics (largely from Italian migration) and Jews (Holocaust survivors). More recently (post-1970s), immigration from South-East Asia and the Middle East has expanded Buddhist and Muslim numbers considerably and increased the ethnic diversity of the existing Christian churches.
Russian sailors visiting Sydney celebrated the Divine Liturgy as long ago as 1820 and a Greek Orthodox population emerged from the mid-19th century. The Greeks of Sydney and Melbourne had a priest by 1896 and the first Greek Orthodox church was opened at Surry Hills in Sydney in 1898. In 1924, the Metropolis of Australia and New Zealand was established under the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Greek immigration increased considerably following World War II, and the Metropolis of Australia and New Zealand was elevated to Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia and Metropolitan Ezekiel was appointed archbishop in 1959. Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew visited Australia in November 1996.
In the 1970s, the Methodist, Presbyterian and Congregational churches in Australia united to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The church remains prominent in welfare services and noted for its innovative ministry initiatives such as those pioneered at centres like Sydney's Wayside Chapel in King's Cross.
1970 saw the first visit to Australia by a pope, Paul VI. John Paul II was the next pope to visit Australia in 1986. At Alice Springs, the pope made an historic address to indigenous Australians, in which he praised the enduring qualities of Aboriginal culture, lamented the effects of dispossession of and discrimination; called for acknowledgment of Aboriginal land rights and reconciliation in Australia; and said that the Christian Church in Australia would not reach its potential until Aboriginal people had made their "contribution to her life and until that contribution has been joyfully received by others". In July 2008, Sydney hosted the massive international youth festival "World Youth Day" led by Benedict XVI. Around 500,000 welcomed the pope to Sydney and 270,000 watched the Stations of the Cross. More than 300,000 pilgrims camped out overnight in preparation for the final Mass, where final attendance was between 300,000 and 400,000 people.
In recent times, the Christian churches of Australia have been active in ecumenical activity. The Australian Committee for the World Council of Churches was established in 1946 by the Anglican and mainline Protestant churches. The movement evolved and expanded with Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches later joining and by 1994 the Catholic Church was also a member of the national ecumenical body, the National Council of Churches in Australia.
A 2015 study estimates some 20,000 Muslim converted to Christianity in Australia, most of them belonging to some form of Protestantism.
Percentage of population since 1901
Data for table up to 2006 from Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Indigenous Australians and Christianity
Christianity and European culture have had a significant impact on Indigenous Australians, their religion and their culture. As in many colonial situations the churches both facilitated the loss of Indigenous Australian culture and religion and also facilitated its maintenance. The involvement of Christians in Aboriginal affairs has evolved significantly since 1788. Around the year 2000, many churches and church organisations officially apologised for past failures to adequately respect indigenous cultures and address the injustices of the dispossession of indigenous people.
Christian missionaries often witnessed to Indigenous people in an attempt to convert them to Christianity. The Presbyterian Church of Australia's Australian Inland Mission, the Lutheran mission at Hermannsburg, Northern Territory, and many Catholic missions in remote areas being examples. Many missionaries often studied Aboriginal society from an Anthropological perspective. Missionaries have made significant contributions to anthropological and linguistic understanding of Indigenous Australians and aspects of Christian services have been adapted when there is Aboriginal involvement – even masses during Papal visits to Australia will include traditional Aboriginal smoking ceremonies. It was the practice of some Missions to enforce a 'forgetting' of Aboriginal culture. Others, like Fr Kevin McKelson of Broome encouraged aboriginal culture and language while also promoting the merits of western style education in the 1960s.
Prominent Aboriginal activist Noel Pearson, himself raised at a Lutheran mission in Cape York, has written that missions throughout Australia's colonial history "provided a haven from the hell of life on the Australian frontier while at the same time facilitating colonisation".
In the Torres Strait Islands, the Coming of the Light Festival marks the day the Christian missionaries first arrived on the islands on 1 July 1871 and introduced Christianity to the region. This is a significant festival for Torres Strait Islanders, who are predominantly Christian. Religious and cultural ceremonies are held across Torres Strait and mainland Australia.
Prominent Aboriginal Christians have included Pastor David Unaipon, the first Aboriginal author; Pastor Sir Douglas Nicholls, athlete, activist and former Governor of South Australia; Mum (Shirl) Smith, a celebrated Redfern community worker who, assisted by the Sisters of Charity, worked in the courts and organised prison visitations, medical and social assistance for Aboriginal peoples, and former Senator Aden Ridgeway, the first Chairman of the Aboriginal Catholic Ministry. The Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress, associated with the Uniting Church in Australia, is an organisation developed and managed by Indigenous people to "provide spiritual, social and economic pathways for Australia's First People".
In recent times, Christians like Fr Ted Kennedy of Redfern, Jesuit human rights lawyer Fr Frank Brennan and the Josephite Sisters have been prominent in working for Aboriginal rights and improvements to standards of living.
The National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Catholic Council is the peak body representing Indigenous Catholics in Australia and was formed in Cairns in January 1989 at the first National Conference of the Aboriginal and Islander Catholic Councils. In 1992 the Australian Catholic Bishops Conference officially recognised and welcomed it as the national representative and consultative body to the church on issues concerning Indigenous Catholics.
The members of the council stand down every three years and a new council is appointed. NATSICC's funding comes in the form of Voluntary contributions from schools, parishes and religious orders. In addition, Caritas Australia provides ongoing funding.
Encouraged by Pope John Paul II's words in the Post Synodal Apostolic Exhortation Ecclesia in Oceania NATSICC is determined to continue, as the peak Indigenous Catholic representative body, to actively support and promote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander participation in the Catholic Church in Australia.
Social and political engagement
History
Christian charitable organisations, hospitals and schools have played a prominent role in welfare and education since Colonial times, when the First Fleet's Church of England chaplain, Richard Johnson, was credited as "the physician both of soul and body" during the famine of 1790 and was charged with general supervision of schools. The Catholic laywoman Caroline Chisolm helped single migrant women and rescued homeless girls in Sydney. In his welcoming address to the Catholic World Youth Day 2008 in Sydney the then Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd, said that Christianity had been a positive influence on Australia: "It was the church that began first schools for the poor, it was the church that began first hospitals for the poor, it was the church that began first refuges for the poor and these great traditions continue for the future."
Welfare
A number of Christian churches are significant national providers of social welfare services (including residential aged care and the Job Network) and education. These include:
The Salvation Army. In 2012, the Australian prime minister, Julia Gillard (herself not religious but with family connections to the work of Salvation Army), praised the welfare work of the Salvation Army in Australia as "Christianity with its sleeves rolled up" and which, she said, was each week reuniting 40 Australian families; assisting 500 drug, alcohol or gambling addiction affected people; providing 2000 homeless with shelter; and counselling thousands more.
The Uniting Church in Australia does extensive community work in aged care, hospitals, nursing, family support services, youth services and with the homeless. Services include UnitingCare Australia, Exodus Foundation, the Wesley Missions and Lifeline counseling.
The Anglican Church of Australia has organisations working in education, health, missionary work, social welfare and communications. Organisations include Anglicare and the Samaritans.
The Catholic Church: Catholic Social Services Australia is the church's peak national body. Its 63 member organisations help more than a million Australians each year. Catholic organisations include: Centacare, Caritas Australia, Jesuit Refugee Service, St Vincent de Paul Society, Josephite Community Aid; Fr. Chris Riley's Youth Off The Streets; Edmund Rice Camps; and the Bob Maguire Foundation. Two religious orders founded in Australia which engaged in welfare and charity work are the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart and the Sisters of the Good Samaritan. Many international orders also work in welfare, such as the Little Sisters of the Poor who work in aged care and the Sisters of Charity of Australia, who have played a prominent role in healthcare and women's welfare in Australia since the 1830s.
Hillsong Church's Hillsong Emerge is a local example in Sydney, New South Wales.
The Baptist Church's Tim Costello is CEO of World Vision Australia.
Other Christian humanitarian aid organisations operating in Australia include: Christian Children's Fund, Christian Blind Mission International; Mission Australia; St Luke's, the Christian Blind Mission; Compassion Australia; St John Ambulance Australia;
Health
Catholic Health Australia is the largest non-government provider grouping of health, community and aged care services in Australia. These do not operate for profit and range across the full spectrum of health services, representing about 10% of the health sector and employing 35,000 people. Catholic religious orders founded many of Australia's hospitals. Irish Sisters of Charity arrived in Sydney in 1838 and established St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney in 1857 as a free hospital for the poor. The Sisters went on to found hospitals, hospices, research institutes and aged care facilities in Victoria, Queensland and Tasmania. At St Vincent's they trained leading surgeon Victor Chang and opened Australia's first AIDS clinic. In the 21st century, with more and more lay people involved in management, the sisters began collaborating with Sisters of Mercy Hospitals in Melbourne and Sydney. Jointly the group operates four public hospitals; seven private hospitals and 10 aged care facilities. The English Sisters of the Little Company of Mary arrived in 1885 and have since established public and private hospitals, retirement living and residential aged care, community care and comprehensive palliative care in New South Wales, the ACT, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and the Northern Territory. The Little Sisters of the Poor, who follow the charism of Saint Jeanne Jugan to 'offer hospitality to the needy aged' arrived in Melbourne in 1884 and now operate four aged care homes in Australia.
An example of a Christian Welfare agency is ADRA (Adventist Development and Relief Agency). This welfare agency is an internationally recognized agency run by the Seventh-day Adventist Church. ADRA is operational in more than 120 countries, around the world, providing relief and development, where ever needed. Within Australia they provide shelter, relief, and services to those in need. They have numerous refuges set up those suffering abuse, as well as shelters for those in need. As well many other things such as food distribution, op-shops etc.
The Reverend John Flynn, a minister of the Presbyterian Church founded what was to become the Royal Flying Doctor Service in 1928 in Cloncurry, Queensland, to bring health services to the isolated communities of the Australian The Bush.
Education
There are substantial networks of Christian schools associated with the Christian churches and also some that operate as parachurch organisations. The Catholic education system is the second biggest sector after government schools and has more than 730,000 students and around 21 per cent of all secondary school enrolments. The Catholic Church has established primary, secondary and tertiary educational institutions in Australia. The Anglican Church has around 145 schools in Australia, providing for more than 105,000 children. The Uniting Church has around 48 schools as does the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
Mary MacKillop was a 19th-century Australian nun who founded an educational order, the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart, and has recently become the first Australian to be canonised as a saint by the Catholic Church. Other Catholic religious orders involved in education in Australia have included: Sisters of Mercy, Marist Brothers, Christian Brothers, Benedictine Sisters, Jesuits and The Missionaries of the Sacred Heart.
Church schools range from elite, high cost schools to low fee locally based schools. Churches with networks of schools include:
Anglican
Catholic
Uniting Church
Baptist
Eastern Orthodox
Lutheran
Nondenominational
The Australian Catholic University opened in 1991 following the amalgamation of four Catholic tertiary institutions in eastern Australia. These institutions had their origins in the 19th century, when religious orders and institutes became involved in preparing teachers for Catholic schools and nurses for Catholic hospitals. The University of Notre Dame Australia opened in Western Australia in December 1989, and now has over 9,000 students on three campuses in Fremantle, Sydney and Broome.
Politics
Church leaders have often involved themselves in political issues in areas they consider relevant to Christian teachings. In early Colonial times, Catholicism was restricted but Church of England clergy worked closely with the governors. The Reverend Samuel Marsden had magisterial duties and so was equated with the authorities by the convicts. He became known as the "flogging parson" for the severity of his punishments. An early Catholic missionary, William Ullathorne, criticised the convict system, publishing a pamphlet, The Horrors of Transportation Briefly Unfolded to the People, in Britain in 1837. Australia's first Catholic cardinal, Patrick Francis Moran (1830–1911), was politically active. As a proponent of Australian Federation he denounced anti-Chinese legislation as "unchristian"; became an advocate for women's suffrage and alarmed conservatives by supporting trade unionism and "Australian socialism". Archbishop Daniel Mannix of Melbourne was a controversial voice against conscription during World War I and against British policy in Ireland.
Aboriginal pastors David Unaipon and Sir Douglas Nicholls, former Catholic priest Pat Dodson and Jesuit priest Frank Brennan have been high-profile Christians engaged in the cause of Aboriginal rights.
The Australian Labor Party had largely been supported by Catholics until prominent layman B. A. Santamaria formed the Democratic Labor Party over concerns of Communist influence over the trade union movement in the 1950s.
In 1999, Catholic cardinal Edward Clancy wrote to the prime minister, John Howard, urging him to send an armed peacekeeping force to East Timor to end the violence engulfing that country. Previous Archbishops of Sydney, Cardinal George Pell (Catholic) and Peter Jensen (Anglican), have concerned themselves with traditional issues of Christian doctrine, such as marriage or abortion, but have also raised questions about government policies such as the Work Choices industrial relations reforms and the mandatory detention of asylum seekers.
Tim Costello, a Baptist minister and the CEO of World Vision Australia, has often been vocal on issues of welfare, foreign aid and climate change.
Christian political parties in Australia include the Christian Democratic Party and the Australian Christians.
Politicians
When taking their oath of office, ministers in the Australian federal government may elect to swear that oath on the Bible. In 2007, half of the 40 member cabinet of the Rudd Government chose to do so. Historically most Australian prime ministers have been Christians of varying denominations. Of recent prime ministers, Bob Hawke was an agnostic son of a Congregational minister; Paul Keating is a practising Catholic; John Howard and Kevin Rudd are practising Anglicans, and Tony Abbott is a practising Catholic. Former prime minister Julia Gillard was raised by Christian parents but is herself an atheist.
Religion is often kept "low-key" as topic of discussion in politics in Australia, but a number of current and past politicians present themselves as Christian in public life, these include:
Federally: Scott Morrison (Pentecostal, former prime minister), Tony Abbott (Catholic, former prime minister), Kevin Rudd (Anglican, former Catholic, former prime minister), Joe Hockey, (Catholic, treasurer) Christopher Pyne (Catholic, Liberal MP), Andrew Robb, (Catholic, Liberal Party of Australia), Kevin Andrews, (Catholic, Liberal Party of Australia MP). Historically, most Australian prime ministers have been Christians and recent oppositions leaders Kim Beazley (Anglican); Brendan Nelson and Malcolm Turnbull (Catholic) were all practising Christians. Prominent senators Brian Harradine, Tasmanian independent (1975–2005) and Steve Fielding (Pentecostal, Family First former senator) often referred to their Christianity and Brian Howe Labor deputy prime minister (1991–1995). Though the monarch is not the head of the Anglican Church of Australia, the monarch must be an Anglican. In recent decades, Pastor Sir Doug Nicholls served as Governor of South Australia and Archbishop Peter Hollingworth served as Governor General of Australia.
State: Former New South Wales premier Kristina Keneally is a theology graduate and another former premier, John Fahey, had been a seminarian. Victorian premier Daniel Andrews is a practising Catholic. The Reverend Fred Nile and the Reverend Gordon Moyes have been two long serving members of the New South Wales Legislative Council. Andrew Evans in the South Australian Legislative Council and Joh Bjelke-Petersen Premier of Queensland (1968 to 1987) were also Christians. NSW premier Mike Baird and NSW Commissioner of Police Andrew Scipione are both Christians.
The Parliamentary Christian Fellowship, also known as the parliamentary prayer group, is a gathering of Christian politicians in the Australian parliament who hold prayer sessions on Monday nights in Parliament House, Canberra.
Culture and the arts
Festivals
The Christian festivals of Christmas and Easter are marked as public holidays in Australia.
Christmas
The Christian festival of Christmas celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. As in most Western nations, Christmas in Australia is an important time even for non-religious people and is generally celebrated on 25 December. Churches of the Western Christian tradition hold Christmas Day services on this day but most churches of Eastern Christian tradition – Ethiopian Orthodox, Russian Orthodox or the Armenian Church celebrate Christmas on 6 or 7 January. Both Christmas Day and 26 December (Boxing Day) are public holidays throughout Australia.
Although Christmas in Australia is celebrated during the Southern Hemisphere summer, many Northern Hemisphere traditions are observed in Australia – families and friends exchange Christmas cards and gifts and gather for Christmas dinners; sing songs about snow and sleighbells; decorate Christmas trees; and tell stories of Santa Claus. Nevertheless, local adaptations have arisen – large open-air carol concerts are conducted on summer evenings before Christmas – such as the Carols by Candlelight in Melbourne and Sydney's Carols in the Domain. The Christmas song Six White Boomers, by Rolf Harris, tells of Santa undertaking his flight around Australia hauled by six white-boomer kangaroos in place of reindeer. Christian carols such as Three Drovers or Christmas Day by John Wheeler and William G. James place the hymns of praise firmly in an Australian context of warm, dry Christmas winds and red dust. Although a hot roast dinner remains a favourite Christmas meal, the summer temperatures can tempt some Australians toward the nearest watercourses to cool down between feasts. It is a tradition for international visitors to gather en masse at Sydney's Bondi Beach on Christmas Day.
The Assyrian Church of the East is also known to be a crowd drawer for the special Christmas Eve midnight mass. More than 15,000 faithful gather at churches in Sydney, notably the St Hurmizd Cathedral in Sydney's west.
Easter
The Christian festival of Easter commemorates the Bible's account of the Crucification and Resurrection of Jesus Christ. In Australia, in addition to the religious significance of Easter for Christians, the festival is marked by a four-day holiday weekend starting on Good Friday and ending on Easter Monday – which generally coincides with school holidays and is an opportunity for family and friends to travel and reunite. Across Australia, church services are well attended, as are secular music festivals, fairs and sporting events. One such Easter event is Easterfest an annual Christian Music Festival in Queen's Park Toowoomba and known as the largest drug and alcohol free festival in Australia.
Traditional Easter foods commonly consumed in Australia include Hot Cross Buns, recalling the cross of the Crucifixion, and chocolate Easter Eggs – symbolic of the promise of New Life offered by the Resurrection. Although chocolate eggs are now eaten throughout the period, eggs were traditionally exchanged on Easter Sunday and, as in other nations, young children believe their eggs to be delivered by the Easter Bunny. A local variant on this tradition is the story of the Easter Bilby, which seeks to raise the profile of an endangered Australian native, the Bilby whose existence is threatened by the imported European rabbit population.
Other Easter traditions have been brought by migrant communities to Australia. Greek Orthodox traditions have a wide following among descendants of Greek immigrants; and a fishermen's tradition brought from Sicily, the Ulladulla Blessing of the Fleet, takes place on the New South Wales South Coast with St Peter as patron.
Architecture
See also
Most towns in Australia have at least one Christian church. One of Australia's oldest is St. James Church, Sydney, built between 1819 and 1824. The historic Anglican church was designed by Governor Macquarie's architect, Francis Greenway – a former convict – and built with convict labour. It is set on a sandstone base and built of face brick with the walls articulated by brick piers. Sydney's Anglican Cathedral of St Andrew was consecrated in 1868 from foundations laid in the 1830s. Largely designed by Edmund Thomas Blacket in the Perpendicular Gothic style reminiscent of English cathedrals. Blacket also designed St Saviour's Goulburn Cathedral, based on the Decorated Gothic style of a large English parish church and built between 1874 and 1884.
The "mother church" of Catholicism in Australia is St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney. The plan of the cathedral is a conventional English cathedral plan, cruciform in shape, with a tower over the crossing of the nave and transepts, and twin towers at the West Front, with impressive stained glass windows. 106.7 metres in length and a general width 24.4 metres, it is Sydney's largest church. Built to a design by William Wardell from a foundation stone laid in 1868, the spires of the cathedral were not finally added until the year 2000.
Wardell also worked on the design of St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne – considered among the finest examples of ecclesiastical architecture in Australia. Wardell's overall design was in Gothic Revival style, paying tribute to the mediaeval cathedrals of Europe. Largely constructed between 1858 and 1897, the nave was Early English in style, while the remainder of the building is in Decorated Gothic. St Paul's Anglican Cathedral, from a foundation stone laid in 1880, is another Melbourne landmark. It was designed by distinguished English architect William Butterfield in Gothic Transitional.
Tasmania is home to a number of significant colonial Christian buildings including those located at Australia's best preserved convict era settlement, Port Arthur. According to 19th century notions of prisoner reform, the "Model Prison" incorporates a grim chapel into which prisoners in solitary confinement were shepherded to listen (in individual enclosures) to the preacher's Sunday sermon – their only permitted interaction with another human being. Adelaide, the capital of South Australia has long been known as the "City of Churches" and its St Peter's Anglican Cathedral is a noted city landmark. 130 km north of Adelaide is the Jesuit old stone winery and cellars at Sevenhill, founded by Austrian Jesuits in 1848.
The oldest building in the city of Canberra is the picturesque St John the Baptist Anglican Church in Reid, consecrated in 1845. This church long pre-dates the city of Canberra and is not so much representative of urban design as it is of the Bush chapels which dot the Australian landscape and stretch even into the far Outback, such as that which can be found at the Lutheran Mission Chapel at Hermannsburg in the Northern Territory. A rare Australian example of Spanish missionary style exists at New Norcia, Western Australia. Founded by Spanish Benedictine monks in 1846.
A number of notable Victorian era chapels and edifices were also constructed at church schools across Australia.
Along with community attitudes to religion, church architecture changed significantly during the 20th century. Urban churches such as that at the Wayside Chapel (1964) in Sydney differed markedly from traditional ecclesiastical designs. St Monica's Cathedral in Cairns was designed by architect Ian Ferrier and built in 1967–68 following the form of the original basilica model of the early churches of Rome, adapted to a tropical climate and to reflect the changes to Catholic liturgy mandated at Vatican 2. The cathedral was dedicated as a memorial to the Battle of the Coral Sea which was fought east of Cairns in May 1942. The "Peace Window" stained glass was installed on the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II.
In the later 20th century, distinctly Australian approaches were applied at places such as Jambaroo Benedictine Abbey, where natural materials were chosen to "harmonise with the local environment". The chapel sanctuary is of glass overlooking rainforest. Similar design principles were applied at Thredbo Ecumenical Chapel built in the Snowy Mountains in 1996.
Film
The Salvation Army founded one of the world's first ever movie studios in Melbourne in the 1890s: the Limelight Department. First filming A Melbourne Street Scene in 1897, they went on to make large scale Christian themed audio-visual presentations such as Soldiers of the Cross in 1900, and documented the Australian Federation ceremonies of 1901.
Australian films on Christian themes have included:
Molokai: The Story of Father Damien (1999), directed by Paul Cox and starring David Wenham. The film recounts the life of a Belgian saint, Fr Damien of Molokai who devoted his life to care of lepers on a Hawaiian Island.
Mary (1994), directed written and directed by Kay Pavlou and starring Lucy Bell. A biopic recounting the life and works of Saint Mary MacKillop, Australia's first canonised saint of the Catholic Church.
The Passion of the Christ (2004) was directed, co-produced and co-written by Australian trained actor-director Mel Gibson (who was raised a Traditionalist Catholic in Australia).
Media
A number of current and past media personalities present themselves as Christian in public life, these include Brooke Fraser, Dan Sweetman, and Guy Sebastian.
Father Bob Maguire and Reverend Gordon Moyes have hosted radio programs.
Coverage of religion is part of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Charter obligation to reflect the character and diversity of the Australian community. Its religious programs include coverage of worship and devotion, explanation, analysis, debate and reports.
Catholic Church Television Australia is an office with the Australian Catholic Office for Film & Broadcasting and develops television programs for Aurora Community Television on Foxtel and Austar in Australia.
Literature
A Bush Christening is a popular comic bush ballad by renowned Australian poet Banjo Paterson which makes light of the sparsity of Christian preachers and houses of worship on the Australian frontier, beginning:
On the outer Barcoo where the churches are few,
And men of religion are scanty...
Nevertheless, the body of literature produced by Australian Christians is extensive. During colonial times, the Benedictine missionary William Ullathorne (1806–1889) was a notable essayist writing against the Convict Transportation system. Later Cardinal Moran (1830–1911), a noted historian, wrote a History of the Catholic Church in Australasia. More recent Catholic histories of Australian include The Catholic Church and Community in Australia (1977) by Patrick O'Farrell and Australian Catholics (1987), by Edmund Campion.
Notable Christian poets have included Christopher Brennan (1870–1932) and James McAuley (1917–1976), Bruce Dawe (born 1930). Dawe is among Australia's foremost contemporary poets, noted for his use of vernacular and everyday Australian themes.
Australian literature for a long time assumed knowledge of Biblical stories, even where works of literature are not overtly Christian in character. The writings of great 20th century authors like Manning Clark or Patrick White are therefore filled with allusions to biblical or Christian themes.
Many Australian writers have examined the lives of Christian characters, or have influenced by Christian educations. Best selling author Tim Winton.s early novel That Eye, the Sky tells the story of a family's conversion to Christianity in the face of tragedy. Australia's best selling novel of all time, The Thornbirds, by Colleen McCullough writes of the temptations encountered by a priest living in the Outback.
Many contemporary Australian writers including Peter Carey and Robert Hughes; leading screenwriters Nick Enright, Bruce Beresford, Peter Weir, Santo Cilauro and Tom Gleisner; and notable poets and authors like Kenneth Slessor, Helen Garner and Gerard Windsor attended Anglican, Presbyterian or Catholic schools in Australia.
In 2011, Prime Minister and atheist Julia Gillard, said that it was important for Australians to have knowledge of the Bible, on the basis that "what comes from the Bible has formed such an important part of our culture. It's impossible to understand Western literature without having that key of understanding the Bible stories and how Western literature builds on them and reflects them and deconstructs them and brings them back together."
Art
The story of Christian art in Australia began with the arrival of the first British settlers at the end of the 18th Century. During the 19th Century, Gothic Revival Cathedrals were built in the Colonial capitals, often containing stained glass art works, as can be seen at St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney and St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne. Rupert Bunny (1864–1947), one of the first Australian painters to gain international fame, often painted Christian themes (see Annunciation, 1893). Roy de Maistre (1894–1968) was an Australian abstract artist who obtained renown in Britain, converted to Catholicism and painted notable religious works, including a series of Stations of the Cross for Westminster Cathedral. Among the most acclaimed of Australian painters of Christian themes was Arthur Boyd. Influenced by both the European masters and the Heidelberg School of Australian landscape art, he placed the central characters of the bible within Australian bush scenery, as in his portrait of Adam and Eve, The Expulsion (1948). Artist Leonard French, who designed a stained glass ceiling of the National Gallery of Victoria, has drawn heavily on Christian story and symbolism through his career.
From the 1970s, Australian Aboriginal artists of the Western Desert began to paint traditional style artworks in acrylic paints. This distinctively Australian style of painting has been fused with biblical themes to produce a uniquely Australian contribution to the long history of Christian art: integrating the mysterious dot designs and evocative circular patterns of traditional Aboriginal art with popular Christian subjects.
The Blake Prize for Religious Art was established in 1951 as an incentive to raise the standard of religious art in Australia and was named after the artist and poet William Blake.
Music
Christian music arrived in Australia with the First Fleet of British settlers in 1788 and has grown to include all genres from traditional Hymns of Praise to Christian Rock and country music. St Mary's Cathedral Choir, Sydney is the oldest musical institution in Australia, from origins in 1817. Major recording artists from Johnny O'Keefe (the first Australian Rock and Roll star) to Paul Kelly (folk rock), Nick Cave (the critically acclaimed brooding rocker) and Slim Dusty (the King of Australian country music) have all recorded Christian themed songs. Other performing artists such as Catholic nun Sister Janet Mead, Aboriginal crooner Jimmy Little and Australian Idol contestant Guy Sebastian have held Christianity as central to their public persona.
Church music also ranges widely across genres, from Melbourne's St Paul's Cathedral Choir who sing choral evensong most weeknights; to the Contemporary music that is a feature of the evangelical Planetshakers and Hillsong congregation. The Ntaria Choir at Hermannsburg, Northern Territory, has a unique musical language which mixes the traditional vocals of the Ntaria Aboriginal women with Lutheran chorales (tunes that were the basis of much of Bach's music). Baba Waiyar, a popular traditional Torres Strait Islander hymn shows the influence of gospel music mixed with traditionally strong Torres Strait Islander vocals and country music.
Annually, Australians gather in large numbers for traditional open-air Christmas music Carols by Candlelight concerts in December, such as the Carols by Candlelight of Melbourne, and Sydney's Carols in the Domain. Australian Christmas carols like the Three Drovers or Christmas Day by John Wheeler and William G. James place the Christmas story firmly in an Australian context of warm, dry Christmas winds and red dust.
New South Wales Supreme Court Judge George Palmer was commissioned to compose the setting of the Mass for Sydney's World Youth Day 2008 Papal Mass. The Mass, Benedictus Qui Venit, for large choir, soloists and orchestra, was performed in the presence of Pope Benedict XVI and an audience of 350,000 with singing led by soprano Amelia Farrugia and tenor Andrew Goodwin. "Receive the Power" a song written by Guy Sebastian and Gary Pinto was chosen as official anthem for the XXIII World Youth Day (WYD08) held in Sydney in 2008.
Denominations
Church affiliation
The churches with the largest number of members are the Catholic Church in Australia, the Anglican Church of Australia and the Uniting Church in Australia. Pentecostal churches are growing with megachurches, predominantly associated with Australian Christian Churches (the Assemblies of God in Australia), being found in most states (for example, Planetshakers Church, Hillsong Church and Paradise Community Church).
Australian Bureau of Statistics
As at the , 11,148,814, representing 43.9% of the total population, declared a religious affinity with Christianity.
Church attendance
While church affiliation as reported in the census identifies the largest denominations, there is no overarching study that shows how active the members are. Some smaller studies include the National Church Life Survey which researches weekly church attendance among other items through a survey done in over 7000 congregations in many but not all Christian denominations every Australian Census year and from that estimates figures for those denominations nationally.
From the survey about 8.8% of the Australian population attended a church in one of the covered denominations in a given week in 2001.
The Catholic Church represents the highest number of church attenders, with over 50 percent. Whilst church attendance is generally decreasing the Catholic Church attendance in Australia is declining at a rate of 13 percent. Pentecostal denominations such as Australian Christian Churches (formerly Assemblies of God) and Christian City Churches continue to grow rapidly, growing by over 20 per cent between 1991 and 1996. Some Protestant denominations such as the Baptist Union of Australia and the Churches of Christ in Australia grew at a smaller rate, less than 10 per cent, between 1991 and 1996. McCrindle Research has found that Pentecostals grew to a larger denomination (12%) than Anglicans (11%) in 2014. Roy Morgan Research has found in a survey of 4840 Australians between October and December 2013 that 52.6% of Australians were Christian, while 37.6% had no religion.
"Bible Belts"
In Australia, the term "Bible Belt" has been used to refer to areas within individual cities and some regions of states such as Queensland, which have a high concentration of Christians, usually centralised around a megachurch, for example:
the north-western suburbs of Sydney focusing on The Hills District, where Hillsong Church is located.
the north-western suburbs of Melbourne comprising the suburbs of Keilor, Taylors Lakes, Greenvale and Airport West.
Greater Adelaide, South Australia:
the north-eastern suburbs focusing on Paradise, Modbury and Golden Grove, where Influencers Church is located.
Brooklyn Park in South Australia has four churches, is home to the Adelaide College of Divinity and the Adelaide Theological Library. Brooklyn Park also has two Christian Schools and in the 2016 Australian Census had 4% more Christians than broader South Australia and 1% higher than broader Australia. Brooklyn Park also had 5.6% more Catholics than broader South Australia and 1% higher than broader Australia.
the south-eastern region of Queensland, in particular the towns of Laidley, Gatton and Toowoomba.
the Brisbane southern suburbs of Mansfield Springwood, Carindale and Mount Gravatt: Garden City Assembly of God church, Citipointe Church, George Salloum's The 'Christian' Church, and Hillsong Brisbane are notable mega-churches in this area.
Toowoomba
Toowoomba in Queensland has long been regarded as fertile ground for biblical literalism, particularly for those within the Pentecostal and charismatic stream of Christianity. This was exemplified by the highly publicised rise and subsequent fall of Howard Carter and the Logos Foundation in the 1980s. Pentecostal churches within the city have, since that time, banded together into a loose federation known as the Toowoomba Christian Leaders' Network. This network, views itself as having a divine mission to 'take the city for the Lord' and as such, endorses elements of religious right-wing political advocacy. Other churches in Toowooomba include:
The Christian Outreach Centre (now International Network of Churches) established a presence with the Highlands Church, which created the Christian Outreach College Toowoomba, now Highlands Christian College.
The Toowoomba Christian Fellowship has attracted publicity for the cult-like manner in which it operates. It was suggested in 2012 that it could become one of the largest mega-churches in Australia.
The Range Christian Fellowship in Blake Street, originally formed with 300 adherents in 1997 as a protest to the acceptance of homosexuality, has become known for bizarre manifestations and phenomena associated with the Toronto blessing and the North American movements mentioned above. This has included squealing, holy laughter, an inability to stand or sit, retching as though experiencing child-birth, moments of religious ecstasy and emotional euphoria, uttering apocalyptic prophecies and the use of textile banners that are believed to have special powers emanating from divinely inspired designs. Some former adherents of this church, who have regarded themselves as spiritually elite, have at times displayed cultish tendencies. The Range Christian Fellowship became strongly influenced by end-times conspiracy prophecies associated with Y2K, when members of this church planned for a total collapse of modern society. In the period following this, some church members displayed obsessive and highly superstitious behaviour in regard to the Prayer of Jabez doctrine.
Revival Ministries of Australia Shiloh Centre in Russel Street has a sole focus on the concept of revivalism, founded on precepts of spiritual warfare Christianity and a belief in a providential purpose for the city of Toowoomba as a hub of religious revival. This church was formed following a schism with the Range Christian Fellowship and has carried with it some of the manifestations of religious ecstasy associated with that congregation. Many of its members were active during the 1990s, as part of the now defunct Rangeville Uniting Church Toowoomba. They claim that through this action they took control of the demonic territorial Spirits (evil spirits) that were making the city both sinful and resistant to the gospel message. Following this, it was expected and predicted (at times through prophecies) that a great revival of Christian faith including thousands of new conversions would follow, in addition to a reduced crime rate, phenomenal church growth, improved morality, general prosperity among the population and the installation of men and women of God into government. There were further claims that this action had placed Toowoomba strategically to be a hub of the anticipated great Australian revival. This expectation of a citywide transformation, based on the teaching of North American Christian-mystic preacher George Otis Jr, failed to materialise.
Christianity and the wider culture
Christianity held strong influence in Australia society after British colonisation, but the influence of Christianity declined in the latter part of the 20th century.
Marriage
The Anglican Church has said that churches are being sidelined in the wider debate on same-sex marriage.
The ACT Attorney-General, Simon Corbell has said, in the ACT, it will be, "unlawful for those who provide goods, services and facilities in the wedding industry to discriminate against another person on the basis of their sexuality or their relationship status. This includes discrimination by refusing to provide or make available those goods, services or facilities." During the short time that same-sex marriages took place in ACT a Uniting Church minister sought and acquired permission to perform same sex marriages.
Media
Liberal senator Eric Abetz has said that media felt comfortable vilifying Christian politicians. Conservative politicians are often described as being "extreme" or from the "Religious Right". He said that the Canberra press gallery gives, "more positive coverage to politicians and policies they agreed with".
Schools
The Anglican Church has criticised the Victorian government for cutting religious education in state schools.
Some Christians have criticised the Safe Schools program (which is used in 400 primary and secondary schools) as "radical sexual experimentation". The program includes information about human sexuality and sexual orientations, as well as gender identity.
Life issues
Some Christians have objected to proposals to establish buffer zones around abortion clinics in both Victoria and Tasmania saying they limit the freedom to protest.
See also
National Council of Churches in Australia
Separation of church and state in Australia
References
Further reading
External links
National Council of Churches
Australian Catholic Historical Society
Evangelical History Association |
4506758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise%20Mountbatten | Louise Mountbatten | Louise Alexandra Marie Irene Mountbatten (born Princess Louise of Battenberg; 13 July 1889 – 7 March 1965) was Queen of Sweden from 29 October 1950 until her death in 1965 as the wife of King Gustaf VI Adolf. Born a princess of the German House of Battenberg, Louise was closely related to the ruling families of Britain as a great-granddaughter of Queen Victoria and of Russia as a niece of the Empress of Russia. During the First World War, Louise served as a nurse in the Red Cross. She married the widowed Gustaf Adolf in 1923 and assumed the role of Sweden's first lady but did not become queen until his accession in 1950. Queen Louise was noted for her eccentricity and progressive views.
Early life
Louise was born a Princess of Battenberg at Schloss Heiligenberg, Seeheim-Jugenheim, in the Grand Duchy of Hesse. Her father, Prince Louis of Battenberg, who was an admiral in the British Royal Navy, renounced his German title during the First World War and anglicised his family name to "Mountbatten" at the behest of George V. He was then created the first Marquess of Milford Haven in the peerage of the United Kingdom. From 1917, therefore, his daughter was known as "Lady Louise Mountbatten". Her mother was Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. Louise was a sister of Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, and of Princess Alice of Battenberg who was the mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. She was also a niece of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia.
Because of her father's work, the family moved around between different territories in the British Empire, such as Malta, but they returned often to the Heiligenberg outside Darmstadt which they considered their holiday home, always retaining a residence in England. Louise often visited her great-grandmother Queen Victoria on the Isle of Wight with her mother during her childhood. The family is described as harmonious; the parents of Louise lived in a happy loving relationship, not in an arranged marriage, and Louise was particularly close to her brother, with whom she corresponded until her death. Louise and her sister were educated by governesses, except for a brief period at Texter's girls school in Darmstadt.
In 1914, Louise and her mother visited the Russian Empire, and were invited to a trip down the Volga with their Imperial relatives. During her visit, Louise noted the influence of Rasputin with concern. The trip was interrupted by the sudden outbreak of the First World War, and Louise's father telegraphed for them to return immediately. Louise's mother gave her jewellery to the empress for safe keeping, and they left Russia by boat from Hapsal in Estonia and travelled to neutral Sweden, paying for the trip with gold, as their money was suddenly not acceptable currency in Russia. They stayed in Sweden as guests of Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf and Crown Princess Margaret, her first cousin once removed, at Drottningholm Palace, just one night before they returned to Great Britain.
During the First World War, Louise was first active within the Soldiers and Sailors Families Association and the Smokes for Soldiers and Sailors, but she soon enlisted in the Red Cross for service as a nurse. She was active at a French military hospital in Nevers, and then at a war hospital at Palaves outside Montpellier, from March 1915 until July 1917. She was commended for her hard work, and was awarded The British War and Victory Medals, a medal from the British Red Cross, as well as the Médaille de la Reconnaissance française. After the war, she was active in social work for the children in the slums of Battersea in London.
Courtships
In 1909, Louise received a proposal from Manuel II of Portugal. Her grand-uncle, Edward VII, the British monarch, was in favour of the match, but Louise declined, as she wished to marry for love. At the age of twenty, Louise became secretly engaged to Prince Christopher of Greece, but they were forced to give up their relationship for financial reasons. Shortly before World War I broke out, Louise fell in love with a man of whom her parents approved but he was killed in the early days of the war. Later during the war, while she volunteered as a nurse in Nevers, she began a relationship with Alexander Stuart-Hill, a Scottish artist living in Paris. Anticipating that her parents would be disappointed in her choice, Louise kept their engagement a secret. Eventually, she confided in her parents, who were understanding, and invited Stuart-Hill for visits at Kent House twice. In fact, her family, referring to him as "Shakespeare" because of his odd appearance, found him "eccentric" and "affected". Lacking resources, the engaged couple agreed to postpone marriage until after the war. In 1918, however, Louise's father explained to her that Stuart-Hill was most likely homosexual, and that a marriage with him was impossible.
In 1923, Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden, having been for three years the widower of Louise's mother's cousin Princess Margaret of Connaught, paid a visit to London and, to Louise's surprise, began to court her. Although as a young woman Louise had said that she would never marry a king or a widower, she accepted the proposal of a man destined to be both. However, under §5 of the 1810 Swedish Succession Law (Act 1810:0926), a prince of the Swedish royal house forfeited his right of succession to the throne if he "with or without the King's knowledge and consent, married a private Swedish or foreign man's daughter" (med eller utan Konungens vetskap och samtycke, tager till gemål enskild svensk eller utländsk mans dotter). Once the couple's engagement was announced, there were lively discussions in the media about whether the bride-to-be was constitutionally eligible to become Sweden's future queen. In response, the Swedish Foreign Ministry, citing the law in question, clarified the term "a private Swedish or foreign man's daughter" to mean "he who did not belong to a sovereign family or to a family which, according to international practice, would be equal thereto" (som icke vore medlem av suverän familj eller familj som enligt internationell praxis vore därmed likställd), and announced that the Swedish government had "requested the British government's explanation of Lady Louise Mountbatten's position in this respect." The ministry further announced that following the British government's reply to its inquiry and the subsequent investigation into the matter, it had been determined that the Crown Prince's choice of a future wife was in compliance with the succession law, thereby concluding debate on the imminent nuptials.
On 27 October 1923, Sweden and Britain's respective plenipotentiaries signed the "Treaty between Great Britain and Sweden for the Marriage of Lady Louise Mountbatten with His Royal Highness Prince Gustaf Adolf, Crown Prince of Sweden". The treaty stated, in part, that the kings of the United Kingdom and Sweden "having judged it proper that an alliance should again be contracted between their respective Royal Houses by a marriage...have agreed upon and concluded the following Articles", which articles declared that the marriage would be celebrated in London and duly authenticated, that the couple's financial settlements would be expressed in a separate marriage contract which was declared to be "an integral part of the present Treaty", and that the two nations' ratifications of the treaty would be exchanged in Stockholm, which formally occurred 12 November 1923.
On 3 November 1923, at age 34, Louise married Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf, in the Chapel Royal at St. James's Palace in the presence of George V and members of both royal families.
Crown princess
The marriage between Louise and Gustav Adolf was by all accounts a love match and described as very happy. She was also liked by her mother-in-law because of her friendly nature, although they seldom saw each other, as Queen Victoria spent most of her time in Italy. The fact that the queen spent most of her time abroad meant that Louise took on many royal duties from the beginning, which was initially hard for her as she was at this point described as quite shy.
After the queen's death in 1930, Louise was officially the first lady of the nation, expected to perform all the duties of a queen, twenty years before she actually became queen. This meant that Louise was to take over the protection of all the organisations and associations traditionally assigned to the queen. She was made the protector of the Swedish Red Cross, Children's Hospital of Crown Princess Louise, Eugenia Home, Drottningens centralkommitté ('Queen's Emergency Relief Committee'), Arbetsflitens Befrämjande ('The Promoting of Diligence'), Sophiahemmet and Svenska Hemslöjdsföreningarns Riksförbund ('Swedish Handicraft's Society').
Regarding this matter, Louise remarked: "It is hard for me to be the protector of different institutions, as I have been accustomed to practical work, as an ordinary person, before my marriage". As a former nurse, a fact she was proud to point out, Louise was interested in improving the working conditions for nurses.
Louise's only child, a daughter, was stillborn on 30 May 1925.
In 1926–1927, the crown princely couple made an international trip around the world to benefit Swedish interests, which was described as a great success, especially the trip to the United States, during which they travelled across the nation from New York City to San Francisco. Public interest was high, and the couple acquired a reputation for being "democratic", after having refused such formalities as greeting the guests at a reception sitting on thrones, which they had been invited to do at the reception of an American millionaire. During an interview in Salt Lake City, Louise stated that she believed in gender equality and that women are fully capable of being active within all professions and in the business world, as well as within politics: "Women are completely intellectually equal to men and, provided they are given sufficient education, are just as capable to deserve respect and admiration as men in this field". In 1934–35, she made a similar trip with Gustav Adolf to Greece and around the Middle East and Africa, called the Orient Tour. In 1936, Louise attended the funeral of George V of the United Kingdom.
During World War II, Louise was active in aid work within the Red Cross. She collected candles and other non-electric light sources for the needy during the campaign "Vinterljus" (English: Winter Lights). Another contribution was Kronprinsessans Gåvokommitté för Neutralitetsvakten (English: "The Crown Princess Gift Association For the Neutral Defence Forces"), which provided the soldiers mobilised to guard the borders of neutral Sweden with gifts: normally socks, scarfs and caps knitted by contributors from all over the country. As a citizen of a neutral country, Louise was also able to act as a messenger between relatives and friends across warfaring borders. She also provided supplies to many private citizens in this way, such as "two old ladies in Münich", the former German language teacher of her husband's late wife, and the exiled Princess Tatiana of Russia in Palestine. It is said many would have died, had it not been for Louise's help. In 1940, for example, she sent supplies to the British major Michael Smiley of the Rifle Brigade, who was captured and placed in a prisoner of war camp, after his mother-in-law Alicia Pearson had asked for her help. During the Finnish Winter War, Louise set up a home for Finnish war orphans at Ulriksdal Palace.
Queen consort
In 1950, Louise became queen after her husband's accession to the throne. Louise is described as a true democrat at heart, and was therefore somewhat disturbed at being celebrated merely in her capacity of queen. In reference to the attention, she remarked: "People look at me as if I were something special. Surely I do not look differently today from how I looked yesterday!"
Louise disliked the strict pre-World War I protocol at court, retained during her mother-in-law's era, and reformed it when she became queen, instituting new guidelines in 1954 which democraticised many old customs. In 1962, she abolished the court presentations, replaced them with "democratic ladies' lunches", to which she invited professional career women, a custom which was to continue under Princess Sibylla after her death. Louise also renovated and redecorated the interior of the Royal Palace in Stockholm.
Louise was described as eccentric for royalty and temperamental; she could get very angry, but was said to possess a good heart, a great sense of humour, a sense of self-irony and was able to distinguish between herself and her royal role. She could show her sympathies openly, and this was taken as a sign of her honesty. One courtier commented, "I would describe the queen as a 'gentleman'. She would never avoid acknowledging her own mistakes". Louise is described as a great lover and patriot of her new home country, and was often shocked by Swedish non-patriotic customs. She was a supporter of the political system and democracy in the form it had developed in Sweden and stated her opinion to her relatives that no other political system than the Swedish one had created such a happy development for any nation. Queen Louise also admired Swedish nature and in particular Swedish women, because of what she considered their natural dignity regardless of class, and remarked that she had never seen a country with less vulgarity than Sweden.
Queen Louise had several Pomeranian dogs which she would hide about her person when visiting abroad which caused problems when travelling through customs (which she usually did under the pseudonym "Countess of Gripsholm" or "Mrs Olsson"). After having taken summer vacations with her husband in Italy every year, she always departed before he did to visit England prior to returning to Sweden. A popular story told of her alleges that Louise, after almost being hit by a bus in London (because she would often jay-walk), took to carrying a small card with the words, "I am the Queen of Sweden" printed on it, so that people would know who she was in case she was hit by a vehicle. In London, she often stayed at the Hyde Park Hotel, often crossing a heavily trafficked street there to shop, which prompted her note.
In 1963, Louise accompanied her spouse on a state visit to France, where she made a great impression on President Charles de Gaulle. At dinner, she said to him: "I must ask you to excuse my ugly French. My French is the one spoken in the trenches of 1914." De Gaulle later attended her memorial service in Paris, which was the first occasion for a French president to visit the Swedish church there, as well as one of only two occasions de Gaulle visited a memorial service of the kind. Queen Louise's last official engagement was the Nobel Prize dinner of 1964, during which no one noticed that she was in fact already ill.
According to Queen Margrethe II of Denmark it was very difficult for Louise to fill the shoes of her husband's first wife. Margrethe and Louise's other step-grandchildren all used the nickname Ist for Louise because when little they could not say Aunt Louise properly. Louise responded good-naturedly by signing all her letters to them that way.
Death and funeral
Queen Louise died on 7 March 1965 at Saint Göran Hospital, in Stockholm, Sweden, following emergency surgery after a period of severe illness. She had made her last public appearance at the Nobel Prize Ceremony in December 1964. Queen Louise is buried beside her husband and his first wife, Crown Princess Margaret, in the Royal Cemetery in Solna north of Stockholm.
Honours
: Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
: Knight of the Order of the Elephant
: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose
: Dame Grand Cordon with Chain of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri
:
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Recipient of the Medal of French Gratitude
: Grand-Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
:
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Recipient of the Queen Juliana Investiture Medal
:
Member of the Royal Order of the Seraphim
Royal Family Order of King Gustaf V
Royal Family Order of King Gustaf VI Adolf
Recipient of the 90th Birthday Badge Medal of King Gustaf V
Recipient of the 70th Birthday Badge Medal of King Gustaf V
:
Recipient of the Royal Red Cross (RRC)
Recipient of the British War Medal
Recipient of the Victory Medal
Recipient of the Voluntary Medical Service Medal
Arms and monogram
Ancestry
Queen Louise was the second of the four children of Prince Louis of Battenberg, by his wife Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine and a great-granddaughter of Britain's Queen Victoria. Both Queen Louise and her stepchildren were great-grandchildren of Queen Victoria.
References
Sources
Fjellman, Margit: Drottning Louise – En biografi (Queen Louise – A Biography), Bonniers, 1965; 232 pages (Sweden)
Fjellman, Margit: Louise Mountbatten, Queen of Sweden, London, Allen Unwin, 1968;
Fridh, Kjell: Gamle kungen Gustaf VI Adolf. En biografi (Old King Gustaf VI Adolf. A Biography). Wahlström & Widstrand (W&W), Stockholm, 1995; 368 pages (Sweden)
Severin, Kid: Vår Drottning (Our Queen), Åhlén & Åkerlunds Förlags AB Stockholm, 1963; 64 pages (Sweden)
Ulfsäter-Troell, Agnetha: Drottningar är också människor: Sex kvinnoöden på Stockholms slott, Förlaget Ulfsäter, 1996, 479 pages (kap. Drottning Louise / Chapt. Queen Louise). Also TV-programme: Drottning av Sverige (Queen of Sweden), history programme about the six Bernadotte queens consort, from Queen Desirée to Queen Louise (adapted from the book), produced by Agneta Ulfsäter-Troell and Marianne Söderberg for Swedish Television SVT, 1996–97 (Sweden)
Further reading
External links
1889 births
1965 deaths
People from Darmstadt-Dieburg
Louise 1950
People from the Grand Duchy of Hesse
Battenberg family
Princesses in Germany
Crown Princesses of Sweden
Daughters of British marquesses
Burials at Kungliga begravningsplatsen
Members of the Royal Red Cross
Recipients of the Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Recipients of the Order of the Sword
Order of the Polar Star
Mountbatten family
German emigrants to the United Kingdom
British emigrants to Sweden
Women who experienced pregnancy loss |
4507010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Strangers%20with%20Candy%20characters | List of Strangers with Candy characters | This is a list of characters from the Comedy Central original program Strangers with Candy.
The Blanks
Jerri Blank
Geraldine Antonia "Jerri" Blank (Amy Sedaris) was born in 1953 to a drunken Aramapu woman, who traded her for a pitcher of beer. She was adopted by Guy Blank and his wife, whom she believes to be her real mother. In 1967, Jerri dropped out of high school and ran away from home. During her absence, her adoptive mother died and her father married a second wife, Sara, who is around Jerri's own age. Around 1984, Jerri was living in Florida, where she was beaten by a border guard and lost a tooth. That same year, she became pregnant by either an obese, harelipped bail bondsman or a Cuban. She gave birth to a child, Ricky (Fred Koehler), whom she traded for a guitar. She claims to have had several other pregnancies, all of which were aborted, or possibly miscarried, considering her drug addiction. She served several prison sentences, most recently because she, as worded in the introduction, “stoled [sic] the TV”. In 1999, Jerri returned to Flatpoint and re-enrolled in high school at the age of 46.
She is openly racist, though she appears to be completely oblivious to this fact. For example, she denied any racism to her friend Paul Cotton immediately before showing him her heavily stereotyped drawing of a "Chinaman". She often compares her Filipino friend Orlando to a monkey, although her remarks aren’t meant to cause offense (she thinks monkeys are adorable). She also makes randomly antisemitic remarks, which is curious because she doesn't know any Jewish people. At one point, she feels compelled to apologize to her diary for being antisemitic to it. Jerri's bigotry is always presented as an example of her stupidity and ignorance, and she has never been violent towards any of the minority groups she insults; however, in the twisted, valueless world of the show, her views are never really contradicted or punished, and she is inevitably allowed to carry on with her behavior. The show's storylines also provide her with many opportunities to be insensitive to other groups, such as the blind and the disabled.
Jerri is not very intelligent, but she is a shrewd thief and resourceful drug user (e.g., finding a vein, creating drugs from household cleaners, etc.). She was illiterate until the episode "The Blank Page", where she tried out for cheerleading and was shunned because she guessed that "V-I-C-T-O-R-Y" spelled "Win!" (or possibly "fandango" or "hobocamp"), but Mr. Noblet helped her learn to read. She is a violin prodigy, as seen in the episode "To Be Young, Gifted, and Blank". In that episode, she was also the timpanist for the school's orchestra. At the end of "Yes, You Can't", she is seen playing the drums for "Carry On Wayward Son", perhaps leading the viewer to believe that she is a talented drummer as well. In "Trail of Tears", Jerri proves herself to be an excellent "Indian": she's a great archer, scalper, and torch-thrower. She also does not seem to be above any form of inappropriate intercourse, once saying that she and a boy she had just discovered was her son could still make out, or continuing to have sex after being diagnosed with syphilis, gonorrhea, and crabs.
Jerri seems to have quite a collection of wigs (her hairstyle changes constantly, growing longer or shorter within a single episode) and wears an inordinate amount of makeup. Sedaris intended her to look "like somebody who owns snakes" (which she does in an early episode). She has a very large genital piercing (which she calls "The Liberty Bell") and sports tattoos across her knuckles (Hard on one hand, Luck on the other, a parody of Robert Mitchum’s tattoos in Night of the Hunter [though in some episodes, according to Amy Sedaris, the Luck sometimes becomes Fuck]). Despite all the effort she puts into her appearance and her own belief that she is quite sexy, over the course of the series she is frequently mistaken for an old man. She is desperate to be liked and accepted, even going so far as to join a cult with this purpose in mind.
In the series finale, "The Last Temptation of Blank", Jerri's big heart caused the most popular girl (Winona Ryder) in school to run off to become a junkie whore like her, and later she, Principal Blackman, Mr. Jellineck, and Mr. Noblet decide to become whores after they burn down the school, as they feel this life direction "beats teaching".
Guy Blank
Guy Blank (Roberto Gari, Dan Hedaya in the film) is Jerri’s adoptive father, shown only in a voiceless, frozen state during mid-action (for example, carving a turkey, driving a car, or participating in a father–daughter sack race practice). Guy appeared in the pilot and in the episodes “Old Habits, New Beginnings”, “A Burden’s Burden”, “Who Wants Cake?”, “Bogie Nights”, “Feather in the Storm”, “Jerri is Only Skin Deep”, and finally “The Goodbye Guy”. In this episode, he is mauled to death by dogs, traumatizing Jerri but allowing her to learn the lesson that "you can never really lose your parents, unless of course they die, and then they're gone forever." Guy played the violin until the death of Jerri’s mother, after which he developed a seeming hatred for the instrument. Evidence points to Guy Blank as being a racist; he evidently calls Principal Blackman by “an ugly word,” requested that “no darkies” attend his funeral, and owned some Klan robes (Jerri discovered them in his closet after his death, although she was distracted and didn’t seem to notice them, or else didn't care) - this may also have contributed to Jerri's racism. Based on one picture Jerri finds after Guy’s death, it appears that in the continuity of the show, it was Guy and not Steve McMichael who joined the Four Horsemen professional wrestling stable in 1996.
Removed from the regular cast list after the first season, he is credited as guest star in later appearances.
Sara Blank
Sara Blank (Deborah Rush) is Jerri’s alcoholic stepmother who favors her son over her stepdaughter and has an ongoing affair with Stew, the meat man. While she is generally quite prim, she is also openly racist. She was in every episode except “Yes, You Can’t” and “The Blank Page”. She is quite disdainful of Jerri (in the Strangers film, she told Stew, “I wouldn’t want you to think that that slithered out of my womb.”), but she delivers most of her lines with a sugary sweetness that hides much of her true venom. She makes no secret of wanting Jerri out of the house, but for some reason she goes along with the idea of Jerri as a high-school girl and treats Jerri more like an unwanted teenage daughter than a 40-something-year-old woman. Sara was an actress when she was young and played Peter Pan in a stage production; when Jerri got a role in A Raisin in the Sun, Sara became very bitter, drunkenly sobbing, “Peter Pan has gotten old!” On one occasion, though, Sara seemed almost caring toward Jerri, taking an interest in whom she was inviting to a dance and offering to reinforce the “trouble spots” on her dress if it turned out Jerri took one of the violent students (she was very worried that Jerri would take the “new kid”).
While Sara and Derrick seem to despise Jerri, when Jerri briefly vanished from their lives, they made a big show of being worried and consoling each other; of course, every time the phone rang (it was Jerri), they picked it up only to immediately hang it up again. Eventually, they cut the phone cord with a butcher knife and took no further action to find Jerri.
Removed from the regular cast list after the first season, in later appearances she is credited as guest star.
Derrick Blank
Derrick Blank (Larc Spies, Joseph Cross in the film) is Jerri’s junior varsity jock half-brother who is suspected of being a closeted homosexual. In “Is My Daddy Crazy?”, when Jerri was hosting a sleepover, his mother urged him to hide in the closet and masturbate to the scene of high-school girls having a pillow fight, but he declined in favor of reading his “gladiator magazines.” He was, however, entranced by guest-star Winona Ryder in the series finale “The Last Temptation of Blank”. Another clue to his alleged homosexuality comes in “Is Freedom Free?” when Mr. Jellineck, sporting only a Speedo (because it’s “Freedom Week”), declares that he’s “going to see Derrick”. Jellineck, a closeted homosexual, would have little other reason to visit Derrick, especially in a Speedo.
Derrick typically refers to Jerri as “Plug” or “Troll”, and in several episodes he appears close to striking her, but something - a doorknob, his father's hand - always holds him back (in "The Trip Back", he perhaps came closest to the truth when he sneered, “You’re just lucky I’m a coward!”). Jerri's usual retort to his bullying is calling him a "faggot" (or getting creative about it, such as "Sir Fags-a-Lot"). He has a crew of jock friends, and they enjoy bullying blind kids and other unfortunates. They also have a garage band, from which one member (Mark Ibold) is ejected for being too talented and making the others look bad ("Behind Blank Eyes"). On one occasion, after one of their targets verbally shot them down, Derrick suggested to his friends that they “go watch some gay porn and get our hate back!” He was in every episode except “Yes, You Can't”, “The Blank Page”, “To Love, Honor, and Pretend”, and “Bully”.
Removed from the regular cast list after the first season, he is credited in later appearances as guest star.
Stew
Stew (David Pasquesi) is the lover that Sara Blank took after Guy Blank’s death. He is married and has two children, Chuck and Patty. He is a “meat man,” a butcher and meat delivery man, which is used as a basis for puns and other running gags throughout the series. In “Is My Daddy Crazy?”, he went temporarily insane and coated the house with cheese before his reflection fired him, and he was cured by Jerri drilling a hole through his skull.
He appeared in many episodes of the first and second seasons before Guy’s death, in close relationship with Sara, leading many to strongly suspect they were having an affair. Even before Guy's death, he filled the role of father to Jerri, first by being unthoughtful and emotionally abusive like Sara, and then by being loving and attentive when he became completely insane.
Stew’s name is intentionally spelled like the food, as is confirmed by his work shirt which has S-T-E-W on the name tag (seen in the film and in episodes such as “Feather in the Storm”).
Flatpoint faculty
Chuck Noblet
Charles "Chuck" Noblet (Stephen Colbert) is a bitter history (usually) teacher at Flatpoint High School. He seems to make up almost everything he teaches, stating that in light of the Japanese American internment, "it's important that we never forget the atrocities that the Japanese committed against our boys", that "following his violent revolution, Gandhi was devoured by his followers", that "the tragedy" of Martin Luther King Jr.'s life "is that all this footage is in black and white; imagine how powerful it would have been in color" (and adding that he is "not sure" what happened to King), that "the tragic irony of the Trojan War" is that "though it was fought over Helen, who was young and beautiful, by the time they rescued her ten years later, she was old and ugly" (moral: "an ugly woman is never a reward"), and that "the Opium War was fought in 1840 to 1842 between the Chinese and the Mexicans".
The subject Noblet teaches changes often over the course of the series, and in the film he teaches science. Noblet frequently wears cowboy boots (and at one point, only cowboy boots—when he posed nude for a sketch by Jellineck). He secretly desires to be a rock star and appears to idolize the band Kansas in particular. He is also in a secret love affair with Jellineck and frequently refers to his wife, Clair, to maintain his appearance of heterosexuality. He has a son, Seamus, who is mentioned but never seen in the series. Noblet seems to harbor more guilt and shame over his sexuality than Jellineck and will instantly abandon him in order to keep his own homosexuality a secret, but the two appear to have genuine feelings for each other; whenever their relationship is in trouble, Noblet will weep wretchedly. The two sometimes consummate their affair through roleplaying: pretending to "bump into each other" for the first time, introducing themselves (with much discussion of their wives and children), and ultimately sneaking off somewhere to have sex.
Noblet appeared in all episodes except “The Virgin Jerri”. In the final episode of the series, Noblet openly tells his class about the “hot, ass-thumping sex” that he and Jellineck enjoy; however, the class was not paying attention since it was the final week of school. In an interview with Terry Gross, Colbert addressed the question of why Noblet is always so cruel to Jerri, saying that Noblet is miserably repressed and has built his entire life on lies, which has placed him in constant fear of exposure, and he is thus deeply threatened and resentful of Jerri for always asking questions and trying to figure her life out.
Clair Noblet
Clair Noblet (Carolyn Popp, Evelyn McGee in the film) is Chuck Noblet’s wife, who is only seen three times in the series. It is believed that she and Chuck have a strained marriage, and she seems to exist only as his beard. In one scene, Chuck asks her "Will we be having sex tonight?" When she says no, he is relieved and can fall asleep.
Geoffrey Jellineck
Geoffrey Jellineck (Paul Dinello) (pronounced JOFF-ree, as opposed to the more common JEFF-ree) is Jerri’s flamboyant, insecure, narcissistic art teacher. He appeared in all episodes except “Blank Stare: Part 1”. Jellineck has repeatedly stated he is a “confirmed bachelor”, though he refers to imaginary children and a dead wife as part of his odd fantasy life, most notably in “A Burden’s Burden”. He revealed that he became wealthy after allegedly participating in his rich aunt’s death in “A Price Too High for Riches”, the Season 2 finale, which must have taken place chronologically after Season 2, Episode 3, “Yes, You Can’t”, where Jellineck briefly becomes homeless after quitting his job. He and Chuck Noblet share a homosexual relationship, which is allegedly secret, although everyone but Blackman seems to know about it. Jellineck is superficially a very kind and sunny person (in the film he tells Jerri, “You can talk to me: I’m an authority figure, but I have the mind of a child."), and he is generally very encouraging to Jerri, albeit without having much actually valuable guidance to offer. Paul Dinello has said that this aspect of the character was based on the personalities of teachers and professors who try to be "one of the kids" and think they're succeeding, but in reality are regarded as slightly creepy. Beneath the surface, Jellineck has plenty of rage and despair, and these dark emotions surface with very little provocation. He has been bullied by his students and even by one of the school's teachers, although he is a pacifist (and a coward) and refuses to fight back. On one memorable occasion, Jellineck lost his face in a car accident caused by Jerri, although it was eventually found and restored. After it was first reattached, it nearly blew away in the wind, but otherwise he seems to have made a full recovery.
Onyx Blackman
Onyx Blackman (Greg Hollimon) is the overly stern principal of Flatpoint High who appeared in all thirty episodes. He rules Flatpoint High with an iron fist, insisting that his likeness be placed in as many prominent positions throughout the school as possible, including, but not limited to, the school letterman jackets, the buses, silk robes, every classroom, air fresheners, art projects, restrooms, paper towels, and even behind shelves. He also seems to take great pleasure in making announcements over the loudspeaker which include phrases such as "Hearken to my voice!" and are accompanied on at least one occasion by his secretary, Iris Puffybush, dramatically playing the bongos.
Various episodes establish that Blackman has a gambling problem, is divorced, still lives with his parents, and has a fetish for middle-aged white women. Blackman apparently enjoys a very active sex life (he is seen romancing several ladies during the course of the series, once even enjoying a romantic, candlelit dinner in his office in the middle of a school day). For some reason, he is absolutely clueless about Noblet and Jellineck's ongoing affair, even when confronted with fairly obvious evidence. He is concerned about the reputation of the school insofar as his lifestyle and livelihood depend on it, but he displays very little interest in his students themselves or in education in general. As a black man, he is frequently the object of other characters' racism, but, perhaps due to his naturally callous approach to sensitive matters, seems to accept it without objection.
Cherri Wolf
Coach Cherri Wolf (Sarah Thyre) is the Flatpoint gym coach and a suspected lesbian/bisexual. While she is depicted as a stereotypical “dyke” coach for most of the show’s run, she apparently fell in love with Geoffrey Jellineck while they were pretending to be married during “To Love, Honor, and Pretend”, but he broke her heart when he left their fake marriage to go back to his secret relationship with Chuck Noblet. She claimed to be a virgin well into adulthood and preached abstinence to her students, but then she slept with a fiery Latino pizza chef in “The Virgin Jerri”. Coach Wolf also worked at the pizza parlor to make ends meet. Her class was rebuilt into a Sticky Bunnery in the last episode, and she got a job there, citing better pay and child care.
Iris Puffybush
Iris Puffybush (Dolores Duffy) is the school secretary in such episodes as “To Love, Honor, and Pretend” and “Bully”. Duffy also pops up in other places throughout the show, such as a secretary in the doctor's office in "Jerri’s Burning Issue” and a nurse in “Hit and Run”.
Cassie Pines
Cassie Pines (Janeane Garofalo) is the student counselor at Flatpoint High, and, as such, her first responsibility is, of course, to the teachers. She openly despises the students and clearly hates her job, giving horrible advice to Jerri after her father died. At the end of the series, she got a job in the Sticky Bunnery alongside Coach Wolfe. According to the audio commentary, Cassie Pines' name is a reference to coffins as caskets made of pinewood.
Jazzy
Jazzy (Larry Marshall) is the music teacher at Flatpoint High with an affection for the female students that he must find clever ways to curb. He misses his days as a heroin addict.
Flatpoint students
Orlando Pinatubo
Orlando "Or" Pinatubo (Orlando Abdo Pabotoy) is Jerri’s best friend, a Filipino whom she constantly mocks because of his race. In the first season especially, he had a huge crush on Jerri and was not above spreading rumors about her love interests to stop her from seeing them (as in “Bogie Nights” and “Let Freedom Ring”). Sadly, Jerri does not reciprocate his romantic feelings. Like Tammi Littlenut, he is very innocent, always expects the best of Jerri, and is crestfallen when she inevitably disappoints him. He is close to his family, and they hold “parties” where they dance and tell stories with their hands. In the final episode, Orlando and Tammi have both become obsessed with a Dungeons & Dragons–like role-playing game, perhaps their nerdiest development yet.
The character Megawatti Sukarnoputri is used in the film version.
Tammi Littlenut
Tammi Littlenut (Maria Thayer) is Jerri’s best girlfriend and frequent object of her lust. In most cases, she is grounded and sane, providing a voice of reason and normalcy in the odd social structure of Flatpoint High and tries to give Jerri good advice, though she never takes it. Like Orlando, she is a very sweet and innocent person who never seems to grasp how sleazy Jerri truly is. However, in very rare instances, Tammi can be seen joining in with other Flatpointers in acts of bullying and paranoia (she joins in laughing at Glen the Bus Driver in "The Blank Page", for instance). Additionally, in “Invisible Love”, she had a close romantic relationship with the school’s science teacher. Frequently referred to as "Tammela", “Coppertop”, and “Nuttage” or as a “redheaded spitfire” by Jerri, Tammi occasionally brings out a more masculine side in Jerri: Jerri has become quite aggressive when defending Tammi from bullies ("Bully"), and when Tammi and Jerri were charged with taking care of a baby, Jerri quickly fell into the role of an emotionally abusive, deadbeat dad to Tammi's intimidated housewife ("A Burden's Burden").
Chip Beavers
Chip Beavers (Patrick Blindauer) appears in the episodes "Jerri Is Only Skin Deep", "Who Wants Cake?", "The Blank Page", "Hit and Run", "Trail of Tears", "Invisible Love", and "Is My Daddy Crazy?" Chip's main characterization is usually to raise his hand and attempt to answer a question usually supplied by Noblet, only to get yelled at.
Jimmy Tickles
Jimmy Tickles (Jack Ferver) is Tammi and Jerri’s diminutive and presumably gay friend. Often he is spontaneously beaten up by jocks for no definite reason, though his beatings often follow particularly flamboyant dialog or actions of Jimmy’s (his repeated phrase I'm so jazzed! often directly led to his being beaten up). Jerri forced him to have sex with her in the girls’ bathroom at the end of "The Virgin Jerri". Early appearances, also before the beatings, showed him as being a relatively heterosexual, straight-laced student.
One-time students
Paul Cotton (Jared Ryan, "Let Freedom Ring") is a student accused of spray painting the "N" word on a Flatpoint wall. Jerri befriends him and when it is revealed that Jerri is the culprit behind the crime, Paul reveals that his parents are Black, but due to a recessive gene, he comes off as white.
Trish (Stephanie Sanditz, "The Trip Back") is a stoner girl whom Jerri befriends after not studying for her finals; turning back to drugs leads Jerri back to jail.
Alan Tiresias (Matt Newton, "Behind Blank Eyes") is a blind new student at Flatpoint High who wants to try out for the football team, but no one will let him. Jerri befriends him and learns how difficult it is to be blind after trying a bandanna around her eyes to experience blindness.
Jared (Derek Richardson, "Jerri's Burning Issue") is Jerri's one-episode boyfriend whom she has unprotected sex with; he later breaks up with her after discovering she has syphilis.
Laird (Chris Carmack, "Invisible Love") is a jock who dabbles in a secret relationship with Jerri. She is usually hiding in random places (i.e. garbage can, air duct) as he is ashamed of being seen with her.
Miles (Judson Morgan, "There Once Was a Blank from Nantucket") is a member of the school jazz orchestra who asks Jerri out, but Jerri, already dealing with sexual harassment from the jocks, has a "good-and-bad" outburst around him before telling him the truth.
Skeet (Jamie Bennett, "There Once Was a Blank from Nantucket") is a jock who, with his friends, sexually harasses Jerri by openly mocking her sexual escapades and writing horrible things about her in the boys' bathroom. He and his friends planned to torment Jerri with a sign reading "Jerri Blank is a stupid whore" at the jazz recital, but Jerri beat them to it and revealed a relatively larger banner.
Edie Harley (Natalie Blalock, "Bully") is a new student at Flatpoint who begins to bully Tammi, only for Jerri to step in and stand up for Tammi. Edie challenges Jerri to fight her after school, and because of her "street code", Jerri accepts. At the fight, Jerri tells Edie that she loves her, sparking Edie to hug Jerri; Jerri takes this chance to beat Edie down with the peace necklace Jellineck gave her.
Fran (Winona Ryder, "The Last Temptation of Blank") is the most popular girl in school. When a classmate challenges her to turn Jerri cool enough for popular guy Brent Brooks to ask her out, Fran takes on the challenge. She is sarcastic and obnoxious, but by the end of the episode, she comes to admit that Jerri is cooler than her because of her big heart and runs off to "be a junkie whore for 32 years".
Brent Brooks (Paul Rudd, "The Last Temptation of Blank") is presumably the most popular guy at Flatpoint. He stands in the background as the other popular kids pick on the unpopular; his dialogue is usually portrayed with boredom.
Other characters
Father
Father (Alan Tudyk) is the leader of the cult that Jerri joined out of loneliness and depression in "Blank Stare" parts 1 and 2. By the end of "Blank Stare - Part 2", he is so sick of Jerri, he arranges to have her taken back by Blackman, Noblet, Jellineck, and the Flatpoint High staff.
Random career guy
The random career guy (Andy Richter) is a heavyset possibly early-30-something guy who is seen in three episodes doing different jobs. In "Yes, You Can't", he was a recruitment coach for the local artificial flower company; in "Trail of Tears", he was an Indian operating the controls at a railroad ride, when Jerri started throwing rocks at him; and in "Blank Relay", he was the "NutraWhiz clerk" at a pharmacy, giving Jerri steroids.
References
Strangers with Candy |
4507843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20anarchists | List of fictional anarchists | This is a list of fictional anarchists, including the source material in which they are found, their creators, the individuals who interpreted them as anarchists during development (if not originally created as such), and short descriptions of each.
An anarchist is a person who rejects any form of compulsory government (cf. "state") and supports its elimination. Anarchism is a political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which reject compulsory government (the state) and support its elimination, often due to a wider rejection of involuntary or permanent authority. Anarchism is defined by The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics as "the view that society can and should be organized without a coercive state."
However, fictional anarchists are subject to the personal interpretations and opinions of Anarchism held by the creator, and as such may imbue negative anarchist stereotypes. Further, characters may be interpreted as anarchists by second parties involved in their development. The inclusion of these characters may be controversial, but is necessary for purposes of objectivity. This provides a means by which social attitudes regarding anarchism and anarchists may be studied and compared to those of other eras and cultures.
Characters who are popularly considered "anarchic", but who are not specifically identified as anarchists by their source material, are excluded.
Comics/sequential art
Anarchik A parody of the "bomb wielding, bearded anarchist" stereotype. He appeared in Rivista Anarchica, by Roberto Ambrosoli, 1970, and is often reprinted in contemporary anarchist pamphlets.
Anarky A comic book character appearing in various DC Comics publications as an antagonist of Batman. He was created and co-developed by Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle in 1989.
Boy A martial artist, former New York City Police Department officer, and member of an anarchist secret society in The Invisibles (1994) by Grant Morrison.
Evey Hammond A protégé of V, an anarchist terrorist in V for Vendetta, by Alan Moore and David Lloyd in 1982. Evey eventually adopts V's role.
Green Arrow A superhero known for his liberal progressive characterization. Appearing in Green Arrow and various other comic books published by DC Comics, he was created by Mort Weisinger and George Papp in 1941. He was revamped in 1969 by Dennis O'Neil, who characterized him as a political progressive and dubbed him an "anarchist".
Jack Frost A young hooligan, possibly a future Buddha, and member of an anarchic secret society in The Invisibles (1994) by Grant Morrison.
King Mob A magician, assassin, terrorist, and member of an anarchist secret society in The Invisibles (1994) by Grant Morrison.
Lord Fanny A transgender Brazilian shaman, and member of an anarchist secret society in The Invisibles (1994) by Grant Morrison.
Pillock An intellectual pelican, in Donald Rooum's Wildcat (1985). Pillock is often used to present complex social ideas and anarchist philosophy.
Ragged Robin A time traveling, cybernetically enhanced telepath, and member of an anarchist secret society in The Invisibles (1994) by Grant Morrison.
Tank Girl A violent punk, wanted criminal, and tank commander. She was created in 1988 by Jamie Hewlett & Alan Martin for their independent comic series, Tank Girl.
V An anonymous, English terrorist with enhanced strength, reflexes, and mental capacity. He is perhaps a genius or merely insane, and acts as an allegorical force for anarchy. He was created by Alan Moore and David Lloyd for their 1982 comic series, V for Vendetta.
Wild Cat An anarcho-punk cat created by Donald Rooum in 1985 as the lead character in his comic strip, Wildcat.
Literature
Captain Raymond A secondary character, and anarchistic leader of a band of thieves in Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams, by William Godwin.
Clay A main character encountered by the protagonists of The Oregon Experiment, by Keith Scribner. The character was based on anarchists the author met.
Professor Bernardo de la Paz An intellectual subversive, who self-identifies as a "Rational Anarchist", in The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress (1966), by Robert A. Heinlein
Edward Tolby An agent of the Anarchist League, in The Last of the Masters (1954), by Philip K. Dick. Edward Tolby is among a trio of anarchists tasked with investigating rumors of a government in hiding near a remote mountain valley. His daughter and comrade, Silvia Tolby, is kidnapped by a military scouts. After infiltrating the state, Edward assassinates the head of state, the last "government robot", and rescues his daughter.
Corky Laputa An avowed anarchist who sows chaos in various ways in The Face by Dean Koontz.
Freddie "Stubby" Lynch A poor paperboy, in The Anarchist: His Dog (1912), by Susan Glaspell.
Valentin Michael Karstev A Russian revolutionary, terrorist, and author of an anarchist treatise, The Laws of Human History, in Protect and Defend (1999), by Eric L. Harry.
Hagbard Celine A discordian genius, computer engineer, and captain of a submarine, in The Illuminatus! Trilogy (1969), by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson.
Kaw-Djer A mysterious man who believes in anarchic individualism, in The Survivors of the 'Jonathan' (1897), by Jules Verne. Possibly based on Peter Kropotkin.
Leo Gold A pessimistic, aging author and former labor organizer, in At the Anarchists' Convention (1979), by John Sayles.
Lucian Gregory A militant terrorist who promotes chaos as the epitome of beauty and anarchy, in The Man Who Was Thursday (1908), by G. K. Chesterton. He is an allegorical figure, representing Lucifer.
Mafile A murderous terrorist, in An Anarchist (1905), by Joseph Conrad.
Marguerite Allard A French-Canadian anarchist in Foxhunt (2022) by Luke Francis Beirne. Foxhunt follows a group of ex-pat writers in London in the early years of the Cold War. Allard, a central character, explicitly identifies as an anarchist. She writes for and edits a London-based magazine after leaving Montreal, where she operated a radical print-shop.
The Mechanic (a.k.a. Crocodile & Anarchisto de Barcelona) An anonymous escaped convict, driven mad by his association with anarchists, and who never reveals his true name, in An Anarchist (1905), by Joseph Conrad. He denies being an anarchist, but is still labeled one by the narrator at the end of the story.
Paula Mendoza An anarchist who uses unconventional methods as a diplomat to maintain peace between antagonistic political factions, in Floating Worlds 1975, by Cecelia Holland.
Merlyn (as portrayed by the author) The Arthurian wizard, portrayed as an anarchist, anti-communist, anti-fascist, and antimilitarist, in The Book of Merlyn 1941, by T. H. White.
Michaelis An underground terrorist, in The Secret Agent (1907), by Joseph Conrad.
Ossipon An underground terrorist, in The Secret Agent (1907), by Joseph Conrad.
Robert Penn An agent of the Anarchist League, in The Last of the Masters (1954), by Philip K. Dick. Robert Penn is among a trio of anarchists tasked with investigating rumors of a government in hiding near a remote mountain valley. En route his group is intercepted by spies of the state, who are ordered to kill the agents. Of the three, Penn does not survive, though the spies die with him.
Shevek An experimental physicist and theoretician, attempting to develop a General Temporal Theory, in The Dispossessed (1974), by Ursula K. Le Guin.
Simon A murderous terrorist, in An Anarchist (1905), by Joseph Conrad.
Silvia Tolby An agent of the Anarchist League, in The Last of the Masters (1954), by Philip K. Dick. Silvia Tolby is among a trio of anarchists tasked with investigating rumors of a government in hiding near a remote mountain valley. She is kidnapped by military scouts after falling unconscious in a car wreck. She is taken to the government center and questioned by the head of state, the last "government robot". Her father, Edward Tolby, assassinates the robot and rescues her.
Viceroy Wilson An anarchist and former football player in Carl Hiaasen's Tourist Season (1986)
Television/film
Cassian Andor A rebel thief, soldier, pilot and assassin in Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016) and Star Wars: Andor. He is an insurrectionary anarchist.:
Cosmo A former 1960s radical and hacker, performed by Ben Kingsley in Sneakers (1992). Cosmo, who finances his anarchist activities with a day job as a money launderer for organized crime, schemes to steal an experimental "universal decryptor", which will allow him to hack into and destroy all computerized financial records, effectively toppling the capitalist system and (he hopes) laying the groundwork for a horizontalist society.
Dennis A peasant member of an anarcho-syndicalist commune, performed by Michael Palin in Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975).
Dol-Suk A knife fighter and assassin, and member of an underground terrorist cell, in Anarchists (Anakiseuteu) (2000). The role of Dol-Suk is played by Lee Bum-Soo.
Double D A slacker and squatter. He is played by Steve Van Wormer in The Anarchist Cookbook (2002).
Esoqq A violently independent and anti-social alien. Star Trek: The Next Generation, episode 66, "Allegiance" (1990). Reiner Schöne performed the role.
Floren An anarcha-feminist, Mujeres Libres member, spirit medium, and militia soldier during the Spanish Civil War, in Libertarian Women (Libertarias) (1996). The role of Floren is performed by Ana Belén.
Gin A hippie squatter. She is played by Sabine Singh in The Anarchist Cookbook (2002).
Johnny Red A 1960s radical who idealizes Sweden. He is played by John Savage in The Anarchist Cookbook (2002).
Han Myung-Gon A disguise artist and leader of an underground terrorist cell, in Anarchists (Anakiseuteu) (2000). Han Myung-Gon is played by Kim Sang-Joong.
Karla A bisexual squatter with issues of misandry, in The Anarchist Cookbook (2002). She is played by Gina Philips.
Kim An exiled hero of the Spanish Civil War. He is played by Antonio Resines in The Shanghai Spell (El Embrujo de Shanghai) (2002).
Lee Geun A martial artist, and member of an underground terrorist cell, in Anarchists. Lee Geun is portrayed by Jeong Jun-ho. (Anakiseuteu) (2000).
Lily Cruz/Ivy Aguas A strong woman vowing revenge against the corrupt and terroristic/fascistic Ardiente political clan responsible for her family's loss, in Wildflower She is portrayed by Maja Salvador In this 2017-2018 Philippine political action-crime-suspense epic.
Nandu Forcat A former soldier in the Spanish Civil War. He is played by Eduard Fernández, in The Shanghai Spell (El Embrujo de Shanghai) (2002).
Pedro An inmate in a World War II era German prison camp, captured while trying to assassinate fascists. He is played by Fernando Rey in Seven Beauties (Pasqualino Settebellezze) (1975).
Pilar An anarcha-feminist, Mujeres Libres member, and militia leader during the Spanish Civil War, in Libertarian Women (Libertarias) (1996). The role of Pilar is performed by Ana Belén.
Puck A college dropout, slacker, and squatter, in The Anarchist Cookbook (2002). He is played by Devon Gummersall.
Rick Pratt A college student, activist, and self-proclaimed "people's poet" in the 1982 BBC television series, The Young Ones, created and performed by Rik Mayall. Rick is a hypocritical, tantrum-throwing attention-seeker, and fan of Cliff Richard. It is implied in the final episode that contrary to his proletarian pretensions, he is from an upper class, Conservative background. He and his co-stars die in the final episode of the series when, having robbed a bank, the bus they are escaping in falls over a cliff and explodes. Mayall created "Rick" as one of several characters he portrayed during his solo act at The Comedy Store, during the early 1980s. Mayall co-created The Young Ones with then girlfriend Lise Mayer during the same period. Injecting the character into the series, it was pitched to the BBC and subsequently picked up for production.
Sweeney A promiscuous squatter, and DJ who works at a record store in The Anarchist Cookbook (2002). Sweeney (Johnny Whitworth) is one of the squatters who falls under the control of the nihilist, Johnny Black, through an addiction to cocaine.
Sang-Gu A member-in-training of an underground terrorist cell in Anarchists (Anakiseuteu) (2000). Sang-Gu (Kim In-Kwon) is adopted into the terror cell after they rescue him from a public execution. Orphaned after his family was killed during a village massacre, he traveled to Shanghai to take part in revenge killings against Japanese politicians. He becomes an apprentice to each of the senor cell members, but gravitates to Seregay, and is the only witness to Seregay's death. As the only surviving member of the cell, the narration of the film is told from his perspective decades later.
Seregay An expert marksman and assassin, and member of an underground terrorist cell in the Korean film, Anarchists (Anakiseuteu) (2000). Seregay (Jang Dong-gun), is an old comrade of Lee Geun, and a victim of torture at the hands of Japanese interrogators, leading to a self-destructive opium addiction. After failing a mission, he is ordered by his leftist leaders to redeem himself by taking part in an impossible assassination mission. Surprisingly, he succeeds, but is betrayed by another assassin sent to be sure he is killed.
Tina Santiago A young mother and widow of an Iraq War veteran, turned militant Black bloc protester in This Revolution (2004). Actress Rosario Dawson was arrested during filming for breaking an anti-mask ordinance at the Republican National Convention protest march. The script of the film was quickly rewritten to account for her absence, and live footage of the arrest was included in the movie, portrayed instead as the arrest of the character, Santiago.
Jerome Valeska An anarchist, terrorist, and criminal gang lord, created by producer and screenwriter Bruno Heller for the television series Gotham, and played by actor Cameron Monaghan. The character acts as a tribute and forerunner to the Batman supervillain Joker, as well as exploring the mythology of the character.
Yorgi An anarchist, terrorist, and criminal gang lord, in the film xXx (2002). Yogi (Marton Csokas) was an officer in the Russian army during the Second Chechen War, until he and his subordinates grew disgusted by the corruption of the government and the deaths of their own comrades. They mutinied, and reorganized as a criminal organization, Anarchy 99, named for the year their rebellion. In an effort to eliminate government on a global scale, he builds an automated submarine, Ahab, that will anonymously launch deadly gas at several cities worldwide, in the hope that the resulting social turmoil will initiate a breakdown in global order, leaving only a condition of "anarchy". He is killed by Xander Cage, who then successfully neutralizes the poison aboard the Ahab.
Pa'u Zotoh Zhaan A Delvian priestess and political prisoner in the Sci-Fi Channel original series, Farscape (1999). She is of an empathic and telepathic alien species, and has skills in drug and explosive manufacture.
She dies early in season three of the series, sacrificing herself to save the lives of her shipmates. In reality, actress Virginia Hey was unable to continue playing the character, as the makeup effects were harming her kidneys.
Zaheer Antagonist of the third season of Nickelodeon TV series The Legend of Korra. Zaheer is a self-described Anarchist and leader of the terrorist organization Order of the Red Lotus. Zaheer's goal throughout the series is to create a worldwide society based on the principles of freedom and chaos by overthrowing all world governments and killing the Avatar. Though born a non-bender, Zaheer gains the ability of airbending after Harmonic Convergence, which he becomes greatly adept gaining the ability of flight, a technique that no other airbender in the show has been shown to have.
Swift Wind A recurring character in the Netflix animated series She-Ra and the Princesses of Power (2018). Swift Wind, a Pegasus, gained the ability to speak and think alongside various magical abilities following his transformation from a horse. Soon afterwards, he decided to dedicate himself to the cause of freeing horses from stables across Etheria. While never overtly referred to as an anarchist, Swift Wind does express a desire to "dismantle unjust hierarchies", and subscribes to a belief which he summarizes under the slogan "freedom, equality, and hay for all".
Theatre
Tom Collins A philosophy professor with AIDS, Tom Collins is a major character in the American Tony Award- and Pulitzer Prize-winning rock musical, Rent (1996), by Jonathan Larson. He is the friend and former roommate of several characters, including Roger, Mark, Benny, and Maureen, and is Angel's lover. During musical numbers, the performer playing Tom sings bass. The character is inspired by "Colline", a character in La bohème, by Giacomo Puccini.
Opera
Mario Cavaradossi Tosca's husband. Cavaradossi was a fugitive and he died by Scarpia's order, who was the chief of police.
See also
Anarchism and the arts
Libertarian science fiction
Footnotes and citations
Fictional
Anarchists, fictional |
4507943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans | 1982 24 Hours of Le Mans | The 1982 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 50th Grand Prix of Endurance, which took place on 19 and 20 June 1982. It was also the fourth round of the 1982 World Endurance Championship. As well as a significant anniversary, this was a watershed year for Le Mans, with the highly anticipated advent of the FIA's Group C regulations, the essence of which was to allow an open engine formula but a minimum weight for safety and a proscribed fuel allocation.
Despite Rondeau leading the championship, the Porsche works team arrived as clear favourites with their new 956. Their top driver pairing were the 1981 winners Jacky Ickx and Derek Bell. The better fuel economy of the Cosworth-engined Rondeau and Ford gave them the lead in the early hours, but then serious vibration issues in that engine started afflicting most of the teams and by early evening, the Porsches were running 1–2, that they maintained throughout the night as the competition fell away.
By dawn, the Porsche special of Joest Racing was established in third, which they held until ninety minutes from the end when the engine packed up, stranding Bob Wollek out on the track. Ickx and Bell had moved into the lead soon after midnight and kept it for the rest of the race, winning by three laps over their team-mates Jochen Mass and Vern Schuppan. In a race of unusual attrition, only eighteen cars were classified from the original 55 starters
The win gave Ickx an unprecedented sixth outright victory, and Porsche had its most dominant race yet, sweeping the top five places, including a 1-2-3 for the works team.
Regulations
This year saw the advent of the new Group C regulations – a formula essentially of open engine capacity but instead on weight and fuel consumption restrictions. The concept had been trialled by the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) in the 1975 race, based on ideas proposed by Belgian racing journalist, engineer and 1960 Le Mans winner Paul Frère. At the time it was derided by the press as the “fuel-economy race”. But it would go some way to negate the predominance of the turbo engines, despite the x1.4 modifier to capacity. The two-seater cars would have a maximum amount of fuel available in a race so there had to be a trade-off between more power from bigger engines, the heavy fuel consumption of high-boost turbo engines and the fuel-efficiency of smaller, lighter cars. A minimum weight of 800 kg was put in to maintain structural safety and there were defined dimensions of 100 cm minimum height, maximum 200 cm width and 480 cm length. These dimensions mirrored those of the ACO's GTP regulations.
There was also a compulsory 100x80 cm flat floor area required between the axles to try to limit the undertray "ground-effects" performance enhancements. Fuel tanks were a maximum of 100 litres capacity and no more than 25 fuel stops were allowed in the race for each car – a maximum of 2600 litres from the start. The windscreen regulations were such that the drag effect would almost guarantee that any car would need to have a closed-bodyshell and not open-top.
Unlike other races in the championship run to a set distance, where teams could calculate their required fuel economy, the open-ended nature of Le Mans would require prudent fuel management. Going on the previous year's winning run by Jacky Ickx and Derek Bell of 4825 km (just under 3000 miles) using this year's maximum 2600 litres of fuel would require a fuel economy of 54 litres per 100 km. This was at odds with the IMSA regulations, that instead used a sliding weight-scale to balance engine capacity. This then precluded the Daytona and Sebring endurance rounds from the World Championship.
With Group C taking over, it made the Group 6 and Le Mans GTP classes redundant. Group B would supersede the Group 4 and Group 5 GT classes.
Entries
Whereas other races in the World Championship needed their fields bolstered by Group 6 cars “grandfathered” into the entry list, the Le Mans list had very strong support for the new Group C with 33 entries, coming from a wide variety of manufacturers and racing specialists. There were factory teams from Porsche, Ford, Lancia and Mazda; with racecar builders Lola, March and Rondeau bringing works cars. Finally a raft of small privateer specialists brought their own Group C designs. These amounted to 30 "works" entries, the most seen at Le Mans for many years.
However, as an interim year, to complete the field the ACO accepted entries from IMSA in the GTX and GTO categories, and had limited spaces for the former FIA classes.
Note: The first number is the number of arrivals, the second the number who started.
Group C
After the triumphant debut last year of its 2649cc turbo engine, Porsche immediately started on the development of its new Group C car: the Porsche 956 under its technical director Norbert Singer. The flat-six, four-valve engine had a combined air-cooled block, and water-cooled heads. For qualifying, at 1.2-bar boost, it would generate 615 bhp, wound down to 1.1-bar (580 bhp) for race-pace and fuel economy. The aluminium hull was Porsche's first monocoque chassis, and with assistance from Dornier, had its aerodynamics tested in a wind-tunnel. This led to the engine being tilted at an angle. Also the company's first ground-effect car, the langheck version generated over three times as much downforce as the Porsche 917 model from a decade earlier. A completely new 5-speed gearbox was installed, replacing the CanAm 4-speed 'box used the year before. The project took only 9 months and in March, test driver Jürgen Barth was doing track runs and its first outing was at the Silverstone round. The team was nervous on fuel consumption if the competition chose to push them to race to keep up. The team had a computer in the pits and digital flow meters in the cars to give them an edge in calculating the fuel consumption.
Three cars were ready just in time, run by new team manager Peter Falk. Jacky Ickx was back out of retirement and a full-time works driver again with Derek Bell as his co-driver. The second car had Jochen Mass and Vern Schuppan while the one-off third car had Barth, Hurley Haywood and Al Holbert.
Ford was the other bulk manufacturer to take on Porsche. The new C100 model (named as it would be 100 cm high) was based on an aluminium monocoque design from Len Bailey. The first chassis was built by Hesketh Engineering while Alain de Cadenet got two more made, debuting at Brands Hatch in 1981. The project was then transferred to Ford Deutschland, working with the German Zakspeed racing team. Ford had engaged with Cosworth, to develop the famous DFV 3-litre Formula 1 engine for the car. Two versions of the new DFL V8 came out: a 3.3-litre and a 540 bhp 3.96-litre model. It was the latter that was put into the C100. Two cars were entered with Manfred Winkelhock and Klaus Niedzwiedz in one of the De Cadenet chassis, while a new Zakspeed chassis (with design updates by Tony Southgate dropping 40 kg) was assigned to Marc Surer and Klaus Ludwig.
The fortunes of Le Mans local Jean Rondeau had taken a big upward turn, selling several vehicles to customers. This enabled development of a Group C ground-effect car, the M482, and embarking on a full WEC season. Until ready, the team adapted the existing design to Group C spec, as the M382. They had the best possible start, winning the opening round at Monza with an updated M379C car, and came into the race as the leader in the championship. For Le Mans, three of the M382s were prepared, fitted with the bigger Cosworth DFL: the race-winning chassis would be driven by François Migault, Gordon Spice and Xavier Lapeyre. The premier car had Henri Pescarolo and Jean-Pierre Jaussaud (with five wins between them) while the third car had Rondeau himself with rally-specialist Jean Ragnotti. There were also three customer Rondeaux; Christian Bussi had an M382 with a 3.3-litre DFL, while those of Pierre Yver and former team-driver Jacky Haran were older M379Cs with 3-litre DFV engines.
The small WM team also looked at running a WEC campaign, under the Secateva racing team set up by WM driver Roger Dorchy. Peugeot further developed the PRV engine, now up to 2850cc and putting out 540 bhp. But the fuel consumption of the twin-turbo engine had proven problematic in the early races. The new P82 had the drivetrain lowered to improve the centre of gravity and handling and could get up to 350 kp/h (220 mph) . Unlike all the other Group C cars the WMs were significantly smaller than the maximum dimensions and so had a far smaller frontal area that gave them their higher speed. Two cars were entered, with Dorchy and Guy Fréquelin in one and Jean-Daniel Raulet and Didier Theys in the other.
Much like at WM, some of the R&D team at Mercedes-Benz got involved in Group C racing as a sideline. Swiss engineer Peter Sauber was working with composite-technology company Seger & Hoffmann, stepping up from their BMW M1 collaboration to Group C. They contacted the Mercedes technicians to develop their chassis design and aerodynamics. The resultant SHS C6 was fitted with a 3.96-litre Cosworth tuned by Heini Mader who got it to 540 bhp. Two were built, and sold to Gerhard Schneider (who had bought a Sauber-tuned M1) and Swiss slot-machine magnate Walter Brun. Both cars would be managed for the race by Schneider's GS Sport racing team. Brun drove his car with Siegfried Muller Jr, while the other had team-regular Hans-Joachim Stuck joined by Jean-Louis Schlesser and Dieter Quester.
With the Porsche 956 not available for customer sale until the next year, both Joest and Kremer were given copies of the Porsche 936 factory plans to build their own replica versions. Reinhold Joest fitted the new 936CJ with a 2.5-litre turbo engine, and ran it alongside the older 936/77, to give Bob Wollek the DRM championship. Purchased by the Belgian Martin brothers, they ran it in the WEC with Wollek, with their red and white Belga tobacco sponsorship. After they got a third at Silverstone, Philippe Martin crashed the car heavily at Nürburgring. The rebuild gave the engineers the chance to fit a long tail and low-drag nose for the circuit.
The Kremer brothers' Porsche replica, the C-K5, had a 936 frame fitted with their own Kevlar-blended sharkfin chassis and had the transaxle and rear suspension from their previous year's unsuccessful 917 project. It was fitted with their 2.3-litre twin-turbo flat-six engine and was capable of reaching 330 kp/h (205 mph). But finished at the last minute there had been no time for track-testing. They continued the productive relationship with Ted Field's Interscope Racing, and his regular driver Danny Ongais, along with the Kremer's 1979 Le Mans winner, Bill Whittington.
Lola Cars, after initial trials with the T600, set about building its successor for Group C, the T610. It had a purpose-built honeycomb monocoque for the Cosworth DFL engine and a chassis made of carbon-fibre and Kevlar. Aerodynamics were fine tuned in the Williams F1 wind tunnel at Didcot. This gave it a top speed around 345 kp/h (215 mph). The works car was driven by Guy Edwards, Rupert Keegan and Nick Faure, while the American Kent-Cooke car had Brian Redman and Jim Adams with him.
The Grand Touring Cars team had last brought their Mirage cars to Le Mans in 1979. They brought a new model, the M12. Designed and built by John Horsman, who had worked with John Wyer on the original models, and Howden Ganley at Tiga Race Cars. Two chassis were built, tested at the Lockheed wind tunnel in Atlanta and road-tested at Riverside. Equipped with the 3.9-litre Cosworth, they could reach 340 kp/h (210 mph). Time ran out to get both cars ready, so only one was shipped to France to be run by Mario Andretti (who had last raced there in 1967) and his 19-year-old son Michael.
March Engineering was already making an impact in the American single-seater CART series. It entered Group C picking up the BMW M1C design targeted for the IMSA competition. That car was substantially reworked by Adrian Newey to be able to accommodate any engine into its monocoque chasses. The first choice was a Chevrolet 'small-block' 5.8-litre V8, which put out 550 bhp. The first chassis was bought by Bob Garretson as GTP-spec, and had performed well in America. Bobby Rahal and Jim Trueman had finished second at Sebring and were joined by Skeeter McKitterick. Two more chassis were sold to American teams while the fourth chassis was entered by the works team for Le Mans, to be driver by Eje Elgh, Patrick Nève and Jeff Wood.
The new Group C model by Dome was the RL82. Built by March, it had the 3.3-litre DFL engine and new brakes, but no longer had the distinct wedge-shape of the previous models. This year, regular team driver Chris Craft had former March F1 driver Eliseo Salazar.
Nimrod Racing Automobiles had been formed in 1981 by Englishman Robin Hamilton and Aston Martin chairman Victor Gauntlett to build a Group C competitor based on an Aston Martin engine. Hamilton had previously run his own modified Aston Martin V8 Vantage at Le Mans, with poor results. They took the T385 design from Eric Broadley at Lola, and built it on an aluminium hull. It was fitted with a fuel-injected Aston Martin 5.3-litre V8. Tuned by Aston's in-house team, Tickford Engineering, it put out 570 bhp and could get up to 320 kp/h (200 mph). But at 1050 kg, it was easily the heaviest of the Group C cars. Two chassis were built and one sold to Viscount Downe (an Aston Martin shareholder). The works car had Geoff Lees, Tiff Needell and Bob Evans, while the Viscount's car had Ray Mallock, Mike Salmon and Simon Phillips. The 'privateer' car was sponsored by Aston Martin saviour Victor Gauntlett's company Pace Petroleum.
Inspired by the achievements of Jean Rondeau, fellow Le Mans resident Yves Courage decided to build his own Group C car. The Cougar C01 had an aluminium monocoque from the same company supplying Rondeau. The chassis was designed by former Ligier and Renault engineer Jean-Yves Charles, and it was fitted with a 3.3-litre Cosworth DFL tuned by Swiss engine-specialist Heini Mader. The previous year he had raced with Jean-Philippe Grand, an agent for Primagaz and they teamed up again with Primagaz sponsorship along with Michel Dubois as the third driver.
The GRID team (Giuseppe Risi and Ian Dawson) had latterly run the Lola works program. This year they developed their own Group C car with a design by Geoff Aldridge, who had worked on the revolutionary ground-effects Lotus 79 with Colin Chapman. The S1 had a Kevlar and carbonfibre with a 3.3-litre Cosworth DFL. Emilio de Villota ran WEC races with David Hobbs. To run with de Villota at Le Mans, Dawson brought on board Alain de Cadenet and Desiré Wilson. De Cadenet had given up on his own racing projects and had a 3.9-litre DFL for his prospective C100 that he offered. But even with that the car could only just reach 290 kp/h (185 mph).
François Duret had bought an old De Cadenet-Lola, and, with Ian Harrower's ADA Engineering, fashioned a new Group C-compliant bodyshell. But kitted out with an underpowered 3-litre Cosworth DFV, it could only reach 320 kp/h (180 mph).
German Ernst Ungar had been building sportscars since 1973, and this year Ungar Racing Development built two cars for Jürgen Kannacher to run in the Interserie and DRM. The C81 was built around the BMW M1's 3.5-litre engine. Prepared by the Schnitzer Motorsport team, it put out 480 bhp that could get the car up to 305 kp/h (190 mph). His experience with building hill-climb specials meant it was quite light.
Group 6 (2-litre)
Although the large Group 6 cars had been superseded by Group C, the FIA allowed the 2-litre cars entry to help keep the fields up (and did not prevent new models from entering). They would not count points towards the Manufacturer's Championship, but could to the Driver's title. Ever the opportunists, Lancia produced a new, open-top car for the Group 6 class. The Lancia LC1 had a chassis built by Dallara, with skirts and ground effects (both banned in Group C). It was fitted with the same 1425cc turbo-engine that was in their Group 5 Beta Montecarlo, which was now tuned to put out 440 bhp. Without the weight limitations or fuel restrictions of Group C it could still reach 300 kp/h (185 mph) and was a genuine contender, having won two of the three rounds outright. However, many in autosport saw it as a cynical exploitation of the rules. The Martini team brought back their regular Formula One drivers for the race: Michele Alboreto and Teo Fabi with Rolf Stommelen and Riccardo Patrese and Piercarlo Ghinzani with Hans Heyer.
Through the late 1970s the 2-litre class had been predominantly made up of fields of Lolas and Chevrons. After the death of Chevron's founder, Derek Bennett in 1978, the company had struggled. A consortium of enthusiasts and drivers, including Martin Birrane, were trying to restore the brand. Birrane entered a B36, equipped with a Cosworth BDX engine, as a works entry. His co-drivers were John Sheldon and Neil Crang. The six-year-old design would always struggle against the brand-new Lancias.
Group 5
With Group 5 being phased out, the over and under 2-litre divisions were merged into a reduced class this year. It was dominated by four Porsche 935s. Dieter Schornstein's Vegla team again worked with Reinhold Joest to run their 935J, while Kremer-kit cars were entered by German Edgar Dören and last year's class winner, Charles Ivey Engineering. The fourth car was Claude Haldi's four-year old 934/5.
Against the Porsches there was limited opposition. The only BMW this year came from Hugues de Chaunac's French ORECA team. The Scuderia Sivama di Galliate had bought a pair of Lancia Montecarlos from the factory, to by run in the WEC by the Scuderia Vesuvio team of Daniele Audetto. For Le Mans, they worked with the race-entries of two French privateer regulars, Thierry Perrier and Jean-Marie Lemerle who would share the driving with the Scuderia drivers.
IMSA GTX
There was a strong field in the GTX class, with Porsches, Ferraris, Mazdas and BMW all entered.
This year the Joest workshop had produced two replicas of the Porsche 935/78 (colloquially known as "Moby Dick"), using plans supplied by the works factory. One of the distinctive long-tail models was sold to Gianpiero Moretti's Momo Racing, while the other went to John Fitzpatrick with its race-debut at Le Mans, with co-driver David Hobbs. Team manager Tim Schenken had a Joest 2.6-litre engine to fit for race. Two Kremer 935/K3s were entered by the American teams of Bob Garretson and Ralph Kent-Cooke. Both had 3.2-litre engines for qualifying, before being changed over to the fuel-efficient 2.8-litre version for the race.
Bob Akin's team had developed their own variation on the Porsche 935, which debuted at Le Mans. Unusually, it had a bonded and riveted alloy monocoque. The silhouette bodyshell took the shovel nose from a Lola T600. Unfortunately the build was finished late and it had to be shipped to France direct without any shake-down testing. A 3.2-litre engine would be used for qualifying, with an alternative 2.8-litre, trimmed down to 2670cc and 630 bhp. But it was also the heaviest car in the race, at a hefty 1150 kg
Four Ferraris were lined up against the Porsches. Two were run by the North American Racing Team, with Alain Cudini and Preston Henn as lead drivers, along with Ron Spangler's Prancing Horse Farm team with Pierre Dieudonné, while the fourth was French Ferrari-agent Charles Pozzi, who had his regular team drivers Claude Ballot-Léna and Jean-Claude Andruet.
Mazdaspeed was still preparing its Group C project, so in the interim worked with the Mooncraft company to develop the RX-7. The uprated RX-7 254i was more aerodynamic and its twin-rotaries could put out 320 bhp to reach 275 kp/h (170 mph) Cars were prepared for European racing by Tom Walkinshaw Racing. Walkinshaw led one car while works driver Yojiro Terada led the other.
This year, Steve O'Rourke's EMKA team switched the BMW from Group 5 to the GTX class. O'Rourke was also manager of Pink Floyd and the band's drummer Nick Mason joined him as a co-driver.
IMSA GTO, Group 4 and Group B
The Brumos Racing team of Peter Gregg had been dominant in American sports-car racing through the 1970s. After the death of Gregg in 1980, his wife Deborah took over running the team. She arranged a deal with tyre-manufacturer BFGoodrich to enter a pair of the homologated Porsche 924s with the new 2008cc turbo engine. Although using Dunlops to qualify, the intention was to race the high-performance road tyre. One car had Americans Jim Busby and "Doc" Bundy, while the other had Manfred Schurti, Patrick Bedard and Paul Miller. A third Porsche, with the older 1984cc engine, was entered by Richard Lloyd and had achieved a very good 5th place overall at the Nürburgring round. For Le Mans his co-driver would be Andy Rouse.
Despite a disappointing run the previous year, Billy Hagan's Stratagraph team returned with two big Chevrolet Camaros. Both cars were given smaller engines and front and rear disc brakes. Last year's car (with a 5.7L V8) was an aerodynamic nose and high rear aerofoil. It was raced by NASCAR veterans Dick Brooks and Hershel McGriff. Hagan's car had the 5.4L V8 detuned to 570 bhp and had regular racing bodywork.
There was only a single entrant in both the Group B and Group 4 classes, and both were Porsche 911 variants. French privateer Alain Gadal had a 3.3-litre turbo Porsche 930 while Richard Cleare had a 3-litre Porsche 934 turbo in the GT class.
The maximum speeds recorded on the Hunaudières speedtrap
Practice and Qualifying
Overall, the weather was good for the two four-hour qualifying sessions, aside from losing the last half-hour because of a short, sharp thunderstorm. A new feature this year, was an additional 45-minute warm-up on the Saturday morning, as a last chance to shake down any engine changes or adjustments after the practice sessions.
Once again, Jacky Ickx stamped his authority over the rest of the field with the fastest qualifying lap early in the first of the two practice sessions, and posting the highest speed down the Hunaudières straight. The 355 kp/h (221 mph) was a bit slower than his car the previous year, but the better handling gave a faster overall lap-time (3:28.4). Teammate Jochen Mass was almost a second behind, with Bob Wollek another second further back in third. The two Lancias were next – Patrese arrived with only an hour left in the second session after a delayed flight from Venice, but only needed two laps in the car to qualify within the 125% rule before the rain stopped the session.
Klaus Ludwig was the fastest Ford driver putting his car sixth on the grid (3:32.5), followed by Stuck's Sauber, the Kremer-Porsche and the Andretti Mirage in ninth. Although very fast in a straight line, the Lola could only manage tenth place (3:38.0) and almost ten seconds behind Ickx. The Rondeau team had a dismal practice with fuel pick-up and electrical issues, with Migault getting their best time of 3:40.7 to qualify fifteenth. Although the works Nimrod was 25 kp/h faster than its stablemate, its poorer balance meant it handled badly and was actually two seconds slower overall (3:48.2 for 25th). The Dome was very quick, but the new brake system did not work well and had to be replaced. They had only qualified 19th, and then Salazar had a big moment on the Saturday morning when a rear tyre blew at full speed on the Mulsanne. A temporary repair got it onto the grid in time.
A similar issue had struck the favoured Vegla 935 earlier with a more serious result. The tyre blew just after the Mulsanne kink as Harald Grohs was travelling at 300 kp/h. He skated off the road, hitting the barriers on both sides then going into a wild series of rolls. The wrecked car then caught fire, but amazingly, Grohs was shaken but uninjured, and aided in a quick escape as the door had been torn off in the mayhem. Another unlucky entrant was Richard Lloyd whose Porsche 924 failed to qualify for the second year in succession, this time foiled by broken pistons on two engines, the second supplied directly from the Porsche factory.
This year the IMSA cars were off the pace of the new Group C. The fastest Porsche 935 was Edgar Dören's Group 5 Kremer car in 18th (3:44.1). John Fitzpatrick's Joest special was a disappointing 26th (3:48.5) while the quickest Ferrari was the NART car with 3:54.1 (36th), outpaced by Bill Hagan's thundering Camaro in 32nd (3:52.6).
After the end of qualification, a number of the top teams swapped out their engines for lower-tuned and smaller-capacity engines in the aim of improving their fuel economy for the race. On raceday morning, the Porsche team found another problem with the Ickx and Bell engine, and they took the precaution of changing the engine again – Bell considered they now had the team's 7th-string engine. The Pescarolo/Jaussaud team left it very late: after the Saturday morning warm-up, a fuel system problem forced them to do a five-hour full engine change in a fraction of that time, finishing just ten minutes before the deadline.
Race
Start
Race-day was sunny and warm, drawing a huge crowd of 250,000. This year, the honorary starter was Luigi Chinetti, three-time Le Mans winner and founder of the North American Racing Team. The fiftieth anniversary celebrations included a grand parade of classic Le Mans cars, including the Chenard-Walcker, inaugural winner in 1923, a Bentley Speed Six, Jaguars and Ferraris. There was drama before the cars started with the Andretti Mirage being disqualified on a technicality. A random check by an official had found the gearbox oil cooler mounted 10 cm behind the gearbox (nominally an unsafe position), something that had been missed in the initial scrutineering. Mario was furious, after a start-line debacle that finished his Indianapolis 500 before it began in May. Although the mechanics could make the necessary modifications, the decision was final and Richard Lloyd, as first reserve, was given fifteen minutes' notice to get his car on the grid.
Ickx and Mass took to the front from the start with a hot pace, chased hard by the Rondeaux of Migault and Jaussaud, Stuck's Sauber and Ludwig in the Ford. Both works Lancias were immediately in trouble with faulty fuel pumps and in the first two laps both cars stopped on-track for running repairs, taking an hour each to get back to the pits. They rejoined the race at the tail of the field, many laps down. The Dome and Brun's Sauber also pitted early, while Revson's Lola could not get started and was left on the grid. Pescarolo came in on lap 7 to spend 40 minutes tracking down an electrical issue in his Rondeau. The first retirement, within the first half-hour, was the Grid-Plaza with piston failure. After running well within the top-20, the Cougar broke its suspension (as had happened at the Nürburgring) and lost an hour in the pits. It had yet another suspension failure early on Sunday morning that led to its retirement.
Mass led initially, pursued by the WM of Pignard. Ickx had dropped back to let the sprinters get away, until gradually picking them off and taking the lead on lap nine. The thirstier Nimrods and Porsches had to pit first, after only 47 minutes, so it was Migault credited with the lead at the first hour, ahead of Niedzwiedz, Rondeau and Stuck. Keegan, in the Ultramar Lola, was running a strong sixth, splitting the three Porsches, until he had to stop to have a loose door secured. Pignard had handed over to Raulet in the 9th-placed WM, but the sister car would lose over half an hour in the pits after Dorchy tangled with Bussi's spinning Rondeau while trying to lap him. Jean Rondeau put in the fastest lap of the race in the early evening as he kept up with the Porsches, trying to push their turbo-engine fuel consumption.
The fuel limitations caused early issues as teams miscalculated their consumption. First victim was Bob Akin's high-powered Porsche 935. Then Ralph Kent-Cooke ran the Lola dry from over-consumption caused by a storming run through the field after their bad start.
At 7.35pm, British hopes took a dive when a slow puncture blew a tyre on Tiff Needell's works Nimrod while he was running ninth and travelling at top speed on the back straight. Fishtailing down the road, he eventually spun and crashed at 320 kp/h (200 mph) backwards into the barriers at Mulsanne corner. Fortunately Needell was not injured. A course car was sent out to the accident. Unfortunately, the pit officials thought it was a pace-car and held up cars, causing Muller (Sauber), Stommelen (Lancia), Hobbs (935) and the Cougar to lose two laps as they waited and waited to be released from the pits.
At the four-hour mark, Winkelhock led in the Ford with the Holbert/Haywood/Barth Porsche second (61). A lap back were Bell (Porsche), Spice (Rondeau), Surer in the other Ford, Raulet's WM, Schlesser (Sauber) and the Joest Porsche. The third works Porsche was a further lap behind after having to stop to fix a misfire. Soon after 8pm the Ford pitted for refuelling, handing the lead over to the Porsches with the Rondeau in hot pursuit, and so it stayed going into the night.
Night
The severe vibrations inherent in the long-stroke Cosworth DFL engine started causing a myriad of problems: Schlesser's clutch needed repair only for the Sauber to then refuse to restart. They would be joined by their teammate before midnight after breaking their third starter motor. The Ultramar Lola dropped back with its starter motor shaken up, and finally retired after 9pm with head gasket failure. The two Fords also broke: Winkelhock lost his clutch, then the engine, and within ten minutes Surer also stopped on the track with his electrics in pieces. Aside from the third-placed Rondeau of Migault/Spice/Lapeyre, the two other team cars had a miserable time with a number of stops to fix fuel and electrical problems and leaving them well back in the field. The best WM had been holding down sixth after its initial surge had to pit at 10.30pm to replace its alternator. The stop cost 20 minutes, dropping them to twelfth and they never recovered – with its gearbox breaking soon after 1am.
Soon after midnight, having led for four hours, the Holbert/Haywood/Barth Porsche suddenly came into the pits, after a loosely closed door had blown off. The repair took twenty minutes, dropping them to fifth. Then in the early morning a rear wheel-bearing broke and they finally got back in the race 20 laps down. By half distance at least 20 cars had retired and a number more were 'walking wounded'. All three works Rondeaux were out. Lapeyre had parked the third-placed car at Arnage with a distributor shaken apart by the DFL. The WMs were also gone, Pignard/Raulet/Theys had a broken gearbox after a faulty alternator, while Dorchy/Fréquelin/Couderc had another crash which resulted in a fire wrecking the car.
At the halfway mark, Ickx/Bell (180) were a lap ahead of the Mass/Schuppan car with the Joest car three laps further back (176). The privateer Nimrod was running steadily in fourth (171) and the recovering works Porsche (169) just ahead of the Fitzpatrick 935 leading the GTX class. They were pursued by the NART Ferrari (168), the British 935 leading Group 5 (167) and the Cooke Racing 935K3 in ninth (164). The GTs were led by the Mazdas, with Walkinshaw in 12th (jumping five places in the 12th hour), and Terada in 16th, with Richard Cleare's 934 in 17th. Of the 55 starters only 31 were left running.
Morning
As dawn broke the two Porsches were well established at the front, cruising up to 30 seconds off their pace in practice. Wollek stayed in contact in third, while the Ferrari had moved up to fourth. The Nimrod had lost time when the cold dawn air had cracked a front brake under heavy deceleration for the Mulsanne corner. Fitzpatrick's 935 had just taken over fourth at 6.15am, when it spluttered into the pits with a blown head gasket. Instead of repairing the engine, the crew disconnected the offending cylinder and sent them back out on five, running at least 15 seconds a lap off pace.
Meanwhile, the other leading GTs were having problems. Steve O'Rourke's GTX BMW, (that had been running very well in 12th all through the night) was having more and more severe clutch issues; the 934 lost time when two driveshafts broke within two laps of each other; the leading Mazda's run ended when Peter Lovett stopped on the back straight with a blown engine. Then bigger drama at 10.40am when the leading Porsche suffered a puncture, and had to crawl 6 kilometres slowly back to the pits to save the suspension. A five-lap lead shrunk to three before they were back up to speed. The third Porsche had come back up the field, getting back up to fourth, still nine laps behind the ailing 935. A number of cars were starting to show signs of wear: the Nimrod was smoking, dropping to eighth; either side of midday, the Charles Ivey 935 that had been running 6th lost 18 laps in three pits-tops to repair the turbo. Thierry Perrier's BMW had got as high as 14th in the early morning but was disqualified for doing a full gearbox replacement, a fundamental component, not allowed to be changed in-race.
Finish and post-race
At midday, with four hours to go, Ickx/Bell (299) still had a 3-lap lead over Schuppan/Mass. Wollek and the Martin brothers were on their own in third (288) but with a worsening misfire. The third works Porsche was pushing, but well back (280). Unfortunately for the Joest team, the engine would not last, and the car stopped at Tertre Rouge with just 90 minutes to go. Another late retirement was the EMKA BMW. Having finally done the clutch replacement, that cost an hour, the car stopped at Mulsanne corner after an oil leak drained the motor with less than two hours to go.
This left the works Porsches running 1-2-3, coincidentally in that numerical order, and that is how they finished without further incident.
The Porsche marque took the top-five places for its best-ever finish, with the Fitzpatrick 935 making it home, in fourth, on five cylinders, thirty laps behind the winner, but still four laps ahead of the Cooke Racing 935 (also on five cylinders). Sixth was the Ferrari of the Prancing Horse Farm team, which had kept out of trouble and picked up three places in the last two hours. Despite scaring the Nimrod team when it stopped at the Porsche Curves at 1.30pm, Ray Mallock got enough fuel pressure in the engine to get moving again, and made it back to the pits to be repaired. Running on seven cylinders, the Aston Martin got home in seventh. The Ivey 935 was next, winning the Group 5 class by over 20 laps from the privateer Lancia. The NART Ferrari that had been running fourth, had lost its gearbox around 2pm. Cudini had stopped at the Ford Chicane but managed to get back to the pit where they waited for the final laps, eventually coasting out to finish ninth.
There were only two of the sixteen Cosworth-engines running at the finish: the two privateer Rondeaux, with Pierre Yver's DFV coming home tenth and Christian Bussi's DFL finished fifteenth, having lost two hours during the night replacing its clutch. The Busby/Bundy 924 Carrera won the GTO class, having run on just a single set of BF Goodrich road tyres throughout the race, making it the first Le Mans class-win for a car on road-tyres since the advent of specialised racing tyres. Both Camaros finished, although the McGriff/Brooks car was not classified after losing four hours in the pits for a gearbox rebuild and completing just the one lap in the final hour (finishing with a race-average speed of barely 50 mph).
After earlier concerns about their fuel consumption, it was interesting that the winning Porsche also claimed the Energy Efficiency prize. They achieved 47.8 litres per 100 km, against a target of 35.1. Derek Bell estimated they only had about 20 minutes worth of fuel left at the end, which could have been problematic if they had been pushed all the way by the other teams. As a postscript, John Fitzpatrick's class win in IMSA-GTX would also prove to be the last European victory for the mighty 935. It was also the car in which Rolf Stommelen was killed the following April at Riverside.
The win gave Ickx an unprecedented sixth outright victory, and with Porsche achieving its most dominant race yet, winning every class. It included the 1-2-3 for the works team, being the only team to have all their cars finish, and set a very high bar for other manufacturers to beat them in the new Group C regime.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
Note *: Not Classified because did not cover sufficient distance (70% of the winner) by the race's end.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Energy Efficiency
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Pole Position –J. Ickx, #1 Porsche 936/81– 3:28.4secs;
Fastest Lap –J. Ragnotti, #12 Rondeau M379C – 3:36.9secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – almost 250 000
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Porsche Years 1975-1982' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Armstrong, Doug – editor (1982) Automobile Year #30 1982/83 Edita SA
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Spurring, Quentin (2012) Le Mans 1980-89 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wimpffen, János (2008) Monocoques and Ground Effects Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1982 with entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 12 Jan 2022
Le Mans History – Le Mans entry-list and hour-by-hour placings (incl. pictures, quotes, highest speeds per car, YouTube links). Retrieved 12 Jan 2022
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 12 Jan 2022
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 12 Jan 2022
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 12 Jan 2022
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 12 Jan 2022
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4508114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porfiriato | Porfiriato | The Porfiriato () is a term given to the period when General Porfirio Díaz ruled Mexico as president in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, coined by Mexican historian Daniel Cosío Villegas. Seizing power in a coup in 1876, Díaz pursued a policy of "order and progress," inviting foreign investment in Mexico and maintaining social and political order, by force if necessary. There were significant economic, technological, social, and cultural changes during this period. As Díaz approached his 80th birthday in 1910, having been continuously elected since 1884, he still had not put in place a plan for his succession. The fraudulent 1910 elections are usually seen as the end of the Porfiriato. Violence broke out, Díaz was forced to resign and go into exile, and Mexico experienced a decade of regional civil war, the Mexican Revolution.
Porfiriato as a historical period
Historians have investigated the era of Díaz's presidency as a cohesive historical period based on political transitions. In particular, this means separating the period of "order and progress" after 1884 from the tumultuous decade of the Mexican Revolution (1910–20) and post-Revolution developments, but increasingly the Porfiriato is seen as laying the basis for post-revolutionary Mexico. Under Díaz, Mexico was able to centralize authority, manage political infighting, tamp down banditry, and shift tendencies of economic nationalism to embrace foreign investment. That major economic shift allowed rapid economic and technological change, an openness to cultural innovation, increasing urbanization, and shifts in societal attitudes of elites. The benefits of economic growth were unevenly distributed and social ills increased, including debt peonage of the peasantry and child labor in new industrial enterprises. The defeat of Mexican conservatives in the War of the Reform and the French intervention in Mexico cleared a path for liberals to implement their vision of Mexico.
Díaz, after whom the period is named, was a liberal Mexican army general who had distinguished himself during the War of Reform and the French intervention. He had aspirations to be president of Mexico, which came to fruition when he rebelled against Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada under the Plan of Tuxtepec. He initially ruled from 1876 until 1880. Díaz's first term is sometimes treated separately, as he consolidated power and sought the U.S. government's recognition of his regime. The Plan of Tuxtepec explicitly called for no reelection of the president, so at the end of Díaz's term, a political ally from the Federal Army, General Manuel González, became president for one term. In 1884, Díaz abandoned the principle of no reelection and returned to the presidency, not relinquishing it until 1911. Francisco I. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910, campaigning under the slogan "Effective suffrage, no reelection."
Political order
Starting with Díaz's second term (1884–88), following the interregnum of President González, the regime has been characterized as a dictatorship, with no opponents of Díaz elected to Congress and Díaz staying in office with undemocratic elections. Congress was Díaz's rubber stamp for legislation. Internal stability, sometimes called the Pax Porfiriana, was coupled with the increasing strength of the Mexican state, fueled by increased revenues from an expanding economy. Díaz replaced a number of independent regional leaders with men loyal to himself, and quelled discontent by coopting political "outs" by making them intermediaries with foreign investors, allowing their personal enrichment. To further consolidate state power, Díaz appointed jefes políticos ("political bosses") answerable to central government, who commanded local forces. The policies of conciliation, cooptation and repression allowed the regime to maintain order for decades. In central Mexico, indigenous communities that had exercised political and economic control over their lands and populations were undermined by the Díaz regime through expropriation of lands and weakening or absence of indigenous leadership. Expropriation of village lands occurred as landed estates (haciendas), often owned by foreign investors, expanded. Díaz used coercion to repress democratic power, using pan o palo or "bread or bludgeon" policy. This allowed him to appoint state governors who could do what they wanted to local populations, so long as they did not interfere with Díaz's operations. This process is known for the state of Morelos before the Mexican Revolution when Emiliano Zapata emerged as a leader in Anenecuilco to defend village lands and rights. Since the Díaz regime aimed to reconcile foreign investors and large estate owners, foreign and domestic, indigenous villages suffered politically and economically.
When Díaz came to power in 1876, the northern border of Mexico with the U.S. became a region of tension and conflict, which had to be resolved in order for Díaz's regime to be recognized as the sovereign government of Mexico. Indigenous groups and cattle thieves marauded in the border region. The Apache did not recognize the sovereignty of either the U.S. or Mexico over their territories, but used the international division to their advantage, raiding on one side of the border and seeking sanctuary on the other. Thieves stole cattle and likewise used the border to escape authorities. The U.S. used the border issue as a reason to withhold recognition of Díaz's regime and a low-level international conflict continued. The issue of recognition was finally resolved when Díaz's government granted generous concessions to prominent U.S. promoters of investment in Mexico, who pressured President Rutherford B. Hayes to grant recognition in 1878. It was clear to Díaz that order was to be maintained over all other considerations.
The turmoil of over a decade of war (1857–1867) and economic disruption gave rise to banditry. To combat this, during the administration of civilian president Benito Juárez, a small, efficient rural police force under his control, known as the Rurales, was a tool to impose order. When Díaz became president, he expanded the size and scope of the Rurales; they were under his command and control in a way the Mexican army was not. The slogan of the Porfiriato, "order and progress," affirmed that without political order, economic development and growth—progress—was impossible. Investors would be unwilling to risk their capital if political conditions were unstable.
The construction of railways gave the government more effective control of many regions of Mexico that had maintained a level of independence due to their distance from the capital. The construction of telegraph lines alongside railroad tracks further facilitated the government's control, so that orders from Mexico City were instantly transmitted to officials elsewhere. The government could respond quickly to regional revolts by loading armed Rurales and their horses on trains to quell disturbances. By the end of the 19th century, violence had almost completely disappeared.
Philosophy
Díaz himself was a pragmatic politician, but Mexican intellectuals sought to articulate a rationale for their form of liberalism. The advocates were called Científicos, "men of science." They found a basis for such a philosophy by crafting to Mexico French philosopher Auguste Comte's Positivism and Herbert Spencer's social Darwinism. Positivism sought to ground knowledge on observation and empirically-based knowledge rather than metaphysics or religious belief. In Mexico, liberal intellectuals believed that Mexico's stability under Díaz was due to his strong government. In Social Darwinism and Positivism intellectuals saw the justification of their rule due to their superiority over a largely rural, largely indigenous and mixed-race (mestizo) Mexican population. Liberals sought to develop Mexico economically and sought to implement progress by an ideology promoting attitudes that were "nationalist, pro-capitalist, and moral tenets of thrift, hard work, entrepreneurialism, proper hygiene, and temperance."
Economy
Mexico at the beginning of the Porfiriato was a predominantly rural nation, with large estate owners controlling agricultural production for the local and regional food market. The largest groups of Mexicans involved in agriculture were small-scale ranchers and subsistence agriculturalists along with landless peasants tilling lands they did not own. Patterns of land ownership were shifting in the nineteenth century. The Liberal Reform had sought to eliminate corporate ownership of land, targeting estates owned by the Roman Catholic Church and indigenous communities, forcing them to be broken up into parcels and sold. Despite liberals’ hopes, this did not result in the creation of a class of yeoman farmers, but it did undermine the integrity of indigenous communities and undermine the economic power of the Church. These landholdings were deemed "vacant," even if others were living on them. Their ownership would be invalidated in the government courts to make room for Díaz's allies. Rurales would be utilized to dispose of peasants, and the peasant effort to reclaim native land would be severely weakened given that they were often illiterate and could not hire lawyers.
Construction of railway lines was a major factor in transforming the Mexican economy. Mexico is not endowed with a navigable river system that would have allowed for cheap water transport, and roads were often impassable during the rainy season, so the construction of railway lines overcame a major obstacle for Mexican economic development. The first line to be built was from the Gulf port of Veracruz to Mexico City, begun during the French intervention, but the rapid expansion of lines in central Mexico and northward to the U.S. border lowered transportation costs for passengers and freight, opened new regions, such as the Comarca Lagunera in northern Mexico, to agricultural development. The capital for railways as well as tracks and rolling stock were foreign. Investment in such capital demanding infrastructure is an indicator that foreign investors had confidence in Mexico's stability. Construction of the railways was an effect of stability, but there was a significant decrease in banditry and other unrest because of the railways. The Rurales and their horses could be loaded on trains and dispatched to impose order.
Along with the construction of railways, telegraph lines were built next to the tracks. This allowed instant communication between capital and distant cities, increasing the power of the central Mexican state over distant regions. Dispatching Rurales quickly to troubled areas was a direct effect of more efficient communication.
An industry that expanded significantly during this time was mining. In the colonial era, Mexico had mined and refined silver, minting silver coinage that became the first global currency. This silver industry had declined after independence, as the prevalent refining processes in the early 19th century (the patio process and later the pan amalgamation process) required mercury; during the colonial era, this was imported from Spain, which had been one of the world's leading producers of mercury since Roman times. However, the Spanish refused to sell the reagent to its former colonies and it was not available locally in industrial quantities. Silver mining later revived with new processes not requiring mercury, but during the Porfiriato, mining of industrial minerals became the core of the industry. The world price of silver dropped in 1873, while at the same time economies in developed countries needed industrial minerals for their manufacturing. As with other aspects of the Mexican economy, the growth in the mining sector was predicated on the stability established by the government. The expansion of the railway network meant that ore could be transported cheaply and the telegraph network allowed investors to have efficient communications with the mining sites. Foreign investors, particularly from the U.S., had confidence in risking their capital in mining enterprises in Mexico. Mining enterprises for copper, lead, iron, and coal in Mexico's north, especially Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato and Coahuila, with Monterrey and Aguascalientes becoming especially prominent.
The development of industrial manufacturing aimed at a domestic market, primarily in textiles. Factories were built in urban areas by Mexican entrepreneurs in Orizaba and Guanajuato, which provided opportunities for workers to earn wages. These factories, many owned by French nationals, supplied domestic textile needs. Furthermore, these factories were steam-powered, capitalizing on modern invention.
Labor
Craft artisan organizations already existed when Díaz came to power in 1876, as mutualist organizations or worker benevolent societies, and conducted strikes. The Gran Círculo de Obreros de México had nearly 30 branches in Mexico, calling for benefits beyond aiding of workers when they were sick, injured, or died. In 1875, the Congreso Obrero sought broader goals, including education for adult workers, compulsory education for children, and representation of their goals to authorities. The labor movement was not unified, including on whether to take political positions. During the late 1870s and early 1880s, journeyman artisans could no longer successfully aspire to being master artisans owning their own shop. Their discontent led to agitation, but the formation of combative industrial labor organizations in the later nineteenth century can be seen as roots of the modern labor movement in Mexico. After 1900, as Mexico's economy was expanding dramatically with the infusion of foreign capital and the growth of various industries, organized industrial labor grew as well. Workers resisted mechanization of such industries as textiles, where owners sought higher productivity per worker. Strikes in cotton textile mills took place, with the Río Blanco strike being the best known. Railway workers were the best unionized in the late Porfiriatio, with some 50% of them being unionized. There was not a single union, but rather split along particular tasks, such as engineers and firemen. More highly skilled jobs were dominated by U.S. workers, and Mexican laborers were paid less for the same work. Mine workers also organized, with the Cananea Strike in 1906 the most widely known, since the mine was owned by U.S. interests and armed men from Arizona crossed into Mexico to suppress the strike. Although the Liberal Party of Mexico (PLM) advocated radical changes in favor of labor, most industrial workers were reformist not revolutionary. As the Díaz regime failed to respond to calls for reform, many workers saw regime change as desirable. With the expansion of the railway network, workers could seek work far away from their homes. In Mexico City, the development of a streetcar system, initially mule-drawn cars, and later electric ones, allowed for mass transportation. Street car companies employed a variety of workers to build the tracks, maintain the cars and mules, and serve as conductors.
Urban women were able to obtain office employment in both government and private enterprises. Although women's presence in the home rather than working outside the home was a marker of middle class status, in the late nineteenth century respectable women were increasingly employed outside the home as office workers. During the Liberal Reform in the mid-nineteenth century, women began entering the workforce as public school teachers and in charitable work. The Díaz regime opened opportunities for women as government office workers in the 1890s. The creation of a Mexican government bureaucracy largely staffed by women at the lower levels occurred in similar fashion to other nations as educated women dealt with the expansion of official paperwork and the introduction of new office technology of the typewriter, telephone, and telegraph. Women also engaged in certain types of manual labor, including factory work in paper mills, cotton textiles, chocolate, shoes, and hats.
Social class, gender roles, citizenry
The increase of wealth due to the growth of export agriculture and industrialization largely benefited urban elites and foreigners, with the income and cultural gap with the poor widening. By far the largest sector of the Mexican population was rural and indigenous, with Mexico's cities, especially the capital, having the largest concentration of wealthy elites. Peasant men tilled land that was generally owned by others, while peasant women raised children, cooked and cleaned. In the cities, plebeian women were domestic servants, workers in bakeries, and factories, while plebeian men pursued a whole variety of manual tasks. In central and southern Mexico, the state increasingly undermined the political structure of rule and the loss of community land had a significant impact, but traditional ways persisted, especially in places that produced for the regional rather than the export market.
The liberal project sought to nurture a citizenry that adhered to civic virtues through improved public health, professional military training for men, a rehabilitative penal system, and secular public education. The state sought to replace traditional values based on religion and local loyalties with abstract principles shared by all citizens.
The Porfiriato saw the growth of the urban middle class, with women entering the work force as teachers and office workers. Women's new roles not only added to household income but also contributed to major cultural changes as they shaped the identity of a middle-class household and as some became visible as activists for women's rights.
Middle class Mexican women began addressing gender inequality before the law, as well as other issues. Feminism in Mexico emerged during the Liberal Reform and Porfiriato, with adherents critiquing inequality in Mexican society, as happened elsewhere in the hemisphere and Western Europe. A few women formed all-women's groups to discuss issues of inequality, they founded literary journals, and attended international congresses on women's rights. Although there was some political pressure for women's suffrage in Mexico, it did not come to fruition until 1953.
Despite a societal shift in attitudes toward women's roles, sexual diversity did not change as rapidly. Homosexuality remained clandestine and private in general. In November 1901, there was a public scandal about a police raid of a gathering of gay and cross-dressing men in Mexico City, known as the Dance of the Forty-One. Caricaturist José Guadalupe Posada made a broadside of the incident. Rumors abounded that the son-in-law of Porfirio Díaz was one of those arrested, but released. A list of the arrested was never published and the government neither confirmed nor denied.
Education
Liberals created a secular educational system to counter the religious influence of the Roman Catholic Church. Public schools had been established during the period of Benito Juárez, but expanded during the Porfiriato after the defeat of the French monarchy and their Mexican Catholic allies. Schools did not just teach literacy and numeracy, but also aimed at creating a workforce guided by principles of punctuality, thrift, valuable work habits, and abstinence from alcohol and tobacco use, and gambling. Even so, illiteracy was widespread, with the 1910 census indicating only 33% of men and 27% of women were literate. However, the government's commitment to education under Justo Sierra was an important step, particularly in higher education with the establishment of the secular, state-controlled Universidad Nacional de México. The Pontifical University of Mexico, founded in the early sixteenth century under religious authority, was suppressed in 1865. Teaching school was one of the few honorable professions open to women. Urban, educated women school teachers were in the forefront of feminists in Mexico.
Public health
Public health became an important issue for the Mexican government, which viewed a healthy population as important for economic development. Government investment in public health was seen as part of Mexico's overall project of modernization. In Mexico City, the government invested in large-scale infrastructure project to drain the central lake system, the desagüe in an attempt to prevent frequent flooding in the capital. Canals in Mexico City still had considerable boat traffic, such as on the Canal de la Viga, but canals were where sewage, trash, and animal carcasses were dumped. Access to potable water often meant drawing it from community fountains and distributed house to house by workmen with wheelbarrows or carrying containers on their backs. Some households were too poor to pay for the service, so a household member would draw and transport the water. Planners viewed inadequate drainage, sewage treatment, and lack of access to clean, potable water as solvable problems using scientific methods. Another issue that modernizers tackled was sanitation in the meatpacking industry. Instilling ideas of proper hygiene were values to be imparted in schools.
Penal reform
Mexico City's main jail was a former convent, Belem Prison, that was repurposed several times before becoming a prison for both women and men. It was filthy, poorly run, and a symbol of the order. Plans were drawn up for the construction of a new facility, a penitentiary designed to rehabilitate its prisoners. Designed as a panopticon based on plans by Jeremy Bentham, Lecumberri penitentiary was opened in 1900. Mexican officials were cognizant of changes in the idea of prison as well as newly focused on collecting crime statistics.
Culture
During the Porfiriato, urban Mexican elites became more cosmopolitan, with their consumer tastes for imported fashion styles and goods being considered an indicator of Mexico's modernity, with France being the embodiment of the sophistication they admired. Since the French had invaded Mexico and occupied it during the 1860s, Mexico's turn toward France was not without controversy in Mexico. France was a major European power and with the fall of Napoleon III in 1870, the way was opened to reestablish normal relations between the countries. With the resumption of diplomatic relations, Mexico enthusiastically embraced French styles. Department stores, such as the Palacio de Hierro, were modeled on those in Paris (Bon Marché) and London (Harrod's). French influence on culture in fashion, art, and architecture is evident in the capital and other major Mexican cities, with Mexican elites enthusiastic for French styles known as Afrancesados.
Among the elites, horse racing became popular and purpose-built race tracks were constructed, such as the Hippodrome of Peralvillo, built by the newly-formed Jockey Club. The club hired an architect who attended race events in Europe and the U.S. to design and build the track, which was to be opened on Easter Sunday 1882, a distinctly non-religious way to celebrate the holiday. At the delayed opening, the President of the Republic (1880–82), Manuel González, his cabinet, and the diplomatic corps, along with Mexicans who could afford the entry, watched horses owned by gentlemen compete for purses. The Jockey Club was founded in 1881, modeled on those in Europe. Mexico City's occupied the top floor of the eighteenth-century former residence of the Count of Orizaba known as the House of the Tiles. The club provided a place for elite social gatherings. Among the directors of the Jockey Club were Manuel Romero Rubio and José Yves Limantour, Díaz's closest advisors, and President González and Díaz himself as members. The Jockey Club had rooms for smoking, dining rooms, weapons, bowling, poker and baccarat. There were upscale gambling houses that were regulated by the government. One was in the former Palace of the Emperor Iturbide, which in the late nineteenth century was a hotel. Entertainment among men of the urban popular classes included traditional sports of cockfighting and bullfighting.
Bicycles were imported from Paris and Boston to Mexico City in 1869, just after the French Intervention. A French company imported bicycles and set up a rental business, but the sport took off when the technology improved in the 1890s with wheels of equal size and pneumatic tires. Bicycle clubs and organized races made their appearance soon after. Organized sports with rules, equality of competition, bureaucracy and formal record keeping became hallmarks of modernity. Although men dominated the sport, women also participated. For women especially, bicycling challenged traditional behavior, demeanor, and fashions, freeing them from being closely supervised shut-ins. Riding a bicycle required better women's clothing, and many adopted Bloomers for riding. In 1898, cartoon montage in the satirical publication El Hijo del Ahuizote answered the question "why go by bicycle?": for amusement, for pleasure in the streets, and one panel shows a bicycle on its side with a couple embracing, with the caption "for love." Cycling was touted as promoting exercise and good hygiene and was associated with modernity, speed, and modernization through technology.
Religion
The mid-nineteenth century had been riven by conflict between the Catholic Church and the liberal State. The liberals' Mexican Constitution of 1857 had established separation of church and state, and there were strong anti-clerical articles of the constitution. As a pragmatic politician, Díaz did not want to re-open outright conflict between his regime and the Catholic Church in Mexico. His marriage to Carmen Romero Rubio, who was a faithful Catholic, helped to mend the rift. Díaz never had the anticlerical articles of the constitution repealed, but he did not strictly enforce them, so that the Catholic Church made a political and economic comeback during the Porfiriato. U.S. Protestant missionaries made inroads in Mexico during the Porfiriato, particularly in the north, but did not significantly challenge the power of Catholicism in Mexico. In a number of regions of Mexico, local religious cults and dissident peasant movements arose, which the Catholic Church considered idolatrous. Responding to the potential loss of the faithful in Mexico and elsewhere, Pope Leo XIII issued the encyclical Rerum Novarum, calling on the Church to become involved in social problems. In Mexico, some Catholic laymen supported the abolition of debt peonage on landed estates, which kept peasants tied to work there because they were unable to pay off their debts. The Church itself had lost lands during the Liberal Reform in the mid-nineteenth century, so it could voice support for the peasants' plight. The Church's success in the new initiatives can be seen as Zapatistas in Morelos carried out no anticlerical actions during the Mexican Revolution, and many fighters wore the Virgin of Guadalupe on their hats.
Historical memory
During the Díaz regime, the state began to take control over the cultural patrimony of Mexico, expanding the National Museum of Anthropology as the central repository of artifacts from Mexico's archeological sites, as well as asserting control over the sites themselves. The Law of Monuments (1897) gave jurisdiction over archeological sites to the federal government. This allowed the expropriation and expulsion of peasants who had been cultivating crops on the archeological sites, most systematically done at Teotihuacan. Former cavalry officer and archeologist Leopoldo Batres was Inspector of Archeological Monuments and wielded considerable power. He garnered resources from the Díaz government funds to guard archeological sites in central Mexico and Yucatan, as well as to hire workers to excavate archeological sites of particular importance for creating an image of Mexico's glorious past to foreign scholars and tourists, as well as patriotic fervor in Mexico.
Along the wide, tree-lined boulevard, Paseo de la Reforma, laid out by Emperor Maximilian between the National Palace and Chapultepec Castle, was transformed as a site of historical memory, with statues commemorating figures of Mexican history and important historical events.
1910 Centennial of Independence
The official centennial festivities were concentrated in the month of September, but there were events during the centennial year outside of September. In September the central core of Mexico city was decorated and lit with electric lights many bedecked with flowers. Immediately following the centennial month, there was a book published, detailing the day by day events of the festivities, which included inaugurations of buildings and statues, receptions for dignitaries, military parades, and allegorical and historical processions.
The high points of the celebrations were on 15 September, Diaz's 80th birthday, and 16 September, the centennial of Hidalgo's Grito de Dolores, considered the starting point of Mexico's struggle for independence in 1810. On Friday, 15 September, the day was marked by a huge parade representing the arc of Mexican history, focusing on the 1519 conquest of Mexico, the struggle for independence in the early nineteenth century, and the liberal reform of the mid-nineteenth century. There were allegorical floats depicting the insurgent army of independence, independence martyr Father José María Morelos, and for the modern era commerce, industry, and banking. At 11 p.m. Diaz stood on the balcony of the National Palace and with the ringing of the bell from Father Hidalgo's church in Dolores, Diaz proclaimed "Viva Mexico." On 16 September, Diaz with an array of dignitaries attending inaugurated, the Monument to Independence at a major intersection (glorieta) of Paseo de la Reforma. Some 10,000 Mexican troops and contingents of foreign soldiers marched at the monument as part of the inaugural ceremonies.
Another major September activity included Díaz's inauguration on 18 September of the monument to Benito Juárez at the edge of the Alameda Central. Although a political rival in life, Diaz helped memorialize Juárez's contributions to Mexico. At the ceremony, the French ambassador returned the ceremonial keys of Mexico City that were given to General Forey in 1863 during the French Intervention. The French invasion had disrupted Juárez's presidency, forcing his government into domestic exile while the French occupied Mexico.
He inaugurated a new insane asylum in Mixcoac on the first of September. On 2 September, the pillar of the baptismal font in Hidalgo's church was brought to the capital with great ceremony and placed in the National Museum, with some 25,000 children viewing the event. Many nations participated in the celebrations, including Japan, whose pavilion Díaz inaugurated. An important issue for the modernizing Mexican state was health and hygiene, and an exhibition was inaugurated on September 2. Díaz's Minister of the Interior, Ramón Corral ceremonially laid the first stone of a new penitentiary. On Sunday, September 4, there was a parade with allegorical floats, which Díaz and his whole cabinet viewed. On September 6 some 38,000 school children honored the Mexican flag. Diaz inaugurated the new building of the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in Mexico City, a Protestant voluntary association. A new normal school to train teachers was inaugurated with Diaz and foreign delegates attending. Also occurring during the festivities was the Nation Congress of Pedagogy.
The Spanish monarchy sent a special ambassador to the festivities, who was enthusiastically received. Diaz gave an enormous reception in his honor. On 9 September Díaz laid the first stone on a monument to Isabel the Catholic and Díaz also opened an exhibition of colonial-era Spanish art. The Spanish ambassador, the Marquis of Polavieja returned items of historical importance to Mexico, including the uniform of Father Morelos, a portrait, and other relics of independence in a ceremony at the National Palace, with the diplomatic corps in attendance, as well as Mexican army officers. The king of Spain conveyed through his special ambassador the honor of the Order of Charles III on Diaz, the highest distinction for sovereigns and heads of state. Others holding the honor were the Russian czar, and the monarchs of Germany and Austria. A portrait of Spanish monarch Charles III was unveiled in the Salon of Ambassadors in the National Palace.
The International Congress of Americanists met in Mexico City, with Porfirio Díaz elected its honorary president. Prominent Americanists from many countries attended, including Eduard Seler from Germany and Franz Boaz from the U.S. Mexican Secretary of Education, Justo Sierra attended. Diaz and Justo Sierra went with Congress attendees to the archeological site of San Juan Teotihuacan.
As part of the historical commemorations of the centennial, on September 8 there was homage paid to the Niños Héroes, the cadets who died defending Chapultepec Castle from the invading U.S. forces during the Mexican–American War. But Diaz also laid the first stone to a monument to George Washington in the American Colony in Mexico City. The U.S. delegation hosted a sumptuous banquet for fellow delegates. There was a large number of journalists from the U.S. attending the celebrations, such as The New York Times, the New York Evening Post, Harper's Weekly, The Washington Post, as well as some from Toronto and Montreal in Canada, with the U.S. ambassador hosting a reception for these North American newspapermen.
Other statues that were inaugurated were one honoring France's Louis Pasteur and Germany's Alexander von Humboldt. The German government had an honor guard for the monument of German naval officers.
Coup d'état and end of Porfiriato, 1910–1911
The centenary celebrations were the swansong of Díaz's regime. Presidential-challenger Francisco I. Madero had been jailed during the 1910 presidential elections, but he escaped north across the U.S. border in Texas. While still in Mexico, he issued the Plan of San Luis Potosí in October 1910, which denounced the election as fraudulent and called for a rebellion against what he considered Díaz's illegitimate regime. Fighting broke out in the state of Morelos, just south of Mexico City, as well as on the border with the U.S. in Ciudad Juárez. The Mexican Federal Army was incapable of putting down these disparate uprisings. Opposition to Díaz grew, since his regime was not able to restore civil order. Díaz had failed to secure the presidential succession. Political rivals, General Bernardo Reyes, who had a fiefdom in northern Mexico encompassing Coahuila, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo León, and Minister of Finance and leader of the Científicos, José Yves Limantour, were shut of the succession, with Díaz choosing Ramón Corral as his vice president. Reyes accepted exile and went to Europe, on a mission to study the military in Germany. Although Reyes had been a political rival, according to one historian, exiling him was a serious political miscalculation, since he was loyal and effective and the political opposition was growing, adding to the anti-reelectionists. Limantour was in Europe as well, renegotiating Mexico's debt, leaving Díaz increasingly isolated politically. Díaz began negotiating with Madero's uncle Ernesto Madero, promising reforms if peace were restored. He also began informal negotiations with anti-reelectionist rebels in early 1911. Díaz refused to resign, which re-ignited the armed rebellion against him, particularly in Chihuahua led by Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa. Faced with this situation, Díaz agreed to the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, which largely left the Porfirian state intact. The treaty specified that Diaz resign along with vice president Corral, and created an interim regime under Francisco León de la Barra in advance of new elections. Rebel forces were to demobilize. Díaz and most of his family sailed to France into exile. He died in Paris in 1915. As he left Mexico, he reportedly prophesied that "Madero has released a tiger, let us see if he can control it."
See also
El hijo del Ahuizote
Cananea strike
Río Blanco strike
John Kenneth Turner
Plan of Tuxtepec
Porfirio Díaz
Científicos
Economic history of Mexico
History of democracy in Mexico
References
Further reading
English
Agostoni, Claudia. Monuments of Progress: Modernization and Public Health in Mexico City, 1876-1910. Calgary: University of Calgary Press/University Press of Colorado 2003.
Beezley, William H. Judas at the Jockey Club and Other Episodes of Porfirian Mexico. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1987.
Beezley, William H. "The Porfirian Smart Set Anticipates Thornstein Veblen in Guadalajara" in Wm.Beezley et al., Rituals of Rule, Rituals of Resistance. Wilmington DE: Scholarly Resources 1994.
Buchenau, Jürgen. Tools of Progress: A German Merchant Family in Mexico City, 1865-Present. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2004.
Buffington, Robert and William E. French. "The Culture of Modernity" in The Oxford History of Mexico, Michael C. Meyer and Wm. Beezley, eds. 397-432. New York: Oxford University Press 2000.
Bunker, Steven B. Creating Mexican Consumer Culture in the Age of Porfirio Díaz. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2012.
Chowning, Margaret. "Culture Wars in the Trenches? Public Schools and Catholic Education in Mexico, 1867-1897". Hispanic American Historical Review 97:4 (Nov. 2017), pp. 613–650.
Coatsworth, John H. Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico. DeKalb: University of Northern Illinois Press 1981.
Coatsworth, John H. "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico," American Historical Review vol. 83, No. 1 (Feb. 1978), pp. 80–100
Coever, Don M. The Porfirian Interregnum: The Presidency of Manuel González of Mexico, 1880-1884. Forth Worth: Texas Christian University Press 1981.
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History of Mexico |
4508806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimihiro%20Watanuki | Kimihiro Watanuki | is a fictional character introduced in the manga xxxHolic, created by the group of manga artists known as Clamp. Watanuki is a high school student plagued by his ability to see spirits. In order to lose such powers, Watanuki begins to work for Yūko Ichihara, a witch who will grant his wish once he pays the price for her services. Such jobs often involve Watanuki encountering other spirits attracted by him. Apart from xxxHolic, Watanuki is featured in the crossover manga Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle, which explores his origins. He has also has been featured in their animated adaptations, spin-offs as well as other works by Clamp, most notably the sequel xxxHolic Rei.
The character was created by Clamp to fill their need for a main character who would observe Yūko's work and learn from her supernatural activities. Jun Fukuyama voiced the character in Japanese, and Todd Haberkorn did so in English. To indicate Watanuki's growth, the anime staff asked Fukuyama in later animated works as well as the film. Shōta Sometani portrays the character in the television drama.
Kimihiro Watanuki initially generated mixed responses from manga and anime publications, whose reviews criticised his behaviour, while his maturity and wiser characterisation in later chapters was better received. Similarly, his return in the spin-off xxxHolic Rei also earned a positive response for friendlier interactions with the cast, despite acting like his younger persona.
Creation and development
With the manga xxxHolic being conceptualized as the Clamp manga that would connect to other works produced by them, its authors sought to create a character who would fit into the role of protagonist. They initially created Yūko Ichihara; they believed Yūko was so interesting she could be the series' sole main character but felt the need of having an additional. Such character would see Yūko's life and could ask her about the supernatural events. This led to the creation of Kimihiro Watanuki. The dynamic between Yūko and Watanuki was inspired respectively with Doraemon and Nobita Nobi from the manga series Doraemon. Unlike Yūko, Watanuki's personality and design were not difficult to write or illustrate by the manga authors. He is based on a real beautician the Clamp have not identified.
A major theme in their series Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle, is the use of the people who share the same identity. The protagonist of Tsubasa, Syaoran, has his own doppelgänger commonly referred to as "The Other Syaoran", who at the same time is deeply connected with Watanuki for reasons that are revealed late in Tsubasa. Across the series, these characters are developed and choose their own paths to establish their own identities. The constant interactions between Watanuki and the Other Syaoran were made to build up why both of these characters are important in their respective series as well as to explore more the crossover element Tsubasa has with xxxHolic. While the two meet in the first series, they do not have personal conversations until the climax and the sequels through their friends, the two creatures known as Mokona Modokis.
Anime Director Tsutomu Mizushima of Production I.G referred to Watanuki as his favorite character from the series because of his personality, saying that he identifies with him. He also commented on Watanuki's characterisation as having a notable arc while still retaining his attractive design known in Japanese as bishōnen. The staff commented that one of the biggest attractions of the series is Watanuki's skills as a chef as they are well-illustrated and well-animated in the anime. This is most notable in his new way of acting, resulting in the development of a quieter personality years after Yūko's death. Producer Toru Kawaguchi was surprised with Watanuki's development in the narrative despite the difficulties handling his character. Voice actress Sayaka Ohara said that thanks to Yūko's teachings about fate, Watanuki could grow up as an individual.
Casting
In Japanese, Jun Fukuyama voices Watanuki. He was first cast for Bee Train's adaptation of Tsubasa but had no problem in contrast to Yūko's actress. Fukuyama was attracted by how his character was often part of the tsukkomi, a Japanese inspired comedy gag where Watanuki acts irritated when dealing with people most notably Yūko. He also enjoyed interacting with the main cast and thus was glad that the series spawned the sequel, xxxHolic Kei. In casting Fukuyama, the producers had him try a more innocent tone, in contrast to other roles he had played. When first cast to voice Watanuki, the differences between his character and Yūko's surprised Fukuyama. Although Fukuyama noted Watanuki tends to get irritated, he still had multiple traits that appealed to him. During the first audition, Fukuyama was looking forward to his role and was pleased when he was hired. Fukuyama regarded Watanuki as an audience surrogate lead because of his interactions with Yūko and the rest of the cast. Fukuyama aimed to work originally in Tsubasa based on Watanuki's role and felt in retrospective that he also enjoyed xxxHolic during its debut. His role in xxxHolic Rō also impressed the actor based on how much Watanuki changed because of his work as the shop's owner to the point the audience would want another sequel focused on Watanuki.
During the ending of the anime by Production I.G, an episode focused on Watanuki's childhood that moved multiple members of the staff. Fukuyama was impressed by it and expressed curiosity about what happened if something else took place that was not shown to the audience. Fukuyama enjoyed his work and felt nostalgic for it years after the final original video animation was released. For the character's role in Blood-C: The Last Dark, Fukuyama needed to portray Watanuki as a mature despite not aging from his appearance in xxxHolic.
Todd Haberkorn voices him in the English dub of the anime series. Haberkorn said that Watanuki would be the most ridiculed character in his career based on how he often ran away from yokais something that other characters he voiced are in charge of doing.
In the live-action drama, Shōta Sometani plays the character of Watanuki. He regarded his character as dignified based on his knowledge of the series and thus felt pressure in portraying him. Nevertheless, he expressed gratitude other members of the staff assisted him, including the director and Anne Watanabe who portrayed Yūko. Clamp also looked forward to the appearances of Watanuki and Yūko in the live-action version.
Appearances
In xxxHolic and Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle
Watanuki is a high school student who has the ability to see spirits, and the result disturbs him. One day he stumbles, seemingly by chance, upon the wish-granting shop of Yūko Ichihara. She promises to end his ability to see spirits if he works part time in her shop until his work equals the value of his wish. Since he lives by himself, he can cook and clean, which pleases Yūko. Besides doing domestic tasks for Yūko, Watanuki often completes jobs of a spiritual or magical nature. Yuko's often insane requests usually enrage him, though he pays close attention whenever she is serious with him. While around his crush, Himawari Kunogi, Watanuki is usually cheerful and excited, whereas around Shizuka Dōmeki he is much more irritable. Yūko advises Watanuki to become closer to Dōmeki though, as he can exorcise spirits.
In the course of his work, Watanuki encounters spirits who take his right eye for the destruction of a web. He then shares Dōmeki's eyesight, which allows him to detect evil spirits. As thanks for his services, the spirits give Watanuki a protective pet fox named Kudagitsune. He meets a young medium named Kohane Tsuyuri and attempts to bring her a new life after learning how much abuse she has suffered. After nearly dying falling from his school's second floor, Watanuki learns he is related to a teenager named Syaoran, who paid Yūko for his health along with Himawari and Dōmeki. Watanuki learns this happened because of her bad luck, but still wishes to be with her, confessing his feelings for her while healing.
In xxxHolic and Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle, it is revealed Syaoran created to replace his identity after he decided to turn back time. Syaoran paid the price with his imprisonment by the sorcerer Fei-Wang Reed. As a result, Watanuki became the child of Syaoran's parents and filled all the relationships Syaoran would have had. Filled with guilt, Watanuki gave up the memories of his past as the price to find Fei-Wang and help Syaoran. As he could not remember his parents, Watanuki's developed dark feelings, which led to spirits to chase him. Across the story, Watanuki overcomes his selfishness and becomes concerned about granting Yūko's wish. Watanuki's origins and interactions with Syaoran are also explored in Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle where Syaoran constantly tell Watanuki to develop his will to live. When Yūko dies, Watanuki resolves to take care of the shop so he can wait for her return. During the climax of Tsubasa, Watanuki and Syaoran have to pay a price to survive Fei-Wang's dying curse with Watanuki's price being the "time in him", meaning he will never age.
Following Yūko's death, Watanuki becomes the new master of the shop and takes up Yūko's job of granting wishes to the shop's customers during the last volumes of xxxHolic subtitled xxxHolic Rō. His personality changes as he adopts some of Yūko's quirks and habits in order for his body to remember her, afraid of forgetting her. He is also unable to leave the shop, the price he paid to become the owner. Over the following years, Watanuki's powers become stronger, since he retains his ability to see spirits. He works with help from Dōmeki, who brings him materials from the outside along with Kohane. However, Watanuki has to cut ties with Himawari because of the way her bad luck would affect the shop. In the manga's finale, Watanuki has a dream of Yūko that serves as a message that Watanuki has become able to leave the shop thanks to his growing powers. Realizing it has been over a century, he instead decides to remain in the shop, still waiting to see Yūko visits again in person rather than in a dream.
Other appearances
Outside the xxxHolic and Tsubasa mangas, Watanuki appears in the film xxxHolic: A Midsummer Night's Dream (2005), where he visits a collector's mansion and investigates the mystery behind multiple disappearances. The video game xxxHolic ~Watanuki no Izayoi Sowa~ also features Watanuki. He is also a prominent character in the novelization Another Holic by Nisio Isin. In the original video animation (OVA) xxxHolic Rō, Watanuki, as the new shop's owner, receives a tape with Yūko's voice. In the second OVA, Adayume, the spirit of Dōmeki's grandfather, Haruka, asks Watanuki to investigate his grandson's dreams now that his son is marrying Kohane. Accepting Haruka's constant teachings as his payment, Watanuki later meets Dōmeki, who tells him that Kohane's most important person is Watanuki, regardless of marriage. In August 2011, Clamp wrote the one-shot xxxHolic Shi, where Watanuki meets real life singer Shikao Suga, who performed multiple themes for the xxxHolic animated adaptations. Suga wishes to become more famous, but Watanuki makes the singer become confused about the price needed for that.
Watanuki appears as the protagonist of the manga xxxHolic Rei as Yūko's assistant. While seeing several of Yūko's cases, Watanuki realises his boss is waiting for him to make a decision that he ignores. He remembers he is living in an alternate dimension where Yuko is not dead. After saying goodbye to her, Watanuki returns to reality to give Syaoran a group of items he found in the alternative world. In Tsubasa World Chronicle, he meets Syaoran and gives him the items, but is saddened having to lose Yūko again. Shota Sometani plays Watanuki in the live action TV series.
He also appears in other works from Clamp, including the seventeenth episode of the anime adaptation of Kobato, where he receives a package from one of the series' characters. In the book Soel and Larg: The Adventures of Mokona Modoki, he awakens the two creatures known as Mokona Modoki. One of them stays in the shop while the other is used by protagonists from Tsubasa. Other works include a CD drama where Yūko tells Watanuki how she created the two Mokonas with a sorcerer named Clow Reed. In the manga Drug and Drop, he hires its two protagonists for a job involving an encounter with a supernatural being. In Blood-C anime series, he appears as a dog contacting the protagonist Saya Kisaragi. He meets in person in the feature film Blood-C: The Last Dark (2012) where he grants her wish to obtain a new sword. In the Holitsuba CD drama series, Watanuki appears as a high school student from the titular school. In December 2015, Clamp collaborated with Victor Entertainment to create a music video involving a theme by Suga. Clamp drew Watanuki and Yūko, who feature in the video.
Reception
Initial reactions to Watanuki led to Clamp illustrator Tsubaki Nekoi find that Watanuki was very popular with female readers. Nekoi believed this was because of his kind-hearted personality rather than his appearance, while head writer, Nanase Ohkawa, felt it was because of his multiple skills. In a xxxHolic poll published in The Official xxxHOLiC Guide from 2009, readers voted Watanuki the most popular character in the series.
Critical reception to the character has been generally positive. Although Polley Dan of Manga Life felt Watanuki seemed "a little bit weak to be the lead character", he and Ed Sizemore of Comics Worth Reading found that his interactions with other characters and his development across the series as elements to be praised. Matthew Alexander of Mania Entertainment liked most notably how caring he became towards Yuko's as he wonders about her. Manga News was harsher, stating that Watanuki lacks depth and sensitivity, describing him as superficial with a "humorous side, bordering on hysteria". Carlos Santos from Anime News Network criticised Todd Haberkorn's work as Watanuki's English voice actor for making the character sound annoying rather than funny. When the manga revealed that Watanuki is related to Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicles lead Syaoran, critics looked forward to Watanuki's role in Tsubasa too. Despite Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle ending, MangaNews stated that readers should check xxxHolic as it was still being written as such series had yet to finish Watanuki's story. In regards to how Watanuki's relationship with Domeki is handled, Kathryn Hemmann said it is widely discussed and accepted by Japanese fans of the series. Japanese fans have drawn several dōjinshi fan manga that imagine this relationship as open and explicit, something common within several apparent relationships explored in Clamp manga.
The Manga News site praised Yūko's death in xxxHolic because of the newfound will to live Watanuki finds in her last moments. Manga News claims that Watanuki became a tragic character in the finale because of his loneliness, as his close friends died while he kept the shop, still waiting for Yuko's return. Clamp received multiple letters from fans who were saddened by Watanuki's decision to remain in the shop in self-exile, even after one hundred years, rather than return to society when given the option. Clamp were pleased with the readers' comments, realizing people cared for the character's fate. As a result, Clamp clarified that the self-exile was the happiness Watanuki wanted.
Manga Bookshelf found Watanuki as a realistic teenager due to how he has a tendency of becoming irritated in contrast to another of Clamp's characters, Subaru Sumeragi from Tokyo Babylon, who is portrayed as a character who lacks his self values and is generally calm when interacting with his friends. In early chapters, Watanuki is portrayed as lonely child who attracted a spirit and befriended him. Watanuki's problem of constantly being followed by demons was compared by Dani Cavallaro to the sensation of a normal person feeling scared by the belief he is being observed, a parallel to Yuko's client made in the book Magic as Metaphor in Anime: A critical study. The inclusion of spirits being attracted to him is also a major theme in the series as it contrasts his lives with humans. However, Watanuki is deeply connected with his classmate Shizuka Domeki who assists him during problems. In once occasion, Domeki is forced to exorcise a spirit that is socializing with Watanuki at the same time his health is drained. Watanuki coming in terms with Domeki's actions serves as a major focus on his growth in the narrative.
Although xxxHolic is classified as seinen manga (aimed towards adults), Watanuki is still compared with a more traditional shōjo manga character in the book Manga Cultures and the Female Gaze, as scholar Kathryn Hemmann finds that his portrayal and design make him more suitable for female readers. The same book listed him as an opposite to Sakura Kinomoto from Cardcaptor Sakura due to how different are their lives despite sharing similar traits, placing emphasis on Watanuki's loneliness. Domeki is also seen as another opposite to Watanuki due to their different built and linked their close bond to that of a shōjo manga romance. Watanuki's sadness and guilt becomes more prominent when he allows the spider to take of his eyes to protect Domeki's eye. This is a common trope within Clamp's works where a character misses one eye. Watanuki's further guilt portrayed in the manga also serves to expand the crossover the elements of xxxHolic and Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle as Watanuki is revealed to be connected to a character named Syaoran who also suffers a tragic fate.
As the narrative passes, Yuko makes a major bond with Watanuki who is interested in granting her own wish instead. Hemmann further argued that while taking Yūko's role, he surpassed the "gendered limitations of [her] role", which was cast as a gendered archetype of a witch. Watanuki's changed characterization following Yūko's death was commented multiple times, with critics finding him to act similar to his mentor, and more mature, making him a fitting new protagonist. Similar to how Watanuki was compared to the teenager Subaru from Tokyo Babylon, his older persona was compared with the adult Subaru from the ending of Tokyo Babylon and X as both became similar to the people they loved but still suffer from grief as time passes.
The portrayal of Watanuki in the spin-off xxxHolic: Rei was the subject of mystery based on how he is most active by The Fandom Post and Anime News Network. His relationship with his two friends remains awkward according to them, based on how they act suspicious of his actions. This led the writers to the point it felt like this reboot might attract older fans. Nevertheless, both reviews as and Comic Worth Reading felt that Watanuki's actions were appealing. Kotakus Richard Eisenbeis was critical of the Watanuki's cameo in the Blood-C: The Last Dark movie, describing it as low-quality fan service. Eisenbeis felt Shōta Sometani's portrayal of Watanuki's character was appropriate, but believed Anne Watanabe who played Yūko overshadowed him.
References
Anime and manga characters who use magic
Clamp characters
Comics characters introduced in 2003
Fictional association football players
Fictional characters missing an eye
Fictional characters with amnesia
Fictional characters with dimensional travel abilities
Fictional characters with dream manipulation abilities
Fictional characters with heterochromia
Fictional characters with major depressive disorder
Fictional characters with slowed ageing
Fictional chefs
Fictional empaths
Fictional hermits
Fictional high school students
Fictional Japanese people in anime and manga
Fictional male domestic workers
Fictional male sportspeople
Fictional servants
Fictional shopkeepers
Fictional spiritual mediums
Fictional wizards
Male characters in anime and manga
Orphan characters in anime and manga
Teenage characters in anime and manga
Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle
XxxHolic |
4508917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallout%20%28video%20game%29 | Fallout (video game) | Fallout: A Post Nuclear Role Playing Game is a 1997 role-playing video game developed and published by Interplay Productions. In a mid-22nd century post-apocalyptic and retro-futuristic world, decades after a global nuclear war between the United States and China, Fallout protagonist, the Vault Dweller, inhabits the underground nuclear shelter Vault 13. After customizing their character, the player must scour the surrounding wasteland for a computer chip that can fix the Vault's failed water supply system. They interact with other survivors, some of whom give them missions, and engage in turn-based combat where they battle until their action points are depleted.
Tim Cain began working on Fallout in 1994. It began as a game engine based on Steve Jackson Games's tabletop role-playing game GURPS. Interplay dropped the license after Steve Jackson Games objected to Fallout violence, and Cain and designer Christopher Taylor created a new character customization scheme, SPECIAL. Although Interplay initially gave the game little attention, the development ultimately cost $3million and employed up to thirty people. Interplay considered Fallout the spiritual successor to its 1988 role-playing game Wasteland and drew artistic inspiration from 1950s literature and media emblematic of the Atomic Age as well as the movies Mad Max and A Boy and His Dog. The quests were intentionally made morally ambiguous. After three and a half years of development, Fallout was released in North America in October 1997.
Fallout received acclaim for its open-ended gameplay, character system, plot, and perceived original setting. It won "Role-Playing Game of the Year" from GameSpot and Computer Games Magazine, was nominated by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences at the Spotlight Awards, and is often listed among the greatest video games of all time. Fallout has been credited for renewing consumer interest in the role-playing video genre due to its setting, open-ended plot, and gameplay. Fallout was a commercial success, selling 600,000 copies worldwide. It spawned a successful series of sequels and spin-offs, the rights to which were purchased in 2007 by Bethesda Softworks.
Gameplay
Character creation
Fallout is a role-playing video game. The player begins by selecting one of three characters, or one with player-customized attributes. The protagonist, known as the Vault Dweller, has seven primary statistics that the player can set: strength, perception, endurance, charisma, intelligence, agility, and luck. Each statistic may range from one to ten, provided their sum does not exceed 40. Two other statistics set during character creation are skills and traits. All 18 skills are learned abilities, their effectiveness determined by a percentage value. Their initial effectivenesses are determined by the primary statistics, but three can be given a 20% boost. Traits are character qualities with both a positive and negative effect; the player can pick two from a list of sixteen. During gameplay, the player can gather experience points through various actions. For gathering experience points, the player will level up and may increase their skills by a set number of points. Every three levels, the player can grant themself a special ability, or perk. There are 50 perks and each has prerequisites that must be met. For example, "Animal Friend", which prevents animals from attacking the player character, requires the player to be level nine, have an intelligence of five, and have an outdoorsman skill of 25%.
Exploration and combat
In Fallout, the player explores the game world from an trimetric perspective and interacts with non-player characters (NPCs). Characters vary in their amount of dialogue; some say short messages, while others speak at length. Significant characters are illustrated with 3D models, known as "talking heads", during conversations. The player can barter with other characters or buy goods using bottle caps as currency. The game has companions that the player can recruit for exploration and combat, although they cannot be directly controlled.
There are three main quests where completion is required, two of them given after completion of the first one. The first main quest has a time limit of 150 in-game days; the game ends if the player fails to complete it within the allotted time. Some characters give the player side quests; if the player solves them, they receive experience points. The player can use the PIPBoy 2000, a portable wearable computer that tracks these quests. Many quests feature multiple solutions; they can often be completed through diplomacy, combat, or stealth, and some allow solutions that are unconventional or contrary to the original task. Based on how they completed quests, the player can earn or lose karma points, which determine how others treat them. The player's actions dictate what future story or gameplay opportunities are available and the ending.
Combat is turn based and uses an action-point system. During each turn, multiple actions may be performed by the player until they run out of action points. Different actions consume different amounts of points. The player can rapidly switch between two equipped weapons, and may acquire a diverse range of weapons, many of which can target specific areas of enemies. Melee (hand-to-hand) weapons typically have two attacks: swing or thrust. If the player has equipped no weapon, they can punch or kick.
Plot
Setting
On October 23, 2077, a global nuclear war between the United States and China devastated the world and destroyed modern civilizations. The events of Fallout take place nearly a century later in 2161, and follow the Vault Dweller, a human born and raised within Vault 13, one of a number of underground fallout shelters built to protect survivors. Survivors on the surface live off the salvage of the old world.
Vault 13 is located beneath the mountains of Southern California. The Vault Dweller can explore major settlements including Junktown, which is mired in conflict between local sheriff Killian Darkwater (Richard Dean Anderson) and criminal Gizmo (Jim Cummings); the Hub, a bustling merchant city with job opportunities; and Necropolis, a city founded by ghouls, humans who lived in Vault 12 and became nuclear-radiated creatures. The Vault Dweller's journey also brings them into contact with various factions, including the Brotherhood of Steel, a quasi-religious technology-based group with militaristic warriors, the Children of the Cathedral, an optimistic religious cult; and the Super Mutants, an army of virtually immortal monsters immune to radiation.
Characters
The player controls the Vault Dweller, who is sent into the Wasteland to save their vault. The Vault Dweller can be customized or based on one of three pre-generated characters: Albert Cole, a negotiator and charismatic leader with a legal background; Natalia Dubrovhsky, a talented acrobat and intelligent and resourceful granddaughter of a Russian diplomat in the pre-War Soviet consulate in Los Angeles; and Max Stone, the largest person in the Vault who is known for his strength, stamina, and lack of intelligence. The three characters present a diplomatic, deceptive, or combative approach to the game, respectively. Although the character can be male or female, the Vault Dweller is canonically male.
The four companions the player can recruit are: Ian, a guard from Shady Sands; Tycho, a desert ranger; Dogmeat, a tireless loyal dog; and Katja, a member of an organization called the Followers of the Apocalypse. Other major characters include Vault Boy, the mascot of Vault-Tec, who are the creators of the Vaults and the PIPBoy 2000; Killian Darkwater, the mayor and shopkeeper of Junktown; and the Master (Cummings and Kath Soucie), leader of the Super Mutants and the main antagonist.
Story
In Vault 13, the Water Chip, a computer component responsible for the Vault's water recycling and pumping machinery, stops working. With only 150 days before water reserves will run dry, the Vault Overseer (Ken Mars) tasks the Vault Dweller with finding a replacement. Armed with the PIPBoy 2000 and meager equipment, the Vault Dweller leaves Vault 13 for the nearest source of possible help, Vault 15, but finds it abandoned and in ruins. The Vault Dweller explores the wasteland and locates a replacement chip in Vault 12, underneath Necropolis.
The Vault Dweller returns to Vault 13 with the chip and the water system is repaired. The Overseer becomes concerned about the mutants reported by the Vault Dweller. Believing the mutations are too widespread and extreme to be a natural occurrence, the Overseer charges the Vault Dweller with finding and stopping the source of the mutations. Information discovered throughout the wasteland reveals that humans are being captured and turned into Super Mutants by exposure to the Forced Evolutionary Virus (F.E.V.). The Super Mutants are led by the Master, who intends to transform every human into a Super Mutant and establish "unity" on Earth. The Children of the Cathedral are a front created by the Master, who is using them to trick humans into peaceful submission.
To stop the mutations, the Vault Dweller must destroy the vats containing the F.E.V. and kill the Master; the order of the tasks is chosen by the player. The Vault Dweller travels to the Mariposa Military Base to destroy it and the vats within, preventing the creation of more Super Mutants. To kill the Master, the Vault Dweller travels to the Children's Cathedral and locates a prototype Vault beneath it, from which the Master commands his army. The Vault Dweller infiltrates the Vault and can choose to convince the Master that his plan will fail because the Super Mutants are infertile, kill him immediately, or set off an explosion that destroys the Cathedral. The Vault Dweller returns to Vault 13 but is denied entry by the Overseer, who fears that they have been changed by their experiences and the tales of their exploits and accomplishments will encourage the inhabitants to abandon the Vault. The Overseer exiles the Vault Dweller into the wasteland. Fallout concludes with the legacy of the Vault Dweller's decisions on the societies and people they had encountered.
Development
Development on Fallout began in early 1994. Initially, Interplay gave the game little attention, and for the first six months, the programmer Tim Cain was the sole developer. Cain eventually enlisted the aid of Interplay employees during their spare time. The development team behind Fallout—led by Cain, the designer Christopher Taylor, and the art director Leonard Boyarsky—reached 15 people in 1995. In 1996, the producer Feargus Urquhart recruited some Interplay workers to join the team, expanding it to 30. Cain considered the team "amazing" for their dedication, while Urquhart described working under Interplay as "barely controlled chaos".
The tentative title, Vault-13: A GURPS Post-Nuclear Role-Playing Game, was rejected as unfitting. Armageddon was considered as an alternative, but was already in use for another Interplay project (which was later canceled). Interplay's president Brian Fargo suggested the title Fallout. Interplay intended to use "I Don't Want to Set the World on Fire" by the Ink Spots as the theme song, but was hindered by a copyright problem, so another Ink Spots song, "Maybe", was used. The development concluded on October 1, 1997, after three and a half years and a total cost of approximately $3million (~$ in ).
Engine and design
Fallout started as a game engine—a framework for a video game—that Cain was developing during his spare time, based on the tabletop role-playing game Generic Universal RolePlaying System (GURPS). It entered more coordinated development after Cain convinced Fargo of its potential, and Interplay announced it had acquired the GURPS license in 1994. The first Fallout prototype was finished that year.
The team considered making the game first-person and 3D, but discarded the idea because the models would not have held the desired amount of detail. They instead selected an oblique projection, producing a trimetric perspective. Designed to be open-world and non-linear, Fallout was balanced so that, even though side quests are optional, characters who do not improve their skills and experience through them would be too ill-equipped to finish. However, Taylor also added the 150-day time limit to the game to keep the player focused on the main quests.
The game was nearly canceled in late 1994 after Interplay acquired the licenses to the Dungeons & Dragons franchises Forgotten Realms and Planescape, but Cain convinced Interplay to let him finish. After the success of the role-playing video game Diablo, released in January 1997, Cain resisted pressure to convert Fallout into a real-time multiplayer game. In March 1997, Interplay dropped the license for GURPS due to creative differences with GURPS creator Steve Jackson Games. According to Interplay, Steve Jackson objected to the amount of violence and gore. Interplay was forced to change the GURPS system to the internally-developed SPECIAL system; Taylor and Cain were each given a week to design and code it, respectively.
Concept and influences
Prior to the license's termination, the engine for Fallout was based on GURPS. Fantasy and time-traveling settings were considered before the development team decided on a post-apocalyptic setting. Taylor outlined the design goals in a vision statement, which Cain called an inspiration for the development team and "a major reason why the game came together at all."
Fallout was a spiritual successor to Interplay's role-playing video game Wasteland (1988), published by Electronic Arts. Almost everyone who worked on Fallout had played it. The team was unable to make Fallout a direct sequel to Wasteland because Electronic Arts refused to license it. The team drew inspiration for Fallout retro-futuristic art style from 1950s literature and media related to the Atomic Age. Especial influence came from the 1956 science fiction novel Forbidden Planet and optimistic Cold War posters, which Boyarsky reportedly loved.
The vaults were influenced by the underground base in the science fiction movie A Boy and His Dog (1975). Cain said that the team "all loved X-COM" and that Fallout featured combat similar to X-COM prior to the GURPS license. Cain admired Star Control II (1992) and said it influenced Fallout open-ended design. Fallout features many popular culture references. The team was only allowed to include references if understanding the source material was not required for the reference to make sense. For example, the Slayer perk's name references the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer while generically matching its effect (turning all attacks to critical hits).
Characters and writing
The sprites in Fallout were highly detailed and required a significant amount of memory on contemporary computers. 21 NPCs were voiced by various actors, and Ron Perlman voiced the narrator. Some NPCs feature 3D models during conversation called "talking heads", most of which were created by Scott Redenhizer. Each took eight weeks to create, and voice recording took a few months. The talking heads began as sculpted heads of clay, which the team studied to determine which parts should be most animated. The heads were digitized using a Faro Space Arm and VertiSketch, with LightWave 3D used for geometric corrections and the texture maps created in Adobe Photoshop. Much of the spoken dialogue was written by designer Mark O'Green, whose method of writing Taylor considered efficient and impressive. The companions, conceived late in development, were not easy to implement. As a result, they were riddled with glitches, including a tendency to shoot the Vault Dweller when they are obscuring an enemy. Dogmeat was the first companion added. Tycho was a reference to the desert rangers from Wasteland.
Cain wrote the prologue, which included the series catchphrase "War. War never changes". Vault Boy and his cheerful nature parodied how 1950s media downplayed the perils of nuclear war. Cain, who dislikes it when the player character knows more than the player, devised Fallout narrative so that the Vault Dweller would know just as much as the player. The development team conceived of a faction of mutants who grew their ranks by dipping people into virus vats. During the discussion, someone wondered what would happen if more than one person was dropped into the vat. The team conceptualized the leader of the faction as a synthesis of a man, a woman, and a computer terminal mutated together. Cain enjoyed modelling, animating, and writing the Master's dialog, particularly because the Master switched between three voices: male, female, and electronic. The development team became confident in their vision after the audio director reacted to the voice-switching concept, and every department believed the Master would be a great antagonist. The Master was voiced by Jim Cummings and Kath Soucie.
The quests in Fallout were given moral ambiguity, with no clear right or wrong solutions. This was done so the player could take whatever choice suited them best. An example is the final encounter with the Master, whose motives for establishing unity among the wasteland population and making it immune to radiation by turning them into mutants could be perceived as persuasive by the player. Assistant designer Scott Bennie described the backstory of the Master, who views himself as a well-intentioned hero, as an example of their intention of "hit[ting] the player with an emotional sledgehammer as often as possible" with their story design.
Release
Boyarsky and lead artist Jason D. Anderson created advertisements for Fallout. Fallout did not have a trailer, but a demo was released on April 26, 1997. The packaging was designed to resemble a lunch box, and the manual was designed to resemble a survival guide to reflect the game's style. Fallout was released on October 10, 1997, in North America for MS-DOS and Windows. The game was later released for Mac OS by the Interplay division MacPlay. Version 1.1 was released on November 13, 1997, patching many bugs in the original release and removing the 500-day time limit. The patch was released for the Mac OS on December 11, 1997.
Fallout was initially not released in Europe due to the player's ability to kill children in-game. Version 1.2 removed the children from Fallout and it was released at an unspecified date in Europe. MacPlay, which had become independent from Interplay, ported Fallout to Mac OS X in 2002 as part of its "Value Series". Fallout and its sequels, Fallout 2 and Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel, were bundled as Fallout Trilogy in April 2009. To mark its 20th anniversary, the game was made temporarily free on video game digital distribution service Steam on September 30, 2017. It was also included in Fallout Anthology in September and October 2015 and Fallout Legacy Collection in October 2019.
Reception
Fallout received critical acclaim, critics considering it one of the best role-playing video games at the time. PC PowerPlay predicted that Fallout would revive the genre and thought that both casual gamers and fans of role-playing games would enjoy the game. GameSpot declared that because of the release of Fallout, gamers would not have to wait for a good role-playing game anymore. The Electric Playground said that they "can't think of another game that comes even close to Fallout excellent character generation and skill system, great story, and classy delivery."
Critics praised the character system. GamePro considered it the best aspect, and Todd Vaughn of PC Gamer found the system "easy and fun to use." The Washington Post praised the "realistic tradeoffs" during customization. Computer Games Strategy Plus said the system allowed for a variety of effective character builds, and The Electric Playground and PC PowerPlay praised the game for allowing each skill to be useful. GameSpot felt that "the variety of characters that can be created and the truly different experiences that each type of character can have should satisfy even hard-core RPG players."
The post-apocalyptic setting and story were praised. The setting was lauded as refreshing for a role-playing game; Just Adventure said that Fallout abandoned the traditional fantasy-based settings of many role-playing games. Butcher said the game's appearance, sound, and ambient music delivered a believable environment, and Computer Games Strategy Plus found the mix of satire and grit well-executed. GameSpot and the Independent said the storyline was compelling. Critics commended the cinematic introduction; The Electric Playground called it "the most haunting opening movie" he had seen. Butcher praised the ability to complete quests in multiple ways, and Next Generation found the subquests to be a natural outgrowth of the main quest. Computer Gaming World, however, said the dialogue was unable to account for the player's unpredictability, resulting in out-of-order dialogue. Just Adventure considered the ending among the best in video games.
The combat received a slightly positive reception. Several reviews praised its tactical nature, and GameSpot found the targeting system satisfying. Computer Games Strategy Plus said that fans of turn-based RPGs would greatly enjoy the combat because of the wide variety of weapons. Finding the combat unrealistic, Computer Gaming World said that the turn-based system "might bore or disappoint Diablo fans, but will be welcome to most hard-core RPGers." The companions were criticized because the player could not control them directly. Vaughn said the combat was great when playing without companions and frustrating when playing with them.
Sales
Fallout was commercially successful, although it was not as popular as other role-playing video games such as Baldur's Gate and Diablo. It did not meet sales expectations, but developed a fan following and sold enough copies for a sequel to be produced. In the United States, it debuted at No. 12 on PC Data's computer game sales rankings for October 1997. CNET Gamecenter noted that the game was part of a trend of role-playing successes that month, alongside Ultima Online and Lands of Lore 2: Guardians of Destiny, and said, "If October's list is any indication, [role-playing games] are back." Fallout sold 53,777 copies in the US by the end of 1997.
Worldwide, over 100,000 copies were shipped by December 1997, and Erik Bethke reported sales of over 120,000 copies after a year. By March 2000, 144,000 copies had been sold in the US alone. GameSpot called these "very good sales, especially since the overall [worldwide] figures are likely double those amounts". Fallout was unpopular in the United Kingdom, where sales for it and its sequel totaled just over 50,000 combined lifetime sales by 2008. In 2017, Fargo said in an interview that Fallout sold a total of 600,000 copies.
Awards and accolades
The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Fallout for "Computer Entertainment Title of the Year", "PC Role-Playing Game of the Year" and "Outstanding Achievement in Sound and Music" at the inaugural Interactive Achievement Awards. Similarly, the Computer Game Developers Conference nominated Fallout for its "Best Adventure/RPG" Spotlight Award. Fallout received GameSpot's "Best Role-Playing Game" and "Best Ending" prize; and was nominated for GameSpot "Game of the Year". It also won Computer Games Magazine "Role-Playing Game of the Year" award.
Legacy
Influence
The 1990s saw a decline in the popularity of computer role-playing games as a result of stale settings and ideas, competition with other genres, and poor quality assurance. Fallout has been credited as one of several innovative role-playing games that revived the genre's popularity. In 2000, CNET Gamecenter Mark H. Walker wrote, "The RPG genre was clearly in a slump in the mid-'90s, but... the renaissance began when Interplay's Fallout hit store shelves." Rowan Kaiser, writing for Engadget, called Fallout the "first modern role-playing game".
Fallout post-apocalyptic setting was novel, as contemporary role-playing games often featured Tolkien-inspired fantasy settings. Fallout also stood out for its focus on the player character, how their choices impacted the game world, and the open-world gameplay. Matthew Byrd of Den of Geek wrote that Fallout departure from gameplay inspired by the tabletop role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, prevalent in role-playing games at the time, made it influential. Kaiser stated that any modern game with a morality system could be tied back to Fallout. At the 2012 Game Developers Conference, Cain gave a presentation about Fallout development and noted traits that were shared by subsequent role-playing games, including open-world gameplay, ambiguous morality, and perks.
Polygon described Fallout as "one of the most influential games of its time." After leaving Interplay in 1998, Cain, Boyarsky, and Anderson formed Troika Games and created Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura (2001). Cain considered Fallout a "stepping stone" to the creation of Arcanum. Years later, working for Obsidian Entertainment, Cain and Boyarsky created The Outer Worlds (2019), a role-playing video game influenced by Fallout. After the Fallout series became popular, Wasteland 2 (2014) was pitched by Fargo and developed by inXile Entertainment, which Fargo founded, with a design team featuring Anderson and Fallout composer Mark Morgan. PC Gamer found Wasteland 2 to be more similar the first two Fallout games than the original Wasteland. Other personnel from the Fallout development team have worked on games that were influenced by Fallout such as Neverwinter Nights 2 (2006) and Alpha Protocol (2008). A feature similar to the perks in Fallout, called "feats", was added to the third edition of Dungeons & Dragons. Other games with similar features, according to Cain, include World of Warcraft (2004) and Oblivion (2006). Both Metro 2033 (2010) and Atom RPG (2018) are post-apocalyptic games that were influenced by Fallout. Other games influenced by Fallout include Deus Ex (2000), Dark Angel: Vampire Apocalypse (2001), and Weird West (2022).
Retrospective reception
Fallout continues to receive acclaim, considered one of the best role-playing games on PC. Retrospective critics consider the game innovative and praise its setting as refreshing for a role-playing game. Although The Escapist thought the game lost some of its appeal over time, they found the gameplay "intriguing, sometimes addictive". GamesRadar+ found Fallout worth returning to despite perceiving the game as outdated. Critical assessments of Fallout quality relative to its sequels differ. GamesRadar+ ranked it low among the series, IGN ranked it in the middle, and Kotaku and Paste Magazine ranked it high.
Many critics consider the Master to be one of the best video game villains. GameSpot singled out Jim Cummings's voice acting as the Master as "chilling" and considered him "one of the most memorable antagonists in computer-gaming history." The final encounter with the Master has been lauded for its multiple solutions that took advantage of character system, with the boss fight itself being optional.
Multiple journalists especially praised the option to convince the Master that he is wrong, with Kotaku describing it as "unforgettable", and UGO describing it as "fun". IGN said that this aforementioned ability proved that in role-playing games, dialogue can be just as valid as fighting. Praising the final confrontation, USGamer Mike Williams said, "Even at its end, Fallout is about player choice, and the choices available to you are pretty clever." GamesRadar+ called the player's encounter with the Master "one of the most striking storytelling devices of its era", and IGN called it one of the series' most memorable moments.
The game has been inducted into the "Hall of Fame" (or similar award) of Computer Gaming World, GameSpot, GameSpy, and IGN. The 2002 MacPlay ports of Fallout and Fallout 2 were listed under "Best Games Rescued from Oblivion" in Macworld "2002 Game Hall of Fame". Fallout was included in the 2010 reference book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die and was exhibited in Smithsonian American Art Museum's "The Art of Video Games" under the category of adventure games in March 2011. Fallout has been ranked as one of the best PC games of all time by PC Gamer and IGN. It has also been listed as among the greatest video games of all time by IGN and Polygon.
Series
Fallout was followed by a series of sequels and spin-offs, often different in genre and ambiance from the original game. Cain did not work on any sequels and spin-offs beyond brainstorming for Fallout 2, and left Interplay during its development. Interplay owned the Fallout rights until 2007, when they were purchased by Bethesda Softworks. The first Bethesda-developed Fallout game was Fallout 3. The series has been acclaimed, influential among developers, and among the most popular in the video game industry. Vault Boy became the franchise's mascot and is considered iconic. Other recurring elements include the Super Mutants, the Brotherhood of Steel, the PIPBoy (known as the Pip-Boy in later games), and Power Armor.
Three sequels have been released: Fallout 2 in 1998, Fallout 3 in 2008, and Fallout 4 in 2015. All received positive reviews. Spin-offs include Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel in 2001, Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel in 2004, Fallout: New Vegas in 2010, Fallout Shelter in 2015, and Fallout 76 in 2018. Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel and Fallout: New Vegas received positive reviews, while Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel, Fallout Shelter, and Fallout 76 received mixed reviews.
Other media
In 1998, Interplay wrote a script for a film adaptation of Fallout, to be produced by its Interplay Films studio. The adaptation was canceled following the dissolution of Interplay Films in 2000. Throughout 2002, Chris Avellone, a designer of Fallout 2, compiled research of Fallout world and released a series of issues known as the Fallout Bible. Following Bethesda's acquisition of the Fallout franchise, the Fallout Bible became non-canon. Morgan released a remastered soundtrack album for Fallout on May 10, 2010. A television adaptation, with Lisa Joy and Jonathan Nolan as executive producers, was announced in July 2020. In 2022, Amazon approved the show for its streaming service Amazon Prime Video.
See also
History of Western role-playing video games
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Fallout at Bethesda.net
Fallout at MobyGames
1997 video games
Anti-war video games
Classic Mac OS games
DOS games
Fallout (series) video games
Fiction set in the 2160s
Interplay Entertainment games
MacOS games
Open-world video games
Role-playing video games
Satirical video games
Single-player video games
Video games about cults
Video games with gender-selectable protagonists
Video games scored by Mark Morgan
Video games set in the 22nd century
Video games set in California
Video games set in Los Angeles
Video games with isometric graphics
Windows games
Video games developed in the United States |
4509070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilmoreosaurus | Gilmoreosaurus | Gilmoreosaurus (meaning "Charles Whitney Gilmore's lizard") is the name given to a genus of dinosaur from the Cretaceous of Asia. The type species is Gilmoreosaurus mongoliensis. It is believed to be a hadrosaur or iguanodont from the Iren Dabasu Formation of Inner Mongolia, dating to 96 Ma ago. Additional specimens have been described as distinct species, including G. atavus from the Khodzhakul Formation of Uzbekistan (120 Ma ago) and G. arkhangelskyi from the Bissekty Formation (89 Ma ago). However, these are based on very fragmentary remains, and their classification is dubious. An additional species, G. kysylkumense (also from the Bissekty Formation) is sometimes included, though it has also been referred to the related genus Bactrosaurus.
History of study
Asian expeditions and Gilmore's "Mandschurosaurus mongoliensis"
In the early twentieth century, the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) conducted a series of palaeontological expeditions to the deserts of Asia. One geologic formation where work was conducted during these expeditions was the Iren Dabasu Formation in Inner Mongolia, China. The fieldwork here was done by a field team led by Walter Granger. Nobody among them were specialists in dinosaurs; instead the AMNH had sent mostly geologists and mammal palaeontologists. Many dinosaur remains were discovered, but their nature would remain unknown to the discovers until experts back in America examined the material. The initial excavations of dinosaur fossils at Iren Dabasu took place on three days in April and May 1922. They conducted more extensive digs a year later from April 23 to June 1, 1923. Several new genera and species were discovered from the formation; among them were two new types of hadrosaur. It was these two that would later prove to be the most significant of the finds. They were among the first remains of the group from the continent, preceded only by Mandschurosaurus amurensis, Tanius sinensis, some remains from Turkestan and Saurolophus krischtofovici, with the validity of the latter species already doubted. The material that would eventually come to be known as Gilmoreosaurus was discovered by George Olsen (a member of Granger's team) in two different quarries (145 and 149, about apart), around northeast of the town of Erenhot and not far from the border with Mongolia. Several individuals were represented and between them most of the skeleton found, but the material was disarticulated and so what pieces belonged to each individual is not possible to determine for certain.
Once it had arrived back to New York, the Mongolian material was given to Barnum Brown to study. Brown was renowned for his field collection of dinosaurs, but he was too busy to attend the Asian expeditions. He did extensive work on the material and had prepared names for the new species, but for unknown reasons he ceased work on the project before its completion. Instead, the fossils were sent to the Smithsonian and would be described and named as new species by Charles W. Gilmore. The Smithsonian had little in terms of a dinosaur fossil collection and Gilmore as such was more reliant on the literature than first hand comparisons in his studies. Despite this, his work in the field is considered to be of high quality. He published his findings in 1933, describing both hadrosaurs as well as several other dinosaurs. One of the hadrosaurs, then thought to be a lambeosaur, was the novel genus Bactrosaurus. The second, known from at least four individuals and thought to be a hadrosaurine, was named as a new species of Mandschurosaurus, M. mongoliensis. This choice was made tentatively; Gilmore was mindful of the possibility his species may later require its own genus, but did not currently feel there was sufficient difference from M. amurensis for this. Gilmore's description of the species' anatomy was rather brief and would prove inadequate to understanding the taxon decades later; he provided no clear diagnosis (a list of what traits establish a species as different from its relatives). Another issue caused by Gilmore's work was that all the material, from all the individuals, was catalogued under a singular specimen number. Later palaeontologists thus had to recatalogue all of the elements under more modern standards.
Following its original naming, Gilmore's species would remain poorly understood and received limited attention from other palaeontologists. Despite this, the occasions it was discussed often brought major taxonomic changes. One persistent issue surrounding the taxonomy of the Iren Dabasu hadrosaurs was the nature of cranial material found at the Bactrosaurus quarry. Gilmore assumed, based on its association with the rest of the Bactrosaurus material, that it must belong to that genus; no other elements at the site were inconsistent with just one species being present. He was perplexed, however, by its lack of a hollow-crest, something thought universal among lambeosaurs. He did consider the possibility it belonged to M. mongoliensis, and also noted its resemblance to specimens of the genus Tanius, but eventually discarded both ideas. C. C. Young revived the latter idea, and assigned the material to Tanius. Regarding Mandschurosaurus he agreed with Gilmore's referral of his species to the genus, and went further to say it's possible it actually represents the same species as M. amurensis. Anatoly K. Rozhdestvensky, in the 1960s, considered a different solution; that Bactrosaurus was in fact a hadrosaurine, not a lambeosaurine. Furthermore, he thought that M. mongoliensis was merely a synonym of his hadrosaurine Bactrosaurus, a position he would continue to hold in future works. Future authors would disagree, reaffirming the two hadrosaurs as distinct and Bactrosaurus as a lambeosaur.
Reclassification as Gilmoreosaurus and subsequent research
The next major change in taxonomy would come from Michael K. Brett-Surman, who was in the process of a revision of the entire hadrosaur family. Firstly, he provided a novel diagnosis for the species in his 1975 master's thesis. However, Brett-Surman considered Mandschurosaurus amurensis to be dubious; he therefore thought it necessary to give Gilmore's species a new generic name. As such, he coined the genus Gilmoreosaurus in 1979, honouring Gilmore, and created the new combination Gilmoreosaurus mongoliensis. He considered Gilmore's two hadrosaurs to be of great importance, something he elaborated on in a short 1980 paper. He described the anatomy of Gilmoreosaurus as "partly iguanodont and partly hadrosaurine" and saw it as the ancestral form of hadrosaurine; Bactrosaurus, likewise, was seen as the ancestral lambeosaur. It was based in part on the two species, as well as on Probactrosaurus, that he concluded that hadrosaurs had originated in Asia. One thing that interested Brett-Surman greatly was the similarity of the Asian fauna to the later fauna of the North American Two Medicine Formation; Gilmore had, in his 1933 paper, made similar comments about the nature of Asian and American faunas. The 1980 paper noted that a lot of additional material from Iren Dabasu was never described by Gilmore, especially material pertaining to juvenile material. Brett-Surman reported that he and John R. Horner were at work investigating this material to form a more complete understanding of the formations' fauna. Referring to this, he concluded the paper by saying: "Although no more expeditions are possible to Mongolia by this time, light will be shed on the natural history of dinosaurs by further scientific expeditions to the basement of the natural history museum".
Halszka Osmólska and Teresa Maryańska published a paper in 1981 which focused on Saurolophus angustirostris, but also provided comments on Asian hadrosaurs as a whole. Among these comments, they returned to the issue of the skull material. They disagreed the otherwise monospecific nature of the quarry (i.e. only one species seeming to be present) was stronger evidence than the discordant anatomy of the material. As such, they revived Young's model and tentatively assigned the material to Tanius, which they felt it fit most closely. They noted the skull may prove to belong to either Gilmoreosaurus or Bactrosaurus after additional research. This would come to be in 1985, when Horner and David B. Weishampel would re-examine the material of both Iren Dabasu genera as well as material Gilmore never described, as had been indicated by Brett-Surman. Osmólska provided feedback on their study. The relevant new material was remains that the authors considered to be "clearly lambeosaurine" in nature, and so referrable to Bactrosaurus. As they could not possibly fit with the skull material, they concluded said material wasn't from the genus. Instead, they decided that it, congruent with its seemingly hadrosaurine nature, belonged to Gilmoreosaurus. At the end of the paper they reaffirmed the importance of both genera as the best record of early hadrosaurs.
The issue would finally be put to rest by Pascal Godefroit and colleagues in 1998, when they published a study describing newly discovered Bactrosaurus material. They returned to the original position of Gilmore, that the possibility of two taxa in the Bactrosaurus type quarry was extremely remote and that the skull material belonged not to Gilmoreosaurus but Bactrosaurus. The reasoning for the paradoxical nature of the anatomy was that Bactrosaurus was not a lambeosaur or even hadrosaurid at all but instead a more primitive form of hadrosauroid merely convergent with its later relatives. They remarked that it would be informative to test the phylogenetic affinities of Gilmoreosaurus as well, but that it was too poorly described to allow this. Modern review of the species was considered to be direly needed. Seeking to finally resolve the longstanding issue, Albert Prieto-Márquez and Mark A. Norrel began work on a thorough redescription of Gilmoreosaurus; this was published in 2010. Resolving its phylogenetic position was a priority and the ultimate motive behind the endeavor. All known material of the genus was examined for the study. One thing allowed by the redescription was a modern diagnosis of G. mongoliensis, as the 1975 one was found to be lacking. They also specifically touched on the idea the two Iren Dabasu hadrosaurs could be synonyms as Rozhdestvensky had thought. This idea was rejected, with numerous differences between the two found. Studies since the redescription have been able to include Gilmoreosaurus in research on hadrosaur phylogeny.
Description
Gilmoreosaurus was a relatively large-sized hadrosauroid which could grow up to long and obtain weights between . The genus can be distinguished from other hadrosauroid taxa in having a very reduced paddle-shaped postacetabular process and an asymmetrical manual phalanx III-1 end. Although the preserved elements are very sparse and probably representing more than one individual, the specimen AMNH FARB 30729 represents a single animal composed by a left ulna and radius.
Skull and dentition
A complete skull articulated is not known from the multiple specimens, however, numerous elements are known such as the right maxilla, dentary, jugal, squamosal and two lacrimals, quadrate and a complete predentary. In a lateral view, the right maxilla of specimen AMNH FARB 30653 is triangular in shape with various foramina on the surface. On the inner side 26 alveolar foramen are preserved and 22 alveoli are filled with teeth but the total count may be unknown due to incompleteness, the surface of this side is rather flat. The teeth are oval-shaped with a moderately pinched upper end and have coarse denticles, these denticles have three diminutive pointed structures. It appears to be that the dentary teeth were more flattened with a pinched lower end as indicated by nine isolated teeth. In all teeth, a ridge-like structure is located at the center. An isolated and partial right jugal is represented by AMNH FARB 30657, which has lost most of the anterior area in the rostral joint. It has a triangular-shaped form in a lateral view and flattened to the inner sides. The partial rostral joint is square and the lateral surface is somewhat concave but in the medial surface the articulation for the maxilla can be identified. The upper surface of the rostral joint forms a flattened socket-like structure that continues towards the rear with the base of the postorbital ramus. This ramus is projected to the top and slightly tilted towards the rear. The upper portion of the postorbital ramus is triangular when seen from the cross-section. Towards the lower end, the anterior surface of the ramus is clipped with a triangle-like pit that wedges towards the bottom to configurate the lower end of the jugal ramus of the postorbital.
There are two lacrimal bones preserved from specimens AMNH FARB 30655 and 30656. Overall, the left lacrimal of AMNH FARB 30655 is wedge-shaped in a lateral view, denoting the anterior shape of the orbit, and flattened from the inner side to the lateral one. The top surface is thin and overlapped by the ventral border of the premaxilla joint that is developed from the rear to the bottom. On the bottom surface, a large and elliptical foramen is visible, allowing the connection for the rostral joint of the jugal. On the posterior surface another foramen is present, ending on the ventral surface where the exit is located. These foramina are connected through the lacrimal channel. The right squamosal is labelled as AMNH FARB 30658. The main body is subtriangular with the lateral surface being gently convex. In contrast, its lower inner surface is more concave and cross-cut by a minor ridge-like structure. As a whole, the squamosal is flattened from the inner side to the top. There are three projections coming from the main body, which can be identified as the anterior postorbital joint, the lateral postcotyloid joint and the inner ramus. However, only the lower part of the postorbital joint is preserved. The precotyloid opening is absent, but this feature is very variable in both Hadrosauroidea and Hadrosauridae.
Two quadrate bones are preserved (specimens AMNH FARB 30659 and 30660). It is very straight in general with only a gentle curvature on the posterior border. The articular surface of the head is triangle-shaped and flatted to the lateral side. A relatively large, ridge-like formation can be observed on the posterior edge near the top, likely supporting the squamosal. This character is also reported in other iguanodontians and hadrosauroids, such as Brachylophosaurus or Gryposaurus. The lateral surface of the quadrate is flat and on the anterior border a cut for the quadratojugal can be identified, however, most of its articular borders are lost except a small dorsal area and a long bottom surface. A right dentary is represented by specimen AMNH FARB 30654, a partial element with a badly eroded dental battery. It preserves about 15 alveoli of which none is filled with teeth. The total dentary teeth count on Gilmoreosaurus was probably less than 30 and the tooth row is oriented to the lateral sides as seen in other hadrosauroids, unlike the more advanced hadrosaurids. The upper toothless border of the dentary and a significant portion of the articular border for the predentary are missing, but given that both of these borders have minor lengths—about less than the 25% of the length of the dental battery—they indicate that the toothless area between the tooth row and the predentary was rather reduced—another trait present in hadrosauroids but lost in hadrosaurids. The predentary is represented by a complete element of specimen AMNH FARB 6369, which has a U-shaped form. Numerous and pointed denticles are preserved on the dorsal surface of the predentary, giving a serrated texture.
Vertebral column
The vertebral column is represented by four cervical, ten dorsal, seven sacral and thirty three caudal vertebrae of several specimens. The vertebrae are mostly similar to those of other hadrosauroids but some traits can be noted. The cervical vertebrae of specimens AMNH FARB 30671-30673 have centra that are opisthocoelous (concave on their posterior sides), heart-shaped in a posterior view and flattened on the inner side. The centra of the anterior dorsals in AMNH FARB 30674-3068 appear to be less opisthocoelous but they also have heart-shaped facets. The neural spines are very elongated and subrectangular in shape, they are slightly curved to the posterior side. In the middle and posterior dorsals of AMNH FARB 30681-30685 the neural spines are more straight and thicker. The preserved sacrum is composed by three elements, three fused vertebrae, four fused neural spines and four fused centra. Being relatively elongated, the centra in the three fused vertebrae are platycoelus (slightly concave at both ends) and have the lineal heart-shaped facets. When seen from the bottom surface, a ridge-like structure is located at the center as in Bactrosaurus, Claosaurus or Iguanodon. The neural canal—where the spinal cord passes through—is very large and expanded to the bottom. The four fused neural spines form a compact element, having very thickened and relatively elongated spines. The last sacral element is represented by four fused centra. These centra are widened to the lateral sides and while the posterior facet is lightly concave, the anterior one is more flattened. Lastly, the caudal vertebrae have very flattened centra with smally neural canals and neural spines that are projected towards the rear, although these traits become progressively marked towards the tail end as seen in many other iguanodontians.
Limbs and limb girdles
The pectoral area is represented by both scapulae and coracoids from several specimens as well. In general, the coracoid has a oval-shaped form with a prominent coracoid foramen through which the supracoracoid nerve passes and the glenoid is D-shaped. The bottom articulation is shortened and triangular, as well as directed to the bottom area rather than hooked from the rear to the bottom in a lateral as in many other hadrosauroids and not hadrosaurids. The scapula is very straight in a top view with its inner surface being flattened throughout most of the length. The scapular blade is not particularly elongated and is somewhat rounded at its end which seems to be a common trait in hadrosauroids except for Bactrosaurus. The proximal constriction, the area of the scapula lying between the proximal region and the distal blade, is very narrow; its breadth is about half the width of the proximal region. The putative acromion process is slightly tilted forwards. The deltoid ridge—a ridge-like structure on the humerus where the deltoid muscle is attached—is well developed and extends from the acromion process to the bottom edge of the scapular blade. The coracoid facet is concave and subrectangular shape. The glenoid is concave and more elongated than its width. The humerus is a relatively stocky and robust bone. Its main articular head is expanded from the inner side to the lateral one and proximally offset relative to its proximolateral corner. The deltopectoral crest—where the deltoid muscle was attached to the upper front of the humerus—is developed to the lower side from the upper half of the humerus, and its bottom extension has a total width diameter of the humeral shaft ratio of 1.67. The lateral border of the deltopectoral crest is very thick towards the bottom border. However, as a whole, this crest is relatively shortened in length. In cross-section, the humeral shaft is elliptical in shape and gently flattened to the lateral surface. A large tuberosity can be observed on the posterior surface of the humerus—about 1/3 the distance from the upper end. The lower end of the humerus is expanded to the lateral side forming the ulnar and radial condyles. The ulnar condyle is more wider and expanded than the radial one and these two condyles are separated by a shallow depression on the anterior and posterior surfaces of the lower end of the humerus. The radius is subcylindrical in shape with expanded upper and lower ends. The articulation surfaces of this bone with those of the ulna in AMNH FARB 30729 match perfectly, indicating that they represent the same individual. Both bottom and top surfaces in the radius are triangular and shape but the former is more flattened. The lower end is more expanded than the upper one and is also triangular in cross-section. Additionally, the articular lower surface of the radius is triangular and has striations. The ulna is shortened compared to other hadrosauroids. It is expanded at its upper and lower ends and the dorsal surface of the upper third shows a shallow depression that likely served as the attachment site for the upper end of the radius. The inner surface is very concave in shape. The middle and lower regions of the shaft change from wider to more expanded near the lower end of the ulna. The latter is nearly equal in thickness as the upper end. The lower fifth of the ulna has a flattened articular surface for the radius that faces from the inner to the top facets and shows elongated striations.
Though very fragmented, the manus is represented by the left metacarpal IV with two right phalanges. The metacarpal is very short—more so than what is known in other hadrosauroids—and has a gently tilted shape. The upper end is more broad than the lower one and its articular surface is rather round. Phalanx II-1 is fairly elongated and has concave articular surfaces. However, phalanx III-1 is much shorter than the previous elements, having a semi-square shape and being wider than long. Its articular surfaces are more convex. The ilium is elongated and shallow in shape with its preacetabular process (anterior expansion of the iliac blade) also being long and deflected towards the bottom. The upper region of this process is deep. The shape of the top border of the ilium has a degree of variability among specimens. The supraacetabular process (a bony projection at the top border of the ilium) has an asymmetrical, v-shaped appearance in profile and its lateral projection is tilted to the bottom. This process also develops near the upper region of the postacetabular process (posterior expansion of the iliac blade). The pubic peduncle—a robust process in front of the acetabulum—is triangular in shape and expanded from the inner to lateral surfaces. The ischiac peduncle, which is a lesser process located just behind the acetabulum, shows a well-developed tuberosity towards the top surface. When compared, the preacetabular process is much more elongated and developed than the posterior one. The ischium is notoriously elongated and has a wide and robust iliac peduncle—tubercle-like structure that connects to the ilium. Its anterior and posterior borders are gently similar upwards. Being more broad than the iliac peduncle, the pubic peduncle is very flattened from the inner to lateral sides and its articular surface faces towards the bottom. The lower end of the ischium has a characteristic "foot-like" expansion and though its bottom border is eroded, enough is preserved to tell that it was not greatly expanded in this area. There is only a single pubis that has lost most of its areas due to erosion. Both ischial and pubic peduncles are separated by the rounded acetabular border of the pubis. A vast majority of the bone is losing the lower end, however, it is clear this region was not particularly rounded.
The femur is a straight and robust element that is gently curved to the inner side. This element is mostly similar in build to other hadrosauroids with a well-developed fourth trochanter and lateral-inner condyles. The latter two are separated by grooves. The anterior trochanter is elongated and large, being forwards offset and excluded from the lateral surface of the upper region of the femur by a fissure. One of the most common elements among the collection is represented by the tibia—about six elements. It is a robust element that is slightly shorter than the femur, and is composed of a rather cylindrical shaft that is expanded at both upper and lower ends; more expanded at the latter though. The cnemial crest is very elongated and developed near the upper end of the bone. A main difference between the juvenile and adult tibiae can be noted by the bottom tilt of the lateral malleolus—this trait is less developed in juveniles. Another character less developed in juveniles is the definition and sharpness of the distal margin of the cnemial crest. Furthermore, the upper inner condyle of the tibia is reduced in juveniles. The fibula is particularly straight and elongated. It is flattened to the lateral side and the upper end is more expanded than the lower one. While the lateral surface is gently convex, the inner one bears a long depression near the upper region. On the lower end, a flat articular surface can be located and is tilted forwards. Among the tarsal elements, the astragalus is the largest. It has an irregular shape with well-developed processes, and the articular surface for the fibula is shallowed. The calcaneum is square in shape and divided into four different surfaces. Among them, the upper surface articulates with the fibula and is separated from the tibial articular surface by a curved ridge-like structure.
Among the metatarsus elements, metatarsal III and IV are present. The former is composed of a rather stocky shaft that has expanded upper and lower ends. Its upper articular surface is D-shaped, and the upper half of the inner surface shows a notorious depression for the articulation with metatarsal II. On the bottom surface of this metatarsal, a large ridge-like structure is present and extends along the upper two-thirds of the element. The lateral and inner surfaces of the lower end of metatarsal III are concave—mostly on the inner one—and subcircular. Metatarsal IV is fairly more slender than the previous element and its shaft is flattened from the top to bottom regions. The upper articular surface is concave and also D-shaped, with equal widened top and bottom borders. The bottom-most surface of the bone is concave and the medial one features a large tuberosity upwards to the mid-length. The lower end is nearly equally in its expansions and the articular surface is downwards convex and less concave to the lateral surface than in metatarsal III. The lateral and inner surfaces of the lower end of metatarsal IV have an oval shape and are very concave. Pedal phalanges II-1 through IV-1 are stout and show triangular-shaped and concave upper surfaces. Among the three uppermost phalanges, II-1 is the deepest. Phalanx III-1 is downwards flattened and has a subelliptical upper articular surface. Pedal phalanx II-2 is a robust element that wider than long. Its upper surface is relatively smooth and concave. The bottom border of this surface is further extended backwards in relation to the top border. Two lower phalanges belong to digit IV. These phalanges are even more flattened than phalanx II-2. Their lower and upper surfaces are similar to those of phalanx II-2, but can be differentiated in being more concave. Pedal unguals are mostly flattened and convex with elliptical upper surfaces. These elements are more arrow-shaped and more sharply developed than in hadrosaurids. The unguals of digits II and IV are asymmetrical, with more elongated inner and lateral flanges, and longer upper regions.
Classification
Although a consensus on the exact taxonomic placement of this genus remains unreached, a 2010 study by Prieto-Márquez and Norell places the animal in a closely related outgroup to Hadrosauridae, based on a reassessment of its taxonomic status using a large-sample phylogenic analysis.
Paleobiology
Growth
A comprehensive study on the bone microstructure of Asian hadrosauroid dinosaurs, evaluating its implications for the knowledge of growth strategies and evolution of gigantism in hadrosauroids, was published by Slowiak and colleagues in 2020 revealing that several growth strategies facilitated gigantism. Several hadrosaurs were histologically analyzed, including Barsboldia, Gobihadros, Saurolophus and ZPAL MgD-III/2-17, an indeterminate second species of hadrosauroid present in the Bayan Shireh Formation. The latter was slightly smaller than Gobihadros as seen on the developed external fundamental system (tightly-spaced LAGs that indicate adulthood) on the tibia. This hadrosauroid however, shares several traits with Gilmoreosaurus—most likely due to the proximities of both Bayan Shireh and Iren Dabasu formations—and the phylogenetic analyses performed recovered both hadrosaur species in a polytomy along with Lophorhothon and the indeterminate hadrosauroid. This analysis suggests similar growth size and rates in these species. Slowiak and colleagues noted that the growth trend within the Hadrosauroidea featured two important adaptations of bone microstructure similar to those of Eusauropoda. The first important adaptation was the decrease of secondary remodelling in the tibia, allowing the bone to bear higher tensions. This feature is thought to represent a biomechanical response to their increasing body-size evolution since the center of mass was concentrated on the pelvic area and therefore supported by well-developed hindlimbs. This explains the slender forelimbs in most hadrosaurs. A second adaptation was the disappearance of lines of arrested growth (LAGs). This feature, also reported in giant sauropods, allowed uninterrupted growth during ontogeny.
Paleopathology
In 2003, Rothschild and colleagues performed analyses in search for pathologies in several dinosaur specimens. Evidence of tumors, including hemangiomas, desmoplastic fibroma, metastatic cancer, and osteoblastoma were discovered in numerous specimens of Gilmoreosaurus by analyzing them through computerized tomography and fluoroscope screening. Several other hadrosaurids, including Brachylophosaurus, Edmontosaurus, and Bactrosaurus also tested positive. Although more than 10000 fossils were examined in this manner, the tumors were limited to Gilmoreosaurus and other hadrosaurs. The tumors were only found on caudal vertebrae and they may have been caused by environmental factors, such as the way in which these hadrosaurs interacted with their environments, making them more susceptible to get cancer, or, through genetic inheritance. Meaning that they carried cancer-promoting genes.
In 2007, Rothschild and Tanke reported the increased presence of osteochondrosis in hadrosaurs. Though they examined several other dinosaur groups, this disease appears to be particularly common in hadrosaurs, which were rapidly growing animals. The analysis was focused in pedal bones since osteochondrosis has not been reported from manual elements. Specimens of Edmontosaurus and Hypacrosaurus were more affected by osteochondrosis (5% and 2% of occurrence, respectively) but in hadrosauroids like Gilmoreosaurus and Bactrosaurus the disease was rather absent, likely due to the relatively low sample and therefore the presence of osteochondrosis in all hadrosaurs can not be discarded. These findings indicate that the skeleton of dinosaurs was primarily formed by cartilage.
Paleoenvironment
Gilmoreosaurus is known from the Late Cretaceous Iren Dabasu Formation, which has been dated back to the Cenomanian stage around 95.8 ± 6.2 million years ago. During its times, the formation was dominated by braided floodplains and large meanders with some connections to the oceans. Extensive vegetation that maintained a great variety of herbivorous dinosaurs was also present on the formation as seen on the multiple skeletons of hadrosauroids, the prominent paleosol and the numerous palynological occurrences.
Hadrosauroid remains are very common across the formation, which reflect these animals as wide-ranging in both time and space. Bactrosaurus is another hadrosauroid from the formation, known from multiple specimens like Gilmoreosaurus. Ponderous herbivorous animals like Gilmoreosaurus and Bactrosaurus may have been medium to low-level browsers. Fellow herbivores include the therizinosaurids Erliansaurus and Neimongosaurus. Gigantoraptor, a large oviraptorosaur from the formation, may have been an omnivore as suggested by the mandibular morphology or at least, a partial high-browser. The geographic range of Gilmoreosaurus overlapped with the fast-running tyrannosauroid Alectrosaurus, likely being the prey item for this theropod.
See also
Timeline of hadrosaur research
References
Hadrosaurs
Cenomanian life
Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Cretaceous Mongolia
Fossils of Mongolia
Fossil taxa described in 1979
Ornithischian genera |
4509284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy%20of%20Solomon%20Islands | Monarchy of Solomon Islands | The monarchy of Solomon Islands is a system of government in which a hereditary monarch is the sovereign and head of state of Solomon Islands. The current monarch and head of state since 8 September 2022, is King Charles III. As sovereign, he is the personal embodiment of the Crown of Solomon Islands. Although the person of the sovereign is equally shared with 14 other independent countries within the Commonwealth of Nations, each country's monarchy is separate and legally distinct. As a result, the current monarch is officially titled King of Solomon Islands and, in this capacity, he and other members of the royal family undertake public and private functions domestically and abroad as representatives of Solomon Islands. However, the King is the only member of the royal family with any constitutional role.
All executive authority is vested in the monarch, and royal assent is required for the National Parliament of Solomon Islands to enact laws and for letters patent and Orders in Council to have legal effect. But the authority for these acts stems from the country's populace, in which sovereignty is vested, and the monarch's direct participation in any of these areas of governance is limited. Most of the powers are exercised by the elected members of parliament, the ministers of the Crown generally drawn from amongst them, and the judges and justices of the peace. Other powers vested in the monarch, such as the appointment of a prime minister, are significant but are treated only as reserve powers and as an important security part of the role of the monarchy.
The Crown today primarily functions as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. While some powers are exercisable only by the sovereign, most of the monarch's operational and ceremonial duties are exercised by his representative, the governor-general of Solomon Islands.
History
In 1884, Germany annexed north-east New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago, and in 1886 they extended their rule over the North Solomon Islands. In 1886, Germany and Britain confirmed this arrangement, with the British gaining a "sphere of influence" over the southern Solomons. The British Solomon Islands Protectorate was declared in 1893, partly in response to abuses associated with labour recruitment and partly to regulate contacts between islanders and European settlers but mainly to forestall a threat of annexation by France. Colonial rule began in 1896. During World War II, the Solomon Islands campaign (1942–1945) saw fierce fighting between the United States, British Commonwealth forces and the Empire of Japan, including the Battle of Guadalcanal. After the war, Honiara on Guadalcanal became the new capital, replacing Tulagi. Subsequently, the Solomons set out on the path of constitutional development and decolonisation.
Appointed Executive and Legislative Councils were established in 1960, with a degree of elected Solomon Islander representation introduced in 1964 and then extended in 1967. A new constitution was drawn up in 1970 which merged the two Councils into one Governing Council, though the British Governor still retained extensive powers.
A new constitution in 1974 reduced much of the Governor's remaining powers and created the post of Chief Minister. Full self-government for the territory was achieved in 1976, and the following year a conference held in London agreed that the Solomons would gain full independence in 1978. Under the terms of the Solomon Islands Act 1978 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the country became a sovereign state and an independent constitutional monarchy on 7 July 1978, with Queen Elizabeth II as head of state and Queen of Solomon Islands.
Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester represented the Queen at the independence celebrations in July 1978. On 7 July, after the flag-raising ceremony, Baddeley Devesi and Peter Kenilorea took their oaths of office as governor-general and prime minister respectively. The Duke, who delivered his speech in Pijin, said: "Today onefella big day, hemi come now. Country belong you fella, hemi grow up, and Queen hemi wantim every something belong you fella. E come up goodfellow long or get a years, bye bye e come."
The Crown of Solomon Islands and its aspects
Solomon Islands is one of fifteen independent nations, known as Commonwealth realms, which shares its sovereign with other realms in the Commonwealth of Nations, with the monarch's relationship with Solomon Islands completely independent from his position as monarch of any other realm. Despite sharing the same person as their respective monarch, each of the Commonwealth realms — including Solomon Islands — is sovereign and independent of the others. The Solomon Island monarch is represented by a viceroy—the governor-general of Solomon Islands—in the country.
Since the independence of Solomon Islands in 1978, the pan-national Crown has had both a shared and a separate character and the sovereign's role as monarch of Solomon Islands is distinct to his or her position as monarch of any other realm, including the United Kingdom. The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution and in Solomon Islands became a Solomon Island, or "domesticated" establishment.
This division is illustrated in a number of ways: The sovereign, for example, holds a unique Solomon Island title and, when he is acting in public specifically as a representative of Solomon Islands, he uses, where possible, national symbols of Solomon Islands, including the country's national flag, unique royal symbols, and the like. Also, only Solomon Island government ministers can advise the sovereign on matters of Solomon Islands.
In Solomon Islands, the legal personality of the State is referred to as "His Majesty in right of Solomon Islands" or the "Crown in right of Solomon Islands".
Title
Although Queen Elizabeth II became Head of State of Solomon Islands upon independence in 1978, it was not until 2013 that the National Parliament passed the Royal Style and Titles Act 2013, which legally granted the monarch a separate title in relation to Solomon Islands. Upon the commencement of the act, the Queen's official style and title became: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Solomon Islands and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. The new style was already in non-statutory use since 1988, when it was included in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and External Trade Manual.
Since the accession of King Charles III, the monarch's title is: Charles the Third, by the Grace of God, King of Solomon Islands and His other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth.
When Queen Elizabeth II first visited Solomon Islands in 1974, she was given the title Fau Ni Qweraasi, meaning "a people’s protector", by chief Simeon Kariqwongi of Star Harbour.
Oath of allegiance
As the embodiment of the state, the monarch is the locus of oaths of Allegiance. This is done in reciprocation to the sovereign's Coronation Oath, wherein they promise to govern the peoples of their realms, "according to their respective laws and customs".
The oath of allegiance in Solomon Islands is:
Succession
Like some realms, Solomon Islands defers to United Kingdom law to determine the line of succession.
Succession is by absolute primogeniture governed by the provisions of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013, as well as the Act of Settlement, 1701, and the Bill of Rights, 1689. This legislation limits the succession to the natural (i.e. non-adopted), legitimate descendants of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and stipulates that the monarch cannot be a Roman Catholic, and must be in communion with the Church of England upon ascending the throne. Though these constitutional laws, as they apply to Solomon Islands, still lie within the control of the British Parliament, both the United Kingdom and Solomon Islands cannot change the rules of succession without the unanimous consent of the other realms, unless explicitly leaving the shared monarchy relationship; a situation that applies identically in all the other realms, and which has been likened to a treaty amongst these countries.
Upon a demise of the Crown (the death or abdication of a sovereign), it is customary for the accession of the new monarch to be publicly proclaimed by the governor-general in the capital, Honiara, after the accession. Regardless of any proclamations, the late sovereign's heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony. An appropriate period of mourning also follows, during which flags across the country are flown at half-mast to honour the late monarch. A day of mourning to commemorate the late monarch is likely to be a public holiday.
Constitutional role and royal prerogative
The Constitution of Solomon Islands is made up of a variety of statutes and conventions, which gives Solomon Islands a similar parliamentary system of government as the other Commonwealth realms. All executive authority of the people of Solomon Islands is vested in the monarch, who is represented in the country by a governor-general — appointed by the sovereign in accordance with an address from the National Parliament.
The role of the monarch and the governor-general is both legal and practical; the Crown is regarded as a corporation, in which several parts share the authority of the whole, with the monarch as the person at the centre of the constitutional construct. The Solomon Islands government is also thus formally referred to as His Majesty's Government of Solomon Islands.
The vast powers that belong to the Crown are collectively known as the Royal Prerogative, which includes many powers such as the ability to make treaties or send ambassadors, as well as certain duties such as to defend the realm and to maintain the King's peace. Parliamentary approval is not required for the exercise of the Royal Prerogative; moreover, the Consent of the Crown must be obtained before either House may even debate a bill affecting the sovereign's prerogatives or interests.
Executive
One of the main duties of the Crown is to appoint a prime minister, who thereafter heads the Cabinet and advises the monarch or governor-general on how to execute their executive powers over all aspects of government operations and foreign affairs. The monarch's, and thereby the viceroy's role is almost entirely symbolic and cultural, acting as a symbol of the legal authority under which all governments and agencies operate, while the Cabinet directs the use of the Royal Prerogative, which includes the privilege to declare war, maintain the King's peace, as well as to summon and prorogue parliament and call elections. However, it is important to note that the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of the ministers, though it might have sometimes appeared that way, and the constitution allows the governor-general to unilaterally use these powers in relation to the dismissal of a prime minister, dissolution of parliament, and removal of a judge in exceptional, constitutional crisis situations.
There are also a few duties which are specifically performed by the monarch, such as appointing the governor-general.
The governor-general, to maintain the stability of government of Solomon Islands, appoints as prime minister the individual elected by members of the National Parliament. The governor-general additionally appoints a Cabinet, at the direction of the prime minister. The monarch is informed by his viceroy of the acceptance of the resignation of a prime minister and the swearing-in of a new prime minister and other members of the ministry, and he remains fully briefed through regular communications from his Solomon Island ministers. Members of various executive agencies and other officials are appointed by the Crown.
Foreign affairs
The Royal Prerogative also extends to foreign affairs: the sovereign or the governor-general may negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements; no parliamentary approval is required. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of Solomon Islands; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The governor-general, on behalf of the monarch, also accredits Solomon Islands High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states.
In addition, the issuance of passports falls under the Royal Prerogative and, as such, all Solomon Islands passports are issued in the governor-general's name, the monarch's vice-regal representative.
Parliament
All laws in Solomon Islands are enacted only with the viceroy's granting of Royal Assent in the monarch's name. The viceroy additionally summons, prorogues, and dissolves parliament; after the latter, the writs for a general election are usually dropped by the governor-general at Government House, Honiara.
The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the monarch or the governor-general reads the Speech from the Throne.
Courts
The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all his subjects, and is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice. In Solomon Islands, criminal offences are legally deemed to be offences against the sovereign and proceedings for indictable offences are brought in the sovereign's name in the form of The King versus [Name], Rex versus [Name] or R versus [Name]. Hence, the common law holds that the sovereign "can do no wrong"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted in his or her own courts for criminal offences.
The governor-general, on behalf of the monarch of Solomon Islands, can also grant immunity from prosecution, exercise the royal prerogative of mercy, and pardon offences against the Crown, either before, during, or after a trial. The granting of a pardon and the commutation of prison sentences is described in section 45 of the Constitution.
Judges of the High Court of Solomon Islands are appointed by the governor-general, on the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission.
Cultural role
The King's Official Birthday is a public holiday in Solomon Islands where it is usually celebrated on the second Saturday of June every year. It is regarded as one of the most important events of the year in the country. The day starts with the police marching band performing in the capital city of Honiara. Rallies are held all over the islands, which is followed by sporting events and custom dancing, and the celebrations and parties go long into the night.
The governor-general delivers a speech on the King's Birthday, and honours and medals are given to those who have rendered services to Solomon Islands.
The Crown and Honours
Within the Commonwealth realms, the monarch is the fount of honour. Similarly, the monarch, as Sovereign of Solomon Islands, confers awards and honours in Solomon Islands in his name. Most of them are often awarded on the advice of "His Majesty's Solomon Island Ministers".
In March 1981, Governor-General Sir Baddeley Devesi was authorised by Royal warrant to institute the regulation of an Order of Solomon Islands. The composed of three grades: the Star of Solomon Islands, the Cross of Solomon Islands, and the Solomon Islands Medal. In 1982, Queen Elizabeth II became the first recipient of the Star of Solomon Islands.
The Crown and the Police Force
The Police Force of Solomon Islands is known as the "Royal Solomon Islands Police Force". Formerly the Solomon Islands Police Force, the force was granted the prefix "Royal" by Queen Elizabeth II in 1978.
The Crown sits at the pinnacle of the Royal Solomon Islands Police Force. Under the Police Act 2013, all officers in the Police Force have to swear allegiance to the monarch of Solomon Islands, before taking office. The current oath is:
St. Edward's Crown appears on the police force's badges and rank insignia, which illustrates the monarchy as the locus of authority.
Royal visits
Members of the royal family have occasionally visited Solomon Islands. Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited the islands in 1959 and 1971. The Duke and Duchess of Kent visited in 1969.
Queen Elizabeth II first visited in 1974, with Prince Philip, Princess Anne, Captain Mark Phillips and Lord Mountbatten, during a tour of the area. In 1978, Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester represented the Queen at the independence celebrations. The Queen and her husband visited the islands again in October 1982 after attending the Commonwealth Games in Australia.
The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester visited the country in August 2008. They attended a parade in commemoration of the 30th Independence Anniversary, followed by an Ecumenical Church Service at the Saint Barnabas Anglican Cathedral Church. During their visit, the couple visited King George the Sixth School, the Guadalcanal Plains Palm Oil Limited (GPPOL), the National Referral hospital, the RAMSI Camp at the Guadalcanal Beach Resort and the American War Memorial in Skyline. The Duke also addressed the National Parliament to mark the end of the visit.
Prince William and Catherine, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, visited in September 2012 to mark the Queen's Diamond Jubilee. During the visit, the Duke and Duchess were treated to panpipes performances, traditional costumes and an idyllic island retreat. In a cultural village, the couple saw performances by people representing the nine provinces that make up the nation. In Honiara, the Duke and Duchess attended a memorial to the Coast Watchers. During the visit, the couple also travelled on a traditional war canoe between the islands of Marapa and Tavanipupu.
Charles, Prince of Wales visited the country in November 2019. During the visit, he attended a Service of Thanksgiving at St. Barnabas' Anglican Cathedral, participated in a wreath-laying ceremony at the Solomon Islands Scouts and Coastwatchers' Memorial, and addressed the National Parliament.
Public opinion
As of September 2022, there was no significant indication to suggest that the Solomon Islands could move towards becoming a republic. A 2023 poll by Lord Ashcroft polling showed that 59% of those questioned in the Solomon Islands supported a democratically elected head of state compared to 34% in favour of keeping the monarchy and 7% who did not know or would not vote.
List of Solomon Island monarchs
See also
Lists of office-holders
List of prime ministers of Elizabeth II
List of prime ministers of Charles III
List of Commonwealth visits made by Elizabeth II
Monarchies in Oceania
List of monarchies
References
External links
Solomon Islands at The Royal Family website
Government of the Solomon Islands
Politics of the Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands
Heads of state of the Solomon Islands
1978 establishments in the Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands
Kingdoms |
4509347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy%20of%20Antigua%20and%20Barbuda | Monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda | The monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda is a system of government in which a hereditary monarch is the sovereign and head of state of Antigua and Barbuda. The current Antiguan and Barbudan monarch and head of state, since 8 September 2022, is King Charles III. As sovereign, he is the personal embodiment of the Crown of Antigua and Barbuda. Although the person of the sovereign is equally shared with 14 other independent countries within the Commonwealth of Nations, each country's monarchy is separate and legally distinct. As a result, the current monarch is officially titled King of Antigua and Barbuda and, in this capacity, he and other members of the Royal Family undertake public and private functions domestically and abroad as representatives of Antigua and Barbuda. However, the King is the only member of the Royal Family with any constitutional role.
All executive authority is vested in the monarch, and royal assent is required for the Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda to enact laws and for letters patent and Orders in Council to have legal effect. Most of the powers are exercised by the elected members of parliament, the ministers of the Crown generally drawn from amongst them, and the judges and justices of the peace. Other powers vested in the monarch, such as the appointment of a prime minister, are significant but are treated only as reserve powers and as an important security part of the role of the monarchy.
The Crown today primarily functions as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. While some powers are exercisable only by the sovereign, most of the monarch's operational and ceremonial duties are exercised by his representative, the governor-general of Antigua and Barbuda.
Origin
The island of Antigua was explored by Christopher Columbus in 1493, and became a colony of Britain in 1632; Barbuda island was first colonised in 1678.
During an Akan ritual that took place in Saint John's prior to 1736, an Afro-Antiguan slave who was also known as Prince Klaas was elevated to the position of King of the Black Antiguans. According to the customs of Western Africa, this event, which was referred to as a "innocent ceremony" by the white slave owners of Antigua, was in fact a declaration of war. However, the slave owners of Antigua thought of it as an average ceremony.
In the plan for the rebellion that Prince Klass developed, the island of Antigua was to develop into an independent state ruled by the Africans. During a large ball held in honor of King George II in late October 1736, a 10-gallon barrel of gunpowder was going to be smuggled into the venue so that it could be blown up during the event. The goal of this plan was to kill every European that was present at the ball. The noise caused by the explosion would serve as a warning signal for the allied slave Africans to attack any white person they saw, which would set off a chain of events that would result in Prince Klaas becoming the new King of Antigua. This plan was ultimately unsuccessful because of the report of a slave whose identity was unknown. It was determined by the colonisers that Klaas, along with 132 other individuals, was a participant in the scheme. Despite the fact that the plan was unsuccessful, Prince Klaas has since been established as one of Antigua and Barbuda's most revered figures, a national hero.
Having been part of the Federal Colony of the Leeward Islands from 1871, Antigua and Barbuda joined the West Indies Federation in 1958. With the breakup of the federation, it became one of the West Indies Associated States in 1967. Following self-governance in its internal affairs, independence was granted from the United Kingdom on 1 November 1981. Antigua and Barbuda became a sovereign state and an independent constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth.
Princess Margaret represented her sister, Queen Elizabeth II, at the independence celebrations in the capital St John's. "Greetings from the Queen, welcome to the Commonwealth", Princess Margaret said at midnight after the flag-raising ceremony. A crowd of thousands cheered "Hip, Hip, Hooray" for the Queen of Antigua and Barbuda and the prime minister. Wilfred Jacobs was sworn in as the first governor-general, the vice-regal representative of the Queen of Antigua and Barbuda. The Princess presented Antigua and Barbuda's instruments of independence to Prime Minister Vere Bird, formally declaring the country independent. The Princess opened the new Antigua and Barbuda Parliament building, and delivered the Speech from the Throne, on behalf of the Queen.
The Crown of Antigua and Barbuda and its aspects
Antigua and Barbuda is one of fifteen independent nations, known as Commonwealth realms, which shares its sovereign with other monarchies in the Commonwealth of Nations, with the monarch's relationship with Antigua and Barbuda completely independent from his position as monarch of any other realm. Despite sharing the same person as their respective monarch, each of the Commonwealth realms — including Antigua and Barbuda — is sovereign and independent of the others. The Antiguan and Barbudan monarch is represented by a viceroy—the governor-general of Antigua and Barbuda—in the country.
Since the independence of Antigua and Barbuda in 1981, the pan-national Crown has had both a shared and a separate character and the sovereign's role as monarch of Antigua and Barbuda is distinct to his or her position as monarch of any other realm, including the United Kingdom. The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution and in Antigua and Barbuda became a Antiguan and Barbudan, or "domesticated" establishment.
This division is illustrated in a number of ways: The sovereign, for example, holds a unique Antiguan and Barbudan title and, when he is acting in public specifically as a representative of Antigua and Barbuda, he uses, where possible, national symbols of Antigua and Barbuda, including the country's national flag, unique royal symbols, and the like. Also, only Antiguan and Barbudan government ministers can advise the sovereign on matters of Antigua and Barbuda.
In Antigua and Barbuda, the legal personality of the State is referred to as "His Majesty in Right of Antigua and Barbuda".
Title
The Royal Titles Act, 1981 of the Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda gave Parliament's assent to the adoption of a separate title by Queen Elizabeth II in relation to Antigua and Barbuda. Per the Governor-General's Proclamation dated 11 February 1982, the Queen's official title became: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Antigua and Barbuda and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth.
Since the accession of King Charles III, the monarch's title is: Charles the Third, by the Grace of God, King of Antigua and Barbuda and His other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth.
This style communicates Antigua and Barbuda's status as an independent monarchy, highlighting the Monarch's role specifically as Sovereign of Antigua and Barbuda, as well as the shared aspect of the Crown throughout the realms, by mentioning Antigua and Barbuda separately from the other Commonwealth realms. Typically, the Sovereign is styled "King of Antigua and Barbuda" and is addressed as such when in Antigua and Barbuda, or performing duties on behalf of Antigua and Barbuda abroad.
Oath of allegiance
As the embodiment of the state, the monarch is the locus of oaths of Allegiance. This is done in reciprocation to the sovereign's Coronation Oath, wherein they promise to govern the peoples of their realms, "according to their respective laws and customs".
The oath of allegiance in Antigua and Barbuda is:
Succession
Like some realms, Antigua and Barbuda defers to United Kingdom law to determine the line of succession.
Succession is by absolute primogeniture governed by the provisions of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013, as well as the Act of Settlement, 1701, and the Bill of Rights, 1689. This legislation limits the succession to the natural (i.e. non-adopted), legitimate descendants of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and stipulates that the monarch cannot be a Roman Catholic, and must be in communion with the Church of England upon ascending the throne. Though these constitutional laws, as they apply to Antigua and Barbuda, still lie within the control of the British parliament, both the United Kingdom and Antigua and Barbuda cannot change the rules of succession without the unanimous consent of the other realms, unless explicitly leaving the shared monarchy relationship; a situation that applies identically in all the other realms, and which has been likened to a treaty amongst these countries.
Upon a demise of the Crown (the death or abdication of a sovereign), it is customary for the accession of the new monarch to be publicly proclaimed by the governor-general at Government House, St John's, after the accession. Regardless of any proclamations, the late sovereign's heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony. An appropriate period of mourning also follows, during which flags across the country are flown at half-mast to honour the late monarch. The day of the funeral is likely to be a public holiday.
Constitutional role and royal prerogative
Antigua and Barbuda's constitution is made up of a variety of statutes and conventions, which gives Antigua and Barbuda a similar parliamentary system of government as the other Commonwealth realms. All powers of state are constitutionally reposed in the monarch, who is represented in the country by a governor-general — appointed by the monarch upon the advice of the prime minister of Antigua and Barbuda. As head of state, the sovereign is at the apex of the Order of Precedence of Antigua and Barbuda.
The role of the monarch and the governor-general is both legal and practical; the Crown is regarded as a corporation, in which several parts share the authority of the whole, with the monarch as the person at the centre of the constitutional construct. The Antiguan and Barbudan government is also thus formally referred to as His Majesty's Government in Antigua and Barbuda.
The vast powers that belong to the Crown are collectively known as the Royal Prerogative, which includes many powers such as the ability to make treaties or send ambassadors, as well as certain duties such as to defend the realm and to maintain the King's peace. Parliamentary approval is not required for the exercise of the Royal Prerogative; moreover, the Consent of the Crown must be obtained before either House may even debate a bill affecting the Sovereign's prerogatives or interests.
Executive
One of the main duties of the Crown is to appoint a prime minister, who thereafter heads the Cabinet and advises the monarch or governor-general on how to execute their executive powers over all aspects of government operations and foreign affairs. The monarch's, and thereby the viceroy's role is almost entirely symbolic and cultural, acting as a symbol of the legal authority under which all governments and agencies operate, while the Cabinet directs the use of the Royal Prerogative, which includes the privilege to declare war, maintain the King's peace, and direct the actions of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force, as well as to summon and prorogue parliament and call elections. However, the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of the ministers, though it might have sometimes appeared that way, and the constitution allows the governor-general to unilaterally use these powers in relation to the dismissal of a prime minister, dissolution of parliament, and removal of a judge in exceptional, constitutional crisis situations.
There are also a few duties which are specifically performed by the monarch, such as appointing the governor-general.
The governor-general, to maintain the stability of government of Antigua and Barbuda, appoints as prime minister the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Representatives. The governor-general additionally appoints a Cabinet, at the direction of the prime minister. The monarch is informed by his viceroy of the acceptance of the resignation of a prime minister and the swearing-in of a new prime minister and other members of the ministry, and he remains fully briefed through regular communications from his Antiguan and Barbudan ministers. Members of various executive agencies and other officials are appointed by the Crown.
Foreign affairs
The Royal Prerogative also extends to foreign affairs: the sovereign or the governor-general may negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements; no parliamentary approval is required. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of Antigua and Barbuda; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The governor-general, on behalf of the monarch, also accredits Antiguan and Barbudan High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states.
In addition, the issuance of passports falls under the Royal Prerogative and, as such, all Antiguan and Barbudan passports are issued in the governor-general's name, the monarch's vice-regal representative.
Parliament
The Sovereign is one of the three components of the Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda; the others are the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The monarch does not, however, participate in the legislative process; the viceroy does, though only in the granting of Royal Assent. Further, the constitution outlines that the governor-general alone is responsible for appointing senators. The viceroy must make eleven senatorial appointments on the advice of the prime minister, four on the advice of leader of the opposition, and one on their own discretion. The viceroy additionally summons, prorogues, and dissolves parliament; after the latter, the writs for a general election are usually dropped by the governor-general at Government House, St. John's.
The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the monarch or the governor-general reads the Speech from the Throne.
All laws in Antigua and Barbuda are enacted only with the viceroy's granting of Royal Assent in the monarch's name. The Royal Assent, and proclamation, are required for all acts of parliament, usually granted or withheld by the governor-general, with the Public Seal of Antigua and Barbuda.
Courts
The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all his subjects, and is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice. In Antigua and Barbuda, criminal offences are legally deemed to be offences against the sovereign and proceedings for indictable offences are brought in the sovereign's name in the form of The King versus [Name]. Hence, the common law holds that the sovereign "can do no wrong"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted in his or her own courts for criminal offences.
The governor-general, on behalf of the monarch of Antigua and Barbuda, can also grant immunity from prosecution, exercise the power of pardon, and pardon offences against the Crown, either before, during, or after a trial. The granting of a pardon and the commutation of prison sentences is described in section 84 of the Constitution.
All judges of the Supreme Court have to swear that they would "well and truly serve" the monarch of Antigua and Barbuda, on taking office.
Any attempt to kill the monarch or the governor-general is considered "high treason", and the person guilty of the offence is sentenced to death.
Cultural role
The Crown and Honours
Within the Commonwealth realms, the monarch is deemed the fount of honour. Similarly, the monarch, as Sovereign of Antigua and Barbuda, confers awards and honours in Antigua and Barbuda in his name. Most of them are often awarded on the advice of "His Majesty's Antigua and Barbuda Ministers".
Through the passage of the National Honours Act 1998, Antigua and Barbuda established four national orders, namely, the Order of the National Hero, the Order of the Nation, the Order of Merit, and the Order of Princely Heritage. References to St Edward's Crown on the insignia of these orders illustrate the monarchy as the locus of authority. The monarch's vice-regal representative, the governor-general serves as the chancellor of all these orders.
The Crown and the Defence Force
The Crown sits at the pinnacle of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force. The monarch is the Commander-in-Chief of the entire Forces.
The Crown of St. Edward appears on the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force badges and rank insignia, which illustrates the monarchy as the locus of authority.
Under the Defence Act of Antigua and Barbuda, The power to grant commissions in the Defence Force is vested in the monarch of Antigua and Barbuda, and is exercised on the monarch's behalf by the governor-general.
The Crown and the Police Force
The national police force of Antigua and Barbuda is known as "The Royal Police Force of Antigua and Barbuda".
The St. Edward's Crown appears on the Police Force's badges and rank insignia, which illustrates the monarchy as the locus of authority.
Every member of the Royal Police Force of Antigua and Barbuda has to swear allegiance to the monarch of Antigua and Barbuda, on taking office. Under the Police Act, the oath of office is:
Antiguan and Barbudan royal symbols
The main symbol of the monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda is the sovereign himself. Thus, framed portraits of him are displayed in public buildings and government offices. The monarch also appears on commemorative Antiguan and Barbudan stamps.
A crown is also used to illustrate the monarchy as the locus of authority, appearing on police force, postal workers, prison officers rank insignia.
God Save The King is the royal anthem of Antigua and Barbuda.
Under the Antigua and Barbuda Citizenship Act, new citizens of Antigua and Barbuda have to take a pledge of allegiance to the monarch, and his heirs and successors.
Royal visits
Princess Margaret visited Antigua in 1955. Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother visited on 17 March 1964. Princess Alice visited on 10 and 19 March 1964 during her Caribbean tour as Chancellor of the University of the West Indies. The Duke of Edinburgh visited in November 1964.
Queen Elizabeth II, and her consort, the Duke of Edinburgh, visited Antigua and Barbuda during their Caribbean tour of 1966. During the visit, they visited the capital city of Saint John's, where they attended an Investiture at Government House and Divine Service at St John's Cathedral at which Prince Philip read the lesson. The Queen and the Duke visited again during the Silver Jubilee tour of October 1977, staying onboard HMY Britannia. The Queen opened the New Administration Building and attended a lunch held by the Governor at Clarence House.
Princess Margaret represented the Queen at the independence celebrations in 1981.
The Queen of Antigua and Barbuda visited in 1985, and met patients and staff in the new Children's Ward of the Holberton Hospital following a Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in the Bahamas.
The Duke of York visited in January 2001. The Earl of Wessex visited Antigua and Barbuda in October 2003 as Trustee of The Duke of Edinburgh's Award International Association. The Earl of Wessex visited again in 2006 to represent the Queen at the celebrations marking the country's twenty fifth anniversary of independence.
In March 2012, the Earl and Countess of Wessex, visited Antigua and Barbuda to mark the Queen's Diamond Jubilee. Prince Harry visited in 2016 to mark the 35th anniversary of independence of Antigua and Barbuda. In November 2017, the Prince of Wales visited Antigua and Barbuda to see how communities were recovering following the devastation caused by Hurricanes Irma and Maria.
The Earl and Countess of Wessex visited in April 2022 to mark the Queen's Platinum Jubilee.
Republicanism
The monarchy is not a major topic of debate in Antigua and Barbuda. In 2020, Information Minister, Melford Nicholas stated that the country may examine the possibility of transition to a republic in some point in the future.
In 2022, Prime Minister Gaston Browne said he aspires the country to become a republic "at some point", and acknowledged that such a move is "not on the cards", and Antigua and Barbuda will continue as a monarchy for "some time to follow". On 10 September 2022, following the proclamation of Charles III as king, Browne stated that he plans to hold a referendum within three years on becoming a republic.
List of Antiguan and Barbudan monarchs
See also
Lists of office-holders
List of prime ministers of Elizabeth II
List of prime ministers of Charles III
List of Commonwealth visits made by Elizabeth II
Monarchies in the Americas
List of monarchies
King Court Tackey
References
External links
Antigua and Barbuda at The Royal Family website
1981 Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda
Monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda
Government of Antigua and Barbuda
Politics of Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua and Barbuda
Heads of state of Antigua and Barbuda
1981 establishments in Antigua and Barbuda
Monarchies of North America
Kingdoms |
4509636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biddu | Biddu | Biddu Appaiah (born 8 February 1944) is a British-Indian singer-songwriter, composer, and music producer who composed and produced many worldwide hit records during a career spanning five decades. Considered one of the pioneers of disco, Euro disco, and Indian pop, he has sold millions of records worldwide, and has received an Ivor Novello award for his work. He has been ranked at number 34 on NMEs "The 50 Greatest Producers Ever" list.
Biddu was born in Bangalore, Karnataka, India. He began his music career in the 1960s, singing as part of a music band in India before moving to England where he would start his career as a producer. He eventually found some success producing a hit song for Japanese band The Tigers in 1969, scoring the soundtrack for 1972 British film Embassy, and producing several early disco songs that would find a niche audience in British northern soul clubs during the early 1970s.
His international breakthrough came in 1974 with "Kung Fu Fighting" performed by Carl Douglas; the song became one of the best-selling singles of all time with eleven million records sold, helped popularise disco music, was the first worldwide disco hit from Britain and Europe, and established Biddu as one of the most prolific dance music producers from outside the United States at the time. He soon began producing his own instrumental albums under the name Biddu Orchestra, which started an orchestral disco trend in Britain and Europe with 1975 hits "Summer of '42" and "Blue Eyed Soul"; his solo albums eventually sold 40 million copies worldwide. He also launched the careers of other British disco stars such as Tina Charles, helping her sell 36 million records within a few years, and Jimmy James; scored soundtracks for several British films such as The Stud (1978); and produced a hit song for the French singer Claude François. Biddu also experimented with electronic disco and Hi-NRG music from the mid-1970s, and influenced British new wave bands such as The Buggles, founded by two of his former session musicians Trevor Horn and Geoff Downes.
Following the decline of disco in the Western world, he later found success in Asia during the 1980s, where he launched the careers of the late Pakistani pop singer Nazia Hassan and her brother Zoheb; he produced their debut album Disco Deewane, which charted in fourteen countries and became the best-selling Asian pop album up until that time, and helped the duo eventually sell 60 million records worldwide. During that decade, he also produced several hit Bollywood soundtracks for films such as Qurbani (1980) as well as several hit songs for Japanese pop idol Akina Nakamori and Chinese pop singer Samantha Lam (林志美). In the 1990s, he popularised Indian pop with the hit album Made in India (1995), which became the best-selling pop album in India and launched the career of Alisha Chinai, after which he would launch the careers of several more Indian pop acts such as Shaan and his sister Sagarika as well as Sonu Nigam and K.S. Chithra. In the 2000s, Biddu has been active in the Western and Indian music scenes producing albums which are more spiritual and Eastern-oriented. He rearranged a classical hit for Luke Kenny's film, Rise of the Zombie.
Early years and career
Biddu's family originally hailed from Kodagu in the Karnataka state of India, but he was born and grew up in the city of Bangalore, where he attended the Bishop Cotton Boys' School. He carries the clan name of Chendrimada. In the 1960s, as a youth, he developed a liking for the then new pop and rock music, as he said in a media interview, listening to pop hits played on the shortwave radio band of Radio Ceylon of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), which was then popular throughout Asia. He learnt to play the guitar and in his late teens and early twenties he frequented the clubs and bars of Bangalore, and soon started a music band called 'Trojans' with a few friends, including Ken Gnanakan, who later went on to start an NGO called "ACTS". The band was India's first English-speaking band, and found success playing cover versions of The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Trini Lopez and hits of other Western stars of the day, in the clubs of Bangalore and also other Indian cities, such as Calcutta and Bombay. The band, however, split since Ken Gnanakan wanted to pursue higher studies, leaving Biddu alone as the sole member of the band. He played under the name 'Lone Trojan' and was popular as an act at a night club called "Venice" in Bombay.
Biddu held an interest for bigger things in popular music, and in 1967 left for England. He traveled through the Middle East, earning money by singing catchy numbers and playing the guitar. Biddu arrived in England at the age of 23, a few months after leaving India. About his arrival in England, he said in an interview to the BBC: "I didn't really know too much about England or anything – I'd just come here on the chance of meeting the Beatles and doing some music. Everything that I did had this danceable flavour". Within a few months of his arrival, he had met The Beatles, but expressed disappointment that "Lennon was dressed so badly."
In England, he supported himself doing odd jobs and also working as a chef in the American Embassy. His attempts at becoming a singer in England were unsuccessful and, according to Biddu, "as an Indian in those days they were happier to hire me as an accountant than as a singer". He eventually gave up on his ambition to become a singer and instead decided to produce his own records rather than working for a record company. He saved a few pounds before he decided to rent studio time and record several singles, none of which received any airplay from UK radio stations.
Biddu's first major success was in 1969, when he produced the song "Smile for Me", performed by The Tigers, who were Japan's most famous band at the time, and written by Barry and Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees. Since the band did not speak English, Biddu had to show them how to sing the English lyrics phonetically. Following its release that year, the song topped the chart in Japan. His success abroad in Japan would later pave the way for his later success back in Britain.
Euro disco scene (1970s)
During the early 1970s, Biddu produced several early disco songs that, despite receiving no airplay on radio, began gaining some underground success in UK northern soul clubs, in places like Wigan and Blackpool, which were more receptive to Biddu's early disco sounds due to northern soul being a forerunner to disco. The Biddu sound incorporated "solid playing by a hard rhythm section and fast swirling Northern soul–style melodies" and resembled the disco sound that had appeared independently in New York at around the same time.
In 1971, he wrote the title track for the Jack Wild album Everything's Coming Up Roses, which was released as a single backed with "Bring Yourself Back to Me", written by Don Gould and Lynsey De Paul. The single earned positive reviews, with Billboard awarding it Special Merit Spotlight status and it reached number 107 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Chart. In 1972, Biddu scored music for the UK spy thriller Embassy. Around this time, he also started working with UK-based Jamaican-born musician Carl Douglas on a 45 (rpm record) single "I Want to Give You My Everything". While this song was intended for the A side, they cut a song for the B side, "Kung Fu Fighting", in only 10 minutes. Later, at the insistence of A&R at Pye Records, "Kung Fu Fighting" was put on the A-side. Soon after release in 1974, "Kung Fu Fighting" became a worldwide hit, ultimately selling eleven million copies worldwide. In 1974, it received a Gold certification,. Shortly after, Biddu also produced Carl Douglas' debut album Kung Fu Fighting and Other Great Love Songs, which produced another major hit, "Dance The Kung Fu". He soon established himself as one of the key figures in Britain's soul and disco scenes during the 1970s, working with a variety of British soul and disco artists, including Tina Charles, The Outriders, and Jimmy James.
In 1975, Biddu recorded and released the instrumental LP, Blue Eyed Soul, and the album's first single, "Summer of '42", climbed to No. 14 on the UK Singles Chart, spending two months there and then had similar success in the US, topping the Dance Music/Club Play Singles chart and reached No. 57 on the Billboard Hot 100. Another single, "Jump for Joy", also topped the Dance Music/Club Play Singles chart in the US while reaching No. 72 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1976. In the Billboard Year-End chart, "Jump For Joy" was ranked No. 21 on the list. Also in 1975, he produced the album Can You Hear Me Ok? and single "I Got My Lady" for John Howard. Around the same time, a friend introduced Biddu to Tina Charles, a singer who had had some success singing lead vocals for the group 5000 Volts. The first single they worked together, "You Set My Heart on Fire", clinched a recording deal with CBS. In 1976, the second single "I Love to Love (But My Baby Loves to Dance)" was a major hit worldwide. "I Love to Love" and the subsequent hit "Dance Little Lady Dance" sold millions of copies around the world, giving Tina Charles a worldwide audience and fame, launching her solo career and firmly establishing Biddu.
In 1976, Biddu produced his own Rain Forest LP, followed by Eastern Man in 1977, both credited to Biddu & His Orchestra. His album Rain Forest earned him four Ivor Novello Awards, including the "Songwriter of the Year" award. Around this same time, he began experimenting with electronic music in some of his disco songs, making use of electronic musical instruments such as keyboards and synthesizers. Some of his early examples of electronic disco include the early boogie 1976 single "Bionic Boogie" ; the 1977 "Soul Coaxing" single; the Eastern Man and Futuristic Journey albums, which were recorded from 1976 to 1977; and the 1979 "Phantasm" single. He also began experimenting with high-tempo Hi-NRG disco music, with early examples including some of the songs in his 1976 Tina Charles albums I Love to Love and Dance Little Lady, as well as his disco singles such as "Voodoo Man" (1979) which had a tempo of 130 beats per minute. His backing tracks also had a strong influence on the British new wave band The Buggles, founded by two of Biddu's former session musicians, Trevor Horn and Geoff Downes, who are most famous for writing the hit song "Video Killed the Radio Star" in 1979.
In 1977, he worked on the Life album for the veteran Jamaican-born soul singer Jimmy James, which put out two chart hits "I'll Go Where your Music Takes Me" and "Disco Fever". In early 1978, Biddu's own "Journey to the Moon" was a hit, peaking at No. 41 in the UK. That same year, he scored the music for the English film The Stud, starring Joan Collins; the film's soundtrack was successful on the UK Albums Chart, where it reached No. 2. He also produced the soundtrack for its sequel, The Bitch, in 1979. During the late 1970s, Biddu also had a hit in France with Claude François, for whom he produced the song "Laisse Une Chance A Notre Amour", a re-working of Jimmy James' UK hit song, "Now Is the Time".
Biddu worked with various musicians including some players from Manchester and Liverpool who had worked on sessions with Tina Charles until the late 1970s, after which disco music slowly began to wane as funk, new wave and electronic music began taking centre-stage in Western popular music, taking with it Biddu's established place in the Western music scene, despite his early attempts at producing electronic synthpop music, such as his 1980 song "Small Talk" for Amy.
Success in Asia (1980s)
In the late 1970s, Western disco was getting popular in Asia and particularly in India, where there were not yet any home-bred disco stars. It was this reason that led established Indian filmmaker and actor Feroz Khan to England and to Biddu, in 1979. Khan wanted to introduce a catchy song in his upcoming Hindi film, Qurbani, in which the main score of the film was by the Indian music duo, Kalyanji Anandji. Biddu initially was not interested in composing a Hindi film song, but later took it up as he would say years later, "I thought it would keep my mum happy (back home in India)". About the same time Khan happened to come across 15-year-old Nazia Hassan at a party in London. Khan later requested Hassan have an audition with Biddu. Biddu later signed her up for the song he was composing for Qurbani.
It did not take a long time for Biddu to compose "Aap Jaisa Koi" for Qurbani. The tune and composition he used for "Aap Jaisa Koi" was similar to several of his earlier songs, particularly the 1976 Tina Charles hit "Dance Little Lady Dance". As the girl, Nazia Hassan, had a nasal voice, Biddu decided to backtrack it for an echo effect. The song which was recorded in London, was the first Hindi song to be recorded on 24 tracks. In 1980, Qurbani ran to packed houses in India, largely on the weight of "Aap Jaisa Koi" and another number "Laila O Laila". Nazia Hassan became a teenage sensation. "Aap Jaisa Koi" was a hit across the Indian subcontinent.
Riding on the popularity of the song and the film, Biddu decided to sign Nazia Hassan and her brother Zoheb Hassan up for an Urdu pop album, something hitherto not tried in India. Biddu modeled them on the then-popular American brother-sister duo, The Carpenters. Biddu composed a few catchy numbers for Nazia and Zoheb for the album Disco Deewane. In 1981, the album was a hit across Asia, South Africa, and some countries in South America (particularly Brazil where it topped the chart), charting in 14 countries. The album became the best-selling Asian pop album up until that time. The 15-year-old teenage Pakistani singer Nazia Hassan became a household name across South Asia. Disco Deewane was followed by the production of three more heavy hitters with Nazia and Zoheb; Star/Boom Boom in 1982 (the number "Boom Boom" from the album and film Star was a hit), then the album Young Tarang 1984 two years later, before winding up again with the duo in 1987 with Hotline. The duo went on to sell 60 million records worldwide.
Beyond Southern Asia, he also had some success in another part of Asia, the Far East. After having previously had a chart-topping hit in Japan with The Tigers in 1969, he returned there to work with the popular Japanese idol and J-pop singer Akina Nakamori, for whom he produced "Don't Tell Me This is Love" in 1985. It was included in her 1985 album My Best Thanks, which topped the Japanese chart and sold around 300,000 copies. He produced several more hit songs for Akina Nakamori, including the 1987 songs "The Look That Kills" and "BLONDE", which became chart-topping hits in Japan. "BLONDE" in particular sold over 300,000 copies in Japan that year. He also worked in Hong Kong, where he produced and composed the song "傷心戲院" ("Sad Theater") for C-pop singer Samantha Lam in 1988. In the Philippines, the song "Chic-Chica-Chic-Chica-Chic" from his hit 1976 album Rainforest was used as the main theme of the popular 1980s sitcom Chicks to Chicks. In the late 1980s, he returned to the UK music scene with house music records such as "Humanity" (1989).
Indian pop scene (1990s)
Having spent nearly a decade with the Nazia-Zoheb pair, Biddu next turned his attention to Hindi vocalist Shweta Shetty, both writing and producing the Johnny Joker album in 1993. Then in 1995, came another album, composed and produced by Biddu. Made in India – a dance album for the Hindi pop/film playback singer Alisha Chinai. The album became the best selling Hindi dance album and featured a handful of Western styled videos – a selling point for India's newly launched MTV channel. It topped the Indian chart, where it remained for over a year, and sold over five million copies in India.
In 1996, Biddu made a brother-sister duo popular again with Shaan (Shantanu Mukherjee) and Sagarika Mukherjee (Saag), producing the Naujawan album. Biddu spent the rest of the 1990s working with a variety of musicians, including the Indian girl-group The Models, South Indian Singer K.S. Chithra, and Sonu Nigam, as well as continuing his collaboration with Alisha Chinai on her Dil Ki Rani album. Into the new millennium, he produced two hit albums with Sansara, Yeh Dil Sun Raha Hai and Habibi.
His own 1999 album, Eastern Journey, was an experiment which blended Indian pop with Western flair and strong, jazz elements.
Biddu also worked with Junaid Jamshed. Both of them worked in London and produced an album under the composition and lyrics of Shoib Mansoor Sahab.
Experiments in fusion (2000s)
In 2004, Biddu re-emerged with the album Diamond Sutra.
Biddu now lives in Spain with his English wife of 39 years, Sue, and two grown-up children. He started a publishing house called SueBiddu Music, which administers music for artists, wrote an autobiography called Made in India at the insistence of his wife, and has returned to live performances as a singer. In 2010, Biddu won an "Outstanding Achievement" award at the UK Asian Music Awards (UK AMAs), and he was also awarded the "Lifetime Achievement Award" at the JD Rock Awards in India that same year.
Discography
The following is a selected discography of albums, singles and soundtracks he has produced or composed.
Biddu has also given music for Junaid Jamshed.
References
External links
MTV india
[ Allmusic biography]
as Biddu Appaiah
Living people
British record producers
British disco musicians
Eurodisco musicians
Musicians from Bangalore
Indian male songwriters
Indian songwriters
Indian expatriates in the United Kingdom
British people of Indian descent
1944 births
Bishop Cotton Boys' School alumni
English-language singers from India
Ivor Novello Award winners
20th-century Indian musicians |
4510294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foster%20%28surname%29 | Foster (surname) | The surname Foster is a variation of the name Forster, meaning one who 'works in the forest'. It may also derive from the French forcetier, meaning 'maker of scissors'.
In the 2010 United States Census, Foster ranked #99 in surname popularity.
Notable people with the surname "Foster" include
A
Abiel Foster (1735–1806), American religious leader and politician
A. Carville Foster (born 1932), American politician
Addison G. Foster (1837–1917), American businessman
Adriance S. Foster (1901–1973), American botanist
Adrianna Foster (born 1986), Mexican musician
Akeem Foster (born 1987), Canadian football player
Al Foster (born 1943), American jazz drummer
A. Lawrence Foster (1802–1877), American politician
Alexander Foster (rugby union) (1890–1972), Irish rugby union footballer
Alexandra Föster (born 2002), German rower
Alison Foster (born 1957), British judge
Allan Foster (1925–1987), Australian politician
Allen Foster (1887–1916), English footballer
Amos Foster (1880–1952), American football player
Ami Foster, American actress
Andrea Foster (born 1997), Guyanese runner
Andy Foster (politician) (born 1961), New Zealand politician
Andy Foster (sports commissioner) (born 1979), American athletic administrator
Angelique Foster, British politician
Ann Foster (1617–1692), English witch
Ann Foster (died 1674) (??–1674), English witch
Anna Foster (born 1979), English radio presenter
Anthony Foster (1705–1779), Irish politician
Anthony Foster (activist) (1953–2017), Australian activist
Antigone Foster, English-Australian recording artist
Arian Foster (born 1986), American football player
Arlene Foster (born 1970), Northern Ireland politician
Augustus Foster (1780–1848), British diplomat
B
Basil Foster (1882–1959), English actor and cricketer
Belinda J. Foster, American attorney
Bernard Foster (born 1931), British boxer
Bert Foster (1906–1942), Australian rules footballer
Bertha Foster (1881–1968), American academic administrator
Bertie Foster (1884–1959), English footballer
Billy Foster (1937–1967), Canadian auto racing driver
Blake Foster (born 1985), American actor
Bobby Foster (1929–2006), English footballer
Bon Foster (1955–1991), American lawyer
Brandon Foster (born 1984), American football player
Bren Foster, Australian actor
Brenda Jefferson Foster (1955–2010), American witness
Brendan Foster (born 1948), British runner
Brenden Foster (1997–2008), American fundraiser
Brent Foster (born 1967), New Zealand athlete
Brent Foster (director) (born 1982), Canadian film director
Bruce Foster, American engineer
Bryson Foster, American activist
Bud Foster (born 1959), American football coach
Buddy Foster (born 1957), American actor
C
C. Allen Foster (born 1941), American lawyer
Carey Foster (1835–1919), English chemist
Carla Foster, British social figure
Carlton Foster (1826–1901), American businessman and politician
Caroline Rose Foster (1877–1979), American farmer
Carson Foster (born 2001), American swimmer
Cassius Gaius Foster (1837–1899), American judge
Cathy Foster (born 1956), British sailor
Cecil Foster (born 1954), Canadian writer
Cecil G. Foster (1925–2016), American pilot
Cheryl Foster (born 1980), Welsh football referee
Claiborne Foster (1896–1981), American actress
Clare Foster (born 1980), British actress
Clement le Neve Foster (1841–1904), British geologist
Clyde Foster (1931–2019), American scientist and mathematician
Colin Foster (born 1964), English footballer
Colin Foster (footballer, born 1952) (born 1952), English footballer
Corey Foster (born 1969), Canadian ice hockey player
C. Stephen Foster, American ophthalmologist
C. W. Foster (1866–1935), English clergyman
D
Dale Foster (born 1958), Australian rules footballer
Daren Foster (born 1966), English cricketer
Darryl Foster (born 1961), American activist
Daryl Foster (born 1938), Australian cricket coach
Dawn Foster (1986–2021), British journalist
D'Chrome Foster (born 1977), American singer
Defne Joy Foster (1975–2011), Turkish actress
DeShaun Foster (born 1980), American football player
Diane Foster (1928–1999), Canadian track athlete
Diane Foster (curler) (born 1955/1956), Canadian curler
Dianne Foster (1928–2019), Canadian actress
Dixon Foster (1888–1973), American athletic coach
D. J. Foster (born 1993), American football player
Dodshon Foster (1730–1793), English merchant
Donte Foster (born 1990), American football player
Dudley Foster (1925–1973), British actor
Duke Foster (1929–1973), American football player
Dwayne Foster, American football coach
E
Ebenezer Foster (??–1792), English judge
Eddie Foster (1887–1927), American baseball player
Eddie Foster (American football) (born 1954), American football player
Edith Dunham Foster (1864–1950), American filmmaker
Edna Foster (1900–??), American actress
Edwin Michael Foster (1917–2013), American microbiologist and food scientist
Eileen Foster, American corporate executive
Eleazer Foster (1841–1899), American lawyer
Eleazer Kingsbury Foster (1813–1877), American lawyer and politician
Elena Ochoa Foster (born 1958), Spanish art curator
Eliza Foster (1802–1888), English author
Eliza Clayland Tomlinson Foster (1788–1855), American settler
Elmer Foster (1861–1946), American baseball player
E. M. Foster, English novelist
Émilie Foster, Canadian politician
Emily Foster (1842–1897), New Zealand teacher
Emmanuel Foster (1921–1965), English footballer
Emory S. Foster (1839–1902), American general
Enid Foster (1895–1979), American sculptor
Enoch Foster (1839–1913), American judge
E. P. Foster (1848–1932), American entrepreneur
Ephraim H. Foster (1794–1854), American politician
Erin Foster, American writer
Ernest Foster (1873–1956), English cricketer
Eugie Foster (1971–2014), American columnist
Evelyn Foster (1902–1931), English taxi driver
Ezola Foster (1938–2018), American activist
F
Fiona Foster, British television journalist
Flora Foster (??–1914), American actress
Foz Foster (born 1960), English composer
Frances Foster (1924–1997), American actress
Fred Foster (1931–2019), American record producer
Freddie Foster (born 1995), English cricketer
Frederic de Peyster Foster (1849–1929), American lawyer
Fredericka Foster (born 1944), American artist
G
G. C. Foster (1885–1966), Jamaican sportsman
Gene Foster (born 1942), American football player
Genevieve Foster (1893–1979), American illustrator
Geoffrey Foster (1884–1971), English cricketer
Gerald Foster (painter) (1900–1987), American painter
Gigi Foster, Australian economist
Gilbert Lafayette Foster (1874–1940), Canadian surgeon general
Giles Foster, English television director
Gillian Foster (born 1976), Australian footballer
Giraud Foster (1850–1945), American businessman
Glen Foster (1930–1999), American sailor
Glen Foster (comedian), Canadian comedian
Glenn Foster (1990–2021), American football player
Gloria Foster (1933–2001), American actress
Gordon Foster (1921–2010), Irish engineer
Graças Foster (born 1953), Brazilian businesswoman
Graeme Foster, Australian rugby league footballer
Grant Foster (born 1945), Australian composer
Gregory Foster (1866–1931), English academic administrator
Gwendolyn Audrey Foster (born 1960), American academic
Gwin Foster (1903–1954), American guitarist
Guy Mark Foster, American writer
H
Hadley Foster (born 1975), American athletics administrator
Hal Foster (1892–1982), Canadian-American comic writer
Hal Foster (art critic) (born 1955), American art critic
Hannah Webster Foster (1758/1759–1840), American novelist
Heather Foster (born 1966), Jamaican-American bodybuilder
Herman Foster (1928–1999), American pianist
Hubert Foster (1855–1919), British army officer
Hugh F. Foster Jr. (1918–2004), American general
Hunter Foster (born 1969), American entertainer
I
Idris Foster (1911–1984), Welsh scholar
Ira Roe Foster (1811–1885), American teacher and politician
Isaiah Foster (born 2003), American soccer player
Israel Moore Foster (1873–1950), American politician
Ivan Foster (born 1943), Northern Irish minister
J
Jabez Foster (footballer) (1902–??), English footballer
Jackie Foster (1903–1936), English footballer
Jacqueline Foster, British politician
Jacqueline Foster (bowls) (born 1975), Canadian lawn bowler
Jake Foster (born 1988), Australian rugby league footballer
Jamie S. Foster, American biologist
Jarrey Foster (born 1996), American basketball player
Jason Foster (born 1988), American football player
Jayson Foster (born 1985), American football player
J. D. Foster (born 1953), American record producer
Jean Foster (born 1972), American sports shooter
Jeanne Robert Foster (1879–1970), American poet
Jeannette Howard Foster (1895–1981), American librarian
Jedediah Foster (1726–1779), English judge
Je'Kel Foster (born 1983), American basketball player
Jen Foster, American singer-songwriter
Jennifer Foster, English archaeologist
Jennifer Foster (equestrian) (born 1964), Canadian equestrian
Jerome Foster II (born 2002), American activist
Jerome Foster (American football) (born 1960), American football player
Jerry Foster (1907–1984), Scottish rugby union footballer
J. Morris Foster (1881–1966), American actor
Joana Foster (1946–2016), Ghanaian-British activist
Joanna Foster (born 1964), British actress
Jodie Foster (born 1962), American actress
Joel Foster (1814–1945), American farmer
Joey Foster (born 1982), British racing driver
Josephine Foster, American musician
Joshua L. Foster (1824–1900), American architect
Joy Foster, Jamaican table tennis player
Joyce Foster (born 1944), American politician
Judith Ellen Foster (1840–1910), American lecturer
Julia Foster (born 1943), English actress
Juliann Bluitt Foster (1938–2019), American dentist
Julie Foster (born 1969), Canadian rugby union footballer
Juliette Foster (born 1964), British television journalist
K
Kareem Foster (born 2000), Caymanian footballer
Karith Foster (born 1974), American comedian
Kathi Foster (born 1947), American politician
Kathryn Foster, American soap opera director
Keith Foster (born 1948), Jamaican singer
Kenny Foster (born 1985), American mixed martial artist
Kent Foster (born 1938), British military officer
Kitty Foster (1790–1863), American freed slave
Kmele Foster (born 1980), American entrepreneur
Kris Foster (born 1974), American baseball player
Krishna Foster (born 1970), American chemist
Kurtis Foster (born 1981), Canadian ice hockey player
L
Lafayette L. Foster (1851-1901), American academic administrator, politician, and journalist
Lafayette S. Foster (1806–1880), American politician and judge
Larry Foster (born 1976), American football player
Larry Foster (baseball) (1937–2023), American baseball player
Laura E. Foster (1871-1920), American illustrator and cartoonist
Lawrence Foster (born 1941), American conductor
Leland Foster (1910–??), American baseball player
Leo Foster (born 1951), American baseball player
Leon Foster (1913–1991), Barbadian cricketer
Lewis Foster (born 1993), English rugby league footballer
Lewis R. Foster (1898–1974), American screenwriter
Lilibet Foster, American film director
Lillian Foster (??–1963), Canadian journalist
Linae Foster, American video game producer
Lindsay Foster (??–2020), Australian judge
Lisa Foster, Canadian actress
Little Willy Foster (1922–1987), American singer-songwriter
Lizzie Foster (1856–1948), British archer
Lori Foster, American writer
Lorraine Foster (born 1938), American mathematician
Louis Foster (born 2003), British racing driver
Lucas Foster, American film producer
Lucas Foster (snowboarder) (born 1999), American snowboarder
Lucia Foster, American economist
Lucian R. Foster (1806–1876), American photographer
Luke Foster (born 1985), English footballer
Luther H. Foster Jr. (1913–1994), American academic administrator
Lydia Mary Foster (1867–1943), Irish writer
Lyle Foster (born 2000), South African footballer
Lynn Foster (1914–1985), Australian playwright
M
M. A. Foster (1939–2020), American writer
Maalique Foster (born 1996), Jamaican footballer
Mac Foster (1942–2010), American boxer
Marcia Lane Foster (1897–1983), English artist
Marcus Foster (1923–1973), American educator
Marcus Foster (basketball) (born 1995), American basketball player
Margaretta Foster (1737–1824), Irish peeress
Margot Foster (born 1958), Australian rower
Marian Foster (born 1948), English television presenter
Marie Foster (1917–2003), American activist
Marion Foster (writer) (1924–1997), Canadian broadcaster
Marjorie Foster (1893–1974), English farmer
Martha M. Foster, American business executive
Marty Foster (born 1963), American baseball umpire
Mary-Jane Foster, American lawyer
Mason Foster (born 1989), American football player
Matt Foster (born 1995), American baseball player
Matthew Foster (born 2000), Irish cricketer
Matty Foster (born 2001), English rugby league footballer
Max Foster (born 1972), American news correspondent
Mayhew Foster (1911–2011), American soldier
Meg Foster, American actress
Megan Foster (born 1992), American rugby union footballer
Melvin Foster (born 1971), American boxer
Mercedes S. Foster (born 1942), American zoologist
Mo Foster (1944–2023), English instrumentalist
Morris Foster (1936–2020), Irish cyclist
Morrison Foster (1823–1904), American business agent
Mulford B. Foster (1888–1978), American botanist
Muriel Foster (1877–1937), English soprano
Murphy J. Foster (1849–1921), American politician
Murray Foster (born 1967), Canadian musician
Myles Birket Foster (1825–1899), English painter
N
Nancilea Foster (born 1983), American diver
Nat Foster (1766–1840), American pioneer
Neal Foster (born 1972), American politician
Neil Foster (born 1962), English cricketer
Neville Foster (1890–1978), English cricketer
Nick Foster, British composer
Nick Foster (racing driver) (born 1965), British auto racing driver
Norris Foster (1855–1925), English barrister
O
Orpha Woods Foster (1850–1938), American pioneer
Otha Foster (born 1988), American football player
Owen Foster (born 2005), English footballer
P
Pat Foster (born 1939), American basketball coach
Patrick Foster (born 1987), Kenyan-English cricketer
Paulinus Foster (1811–1861), American lawyer and politician
Phil Foster (1913–1985), American actor
Phil Foster (politician) (born 1958), American politician
Philip Foster (1805–1884), American businessman
Philip Foster (British politician) (1865–1933), American politician
Phoebe Foster (1896–1975), American actress
Pop Foster (1878–1944), American baseball player
Pops Foster (1892–1969), American musician
Preston Foster (1901–1970), American actor
R
Radney Foster (born 1959), American musician
Ramon Foster (born 1986), American football player
Randolph Foster (athlete) (born 1968), Costa Rican sprinter
Randolph Sinks Foster (1820–1903), American bishop
R. E. Foster (1878–1914), English cricketer and footballer
Reb Foster (1936–2019), American disc jockey
Rebecca Salome Foster (1848–1902), American missionary
Red Dawn Foster, American politician
Reddy Foster (1864–1908), American baseball player
Reg Foster (1904–1999), British journalist
Renardo Foster (born 1984), American football player
Reuben Foster (born 1994), American football player
Rick Foster, American guitarist
R. L. Foster (1919–2005), American politician
Roberta Foster (born 1961), Barbadian equestrian
Robin B. Foster, American botanist
Rod Foster (born 1960), American basketball player
Rodney Foster (born 1941), English golfer
Roger Sherman Baldwin Foster (1857–1924), American lawyer
Ronnie Foster (born 1950), American musician
Rube Foster (1879–1930), American baseball player
Rube Foster (AL pitcher) (1888–1976), American baseball player
Rufus Edward Foster (1871–1942), American judge
Rusty Foster, American programmer
Ruth Foster (1920–2012), American actress
Ruthie Foster (born 1964), American singer-songwriter
Ryan Foster (athlete) (born 1988), American runner
Rylee Foster (born 1988), Canadian soccer player
S
Sally Foster, Scottish archaeologist
Sesshu Foster (born 1957), American poet
Sewell Foster (1792–1868), Canadian politician
Shan Foster (born 1986), American basketball player
Shanise Foster (born 1993), Jamaican footballer
Shawn Foster, American television director
Sheila Foster, English academic
Sheri Foster (born 1957), American actress
Sidney Foster (1917–1977), American pianist
Stacie Foster, American actress
Stan Foster, American actor
Stanley Foster (1885–1965), New Zealand surgeon
Stella Foster, American journalist
Stephanie Foster (born 1958), American rower
Stephanie Foster (politician) (born 1967), American politician
Sue Foster, English snooker player
Susanna Foster (1924–2009), American actress
Sutton Foster (born 1975), American entertainer
Sydney Foster (1921–2007), Jamaican hurdler
Sydney F. Foster (1893–1973), American judge
T
Tameka Foster (born 1971), American fashion stylist
Terry Foster (born 1959), American sports columnist
Theodore Foster (1752–1828), American politician
Tiffany Foster (born 1984), Canadian equestrian
Tina Monshipour Foster, Iranian-American lawyer
Toby Foster (born 1969), British comedian
Todd Foster (born 1967), American boxer
Toni Foster (born 1971), American basketball player
Tony Foster (1853–1918), New Zealand lecturer
Tony Foster (artist) (born 1946), British environmentalist
Trevor Foster (1914–2005), Welsh rugby union footballer
Trevor Foster (drummer), English drummer
V
Vera Chandler Foster (1915–2001), American social worker
Vere Foster (1819–1900), English philanthropist
Veronica Foster (1922–2000), Canadian cultural figure
Vince Foster (1945–1993), American attorney
Vine Cynthia Colby Foster (1852–1878), American medical practitioner
W
Warren Foster (1904–1971), American writer
Wayne Foster (born 1963), English footballer
Wendell Foster (1924–2019), American politician
Wilder D. Foster (1819–1873), American politician
Wilfrid Foster (1874–1958), English army officer and cricketer
Winston Foster (born 1941), English footballer
Y
Yip Foster (1907–1978), Canadian ice hockey player
Z
Zelda Foster (1934–2006), American social worker
Disambiguation pages
A
Adrian Foster (disambiguation)
Alan Foster (disambiguation)
Alex Foster (disambiguation)
Alfred Foster (disambiguation)
Amy Foster (disambiguation)
Andrew Foster (disambiguation)
Arthur Foster (disambiguation)
Asa Foster (disambiguation)
B
Barry Foster (disambiguation)
Ben Foster (disambiguation)
Bill Foster (disambiguation)
Bob Foster (disambiguation)
Bradley Foster (disambiguation)
Brian Foster (disambiguation)
C
Catherine Foster (disambiguation)
Charles Foster (disambiguation)
Christopher Foster (disambiguation)
Craig Foster (disambiguation)
D
Daniel Foster (disambiguation)
David Foster (disambiguation)
Derek Foster (disambiguation)
Donald Foster (disambiguation)
Douglas Foster (disambiguation)
Dwight Foster (disambiguation)
E
Edward Foster (disambiguation)
Eric Foster (disambiguation)
F
Frank Foster (disambiguation)
Frederick Foster (disambiguation)
G
Gary Foster (disambiguation)
Geoff Foster (disambiguation)
George Foster (disambiguation)
Graham Foster (disambiguation)
Greg Foster (disambiguation)
H
Harold Foster (disambiguation)
Harry Foster (disambiguation)
Helen Foster (disambiguation)
Henry Foster (disambiguation)
I
Ian Foster (disambiguation)
J
Jack Foster (disambiguation)
James Foster (disambiguation)
Jane Foster (disambiguation)
Jeff Foster (disambiguation)
Jim Foster (disambiguation)
John Foster (disambiguation)
Jon Foster (disambiguation)
Joseph Foster (disambiguation)
K
Kate Foster (disambiguation)
Kathleen Foster (disambiguation)
Kathy Foster (disambiguation)
Kenneth Foster (disambiguation)
Kevin Foster (disambiguation)
Kimberly Foster (disambiguation)
L
Leroy Foster (disambiguation)
Linda Foster (disambiguation)
M
Margaret Foster (disambiguation)
Mark Foster (disambiguation)
Martin Foster (disambiguation)
Mary Foster (disambiguation)
Maurice Foster (disambiguation)
Michael Foster (disambiguation)
N
Nathaniel Foster (disambiguation)
Nigel Foster (disambiguation)
Norman Foster (disambiguation)
P
Paul Foster (disambiguation)
Peter Foster (disambiguation)
R
Ralph Foster (disambiguation)
Red Foster (disambiguation)
Reginald Foster (disambiguation)
R. F. Foster (disambiguation)
Richard Foster (disambiguation)
Robert Foster (disambiguation)
Ron Foster (disambiguation)
Roy Foster (disambiguation)
S
Samuel Foster (disambiguation)
Sarah Foster (disambiguation)
Scott Foster (disambiguation)
Stephen Foster (disambiguation)
Steve Foster (disambiguation)
T
Thomas Foster (disambiguation)
Timothy Foster (disambiguation)
W
Walter Foster (disambiguation)
Will Foster (disambiguation)
William Foster (disambiguation)
Fictional characters
Aidan Foster, a character on the soap opera Neighbours
Anne Foster, a character on the soap opera Coronation Street
Cassandra Foster, a character on the All My Children
Jonny Foster, a character on the soap opera Emmerdale
Snapper Foster, a character on soap opera The Young and the Restless
See also
Foster (given name), a page for people with the given name "Foster"
Foster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for "Foster"
Forster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for "Forster"
Attorney General Foster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Attorney Generals surnamed "Foster"
Doctor Foster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Doctors surnamed "Foster"
General Foster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Generals surnamed "Foster"
Governor Foster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Governors surnamed "Foster"
Judge Foster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Judges surnamed "Foster"
Justice Foster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Justices surnamed "Foster"
Lord Foster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Lord surnamed "Foster"
Senator Foster (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Senators surnamed "Foster"
Notes
English-language surnames
Surnames of French origin |
4510627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para%20%28Special%20Forces%29 | Para (Special Forces) | Para (Special Forces), also known as Para Commandos or Para (SF) Commandos, is a group of special forces battalions of the Parachute Regiment in the Indian Army. These units specialize in various roles including counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, unconventional warfare, special reconnaissance, counter-insurgency and direct action.
The unit's heritage stems from World War II, with the creation of the 50th Parachute Brigade in October 1941 under the British Indian Army. 9 Para (SF) was raised in 1966 as the 9th Parachute Commando Battalion (as part of the Parachute Regiment) and is the oldest among the fifteen Para (SF) units of the Indian Army. It has been involved in various operations including the Indo-Pakistan war of 1971, Operation Bluestar, Operation Pawan, Operation Cactus, Kargil War, Operation Ginger, 2015 Indian counter-insurgency operation in Myanmar, 2016 Pampore stand-off, 2016 Indian Line of Control strike and in several anti-terror operations.
History
The parachute units of the Indian Army are among the oldest airborne units in the world. The 50th Indian Parachute Brigade was formed on 27 October 1941, comprising the British 151st Parachute Battalion, the British Indian Army 152nd Indian Parachute Battalion, and the 153rd Gurkha Parachute Battalion. The Parachute Regiment was formed from these and several other units in 1952.
In 1944, the 50th was allocated to the newly founded 44th Airborne Division. In the post-independence restructuring, India retained only one parachute brigade—the 50th. This brigade consisted of three distinguished battalions personally nominated by the then Commander-in-Chief, namely 1 PARA (Punjab), 2 PARA (Maratha) and 3 PARA (Kumaon). During the Jammu and Kashmir operations of 1947-48 these battalions distinguished themselves with glory in the battles of Shelatang, Naushera, Jhangar and Poonch, and were awarded the respective Battle Honours.
On 15 April 1952, the three battalions serving with the Parachute Brigade were removed from their respective Infantry Regiments to form the Parachute Regiment. Since then the Parachute Regiment has grown to comprise ten battalions including Parachute (Special Forces) battalions. In 1986, 8 PARA became 12 Battalion, Mechanised Infantry Regiment, while 21 Maratha LI converted to PARA (Special Forces). During their short but eventful existence so far, the regiment's battalions have had extensive operational experience, and singular achievements, to speak of their level of professionalism.
During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, an ad hoc commando unit, named Meghdoot Force, consisting of volunteers from various infantry units was organized by then Major Megh Singh of the Brigade of the Guards. The unit performed exceptionally well during the war destroying many strategic bridges and killing many Pakistani soldiers, and thus the Government authorized the formal raising of a commando unit. Lt Col Megh Singh was selected to raise the unit which was originally intended to be a part of the Brigade of the Guards. However, recognizing parachute qualification as an integral element of special operations, the unit was transferred to the Parachute Regiment and raised as its 9th Battalion (Commando) on 1 July 1966. The erstwhile members of the Meghdoot Force formed the nucleus, and the new unit was based in Gwalior. In June 1967 the unit was split equally into two to form a second commando unit, designated as 10th Battalion, each with three Companies. 10th Battalion was mandated to operate in the Western Desert and 9th Battalion in the northern mountains. In 1969, these battalions were re-designated as 9 and 10 Para (Commando) battalions.
In 1978, the 1 Para, as an experiment, was converted to become the first special forces unit of the Indian army, and was kept as the tactical reserve. Already a recipient of the Chief of Army Staff Unit Citation twice, and the GOC-in-C Eastern Command Unit Citation once, the unit was originally 1 Punjab, which was later re-designated as 1 PARA (Punjab) and in 1978 was converted to 1 PARA (SF).
On 15 January 1992, the Parachute Regiment Training Centre along with the Records and PAO (OR), and the Para Regiment, moved to Bangalore and occupied the erstwhile location of Pioneer Corps and Training Centre. Bangalore is the new Key Location Project of the centre.
1995 saw the formation of the fourth commando battalion when 21 Maratha Light Infantry was selected to convert to special forces and slated for the Eastern Command. After a stringent selection and training process that spanned more than a year, on 1 February 1996, the unit under Colonel VB Shinde, was formally inducted as the 21st Battalion (Special Forces), The Parachute Regiment. The unit has done well in its short lifespan and is the proud recipient of the Chief of Army Staff Unit Citation thrice (1992, 2006 and 2011) and the GOC-in-C Eastern Command Unit Citation twice (2008 and 2016), as well as a host of individual gallantry awards. Most notable operations being in the Loktak Lake of Manipur. With the changing scenario in military operations and the need for more special forces units, 2 Para began the conversion process from parachute to special forces role, followed closely by the 3rd Para and the 4th Para in the year 2004 and 2005. Further 11th Para (SF) in 2011, 12th Para (SF) in 2013 and 13th Para (SF) in 2022 were raised from within the strength of the regiment to augment the strength of the existing Special Forces battalions. In 2022, 5th Para, 6th Para, 7th Para, 23rd Para and 29th Para, the airborne punch of Indian Army was reorganized and redesignated as PARA (SF) on Modification Airborne and were given the specialist role with dual tasking of Airborne as well as the special tasks giving a significant boost to operational capability of Indian Army.
1971 Indo-Pakistan War
The unit first saw action in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war, the first six-man assault team was inserted deep into Indus and Chachro, where they carried out raids. The assault team killed 73 and wounded 140 on the Pakistani side. In addition, they also destroyed 35mm artillery guns of the Pakistan independent battery. They also destroyed an airfield. In Bangladesh 2 PARA (Airborne), which was a part of 50 (Independent) Parachute Brigade, carried out India's first airborne assault operation to capture Poongli Bridge in Mymensingh District near Dhaka. Subsequently, they were the first unit to enter Dhaka. For this action 2 PARA were given the Battle Honour of Poongli Bridge and the Theatre Honour Dhaka. In the Western Sector the unit was also involved in the Battle of Chamb.
Operation Mandhol
Operation Mandhol was a raid carried out by soldiers from the 9 Para (SF) to seek and destroy Pakistani artillery located in hostile territory near a village called Mandole. During the operation, aided by an artillery officer Capt. D Tyagi from 195 Mountain Regiment, six artillery guns were destroyed by a raiding team composed of six officers and around 120 soldiers led by Major C. M. Malhotra. The special forces raiders began their operation at 5.30 PM on 13 December 1971. They started off from Poonch and crossed the Poonch River. After they reached the Mandole village, they started searching for the artillery guns and eventually located them. The raiders divided themselves into six teams. Each one of the six team was tasked to destroy one of the six guns. Subsequently, an intense gunfight took place between the Indian raiders and Pakistan Army soldiers. The gunfight resulted in two Indian casualties namely Paratrooper Rajmal and Paratrooper Balwan Singh who was a resident of Village Moungri of District Udhampur of J&K and many Pakistani casualties, with some Pakistani soldiers escaping from the battle. Finally, the raiders destroyed all the artillery using explosives and returned to their base at 6.30 AM on 14 December 1971.
This operation caused the Pakistan military to tweak its military doctrine by assigning additional soldiers for defending artillery guns. Pakistan Army officials, who came to India as a delegation after the war had ended, acknowledged the raid. Operation Mandhol is now a part of the syllabus at the Indian Military Academy.
Chachro Raid
A series of raids were conducted by soldiers from the 10 Para (also known as The Desert Scorpions) at Chachro, Virawah, Nagarparkar and Islamkot during the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. The main objective of these raids were to hit Pakistan military installations located 80 kilometres inside hostile territory, disrupting supply lines, creating confusion and undertake important inroads into hostile territory. Two teams, codenamed Alpha and Charlie, trained for a duration of five months in skills such as desert warfare.
During the raids, the Indian commandos inserted themselves 80 kilometres deep into Pakistani territory and traversed a distance of over 500 kilometres, attacking Pakistan military installations and positions. They completed the raids with zero Indian casualties.
The raids began on 5 December 1971, when commandos from the 10 Para penetrated 70 kilometres inside hostile territory. The soldiers went into a defensive posture as they encountered heavy firing from Pakistani posts. The Indian raiders sent one of their vehicles rushing towards Pakistani positions, firing a LMG, to distract gunfire. This tactic was successful because of the cover provided by nighttime. Subsequently, the other raiders too opened fire and overpowered the Pakistani posts.
Soon, a pathfinder team was assigned the task of charting a route for the Alpha team to attack the wing headquarters of the Pakistan Rangers in Chachro. The pathfinders used the cover of darkness to chart a suitable route and green-lighted the raid before the dawn of 7 December. Within a few hours, the team killed 17 Pakistani soldiers, took 12 prisoners and captured Chachro. After this raid, the Charlie team exfiltrated out of the battlefield. Chachro was subsequently handed over to Indian infantrymen and the Alpha team proceeded further.
The Alpha team moved towards their next targets: Virawah and Nagarparkar. They reached Virawah before the dawn of 8 December, moving in broad daylight the preceding day. The first contact made by the raiders with the Pakistani soldiers was at 1:30 AM. Hand-to-hand combat between the Indian raiders and the Pakistanis ensued, followed by gunfights. Soon, Virawah was captured by the Indian raiders. The raiders then proceeded to Nagarparkar and captured it by the morning of 8 December.
Following this, the Indian raiders had returned to their base in India but were again tasked to attack an ammunition dump in Islamkot. The raiders reached their target at 5:30 AM on 17 December but found the target empty. Subsequently, while retreating, the raiders ambushed a Pakistani convoy, killing 18-20 Pakistani troops and imprisoning survivors.
Operation Bluestar 1984
In 1984 the Para (SF) were involved in Operation Blue Star. They were charged to lead an attack to evict Sikh militants hiding inside the Holy Site of the Sikh religion the Golden Temple Punjab. 80 members of 1 Para (SF) were given the task of assaulting two areas of the temple, one of which required divers. However, there were a number of setbacks as a result of inaccurate intelligence on the strength of the militants who were trained by Gen. Shabeg Singh (ex-1 Para himself), operating in low light, the conventional manner of the raid, and the lack of incentive, all of which resulted in a mission failure. The diver mission was aborted after the first team got bogged down. The commandos accompanied by Raghunath Dubey achieved their aims after a gunfight with militants that lasted hours.
Sri Lanka 1987
The late 1980s saw the Para (SF) in action in Sri Lanka, as part of Operation Pawan. However, the lack of proper planning by the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPF), and insufficient intelligence on the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam's (LTTE) whereabouts, caused the initial heli-borne assault on Jaffna University on 11 October 1987 to be a tragic failure. However it was because of the efforts of the Para (SF) that later led to the capture of the Jaffna peninsula, forcing the LTTE militants to take refuge in the forests.
Six soldiers lost their lives in that mission. Due to their superior training, the Para (SF) took refuge under a house, after they were misled by a youth who offered his services to help the commandos track Velupillai Prabhakaran but instead took them on a wild goose chase. They engaged the enemy for 24 hours and picked up all their dead with their weapons after reinforcements arrived the next morning.
After the failed assault on Jaffna City, the 10 Para (SF) participated in a heli-borne assault on the town of Moolai to the north west in November 1987. More than 200 LTTE guerrillas were killed and an arms depot seized. In order to give the commandos battle experience, 1 Para (SF) was rotated home in early 1988 and replaced by 9 Para (SF).
This battalion was scheduled to return home in June 1988, but the tour of duty was extended due to a planned air assault into the coastal swamps around Mullaittivu. The mission was a success, in that it located several arms caches. The 9 Para (SF) also provided 12 men for the security of the Indian High Commission in Sri Lanka.
Operation Cactus 1988, Maldives
With the capture of Maldives, an island nation off the south western coast of India, on 3 November 1988 by the People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) mercenaries, the army turned to the 50 (Independent) Parachute Brigade to carry out an airborne/air attempt transported operation to liberate the country and return power to the legal government. This operation had 6 Para spearheading the mission. 6 Para flew in on 4 November 1988 in a fleet of IL-76, An-32 and An-12 transport aircraft. One team rescued the president, another took over the airfield, and a third rescued Maldivian security personnel besieged in the National Security Service HQ. Later 7 Para and part of 17 Para Field Regiment were also deployed to the Maldives. When mercenaries tried to escape by sea along with hostages, they were intercepted by the Indian Navy. Thus, 6 Para, and the 17 Para Field Regiment conducted the first-ever international intervention by the Indian Army without any loss of life.
1999 Kargil War
In 1999 nine out of ten Parachute battalions were deployed for Operation Vijay in Kargil, which bears testimony to the operational profile of the Regiment. While the Parachute Brigade cleared the Mushkoh Valley intrusions, 5 Para was actively involved in the forgotten sector of Batalik, and was awarded the Chief of Army Staff (COAS) Unit Citation and Theatre Honour Kargil for its resounding success against the Pakistani Army
Operation Khukri 2000, Sierra Leone
Operation Khukri was a rescue mission conducted by the 2 PARA (SF) in Sierra Leone in June 2000. About 90 operators commanded by Major (now Lt. Col.) Harinder Sood were airlifted from New Delhi to spearhead the mission to rescue 223 men of the 5/8 Gurkha Rifles who were surrounded and held captive by Revolutionary United Front (RUF) rebels for over 75 days. Just 90 Para (SF) forced 2000-5000 members of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) divided into 5 battalions to surrender. This ultimately led to the liberation of Freetown.
Operation Summer Storm 2009
On 11 April 2009, the 57 Mountain Division of the Indian Army based in Manipur, 21 Para (SF) along with the Para-military Assam Rifles and State Police, launched a counter insurgency operation, code-named "Operation Summer Storm" in the Loktak Lake region and adjoining Loktak Lake in Bishnupur District, located south of State capital of Imphal. The first major mobilization of troops in 2009 ended on 21 April. As the troops began pulling out, an Army spokesperson described the operation as a success, disclosing that 129 militants, all belonging to the People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) were killed. The Forces also claimed to have located and destroyed five militant camps during the Operation and more than 117 weapons, including sixty nine AK-series rifles, forty-eight rocket launchers, and an unspecified quantity of explosives and improvised explosive devices (IEDs). No militant was arrested. No fatality among the Special Force (SF) personnel or civilians was reported.
Ongoing counter-insurgency operations in Kashmir and in northeastern India
Paratroopers and Para (SF) have conducted thousands of counter-insurgency (COIN) operations in Jammu and Kashmir, Assam and the eastern states in India. Sometimes these units work with the Rashtriya Rifles (COIN force) in complicated operations. Since the mid-1990s, the role of Paratroopers and Para (SF) as a counter-terrorism force has increased substantially. They are now actively involved in counter terrorist (CT) and COIN operations in Kashmir as an essential part of the Home Ministry's decision to conduct pro-active raids against militants in the countryside and mountains. Personnel include Para (SF), Paratroopers (Airborne), and special units of the Rashtriya Rifles – a paramilitary unit created for counter-insurgency operations in Kashmir. They have also included MARCOS personnel, many of whom are seconded to the Army for CT operations.
Counter-terrorist operation in Samba
On 26 September 2013, terrorists dressed in Army fatigues stormed a police station and then an Army camp in the Jammu region killing 10 people, including an Army officer, in twin fidayeen attacks. The terrorists sneaked across the border early on Thursday, barely three days ahead of a meeting between the prime ministers of India and Pakistan. The attack was on a police station. The 16 Cavalry unit of the Army in Samba district falls under the jurisdiction of 9 corps, headquartered at Yol Cantonment in Himachal Pradesh. The three heavily armed terrorists, believed to be from the group Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), were holed up in the cavalry armored unit's camp at Samba for several hours after they barged into the Officers mess, until they were killed during a fierce gunfight with 1 Para (SF) of the army. The bodies of the three terrorists aged between 16 and 19 were in the custody of the Army.
Authorities moved commandos of 1 Para (SF) in helicopters to the shootout site. The Para (SF) commandos first carried out an aerial reconnaissance of the camp before landing to neutralize the three terrorists. The 1 Para (SF) had identified the exact spot during the aerial reconnaissance from where the intruders were returning the army fire. After landing, the commandos started engaging the terrorists in a direct gunfight, but in order to give them an impression that their exact hiding location had still not been identified, an abandoned building inside the camp was blasted. This made the terrorists complacent thinking that their hiding spot had not been yet been pin-pointed. They kept on intermittently returning army fire until all three of them were eliminated. The entire operation, from the moment the terrorists entered the camp until they were gunned down, took nearly nine hours to complete. The main worry of the soldiers tasked to eliminate the terrorists was the Army Public School situated some distance from the place where the terrorists had been engaged in a sustained firefight. Army men were worried about the possibility of the terrorists moving into the school and taking children and staff as hostage. For this reason, the operation to eliminate the terrorists was carried out with extreme caution and patience.
2015 Counter-insurgency operation in Myanmar
Based on precise intelligence inputs, the Indian Air Force and 21 Para (SF) carried a cross-border operation along the Indo-Myanmar border and destroyed two militant camps one each of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (K) (NSCN) and the Kanglei Yawol Kanna Lup (KYKL). The operations were carried out inside Myanmar, along the Nagaland and Manipur border at two locations. One of the locations was near Ukhrul in Manipur. The army attacked two militants' transit camps.
70 commandos were reportedly involved in the operation. The commandos, equipped with assault rifles, rocket launchers, grenades and night vision goggles, were divided into two groups. The teams trekked through the thick jungles for at least before they reached training camps. Each of the teams was further divided into two sub-groups. While one was responsible for the direct assault, the second formed an outer ring to prevent any of insurgents from running and escaping. The actual operation (hitting the camp and destroying it) took about 40 minutes. Indian Air Force Mil Mi-17 helicopters were put on standby, ready to be pressed into service to evacuate the commandos in case anything went wrong. In its statement after the operation, the Indian Army said it was in communication with Myanmar and that, "There is a history of close cooperation between our two militaries. We look forward to working with them to combat such terrorism."
The Indian Army claimed to have inflicted heavy casualties (158 reported) on the attackers behind the ambush of the Army on 4 June, which claimed the lives of 18 Army jawans (soldiers) of 6 Dogra Regiment from the Chandel district of Manipur. This has been noted as the largest attack on the Indian Army after the Kargil war of 1999.
Cross-LoC surgical strikes 2016
Intelligence gathering had started a few weeks prior, through drones, satellites and various other Indian assets, on 26 September 2016, small recon teams were given the task to infiltrate across the LoC, to carry out a 24 hour surveillance of the targets and to put together the best possible infiltration and exfiltration routes through the heavily mined and manned border in the world, the LoC. The intelligence was so strong that it's reported that the hit squads knew the names of the fidayeens at the launch pads. On return of the recon team, plans were laid down for the assault, and on 29 September 2016, India attacked the strike targeted areas across the Line of Control (LoC), where militants congregate for their final briefings before sneaking across into India. An Indian security source said the operation began with Indian forces firing artillery across the frontier to provide cover for three to four teams of 70–80 para SF commandos from 4 and 9 Para (Special Forces) to cross the LoC at several points shortly after midnight IST on 29 September (18:30 hours UTC, 28 Sept.). Teams from 4 Para SF crossed the LoC in the Nowgam sector of Kupwara district, with teams from 9 Para SF simultaneously crossing the LoC in Poonch district.[2] [16] By 2 a.m. IST, according to army sources, the special forces teams had travelled – on foot, the teams began the assault, with hand-held grenades and 84 mm rocket launchers destroying the ammo and the fuel dumps at the launch pads. Simultaneously, the sniping and assault teams opened fire, killing the terrorists at sight and those who tried to make a run. At first light, the teams swiftly returned to the Indian side of the LoC, suffering only one injury, a soldier wounded after tripping a land mine.[2]
The Indian army said the strike was a pre-emptive attack on the militants' bases, claiming that it had received intelligence that the militants were planning "terrorist strikes" against India.[36] [37] India said that, in destroying "terrorist infrastructure" it also attacked "those who are trying to support them," indicating it also attacked Pakistani soldiers.[48] India later briefed opposition parties and foreign envoys, but did not disclose operational details.[16] The footage from the strike captured by overhead drones and thermal imaging was released to the media afterwards. It was also informed that around 40-50 militants were killed and many more injured in one of the surgical strikes.
However, the Pakistan army dismissed India's claim, and instead claimed that Indian troops had not crossed the LoC but had only skirmished with Pakistani troops at the border, resulting in the deaths of two Pakistani soldiers and the wounding of nine.
2020 India-China border tensions
The Para SF reportedly conducted reconnaissance against Chinese military posts near the Pangong Tso during the 2020 China–India skirmishes. They participated alongside the Special Frontier Force in occupying dominating positions of 'Black top', 'Gurung hill' ,'Helmet' and various other peaks and ridges on the southern bank of Pangong Tso, west of the Kailash Range in August 2020.
Organization
The Parachute Regiment presently has fifteen Special Forces, two Territorial Army, and one Counter-Insurgency (Rashtriya Rifles) battalion in its fold. Due to the absence of centralized command and lack of a centralized and standardized procedure for selection, even among the Para (SF) battalions, selection procedures vary. Meaning there is a different standard to get into different Para (SF) battalions.
In the mid-1980s, there were plans to take the three para commando battalions from the Parachute Regiment and bring them together under an individual special organization, the Special Forces Regiment. However, after several logistic and administrative obstacles, these plans were abandoned, and they continue to be trained and recruited by the Parachute Regiment.
Para (SF) operates in assault teams, which work individually behind enemy lines. The total strength of the Parachute Regiment stands at about 8,000-10,000 this includes one Rashtriya Rifles and two Territorial Army battalions, while the Para (SF) includes between 5,000-6,000 personnel or maybe more currently. They have to hide their identity from the general public.
The Special Group (aka 4 Vikas/22 SF/22 SG), a clandestine special forces unit which operates under Research and Analysis Wing, recruits from the PARA SF, MARCOS, Garud Commando Force. Currently the Para Special Forces consists of 15 battalions:
1 PARA (SF) – Western Command
2 PARA (SF) – Central Command
3 PARA (SF) – South Western Command
4 PARA (SF) – Northern Command
5 PARA (SF) – 50(I) Para Brigade
6 PARA (SF) – 50(I) Para Brigade
7 PARA (SF) – 50(I) Para Brigade
9 PARA (SF) – Northern Command
10 PARA (SF) – Southern Command
11 PARA (SF) – Eastern Command
12 PARA (SF) – Eastern Command
13 PARA (SF) – Southern Command
21 PARA (SF) – Eastern Command
23 PARA (SF) – 50(I) Para Brigade
29 PARA (SF) – 50(I) Para Brigade
Functions
Intelligence gathering and special reconnaissance
Sabotage of vital enemy infrastructure and communications through deep penetration and surgical strikes behind enemy lines.
Covert and overt/direct action special operations as part of the Indian Army's counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency operations.
Hostage rescue operations within and beyond Indian territory.
The unit is tasked with missions such as special operations, direct action, hostage rescue, counter-terrorism, special reconnaissance, foreign internal defence, counter-proliferation, counter-insurgency, seek and destroy, and personnel recovery.
Personnel
Selection
All Indian Special Forces operatives are volunteers. Some enter the Para regiments fresh from recruitment, while others transfer in from regular army units. They are put through a probationary period/selection process of three months for Para (Special Forces) battalions (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 21, 23 and 29 PARA SF). In order to be a Para (Special Forces) operator, all personnel are first required to qualify as Paratroopers; once selected the candidates may choose to advance to the SF selection, which takes place twice a year in the spring and the autumn term.
There are fifteen Para (SF) battalions and soldiers are selected accordingly. An example of this would be the 10 Para (SF) who are also known as Desert Scorpions. The probation period for this unit is three-months and the probationers are selected accordingly for desert warfare. The 9 Para (SF) who specialise in Mountain warfare go through a six-month course at the Special Forces training school in Nahan, Himachal Pradesh, which is followed by further specialised selection. This concept of geographical specialisation was eventually modified and each Para (SF) battalion is now trained to operate in various terrains and climatic conditions.
Soldiers of the Indian Army can volunteer for the course irrespective of rank. Depending on the battalion, the probation period is for three months which doesn't include additional time for specialized skills. Over the probation period, all soldiers are stripped of their ranks, including officers, and are known as probationers or probies. A probationer may opt to leave anytime during the course. The completion rate is under 12-15 per cent and this slightly high completion rate is because many probationers are drawn from their regimental battalions. Every Special Forces operator specialises in various skills such as weapons handling, demolition, navigation, communication, and medical. PARA (SF) usually work in small teams of only six men, focusing on strategic reconnaissance, surveillance, target designation (RSTAD), hostage rescue and direct action (DA) tasks, and are selected and trained accordingly. Those who complete the probation period and are inducted into the Para (SF) undergo further selection and training, but to earn the Balidan Badge or "Badge of sacrifice", they have to further survive being deployed in active operations in hostile zones.
Training centres and courses
Commando Training Wing, Belgavi, Karnataka
4-week High-Altitude Commando Course, Parvat Ghatak School in Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh
Desert Warfare School, Rajasthan
High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS), Sonamarg, Kashmir
Basic Combat Divers Course, Indian Navy's Diving School, Kochi
Counter insurgency, at the Counter Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School (CIJWS) in Vairengte, Mizoram
Special Forces Training School, Bakloh, Himachal Pradesh
Basic Parachuting and Combat free-fall training (HAHO and HALO) at the Parachute Training School, Agra & Army Airborne Training School, Agra
90-day Selection
Some of the training during the 90-day selection includes:
Day 1 to 35: The first 35 days consists of 'Physical and Skills Training'. This includes hours of rigorous exercises apart from other tests and skills training such as blindfolded team assembly, weapons training, demolition, navigation, communication, medical and cooking skills. Probationers are also taught animal handling skills, Probationers go without food for 4 days, they have to minimize water consumption up to 1 litre water for 3 days and be able to go without sleep for 7 days. A 10 kg sandbag becomes a permanent buddy for the probationer. Routine speed marches and runs of 10 km, 20 km, 30 km and 40 km with full battle gears are conducted. Probationers must be exceptional navigators in areas where there is no network signal, no roads or landmarks and sand dunes that keep shifting every night.[40] In Parachute training, candidates then complete a 3-week Basic Parachute Course at the Indian Army's Parachute Training School in Agra. insertion and extraction techniques and have to learn several languages. Many probationers are not able to complete this stage of the course itself and up to 20% drop out here.
Day 45: The 36-hour Para SF stress test includes 36 hours of exercises, maneuvers, insertion, extraction where the probationers stress capabilities are put to the test. It starts with a 10 km speed march with 30 kg battle loads and an additional 40 kg each. This is followed by various exercises included lifting buddies over long periods. This is followed by weight shifting. Weight shifting has three rounds, where various kinds of weights have to be shifted such as 40 litres of jerry cans, tyre trucks and wooden logs up to 85 kg in weight. During the 11th hour, trial by water is conducted – simulated drowning, allowing only the bare minimum oxygen over a long period of time. This is to test probationers panic reactions under stress. The hands are also tied later on and using ropes the probationers are pulled under water. It is well known that hypoxia and blackout due to lack of oxygen is common during this test. The first 16 hours are completed without a drop of water or food. This is followed by immediate observational skills and operation tactics under pressure which included probationary having to recall objects placed in their exercises. This is followed by 10 km speed march and 6 hours of continuous exercises. Finally practical combat skills tested such as placing ambushes, response to an ambush, making camps, stretchers and simulated evacs. This is all done at the last stage of the stress test under lack of sleep and extreme fatigue mainly to test mental endurance of the probationers under such conditions and how they react. The 36 hours stress test also sees many probationers leave.
Day 56: The Para SF 100 km endurance run is a must for all probationers. With 10 kg battle load and personal weapon of 7 kg they have to run 100 km. The time taken averages 13 to 15 hours. A known route the Para SF have used for this run is the hilly route between Rampur and Dakkal. The run is divided into four stages.
Day 60 to 90: The final and toughest test is reserved for those who make it to this stage, the Counter Terror Operations. Not much is publicly known about this stage or the other parts of this course.
At the end of the 90-day probation period, the successful candidates receive and wear their maroon berets for the first time and go through a glass-eating tradition.
Training
The training in SF battalions is a continuous process. In the special forces, the members are imparted both basic and advanced training. They are taught specialized modes of infiltration and exfiltration, either by air (combat freefall) or sea (combat diving). Some trainees return to PTS to undergo the free-fall course, which requires at least 50 jumps from altitudes up to to pass. Both High Altitude Low Opening (HALO) and High Altitude High Opening (HAHO) techniques are learned. The ability to use the HAHO method and specially designed maneuverable parachutes called HAPPS (High Altitude Parachute Penetration System)/AMX-310 to conduct stealth insertions over distances up to is also perfected.
The commandos are sent to the Naval Diving School, Kochi for combat diving training. Like other special forces, these SF operators are trained for land, air and water.
The daily routine begins with a morning run. Infiltration, exfiltration, assault, room and building intervention, intelligence gathering, patrolling, ambush tactics, counter-ambush tactics, counter-insurgency, counter-terrorism, unconventional warfare, guerilla warfare, asymmetric warfare, raids and sabotage, martial arts training, tactical shooting, stress firing, reflex shooting, buddy system drills, close quarter battle, tactical driving, advance weapon courses and handling, sniping, demolition training, survival skills, linguistic training, logistic training, trade-craft training is imparted by the intelligence agencies. The training drills involve live ammunition at all times which is a reason for fatal accidents at times leading to death.
Night and weapons training and field craft involving treks with loads and live ammunition are conducted. Weekly forced marches with combat loads with distances over to and quarterly night drops with full combat loads are also conducted.
In addition to this in-house training, the commandos also attend a number of schools run by the Army that specialize in terrain and environmental warfare. These include the Junior Leaders' Commando Training Camp in Belgaum, Karnataka, the Parvat Ghatak School (for high altitude mountain warfare) in Tawang Arunachal Pradesh, the desert warfare school in Rajasthan, the High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS) in Sonamarg, Kashmir, the Counterinsurgency and Jungle Warfare School (CIJWS) in Vairengte, Mizoram, and the Indian special forces training school in Nahan, Himachal Pradesh. These schools are among the finest of their kind anywhere, and routinely host students from other countries.
Members of USSOCOM (United States Special Operations Command) and UKSF (United Kingdom Special Forces) have conducted joint training exercises with the Indian Paras. SOF members from the three nations routinely train at each other's facilities to improve military cooperation and tactical skills. This allows the SOF operators from each nation to see tactics and perspectives offered by other top-notch organizations. It is thought that the French Foreign Legion also has approached CIJWS regarding the courses taught by them. Para SF troops can also undergo a complete Combat Divers course, after which they earn a combat diver badge.
They are also experienced in conducting SHBO (special heliborne operations) and typically employ Cheetahs, MI-8/MI-17, or HAL (Dhruv) helicopters for this purpose.
Joint exercises with other nations
The Para (SF) conduct a series of joint exercises, named Vajra Prahar, with the United States Army every year, in which about 100 personnel from the US and Indian special forces participate. INDRA is a series of joint exercise with Russian special forces, and operation Sampriti is the name for joint exercises with Bangladeshi special forces. Para (SF) also conducts exercises and training with the special forces of Israel. The Ajeya Warrior is a series of exercises with the SFSG of the UK. Indian special forces also conduct exercises with forces of the following 16 friendly countries: the United States, France, the UK, Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Maldives, Seychelles, Singapore, Indonesia and Thailand.
International competitions
Personnel from the Para (SF) have participated in international competitions like Airborne Africa, Cambrian Patrol. This exercise was designed to test the special forces community's endurance, combat efficiency, and combat readiness. The regiment has a record of highest tally wins in both these exercises that is hosted annually ever since their participation was inducted in the competition hosted by Botswana in Africa's Kalahari Desert from 8–10 June 2002, in which 10 Para (SF) participated. Special forces from other nations like the Special Air Service of the UK and the Green Berets of the US also participated.
In 2014 and 2021 teams from the Indian army won the gold medal out of the 140 teams that participated in Exercise Cambrian Patrol held in the UK.
Influence on foreign units
The Para SF has provided training to special forces from Afghanistan and Tajikistan. In December 2013, 60 Afghan special forces were trained by the 10 Para (SF) at the Thar Desert. A month earlier, the Tajik special forces had undergone training. In 2021, Uzbek airborne forces were also trained in specialized para operations.
Armoury
The following equipment are reportedly used by the Para (SF):
Small Arms
Pistol
Beretta 92FS Semi-automatic Pistol
Beretta Px4 Storm Semi-automatic Pistol
Pistol 9mm 1-A Semi-automatic Pistol
FN Five-seven Semi-automatic Pistol
Glock Semi-automatic Pistol
IWI Jericho 941 Semi-automatic Pistol
Sub-machine Gun
B&T MP9 9mm Machine Pistol
Heckler & Koch MP5 Sub-Machine Gun
Micro Uzi 9mm Sub-Machine Gun
Assault Rifle
M4A1 5.56mm Carbine
IWI TAR-21 Tavor 5.56mm Assault Rifle
AK-47 (SOPMOD) 7.62×39mm Assault Rifle
FN SCAR L,H assault rifle
SIG Sauer 716i 7.62mm Battle Rifle
IMI Galil SAR 5.56mm Assault Rifle
Sniper Rifle
IWI Galil Sniper 7.62mm Semi-automatic sniper Rifle
Sako TRG .338 Lapua Magnum Sniper Rifle
Barrett M107A1 Anti-material Sniper Rifle
SVD Dragunov designated marksman rifle
Beretta Victrix Scorpio TGT .338 Lapua Magnum Sniper Rifle
Machine Gun
IWI Negev NG-7 Light Machine Gun
PKM General Purpose Machine Gun
MK48 General Purpose Machine Gun
Rocket Launcher
C-90-CR-RB (M3) Rocket Propelled Grenade.
RL MkIII 84mm Recoilless Rifle
Carl Gustaf recoilless rifle(Mark-4) Light Weight Recoilless Rifle.
B-300 Shipon 82mm Rocket launcher
Spike (ATGM) Anti-Tank Guided Missile
Transport
C-130J Super Hercules tactical transport aircraft.
Boeing C-17 Globemaster III transport aircraft.
HAL Dhruv utility helicopter.
HAL Chetak utility helicopter
AH-64E Apache Attack helicopter
All Terrain Vehicles
Insignia
Para (SF) personnel, like other parachute troops in the Indian military, wear a maroon beret after they clear the Paratrooper (Air) course during the initial stages of probation. Their beret insignia is same as what paratroopers of regular para battalions wear.
The key factor that separates Para (SF) personnel from Paratroopers, apart from their doctrine, training & task, is that the former wear Special Forces tab on each shoulder and the Balidan Badge, translated as "Badge of Sacrifice", on their right pocket below the nameplate. Only the Special Forces personnel are allowed to wear these insignias after successfully completing the SF training and a certain number of successful combat ops. The badge is modeled after that of the UK Special Air Service.
Para SF personnel are allowed to grow hair & beard, as this allows them to blend in with the civilian population, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and terrorism-plagued areas.
Gallantry awards
Maha Vir Chakra
1965, Lt. General (then Major) Ranjit Singh Dyal of 1 Para captured Haji pir pass under Operation Bakshi of 1965 war.
1971, Brigadier (then Lt. Colonel) Swai Bhawani Singh of 10 Para (Commando) for the capture of large areas of Chachro and Virawah in Pakistan during 1971 war.
1971 Maj Gen (Then Lt Col) Kulwant Singh Pannu of 2 Para who led the Airborne Assault on Poongli Bridge, in Tangail, and subsequently led the Indian Army's entry into Dhaka with his unit.
1965, Brigadier (then Lt. Colonel) Russell Lazarus of the 3 Para for action in the 1965 War
Vir Chakra
1988, Maj. General (then Lt. Colonel) Dalvir Singh, of 10 Para (Commando) for the rescue of 74 SF personnel as well as the infantry personnel trapped, along with recovery of 6 para SF casualties during the Operation Jaffna University Helidrop in 1987.
Ashok Chakra
1995, (Posthumous) Captain Arun Singh Jasrotia of 9 PARA (Commando) for eliminating terrorists in Lolab Valley during operation Rakshak.
1999, (Posthumous) Major Sudhir Kumar Walia of 9 PARA (Commando) for killing 9 terrorists single-handedly during operation Rakshak in Haphruda forest of Kashmir.
2003, (Posthumous) Paratrooper Sanjog Chhetri of 9 PARA (Special Forces) for operation Sarp Vinash in Poonch.
2007, (Posthumous) Captain Harshan R Nair of the 2 PARA (Special Forces) for Baramulla Operation, 20th Mar 2007, eliminating four terrorists including, two top leaders.
2008, (Posthumous) Havaldar Bahadur Singh Bohra of 10 PARA (Spacial Force) for Counter-insurgency Operations in Jammu and Kashmir in 2008.
2008, (Posthumous) Havaldar Gajender Singh Bisht of 10 PARA (Special Forces) on deputation to 51 NSG for Anti-Terror Operation in 26/11 Mumbai attack in 2008.
2009, (Posthumous) Major Mohit Sharma of 1 PARA (Special Forces) for Counter-insurgency Operations in Jammu and Kashmir in 2009.
2016, (Posthumous) Lance Naik Mohan Nath Goswami of 9 PARA (Special Forces) for Counter-insurgency Operations in Jammu and Kashmir in 2016.
Kirti Chakra
1994, Maj Gen (then Lt Col) SK Razdan of 7 Para for Counter-insurgency operation Op Rhino in 1994.
2001,(Posthumous) Capt. R. Subramanian of 1 Para(Special Forces) for counter-insurgency operations in Kupwara area of Jammu and Kashmir in 2000
2009, Brig.(then Lt. Colonel) Saurabh Singh Shekhawat of 21 Para(Special Forces) for a classified operation in Manipur in 2008.
2010,(Posthumous) Capt. Davinder Singh Jass, of 1 Para (Special Forces) for a counter-insurgency operations in Sopore area of Jammu and Kashmir in 2010
2011, Lt Vikas Sharma of 6 Para sf for Counter-insurgency operation in Jammu & Kashmir in 2011.
2015, Lt. Colonel. Nectar Sanjenbam of 21 Para(Special Forces) for 2015 Myanmar Cross Border Raid.
2015, Captain Jaidev Dangi of 10 Para (Special Forces) for eliminating a terrorist in Pulwama in 2014.
2017, Lt. Colonel.(then Major) Rohit Suri of 4 Para(Special Forces) for the Surgical strike against terrorist launch pads across the Line of Control in Pakistani-administered Kashmir in 2016.
2021, (Posthumous) Sub. Sanjiv Kumar of 4 Para(Special Forces) for Counter Insurgency Op in Kupwara, Kashmir in 2020.
2009,(Posthumous) Paratrooper Shabir Ahmad Malik of 1 Para SF for fighting terrorists at Kupwara , Kashmir on 21 March 2009 .
Shaurya Chakra
1985, Lt. General (then Major) Prakash Chand Katoch of 1 Para(Special Forces) for Operation Blue Star, in 1984.
1998, Col (then 2/Lt) Paramjeet Singh Bajwa of 6 Para for Counter-Insurgency Operation in Jammu & Kashmir.
1998,(Posthumous) Ptr, Baldev Raj of 6 Para for Counter-Insurgency Operation in Jammu & Kashmir which resulted in killing of 9 militants.
1999,(Posthumous) Ptr, Gian Singh of 6 Para for Counter-Insurgency Operation in Jammu & Kashmir.
2002, Col (then Lt) Manav Yadav of 1 Para(Special Forces) for Counter-Insurgency Operation in Kashmir.
2004, (Posthumous) Major Udai Singh of 1 Para(Special Forces) for Rajouri operation in 2003.
2008, Colonel.(then Major) N. S. Bal of 2 Para(Special Forces) for a covert operation in Lolab Valley in 2008.
2010, Capt Tushar Dhasmana of 6 Para for Counter-Insurgency Operation in Jammu & Kashmir.
2014, Major (then Lieutenant) Manish Singh of 9 Para(Special Forces) for Operation in Kashmir in 2012.
2016, (Posthumous) Captain Pawan Kumar of 10 Para(Special Forces) for 2016 Pampore stand-off.
2016, (Posthumous) Captain Tushar Mahajan of 9 Para(Special Forces) for 2016 Pampore stand-off.
2017, Major D. K. Upadhyay of 9 Para(Special Forces) for 2016 Surgical Strike in Pakistan
2017, Major Rajat Chandra of 4 Para(Special Forces) for 2016 Surgical Strike in Pakistan
2017, Captain Ashutosh Kumar of 4 Para(Special Forces) for 2016 Surgical Strike in Pakistan
2017, Nb. Subedar Vijay Kumar of 4 Para(Special Forces) for 2016 Surgical Strike in Pakistan
2017, Ptr. Abdul Qayum of 9 Para(Special Forces) for 2016 Surgical Strike in Pakistan
2018, Col(then Major) Vikrant Prashar of 10 Para(Special Forces) for a covert operation in Kashmir, 2018.
2019, Nb. Subedar Anil Kumar Dahiya of 1 Para(Special Forces) for killing 3 terrorists, during a covert strike across the Line of Control in 2018.
2021, Ptr. Sonam Tshering Tamang of 4 Para(Special Forces) for killing 2 terrorists and for evacuating his squad commander, in 2020.
See also
Special Forces of India
National Security Guard
Special Air Service
References
Bibliography
Gen. P. C. Katoch, Saikat Datta (2013). India's Special Forces: 1: History and Future of Special Forces. VIJ Books (India) Pty Ltd.
Col V S Yadav. (2012) Employment of Special Forces: Challenges and Opportunities for the Future. Centre for Joint Warfare Studies (New Delhi).
External links
Jawed Naqwi, "India had planned offensive", Dawn, 24 December 2002.
Para Commandos
Airborne units and formations
Infantry regiments of the Indian Army from 1947
Military counterterrorist organizations
Special forces of India
Units of the Indian Peace Keeping Force |
4510684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Browder | Bill Browder | William Felix Browder (born 23 April 1964) is an American-born British financier and political activist. He is the CEO and co-founder of Hermitage Capital Management, the investment advisor to the Hermitage Fund, which at a time was the largest foreign portfolio investor in Russia. The Hermitage Fund was founded in partnership with Republic National Bank, with $25 million in seed capital. The fund, and associated accounts, eventually grew to $4.5 billion of assets under management. In 1997, the Hermitage Fund was the best-performing fund in the world, up by 238%. Browder's primary investment strategy was shareholder rights activism. Browder took on large Russian companies such as Gazprom, Surgutneftegaz, Unified Energy Systems, and Sidanco. In retaliation, on 13 November 2005, Browder was refused entry to Russia, deported to the UK, and declared a threat to Russian national security.
Eighteen months after Browder was deported, on 4 June 2007, Hermitage Capital's offices in Moscow were raided by twenty-five officers of Russia's Interior Ministry. Twenty-five more officers raided the Moscow office of Browder's American law firm, Firestone Duncan, seizing the corporate registration documents for Hermitage's investment holding companies. Browder assigned Sergei Magnitsky, head of the tax practice at Firestone Duncan, to investigate the purpose of the raid. Magnitsky discovered that while those documents were in the custody of the police, they had been used to fraudulently re-register Hermitage's holding companies to the name of an ex-convict. Magnitsky was subsequently arrested by Russian authorities and died in prison, having been denied proper medical treatment.
The reregistration of the Hermitage holding companies was an intermediate step before the perpetrators used those companies to apply for a fraudulent $230 million (~$ in ) tax refund, awarded on 24 December 2007.
After Magnitsky's death, Browder lobbied for Congress to pass the Magnitsky Act, a law to punish Russian human rights violators, which was signed into law in 2012 by President Barack Obama. In 2013, both Magnitsky and Browder were tried in absentia in Russia for tax fraud. Both men—Magnitsky had died four years prior—were convicted and sentenced to imprisonment. Interpol rejected Russian requests to arrest Browder, saying the case was political. In 2014, the European Parliament voted for sanctions against 30 Russians believed complicit in the Magnitsky case; this was the first time it had taken such action.
On 21 October 2017, the Russian government attempted to place Browder on Interpol's arrest list of criminal fugitives, the fifth such request, which Interpol eventually rejected on 26 October 2017. After the initial request, Browder's visa waiver for the United States was automatically suspended. After a bipartisan protest by U.S. Congressional leaders, his visa waiver was restored the following day. While visiting Spain in May 2018, Browder was arrested by Spanish authorities on a new Russian Interpol warrant and transferred to an undisclosed Spanish police station. He was released two hours later, after Interpol confirmed that this was a political case.
Early life and education
William Felix Browder was born in Princeton, New Jersey, and he grew up in Chicago, Illinois. He is the son of mathematician Felix Browder, and the grandson of Earl Browder. He attended the University of Colorado, Boulder, before transferring to the University of Chicago, from which he graduated with a degree in economics. He earned an MBA from the Stanford Graduate School of Business in 1989 and entered the financial sector.
Family background
Browder's paternal grandfather Earl Browder was born in Kansas in 1891. He was a radical and had lived in the Soviet Union for several years from 1927 and married Raisa Berkman, a Jewish Russian woman while living there. After his return to the United States in 1931, Earl Browder became the leader of the Communist Party USA from 1930 to 1945 and ran for U.S. president in 1936 and 1940. After World War II, Browder lost favour with Moscow and was expelled from the U.S. Communist Party.
Earl and his wife Raisa had three children, all sons, and all three became mathematicians who headed the mathematics departments of top American universities, including Bill Browder's father Felix Browder, who married Eva (Tislowitz). Felix was a mathematics prodigy who had entered MIT at 16, acquired his bachelor's degree in two years, and by the age of 20 received a Ph.D. from Princeton. But during the McCarthy era, he could not find work because he was the son of the onetime head of the Communist Party USA. After a series of job rejections in the 1950s, he was championed by Eleanor Roosevelt, the former First Lady who was then chairman of the board of Brandeis University; she overrode the rest of the board who were afraid to hire him, and he gained a position at Brandeis. Felix went on to chair the mathematics department at the University of Chicago, and in 1999 became the president of the American Mathematical Society.
Felix Browder was renowned in the field of nonlinear functional analysis—a branch of mathematics with wide applications to such fields as physics, engineering, and finance. He was instrumental in establishing a science and technology center in conjunction with Princeton University and Bell Labs. In 1999, he was awarded the National Medal of Science by President Bill Clinton, for his "key role in the explosive growth of nonlinear functional analysis and its applications to partial differential equations in recent years".
Bill Browder has one sibling, Tom Browder, who entered the University of Chicago at 15, and became a particle physicist. Bill Browder's son Joshua is the founder of DoNotPay, a startup that helps to automate certain legal services.
Career and citizenship
Browder started his career in the Eastern European practice of the Boston Consulting Group in London, then worked for Robert Maxwell's MCC conglomerate, and after that managed the Russian proprietary investments desk at Salomon Brothers.
In 1999, Browder received naturalisation as a British citizen. Meanwhile, he relinquished his U.S. citizenship in 1998. He cited that he did so because of "a legacy of bad feeling about the rule of law" as a result of his family having been "viciously persecuted" by U.S. authorities in the 1950s, citing especially his communist grandfather, Earl Browder who was imprisoned twice during the era of McCarthyism.
Hermitage Capital Management
Browder and Edmond Safra (1932–1999) founded Hermitage Capital Management in 1996 for the purpose of investing initial seed capital of $25 million in Russia during the period of the mass privatisation after the fall of the Soviet Union. Beny Steinmetz was another of the original investors in Hermitage.
Following the Russian financial crisis of 1998, Browder remained committed to Hermitage's original mission of investing in Russia, despite significant outflows from the fund. Hermitage became a prominent activist shareholder in the Russian gas giant Gazprom, the large oil company Surgutneftegas, RAO UES, Sberbank, Sidanco, Avisma, and Volzhanka. Browder exposed management corruption and corporate malfeasance in these partly state-owned companies. He has been quoted as saying: "You had to become a shareholder activist if you didn't want everything stolen from you".
In 1999, Avisma filed a RICO lawsuit against Browder and other Avisma investors including Kenneth Dart, alleging they illegally siphoned company assets into offshore accounts and then transferred the funds to U.S. accounts at Barclays. Browder and his co-defendants settled with Avisma in 2000; they sold their Avisma shares as part of the confidential settlement agreement.
From 1995 to 2006, Hermitage Capital Management was one of the largest foreign investors in Russia, and Browder amassed millions through his management of the fund. In both 2006 and 2007, he earned an estimated £125–150 million.
In March 2013, HSBC, a bank that serves as the trustee and manager of Hermitage Capital Management, announced that it would end the fund's operations in Russia. The decision was taken amid two legal cases against Browder: a libel court case in London and a trial in absentia for tax evasion in Moscow.
In June 2018, HSBC reached a settlement with the Russian government to pay a £17 million fine to Russian authorities for its part in alleged tax avoidance.
Conflict with Russian government
In 2005, after ten years of business deals in Russia, Browder was blacklisted by the Russian government as a "threat to national security" and denied entry to the country. The Economist wrote that the Russian government blacklisted Browder because he interfered with the flow of money to "corrupt bureaucrats and their businessmen accomplices". Browder had earlier supported Russian president Vladimir Putin.
As reported in 2008 by The New York Times, "over the next two years (according to Browder) several of his associates and lawyers, as well as their relatives, became victims of crimes, including severe beatings and robberies during which documents were taken". In June 2007, dozens of police officers "swooped down on the Moscow offices of Hermitage and its law firm, confiscating documents and computers. When a member of the firm protested that the search was illegal, he was beaten by officers and hospitalized for two weeks, said the firm's head, Jamison R. Firestone." Hermitage became "victim of what is known in Russia as 'corporate raiding': seizing companies and other assets with the aid of corrupt law enforcement officials and judges". Three Hermitage holding companies were seized on what the company's lawyers insist were bogus charges.
The raids in June 2007 enabled corrupt law enforcement officers to steal the corporate registration documents of three Hermitage holding companies. They perpetrated a fraud, claiming (and receiving) a rebate of $230 million (~$ in ) in taxes paid by those companies to the Russian state in 2006. In November 2008, one of Hermitage's auditors, Sergei Magnitsky, was arrested. He was "charged with two counts of aggravated tax evasion committed in conspiracy with Mr. Browder in respect of Dalnyaya Step and Saturn" (ECHR § 35). Magnitsky died on 16 November 2009, in prison, after eleven months in pretrial detention, nearly the limit allowed under the law.
On 27 August 2019, the European Court for Human Rights, in judging a case brought against Russia by the Magnitsky family, ruled that Magnitsky was detained in conditions which amounted to "inhuman and degrading treatment in breach of Article 3 of the Convention" (§ 193). This, combined with negligence, lack of adequate medical care, and ill-treatment also amounted to a breach of the convention (§ 240). Magnitsky's family was awarded €34,000.
As a result of the controversy related to his arrest and evidence of mistreatment and claimed abuse, his death aroused international coverage and outrage. Magnitsky's death was the catalyst for passage by the U.S. Congress, of the Magnitsky Act, signed into law by President Barack Obama on 14 December 2012. The act directly targeted individuals involved in the Magnitsky affair by prohibiting their entrance to the United States and their use of its banking system.
In February 2013, Russian officials announced that Browder and Magnitsky would both be tried for evading $16.8 million (~$ in ) in taxes. In March 2013, Russian authorities announced that they would be investigating Hermitage's acquisition of Gazprom shares worth $70 million (~$ in ). The investigation was to focus on whether Browder violated any Russian laws when Hermitage used Russian companies registered in the region of Kalmykia to buy shares. An investigation by the Council of Europe's Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights cleared Browder of the accusations of improprieties that surfaced at this time. Browder was also charged with trying to gain access to Gazprom's financial reports.
Browder admitted having sought influence in Gazprom, but denied any wrongdoing. He said that purchasing Gazprom shares was an investment in the Russian economy, and the desire to influence the Gazprom management was driven by the need to expose a "huge fraud going on at the company". However, at the time it was illegal for foreigners to buy Gazprom shares in Russia, and he did it through shell companies that hid his ownership. He also said that the scheme of using Russian-registered subsidiaries entitled to tax advantages was practised by other foreign investors at the time and was not illegal. He also said that he believed the trial was a response to the United States passing the Magnitsky Act, which had blacklisted Russian officials involved in Magnitsky's death, preventing them from entering the U.S. The Financial Times reported that this trial was the first in Russian history that included a dead defendant.
Amnesty International described the trial as "a whole new chapter in Russia's worsening human rights record" and a "sinister attempt to deflect attention from those who committed the crimes Magnitsky exposed".
On 11 July 2013, Browder was convicted in absentia by a district criminal court in Moscow on charges under article 199 of the RF Criminal Code (tax-evasion by organisations), and sentenced to nine years. Magnitsky, according to Browder, was posthumously convicted of fraud. In May 2013 and again in July 2013, Interpol rejected requests by Russia's Interior Ministry to put Browder on its search list and locate and arrest him, saying that Russia's case against him was "predominantly political".
In April 2014, the European Parliament unanimously passed a resolution to impose sanctions on more than 30 Russians complicit in the Magnitsky case; the first time in the parliament's history that a vote was held to establish a public sanctions list. However, the vote was only advisory to the European Commission, which did not act on it.
In December 2017, Browder was tried in absentia and convicted of tax evasion and deliberate bankruptcy by a Russian court, receiving a sentence of nine years of imprisonment.
On 30 May 2018, Browder was arrested by Spanish police in Madrid on a Russian Interpol arrest warrant. He was freed soon after when the General Secretary of Interpol warned the Spanish police not to follow the Russian arrest warrant. Browder had come to Spain to brief anti-mafia prosecutor José Grinda. After briefing him, Browder returned to the United Kingdom later that evening.
In November 2018, Russian prosecutors announced new charges against Browder, accusing him of organising a "transnational criminal group" and claimed he may have poisoned Sergei Magnitsky.
At the World Economic Forum in Davos in May 2022, Browder criticised Germany for its earlier Russia course: "Putin is 95 percent to blame for this war, because he is the one who throws the bombs and murders civilians" but "the West is also responsible for five percent and especially Germany to blame for what is happening in Ukraine," Browder told the media. "Merkel fought hard to make Germany and Europe dependent on Moscow and open to blackmail. Putin's attack on Ukraine is therefore also Merkel's war!", said Browder.
Browder has also strongly criticized Switzerland and the role played by Swiss banks in allegedly aiding the financing of Russia’s invasion. Browder called on Switzerland to adopt its own sanctions against Russia and not just those proposed by the EU, as it had been doing. Browder cited a Swiss Bankers Association estimate stating that there were in excess of $200B of Russian money in Swiss accounts, while bemoaning the fact that Switzerland had sanctioned fewer than $10B worth of Russian deposits. Switzerland’s Department for Foreign Affairs rejected the accusations, stating that "claims that Switzerland is doing less than other countries and that it is still harbouring funds from sanctioned individuals without freezing them are unfounded". The Swiss government has explained it sees no reason to sanction Russians that the EU would not sanction, accounting for the disconnect in how much Russian money is estimated to be in Switzerland banks, and how much has been blocked to date.
2017 testimony to the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee
On 27 July 2017, Browder testified to the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee on Russia's alleged interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election in regards to the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) and Fusion GPS. The latter is the opposition research firm based in Washington D.C. that commissioned former MI6 staffer Christopher Steele to collect information on Donald Trump's ties with Russia. The hearing was set up to examine the firm's separate work on a legal case involving the Magnitsky Act. He directly discussed the President of Russia Vladimir Putin. Browder testified that President Putin is "the biggest oligarch in Russia and the richest man in the world", building a fortune by threatening Russian oligarchs and getting a 50% cut of their profits:
I estimate that he has accumulated $200 billion of ill-gotten gains from these types of operations over his 17 years in power. He keeps his money in the West and all of his money in the West is potentially exposed to asset freezes and confiscation. Therefore, he has a significant and very personal interest in finding a way to get rid of the Magnitsky sanctions.
Browder concluded his statement by reviewing the circumstances that led to U.S. passage of the Magnitsky Act:
I hope that my story will help you understand the methods of Russian operatives in Washington and how they use U.S. enablers to achieve major foreign policy goals without disclosing those interests. I also hope that this story and others like it may lead to a change in the FARA enforcement regime in the future.
Books about experiences in Russia
In February 2015, Browder published a book about his career, Red Notice: A True Story of High Finance, Murder, and One Man's Fight for Justice, focusing on his years spent in Russia and the Russian government's attacks on Hermitage Capital Management. Browder's responses to Russian corruption and his support of the investigation into the death of his attorney Sergei Magnitsky are at the heart of the book. A film adaptation written by William Nicholson was reportedly in the works in 2015.
A new book by Browder was published on 12 April 2022: Freezing Order: A True Story of Money Laundering, Murder and Surviving Vladimir Putin's Wrath.
Prevezon civil asset forfeiture case
In 2013, the U.S. Attorney's Office for New York's Southern District filed a civil asset forfeiture case against Prevezon Holdings Limited, a real estate holding company belonging to Russian businessman Denis Katsyv, based on information from Browder. Prevezon and the Department of Justice settled the case in May 2017 for $5.9 million (~$ in ). Pursuant to a subpoena, Browder gave deposition testimony in the case.
Awards and recognition
Browder has been the recipient of dozens of awards and recognitions. Some of the most significant are listed below.
In 2017, GQ magazine named Browder one of its Men of the Year for standing up to Vladimir Putin.
In 2018, Browder was named the 67th most powerful person in the world by Worth magazine. The magazine noted, "Browder has become one of the biggest thorns in Putin's side—and appears to be a key reason Russia interfered in the 2016 U.S. presidential election."
Browder's interview with Preet Bharara on the Stay Tuned with Preet podcast received the People's Choice Webby Award for Best Individual Podcast.
In 2018, Browder received the Aspen Institute Henry Crown Leadership Award, a prize honouring "an outstanding leader whose achievements reflect the high standards of honor, integrity, industry, and philanthropy."
In October 2018, Browder received the Coalition for Integrity's Integrity Award for "his courageous fight to expose state-sponsored corruption and shine a light on individuals whose wealth is built on wrongdoing, so that they are denied safe havens anywhere in the world."
In June 2019, Browder was presented with the American Spirit Award for Citizen Activism at The Common Good Forum & American Spirit Awards. The committee noted Browder's "relentless fight against human rights abuses, corruption, and his work spearheading the Magnitsky Act."
In September 2019, Browder received the Trinity College (Dublin) SMF award for outstanding contributions to finance.
In 2019, Browder received the Lantos Human Rights Prize from the Lantos Foundation for his work as the "driving force behind the Magnitsky Sanctions, the most consequential enforcement mechanism of the modern human rights movement."
Counterclaims
Andrei Nekrasov documentary
A film by Andrei Nekrasov, The Magnitsky Act – Behind the Scenes (2016), available on YouTube, according to The Daily Beast, "absolves the Russian government of any responsibility for Magnitsky's death" and claims that Browder was behind the $230-million tax-rebate fraud. The Washington Post commented in an editorial: "The film is a piece of agitprop that mixes fact and fiction to blame Magnitsky for the fraud and absolve Russians of blame for his death."
Several of the key figures interviewed in the movie have declared it mendacious. The Washington Post described it as part of "a campaign to discredit Mr. Browder and the Magnitsky Act".
Some European theatre screenings and a television broadcast of the film were cancelled after threats of libel suits from Browder. According to Browder's 2017 testimony to the United States Senate Judiciary Committee, Russian lawyer Natalia Veselnitskaya hired a former Wall Street Journal reporter, Chris Cooper of the Potomac Group, to organise its US premiere. Over Browder's objections, the Newseum in Washington, D.C. held a screening in June 2016 hosted by Seymour Hersh. Dana Rohrabacher (R-CA)'s office actively promoted the screening, sending out invitations from the office of the House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Europe, Eurasia and Emerging Threats, which Rohrabacher chaired at the time; he was described by The Daily Beast as "a long-standing Russia ally".
Vladimir Putin statement in Helsinki
On 16 July 2018, during a joint press conference with President Donald Trump in Helsinki, Finland, Russian president Vladimir Putin stated that Browder had funnelled $400 million to Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign, an effort that he claimed involved members of the U.S. intelligence community who, Putin said, "accompanied and guided these transactions." The statement was made after Putin said he would allow special counsel Robert Mueller's team to come to Russia for their investigation—as long as there was a reciprocal arrangement for Russian intelligence to investigate in the U.S.
Putin said:For instance, we can bring up Mr. Browder, in this particular case. Business associates of Mr. Browder have earned over $1.5 billion in Russia and never paid any taxes neither in Russia or the United States and yet the money escaped the country. They were transferred to the United States. They sent [a] huge amount of money, $400,000,000, as a contribution to the campaign of Hillary Clinton. (Later, the Russian Prosecutor General’s Office spokesman Alexander Kurennoy clarified that it was not $400 million, but rather $400,000.) Well that’s their personal case. It might have been legal, the contribution itself but the way the money was earned was illegal. So we have solid reason to believe that some [US] intelligence officers accompanied and guided these transactions. So we have an interest in questioning them. The Washington Post and The New York Times rated Putin's claim about the funding "false," noting that there is no evidence to substantiate it. Politifact gave it a "pants on fire" rating. Bill Browder, in his own article for Time, called the accusation "so ludicrous and untrue that it falls into delusion." He maintains that Putin continues to make false allegations against him in response to Browder's involvement with the Magnitsky Act. Browder also says that he is a British citizen and no longer American, therefore Trump would be unable to respond to Putin's request.
Der Spiegel articles
On 22 November 2019, German news magazine Der Spiegel published an article in which it claimed Browder accusations concerning the "Magnitsky Case", do not withstand thorough examination. The English version appeared on 26 November 2019. After Browder filed a complaint against this article with chief editorship of Der Spiegel and the German Press Council, Der Spiegel published a further article, releasing its evidence and emphasising its stance on the matter.
References
External links
https://www.npr.org/2022/04/16/1093189691/freezing-order-is-the-true-story-of-money-laundering-murder-and-putins-wrath book by Bill Browder
Profile of Browder, Stanford Business School alumni magazine
Video – Bill Browder: Sergey Magnitsky case reveals Russia's ugliest face, Opalesque FIVE Minutes, 17 February 2010
"The Browder Ultimatum", Tatler magazine, June 2010
Video – Interview with Browder, Charlie Rose Show
1964 births
Living people
American emigrants to England
American expatriates in Russia
American non-fiction writers
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Boston Consulting Group people
Businesspeople from Chicago
Corruption in Russia
Gazprom people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Stanford Graduate School of Business alumni
University of Chicago alumni
University of Colorado alumni
British expatriates in Russia
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
British businesspeople
British non-fiction writers
British people of Russian-Jewish descent
Bill
Magnitsky Act |
4510706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination%20of%20Olof%20Palme | Assassination of Olof Palme | On 28 February 1986, at 23:21 CET (22:21 UTC), Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden, was fatally wounded by a single gunshot while walking home from a cinema with his wife Lisbeth Palme on the central Stockholm street Sveavägen. Lisbeth Palme was slightly wounded by a second shot. The couple did not have bodyguards with them.
Christer Pettersson, who had previously been convicted of manslaughter, was convicted of the murder in 1988 after having been identified as the killer by Mrs. Palme. However, on appeal to Svea Court of Appeal, he was acquitted. A petition for a new trial, filed by the prosecutor, was denied by the Supreme Court of Sweden. Pettersson died on 29 September 2004, legally declared not guilty of the Palme assassination.
On 10 June 2020, chief prosecutor Krister Petersson, in charge of the investigation, announced his conclusion that Stig Engström, also known as the "Skandia Man", was the most likely suspect. No direct evidence was presented but the prosecutor mentioned Engström's past knowledge of weapons, friendship with anti-Palme circles and similar clothes as described by certain witnesses. However, as Engström died on 26 June 2000, and no further investigative or judicial measures were possible, the investigation was officially closed.
The decision to name Engström as a suspect was widely criticised.
Various other theories about the murder have also been proposed.
Night of the assassination
Despite being Prime Minister, Palme sought to live as ordinary a life as possible. He would often go out without any bodyguard protection, and the night of his murder was one such occasion. Walking home from the Grand Cinema with his wife Lisbeth Palme on the central Stockholm street of Sveavägen, close to midnight on 28 February 1986, the couple was attacked by a lone gunman. Palme was fatally shot in the back at close range at 23:21 CET. A second shot wounded Mrs Palme.
Police said that a taxi driver used his mobile radio to raise an alarm, and two girls in a nearby car tried to assist. He was pronounced dead on arrival at the Sabbatsberg Hospital at 00:06 CET on 1 March 1986.
The attacker escaped eastwards on Tunnelgatan.
Deputy Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson immediately assumed the duties of Prime Minister as the new leader of the Social Democratic Party.
Sequence of events
Cinema decision
Palme's decision to visit the Grand Cinema was made at very short notice. Lisbeth Palme had discussed seeing a film when she was at work during the afternoon, and called her son, Mårten Palme, at 17:00 to talk about the film at the Grand Cinema. Olof Palme did not hear about the plans until at home, at 18:30, when he met with his wife, by which time Palme had already declined any further personal bodyguard protection from the security service. He talked to his son about the plans on the phone, and they eventually decided to join Mårten and his girlfriend, who had already purchased tickets for themselves to see the Swedish comedy Bröderna Mozart (The Mozart Brothers) by Suzanne Osten. This decision was made about 20:00. The police later searched Palme's apartment, as well as Lisbeth's and Mårten's workplaces, for wire-bugging devices or traces of such equipment, but did not find any.
Grand Cinema
At 20:30 the Palmes left their apartment, unescorted, heading for the Gamla stan metro station. Several people witnessed their short walk to the station and, according to the later police investigation, commented on the lack of bodyguards. The couple took the subway train to the Rådmansgatan station, from where they walked to the Grand Cinema. They met their son and his girlfriend just outside the cinema around 21:00. Olof Palme had not yet purchased tickets which were by then almost sold out. Recognizing the prime minister, the ticket clerk wanted him to have the best seats, and therefore sold Palme the theatre director's seats.
Murder
After the screening, the two couples stayed outside the theatre for a while but separated about 23:15. Olof and Lisbeth Palme headed south on the west side of Sveavägen, towards the northern entrance of the Hötorget metro station. When they reached the Adolf Fredrik Church, they crossed Sveavägen and continued on the street's east side. They stopped a moment to look at something in a shop window, then continued past the Dekorima (later Kreatima, now Urban Deli) shop which was then located on the corner of Sveavägen and Tunnelgatan.
At 23:21, a man appeared from behind, shot Mr. Palme at point-blank range and fired a second shot at Mrs. Palme. The perpetrator then jogged down Tunnelgatan street, up the steps to Malmskillnadsgatan, and continued down David Bagares gata [street], where he was last seen.
Timeline
Thanks to time stamps on the radio chatter in the central dispatch centre, the events immediately after the murder have been determined with very high precision.
23:21:30 – Palme and his wife are shot.
23:22:20 – A witness calls Sweden's emergency number, 90 000, to report the shooting, but the call is misdirected and the caller is not put through to the police.
23:23:40 – A Järfälla Taxi switchboard operator calls the police dispatch centre to pass on a message from one of its drivers to the effect that someone has been shot at the corner Sveavägen and Tunnelgatan.
23:24:00 (approx.) – A police patrol, stationed a few hundred meters away, arrives on scene after being alerted by a second taxi driver who heard of the shooting on his taxi radio.
23:24:40 – The police are contacted by the emergency dispatch centre concerning the shooting on Sveavägen. The dispatch centre operator denies knowledge about any such events.
23:24:00–23:25:30 (approx.) – A patrol wagonstationed at Malmskillnadsgatan, not far from the attacker's escape route arrives and is ordered by the commanding officer to hunt for the attacker.
23:25:00 (approx.) – An ambulance, which just happens to be passing the crime scene, is flagged down and assists the victims.
23:26:00 – The police dispatch centre calls the SOS emergency centre to assure them they are informed about the events on the Sveavägen/Tunnelgatan intersection.
A third police patrol arrives.
A second ambulance arrives.
23:28:00 – The first ambulance leaves for the Sabbatsberg Hospital, around a kilometre away from the scene, with both victims. Mrs Palme, suffering only a minor graze to her back, refuses to leave her husband.
23:30:00 – The police superintendent in charge at the scene informs the police dispatch centre that the prime minister was the victim.
23:31:40 – The emergency dispatch centre is informed that the ambulance has arrived at the hospital.
23:37:00–23:40:00 – The emergency dispatch centre is informed by the ambulance that the prime minister was the victim, that he's fatally wounded and likely not going to survive.
00:06:00 – Palme is pronounced dead.
00:45:00 – Deputy Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson arrives at Rosenbad, the office of the Swedish government.
01:10:00 – First radio broadcast about the murder.
04:00:00 – First television broadcast.
05:15:00 – The government holds a press conference.
Leads from the crime scene
The only forensic leads left by the assassin were the two bullets fired, identified as Winchester-Western .357 Magnum 158 grain metal piercing. Both bullets matched the lead fragments found in the clothing of Olof and Lisbeth Palme. Because the weapon was a revolver (which does not automatically eject cartridge cases) there were no cases to recover for ballistic examination – only the two bullets recovered from the street. From the bullets' lack of certain characteristic deformations, investigators concluded they had been fired from a barrel no shorter than 10 cm (4 inches); thus the murder weapon would have been a conspicuously large handgun. The singularly most used weapon for this type of ammunition is the Smith & Wesson .357, which is why great efforts were made to locate a weapon of this make.
Throughout the investigation, Swedish police test-fired approximately 500 Magnum revolvers. The investigation placed particular emphasis on tracking down ten Magnum revolvers reported stolen at the time of the murder. Out of these all were located except the Sucksdorff revolver, a weapon stolen from the Stockholm home of Swedish filmmaker Arne Sucksdorff in 1977. The person who stole the weapon was a friend of drug dealer Sigvard "Sigge" Cedergren, who claimed on his deathbed that he had lent a gun of the same type to Christer Pettersson two months prior to the assassination.
Another weapon that has figured prominently in the investigation is the so-called Mockfjärd gun. This weapon, a revolver of the type Smith & Wesson Model 28 ("Highway Patrolman") with .357 Magnum caliber, was first purchased legally by a civilian in the northern Swedish city of Luleå. The gun, along with 91 metal-piercing bullets, was stolen in a burglary in Haparanda in 1983 and is believed to have been used in the robbery of a post office in Mockfjärd, Dalarna that same year. A lead isotope analysis of a bullet fired during the robbery confirmed it to have the same isotopic composition as the bullets retrieved from the assassination crime scene, verifying that the bullets were manufactured at the same time. In the autumn of 2006, Swedish police, acting on a tip communicated to the Expressen newspaper, retrieved a Smith & Wesson .357 revolver from a lake in Dalarna. The gun was determined to be the same one used in the post office robbery in Mockfjärd, confirmed by the gun's serial number. The gun was transferred to the National Laboratory of Forensic Science in Linköping for further analysis. However, the laboratory concluded in May 2007 that tests on the gun could not confirm whether it was used in the Palme assassination, as it was too rusty.
In 2021, another Smith & Wesson .357 Magnum revolver was found in the Bällstaviken river in West Stockholm, by Paul D'Arcy.
There were numerous witnesses to the murder, of whom more than 25 came forward to the police. The killer was described by witnesses as a man between 30 and 50 years of age, about 180 (5'11") to 185 (6'1") centimetres tall, and wearing a dark jacket or coat. Many described him as having walked with a limp or otherwise clumsily, but those testimonies were not given immediately after the murder, only after the arrest of Christer Pettersson. Initially, many witnesses described the killer's movements as smooth, efficient and powerful. No witness was in a position to observe the killer's appearance in any detail. A police sketch of the supposed killer was widely circulated in the media a week after the murder, leading to a massive influx of tips from the public, but it was later determined that the witness on whose statement it was based probably had not seen the actual assailant. No good description of the killer's appearance therefore exists. Witnesses agreed on the killer's escape route.
Chronology of leading investigators and prosecutors
Chiefs of Investigation
Gösta Welander (sv) (the night of the murder)
Hans Holmér (1986–1987)
Ulf Karlsson (sv) (1987–1988)
Hans Ölvebro (sv) (1988–1997)
Stig Edqvist (1997–2012)
Hans Melander (2012–2013 and 2016–2020)
Dag Andersson (2013–2016)
Chief Prosecutors
K.G. Svensson (sv) (spring of 1986)
Claes Zeime (sv) (1986–1987. Assisting prosecutors: Solveig Riberdahl, Anders Helin and Bo Josephson)
Axel Morath (sv) (1987–1994. Assisting prosecutors: Solveig Riberdahl, Anders Helin and Jörgen Almblad)
Solveig Riberdahl (sv) (1994–1996. Assisting prosecutors: Anders Helin and Jan Danielsson)
Jan Danielsson (sv) (1996–2000. Assisting prosecutor: Kerstin Skarp)
Agneta Blidberg (sv) (2000–2009. Assisting prosecutor: Kerstin Skarp)
Kerstin Skarp (2009–2017)
Krister Petersson (sv) (2017–2020)
Murder theories
Along with the length of the ensuing investigation, a number of alternative theories surrounding the murder surfaced. At the time, a murder under Swedish law was subject to prescription in 25 years. The law was later changed to prevent the Palme case from expiring, and thus the police investigation remained active for 34 years.
In February 2020, Krister Petersson, the prosecutor in charge of the investigation, stated that he expected to present a conclusive case and either bring charges or close the investigation within a matter of months.
Christer Pettersson
In December 1988, almost three years after Palme's death, Christer Pettersson, a criminal, drug user and alcoholic, who had previously been imprisoned for manslaughter, was arrested for the murder of Palme. Picked out by Mrs Palme at a lineup as the killer, Pettersson was tried and convicted of the murder, but was later acquitted on appeal to the court of appeal. Pettersson's appeal succeeded for three main reasons:
Failure of the prosecution to produce the murder weapon;
Lack of a clear motive for the killing;
Doubts about the reliability of Mrs Palme's testimony and "extremely gross errors" by the police in arranging the lineup (giving her hints about Pettersson's alcohol abuse, and allowing him to look like an alcoholic)
Additional evidence against Pettersson surfaced in the late 1990s, mostly coming from various petty criminals who altered their stories but also from a confession made by Pettersson. The chief prosecutor, Agneta Blidberg, considered re-opening the case, but acknowledged that a confession alone would not be sufficient, saying:
While the legal case against Pettersson therefore remains closed, the police file on the investigation cannot be closed until both murder weapon and murderer are found. Christer Pettersson died on 29 September 2004, after a fall during an epileptic seizure caused a cerebral haemorrhage.
According to a documentary programme broadcast on Swedish state television channel SVT in February 2006, associates of Pettersson claimed that he had confessed to them his role in the murder, but with the explanation that it was a case of mistaken identity. Allegedly, Pettersson had intended to kill Sigvard Cedergren, a drug dealer who customarily walked along the same street at night and resembled Palme both in appearance and dress. The programme also suggested there was greater police awareness than previously acknowledged because of surveillance of drug activity in the area. The police had several officers in apartments and cars along those few blocks of Sveavägen but, 45 minutes before the murder, the police monitoring ceased. In the light of these revelations, Swedish police undertook to review Palme's case and Pettersson's role. In the newspaper Dagens Nyheter of 28 February 2006, other SVT reporters scathingly criticized the documentary, alleging that the film-maker had fabricated a number of statements while omitting other contradictory evidence, in particular his chief source's earlier testimony that could not be reconciled with his claim to have seen the shooting.
In the final part of the investigation, and in the end report, Pettersson was not included much due to formal legal reasons. The police are, according to law, not allowed to reopen an investigation of a person found not guilty in trial, unless major new evidence materializes. Too little new evidence has come up, so after the trial, the investigation was not focused on him, and the final report instead pointed out the "Skandia man" with even less evidence.
South Africa
On 21 February 1986 — a week before he was murdered — Palme made the keynote address to the Swedish People's Parliament Against Apartheid held in Stockholm, attended by hundreds of anti-apartheid sympathizers as well as leaders and officials from the ANC and the Anti-Apartheid Movement such as Oliver Tambo. In the address, Palme said, "Apartheid cannot be reformed, it has to be abolished."
Ten years later, towards the end of September 1996, Colonel Eugene de Kock, a former South African police officer, gave evidence to the Supreme Court in Pretoria, alleging that Palme had been shot and killed because he "strongly opposed the apartheid regime and Sweden made substantial contributions to the ANC". De Kock went on to claim he knew the person responsible for Palme's murder. He alleged it was Craig Williamson, a former police colleague and a South African spy. A few days later, former police Captain Dirk Coetzee, who used to work with Williamson, identified Anthony White, a former Rhodesian Selous Scout with links to the South African security services, as Palme's actual murderer. Then a third person, Swedish mercenary Bertil Wedin, living in Northern Cyprus since 1985, was named as the killer by former police Lt. Peter Caselton, who had worked undercover for Williamson. The following month, in October 1996, Swedish police investigators visited South Africa, but were unable to uncover evidence to substantiate de Kock's claims.
A book that was published in 2007 suggested that a high-ranking Civil Cooperation Bureau operative, Athol Visser (or 'Ivan the Terrible'), was responsible for planning and carrying out Olof Palme's assassination.
The 8 September 2010 edition of Efterlyst, Sweden's equivalent of BBC TV's Crimewatch programme, was co-hosted by Tommy Lindström, who was the head of Swedish CID at the time of Olof Palme's assassination. After being asked by Efterlyst's host Hasse Aro who he believed was behind the assassination of the Prime Minister, Lindström without hesitating pointed to apartheid South Africa as the number one suspect. And the motive for this, he said, was to stop the payments that the Swedish government secretly paid, through Switzerland, to the African National Congress.
Bofors and Indian connection
In his 2005 book Blood on the Snow: The Killing of Olof Palme, historian Jan Bondeson advanced a theory that Palme's murder was linked with arms trades to India. Bondeson's book meticulously recreated the assassination and its aftermath, and suggested that Palme had used his friendship with Rajiv Gandhi to secure a SEK 8.4 billion deal for the Swedish armaments company Bofors to supply the Indian Army with howitzers. However, Palme did not know that behind his back Bofors had used a shady company called AE Services — nominally based in Guildford, Surrey, England — to bribe Indian government officials to conclude the deal – the Bofors scandal.
Bondeson alleged that on the morning he was assassinated, Palme had met with the Iraqi ambassador to Sweden, Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf. The two discussed Bofors, which al-Sahhaf knew well because of its arms sales during the Iran–Iraq War. Bondeson suggested that the ambassador had told Palme about Bofors' activities, infuriating Palme. Bondeson theorized that Palme's murder might have been inadvertently triggered by his conversation with the ambassador, if either the Bofors arms dealers or the middlemen working through AE Services had a prearranged plan to silence the Prime Minister should he discover the truth and the deal with India become threatened. According to Bondeson, Swedish police suppressed vital MI6 intelligence about a Bofors/AE Services deal with India.
Roberto Thieme
The Swedish journalist Anders Leopold, in his 2008 book Det svenska trädet skall fällas ("The Swedish Tree Shall Be Brought Down"), makes the case that the Chilean fascist Roberto Thieme killed Olof Palme. Thieme was head of the most militant wing of Patria y Libertad, a far-right political organization, financed by the CIA. According to Leopold, Palme was killed because he had gratuitously given asylum to a great number of leftist Chileans following the coup that overthrew Salvador Allende in 1973.
CIA and P2 connection
Another plot sees the involvement of the CIA and the Italian clandestine, pseudo-masonic lodge Propaganda Due led by Licio Gelli who wrote, in a telegram to Philip Guarino, that "the Swedish tree will be brought down". Claims of CIA involvement in the assassination were made by Richard Brenneke, an Oregon businessman who said he was an ex-CIA operative, in a RAI Television report in July 1990. The CIA denied Brenneke's allegations, calling them "absolute nonsense" of an "outrageous nature," and stating that "The agency flatly denies that Mr. Brenneke was ever an agent of the CIA or had any association with the CIA.
"The 33-year-old"
A Swedish extremist, Victor Gunnarsson (labeled in the media 33-åringen, "the 33-year-old"), was soon arrested for the murder but quickly released, after a dispute between the police and prosecuting attorneys. Gunnarsson had connections to various extremist groups, among these the European Workers Party, the Swedish branch of the LaRouche movement. Pamphlets hostile to Palme from the party were found in his home outside Stockholm.
Gunnarson's body was found in 1993 in the Blue Ridge Mountains of the United States, stripped naked and with 2 .22 caliber pistol wounds to the back of the head. Some conspiracy theories suggest that Gunnarson might have been used by a foreign government, who then later had Gunnarson killed 8 years later in order to leave no trace of the crime. A former police officer, Lamont C. Underwood, was convicted of Gunnarson's murder as part of a love triangle.
GH
A suspect identified only as GH by the Granskningskommissionen of 1999 was of prime interest during the early investigation. This was based on a standard profile used by the police to identify an assassin. The conclusion was that the killer had a knowledge of handling light firearms, used a Smith & Wesson of .357 Magnum, which GH at the time possessed. The suspect was reported to have failed to appear on several police interrogations to testify during the 1990s. Later testimonies given by the suspect were deemed untrustworthy; this included the suspect's whereabouts during the night of the assassination and the disposal of firearms. He refused to submit his gun, the only registered .357 caliber weapon in the Stockholm region not to be tested, and subsequently claimed to have sold it to an unknown buyer in Kungsträdgården. GH had on one occasion had his gun license suspended after shooting his television, arguably after seeing Olof Palme's face on the screen.
GH has also been convicted for assault, one time for kicking a dog in 1985, and a later incident in 2005 when he assaulted a young man on the metro liner after being harassed. In August 2008, GH committed suicide by gunshot after the police rang his doorbell and requested to be let in after being alerted through a phone call by his brother. He reportedly had paranoia and depression.
Police conspiracy
In an article in the German weekly Die Zeit from March 1995, Klaus-Dieter Knapp presented his view of the assassination as a result of a conspiracy among Swedish right-wing extremist police officers.According to this report, the murderer was identified by two witnesses who happened to be at the scene and who knew the murderer from previous encounters.
PKK
In 1971, Olof Palme said that he blamed the fear of the masses on "anarchists and people with long hair and people with beards." Following up on this suggestion, Hans Holmér, the Stockholm police commissioner, worked with an intelligence lead passed to him (supposedly by Bertil Wedin) and arrested a number of Kurds living in Sweden. The PKK was allegedly responsible for the murder. The lead proved inconclusive however and ultimately led to Holmér's removal from the Palme murder investigation.
Fifteen years later, in April 2001, a team of Swedish police officers went to interview PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan in Turkish prison. Öcalan alleged during his trial that maybe a dissident Kurdish group, led by Öcalan's ex-wife, had murdered Palme. The police team's visit proved to be unsuccessful.
In 2007, renewed allegations of PKK complicity in Palme's assassination surfaced in Turkish media during the Ergenekon investigation, which was ongoing .
The Turkish newspapers have several times claimed that the PKK has admitted the murder but the PKK have always denied all claims. In 1998, the PKK said that there is a strong indication that the Turkish side is trying to discredit the PKK using Olof Palme's murder. Also many Kurdish organizations believe that the initial claims were propaganda of the Turkish government.
Yugoslavian connection
In January 2011 the German magazine Focus cited official German interrogation records in connection with another investigation from 2008 as showing that the assassination had been carried out by an operative of the Yugoslavian security service.
The Laser Man
John Ausonius, "the Laser Man", also known as John Stannerman, was initially one of the suspects but it turned out that Ausonius had a solid alibi, as he was imprisoned on the night Palme was shot.
The Skandia Man
In 2018, journalist and investigator Thomas Pettersson published first a series of articles in the Swedish magazine Filter and later a book, Den osannolika mördaren ("The unlikely assassin"), based on a long-running investigation into Palme's murder. Pettersson's findings were also covered elsewhere in the Swedish media, for example by Expressen and Aftonbladet newspapers.
Pettersson's theory is that Palme was shot by one Stig Engström, known as "the Skandia man" (Skandiamannen) after his employer, the Skandia insurance company, whose head office is located next to the murder scene. In earlier accounts Engström had been treated mostly as a witness, specifically (by his own assertion) the first eyewitness to arrive at the scene of the murder. He had also been briefly investigated by the police as a possible suspect, but this had subsequently been dropped. Pettersson posits a scenario where Engström, who had a strong dislike of Palme and his policies, had chanced upon Palme in the street and shot him, possibly without premeditation.
Engström died in his home in June 2000.
Pettersson suggests that evidence from the crime scene strongly points towards Engström as the assassin. Most significantly, several other witnesses gave descriptions of the fleeing killer that matched Engström, some of them very closely so, while no other witness placed Engström at the scene after the shots, even though Engström himself claimed to have been present from the beginning, spoken to Mrs. Palme and the police, and taken part in attempts to resuscitate the victim. Conversely, the only persons whom Engström was able to identify as having been present at the scene were those likely to have been encountered by the killer, while he was unable to identify those who had arrived after the shooting. Also, Engström's known movements during the evening, about which he provided false information when questioned, indicate he had the opportunity to find Palme at the cinema earlier that evening and later to follow him from there to the crime scene.
Soon after the murder, Engström began a series of media appearances in which he developed an increasingly detailed story of his involvement in the events and criticized the police. He claimed those witnesses who had described the killer had in fact been describing him, running to catch up with police officers in pursuit of the assassin. The police, meanwhile, became frustrated with Engström as an unreliable and inconsistent witness and soon classified him as a person of no interest. Pettersson proposes Engström's media appearances were an opportunistic and ultimately successful tactic devised to mislead investigators and later to gain attention as an important witness neglected by the police.
While Pettersson's theory is built on circumstantial evidence, he suggests it might be possible to prove Engström's guilt conclusively by tracing and examining the murder weapon. According to Pettersson's theory, the revolver was likely to have been one legally owned by an acquaintance of Engström's, an avid gun collector.
The "Skandia man" theory had already previously been suggested by Lars Larsson in his 2016 book Nationens fiende (literally, "The enemy of the nation"), but this received only limited attention at the time.
On 10 June 2020, the Swedish Prosecution Authority proposed The Skandia Man as the perpetrator and closed off the investigation since Engström is dead and can thus not be prosecuted, while noting the lack of direct evidence.
Although Engström had a negative view of the prime minister, as well as long-standing financial and growing alcohol problems, investigators still did not have a "clear picture" of Engstrom's motive for killing Palme, Chief Prosecutor Krister Petersson said.
Figures
The cost of the investigation stands at SEK 350 million, €38 million or US$41 million .
The total number of pages accumulated during the investigation is around 700,000. According to criminologist Leif G. W. Persson, the investigation is "the largest in global police history".
The reward for solving the murder is SEK 50 million (approximately €5 million or US$7 million.)
Film portrayals
In the 1998 Swedish fictional thriller film The Last Contract (Sista kontraktet), Palme's assassination was portrayed as having been planned by a hired assassin.
In the 2021 Netflix series The Unlikely Murderer, Palme's assassin was depicted as Stig Engström, the so-called "Skandia man," based on the book by Thomas Pettersson. Because Engström has never been found guilty in a court of law (having died in 2000 before the investigation was closed in 2020), the episodes' open with the words, "Based on an unsolved crime," and ends with the disclaimer, "It has not been proven that Stig Engström murdered Olof Palme, but the Swedish police and Prosecution Authority suspect him."
See also
Ebbe Carlsson affair
List of unsolved murders
Kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro
Sources
; Leif GW Persson is a Swedish criminologist and, 9 years prior to the assassination, a member of the Swedish National Police Board. The book is the thinly disguised story of events leading to the assassination of Olof Palme. The book has Palme as having been a CIA agent in his days of student politics. Palme is mistakenly assumed by the American journalist who is killed at the start of the book to have later turned to work for the Soviets. In a later book Persson makes the assassination be carried out by a hit man hired by a renegade member of the Swedish Security Service.
References
External links
Swedish prime minister assassinated
Experts doubt Palme case to reopen
1980s in Stockholm
1986 murders in Sweden
Assassinations in Sweden
Crime in Stockholm
Death conspiracy theories
Deaths by person in Sweden
February 1986 events in Europe
Male murder victims
Assassination
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4510738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20NASCAR%20Winston%20Cup%20Series | 2001 NASCAR Winston Cup Series | The 2001 NASCAR Winston Cup Series was the 53rd season of professional stock car racing in the United States, the 30th modern-era Cup series. It began on February 11, 2001, at Daytona International Speedway and ended on November 23, 2001, at New Hampshire International Speedway. Jeff Gordon of Hendrick Motorsports was declared as the series champion for the fourth time in seven years.
The season was marred by a two-car collision at the end of the season-opening Daytona 500, which claimed the life of seven-time Series champion Dale Earnhardt. The accident resulted in safety upgrades being instituted. It also was the first year to have a unified television contract with Fox Sports, NBC Sports, and Turner Sports/TNT broadcasting the season's races; previous seasons saw each racetrack negotiate their own TV coverage, creating a patchwork of broadcast companies covering races throughout the season. Dodge returned to the sport for the first time since 1985 after DaimlerChrysler spent six years in the CART FedEx Championship Series via Mercedes-Benz brand as an engine supplier. Chevrolet captured the NASCAR Manufacturers' Championship with 16 wins and 248 points.
Teams and drivers
Complete schedule
Limited schedule
Schedule
Races
Budweiser Shootout
The Budweiser Shootout, an invitational event for all recent Bud Pole winners, was held February 11 at Daytona International Speedway. Ken Schrader drew the pole. This was the first race broadcast on Fox.
Top 10 Results
20 - Tony Stewart
3 - Dale Earnhardt
2 - Rusty Wallace
88 - Dale Jarrett
99 - Jeff Burton
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
18 - Bobby Labonte
6 - Mark Martin
28 - Ricky Rudd
31 - Mike Skinner
This was the only time that Dale Earnhardt would finish 2nd in this race.
Gatorade 125s
The Gatorade 125s, qualifying races for the Daytona 500, were held February 15 at Daytona International Speedway. Bill Elliott and Stacy Compton started on pole for both races, respectively. The qualifying races were broadcast live for the first time; races prior to 2001 were broadcast on tape delay.
Race One Top 10 Results
40 - Sterling Marlin
25 - Jerry Nadeau
3 - Dale Earnhardt
96 - Andy Houston
26 - Jimmy Spencer
24 - Jeff Gordon
01 - Jason Leffler
51 - Jeff Purvis
15 - Michael Waltrip
19 - Casey Atwood
This would unexpectedly be the final top 5 Speedweeks finish for Dale Earnhardt.
Race Two Top 10 Results
31 - Mike Skinner
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
99 - Jeff Burton
22 - Ward Burton
2 - Rusty Wallace
36 - Ken Schrader
17 - Matt Kenseth
32 - Ricky Craven
93 - Dave Blaney
6 - Mark Martin
43rd Daytona 500
The 43rd Daytona 500 was held February 18, 2001 at Daytona International Speedway.
Top 10 Results
15 - Michael Waltrip
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
2 - Rusty Wallace
28 - Ricky Rudd
9 - Bill Elliott
7 - Mike Wallace
40 - Sterling Marlin
55 - Bobby Hamilton
12 - Jeremy Mayfield
92 - Stacy Compton
Failed to qualify: Dave Marcis (No. 71), Todd Bodine (No. 66), Hut Stricklin (No. 90), Rick Mast (No. 50), Derrike Cope (No. 37), Norm Benning (No. 84), Carl Long (No. 85), Morgan Shepherd (No. 80), Dwayne Leik (No. 72)
With the changes in the aerodynamics package, this race was going to go down as the greatest Daytona 500 ever. Unfortunately, this race went down as the darkest day in NASCAR history, and perhaps in the history of auto racing. Dale Earnhardt, 7 time Winston Cup champion, and perhaps the greatest NASCAR driver of all-time, was battling for 3rd position, racing in defense mode in the closing laps of the race, trying to block the entire field, so he can protect the lead of his 2 team cars of Michael Waltrip and son Dale Earnhardt, Jr.. However, in turns 3 and 4 on the final lap, Earnhardt misjudged on blocking Sterling Marlin, who held his line on the inside lane, and got loose off of Marlin's right front fender. Earnhardt would over correct his car, shoot his car up in front of the field, collect Ken Schrader by making contact with Schrader's driver's side door, and both cars would crash into the turn 4 wall. The angle of Earnhardt's car getting into Schrader made him crash into the wall head on. Schrader's car sustained right front and passenger side damage. Schrader climbed out of his car right away. Unfortunately, Dale Earnhardt died instantly as a result of his injuries. His cause of death was a basilar skull fracture. Earnhardt finished 12th, and Schrader finished 13th, both 1 lap down. NASCAR's greatest race robbed the sport as a whole by taking the life of its greatest driver ever.
After Darrell Waltrip retired from Winston Cup racing at the end of 2000, Dale Earnhardt went into 2001 as NASCAR's winningest active driver with 76 career victories. He had been NASCAR's winningest active champion since 1993 after Richard Petty's Retirement. He would capture 2 more titles in the process, winning in 1993 and 1994. His 1994 title win would tie Richard Petty for most Championships at 7. After finishing runner-up to Bobby Labonte at the end of 2000, Dale Earnhardt was poised to dominate the 2001 season and capture an all-time record 8th Winston Cup Championship. However, after Dale Earnhardt's unexpected death, his 2 close friends/greatest adversaries, Rusty Wallace and Jeff Gordon, would now become the top 2 leaders in Winston Cup competition. Wallace would now become the winningest active driver with 53 career victories, and Gordon would now become the winningest active champion with 3 Winston Cup titles.
In 22 full-time seasons, Dale Earnhardt would unexpectedly finish his career with 676 career starts, 648 consecutive starts, 7 NASCAR championships, 3 championship runner-up finishes, 14 top 5 points finishes, 20 top 10 points finishes, 22 poles, 76 career wins, 281 top 5s, and 428 top 10s.
This was the first race that featured cars from Chrysler Motors (in this case, the Dodge manufacturing family) since 1985.
50th career pole for Bill Elliott. This was Elliott's fourth Daytona 500 pole in his career, and the first time driving a Dodge. This was Elliott's first pole since Richmond back in September 1997. As of 2020, Bill Elliott is the only driver to score his 50th career pole in the Daytona 500.
Michael Waltrip won his first career points race in his 463rd career start, the longest drought of any driver in NASCAR history before getting their first win.
Stacy Compton, the outside pole-sitter, scored his only Top 10 finish in his career in this race.
Rookies Andy Houston, Casey Atwood, Buckshot Jones, Kurt Busch, Ron Hornaday Jr., and Jason Leffler made their first Daytona 500 appearances in this race. Only three of these rookies—Houston, Jones, and Hornaday Jr.—made the Daytona 500 for the only time, while Busch went on to win the 2017 Daytona 500.
Tony Stewart took a wild ride in this race on lap 173, getting turned by Ward Burton, going over Robby Gordon, flipping twice, and landing on his teammate Bobby Labonte.
As of 2022, this is the last race to not feature any active drivers.
Dura Lube 400
The Dura Lube 400 started on February 25 but ended on February 26 due to a rain delay, making it a two-day race at the North Carolina Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top 10 Results
1 - Steve Park
18 - Bobby Labonte
24 - Jeff Gordon
20 - Tony Stewart
32 - Ricky Craven
10 - Johnny Benson
2 - Rusty Wallace
40 - Sterling Marlin
93 - Dave Blaney
88 - Dale Jarrett
Failed to qualify: Andy Houston (No. 96), Kyle Petty (No. 45)
This race was won by DEI driver Steve Park in an emotional victory just one week after Earnhardt's death. It was his last career victory.
Following the death of Dale Earnhardt, NASCAR on FOX, and later on in the season, NASCAR on NBC and TNT, would pay tribute to Dale Earnhardt with a silent lap 3. Unfortunately, however, in this race, along with the next 2 races, the caution would come out either on or before the 3rd lap.
This would be the first Winston Cup race without Dale Earnhardt since the 1979 Southern 500 at Darlington. Earnhardt's career unexpectedly ended after 648 consecutive starts (his career ended with a total of 676). He was set to pass his 1979 Rookie rival Terry Labonte as NASCAR's Iron Man during the 2001 season, if he had never crashed at Daytona. Labonte held the Iron Man record with 655 consecutive starts, and his streak ended when he had to miss the 2000 Brickyard 400 due to injury. Earnhardt would have made his 656th consecutive start at Talladega in April.
Richard Childress placed Busch Grand National driver Kevin Harvick into the car formerly driven by Earnhardt, changed the car's number from No. 3 to No. 29, and the paint scheme from primarily black to primarily white. Because of that, the race was Harvick's first start in the Winston Cup Series.
Dale Earnhardt Jr. suffered a crash on the first lap of the race, in which his car hit the outside wall in an eerily similar fashion to his father's fatal crash a week earlier, but Earnhardt Jr. was not seriously injured.
After this race, Rusty Wallace would take over the points lead, making this the first time since 1998 that he has done so. This would be the only race of 2001 that Rusty would leave an event as the points leader. This was also the final time in his career that Rusty Wallace would lead the points.
UAW-Daimler Chrysler 400
The UAW-Daimler Chrysler 400 was held March 4 at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. Dale Jarrett won the pole.
Top 10 Results
24 - Jeff Gordon
88 - Dale Jarrett
40 - Sterling Marlin
10 - Johnny Benson
66 - Todd Bodine
6 - Mark Martin
1 - Steve Park
29 - Kevin Harvick
14 - Ron Hornaday Jr.
26 - Jimmy Spencer
Failed to qualify: Kyle Petty (No. 45), Brendan Gaughan (No. 62), Andy Houston (No. 96), Rick Mast (No. 50)
Jeff Gordon won the Winston No Bull 5 Million Bonus.
This was the 53rd career win for Jeff Gordon. With this win, he would tie Rusty Wallace for eighth on NASCAR's all-time win list.
Rusty Wallace would lose the points lead after finishing this race in 43rd (last position), and with that, this would mark the last time ever that he would lead the points standings in his career.
This was Ron Hornaday Jr.'s only Top 10 finish in the Winston Cup Series.
Cracker Barrel Old Country Store 500
The Cracker Barrel Old Country Store 500 was held March 11 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Dale Jarrett won the pole.
Top 10 Results
29 - Kevin Harvick
24 - Jeff Gordon
25 - Jerry Nadeau
88 - Dale Jarrett
5 - Terry Labonte
28 - Ricky Rudd
10 - Johnny Benson
36 - Ken Schrader
31 - Mike Skinner
97 - Kurt Busch (-1 lap)
Failed to qualify: Rick Mast (No. 50), Carl Long (No. 85), Casey Atwood (No. 19)
This race is best remembered for the exciting finish between rookie Kevin Harvick and three-time Cup champion Jeff Gordon. Harvick would outduel the champion in a spectacular finish, winning by only .006 seconds, being the second-closest finish in NASCAR history at the time. Harvick performed a burnout on the front stretch with three fingers aloft. It was his first victory in only his third start in the Winston Cup Series, a then-record for fewest starts to first win in the Modern Era of Cup racing.
This race was originally planned to be Harvick's Cup series debut; as Richard Childress was planning to have Harvick drive #30 AOL-sponsored Chevrolet Monte Carlo for 6 races before moving to the Winston Cup series full-time in 2002.
Carolina Dodge Dealers 400
The Carolina Dodge Dealers 400 was held March 18 at Darlington Raceway. Jeff Gordon started on pole after qualifying was rained out.
Top Ten Results
88 - Dale Jarrett
1 - Steve Park
12 - Jeremy Mayfield
26 - Jimmy Spencer
40 - Sterling Marlin
43 - John Andretti
10 - Johnny Benson
28 - Ricky Rudd
55 - Bobby Hamilton
2 - Rusty Wallace
Failed to qualify: Andy Houston (No. 96), Rick Mast (No. 50), Dave Marcis (No. 71)
After 3 straight weeks of having a caution period on either lap 3 or before lap 3, NASCAR finally had lap 3 under green. NASCAR on FOX paid their tributes to Dale Earnhardt with a silent lap 3.
Food City 500
The Food City 500 was held March 25 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top Ten Results
21 - Elliott Sadler*
43 - John Andretti
12 - Jeremy Mayfield
24 - Jeff Gordon
22 - Ward Burton
5 - Terry Labonte
2 - Rusty Wallace
55 - Bobby Hamilton
1 - Steve Park
28 - Ricky Rudd
Failed to qualify: Hut Stricklin (No. 90), Jason Leffler (No. 01), Carl Long (No. 85)
This was Elliott Sadler's first career win and the first for the Wood Brothers Racing team since 1993 with Morgan Shepherd.
It was also the first time cars No. 21 and No. 43 took the top two finishing positions since 1977, but the first time since 1976 Southern 500 that the No. 21 finished on top when David Pearson beat Richard Petty. As of 2021, it is the most recent time those two cars have finished in the top two spots.
Harrah's 500
The Harrah's 500 was held April 1 at Texas Motor Speedway. Dale Earnhardt Jr. won the pole.
Top Ten Results
88 - Dale Jarrett
1 - Steve Park
10 - Johnny Benson
97 - Kurt Busch
24 - Jeff Gordon
93 - Dave Blaney
29 - Kevin Harvick
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
6 - Mark Martin
36 - Ken Schrader
Failed to qualify: Kyle Petty (No. 45), Rick Mast (No. 50)
Virginia 500
The Virginia 500 was held April 8 at Martinsville Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top Ten Results
88 - Dale Jarrett
28 - Ricky Rudd
99 - Jeff Burton
55 - Bobby Hamilton
40 - Sterling Marlin
17 - Matt Kenseth
20 - Tony Stewart
18 - Bobby Labonte
26 - Jimmy Spencer
25 - Jerry Nadeau
Failed to qualify: Jason Leffler (No. 01), Hermie Sadler (No. 13), Hut Stricklin (No. 90)
This race would mark the second and final time that Dale Jarrett would score back-to-back victories. The only other time doing that was in 1997 when he won Atlanta and Darlington in the spring.
Talladega 500
The Talladega 500 was held April 22 at Talladega Superspeedway. Stacy Compton won the pole.
Top Ten Results
55 - Bobby Hamilton*
20 - Tony Stewart
97 - Kurt Busch
6 - Mark Martin
18 - Bobby Labonte
33 - Joe Nemechek
10 - Johnny Benson
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
7 - Mike Wallace
99 - Jeff Burton
Failed to qualify: Kenny Wallace (No. 27), Kyle Petty (No. 45), Rick Mast (No. 50), Hut Stricklin (No. 90), Andy Hillenburg (No. 49)
This was Bobby Hamilton's fourth and last win in the Cup Series.
This was the first win for Andy Petree Racing.
This was the second caution-free race in the history of Talladega Superspeedway, but the aerodynamics package was vastly different than the first caution-free race, which in turn made the average speed (184.003 mph) slower than the track record.
Stacy Compton won his first Winston Cup Series pole for this race.
This would have been the race for Dale Earnhardt to become NASCAR's new Iron Man. He was set to pass his 1979 Rookie rival Terry Labonte by making his 656th consecutive start in this event if he had never crashed at Daytona in February. Earnhardt unexpectedly finished his career with 648 consecutive starts. Labonte held the Iron Man record with 655 consecutive starts, and his streak ended when he had to miss the 2000 Brickyard 400 due to injury. One of Earnhardt's former rivals, Ricky Rudd, would eventually pass Labonte by making his 656th consecutive race the following year in the 2002 Coca-Cola 600. As of 2022, Jeff Gordon is currently NASCAR's new Iron Man with 797 consecutive starts.
NAPA Auto Parts 500
The NAPA Auto Parts 500 was held April 29 at California Speedway. Bobby Labonte won the pole.
Top Ten Results
2 - Rusty Wallace
24 - Jeff Gordon
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
20 - Tony Stewart
12 - Jeremy Mayfield
28 - Ricky Rudd
26 - Jimmy Spencer
25 - Jerry Nadeau
40 - Sterling Marlin
77 - Robert Pressley
Failed to qualify: Kevin Lepage (No. 4), Buckshot Jones (No. 44), Shawna Robinson (No. 84)
This race was held on what would have been Dale Earnhardt's 50th birthday. His great friend and best adversary, Rusty Wallace, won an emotional race.
The race marked the 54th career win for Rusty Wallace. With this win, Wallace tied Lee Petty for seventh on NASCAR's all-time win list.
This was also Wallace's 16th straight season of winning at least one race (1986-2001). The streak would end after 2001, as Wallace did not return to Victory Lane until Martinsville in April 2004, 3 years and 106 races later.
Pontiac Excitement 400
The Pontiac Excitement 400 was held May 5 at Richmond International Raceway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top Ten Results
20 - Tony Stewart
24 - Jeff Gordon
2 - Rusty Wallace
1 - Steve Park
28 - Ricky Rudd
10 - Johnny Benson
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
17 - Matt Kenseth
36 - Ken Schrader
18 - Bobby Labonte
Failed to qualify: Buckshot Jones (No. 44), Hermie Sadler (No. 13), Hut Stricklin (No. 90)
The Winston
The 2001 edition of The Winston, took place on May 19, 2001, at Lowe's Motor Speedway. Rusty Wallace won the pole.
This would be the very 1st running of the Winston that didn't feature Darrell Waltrip and Dale Earnhardt. Waltrip retired in 2000 and would now call the race from the NASCAR on FOX broadcast booth. Earnhardt died on the last lap of the Daytona 500 earlier in the season. They both competed in the 1st 16 events (1985 to 2000).
With this win, Jeff Gordon would become only the 2nd driver to score 3 victories in NASCAR's All-Star Race, joining Dale Earnhardt. In 2013, Gordon's future teammate Jimmie Johnson would pass both drivers, and become the 1st, and as of 2023, the only driver to score 4 All-Star Race wins (2003, 2006, 2012, & 2013). Unlike Johnson however, both Earnhardt and Gordon would win all 3 of their races, and then go on to win those season's championships. Earnhardt won his 3 All-Star races and championships in 1987, 1990, and 1993. Gordon would win his 3 All-Star races and championships in 1995, 1997, and this season (2001). As of 2023, Earnhardt and Gordon are the only 2 multiple time All-Star race winners to win all of their All-Star races and those championships in the same season. Out of Jimmie Johnson's 4 wins, he would win the season's championship twice in 2006 & 2013. Future All-Star Race winner Kyle Larson would go on to be a multiple time winner with 2 victories (2019 & 2021). With 1 of those 2 wins, Larson would go on to win that season's championship (2021). Only 3 more drivers, who scored just 1 All-Star win in their career, have accomplished winning the All-Star Race, along with winning that season's championship: Darrell Waltrip in 1985, Rusty Wallace in 1989,Chase Elliott in 2020,and future champion Kyle Larson in 2021.
Top 5
24-Jeff Gordon
88-Dale Jarrett
20-Tony Stewart
18-Bobby Labonte
25-Jerry Nadeau
Coca-Cola 600
The Coca-Cola 600 was held May 27 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. Ryan Newman won the pole; this was the first career pole on his 2nd start at Lowe's on a limited schedule.
Top 10 Results
99 - Jeff Burton
29 - Kevin Harvick
20 - Tony Stewart
6 - Mark Martin
18 - Bobby Labonte
26 - Jimmy Spencer
28 - Ricky Rudd
88 - Dale Jarrett
22 - Ward Burton
12 - Jeremy Mayfield
Failed to qualify: John Andretti (No. 43), Kyle Petty (No. 45), Derrike Cope (No. 37), Mike Wallace (No. 7), Jeff Fultz (No. 54), Carl Long (No. 85)
Tony Stewart successfully performed the "Double Duty", also running the Indianapolis 500 the same day; Joe Gibbs Racing had Mike McLaughlin on standby if Stewart did not arrive on time. Stewart arrived less than half an hour before the start of the race. If Stewart did not arrive for the start of the Coca-Cola 600, McLaughlin would have been given credit for the start under NASCAR rules. Stewart had to start at the end of the field (43rd place) due to missing the mandatory drivers' meeting that is held 2 hours before any race. Stewart is also the only driver in history to finish in the top 10 and on the lead lap in both races. He finished sixth in the Indianapolis 500 and finished third in this race.
Dale Jarrett overcame a rib injury during qualifying to finish 8th. As a precaution, Jeff Green was on standby.
Even though Ryan Newman won the pole, he finished 43rd after crashing while leading on lap 10.
MBNA Platinum 400
The MBNA Platinum 400 was held June 3 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Dale Jarrett won the pole after qualifying was canceled because of rain.
Top Ten Results
24 - Jeff Gordon
1 - Steve Park
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
32 - Ricky Craven
88 - Dale Jarrett
40 - Sterling Marlin
20 - Tony Stewart
29 - Kevin Harvick
6 - Mark Martin
28 - Ricky Rudd
Failed to qualify: Rick Mast (No. 50), Jeff Green (No. 30), Kyle Petty (No. 45), Lance Hooper (No. 47), Dave Marcis (No. 71)
The race marked the 54th career win for Jeff Gordon. With this win, Gordon tied Lee Petty and Rusty Wallace for seventh on NASCAR's all-time win list. He led 381 of 400 laps in the win.
Kmart 400
The Kmart 400 was held June 10 at Michigan International Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top Ten Results
24 - Jeff Gordon*
28 - Ricky Rudd
40 - Sterling Marlin
12 - Jeremy Mayfield
02 - Ryan Newman
90 - Hut Stricklin
99 - Jeff Burton
93 - Dave Blaney
9 - Bill Elliott
29 - Kevin Harvick
Failed to qualify: Mike Wallace (No. 7), Rick Mast (No. 50), Andy Houston (No. 96), Stacy Compton (No. 92), Kenny Wallace (No. 27)
This race was the Winston Cup Series debut for Shawna Robinson, the first woman to successfully attempt a Winston Cup Series race since Patty Moise in 1989.
The race marked the first career Top 5 finish for Ryan Newman, as well as being the last career Top 10 finish for Hut Stricklin.
This was the 100th career Winston Cup win for car owner Rick Hendrick and the team of Hendrick Motorsports after being in the sport for 18 seasons since its inception in 1984.
This was Jeff Gordon's 55th career win, which would permanently pass Lee Petty and Rusty Wallace on NASCAR's all-time win list.
Pocono 500
The Pocono 500 was held June 17 at Pocono Raceway. Ricky Rudd won the pole.
Top Ten Results
28 - Ricky Rudd
24 - Jeff Gordon
88 - Dale Jarrett
40 - Sterling Marlin
6 - Mark Martin
17 - Matt Kenseth
20 - Tony Stewart
18 - Bobby Labonte
36 - Ken Schrader
99 - Jeff Burton
Failed to qualify: Andy Houston (No. 96), Kenny Wallace (No. 27)
This was Ricky Rudd's first win since 1998.
This was Ricky Rudd's 1st ever win from the pole in 27 attempts. He would tie Geoffrey Bodine for the all-time record for scoring the most poles before scoring his 1st win from that spot. As of 2021, that tied record between the 2 drivers stands.
Ricky Rudd's scored his 1st ever Pocono victory in his 44th attempt. As of 2021, that record stands.
Dodge/Save Mart 350
The Dodge/Save Mart 350 was held June 24 at Sears Point Raceway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top Ten Results
20 - Tony Stewart
7 - Robby Gordon*
24 - Jeff Gordon
28 - Ricky Rudd
2 - Rusty Wallace
22 - Ward Burton
18 - Bobby Labonte
99 - Jeff Burton
9 - Bill Elliott
6 - Mark Martin
Failed to qualify: Andy Houston (No. 96), Kenny Wallace (No. 27), Anthony Lazzaro (No. 68), Jason Leffler (No. 04)
Jeff Gordon led the most laps alongside Ron Fellows. Robby Gordon controlled the later stages of the race before relinquishing the lead to Tony Stewart with 11 laps to go; Stewart would go on to win the race.
This was the first road course win for Tony Stewart.
Canadian road course ringer Ron Fellows almost won his first Winston Cup Series victory driving the #87 Chevrolet for Joe Nemechek team, leading 20 laps mid-way into the race. Fellows crashed with less than 10 laps to go, ending any chances for an upset win.
This race marked the career-best finish for Robby Gordon before he later won at Loudon in November 2001.
Pepsi 400
The Pepsi 400 was held July 7 at Daytona International Speedway. Sterling Marlin won the pole.
Top Ten Results
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
15 - Michael Waltrip
21 - Elliott Sadler
22 - Ward Burton
18 - Bobby Labonte
25 - Jerry Nadeau
2 - Rusty Wallace
99 - Jeff Burton
11 - Brett Bodine
7 - Mike Wallace
Failed to qualify: Buckshot Jones (No. 44), Ron Hornaday Jr. (No. 14), Hut Stricklin (No. 90), Mike Bliss (No. 27), Andy Hillenburg (No. 49)
This was the first Winston Cup race at Daytona since the death of Dale Earnhardt.
This was also the first Cup Series race on NBC under the 2001–2006 contract.
Son of the late Dale Earnhardt, Dale Earnhardt Jr. led 116 of the race's 160 laps on his way to an emotional victory in what is arguably one of the more memorable races in NASCAR history
Dale Earnhardt Jr.'s win, coupled with Michael Waltrip pushing him to the victory (the reverse of the finish in Daytona 500) made for an emotional moment. Earnhardt Jr., Waltrip, and their crews, as well as Chocolate Myers, a longtime crew member for Dale Earnhardt, all celebrated in the infield grass on the front stretch. Earnhardt Jr. and Waltrip shared a hug on top of Waltrip's No. 15 car.
This was the second straight season that a pair of drivers finished first and second in both Daytona races, but in the opposite positions (Dale Jarrett and Jeff Burton in 2000, when Jarrett won the Daytona 500, and Jeff Burton won the Pepsi 400, with both finishing in second to each other).
Tropicana 400
The inaugural Tropicana 400 was held July 15 at Chicagoland Speedway. Todd Bodine won the pole.
Top Ten Results
29 - Kevin Harvick
77 - Robert Pressley*
28 - Ricky Rudd
88 - Dale Jarrett
26 - Jimmy Spencer
6 - Mark Martin
17 - Matt Kenseth
97 - Kurt Busch
40 - Sterling Marlin
9 - Bill Elliott
Failed to qualify: Kyle Petty (No. 45), Dave Marcis (No. 71), Mike Bliss (No. 27), Shawna Robinson (No. 84)
Jeff Gordon and Dale Jarrett were tied for the points lead after this race.
2nd place would be Robert Pressley's best career NASCAR Cup Series finish.
New England 300
The New England 300 was held July 22 at New Hampshire International Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top Ten Results
88 - Dale Jarrett
24 - Jeff Gordon
28 - Ricky Rudd
26 - Jimmy Spencer
20 - Tony Stewart
1 - Steve Park
18 - Bobby Labonte
29 - Kevin Harvick
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
7 - Mike Wallace
Failed to qualify: Mike Bliss (No. 27)
Dale Jarrett and Jeff Gordon were tied for the points lead for the 2nd consecutive week.
This was the first Winston Cup Series race on TNT under the 2001–2006 contract, although the initial plans were for TBS Superstation to carry the races. Instead, Turner decided that NASCAR would better fit TNT's "We Know Drama" slogan.
Pennsylvania 500
The Pennsylvania 500 was held July 29 at Pocono Raceway. Todd Bodine won the pole.
Top Ten Results
18 - Bobby Labonte
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
20 - Tony Stewart
9 - Bill Elliott
10 - Johnny Benson
2 - Rusty Wallace
6 - Mark Martin
24 - Jeff Gordon
77 - Robert Pressley
32 - Ricky Craven
Failed to qualify: Andy Hillenburg (No. 49), Carl Long (No. 85)
Jeff Gordon took the points to lead from Dale Jarrett in this race and did not relinquish the lead for the rest of the year.
Brickyard 400
The Brickyard 400 was held August 5 at Indianapolis Motor Speedway. Jimmy Spencer won the pole.
Top Ten Results
24 - Jeff Gordon
40 - Sterling Marlin
10 - Johnny Benson
2 - Rusty Wallace
97 - Kurt Busch
22 - Ward Burton
1 - Steve Park
9 - Bill Elliott
32 - Ricky Craven
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
Failed to qualify: Kevin Lepage (No. 4), Derrike Cope (No. 37), Mike Wallace (No. 7), Hermie Sadler (No. 13), Ed Berrier (No. 95), David Keith (No. 57), Rick Mast (No. 27), Dave Marcis (No. 71), Kyle Petty (No. 45), Shawna Robinson (No. 84), Andy Hillenburg (No. 49)
With the win, Jeff Gordon became the first three-time winner of the Brickyard 400.
Many came from the back to the front for finishing. Jeff Gordon started 27th, Johnny Benson started 26th, Rusty Wallace started 37th, Kurt Busch started 34th, and Dale Earnhardt Jr. started 36th.
In the last 4 straight years (1998-2001), the point leader coming into this race went on to win the Brickyard 400, and then later on in the year, that driver went on to win the NASCAR Winston Cup Championship. Jeff Gordon accomplished the feat twice, the first year in 1998, and the fourth year in 2001. Dale Jarrett did it in 1999, and Bobby Labonte did it in 2000.
Global Crossing @ The Glen
The Global Crossing @ The Glen was held August 12 at Watkins Glen International. Dale Jarrett won the pole.
Top Ten Results
24 - Jeff Gordon
99 - Jeff Burton
12 - Jeremy Mayfield
28 - Ricky Rudd
66 - Todd Bodine
25 - Jerry Nadeau
29 - Kevin Harvick
77 - Boris Said*
18 - Bobby Labonte
1 - Steve Park
Failed to qualify: Mike Wallace (No. 7), Wally Dallenbach Jr. (No. 44)
This was another race where "road course ringers" were participating in the Cup Series. Jeff Gordon would win the race after leading the final 14 laps of the race. Robby Gordon, driving his final scheduled race for Richard Childress Racing, had the dominant car early on, but a pit road fire ended his hopes for victory; Ron Fellows would lead 3 laps early before breaking an axle, and Jeff Burton led the most laps.
This was Jeff Gordon's 4th Watkins Glen win in the last 5 events. This would also be Gordon's final win at The Glen.
Jeff Gordon won his seventh career road course race. With this win, Gordon became the all-time NASCAR winner on road courses, breaking out of a 3-way tie with Bobby Allison and Rusty Wallace. Gordon would win an additional 2 more road course races before he retired in 2015, both at Sonoma in 2004 & 2006. As of 2021, Gordon's all-time record still stands with a total of 9 road course wins. Tony Stewart is currently in 2nd with 8
Boris Said was the top-finishing non-regular series driver (road course ringer), as he finished 8th after running as high as third; it was Said's career-best finish at the time, in the #77 Jasper Motorsports Ford.
Pepsi 400 presented by Meijer
The Pepsi 400 presented by Meijer was held August 19 at Michigan International Speedway. Ricky Craven won the pole. The race was shortened to 162 laps (324 miles) due to rain.
Top Ten Results
40 - Sterling Marlin
32 - Ricky Craven
9 - Bill Elliott
17 - Matt Kenseth
10 - Johnny Benson
93 - Dave Blaney
24 - Jeff Gordon
6 - Mark Martin
1 - Steve Park
19 - Casey Atwood
Failed to qualify: David Keith (No. 57), Buckshot Jones (No. 44)
This marked the 7th career win for Sterling Marlin, and his first in 170 races. His last win was in the 1996 Pepsi 400 at Daytona, which was also a Pepsi sponsored race, and that too was also a rain shortened race.
This race marked Dodge's first trip to victory lane since its return to NASCAR. Dodge's last win was with Neil Bonnett in Ontario in 1977.
Sharpie 500
The Sharpie 500 was held August 25 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Jeff Green won the pole.
Top Ten Results
20 - Tony Stewart
29 - Kevin Harvick
24 - Jeff Gordon
28 - Ricky Rudd
2 - Rusty Wallace
88 - Dale Jarrett
1 - Steve Park
18 - Bobby Labonte
40 - Sterling Marlin
5 - Terry Labonte
Failed to qualify: Stacy Compton (No. 92), Kyle Petty (No. 45), Hermie Sadler (No. 13), Dave Marcis (No. 71), Hut Stricklin (No. 90), Carl Long (No. 85)
This would be Tony Stewart's 1st NASCAR win with the "500" moniker in the name of an event (500 Laps or 500 Miles). Even though he won a "500" moniker race at Phoenix in November 1999, that race was only 312 laps and 312 miles.
Mountain Dew Southern 500
The Mountain Dew Southern 500 was held September 2 at Darlington Raceway. Kurt Busch won the pole.
Top Ten Results
22 - Ward Burton
24 - Jeff Gordon
18 - Bobby Labonte
20 - Tony Stewart
9 - Bill Elliott
99 - Jeff Burton
28 - Ricky Rudd
29 - Kevin Harvick
25 - Jerry Nadeau
36 - Ken Schrader
Failed to qualify: Andy Houston (No. 96), Dave Marcis (No. 71)
Steve Park did not race because of a bizarre accident in the South Carolina 200 (the Busch Grand National Series race) the day before that left him sidelined until early 2002.
This race ended under caution as a multi-car accident brought out the yellow flag coming to the final lap.
With this win, brothers Ward and Jeff Burton became the second set of brothers, joining Terry and Bobby Labonte, to win the Southern 500.
This win marked the second and final time that Ward and Jeff Burton each won a race in the same season.
Ward Burton winning the Southern 500 in a Dodge, the first Southern 500 win for the manufacturer, and as well as the first win at Darlington since Buddy Baker won in 1971.
Chevrolet Monte Carlo 400
The Chevrolet Monte Carlo 400 was held September 8 at Richmond International Raceway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top Ten Results
28 - Ricky Rudd
29 - Kevin Harvick
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
88 - Dale Jarrett
2 - Rusty Wallace
18 - Bobby Labonte
20 - Tony Stewart
26 - Jimmy Spencer
99 - Jeff Burton
10 - Johnny Benson
Failed to qualify: Andy Houston (No. 96), Hermie Sadler (No. 13), Hut Stricklin (No. 90), Carl Long (No. 85)
This race is remembered for Kevin Harvick almost spinning Ricky Rudd off turn 2 and Rudd saving his car from wrecking and coming back to win after bumping Harvick.
2001 marked the final time in his career that Ricky Rudd won multiple races in a season.
MBNA Cal Ripken Jr. 400
The MBNA Cal Ripken Jr. 400 was held September 23 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Dale Jarrett won the pole.
Top Ten Results
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
25 - Jerry Nadeau
28 - Ricky Rudd
24 - Jeff Gordon
20 - Tony Stewart
29 - Kevin Harvick
33 - Joe Nemechek
40 - Sterling Marlin
19 - Casey Atwood
55 - Bobby Hamilton
Failed to qualify: Rick Mast (No. 27), Jason Leffler (No. 01), Lance Hooper (No. 47), Dave Marcis (No. 71)
This was the first race to be held after the September 11th attacks. Most cars sported patriotic decals and tributes.
Protection One 400
The inaugural Protection One 400 was held September 30 at Kansas Speedway. Jason Leffler won the pole.
Top Ten Results
24 - Jeff Gordon
02 - Ryan Newman
28 - Ricky Rudd
2 - Rusty Wallace
40 - Sterling Marlin
6 - Mark Martin
77 - Robert Pressley
20 - Tony Stewart
97 - Kurt Busch
93 - Dave Blaney
Failed to qualify: Rick Mast (No. 27), Kyle Petty (No. 45), Ron Hornaday Jr. (No. 14)
In 6 of the last 7 years including 2001 (1995-1999, 2001), Jeff Gordon won the most races in a season. 2001 was also the final season in his career that he won the most races in a season.
This was Jeff Gordon's third win at an inaugural event. He won the inaugural Brickyard 400 in 1994, and the inaugural race at Auto Club Speedway of California in 1997.
This was the last race for Jeremy Mayfield in the 12 car for Roger Penske. Rusty Wallace's younger brother Mike Wallace would be Rusty's new teammate as he replaced Mayfield for the rest of the season.
UAW-GM Quality 500
The UAW-GM Quality 500 was held October 7 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. Jimmy Spencer won the pole.
Top Ten Results
40 - Sterling Marlin
20 - Tony Stewart
22 - Ward Burton
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
99 - Jeff Burton
88 - Dale Jarrett
2 - Rusty Wallace
29 - Kevin Harvick
6 - Mark Martin
18 - Bobby Labonte
Failed to qualify: Kyle Petty (No. 45), Derrike Cope (No. 57), Jeff Green (No. 30), Robby Gordon (No. 31), Buckshot Jones (No. 44), Frank Kimmel (No. 46)
This was Jimmie Johnson's first career Winston Cup Series start. Johnson started in the 15th position but finished only 39th due to an accident.
Four of the six drivers that failed to qualify were each from two major teams. Two of the six drivers were from Richard Childress Racing (Jeff Green (30) and Robby Gordon (31)), and the other two of the six drivers were from Petty Enterprises (Kyle Petty (45) and Buckshot Jones (44)).
This race was to have been shown by NBC; however, prior to the race, the telecast was interrupted by an NBC News special report covering President George W. Bush's announcement of Operation Enduring Freedom, a U.S.-led military operation in Afghanistan in response to the September 11 attacks. Coverage of most of the race was shifted to TNT, while NBC would later re-join the race in simulcast with TNT as it neared completion.
Old Dominion 500
The Old Dominion 500 was scheduled for October 14 at Martinsville Speedway, but was held October 15 due to rain. Todd Bodine won the pole.
Top Ten Results
32 - Ricky Craven
88 - Dale Jarrett
22 - Ward Burton
18 - Bobby Labonte
99 - Jeff Burton
10 - Johnny Benson
6 - Mark Martin
12 - Mike Wallace
24 - Jeff Gordon
40 - Sterling Marlin
Failed to qualify: Carl Long (No. 85), Kyle Petty (No. 45), Frank Kimmel (No. 46)
This was Ricky Craven's first career Winston Cup Series victory. It was also the first for a car with the number 32.
Kevin Harvick was in contention late in the event until he spun out Bobby Hamilton and NASCAR penalized him one lap for rough driving.
This was the penultimate race in the career of Dave Marcis (he would fail to qualify at Talladega, and Atlanta), he would finish 32nd, completing 493 of 500 laps.
EA Sports 500
The EA Sports 500 was held on October 21 at Talladega Superspeedway. Stacy Compton won the pole.
Top Ten Results
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
20 - Tony Stewart
99 - Jeff Burton
17 - Matt Kenseth
55 - Bobby Hamilton
1 - Kenny Wallace
24 - Jeff Gordon
33 - Joe Nemechek
6 - Mark Martin
7 - Kevin Lepage
Failed to qualify: Rick Mast (No. 91), Dave Marcis (No. 71)
This race would be remembered for the last lap. After Dale Earnhardt Jr. passed Bobby Labonte for the lead, Labonte tried to block Bobby Hamilton, going up high in turn two. Labonte got loose, making contact with Johnny Benson, causing Labonte to flip over and slide down the back straightaway on his roof, with an additional 14 cars being collected in the wreck. While that happened, Earnhardt Jr., Tony Stewart, and Jeff Burton raced back to the start/finish line. Entering the tri-oval, Earnhardt Jr. sailed away by three car lengths to take his third win of the season while Stewart and Burton battled for the runner-up spot.
Although he kept the win, Earnhardt Jr. was docked 25 points after his car failed post-race inspection, due to a shortened rear spoiler.
Earnhardt Jr. had also won the Winston No Bull 5 Million Dollar Bonus for the first time, one year after his father did it in the same race.
2001 marked the first time in seven years that Jeff Gordon did not win a restrictor-plate race.
Last career top-5 for Bobby Hamilton.
Checker Auto Parts 500 presented by Pennzoil
The Checker Auto Parts 500 presented by Pennzoil was held October 28 at Phoenix International Raceway. Casey Atwood won the pole.
Top Ten Results
99 - Jeff Burton
12 - Mike Wallace
28 - Ricky Rudd
17 - Matt Kenseth
20 - Tony Stewart
24 - Jeff Gordon
31 - Robby Gordon
32 - Ricky Craven
88 - Dale Jarrett
10 - Johnny Benson
Failed to qualify: Rick Bogart (No. 70)
Jeff Burton became only the second repeat winner at Phoenix, and also the second driver to win back-to-back Phoenix races, joining Davey Allison, who accomplished the feat in 1991 and 1992.
2nd place would be Mike Wallace's best career NASCAR Cup Series finish.
Pop Secret Microwave Popcorn 400
The Pop Secret Microwave Popcorn 400 was held November 4 at North Carolina Speedway. Kenny Wallace won the pole.
Top Ten Results
33 - Joe Nemechek
1 - Kenny Wallace
10 - Johnny Benson
88 - Dale Jarrett
25 - Jerry Nadeau
22 - Ward Burton
20 - Tony Stewart
28 - Ricky Rudd
18 - Bobby Labonte
17 - Matt Kenseth
Failed to qualify: Rick Mast (No. 90)
The race marked Andy Petree's second and final career win as a car owner.
This was the 2nd consecutive 2nd-place finish for two Wallace brothers (who are related to Rusty, the oldest and most dominant brother of the three) that have never won a Winston Cup points race (Mike finished 2nd a week prior to Phoenix, and Kenny finishes 2nd in this race).
Pennzoil Freedom 400
The Pennzoil Freedom 400 was held on November 11 at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Bill Elliott won the pole.
Top Ten Results
9 - Bill Elliott
15 - Michael Waltrip
19 - Casey Atwood
99 - Jeff Burton
40 - Sterling Marlin
93 - Dave Blaney
29 - Kevin Harvick
18 - Bobby Labonte
30 - Jeff Green
01 - Jason Leffler
Failed to qualify: Rich Bickle (No. 49), Derrike Cope (No. 57), Ron Hornaday Jr. (No. 14), Hermie Sadler (No. 13), Carl Long (No. 85)
Casey Atwood nearly won the race, until a late-race pass by Bill Elliott.
It was the 41st career Winston Cup Series win for Bill Elliott. This was Elliott's first win in 226 races, dating back to his last win in the Southern 500 at Darlington in 1994. As of 2021, the 226 race winless streak is the longest drought in NASCAR history.
This was the first race since Richmond back in March 1992 that Bill Elliott won from the pole.
This would be the first time since Melling Racing and Bill Elliott himself at the Pepsi 400 in 1991, that the No. 9 went to victory lane.
The race marked the only top-five finish of Casey Atwood's career, as well as Jason Leffler's only career top-ten finish.
Jeff Gordon failed to clinch the NASCAR Winston Cup Championship due to finishing in 28th place in this event. He left Homestead with a 305-point lead, and that wasn't enough for him to clinch with 2 races to go. With 2 races to go, he needed to clinch the Championship with a 370+ point lead.
A pit road incident occurred on lap 112 when Ward Burton and Casey Atwood made contact, causing Ward to go into Ricky Rudd's pit stall, seriously injuring 2 crew members.
NAPA 500
The NAPA 500 was held November 18 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Dale Earnhardt Jr. won the pole.
Top Ten Results
18 - Bobby Labonte
40 - Sterling Marlin
29 - Kevin Harvick
25 - Jerry Nadeau
22 - Ward Burton
24 - Jeff Gordon
8 - Dale Earnhardt Jr.
88 - Dale Jarrett
20 - Tony Stewart
99 - Jeff Burton
Failed to qualify: Mark Green (No. 41), Robby Gordon (No. 31), Jason Leffler (No. 01), Kurt Busch (No. 97), Rick Mast (No. 90), Ron Hornaday Jr. (No. 14), Dave Marcis (No. 71), Frank Kimmel (No. 46)
The race was scheduled to be the finale to the 2001 season, but as the fall race in New Hampshire had been postponed due to the attacks of September 11, it became the penultimate race instead.
Jerry Nadeau nearly won this race, but ran out of gas with half a lap to go, giving way to Bobby Labonte.
Jeff Gordon clinched the 2001 NASCAR Winston Cup Series Championship with his sixth-place finish, joining Richard Petty and Dale Earnhardt to win four or more NASCAR Championships.
With this championship win, Jeff Gordon and Dale Earnhardt are the only 2 drivers to win 4 or more titles under the Winston Cup sponsorship. They are also the only 2 drivers in NASCAR history to win 4 or more Championships under one points system, and they both accomplished it in the very same system. They did it in a points system that was created by Bob Latford back in 1975, and ended in 2003. They won a combined total of 11 Championships under the Bob Latford Winston Cup points system (Earnhardt with 7, and Gordon with 4).
Jeff Gordon won the title with having 6 wins, 18 top 5s, and 24 top 10s. His six wins are the fewest victories in any of his four championship-winning seasons.
This was the fourth straight season that a driver clinched the NASCAR Winston Cup Championship with one race to go. Jeff Gordon accomplished the feat twice in those four seasons, the first year in 1998, and the fourth year in 2001. Dale Jarrett did it in 1999, and Bobby Labonte did it in 2000.
This would be the final race Dave Marcis would fail to qualify for. Dave would wrap up his career at the 2002 Daytona 500.
New Hampshire 300
The New Hampshire 300 was scheduled for September 16 but was moved to November 23 (the Friday after Thanksgiving) due to the September 11 terrorist attacks. The starting order was set according to the owner's points as of September 10 meaning new champion Jeff Gordon would start first.
Top Ten Results
31 - Robby Gordon
40 - Sterling Marlin
18 - Bobby Labonte
17 - Matt Kenseth
20 - Tony Stewart
25 - Jerry Nadeau
77 - Robert Pressley
11 - Brett Bodine
6 - Mark Martin
88 - Dale Jarrett
42 cars were entered for this race instead of the traditional 43, as the Eel River Racing Team had folded, however two of their final three former drivers at the time were still entered in the race itself. Kenny Wallace was a replacement for an injured Steve Park at DEI, and Rick Mast replaced the fired Hut Stricklin at Donlavey Racing. This was the last race to feature less than 43 cars until the 2014 Kentucky race. Beginning with the 2016 Sprint Cup season, fields are now a max of 40 cars.
The win was Robby Gordon's first career victory in the Cup Series and one of only 17 times he raced in 2001 due to having been unexpectedly fired from the Morgan-McClure team after just 5 races. This race was also notable for the battle between Robby and Jeff Gordon (no relation) that led to much bumping between the two and resulting in Jeff Gordon spinning out of the lead, causing the final caution. Jeff was black-flagged for retaliating and after being held a lap by officials, he ended up in 15th place. Robby Gordon held off Sterling Marlin for the win. It would be the No. 31 team's very first win in NASCAR.
This was Robby's second oval win in his motorsports career (his first coming in an IndyCar race at Phoenix in 1995), and only oval victory in NASCAR.
In victory lane, Robby, when asked about the incident with Jeff, said that it was an accident and that he was not embarrassed about his win since he saw Jeff Gordon do something similar to win at a previous race. Robby also donated all his prize money to the victims of the 9/11 attacks.
Robby Gordon became the 5th driver in 2001 to win his 1st ever Winston Cup race, a modern-era record (this record would later be matched 1 year later in 2002, in 2011, and most recently in 2022). He also became the 19th different driver to win a race in 2001, another modern-era record.
As of 2021, Robby Gordon would become the 2nd driver in NASCAR to win a race after failing to qualify the previous week (Dale Jarrett was the 1st in 1994 when he failed to qualify at North Wilkesboro, and then won the following race at Charlotte).
Last points race without Ryan Newman and Jimmie Johnson until the Pennzoil 400 and Brickyard 400 in 2020.
Drivers' championship
(key) Bold - Pole position awarded by time. Italics - Pole position set by owner's points standings. * – Most laps led.
Rookie of the Year
Kevin Harvick emerged as the victor of the Rookie of the Year battle despite not declaring for the award until the second race of the season, as he took over for Dale Earnhardt following his fatal crash. Harvick won 2 races and finished 9th in points. Kurt Busch finished 2nd, despite only having one year of experience in a major NASCAR series and failing to qualify for one race. 3rd-place finisher Casey Atwood was pre-season favorite, but was held back due to a rough start and only finished 26th in points. Jason Leffler had a sub-par season that cost him his job with Chip Ganassi Racing, and Ron Hornaday Jr. was a disappointment after years of success in the Busch and Truck series. The last-place driver was Andy Houston, another pre-season favorite who had a tough season, suffering from several DNQs and DNFs that resulted in his team closing after the Kansas race.
Facts
This was the first season under the new television deal with Fox Sports and NBC Sports/Turner Sports. Fox broadcast the season-opening Daytona 500 for the first time and split coverage of the first half of the season with cable partner FX. NBC broadcast the Pepsi 400 at Daytona in July and split-second half the coverage of the season with TNT.
There were 19 different race winners, a new record for the series.
Five of these race winners won a Winston Cup race for the first time: Michael Waltrip in the Daytona 500, Kevin Harvick in the spring Atlanta race, Elliott Sadler in the spring Bristol race, Ricky Craven in the fall Martinsville race, and Robby Gordon in the season finale at New Hampshire.
There were six first-time pole sitters in the 2001 Winston Cup season: Stacy Compton, Ryan Newman, Kurt Busch, Jason Leffler, Casey Atwood and Jeff Green. Up until Atwood's lead lap finish at Phoenix, the best finish for a first-time pole sitter was Leffler, when he finished 32nd at Kansas. He was on the lead lap with nine to go there, only to wreck. Compton finished 43rd at Talladega, as did Newman at Charlotte. Busch came in 42nd after a crash at Darlington, and Green came in 39th after one in Bristol.
The 2001 season marked the third full-time Winston Cup season that Mark Martin failed to win a race. His first winless season was in 1982 (his first full-time season), the second in 1996. Martin finished 12th in the final points standings, making this the first time since 1988 that he didn't finish in the Top 10 in points, ending a streak of 12 consecutive seasons.
Bill Elliott, Sterling Marlin, and Ricky Rudd each won a Winston Cup race for the first time since 1994, 1996, and 1998.
Jeff Gordon won his fourth Winston Cup Championship, a feat that only two other drivers – Richard Petty and Dale Earnhardt – had accomplished at the time. This was the final championship for Gordon.
As the 2001 season came to an end, Jeff Gordon's winning average was 20 percent, winning 1 race in every 5 starts. After 2001, he recorded 58 victories in 293 races.
No rookies competed in all 36 races during this year; the closest were Kevin Harvick, Kurt Busch, and Casey Atwood with 35. Harvick did not compete in the Daytona 500, Atwood did not qualify for the spring Atlanta race, and Busch failed to qualify for the fall race in Atlanta.
This was supposed to be the last season finale to be held at Atlanta. However, due to the September 11 attacks, the fall New Hampshire race was postponed until the first available date, which came after the Atlanta event.
Dale Earnhardt was given credit for a 57th-place finish in the final points standings after losing his life on the last lap of the season-opening Daytona 500.
Dale Earnhardt posthumously won the 2001 NASCAR's Most Popular Driver Award after Bill Elliott withdrew form the award out of respect for Dale.
2001 was the last full-time Winston Cup season for Ron Hornaday Jr.; Buckshot Jones, Andy Houston, and Jason Leffler. Hornaday Jr. went to the Busch Grand National Series in 2002 then back to the NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series in 2005. Jones was fired after a few races that same year due to poor finishes. Houston went back to the Trucks Series and currently serves as the spotter for Cole Custer, having previously served as the spotter for Austin Dillon until 2020. Leffler attempted to have a full-time ride with Joe Gibbs Racing in 2005 but was fired halfway into the season. He went back into Grand National from 2006 to 2011 then the Trucks for 2012. After being unemployed in 2013, he died in a sprint car racing accident.
Future champion Jimmie Johnson made his NASCAR Winston Cup Series debut for Hendrick Motorsports at the fall race in Charlotte. He would make two more starts during the 2001 season before driving full-time in 2002.
2001 was the first season without three-time NASCAR champion Darrell Waltrip since the 1971 season.
2001 was the last year for teams Eel River Racing and Melling Racing.
2001 was the first year for teams Evernham Motorsports and BAM Racing.
2001 was the last season without Greg Biffle and Jamie McMurray until 2017 and 2020 (They would run several races in 2002 before joining as full-time in 2003 until their retirements in 2016 and 2019).
Until the 2014 Quaker State 400 at Kentucky Speedway, the 2001 New Hampshire 300 was the last race to have 42 starters.
Last career Top 5 points finishes for Ricky Rudd and Dale Jarrett.
Last career Top 10 points finish for Sterling Marlin.
First career Top 10 points finish for Kevin Harvick.
Kevin Harvick was originally to run a third Childress car #30 America Online Chevy with up to 7 races including his debut at Atlanta in March and full-time in 2002.
See also
2001 NASCAR Busch Series
2001 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series
References
External links
Winston Cup Standings and Statistics for 2001
NASCAR Cup Series seasons |
4510972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangeet%20Natak%20Akademi%20Award | Sangeet Natak Akademi Award | Sangeet Natak Akademi Award (IPA: Saṅgīta Nāṭaka Akādamī Puraskāra), also known as the Akademi Puraskar, is an award given by the Sangeet Natak Akademi, India's National Academy of Music, Dance & Drama. It is the highest Indian recognition given to people in the field of performing arts.
In 2003, the award consisted of Rs. 50,000, a citation, an angavastram (a shawl), and a tamrapatra (a brass plaque). Since 2009, the cash prize has been increased to ₹1,00,000. The awards are given in the categories of music, dance, theatre, other traditional arts and puppetry, and for contribution/scholarship in performing arts.
Award recipients
The recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi award in various categories of performing arts have been listed below:
Music
Hindustani music
Vocal
1952 – Mushtaq Hussain Khan
1953 – Kesarbai Kerkar
1954 – Rajab Ali Khan
1955 – Anant Manohar Joshi
1956 – Rajabhaiyya Poonchhwale
1957 – Rasoolan Bai
1958 – Ganesh Ramachandra Behere
1959 – Krishnarao Shankar Pandit
1960 – Altaf Hussain Khan
1961 – Y. S. Mirashi Buwa
1962 – Bade Ghulam Ali Khan
1963 – Omkarnath Thakur
1964 – Rahimuddin Khan Dagar
1965 – Hirabai Barodekar
1966 – Siddheswari Devi
1967 – Amir Khan
1968 – Mogubai Kurdikar
1969 – Ramchatur Mallick
1970 – Nisar Hussain Khan
1971 – Mallikarjun Mansur
1972 – Begum Akhtar
1973 – Gangubai Hangal
1974 – Kumar Gandharva
1975 – Bhimsen Joshi
1975-76 Gavri Devi (Vocal) (Jodhpur, Rajasthan)
1976 – Narayanrao Vyas
1977 – Girija Devi
1978 – Khadim Hussain Khan
1979 – Sarachchandra Arolkar
1980 – Nivruttibua Sarnaik
1981 – Basavaraj Rajguru
1982 – Vasantrao Deshpande
1983 – Mahadev Prasad Mishra
1984 – Sharafat Hussain Khan
1985 – Kishori Amonkar, Aminuddin Dagar
1986 – Gavri Devi (Vocal) (Jodhpur, Rajasthan)
1986 – Asgari Bai, Firoz Dastur, Manik Varma
1987 – C. R. Vyas, Shobha Gurtu, Pandit Jasraj
1988 – Padmavati Gokhale Shaligram
1989 – Jitendra Abhisheki
1990 – K. G. Ginde, Dhondutai Kulkarni
1991 – N. Zahiruddin Dagar, Prabha Atre
1992 – Ramarao V. Naik, Shiv Kumar Shukla
1993 – Bala Saheb Poochwale, Rahim Fahimuddin Dagar
1994 – Sulochana Brahaspati, Zia Fariddudin Dagar
1995 – A. Kanan
1996 – Dinkar Kaikini, Hafeez Ahmed Khan
1997 – L. K. Pandit
1998 – Puttaraj Gawaigalu, Parveen Sultana, Rajan and Sajan Mishra
1999–2000 – Ajoy Chakraborty, Rita Ganguly, Malabika Kanan
2001 – Abhay Narayan Mallick, Sangameshwar Gurav, Malini Rajurkar
2002 – Sushila Rani Patel, Sharayu Kalekar
2003 – Ghulam Mustafa Khan, Yeshwant Balkrishna Joshi
2004 – Balwant Rai Bhatt, Tejpal Singh and Surinder Singh
2005 – S. C. R. Bhat, Ramashreya Jha
2006 – Vijay Kumar Kichlu, Rashid Khan
2007 – Vidyadhar Vyas, Govardhan Mishra
2008 – Ulhas Kashalkar, M.R. Gautam
2009 – Abdul Rashid Khan, Vasundhara Komkali
2010 – Chhannulal Mishra, Yashpaul
2011 – Shruti Sadolikar, Pandit Venkatesh Kumar
2012 – Shankar Lal Mishra, Rajashekhar Mansur, Ajay Pohankar
2013 – Ritwik Sanyal, Veena Sahasrabuddhe
2014 – Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande, Iqbal Ahmad Khan, Nathrao Neralkar
2015 – Mashkoor Ali Khan
2016 – Prabhakar Karekar
2017 – Lalith J. Rao, Umakant and Ramakant Gundecha - Gundecha Brothers
2018 – Mani Prasad, Madhup Mudgal
2019 – Vinayak Torvi, Prem Kumar Mallick
2020 – Sumitra Guha, Arati Ankalikar-Tikekar
2021 – Uday Bhawalkar, Subhra Guha
Instrumental
Been/Rudra Veena/Vichitra Veena
1969 – Dabir Khan
1977 – Asad Ali Khan
1981 – Zia Mohiuddin Dagar
1994 – Pandit Gopal Krishan
2012 – Bahauddin Dagar
Flute
1983 – Pt. Hari Prasad Chaurasiya
1986 – Devendra Murdeshwar
1994 – Raghunath Seth
2010 – Nityanand Haldipur
2014 – Ronu Majumdar
2017 – Pt. Rajendra Prasanna
2019 – Chetan Joshi
Guitar
2005 – Brij Bhushan Kabra
Harmonium
2000 – Appa Jalgaonkar
2005 – Tulsidas Vasant Borkar
Pakhavaj
1955 – Govind Rao Burhanpurkar
1965 – Sakharam Tavde
1967 – Ayodhya Prasad
1978 – Purushottam Das
1988 – Ramshankardas Pagaldas
1991 – Chatrapati Singh
1993 – Gopaldas Panse
1995 – Ram Ashish Pathak
2003 – Bhavani Shankar
2011 – Totaram Sharma
2020 – Dal Chand Sharma
Santoor
1986 – Shivkumar Sharma
1993 – Bhajan Sopori
2018 – Tarun Bhattacharya
Sarangi
1966 – Shakoor Khan
1975 – Ram Narayan
1976 – Gopal Misra
1986 – Sabri Khan
1988 – Hanuman Prasad Mishra
1990 – Abdul Lateef Khan
1992 – Sultan Khan
1996 – Inderlal Dhandra, Ramchandra Mishra
2008 – Ramesh Mishra
2013 – Dhruba Ghosh
Sarod
1952 – Allauddin Khan
1953 – Hafiz Ali Khan
1963 – Ali Akbar Khan
1971 – Radhika Mohan Maitra
1986 – Sharan Rani Backliwal
1988 – Zarin Sharma
1989 – Amjad Ali Khan
1993 – Buddhadev Das Gupta
1999–2000 – Rajeev Taranath
2004 – Aashish Khan
2018 – Tejendra Majumdar
Shehnai
1956 – Ustad Bismillah Khan
1985 – Ali Hussain Khan
1989 – Pt. Anant Lal
1996 – Pt. Raghunath Prasanna
2008 – Krishna Ram Chaudhary
2009 – Ali Ahmad Hussain
2017 – Rajendra Prasanna
Sitar
1958 – Yusuf Ali
1960 – Wahid Khan
1962 – Pt. Ravi Shankar
1968 – Mushtaq Ali Khan
1974 – Nikhil Banerjee
1987 – Abdul Halim Jaffer Khan, Imrat Khan (also Surbahar)
1989 – Balaram Pathak
1992 – Uma Shankar Mishra
1994 – Shamim Ahmed Khan
1996 – Debu Chaudhuri
2001 – Manilal Nag
2003 – Arvind Parikh
2006 – Shahid Parvez
2010 – Budhaditya Mukherjee
2015 – Karthick Kumar
2019 – Manju Mehta
2020 – Kushal Das
Surbahar
1991 – Annapurna Devi
2011 – Pushparaj Koshti
Tabla
1954 – Ustad Ahmed Jan Thirakwa
1959 – Ustad Jahangir Khan
1961 – Pt. Kanthe Maharaj
1970 – Masit Khan
1976 – Karamatulla Khan
1979 – Pt. Samta Prasad
1982 – Ustad Alla Rakha
1984 – Pt. Kishan Maharaj
1990 – Ustad Zakir Hussain
1991 – Shaikh Dawood
1997 – Swapan Chaudhuri, Lalji Gokhale
1998 – Pandharinath Gangadhar Nageshkar
1999–2000 – Shankar Ghosh
2001 – Ishwar Lal Mishra
2002 – Suresh B. Gaitonde, Anindo Chatterjee
2004 – Pt. Suresh Talwalkar
2006 – Kumar Bose
2007 – Nandan Mehta
2009 – Lachman Singh Seen
2012 – Sabir Khan (Tabla)
2013 – Hashmat Ali Khan
2014 – Pt. Nayan Ghosh
2016 – Arvind Mulgaonkar
2017 – Pt. Yogesh Samsi
2021 – Ravindra Yavagal
Violin
1972 – Gajananrao Joshi
1980 – V. G. Jog
1990 – N. Rajam
1995 – D. K. Datar
1996 – Annavarapu Rama Swamy
1997 – Sisir Kana Dhar Chowdhury
2007 – Ramoo Prasad Shastri
2016 – Kala Ramnath
2021 – Sangeeta Shankar
Carnatic music
Vocal
1952 – Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar
1953 – Semmangudi R. Srinivasa Iyer
1954 – Mysore K. Vasudevacharya
1955 – Maharajapuram Vishwanatha Iyer
1956 – M. S. Subbulakshmi
1957 – Musiri Subramania Iyer
1958 – Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavathar
1959 – G. N. Balasubramaniam
1960 – Madurai Mani Iyer
1961 – Mudikondan C. Venkatarama Iyer
1962 – D. K. Pattammal
1963 – B. Devendrappa
1964 – Chittoor S. Subramanyam
1965 – T. Brinda
1966 – Madurai Srirangam Iyengar
1967 – C. Venkata Rao
1968 – Alathur Srinivasa Iyer
1969 – Dandapani Desikar
1970 – M. L. Vasanthakumari
1971 – N. Channakeshaviah
1972 – T. Muktha
1973 – B.S. Raja Iyengar
1974 – M. D. Ramanathan
1975 – M. Balamurali Krishna
1976 – K.V.Narayanaswamy
1977 – Sripada Pinakapani
1978 – Madurai S. Somasundaram
1979 – R K Srikanthan
1980 – Seerkhazhi S. Govindarajan
1981 – Radha and Jayalakshmi
1982 – T. M. Thiagarajan
1983 – D. K. Jayaraman
1984 – Maharajapuram V. Santhanam
1985 – Voleti Venkatesvarulu
1986 – B. Rajam Iyer
1986 – Nedunuri Krishnamoorthy
1987 – Madurai N. Krishnan
1987 – Mani Krishnaswami
1988 – Nookala Chinna Satyanarayana
1989 – Titte Krishna Iyengar
1990 – T. V. Sankaranarayanan
1991 – S. Rajam
1992 – K. R. Kumaraswamy Iyer
1993 – Trichy Swaminathan Iyer
1994 – C. S. Krishna Iyer
1995 – R. Vedavalli
1996 – T. K. Govinda Rao
1997 – M. S. Balasubramanya Sarma
2000 – S. R. Janakiraman
2001 – B. V. Raman
2002 – T. R. Subramaniam
2003 – Trichur V. Ramachandran, M. A. Narasimhachar
2004 – Thiruvengadu A. Jayaraman, C. Saroja & C. Lalitha
2005 – S. V. Parthasarrathy, P. S. Narayanaswamy
2006 – D. Pasupathi, Chingleput Ranganathan
2007 – B. Krishnamoorti
2008 – Puranam Purushottama Sastri
2009 – Parassala B Ponnammal
2010 – Suguna Purushothaman, Mysore Nagamani Srinath
2011 – J. Venkataraman
2012 – O. S. Thyagarajan
2013 – Aruna Sairam, D. Seshchari & D. Raghavachari (Hyderabad Brothers)
2014 – Neyveli Santhanagopalan
2015 – R.N. Tharanathan, Suguna Varadachari, R.N. Thiagarajan
2016 – Neela Ramgopal, K. Omanakutty
2017 – M. S. Sheela
2018 – Alamelu Mani, Malladi Suribabu
2019 – Charumathi Ramachandran, Pala C. K. Ramachandran
2020 – R. K. Padmanabha, G. Balakrishna Prasad
2021 – Sudha Ragunathan, Radha Namboodiri
Instrumental
Clarionet
1994 – A. K. C. Natarajan
Flute
1954 – Palladam Sanjiva Rao
1961 – T. N. Swaminatha Pillai
1965 – T. R. Mahalingam
1984 – Natesan Ramani
1987 – T. Viswanathan
1989 – Sikkil Sisters - Kunjumani & Neela
1997 – Kesi Narayanaswamy
1999–2000 – T.S Sankaran
2004 – Prapancham Sitaram
2017 – Shashank Subramanyam
2019 – Sikkil Mala Chandrasekar
Ghatam
1988 – Thetakudi Harihara Vinayakram
1995 – Umayalpuram K. Narayanaswamy
2011 – E. M. Subramaniam
2014 – Sukanya Ramgopal
Gottuvadhyam
1958 – Budaloor Krishnamurthy Shastri
2006 – N. Ravikiran
Kanjira
2001 – G. Harishankar
Mandolin
2009 – U. Srinivas
Mridangam
1956 – Palghat Mani Iyer
1975 – C.S. Murugabhupathy
1979 – Kolanka Venkata Raju
1983 – Palghat R. Raghu
1987 – T. K. Murthy
1990 – T. V. Gopalakrishnan
1991 – Vellore G. Ramabhadran
1992 – Umayalpuram K. Sivaraman
1994 – Dandamudi Ram Mohan Rao
1996 – Guruvayur Dorai
1998 – Karaikudi Mani
1999–2000 – V. Kamalakar Rao
2002 – Yella Venkateshwara Rao
2004 – Madras A. Kannan
2006 – Thiruvarur Bakthavathsalam
2008 – Mannargudi Easwaran
2009 – Dandamudi Sumathi Ram Mohan Rao
2010 – Srimushnam V. Raja Rao
2012 – K. V. Prasad
2013 – Trichy Sankaran
2016 – J. Vaidhyanathan
2017 – Tiruvarur Vaidyanathan
2019 – Trivandrum V. Surendran
2020 – Patri Satish Kumar
Nagaswaram
1955 – T. N. Rajarathinam Pillai
1962 – Thiruvengadu Subramania Pillai
1966 – P. S. Veeruswamy Pillai
1972 – T. S. Natarajasundaram Pillai
1976 – Sheik Chinna Moulana
1981 – Namagiripettai Krishnan
1995 – Domada Chittiabbayi
2005 – Ongale N. Rangaiah
2007 – S. R. D. Vaidyanathan
2011 – Seshampatti T Sivalingam
2013 – Thiruvizha Jayashankar
2017 – S.Kasim, S.Babu - Kasim-Babu Brothers
Saxophone
2003 – Kadri Gopalnath
Thavil
1985 – Valangaiman A. Shanmugasundaram Pillai
1988 – Valayapatti A. R. Subramaniam
2001 – Haridwaramangalam A. K. Palanivel
2014 – Thiruvalaputhur T A Kaliyamurthy
2021 – Thanjavur R. Govindarajan
Veena
1952 – Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer
1960 – L. Subramanya Sastri
1968 – K. S. Narayanaswamy
1969 – Devakottai A. Narayana Iyengar
1970 – Mysore V. Doreswamy Iyengar
1973 – Emani Sankara Sastry
1977 – S. Balachander
1980 – Thanjavur K.P. Sivanandam
1986 – Rajeswari Padmanabhan
1988 – R. Pichumani Iyer
1990 – Chitti Babu
1992 – M. K. Kalyanakrishna Bhagavathar
1993 – Kalpakam Swaminathan
2001 – R. N. Doreswamy
2002 – E. Gayathri
2007 – Vidya Shankar
2011 – Ayyagari Syamasundaram
2017 – Suma Sudhindra
2021 – D. Balakrishnan
Violin
1953 – Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu
1957 – Tirumakudalu Chowdiah
1959 – Kumbakonam Rajamanickam Pillai
1963 – T. K. Jayarama Iyer
1964 – K. N. Chinnaswamy Iyer
1967 – K. S. Venkataramiah 'Papa'
1971 – Madurai S. Subramanya Iyer
1974 – T. N. Krishnan
1978 – Lalgudi Jayaraman
1982 – M. S. Gopalakrishnan
1986 – M. Chandrasekaran
1988 – Chalakudy N. S. Narayanaswamy
1989 – R. K. Venkatarama Sastry
1991 – Kandadevi S. Alagiriswamy
1993 – Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan
1996 – Annavarapu Ramaswamy
1997 – T. Rukmini
1998 – M. S. Anantharaman
1999–2000 – R. R. Keshavamurthy
2003 – A. Kanyakumari
2005 – V. V. Subrahmanyam
2008 – B. Sasikumar
2010 – Nagai Muralidharan
2012 – Mysore M. Nagaraja
2014 – Dwaram Durga Prasad Rao
2015 – Lalgudi G. J. R. Krishnan
2016 – Mysore Manjunath
2018 – Ganesh and Kumaresh
2020 – M. A. Sundareswaran
Creative and experimental music
1973 – Vishnudas Shirali
1976 – Timir Baran Bhattacharya
1978 – Rai Chand Boral
1982 – Vijay Raghav Rao
1983 – Chidambaram S. Jayaraman
1986 – Anil Biswas
1986 – M. B. Srinivasan
1986 – Hemanta Kumar Mukhopadhyay
1988 – Bhaskar Chandavarkar
1989 – Vanraj Bhatia
1990 – L. Subramaniam
1994 – V. Balsara
1995 – Atul Desai
1997 – Satish Bhatia
1998 – Vishwa Mohan Bhatt
2001 – S. Rajaram
2002 – K. P. Udayabhanu
2007 – Khayyam
2012 – Ilaiyaraaja
2020 – Bickram Ghosh
Other major traditions of music
2008 – Ningombam Ibobi Singh (Nata Sankirtana, Manipur)
2009 – L. Ibohalmacha Singh (Nata Sankirtana, Manipur)
2010 – M.V. Simhachala Sastry (Harikatha, Tirupathi)
2011 – Gopal Chandra Panda (Odissi Music)
2012 – Bhai Balbir Singh Ragi (Gurbani)
2013 – Bankim Sethi (Odissi Music)
2015 – Hridaynath Mangeshkar (Sugam Sangeet), Prafulla Kar (Sugam Sangeet), Bhupinder Singh (Sugam Sangeet)
2018 – Suresh Wadkar (Sugam Sangeet), Shanti Hiranand (Sugam Sangeet), H. Ashangbi Devi (Nata Sankirtana, Manipur)
2019 – O. S. Arun (Sugam Sangeet), Sharma Bandhu (Sugam Sangeet), D. Uma Maheshwari (Harikatha)
2020 – Anup Jalota (Sugam Sangeet), N. Irabot Singh (Nata Sankirtana)
2021 – Susmita Das (Sugam Sangeet), H. R. Leelavathi (Sugam Sangeet), Kumud Diwan (Thumri)
Dance
Bharatanatyam
1955 – T. Balasaraswati
1957 – Rukmini Devi Arundale
1959 – Mylapore Gouri Amma
1962 – R. Muthurathnambal
1965 – P. Chockkalingam Pillai
1966 – Vazhuvoor B. Ramiah Pillai, Swarnasaraswathi
1968 – Kamala
1969 – T. K. Swaminatha Pillai
1970 – Shanta Rao
1971 – T. Chandrakanthamma
1972 – Sikkil Ramaswami Pillai
1973 – Kumbakonam K. Bhanumathi
1974 – K. P. Kittappa Pillai
1976 – M. Muthiah Pillai
1977 – Yamini Krishnamurthy
1979 – Pandanallur Subbaraya Pillai
1981 – Indrani Rahman
1982 – Vyjayanthimala
1983 – Padma Subramanyam
1984 – Subramaniam Sarada, Sudharani Raghupathy
1985 – T. K. Mahalingam Pillai
1986 – Krishnaveni Lakshmanan
1987 – U. S. Krishna Rao and Chandrabhaga Devi, Chitra Viswaswaran
1989 – V. S. Muthuswamy Pillai
1990 – Kalanidhi Narayanan
1991 – Adyar K. Lakshman
1992 – K. J. Sarasa
1993 – Guru Kubernath Tanjorkar(Tanjavurkar), C. V. Chandrasekhar
1994 – V. P. Dhananjayan and Shanta Dhananjayan
1995 – M. K. Saroja, Indira Rajan
1996 – Sarada Hoffman
1997 – Kanaka Srinivasan
1998 – Lakshmi Viswanathan
1999–2000 – K. Kalyanasundaram Pillai, Leela Samson, H. R. Keshava Murthy
2001 – Alarmel Valli, Pratibha Prahlad
2002 – Malavika Sarukkai
2003 – C. K. Balagopalan
2004 – Nirmala Ramachandran
2005 – R. Rhadha
2006 – S. Narmada
2007 – Sucheta Bhide Chapekar
2008 – Saroja Vaidyanathan
2009 – Ananda Shankar Jayant
2011 – Narthaki Nataraj (First Transgender to receive SN Akademi Award)
2012 – Priyadarsini Govind
2013 – Jamuna Krishnan, B. Herabhanathan
2014 – Adayar Janardanan
2015 – Ranganayaki Jayaraman
2016 – Geeta Chandran
2017 – Rama Vaidyanathan
2018 – Radha Sridhar
2019 – Vasundhara Doraswamy
2020 – Meenakshi Chitharanjan
2021 – Jayalakshmi Eshwar
Chhau
1963 – Sudhendra Narayan Singh Deo (Seraikella)
1971 – Ananta Charan Sai (Mayurbhanj)
1975 – Krishna Chandra Naik (Mayurbhanj)
1981 – Kedar Nath Sahoo (Seraikella)
1982 – Gambhir Singh Mura (Purulia)
1987 – Madan Mohan Lenka (Mayurbhanj)
1988 – Srihari Nayak (Mayurbhanj)
1990 – Bikram Kumbhakar (Seraikella)
1991 – Chandra Sekhar Bhanj (Mayurbhanj)
2004 – Shashadhar Acharya
2012 – Jai Narayan Samal
2014 – Jagru Mahato
2015 – Sadashiva Pradhan
2016 – Gopal Prasad Dubey
2017 – Janmajay Saibabu
2018 – Tapan Kumar Pattanayak (Seraikella)
2019 – Brajendra Kumar Pattnaik
2020 – Trilochan Mohanta
2021 – Bhuvan Kumar
Creative dance/Choreography
1960 – Uday Shankar
1970 – Mrinalini Sarabhai
1976 – Narendra Sharma
1979 – Prabhat Ganguli
1980 – R. K. Priyagopal Sana
1981 – Parvati Kumar
1984 – Rajkumar Singhajit Singh
1989 – Maya Rao
1991 – Chandralekha
1992 – Sachin Shankar
1993 – Manjusri Chaki Sircar
1995 – Astad Deboo
1999–2000 Mallika Sarabhai
2001 – Gul Bardhan
2002 – Sambhu Bhattacharya
2005 – Th. Chaotombi Singh
2006 – Gorima Hazarika
2008 – Yogsunder Desai
2009 – Daksha Sheth
2010 – Uttara Asha Coorlawala
2011 – Tanushree Shankar
2014 – Navtej Singh Johar
2015 – W. Lokendrajit Singh
2016 – Anita Ratnam
2018 – Deepak Mazumdar
2019 – Mamata Shankar
2020 – Bhushan Lakhandri
Kathak
1955 – Shambhu Maharaj
1957 – Baijnath Prasad "Lacchu Maharaj"
1959 – Sunder Prasad
1962 – Mohanrao Kallianpurkar
1964 – Birju Maharaj
1968 – Damayanti Joshi
1969 – Sitara Devi
1974 – Gauri Shankar Devilal Kathak
1975 – Roshan Kumari
1979 – Rohini Bhate
1982 – Kartik Ram, Kumudini Lakhia
1984 – Durga Lal
1987 – Uma Sharma
1991 – Reba Vidyarthi
1995 – Ramlal Bareth
1996 – Rani Karnaa
1998 – Sunderlal Sathyanarayan Gangani
1999–2000 – Shovana Narayan
2000 – Surendra Saikia
2002 – Rajendra Gangani
2003 – Sunayana Hazarilal Agarwal, Urmila Nagar
2004 – Saswati Sen
2005 – Tirath Ram Azad
2006 – Munna Shukla
2007 – Geetanjali Lal
2008 – Shashi Sankhla
2009 – Prerana Shrimali
2010 – Malabika Mitra
2011 – Manjushree Chatterjee
2012 – Vijay Shankar
2013 – Rajashree Shirke
2014 – Uma Dogra
2016 – Jitendra Maharaj
2017 – Shobha Koser
2018 – Maulik Shah, Ishira Parikh
2019 – Raghav Raj Bhatt & Mangala Bhatt
2020 – Kumkum Dhar
2021 – Shama Bhate
Kathakali
1956 – Guru Kunchu Kurup
1958 – Thotton K. Chandu Panikkar
1961 – Thekinkatti Ramunni Nair
1963 – Chenganoor Raman Pillai
1965 – Guru Gopinath
1967 – Kalamandalam Krishnan Nair
1968 – Kurichi Kunjan Panickar
1969 – Vazhenkada Kunchu Nair
1970 – M. Vishnu Namboodiri
1971 – Kudamaloor Karunakaran Nair
1972 – M. Madhava Panicker
1973 – Velinezhi K. Nanu Nayar
1973 – Kavungal Chathunni Panicker
1974 – Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair
1975 – K. Sankarankutty Panicker
1983 – Champakulam Pachu Pillai
1985 – Mankompu Sivasankara Pillai
1987 – Kalamandalam Gopi
1988 – Keezhpadam Kumaran Nair
1989 – Oyoor Kochugovinda Pillai
1991 – Chennithala Chellapan Pillai
1993 – Kalamandalam Padmanabhan Nair
1996 – Kottakkal Krishnan Kutty Nair
1997 – Madavoor Vasudevan Nair
1998 – Kottakkal Sivaraman
1999–2000 – Nelliyode Vasudevan Namboodiri
2003 – Sadanam P. V. Balakrishnan
2004 – Kalamandalam Vasu Pisharody
2005 – Mathoor Govindan Kutty
2006 – Kottakkal Chandrasekharan
2007 – Sadanam Krishnankutty
2008 – Kalamandalam Kuttan
2009 – Kalamandalam Rajan
2010 – Kalamandalam K. G. Vasudevan
2011 – Thonnakkal Peethambaran
2012 – Vazhengada Vijayan
2013 – Kalamandalam M. P. S. Namboodiri
2015 – K. Kunhiraman Nair
2016 – Kalamandalam Ramachandran Unnithan
2017 – Madambi Subramanian Namboodiri
2019 – Kottakkal Nandakumaran Nair
2021 – Inchakkattu Ramachandran Pillai
Kuchipudi
1961 – Vedantam Satyanarayana Sarma ‘Satyam’
1968 – Chinta Krishnamurthy
1978 – C. Ramacharyalu
1981 – Vempati Chinna Satyam
1983 – Nataraja Ramakrishna (also Bharatanatyam)
1985 – Vedantam Prahlada Sarma
1987 – Pasumarthi Venugopala Krishna Sarma
1990 – Sobha Naidu
1991 – Raja Reddy and Radha Reddy
1993 – Josyula Seetharamaiah
1994 – Vedantam Parvateesam
1998 – Veernala Jayarama Rao and Banashree Rao
1999–2000 – Swapnasundari Rao
2003 – K. Uma Rama Rao
2004 – Pasumarthi Seetha Ramiah
2005 – Korada Narasimha Rao
2006 – Pasumarthi Rathiah Sarma
2007 – Yelesarapu Nageswara Sarma
2008 – Vasanta Lakshmi and Narasimhachari
2009 – Vyjayanthi Kashi
2010 – Ratna Kumar
2011 – Alekhya Punjala
2012 – Vedantam Ramalinga Sastry
2013 – Chinta Seetha Ramanjaneyulu
2014 – Vedantam Radhesyam
2015 – Gaddam Padmaja Reddy
2016 – A B Bala Kondala Rao
2017 – Deepika Reddy
2018 – Pasumarthy Ramalinga Sastry
2019 – Manju Barggavee
2020 – Pasumarthy Vithal and Bharathi Vithal
2021 – N. Sailaja
Manipuri
1956 – Maisnam Amubi Singh
1958 – Haobam Atomba Singh
1961 – T. Amudon Sharma
1963 – Atombapu Sharma
1965 – Guru Bipin Singh
1969 – Ojha Thangjam Chaoba Singh
1972 – Kshetri Tombi Devi
1973 – L. Koireng Singh
1974 – L. Ibemhal Devi
1975 – Rajani Maibi
1976 – Ojha Maibam Ibungohal Singh
1977 – Nayana Susheel Jhaveri
1980 – L. Thouranishabi Devi
1982 – L. Tombi Devi
1985 – Khaidem Lokeshwar Singh
1987 – Tarun Kumar Singh
1988 – Ibopishak Sharma
1990 – Th. Babu Singh
1993 – H. Ngangbi Devi
1994 – T. Nadia Singh
1995 – L. Thambalngoubi Devi
1996 – Darshana Jhaveri
1997 – Samanduram Tondon Devi
1998 – N. Madhabi Devi
1999–2000 – Sorokhaibam Naran Singh
2001 – Charu Sija Mathur
2002 – K. Ongbi Leipaklotpi Devi
2003 – Thiyam Suryamukhi Devi, Kalavati Devi
2005 – K. Radhamohon Sharma
2009 – L. Bino Devi
2010 – Phanjoubam Iboton Singh
2011 – Priti Patel
2014 – N. Amusana Devi
2016 – Maisnam Kaminikumar Singh
2017 – L.N. Oinam Ongdi Doni Devi
2018 – Akham Lakshmi Devi
2020 – Sruti Bandopadhay
2021 – Thokchom Ibemubi Devi
Mohiniattam
1972 – T. Chinnammu Amma
1978 – Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma
1994 – Kalamandalam Satyabhama
1998 – Kalamandalam Kshemavathy
1999–2000 – Bharati Shivaji
2004 – Kalamandalam Sugandhi
2006 – Kalamandalam Vimala Menon
2007 – Deepti Omchery Bhalla
2008 – Kalamandalam Leelamma
2011 – V. K. Hymavathy
2015 – Mandakini Trivedi
2018 – Gopika Varma
2019 – Nirmala Paniker
2021 – Neena Prasad
Odissi
1966 – Kelucharan Mohapatra
1970 – Pankaj Charan Das
1976 – Sanjukta Panigrahi (joint award with Raghunath Panigrahi for Odissi music)
1977 – Deba Prasad Das
1985 – Mayadhar Raut
1986 – Priyambada Mohanty Hejmadi
1987 – Sonal Mansingh
1992 – D. N. Pattnaik
1994 – Kumkum Mohanty
1995 – Raghunath Dutta
1997 – Gangadhar Pradhan
1999–2000 – Minati Mishra, Madhavi Mudgal
2002 – Kiran Segal
2003 – Hare Krishna Behera
2004 – Durllav Chandra Singh
2005 – Durga Charan Ranbir
2006 – Surendra Nath Jena
2007 – Ranjana Gauhar
2008 – Ramani Ranjan Jena
2009 – Geeta Mahalik
2010 – Aruna Mohanty
2011 – Ramli Ibrahim
2012 – Sharmila Biswas
2013 – Sangeeta Dash
2014 – Sudhakar Sahoo
2015 – Aloka Kanungo
2016 – Ratikant Mohapatra
2017 – Sujata Mohapatra
2018 – Surupa Sen
2019 – Sutapa Talukdar
2020 – Rabindra Atibudhi
Sattriya
1963 – Maniram Datta Moktar
1978 – Bapuram Bayan Attai
1980 – Roseshwar Saikia Bayan Moktar
1996 – Indira P. P. Bora
1998 – Pradip Chaliha
1999–2000 – Parmanand Borbayan
2001 – Ghanakanta Bora
2004 – Jatin Goswami
2007 – Ganakanta Dutta Borbayan
2010 – Manik Borbayan
2013 – Jogen Dutta Bayan
2014 – Anita Sharma
2015 – Sarodi Saikia
2016 – Haricharan Bhuyan Borbayan
2017 – Ramkrishna Talukdar
2018 – Tankeswar Hazarika Borbayan
2019 – Ranjumoni Saikia
Other major traditions of dance and dance theatre
2007 – Kalamandalam Sivan Namboodiri (Kutiyattam)
2009 – Kala Krishna (Andhranatyam)
2010 – Painkulam Rama Chakyar (Kutiyattam)
2012 – Painkulam Damodara Chakyar (Kutiyattam)
2013 – Srinivasa Rangachariar (Arayer Sevai)
2021 – Kalamandalam Girija (Kutiyattam)
Music for dance
2005 – Josyula Krishna Murthy (Kuchipudi Bhagavatha Maddalla)
2006 – Kalamandalam Gangadharan (Kathakali Pattu)
2008 – Ramhari Das (Odissi)
2010 – S. Rajeswari (Bharatanatyam)
2011 – Karaikudi Krishnamurthi
2012 – Jwala Prasad
2013 – Dhaneshwar Swain
2014 – Varanasi Vishnu Namboothiri (Kathakali)
2015 – Rajkumar Bharathi
2017 – Ashit Desai
2020 – Prema Ramamurthy, Arambam Tombinou Devi
2021 – Bijay Kumar Jena
Folk and Tribal dance
2017 – Mukund Nayak
Theatre
Acting
From 1952–2003 (language-wise)
Assamese
1961 – Mitradev Mahanta Adhikari
2001 – Girish Chowdhury
Bengali theatre
1958 – Ahindra Choudhury
1962 – Tripti Mitra
1967 – Sabitabrata Dutta
1970 – Saraju Bala Devi
1973 – Shobha Sen
1975 – Molina Devi
1977 – Krishna Roy
1983 – Kumar Roy
1989 – Sekhar Chatterjee
1995 – Satya Bandopadhyay
1998 – Soumitra Chatterjee
1999–2000 – Ketaki Dutta Sabitri Chatterjee
2003 – Shaoli Mitra
Gujarati theatre
1960 – Ashraf Khan
1965 – Muljibhai Khushalbhai Nayak
1968 – Jashwant Thaker
1974 – Pransukh Manilal Nayak
1980 – Dina Pathak (Gandhi)
1988 – Sarita Joshi
Hindi theatre
1979 – Amrish Puri
1982 – Manohar Singh
1984 – Uttara Baokar
1985 – Fida Hussain
1989 – Surekha Sikri
1990– Naseeruddin Shah (also Urdu)
1999–2000 – Seema Biswas
Kannada
1955 – Gubbi Veeranna
1961 – Subbaiah Naidu
1985 – B. Jayamma
1992 – R. Nagarathnamma
1994 – Balappa Yenagi
1996 – B. Jayashree
2003 – C. R. Simha
Malayalam
1960 – C. I. Parameswaran Pillai
1965 – V. T. Aravindaksha Menon
1969 – N. N. Pillai
Manipuri
1991 – Sabitri Heisnam
1997 – R. K. Bhogen
Marathi theatre
1955 – Narayan Rao Rajhans 'Bal Gandharva'
1956 – Ganesh Govind Bodas
1957 – Chintaman Ganesh Kolhatkar
1960 – Gopal Govind Pathak
1964 – Keshav Trimbak Date
1971 – Shreeram Lagoo
1976 – Jyotsna Bhole
1978 – Dattaram N. Walwaikar
1981 – Chintamani Govind Pendse
1983 – Dattatray Ramachandra Bhat
1986 – Prabhakar V. Panshikar
1987 – Sulabha Deshpande (also Hindi)
1988 – Saudagar Nagnath Gore 'Chhota Gandharva'
1990 – Bhakti Barve Inamdar
1991 – Neelu Phule
1996 – Mohan Agashe
Oriya
1961 – Samuel Sahu
Sanskrit
1965 – Krishnachandra Moreshwar "Daji Bhatawadekar"
Tamil
1959 – Pammal Sambandha Mudaliar
1962 – T. K. Shanmugam
1967 – S. V. Sahasranamam
1992 – Poornam Viswanathan
Telugu theatre
1961 – Sthanam Narasimha Rao
1963 – Banda Kanakalingeswara Rao
1973 – Kalyanam Raghuramaiah
1986 – Peesapati Narasimha Murty
Urdu
1963 – Zohra Sehgal
1994 – Uzra Butt
From 2004 onwards
2004 – Rohini Hattangady, Ramcharan Nirmalkar
2005 – Chindodi Leela
2006 – Dharani Barman, Gita Dey, K. Kaladharan Nair
2007 – Ramesh Mehta
2008 – Markand Bhatt, Arundhati Nag
2009 – Sudha Shivpuri, Neeta Mohindra
2010 – Dilip Prabhavalkar, Banwari Taneja, Maya Krishna Rao, Swatilekha Sengupta
2012 – Parvesh Seth, Nirmal Rishi, Purisai Kannappa Sambandan
2013 – Vasant Josalkar, Kusum Haidar
2014 – Debshankar Haldar, Ramdas Kamat
2017 – Anil Tickoo
2018 – Suhas Joshi, Teekam Joshi
2019 – Alok Chatterjee, Pranjal Saikia
2020 – Prashant Damle, Bhupesh Joshi, Amit Banerjee
2021 – Neeleshwar Mishra, Y. G. Mahendran
Mime
1993 – Jogesh Dutta
2002 – Niranjan Goswami
2009 – Moinul Haque
2018 – Swapan Nandy
2021 – Vilas Janve
Direction
1957 – Jaishankar Bhojak 'Sundari'
1959 – Sombhu Mitra
1961 – Kasambhai Nathubhai Mir
1962 – Ebrahim Alkazi
1964 – T. S. Rajamanikkam
1969 – Habib Tanvir
1970 – Adi Ferozeshah Marzban
1971 – Satyadev Dubey
1972 – Shyamanand Jalan
1973 – Ajitesh Bandopadhyay
1974 – Damodar Kashinath Kenkre
1975 – Vijaya Mehta
1976 – B. V. Karanth
1977 – Rajinder Nath
1978 – Jabbar Patel
1979 – B. M. Shah
1980 – Rudraprasad Sengupta
1981 – R. S. Manohar
1982 – Sheila Bhatia
1983 – Kavalam Narayana Panikkar
1985 – Heisnam Kanhailal
1986 – Alyque Padamsee
1987 – Tarun Roy
1987 – Ratan Thiyam
1989 – Bibhash Chakraborty
1990 – Geoffrey Kendal & Laura Kendal (Joint Award)
1991 – Fritz Bennewitz
1992 – Mohan Maharishi
1993 – Kailash Pandya
1993 – Barry John
1995 – M. K. Raina
1995 – Bansi Kaul
1996 – Purushottam Darwhekar
1997 – Bhanu Bharti
1998 – Amal Allana
1998 – Dulal Roy
1998 – Usha Ganguly
1999–2000 – Balwant Thakur
1999–2000 – Nadira Zaheer Babbar
1999–2000 – Prasanna
2001 – Shanta Gandhi
2002 – Arun Mukherjee, Satish Anand
2003 – Devendra Raj Ankur, Neelam Mansingh Chowdhry
2004 – Anuradha Kapur, Arambam Lokendra Singh, Raj Besaria
2005 – Ranjit Kapoor, V K Sharma
2006 – E. Joychandra Singh, R. Nagesh, Amitava Dasgupta
2007 – Hari Madhab Mukherjee, N.C. Thakur
2008 – S. Ramanujam, Probir Guha
2009 – Joy Michael, Dinesh Thakur
2010 – Veenapani Chawla, Urmil Kumar Thapliyal
2011 – Alakhnandan, Kirti Jain
2012 – Tripurari Sharma, Waman Kendre
2013 – Kamalkar Muralidhar Sontakke, Kewal Dhaliwal, Prasanna Ramaswamy
2014 – Surya Mohan Kulshreshtha, Chidambar Rao Jambe
2015 – Parvez Akhtar, Mushtaq Kak
2016 – Satyabrata Rout, Rajkamal Nayak
2018 – Sanjay Upadhyay, S. Raghunandana
2019 – Bharti Sharma, Kumar Sohoni, Abinash Sarma
2020 – Lokendra Trivedi, Mithilesh Rai
2021 – R. Venugopal Rao (Surabhi), Lalit Singh Pokharia, Sudesh Sharma, Ajay Malkani, Manoj Pattnaik
Playwriting
Assamese
1986 – Satya Prasad Barua
2003 – Aruna Sarma
Bengali
1968 – Badal Sircar
1969 – Manmatha Ray
1975 – Bijon Bhattacharya
1985 – Manoj Mitra
1991 – Mohit Chattopadhyaya
Dogri
2008 – Narsingh Dev Jamwal
Gujarati
1961 – Prabhulal Dayaram Dwivedi
1971 – C. C. Mehta, Pragji Dossa
Hindi
1965 – Upendra Nath Ashk
1968 – Mohan Rakesh
1977 – Lakshmi Narain Lal
1988 – Dharamvir Bharati
1992 – Surendra Verma
2001 – Bhisham Sahni, D.P. Sinha
2006 – Prabhat Kumar Bhattacharya
2004 – Swadesh Deepak
2007 – Reoti Sharan Sharna
2008 – Mudra Rakshasa
Kannada
1963 – Adya Rangacharya 'Shriranga'
1972 – Girish Karnad
1983 – Chandrashekhara Kambara
1980 – Narasinga Rao Parwathavani
1989 – G. B. Joshi
1997 – H. S. Shivaprakash
Kashmiri
1997 – Moti Lal Kemmu
Malayalam
1979 – G. Sankara Pillai
1983 – Kavalam Narayana Panikkar
1986 – K. T. Muhammed
1997 – N. Krishna Pillai
2009 – Vayala Vasudevan Pillai
Manipuri
2007 – Yumnam Rajendra Singh
Marathi
1958 – B.V. 'Mama' Warerkar
1967 – P. L. Deshpande
1970 – Vijay Tendulkar
1976 – C. T. Khanolkar
1982 – M.G. Rangnekar
1984 – Vasant Shankar Kanetkar
1987 – V.V. Shirwadkar
1989 – Mahesh Elkunchwar
1994 – Satish Alekar
1996 – G.P. Deshpande
2003 – Ratnakar Ramkrishna Matkari
2009 – Shankar Narayan Navre
Mizo
2007 – Lathangfala Sailo
Oriya
1981 – Manoranjan Das
1982 – Biswajit Das
1987 – Gopal Chhotray
Punjabi
1993 – Gursharan Singh
1998 – Balwant Gargi
2010 – Atamjeet Singh
Tamil
1974 – S.D. Sundaram
1999–2000 – Na. Muthuswamy
2004 – Indira Parthasarathy
Telugu
2010 – D. Vizai Bhaskar
2012 onwards
2012 – Arjun Deo Charan
2013 – Rameshwar Prem, Pundalik Narayan Naik
2014 – Asgar Wajahat
2018 – Rajiv Naik, Laltluangliana Khiangte
2019 – Hrishikesh Sulabh
Allied Theatre Arts
Lighting
1974 – Tapas Sen
1977 – V, Ramamurthy
1989 – G.N. Dasgupta
1994 – Kanishka Sen
1997 – Mansukh Joshi (for scenic design also)
1999–2000 – R.K. Dhingra
2002 – Ashok Sagar Bhagat
2003 – Sreenivas G. Kappanna
2005 – Suresh Bhardwaj
2006 - Gautam Bhattacharya
2011 – Kamal Jain
2019 – Souti Chakraborty
2020 – Raghav Prakash
Scenic Design
1985 – Goverdhan Panchal
1986 – Khaled Choudhury
1988 – Dattatraya Ganesh Godse
1997 – Mansukh Joshi
1999–2000 – Robin Das
2007 – Mahendra Kumar
Costumes/Make-up
1981 – Ashok Srivastava (Make-up)
1990 – Roshan Alkazi (Costume Design)
1999–2000 – Shakti Sen (Make-up)
2001 – Dolly Ahluwalia (Costume Design)
2003 – Anant Gopal Shinde (Make-up)
2004 – Prema Karanth (Costume Design)
2008 – Amba Sanyal (Costume Designing)
2009 – Kamal Arora (Make-up)
2013 – Krishna Borkar (Make-up)
2019 – N.K. Ramakrishna (Make-up)
2020 – M. Purushottam (Costume Design)
Music for Theatre
1999–2000 – Kajal Ghosh, Kamal Tewari
2005 - R. Paramashivan
2009 – Kuldeep Singh
2012 - Murari Roychoudhury
2014 - Amod Bhatt, Amardas Manikpuri (Chhattisgarh)
Stagecraft
1993 – M.S. Sathyu
1995 – N. Krishnamoorthy
2002 – Nissar Allana
2005 – H. V. Sharma
2020 – N. Jadumani Singh
Major traditions of theatre
2007 – Kolyur Ramachandra Rao (Yakshagana)
2008 – Bansi Lal Khiladi, Khayal (Rajasthan)
2012 – Ghulam Rasool Bhagat (Bhand Pather)
2014 – Manjunath Bhagwat Hostota (Yakshagana)
2018 – Bhagawat A. S. Nanjappa (Yakshagana), A. M. Parameswaran Kuttan Chakkiyar (Kutiyattam)
2019 – K. S. Krishanappa (Isai Natakam)
2020 – P. P. Kandaswami (Therukoothu)
2021 – Gunindra Nath Ojah (Music and Direction in Ankiya Bhaona)
Other Traditional/ Folk/ Tribal/ Dance/ Music/ Theatre and Puppetry
1964 – Mani Madhava Chakyar (Kutiyattam), Kerala
1969 – Gahan Chandra Goswami (Ankia Nat, Assam)
1972 – Kudamaloor Karunakaran Nair (Kathakali), Kerala
1976 – Raghunath Panigrahi (Joint Award with Sanjukta Panigrahi for Odissi Music, Orissa)
1981 – Kamini Kumar Narzary (Bodo Tribal Dance, Assam)
1983 – Dharmiklal Chunilal Pandya (Akhyana), Gujarat
1983 – Lalit Chandra Ojha (Ojapali and Deodhani Dances, Assam)
1984 – Balakrushna Dash (Odissi Music, Orissa)
1985 – Mohan Chandra Barman (Bhaona, Assam)
1984 – Bhubaneswar Mishra (Odissi Music, Orissa)
1987 – Bhupen Hazarika (Folk Music, Assam)
1988 – Pratima Barua Pandey (Folk Music, Assam)
1989 – Rajen Pam (Tribal Music, Assam)
1990 – Rameshwar Pathak (Folk Music, Assam)
1991 – Puranchand Wadali & Pyarelal Wadali (Folk Music), Punjab
1992 – Khagen Mahanta (Folk Music, Assam)
1994 – M. Boyer (Tiatr), Goa
1995 – Teejan Bai (Pandavani), Madhya Pradesh
1997 – Arghya sen [(Rabindra Sangeet), West Bengal
1997 – P. R. Thilagam, Kuravanji performer, Tamil Nadu
1998 – Ghulam Mohammad Saznawaz, Jammu and Kashmir
2002 – Dilip Sarma & Sudakshina Sarma (Jyoti Sangeet, Assam - Joint Award)
2003 – Prabhat Sarma (traditional & Folk Music, Assam)
2003 – Kosha Kanta Deva Goswami (Mask Making Bhaona, Assam)
2003 – Banamali Maharana (Odissi Music, Orissa)
2005 – Khirod Khakhlari (Bodo Dance & Music, Assam)
2005 – Kashinath Pujapanda (Odissi Music, Orissa)
2005 – Mathoor Govindan Kutty (Kathakali), Kerala
2007 – Subodh Debbarma (Folk dance), Tripura
2007 – Amar Pal (Folk Song), West Bengal
2008 – Kartar Singh (Gurbani), Punjab
2008 – Mangi Bai Arya (Mand), Rajasthan
2008 – Lakha Khan Mangniyar, (Folk Music), Rajasthan
2008 – Bansi Lal Khilari (Khayal), Rajasthan
2009 – Bhikhudan Gadhvi (Folk music), Gujarat
2010 – Harbhajan Singh Namdhari (Gurbani Kirtan), Punjab
2010 – Nazeer Ahmed Khan Warsi and Naseer Ahmed Khan Warsi (Qawwali), Andhra Pradesh
2010 – Dwijen Mukherjee (Rabindra Sangeet), West Bengal
2010 – Chandabai Tiwadi (Bharud), Maharashtra
2010 – T. Somasundaram (Folk dance), Tamil Nadu
2010 – Krishna Kumari (Folk music: Bhakha), Jammu and Kashmir
2010 – Chand Jagdish Tiwadi (Folk theatre: Bharud), Maharashtra
2011 – Trippekulam Achuta Marar, Kerala
2011 – Hemant Chauhan (Folk Music), Gujarat
2011 – Gurmeet Bawa (Folk Music), Punjab
2011 – Kashiram Sahu (Folk Theatre), Chhattisgarh
2011 – Mipham Otsal (Traditional Theatre), Jammu & Kashmir
2011 – Bellagallu Veeranna (Togalu Gombeyatta, Puppetry), Karnataka
2011 – Gopal Chandra Das (Putul Nach), Tripura
2011 – Kasmi Khan Niyazi (Making of musical Instrument), DeIhi
2012 – Go Ru Channabasappa (Folk Music - Karnataka)
2012 – Kinaram Nath Oja (Suknani Ojapali - Assam)
2012 – Prem Singh Dehati (Folk Music - Haryana)
2012 – Sulochana Chavan (Lavani - Maharashtra)
2012 – Mattannur Sankaran Kutty Marar (Thayambaka - Kerala)
2012 – Govind Ram Nirmalkar (Nacha - Chhattisgarh)
2012 – Heera Das Negi (Mask Making - Himachal Pradesh)
2013 – Meeenakshi K. (Instrument Making - Ghatam - Tamil Nadu)
2013 – Raj Begum, Traditional, Folk Music/Dance & Theatre (Jammu & Kashmir)
2013 – T.A.R. Nadi Rao & N Jeeva Rao (Joint Award), Folk Music (Tamil Nadu)
2013 – Gurdial Singh, Instrument Making (Punjab)
2013 – Mohan Singh Khangura, Rabindra Sangeet (West Bengal)
2013 – Umakanta Gogoi (Bairagi), Tokari Geet and Dehbichar Geet, (Assam)
2013 – Sheikh Riyajuddin alias Rajubaba, Folk Theatre (Maharashtra)
2014 – Puran Shah Koti (Traditional Music - Punjab)
2014 – Kalamandalam Ram Mohan (Makeup/Costume for Kathakali)
2014 – Reba Kanta Mohanta (Mask Making - Assam)
2014 – Abdul Rashid Hafiz (Folk Music - Jammu & Kashmir )
2014 – K.Shanathoiba Sharma (Thang-Ta - Manipur)
2014 – Ramdayal Sharma (Nautanki - U.P.)
2014 – Thanga Darlong (Folk Music - Tripura)
2015 - K. K. Ramachandra Pulavar (Tholpavakoothu)
2015 – Ramchandra Singh (Folk Theater - Bihar)
2017 – Mukund Nayak (Folk Music - Jharkhand)
2017 – Prakash Khandge (Folk Arts - Maharashtra)
2018 – Malini Awasthi (Folk Music - Uttar Pradesh)
2018 – Gazi Khan Barna (Folk Music - Khartal, Rajasthan)
2018 – Narendra Singh Negi (Folk Songs - Uttarakhand)
2018 – Niranjan Rajyaguru (Folk Music - Gujarat)
2018 – Mohd. Sadiq Bhagat (Folk Theatre - Bhand Pather, J&K)
2018 – Kota Sachidanand Shastry (Harikatha - Andhra Pradesh)
2018 – Arjun Singh Dhurve (Folk Dance - Madhya Pradesh)
2018 – Somnath Battu (Folk Music - Himachal Pradesh)
2018 – Hem Chandra Goswami (Mask Making - Assam)
2019 – Mamta Chandrakar (Folk Music Chhattisgarh)
2019 – Ram Lal (Folk Music, Uttarakhand)
2019 – Shankarbhai Hakabhai Dharjiya (Folk Music & Dance - Gujarat)
2019 – Nathulal Solanki (Folk Music - Rajasthan)
2019 – Pandurang Ghotkar (Folk Music - Maharashtra)
2019 – Peruvanam Kuttan Marar (Thayambaka - Kerala)
2019 – Urmila Pandey (Folk Music - Madhya Pradesh)
2019 – Sayed Mohmmed P.P. (Folk Music & Dance - Lakshadweep)
2019 – Majid Gulabsaheb Sitarmaker (Instrument Making - Maharashtra)
2019 – Dulal Kanji (Instrument Making - West Bengal)
2020 – Balkar Sidhu (Folk Dance - Punjab)
2020 – Nandlal Garg (Folk Music - Himachal Pradesh)
2020 – B. Lalthlengliana (Folk Theatre - Mizoram)
2020 – Ranjana Kumri Jha (Folk Music - Bihar)
2020 – S. G. Lakshmidevamma (Folk Music - Karnataka)
2020 – Tarubala Debbarma (Folk Music and Dance - Tripura)
2020 – Sang Jangmu (Folk Dance - Arunachal Pradesh)
2020 – Gafoor Khan Manganiar (Folk Music - Rajasthan)
2020 – Zachunu Keyho (Folk Music - Nagaland)
2021 – Silbi Passah (Folk Music - Meghalaya)
2021 – Durga Prasad Murmu (Folk Music and Dance - Jharkhand)
2021 – Prashanna Gogoi (Folk Music & Dance - Assam)
2021 – Gartigere Raghanna (H. N Raghavenda) (Folk Music - Karnataka)
2021 – S Samundaram (Folk Music - Tamil Nadu)
2021 – Data Ram Purohit (Folk Music & Theatre - Uttarakhand)
2021 – Mahavir Singh Guddu (Folk Music & Dance - Haryana)
2021 – N Tiken Singh (Folk Music - Manipur)
2021 – N. Sekar (Folk Music - Puducherry)
2021 – R. Murugan (Instrument Making - Tamil Nadu)
Puppetry/ Mime/ Allied arts of traditional forms
1978 – Kathinanada Das (Ravanchhaya puppetry), Orissa
1979 – U. Kogga Devanna Kamath (Gombeatta puppetry), Karnataka
1980 – K.L. Krishnan Kutty Pulavar (Tholpava Koothu), Kerala
1981 – M.R. Ranganatha Rao, Karnataka
1983 – Meher Rustom Contractor, Gujarat
1987 – Suresh Dutta, West Bengal
1992 – Dadi Dorab Pudumjee, Delhi
1995 – T. Hombiah, Karnataka
1998 – Kolhacharan Sahu (Ravanchhaya puppetry), Orissa
1999 – B.H. Puttashamachar, Karanataka
2001 – Hiren Bhattacharya, Assam
2003 – Puran Bhatt, Rajasthan
2005 – Ganpat Sakharam Masge, Maharashtra
2010 – K. Chinna Anjannamma (Shadow puppetry: Tolu Bommalata), Andhra Pradesh
2010 – K.V. Ramakrishnan and K.C. Ramakrishnan (Glove puppetry: Pava Kathakali), Kerala
2012 – Prafulla Karmakar (Traditional Puppetry - West Bengal)
2013 – Lilavati M Kavi (Bajaj), Puppetry
2014 – K. Kesavasamy (Puppetry - Puducherry)
2016 – Prabhitangsu Das (Contemporary Puppetry - Tripura)
2018 – Anupama Hoskere (Classical String Puppetry of Karnataka, Bengaluru)
2020 – Meena Nayak (Puppetry - Maharashtra)
Films
Overall Contribution/Scholarship
References
External links
Awards established in 1952
Civil awards and decorations of India
Indian film awards
Indian music awards
Indian art awards
Dance awards
Sangeet Natak Akademi
1952 establishments in India
hi:संगीत नाटक अकादमी पुरस्कार |
4511113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnard%20Castle%20School | Barnard Castle School | Barnard Castle School (colloquially Barney School or locally the County School) is a co-educational private day and boarding school in the market town of Barnard Castle, County Durham, in the North East of England. It is a member of The Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference (HMC). It was founded in 1883 with funding from a 13th-century endowment of John I de Balliol and the bequest of the local industrialist Benjamin Flounders. The ambition was to create a school of the quality of the ancient public schools at a more reasonable cost, whilst accepting pupils regardless of their faith.
Originally the North Eastern County School, the name was changed in 1924, but is still generally known locally as the "County School". The school is set in its own grounds in Teesdale, within the North Pennines, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. An on-site prep school caters for pupils aged 4 to 11, while the senior school caters for pupils aged 11 to 18. The school was previously funded by direct grant. Founded as an all-boys school, it has been fully co-educational since 1993. There are around 660 pupils and some 200 members of staff.
Since the 1980s, the school has been one of Britain's most successful at producing top class rugby union players. During this period it schooled England international players Rob Andrew and Tony and Rory Underwood. The school has also produced Mathew Tait, Lee Dickson and Tim Visser, and appeared in three finals of the inter-school Daily Mail Cup. Former pupils in other fields include Edward Mellanby (the discoverer of Vitamin D); industrialist Percy Mills, The Lord Mills; fashion designer Giles Deacon and poet Craig Raine.
History
The school can trace its origins to an endowment made by John I de Balliol, then Lord of Barnard Castle, in 1229. The school itself was established in 1883 when it occupied temporary premises in Middleton One Row, County Durham, whilst construction of the school was undertaken in Barnard Castle. Initially there were 25 boarders and 10-day pupils, but by the end of 1884, there were 76 boarders. Originally known as the North Eastern County School, the main school building was completed on 2 February 1886 and initially housed 116 boarders and 12-day pupils. The Bishop of Durham presided over the foundation ceremony. The building was designed by Clark & Moscrop of Darlington in the Jacobean style, and is a Grade II listed building built with local Yorkstone and Lakeland slate. The school was built for the trustees of Benjamin Flounders and the trustees of St. John's Hospital, Barnard Castle, who managed the Baliol endowment, and was overseen by a University of Durham committee. Flounders was a Quaker industrialist who had helped to fund the Stockton and Darlington Railway. The Flounders trustees financed the entirety of the construction of the school with a donation of £31,000. A further £20,000 was raised by subscription to cover initial running costs, £10,000 of which came from St John's Hospital. The gift from St John's was conditional on the school being situated in Barnard Castle, and this determined its location.
The school's governance was inspired by the county school movement of Joseph Lloyd Brereton, who was largely inspired in turn by the example of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School. The object of the school was to provide a liberal education, with fees a fraction of those charged by public schools. Tolerance of non-conformist denominations such as Methodism and Roman Catholicism informed the school's ethos, and the school has always remained independent of the Church of England. Brereton's son became the first headmaster of the school. In contrast to the largely classical education offered by many of the public schools of the time, the school always maintained a focus on scientific and technological education. A strong sporting programme was believed to build character. Extensions over the next few years included a sanatorium in 1890 (now the music school) and a swimming-bath block in 1896. In 1900 a £4,000 (£400,000 in 2010) science block was opened by Lord Barnard with Brooke Foss Westcott, Bishop of Durham in attendance. The building is now inhabited by Tees and Dale houses.
The school name was changed to Barnard Castle School in 1924, and it was by this time one of the largest public schools in the North of England. When Harold Birkbeck was appointed headmaster in 1935 there were 193 pupils. In 1942 the school was elected to the Headmaster's Conference, making it an "official" public school. Following the introduction of the Education Act 1944, from 1945 the school became a direct grant grammar school and the number of pupils enrolled at the school increased substantially. In April 1961 a £65,000 (£1.1 million in 2010) appeal was launched for funding to build new science blocks and a library building. By this time there were 470 boys at the school, more than half of whom progressed to universities or higher education. Birkbeck introduced squash to the school, and made it one of the best-known schools for the sport in the country in the 1960s and 1970s. The novelist Will Cohu described the school in 1974 as "a rugged Victorian establishment in a brooding Jacobean-style building overlooking the Tees ... The school was popular with parents who were in the armed forces. It was cheap, did not have any reputation for abuse, and was strong on games". The direct-grant revenue stream was abolished in 1975, making the school reliant upon independent funding. An appeal was launched that year to ensure the school's survival, with £109,000 (£750,000 in 2011) raised within nine months. The school's first computer was installed in January 1978.
Frank Macnamara became headmaster in 1980, described as "an affable enthusiast" in The Guardian. Under his tenure the school would develop its reputation for fostering world-class rugby talent. For the duration of its existence (1980–1997) the school took part in the Assisted Places Scheme. Girls were first admitted to the Sixth Form in 1981, and the school has been fully co-educational since 1993. By 1992 there were around 610 pupils with an approximately 50:50 split between boarding and day pupils. From 1993, as the result of a HMC initiative, Eastern European children were awarded scholarships to study at the school; by 1995, 8 per cent of the school's intake came from overseas. Michael Featherstone, a former England hockey international, was appointed headmaster in 1997, and the school enjoyed considerable academic success during his tenure.
School site
One of the North East's most famous schools, Barnard Castle is set in its own 50-acre grounds on the edge of town. It is located in Teesdale, and is within the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Giles Deacon has said of the location that "you could just walk out and you were in the middle of the Pennines". The Bowes Museum is situated next to the school. The school caters for pupils aged 4 to 18, with pupils younger than 11 being taught in a separate on-site preparatory school (Prep School). The original building is now used mainly for accommodation and administration and is described as "stately" by The Independent. The school spire is known colloquially as "The Pepperpot". It also contains the dining hall and "Main School", public school slang for the school hall. All teaching is undertaken in purpose-built classrooms. The school site contains tennis/netball courts, squash courts, a large sports hall and an AstroTurf pitch. A total of £3 million has been invested in the school's infrastructure since 2008, including a £1.5 million Physics and ICT block, a new hall for the Prep School and a new sports pavilion containing a gym and a dance studio. The school has been used as a filming location for the television sketch show The Fast Show.
Chapel
The school's chapel was completed in 1911. It was designed by W. D. Caroe, and Nikolaus Pevsner described it as "impressive" both internally and externally. Somewhat unusually, it is oriented in a north–south direction. A large proportion of the funding to build the chapel was provided by Lord Barnard, the local nobleman and a leading freemason (with the remainder made up from public subscription), and accordingly the foundation ceremony was performed in full masonic regalia. The Grade II* listed building contains a painting by Ary Scheffer and a Father Willis organ. It has stained glass windows commemorating John Balliol and Benjamin Flounders, the two founders of the school. A roll of honour in the chapel commemorates the 141 former pupils and 4 Masters who died in the First World War, the 55 former pupils who died in the Second World War and one who died in the Falklands War. There is a roll of honour in the main school building for the former pupils who died in the Second Boer War.
Barnard Castle Preparatory School
The Prep School has access to all of the facilities of the senior school. It is situated in a separate area of the school grounds with its own organisation, staff and buildings. The school is sited around a main building called Westwick Lodge, "a sprawling Victorian villa with the modern dormitories and classroom block hidden at the rear. It [has] a long, sloping front lawn, thickly planted with shrubberies ... Round the back [is] a playground and a muddy hill with a few trees". Members of the Prep School are referred to throughout the school as "Preppies".
The school was founded in 1914 and was originally a girls' school, and independent from the County School. In 1989 there were just 65 pupils, all of them boys. By 2009 there were over 200 pupils, equally split between girls and boys. School on Saturdays was abolished at the Prep School in 1999.
School life
Intake
40 per cent of senior school intake comes from the state sector, and over 50 per cent come from the on-site Prep School. 25 per cent of Sixth Form pupil intake is from state schools. Day pupils commute from a wide catchment area that is predominantly rural in nature. These settlements are as far afield as Hurworth and Stanhope as well as larger settlements such as Kirkby Stephen, Durham, Bishop Auckland, Richmond and Darlington. Pupils are from a range of professional, managerial and farming backgrounds. There are 200 boarding pupils, significant numbers of whom have parents who are members of HM Forces, and many families are linked to nearby Catterick Garrison, Europe's largest military base. 15 per cent of boarders have parents living overseas, particularly Hong Kong. An Open Day is held several times a year when the school welcomes prospective students and their families to tour the school.
Academic and routine
Every weekday (except for Wednesday) begins with a chapel service. School is held on Saturday mornings, with many sporting fixtures taking place on Saturday afternoons. There is an exeat weekend every term when pupils get respite from Saturday school. The Sunday chapel service is compulsory for boarding pupils. Homework, which is always referred to as "prep", (short for preparatory work) is set for every day with the exception of Sunday. During weekdays there is a mid-morning coffee break for all pupils when refreshments are provided, a tradition from when many day pupils would arrive at that time from outlying settlements. The school uniform is traditional, including a navy blue blazer and a tie. Merits are given as rewards for outstanding work. Punishments include weekday afternoon detention and Saturday afternoon detention. Corporal punishment had to be phased out by 1987 in line with state schools, as it received public funding. The headmaster is aided in his running of the school by the monitor (prefect) system. As well as the standard subjects, Latin, Classics, Ancient History, Greek, German and Spanish are taught. The school has a strong reputation for sciences. In 2011 the Independent Schools Inspectorate described the school's ethos as "traditionally unpretentious".
Pastoral
Pastoral care is provided through the house system. Each pupil is assigned to a house. Each house has its own accommodation in the school and its own set of tutors to look after members of the house. There are eight vertically integrated houses in total, each with its own colour and heraldic-like shield: The two boys' boarding houses are York (red) and Northumberland (pale blue). The three-day boys' houses are Tees (dark green) and Dale (burgundy), both formed by splitting Teesdale House, the first day boys' house, and finally Durham (gold), which was converted from boarding to day when the school expanded in the 1990s. The boarding girls belong to the original Sixth Form girls' house, Longfield (dark pink), and the new houses formed for day girls when the school became co-educational are Marwood (purple) and more recently Bowes (pale green). The school considered abolishing its boarding facilities when, like many boarding schools, it suffered a significant drop in numbers during the 1990s. However, numbers unexpectedly improved around the turn of the millennium, and this turnaround has often been attributed to the positive image that boarding received from the Harry Potter series. The school is interdenominational, whilst maintaining its foundation in Christian principles and values.
Governance
The school is a charitable trust governed by a number of foundation and four nominated governors, the latter with links to Durham and Newcastle Universities, Durham County Council / Barnard Castle Town Council and the Old Barnardians' Club. The school aims to offer the best independent education to children from the North East of England. According to information provided to the Charities Commission, the income of the school was £8.7 million in the 2017-18-year, with the vast majority of the revenue coming from school fees. It has been a member of The Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference since 1944.
Extracurricular activities
The houses form the basis for much competition within the school. The first competition in the school year is the House Singing Competition in which every member of the school takes part. Thereafter, throughout the school year, the houses compete against each other in a variety of academic, artistic, and sporting events. An extensive range of almost 100 after-school activities are offered throughout the year, such as The Duke of Edinburgh's Award scheme up to Gold level.
Sport
Rugby for boys and hockey for girls are the major sports during the Autumn term. In the Spring Term the boys play football, hockey and squash whilst the girls play netball and lacrosse. Both boys and girls take part in cross country running and swimming. During the Summer term, cricket is the most important sport for boys. Teams have toured Majorca and the Caribbean in recent years. Members of the 1st XI often gain representative honours for their counties and the North of England. The school was described by The Daily Telegraph as "one of the premier cricketing schools of the north". Girls focus on rounders in the summer whilst both girls and boys partake in tennis and athletics. Sports Day is a major fixture in the school calendar.
Barnard Run
The Barnard Run is a school competition, consisting of a cross-country trial over a hilly course. It is the most important sporting event in the school year. The course has varied considerably over the years. It dates back to 1892 when Lord Barnard donated and presented the trophy. The race takes place annually at the end of the first half of the Spring Term. The girls' and younger boys' race is 2¾ miles while the senior boys' is 4 miles.
Historically the Barnard Run was a seven-mile course which began at Towler Hill Farm, ran to Cotherstone suspension bridge, with an undetermined route back to the school. In 1898 a 4-mile junior Barnard Run was created for 11- to 14-year-olds. In 1904 it was decided that it would be easier for training purposes if the run began at the school, and a new course was developed.
CCF
The Junior Officers' Training Corps was established at the school in 1909 following an invitation from Lord Haldane, then Secretary of State for War. By 1911 it had 103 cadets and 3 staff. In 1948 all OTCs were superseded by the Combined Cadet Force (CCF). As of 2012 it had almost 200 cadets and 10 staff, making it one of the largest contingents in the country. Facilities associated with the CCF include an armoury and an indoor shooting range. In 2012 the contingent won the Colts Canter competition, which saw it named the best force in the North of England.
Rugby union
The school has produced 38 U19 international rugby players, leading The Times to comment that it has "a happy knack of producing some of England's finest rugby talents." The Observer commented on the rugby success in 2008, "Someone should analyse what they put in the food". The most prominent are Rob Andrew, brothers Rory Underwood and Tony Underwood, and Mathew Tait who have all played for England at international level. Former headmaster David Ewart explained the school's rugby ethos: "We believe the game breeds important life skills in those who play it. It's a civilising game and you need to be a gentlemen on the pitch, as well as off." During the period 1970 to 1995 no other British school produced as many England international players. In 2012 Tim Visser described his former school's rugby programme as "brilliant".
The school is a prominent feeder institution for the Newcastle Falcons, with signings over the last decade including Lee Dickson, Tim Visser, Alex Tait, Ed Williamson and Rory Clegg. Recent signings to other premiership clubs include Calum Clark, Alex Gray and Ross Batty. Many Barnardians represent junior international sides, as well as the North of England, several northern county sides (such as Durham, Cumbria, Yorkshire and Cheshire) and the Independent Schools' Barbarians. The 1st VII have appeared in the final of the North of England Sevens and National Schools Sevens.
The School's 1st XV team reached the final of the national Daily Mail Cup for U18s three times in five seasons between 2002/03 and 2006/07. Nicknamed the Barney Army, the team lost to Oakham School, Colston's School and Warwick School respectively in the 2002, 2003 and 2007 finals. In 2007/2008, the 1st XV were beaten in the semi-finals 19-16 by St Benedict's School. The school reached the finals of the National Schools Sevens in 2002 and 2005.
International rugby honours
England caps
Howard Marshall (1891–1893)
James Hutchinson (1906)
Tom Danby (1949)
Rory Underwood (1984–1996)
Rob Andrew (1985–1997)
Tony Underwood (1992–1998)
Mathew Tait (2005–2010)
Lee Dickson (2012–2014)
Scotland caps
Tim Visser (2012–2017)
Tradition
Cheers: If a school sports team is victorious the entire team will, on return to school, stand on Central Hall Table (Central Hall being the school's focal point) and the captain will lead three cheers for the school. For the 1st XV cheers also take place after home victories. The team gathers in what is known as Back Porch immediately after the match and three cheers are sounded.
Foundation Day: Celebrated every 6 November. Initially the Barnard Run was held on this day. Before 1892 the tradition was to celebrate the day with a paper chase, but this was replaced after Lord Barnard donated the Barnard Cup.
Nailing Up: This occurs at every end of term school chapel service. Originally taking place in Central Hall, the captain of the house team which had won that term's major sporting event would climb up to his house shield displayed on the first floor balcony and nail the award to the shield. Nowadays the captain of the winning house team comes to the front of chapel and ceremonially taps the shield. "Jerusalem" is always sung at the last service of term.
Speech Day: Occurring on the final day of the Summer Term (usually a Saturday) the entire school community including parents, relatives and friends of the school, meet for Speech Day. The Chairman of the Governors, the Headmaster, an invited Speaker and the Head of School make speeches, and academic prizes are awarded to pupils. Past speakers have included Hensley Henson, Kenneth Calman, Kevin Whately and Angus Thirlwell.
Old Barnardians
Rob Andrew, former England and British & Irish Lions rugby union player and current Rugby Operations Director at the Rugby Football Union.
Ross Batty, former professional rugby union player with Bath.
Bentley Beetham, ornithologist, photographer and member of the 1924 British Mount Everest expedition.
David J. Bodycombe, puzzle author.
George Nicholson Bradford, Victoria Cross recipient.
Joshua Harold Burn, pharmacologist.
Andrew Cantrill, organist.
Scott Carpenter, international water polo player.
Ian Carr, musician and broadcaster.
Mike Carr, jazz musician.
Calum Clark, rugby union player with Northampton Saints.
Rory Clegg, rugby union player with Newcastle Falcons
Andrew Critchlow, business news editor at the Telegraph Media Group.
Tom Danby, international rugby union and rugby league player.
Giles Deacon, fashion designer.
Karl Dickson, rugby union player with Harlequins.
Lee Dickson, international rugby union player for England.
Robert Dinwiddie, professional golfer.
Barrie Dobson, historian
Lionel Fanthorpe, priest, entertainer, television presenter, author and lecturer.
Nigel Farndale, journalist and novelist.
Peter Gilliver, lexicographer and OED historian, and TV presenter.
Patrick Grant, fashion designer.
Alex Gray, rugby union player with England Sevens, and former England U20s captain.
Nicholas Hatch, former first class cricketer with Durham.
Glenn Hugill, television producer and presenter.
Ben Jones, former rugby union player with Worcester Warriors.
George Macaulay, test match cricketer.
Howard Marshall, international rugby union player.
Edward Mellanby, discoverer of Vitamin D.
Kenneth Mellanby, ecologist.
Percy Mills, 1st Viscount Mills, Cabinet member and industrialist, Director of EMI and Chairman of its electronics subsidiary.
Jack Ormston, speedway pioneer.
Jon Paul Phillips, actor.
Craig Raine, poet.
Walter Raine, Conservative MP
Neil Riddell, former captain of Durham County Cricket Club.
Geoffrey Smith, horticulturalist and broadcaster.
Mark Sowerby, Bishop of Horsham.
Alex Tait, rugby union player with Newcastle Falcons.
Mathew Tait, international rugby union player for England.
RJ Thompson, singer-songwriter
Andrew Thornton, jump jockey.
Richard Tomlinson, former MI6 officer.
Rory Underwood, former rugby union international.
Tony Underwood, former rugby union international.
Tim Visser, international rugby union player for Scotland.
Kevin Whately, Inspector Morse and Lewis actor.
Guy Wilks, rally driver.
Ed Williamson, former rugby union player with Newcastle Falcons.
Headmasters
The Rev Francis Lloyd Brereton 1883–1887, 1893–1924
Edward Henry Prest 1887–1893
Arthur George Coombe 1924–1935
Harold Edward Birkbeck 1935–1965
Sidney D Woods 1965–1980
Frank MacNamara 1980–1997
Michael David Featherstone 1997–2004
David Ewart 2004–2010
Alan Stevens 2010–2017
Tony Jackson 2018-Current
Current staff include the former first-class cricketer John Lister and former List A cricketer Benjamin Usher. Notable former staff have included the educationalist George Graham Able, Bentley Beetham and cricketer Martin Speight. Past governors include Joseph Langley Burchnall, who served on the board for twenty years, rising to the level of chairman.
See also
Benjamin Flounders – founder of the school
John Balliol – founder of the school
List of direct grant grammar schools
Notes
References
"Barnard Castle School, a Centenary Book", published by the Old Barnardians' Club in 1983.
"The History of Barnard Castle School 1883–1933" compiled by R C Hitchcock M.A. (Publ.1933)
External links
School Website
Profile on the ISC website
Good Schools Guide entry
Guide to Independent Schools entry
1947 footage of the school
Private schools in County Durham
Boarding schools in County Durham
Educational institutions established in 1883
Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference
Charities based in County Durham
1883 establishments in England
Barnard Castle |
4511277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraswati%20veena | Saraswati veena | The Sarasvatī vīṇa (also spelled Saraswati veena) (, , , Malayalam: സരസ്വതി വീണ) is an ancient Indian plucked veena. It is named after the Hindu goddess Saraswati, who is usually depicted holding or playing the instrument. Also known as raghunatha veena, it is used mostly in Carnatic Indian classical music. There are several variations of the veena, which in its South Indian form is a member of the lute family. One who plays the veena is referred to as a vaiṇika.
The Saraswati veena is one of major types of veena today. The others include chitra veena, vichitra veena and rudra veena. Out of these the rudra and vichitra veenas are used more often in Hindustani music, while the Saraswati veena and the chitra veena are used more frequently in the Carnatic music of South India. They can be used to play either traditional music or contemporary music.
History
The veena has a recorded history that dates back to the approximately 1700 BCE. In ancient times, the tone vibrating from the hunter's bow string when he shot an arrow was known as the Vil Yazh. The Jya ghosha (musical sound of the bow string) is referred to in the ancient Atharvaveda. Eventually, the archer's bow paved the way for the musical bow. Twisted bark, strands of grass and grass root, vegetable fibre and animal gut were used to create the first strings. Over the veena's evolution and modifications, more particular names were used to help distinguish the instruments that followed. The word veena in India was a term originally used to generally denote "stringed instrument", and included many variations that would be either plucked, bowed or struck for sound.
The veena instruments developed much like a tree, branching out into instruments as diverse as the harp-like Akasa (a veena that was tied up in the tops of trees for the strings to vibrate from the currents of wind) and the Audumbari veena (played as an accompaniment by the wives of Vedic priests as they chanted during ceremonial Yajnas). Veenas ranged from one string to one hundred and were composed of many different materials like eagle bone, bamboo, wood, and coconut shells. The yazh was an ancient harp-like instrument that was also considered a veena. But with the developments of the fretted veena instruments, the yazh quickly faded away, as the fretted veena allowed for the easy performance of ragas and the myriad subtle nuances and pitch oscillations in the gamakas prevalent in the Indian musical system. As is seen in many Hindu temple sculptures and paintings, the early veenas were played vertically. It was not until the great Indian Carnatic music composer and Saraswati veena player Muthuswami Dikshitar that it began to be popularized as played horizontally.
According to musicologist P. Sambamurthy, "The current form of the Saraswati veena with 24 fixed frets evolved in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, during the reign of Raghunatha Nayak and it is for this reason sometimes called the Tanjore veena or the Raghunatha veena. The Saraswati veena contains 4 strings. It is said Govinda Dikshita father of Venkatamukhin, who was a musician and a minister in the court of Raghunatha Nayaka designed it. Prior to his time, the number of frets on the veena was less and also movable." The Saraswati veena developed from Kinnari veena. Made in several regions in South India, those made by makers from Thanjavur in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu are to date considered the most sophisticated. However, the purest natural sound is extracted by plucking with natural fingernails on a rosewood instrument construction, which is exemplified by the grandeur of the Mysore Veena. Pithapuram in East Godavari District and Bobbili in Vijayanagara District of Andhra Pradesh is also famous for Veena makers. Sangeeta Ratnakara calls it Ekatantri Veena, and gives the method for its construction.
While the Saraswati veena is considered in the lute genealogy, other North Indian veenas such as the Rudra veena and Vichitra veena are technically zithers. Descendants of Tansen reserved Rudra Veena for family and out of reverence began calling it the Saraswati Veena.
Construction
About four feet in length, its design consists of a large resonator (kudam) carved and hollowed out of a log (usually of jackfruit wood), a tapering hollow neck (dandi) topped with 24 brass or bell-metal frets set in scalloped black wax on wooden tracks, and a tuning box culminating in a downward curve and an ornamental dragon's head (yali). If the veena is built from a single piece of wood it is called (Ekanda) veena. A small table-like wooden bridge (kudurai)—about 2 x 2½ x 2 inches—is topped by a convex brass plate glued in place with resin. Two rosettes, formerly of ivory, now of plastic or horn, are on the top board (palakai) of the resonator. Four main playing strings tuned to the tonic and the fifth in two octaves (for example, B flat-E flat below bass clef - B flat- E flat in bass clef) stretch from fine tuning connectors attached to the end of the resonator across the bridge and above the fretboard to four large-headed pegs in the tuning box. Three subsidiary drone strings tuned to the tonic, fifth, and upper tonic (E flat - B flat- E flat in the tuning given above) cross a curving side bridge leaning against the main bridge, and stretch on the player's side of the neck to three pegs matching those of the main playing strings. All seven strings today are of steel, with the lower strings either solid thick.
Playing technique
The veena is played by sitting cross-legged with the instrument held tilted slightly away from the player. The small gourd on the left rests on the player's left thigh, the left arm passing beneath the neck with the hand curving up and around so that the fingers rest upon the frets. The palm of the right hand rests on the edge of the top plank so that the fingers (usually index and middle) can pluck the strings. The drone strings are played with the little finger. The veena's large resonator is placed on the floor, beyond the right thigh.
Like the sitar, the left hand technique involves playing on the frets, controlled pushing on the strings to achieve higher tones and glissandi through increased tension, and finger flicks, all reflecting the characteristics of various ragas and their ornamentation (gamaka). Modern innovations include one or two circular sound holes (like that of the lute), substitution of machine heads for wooden pegs for easier tuning, and the widespread use of transducers for amplification in performance.
Religious associations within Hinduism
The patron Hindu Goddess of learning and the arts, Saraswati, is often depicted seated upon a swan playing a veena. Lord Shiva is also depicted playing or holding a vina in His form called "Vinadhara," which means "bearer of the vina." Also, the great Hindu sage Narada was known as a veena maestro. and refers to 19 different kinds of Veena in Sangita Makarandha.
Ravana, the antagonist of the Ramayana, who is also a great scholar, a capable ruler and a devoted follower of Shiva, was also a versatile veena player. Scholars hold that as Saraswati is the goddess of learning, the most evolved string instrument in a given age was placed in her hands by contemporary artistes.
References in ancient texts and literature
The Ramayana, the Bhagavata, the Puranas and Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra all contain references to the Veena, as well as the Sutra and the Aranyaka. The Vedic sage Yajnavalkya speaks of the greatness of the Veena in the following verse: "One who is skilled in Veena play, one who is an expert in the varieties of srutis (quarter tones) and one who is proficient in tala (rhythm) attain salvation without effort."
Many references to the veena are made in old Sanskrit and Tamil literature, such as Lalita Sahasranama, Adi Shankara's Soundarya Lahari, poet Kalidasa's epic Sanskrit poem Kumarasambhava and Shyamala Dandakam, and Tamil Thevarams and the Thiruvasagam to name a few. Examples include "veena venu mridanga vAdhya rasikAm" in Meenakshi Pancharathnam, "mAsil veeNaiyum mAlai madhiyamum" Thevaram by Appar. Veena or the Hindu goddesses playing the veena i.e. Saraswathi and Shakti have also been referred to as kachchapi (in the Lalitha Sahasranama for example) or vipanchi (in the Soundarya Lahari) in Sanskrit texts. Musical compositions like Tyagaraja's Mokshamugaladha contain philosophies about the spiritual aspects of the veena.
Each physical portion of the veena is said to be the seat in which subtle aspects of various gods and goddesses reside in Hinduism. The instrument's neck is Shiva; the strings constitute his consort, Parvati. The bridge is Lakshmi, while the secondary gourd is Brahma, and the dragon head is Vishnu. Upon the “table” (or the resonating body) is Saraswati. "Thus, the veena is the abode of divinity and the source of all happiness."- R. Rangaramanuja Ayyangar
Eminent veena player E. Gayathri has mentioned in many interviews that the Aitareya Upanishad contains a verse stating that human beings are the “veena” created by God (daiva veena), and the Saraswati veena (instrument) is the man-made form (maanushi veena). According to her, the veena is resemblant of the human skeleton, where the resonating kudam represents the skull, the dandi and the lion (Yali) face the human backbone, and the twenty-four frets on the fretboard clearly represent the 24 vertebrae of the human spine.
Variants
Scholars consider that, today, four instruments are signified by the name ‘veena’ (which, in the past, has been used as a generic, catch-all term for any stringed Indian instruments); these are the Tanjavur (Saraswati) Veena, Rudra veena, Vichitra veena, and Gottuvadhyam veena (also called the Chitra veena).
Modern-day evolving of the veena includes the Sruti veena (more an instrument for theoretical demonstration than for actual playing), which was constructed by Lalmani Misra in the early 1960s, and on which all 22 srutis can be produced simultaneously.
Contemporary situation
Veena represents the system of Indian music. Several instruments evolved in response to cultural changes in the country. Communities of artists, scholars and craftsmen moved around and at times settled down. Thus Veena craftsmen of Kolkata were famous for their instruments. Similarly, Rudra Veena was given a new form which came to be known after the craftsmen of Tanjavur as Tanjavur Veena. Modern life-style is no longer limited to definite routine within a small locality, thus along with performers and teachers of Veena, the community of craftsmen is also on decline. Attempts to start institutions of instrument-making have been made, but there is a strong need for conservatories which focus on all aspects of Veena. As a state party to UNESCO Convention 2003, India has identified Veena as an element of Intangible Cultural Heritage and proposed its inscription in the Representative list of UNESCO.
Electronic and Digital veena: Over the years, the acoustic Tanjavur veena (also known as Saraswati veena) has been used in solo and duet concerts in large auditoria. Performers have also been travelling across the globe for concerts. Many practitioners of the art live outside India. The challenges faced by them in using the acoustic veena:
1. Low sound output (volume) compared to other louder instruments like flute or violin, causing the sound of the veena to be almost inaudible in concerts comprising other instruments along with the veena. This necessitated use of a contact mike (pioneered by Emani Sankara Sastri) or magnetic pickup (pioneered by S.Balachander). Usage of these requires carrying an additional amplispeaker to enable audibility to the performer.
2. Fragility of the acoustic instrument, causing frequent breakage and damage during travel.
3. Requirement of re-fretting every year or so, necessitating either carrying the instrument back to India or facilitating the travel and stay overseas, of the skilled artisan from India for this specific purpose.
All these factors led to the creation of the rudimentary electric veena, followed by the electronic veena(1986) and digital veena (2002) by the engineer-flautist G Raj Narayan of Bengaluru.(1971)
The main characteristics of the electronic veena:
Enhanced volume, with the amplifier and speaker built into one of the gourds;
Built-in electronic tambura for sruti in the other removable gourd;
Matched pick-up and amplispeaker to enable authentic sweet veena sound;
Adjustable independent volume control for main and taala strings;
Adjustable frets on a wooden fret board, eliminating the more delicate wax fret board, frets can be adjusted easily by the user;
Guitar-type keys for easy and accurate tuning;
Complete portability, as the sound box of the veena is dispensed with, and replaced by a plank of wood. Easy assembly / disassembly;
Usage on battery in case of AC Mains power failure.
The electronic veena has gained popularity among users of the instrument. Videos of electronic veena concerts are available online.
However, this did not solve other issues such as need for repeated retuning while playing, change of strings for playing on higher pitch, mismatch of same note on different strings, etc. This led to the invention of the Digital veena (for which the inventor G Raj Narayan was awarded a patent by the Indian Patent office),demonstrated at the Madras Music Academy in 2002. This is the first synthesiser for Indian music, and its salient features are:
Can be used at any pitch without changing strings;
All four strings and tala strings tuned automatically and perfectly on selection of ANY pitch;
Selection of PA / MA for mandara panchamam and taala panchamam strings – PA will change to MA on open string but first fret will still be Suddha Dhaivatam;
String will not change sruti while playing (frequency / sruti will not reduce or increase);
Gamakam response adjustment – can be set for high response to smaller transverse deflection of finger or small response to more deflection. e.g., Selection can be made so that with a moderate pull of string, five-note gamakam can be achieved on the same fret;
Enhanced volume, with the amplifier and speaker built-in to one of the gourds, adjustable volume;
Increased sustenance of notes; thus long passages can be played with fewer plucks, adjustable ‘sustain’ to suit a user’s style;
8 ‘voice’ choices ( types of sound) – e.g. Tanjore veena, mandolin, saxophone, flute, etc.;
Fixed frets on a wooden fret board, eliminating the more delicate wax fret board. No setting of melam. Digitally preset fret positions for perfect frequency of each note;
Built-in electronic tambura for sruti and line-out facility, battery back-up in case of AC Mains power failure;
Complete portability, as the sound box of the veena is dispensed with, and replaced by a detachable gourd with an ampli-speaker with easy assembly / disassembly.
The digital veena has also been used in junior/amateur concerts, and are available to view online.
Tone and acoustics
Nobel Prize-winning physicist C.V. Raman has described the veena as having a unique construction. The string terminations at both ends are curved and not sharp. Also, the frets have much more curvature than any other instrument. Unlike in guitar, the string does not have to be pushed down to the very base of the neck, so no rattling sound is generated. This design enables a continuous control over the string tension, which is important for glissandi.
The beeswax beneath the frets may act as a noise filter.
Notable vainikas
Pioneers and legends
Muthuswami Dikshitar
Veenai Dhanammal (1867 - 1938) (known for her individual style)
Veena Sheshanna (1852 - 1926) (Mysore style)
Veena Venkatagiriappa (1887 - 1951)
Veena Doraiswamy Iyengar (1920 - 1997) (Mysore style)
Emani Sankara Sastry (1922 - 1987) (Andhra style)
Chitti Babu (1936 - 1996) (Andhra style)
Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer (1888 - 1958) (Karaikudi style)
K. S. Narayanaswamy (1914 - 1999) (Travancore style)
Trivandrum R Venkataraman (1938 - 2010) (Travancore style)
S. Balachander (1927 - 1990) (known for his individual style)
Other exponents
Ranganayaki Rajagopalan (1932 - 2018) (Karaikudi style)
R Pitchumani Iyer (1919 - 2015)
Madurai T. N. Seshagopalan
B.Sivakumar
Kalpakam Swaminathan (1922 - 2011)
Mangalam Muthuswamy (1937 - 2007)
Contemporary artists
Padmavathy Ananthagopalan (born 1934) - Chennai based, disciple of Lalgudi Gopala Iyer, creator of a portable veena, advocate of gurukula tradition and founder of Sri Satguru Sangita Vidyalaya music school.
Rugmini Gopalakrishnan (born 1936) - Thiruvananthapuram based, disciple of K. S. Narayanaswamy.
Karaikudi S. Subramanian (born 1944) - grandson and adoptive son of Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer, 9th generation Veena player in the illustrious Karaikudi Veena Tradition.
E. Gayathri (born 1959) - Chennai based, disciple of Kamala Aswathama and T. M. Thyagarajan, recognized with "Kalaimamani" and "Sangeet Natak Akademi" awards, Vice Chancellor of Tamil Nadu Music and Fine Arts University.
D Balakrishna (born 1961) - Bangalore based, the torch bearer of the Mysore style of Veena playing, son and prime disciple of Mysore V. Doraiswamy Iyengar.
B. Kannan (born 1964) - Chennai based, disciple of Vasantha Krishnamurthy and Pichumani Iyer, Founder-President of Youth Association for Classical Music (YACM) and composer of many thillanas.
Nirmala Rajasekar (born 1966) - disciple of Kalpakam Swaminathan, recognized with McKnight Performing Artists Fellowship and founder of Naada Rasa music school.
Prince Rama Varma (born 1968) - disciple of Trivandrum R Venkataraman and K. S. Narayanaswamy, organiser of Swathi Sangeethotsavam and member of the Travancore royal family.
D. Srinivas (born 1968) - Hyderabad based, disciple of Srinivasan and P. Srinivasa Gopalan, recognized with "Ugadi Visishta Puraskaram" Award, "Ashtana Vidwan" of Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham.
Rajhesh Vaidhya (born 1973) - Chennai based, recognized with Kalaimani award, founder of Ravna International School of Veena, has worked with various music directors of Tamil movies.
Prashanth Iyengar (born 1973) - Bangalore based, disciple of Padmasini Narasimhachar & R. K. Suryanarayana, composer of 90 varnas (including 72-varnas tuned in each of the 72-melakarta ragas), holder of the limca record for a 24-hour marathon veena concert.
Jayanthi Kumaresh - Bangalore based, disciple of Padmavathy Ananthagopalan and S. Balachander, recognized with Kalamamani Award (awarded to tamilians), founder of Indian National Orchestra.
Dr. Suma Sudhindra - Creator of the Tarantino Veena. Founder of Tarantino Academy/ Disciple of Chitti Babu.
Veena Srivani Famous veena performer. Known for her viral veena covers.
Tirupati Srivani Yalla - Tirupati based, recognized with "Veena Visharade", Lecturer in Veena S. V. Music College, TTD, Tirupati.
Phani Narayana - Versatile veena artiste known for his dynamic music. Reputed teacher.
Bhagyalakshmi Chandrasekharan - Exponent of the Gayaki style of music. Senior Vainika.
Punya Srinivas - disciple of Kamala Aswathama and Suguna Varadachari, member of Panchachanyam band, specialising in fusion music, over 5000 film recordings to her credit.
Jaysri-Jeyaraaj - Chennai-based artists, disciples of A. Anantharama Iyer and A. Champakavalli, recognized with "Nadha Kala Vipanchee" Award, founders of Veenavaadhini school.
Revathy Krishna - Chennai based, disciple of Sundaram Iyer, and later with Sharada Shivanandam and K.P.Sivanandam; recognized with Kalaimanani and Kumar Gandharwa Awards, also now for film recordings.
Iyer brothers - Melbourne based, disciples of R. Pichumani and R. Venkataraman, recognized with the Multicultural Award for Excellence by the State of Victoria.
Suvir Misra - Delhi-based civil services officer proficient in Rudra veena, Saraswati veena and the Surbahar; inventor of the Misr Veena, known for playing Khayal in the Saraswati Veena.
Dr. Arundhathi Rao (1946-2021) - Karnataka based doctor. disciple of Prabhakar Veena Venkatagiriyappa.
Veena festivals
Maargashira/ Margazhi Veena Festival - since 2004 organized by Sri Guruguha Vaageyya Pratishtana Trust & Sri Guruguha Sangeeta Mahavidyala.
Mudhra Veenotsav - since 2005 at Chennai
Veena Navarathri - since 2007 at Chennai organized by the Veena foundation and the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts
International Veena conference and festival - since 2009 by Sri Annamacharya Project of North America (SAPNA)
Rashtriya Veena Mahotsava organized by Guruguha Vaggeya Pratishtana Trist & Sri Guruguha Sangeeta Mahavidyalaya
Ahorathri Veena Mahotsava organized by Guruguha Vaggeya Pratishtana Trist & Sri Guruguha Sangeeta Mahavidyalaya
See also
Carnatic music
References
External links
Google - Saraswati Veena
Saraswati Veena
Saraswati Veena in North Indian Khayal Style See Video of Beenkar Suvir Misra playing Saraswati Veena in Hindustani Khayal Style.
Carnatic music instruments
Necked bowl lutes
Indian musical instruments
Carnatic music
Tamil music
Plucked string instruments |
4511448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold%20War%20%281962%E2%80%931979%29 | Cold War (1962–1979) | The Cold War (1962–1979) refers to the phase within the Cold War that spanned the period between the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis in late October 1962, through the détente period beginning in 1969, to the end of détente in the late 1970s.
The United States maintained its Cold War engagement with the Soviet Union during the period, despite internal preoccupations with the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the Civil Rights Movement and the opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War.
In 1968, Eastern Bloc member Czechoslovakia attempted the reforms of the Prague Spring and was subsequently invaded by the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact members, who reinstated the Soviet model. By 1973, the US had withdrawn from the Vietnam War. While communists gained power in some South East Asian countries, they were divided by the Sino-Soviet Split, with China moving closer to the Western camp, following US President Richard Nixon's visit to China. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Third World was increasingly divided between governments backed by the Soviets (such as Libya, Iraq, Syria, Egypt and South Yemen), governments backed by NATO (such as Saudi Arabia), and a growing camp of non-aligned nations.
Third World and non-alignment in the 1960s and 1970s
Decolonization
Cold War politics were affected by decolonization in Africa, Asia, and to a limited extent, Latin America as well. The economic needs of emerging Third World states made them vulnerable to foreign influence and pressure. The era was characterized by a proliferation of anti-colonial national liberation movements, backed predominantly by the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The Soviet leadership took a keen interest in the affairs of the fledgling ex-colonies because it hoped the cultivation of socialist clients there would deny their economic and strategic resources to the West. Eager to build its own global constituency, the People's Republic of China attempted to assume a leadership role among the decolonizing territories as well, appealing to its image as a non-white, non-European agrarian nation which too had suffered from the depredations of Western imperialism. Both nations promoted global decolonization as an opportunity to redress the balance of the world against Western Europe and the United States, and claimed that the political and economic problems of colonized peoples made them naturally inclined towards socialism.
Western fears of a conventional war with the communist bloc over the colonies soon shifted into fears of communist subversion and infiltration by proxy. The great disparities of wealth in many of the colonies between the colonized indigenous population and the colonizers provided fertile ground for the adoption of socialist ideology among many anti-colonial parties. This provided ammunition for Western propaganda which denounced many anti-colonial movements as being communist proxies.
As pressure for decolonization mounted, the departing colonial regimes attempted to transfer power to moderate and stable local governments committed to continued economic and political ties with the West. Political transitions were not always peaceful; for example, violence broke out in Anglophone Southern Cameroons due to an unpopular union with Francophone Cameroon following independence from those respective nations. The Congo Crisis broke out with the dissolution of the Belgian Congo, after the new Congolese army mutinied against its Belgian officers, resulting in an exodus of the European population and plunging the territory into a civil war which raged throughout the mid-1960s. Portugal attempted to actively resist decolonization and was forced to contend with nationalist insurgencies in all of its African colonies until 1975. The presence of significant numbers of white settlers in Rhodesia complicated attempts at decolonization there, and the former actually issued a unilateral declaration of independence in 1965 to preempt an immediate transition to majority rule. The breakaway white government retained power in Rhodesia until 1979, despite a United Nations embargo and a devastating civil war with two rival guerrilla factions backed by the Soviets and Chinese, respectively.
Third World alliances
Some developing countries devised a strategy that turned the Cold War into what they called "creative confrontation" – playing off the Cold War participants to their own advantage while maintaining non-aligned status. The diplomatic policy of non-alignment regarded the Cold War as a tragic and frustrating facet of international affairs, obstructing the overriding task of consolidating fledgling states and their attempts to end economic backwardness, poverty, and disease. Non-alignment held that peaceful coexistence with the first-world and second-world nations was both preferable and possible. India's Jawaharlal Nehru saw neutralism as a means of forging a "third force" among non-aligned nations, much as France's Charles de Gaulle attempted to do in Europe in the 1960s. The Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser manoeuvres between the blocs in pursuit of his goals was one example of this.
The first such effort, the Asian Relations Conference, held in New Delhi in 1947, pledged support for all national movements against colonial rule and explored the basic problems of Asian peoples. Perhaps the most famous Third World conclave was the Bandung Conference of African and Asian nations in 1955 to discuss mutual interests and strategy, which ultimately led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. The conference was attended by twenty-nine countries representing more than half the population of the world. As at New Delhi, anti-imperialism, economic development, and cultural cooperation were the principal topics. There was a strong push in the Third World to secure a voice in the councils of nations, especially the United Nations, and to receive recognition of their new sovereign status. Representatives of these new states were also extremely sensitive to slights and discriminations, particularly if they were based on race. In all the nations of the Third World, living standards were wretchedly low. Some, such as India, Nigeria, and Indonesia, were becoming regional powers, most were too small and poor to aspire to this status.
Initially having a roster of 51 members, the UN General Assembly had increased to 126 by 1970. The dominance of Western members dropped to 40% of the membership, with Afro-Asian states holding the balance of power. The ranks of the General Assembly swelled rapidly as former colonies won independence, thus forming a substantial voting bloc with members from Latin America. Anti-imperialist sentiment, reinforced by the communists, often translated into anti-Western positions, but the primary agenda among non-aligned countries was to secure passage of social and economic assistance measures. Superpower refusal to fund such programs has often undermined the effectiveness of the non-aligned coalition, however. The Bandung Conference symbolized continuing efforts to establish regional organizations designed to forge unity of policy and economic cooperation among Third World nations. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was created in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in 1963 because African leaders believed that disunity played into the hands of the superpowers. The OAU was designed
to promote the unity and solidarity of the African states; to coordinate and intensify the cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for the peoples of Africa; to defend their sovereignty; to eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa and to promote international cooperation...
The OAU required a policy of non-alignment from each of its 30 member states and spawned several subregional economic groups similar in concept to the European Common Market. The OAU has also pursued a policy of political cooperation with other Third World regional coalitions, especially with Arab countries.
Much of the frustration expressed by non-aligned nations stemmed from the vastly unequal relationship between rich and poor states. The resentment, strongest where key resources and local economies have been exploited by multinational Western corporations, has had a major impact on world events. The formation of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1960 reflected these concerns. OPEC devised a strategy of counter-penetration, whereby it hoped to make industrial economies that relied heavily on oil imports vulnerable to Third World pressures. Initially, the strategy had resounding success. Dwindling foreign aid from the United States and its allies, coupled with the West's pro-Israel policies, angered the Arab nations in OPEC. In 1973, the group quadrupled the price of crude oil. The sudden rise in the energy costs intensified inflation and recession in the West and underscored the interdependence of world societies. The next year the non-aligned bloc in the United Nations passed a resolution demanding the creation of a new international economic order in which resources, trade, and markets would be distributed fairly.
Non-aligned states forged still other forms of economic cooperation as leverage against the superpowers. OPEC, the OAU, and the Arab League had overlapping members, and in the 1970s the Arabs began extending huge financial assistance to African nations in an effort to reduce African economic dependence on the United States and the Soviet Union. However, the Arab League has been torn by dissension between authoritarian pro-Soviet states, such as Nasser's Egypt and Assad's Syria, and the aristocratic-monarchial (and generally pro-Western) regimes, such as Saudi Arabia and Oman. And while the OAU has witnessed some gains in African cooperation, its members were generally primarily interested in pursuing their own national interests rather than those of continental dimensions. At a 1977 Afro-Arab summit conference in Cairo, oil producers pledged $1.5 billion in aid to Africa. Recent divisions within OPEC have made concerted action more difficult. Nevertheless, the 1973 world oil shock provided dramatic evidence of the potential power of resource suppliers in dealing with the more developed world.
Cuban Revolution and Cuban Missile Crisis
The years between the Cuban Revolution in 1959 and the arms control treaties of the 1970s marked growing efforts for both the Soviet Union and the United States to keep control over their spheres of influence. U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson landed 22,000 troops in the Dominican Republic in 1965, claiming to prevent the emergence of another Cuban Revolution. While the period from 1962 until Détente had no incidents as dangerous as the Cuban Missile Crisis, there was an increasing loss of legitimacy and good will worldwide for both the major Cold War participants.
30 September Movement
The 30 September Movement was a self-proclaimed organization of Indonesian National Armed Forces members who, in the early hours of 1 October 1965, assassinated six Indonesian Army generals in an abortive coup d'état. Among those killed was Minister/Commander of the Army Lieutenant General Ahmad Yani. Future president Suharto, who was not targeted by the kidnappers, took command of the army, persuaded the soldiers occupying Jakarta's central square to surrender and oversaw the end of the coup. A smaller rebellion in central Java also collapsed. The army publicly blamed the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) for the coup attempt, and in October, mass killings of suspected communists began. In March 1966, Suharto, now in receipt of a document from Sukarno giving him authority to restore order, banned the PKI. A year later he replaced Sukarno as president, establishing the strongly anti-communist 'New Order regime.
1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia
A period of political liberalization took place in 1968 in Eastern Bloc country Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring. The event was spurred by several events, including economic reforms that addressed an early 1960s economic downturn. In April, Czechoslovakian leader Alexander Dubček launched an "Action Program" of liberalizations, which included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on consumer goods, the possibility of a multiparty government and limiting the power of the secret police. Initial reaction within the Eastern Bloc was mixed, with Hungary's János Kádár expressing support, while Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and others grew concerned about Dubček's reforms, which they feared might weaken the Eastern Bloc's position during the Cold War. On August 3, representatives from the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration, which declaration affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism-Leninism and proletarian internationalism and declared an implacable struggle against "bourgeois" ideology and all "anti-socialist" forces.
On the night of August 20–21, 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from four Warsaw Pact countries – the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Poland and Hungary – invaded Czechoslovakia. The invasion comported with the Brezhnev Doctrine, a policy of compelling Eastern Bloc states to subordinate national interests to those of the Bloc as a whole and the exercise of a Soviet right to intervene if an Eastern Bloc country appeared to shift towards capitalism. The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000. In April 1969, Dubček was replaced as first secretary by Gustáv Husák, and a period of "normalization" began. Husák reversed Dubček's reforms, purged the party of liberal members, dismissed opponents from public office, reinstated the power of the police authorities, sought to re-centralize the economy and re-instated the disallowance of political commentary in mainstream media and by persons not considered to have "full political trust". The international image of the Soviet Union suffered considerably, especially among Western student movements inspired by the "New Left" and non-Aligned Movement states. Mao Zedong's People's Republic of China, for example, condemned both the Soviets and the Americans as imperialists.
Vietnam War
U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson landed 42,000 troops in the Dominican Republic in 1965 to prevent the emergence of "another Fidel Castro". More notable in 1965, however, was U.S. intervention in Southeast Asia. In 1965 Johnson stationed 22,000 troops in South Vietnam to prop up the faltering anticommunist regime. The South Vietnamese government had long been allied with the United States. The North Vietnamese under Ho Chi Minh were backed by the Soviet Union and China. North Vietnam, in turn, supported the National Liberation Front, which drew its ranks from the South Vietnamese working class and peasantry. Seeking to contain Communist expansion, Johnson increased the number of troops to 575,000 in 1968.
North Vietnam received Soviet approval for its war effort in 1959; the Soviet Union sent 15,000 military advisors and annual arms shipments worth $450 million to North Vietnam during the war, while China sent 320,000 troops and annual arms shipments worth $180 million.
While the early years of the war had significant U.S. casualties, the administration assured the public that the war was winnable and would in the near future result in a U.S. victory. The U.S. public's faith in "the light at the end of the tunnel" was shattered on January 30, 1968, when the NLF mounted the Tet Offensive in South Vietnam. Although neither of these offensives accomplished any military objectives, the surprising capacity of an enemy to even launch such an offensive convinced many in the U.S. that victory was impossible.
A vocal and growing peace movement centered on college campuses became a prominent feature as the counter culture of the 1960s adopted a vocal anti-war position. Especially unpopular was the draft that threatened to send young men to fight in the jungles of Southeast Asia.
Elected in 1968, U.S. President Richard M. Nixon began a policy of slow disengagement from the war. The goal was to gradually build up the South Vietnamese Army so that it could fight the war on its own. This policy became the cornerstone of the so-called "Nixon Doctrine". As applied to Vietnam, the doctrine was called "Vietnamization". The goal of Vietnamization was to enable the South Vietnamese army to increasingly hold its own against the NLF and the North Vietnamese Army.
On October 10, 1969, Nixon ordered a squadron of 18 B-52s loaded with nuclear weapons to race to the border of Soviet airspace in order to convince the Soviet Union that he was capable of anything to end the Vietnam War.
The morality of U.S. conduct of the war continued to be an issue under the Nixon presidency. In 1969, it came to light that Lt. William Calley, a platoon leader in Vietnam, had led a massacre of Vietnamese civilians a year earlier. In 1970, Nixon ordered secret military incursions into Cambodia in order to destroy NLF sanctuaries bordering on South Vietnam.
The U.S. pulled its troops out of Vietnam in 1973, and the conflict finally ended in 1975 when the North Vietnamese took Saigon, now Ho Chi Minh City. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (see Vietnam War casualties). 195,000–430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war. 50,000–65,000 North Vietnamese civilians died in the war. The Army of the Republic of Vietnam lost between 171,331 and 220,357 men during the war. The official US Department of Defense figure was 950,765 communist forces killed in Vietnam from 1965 to 1974. Defense Department officials concluded that these body-count figures need to be deflated by 30 percent. In addition, Guenter Lewy assumes that one-third of the reported "enemy" killed may have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of deaths of communist military forces was probably closer to 444,000. Between 200,000 and 300,000 Cambodians, about 35,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict.
Nixon Doctrine
By the last years of the Nixon administration, it had become clear that it was the Third World that remained the most volatile and dangerous source of world instability. Central to the Nixon-Kissinger policy toward the Third World was the effort to maintain a stable status quo without involving the United States too deeply in local disputes. In 1969 and 1970, in response to the height of the Vietnam War, the President laid out the elements of what became known as the Nixon Doctrine, by which the United States would "participate in the defense and development of allies and friends" but would leave the "basic responsibility" for the future of those "friends" to the nations themselves. The Nixon Doctrine signified a growing contempt by the U.S. government for the United Nations, where underdeveloped nations were gaining influence through their sheer numbers, and increasing support to authoritarian regimes attempting to withstand popular challenges from within.
In the 1970s, for example, the CIA poured substantial funds into Chile to help support the established government against a Marxist challenge. When the Marxist candidate for president, Salvador Allende, came to power through free elections, the United States began funneling more money to opposition forces to help "destabilize" the new government. In 1973, a U.S.-backed military junta seized power from Allende. The new, repressive regime of General Augusto Pinochet received warm approval and increased military and economic assistance from the United States as an anti-Communist ally. Democracy was finally re-established in Chile in 1989.
Sino–Soviet split
The People's Republic of China's Great Leap Forward and other policies based on agriculture instead of heavy industry challenged the Soviet-style socialism and the signs of the USSR's influence over the socialist countries. As "de-Stalinization" went forward in the Soviet Union, China's revolutionary founder, Mao Zedong, condemned the Soviets for "revisionism". The Chinese also were growing increasingly annoyed at being constantly in the number two role in the communist world. In the 1960s, an open split began to develop between the two powers; the tension lead to a series of border skirmishes along the Chinese-Soviet border.
The Sino-Soviet split had important ramifications in Southeast Asia. Despite having received substantial aid from China during their long wars, the Vietnamese communists aligned themselves with the Soviet Union against China. The Khmer Rouge had taken control of Cambodia in 1975 and became one of the most brutal regimes in world history. The newly unified Vietnam and the Khmer regime had poor relations from the outset as the Khmer Rouge began massacring ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia, and then launched raiding parties into Vietnam. The Khmer Rouge allied itself with China, but this was not enough to prevent the Vietnamese from invading them and destroying the regime in 1979. While unable to save their Cambodian allies, the Chinese did respond to the Vietnamese by invading the north of Vietnam on a punitive expedition later in that year. After a few months of heavy fighting and casualties on both sides, the Chinese announced the operation was complete and withdrew, ending the fighting.
The United States played only a minor role in these events, unwilling to get involved in the region after its debacle in Vietnam. The extremely visible disintegration of the communist bloc played an important role in the easing of Sino-American tensions and in the progress towards East-West Détente.
Détente and changing alliance
In the course of the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposed blocs.
The Soviet Union achieved rough nuclear parity with the United States. From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and 1960s, with per capita GDPs approaching those of the United States, while Eastern Bloc economies stagnated. China, Japan, and Western Europe; the increasing nationalism of the Third World, and the growing disunity within the communist alliance all augured a new multipolar international structure. Moreover, the 1973 world oil shock created a dramatic shift in the economic fortunes of the superpowers. The rapid increase in the price of oil devastated the U.S. economy leading to "stagflation" and slow growth.
Détente had both strategic and economic benefits for both sides of the Cold War, buoyed by their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons. President Richard Nixon and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev signed the SALT I treaty to limit the development of strategic weapons. Arms control enabled both superpowers to slow the spiraling increases in their bloated defense budgets. At the same time, divided Europe began to pursue closer relations. The Ostpolitik of German chancellor Willy Brandt lead to the recognition of East Germany.
Cooperation on the Helsinki Accords led to several agreements on politics, economics and human rights. A series of arms control agreements such as SALT I and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty were created to limit the development of strategic weapons and slow the arms race. There was also a rapprochement between China and the United States. The People's Republic of China joined the United Nations, and trade and cultural ties were initiated, most notably Nixon's groundbreaking trip to China in 1972.
Meanwhile, the Soviet Union concluded friendship and cooperation treaties with several states in the noncommunist world, especially among Third World and Non-Aligned Movement states.
During Détente, competition continued, especially in the Middle East and southern and eastern Africa. The two nations continued to compete with each other for influence in the resource-rich Third World. There was also increasing criticism of U.S. support for the Suharto regime in Indonesia, Augusto Pinochet's regime in Chile, and Mobuto Sese Seko's regime in Zaire.
The war in Vietnam and the Watergate crisis shattered confidence in the presidency. International frustrations, including the fall of South Vietnam in 1975, the hostage crisis in Iran from 1979-1981, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the growth of international terrorism, and the acceleration of the arms race raised fears over the country's foreign policy. The energy crisis, unemployment, and inflation, derided as "stagflation", raised fundamental questions over the future of American prosperity.
At the same time, the oil-rich USSR benefited immensely, and the influx of oil wealth helped disguise the many systemic flaws in the Soviet economy. However, the entire Eastern Bloc continued to experience massive stagnation, consumer goods shortfalls in shortage economies, developmental stagnation and large housing quantity and quality shortfalls.
Culture and media
The preoccupation of Cold War themes in popular culture continued during the 1960s and 1970s. One of the better-known films of the period was the 1964 black comedy Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb directed by Stanley Kubrick and starring Peter Sellers. In the film, a mad United States general overrides the President's authority and orders a nuclear air strike on the Soviet Union. The film became a hit and today remains a classic.
In the United Kingdom, meanwhile, The War Game, a BBC television film written, directed, and produced by Peter Watkins was a Cold War piece of a darker nature. The film, depicting the impact of Soviet nuclear attack on England, caused dismay within both the BBC and in government. It was originally scheduled to air on August 6, 1966 (the anniversary of the Hiroshima attack) but was not transmitted until 1985.
In the 2011 superhero film, X-Men: First Class, the Cold War is portrayed to be controlled by a group of mutants that call themselves the Hell Fire Club.
In the summer of 1976, a mysterious and seemingly very powerful signal began infiltrating radio receivers around the globe. It has a signature 'knocking' sound when heard, and because the origin of this powerful signal was somewhere in the Soviet Union, the signal was given the nickname Russian Woodpecker. Many amateur radio listeners believed it to be part of the Soviet Unions over-the-horizon radar, however the Soviets denied they had anything to do with such signal. Between 1976 and 1989, the signal would come and go on many occasions and was most prominent on the shortwave radio bands. It was not until the end of the Cold War that the Russians admitted these radar pings were indeed that of Duga, an advanced over-the-horizon radar system.
The 2004 video game Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater is set in 1964 and deals heavily with the themes of nuclear deterrence, covert operations, and the Cold War.
The 2010 video game Call of Duty: Black Ops is set during this period of the Cold War.
Significant documents
Partial or Limited Test Ban Treaty (PTBT/LTBT): 1963. Also put forth by Kennedy; banned nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater and in space. However, neither France nor China (both Nuclear Weapon States) signed.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): 1968. Established the U.S., USSR, UK, France, and China as five "Nuclear-Weapon States". Non-Nuclear Weapon states were prohibited from (among other things) possessing, manufacturing, or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All 187 signatories were committed to the goal of (eventual) nuclear disarmament.
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM): 1972. Entered into between the U.S. and USSR to limit the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against missile-delivered nuclear weapons; ended by the U.S. in 2002.
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties I & II (SALT I & II): 1972 / 1979. Limited the growth of U.S. and Soviet missile arsenals.
Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement: 1973. Committed the U.S. and USSR to consult with one another during conditions of nuclear confrontation.
See also
History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)
History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)
History of the United States (1964–1980)
Indonesian killings of 1965–1966
Timeline of Events in the Cold War
Cuban Missile Crisis
Vietnam War
Prague Spring
Détente
Operation Neptune (Espionage)
Re-education camp (Vietnam)
Vietnamese boat people
Notes
Citations
References
Ball, S. J. The Cold War: An International History, 1947–1991 (1998). British perspective
Beschloss, Michael, and Strobe Talbott. At the Highest Levels:The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War (1993)
Bialer, Seweryn and Michael Mandelbaum, eds. Gorbachev's Russia and American Foreign Policy (1988).
Brzezinski, Zbigniew. Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977–1981 (1983);
Edmonds, Robin. Soviet Foreign Policy: The Brezhnev Years (1983)
Gaddis, John Lewis. The Cold War: A New History (2005)
Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War (1987)
Gaddis, John Lewis. * LaFeber, Walter. America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1992 7th ed. (1993)
Gaddis, John Lewis. The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (1992)
Garthoff, Raymond. The Great Transition:American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War (1994)
Hogan, Michael ed. The End of the Cold War. Its Meaning and Implications (1992) articles from Diplomatic History online at JSTOR
Kyvig, David ed. Reagan and the World (1990)
Mower, A. Glenn Jr. Human Rights and American Foreign Policy: The Carter and Reagan Experiences ( 1987),
Matlock, Jack F. Autopsy on an Empire (1995) by US ambassador to Moscow
Powaski, Ronald E. The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917–1991 (1998)
Shultz, George P. Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (1993).
Sivachev, Nikolai and Nikolai Yakolev, Russia and the United States (1979), by Soviet historians
Smith, Gaddis. Morality, Reason and Power:American Diplomacy in the Carter Years (1986).
Cold War by period
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4511532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy%20Thompson%20%28A%20Nightmare%20on%20Elm%20Street%29 | Nancy Thompson (A Nightmare on Elm Street) | Nancy Thompson is a fictional character in the A Nightmare on Elm Street franchise. She first appears in A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) as a teenager hunted in her dreams by enigmatic serial killer Freddy Krueger. In this film, she was portrayed by Heather Langenkamp—who reprises the role in the sequel, A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors (1987). Langenkamp later portrayed a fictional version of herself who embodies the role of Nancy in Wes Craven's New Nightmare (1994). A reimagined version of the character, Nancy Holbrook, is portrayed by Rooney Mara in the 2010 remake.
Wes Craven conceptualized Nancy after a conversation with his daughter, Jessica. She questioned him over his clumsy-depiction of the heroine in Swamp Thing (1982)—particularly over the scene in which the heroine stereotypically trips and falls over nothing. He wanted Nancy to be a start to depicting a positive portrayal of women in his films. Being Freddy's archenemy, Nancy is the protagonist in the original film, and serves as a supporting character guide for other characters in the third film. The character also appears in spin-off works of the series such as the various novelizations and the canon comic book continuation Nightmares on Elm Street (Innovation Publishing) amongst supporting roles in other comics by different publishers.
Nancy has been called a significant figure in the horror genre and American pop culture, with depictions in various video games, toy lines, and fan art, and is considered "one of the most progressive female representations in the teen horror genre." She is one of the original examples of the "final girl" theory by Carol J. Clover in her 1992 non-fiction book Men, Women, and Chainsaws. However, Clover's inclusion of the character in this trope has been agreed upon and challenged due to Nancy's characterization.
Concept and creation
Development
The origins of Nancy began with a conversation that Wes Craven had with his daughter Jessica, which led to him reevaluating his 1982 film Swamp Thing and the way he had portrayed women up until that point. There is a scene in which the heroine Alice Cable (Adrienne Barbeau) is running, and she trips and falls. Upon watching, his daughter remarked, "You know, just because I'm a girl doesn't mean I'm clumsy. You don't have to have them falling down." He attests that this was a common trope in filmmaking and that he wanted Nancy to be a start of young heroines eliminating this concept.
Nancy was a highly sought-after role, with many of the actresses having to sit on the floor due to there not being enough chairs. In the winter of 1983, newcomer actress Heather Langenkamp became aware of auditions. Her reading impressed casting director Annette Benson and Craven enough that she received a call back to read with another actress auditioning, Amanda Wyss. During this audition, she improvised a clawing motion with her fingers and a screeching sound. Her natural approach to the character ultimately caught Craven's attention, and she got hired for the part. He wrote Nancy as a "legitimate all-American, girl-next-door" and felt that Langenkamp embodied these qualities.
Craven approached Langenkamp in 1986 to ask if he could include her Nancy character in the A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors script that he was writing. In Craven's script, Nancy was closer to her personality in the first film. While the characteristics of the character change significantly in the final product, her death at the end remains the same. Some significant scenes involving Nancy in Dream Warriors were either cut from the film or never filmed; Langenkamp and co-star Craig Wasson both refer to a scene they filmed in which they kissed, with Wasson stating that "No, we didn't have sex, but there was this one real hot kiss that just about melted the camera lens. Too bad they cut it." Another significant scene that does not feature Nancy but mentions her is the cut penultimate scene (before the final scene with the model house lighting up while Neil sleeps) in the shooting script between survivors Kristen Parker and Neil Gordon in which Neil hint that she's visiting him in his dreams post-mortem, similarly to Freddy but benevolent; this was carried over from the original script but was not ultimately included in the film.
With regard to A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors, Heather Langenkamp stated her viewpoints about Nancy Thompson's characterization:
"The connection with Nancy was there. I never felt that comfortable in the skin of that role because...I just felt like the dialogue that they gave Nancy was so stiff and there was no sense of humour at all. She had barely anything going in that department at all and then she’s supposed to be having this quasi-love affair with Craig Wasson’s character... None of it really seemed to have a dynamic energy behind it and as a result I felt I didn’t know what Nancy was anymore. I was struggling to make something of her because she didn’t have that big of a role in some way. She was like a facilitator, she was always showing things like 'let me show you how to do this', 'let’s do it together' but she was never really moving the plot forward herself that much and as a result I didn’t feel like I did a very good job in that role. Then when I saw the movie I thought 'oh it’s not as bad as I thought' because actually the relationship I had with the kids does come through and she is a kind of a reassuring presence in the movie rather than this fighting, battle warrior that she was in the first movie. So I just had to get used to this different role that Nancy played..."
Rooney Mara was confirmed to portray a reimagined Nancy in 2011; Mara signed on for a sequel if it were to ever be made. Director Samuel Bayer describes this version of the character as "the loneliest girl in the world". Mara stated her portrayal is different than the original, performed by Langenkamp, and refers to her as "socially awkward and timid and really doesn't know how to connect with people". She stated to Vogue that she disliked the experience of portraying the character so much, that she contemplated quitting acting.
Design
Nancy's appearance is recognizable for her gray streak in her hair and her emblematic pajamas. The character's hair was supposed to be entirely gray and white, and Wes Craven had a wig made but was ultimately unsatisfied; deciding for Nancy to have a streak of gray—which would remain in both Dream Warriors and New Nightmare. For the 1984 film, costume designer Dana Lyman conceptualized Nancy's white pajamas that the character wore during her encounters with Freddy. Lyman described the outfit as "her armor as she went into battle." The details of her white top include blue trim and a pattern of roses. Jolene Richardson of Fangoria interprets these details as combining masculine and feminine traits of Nancy.
Appearances
Films
The character made her cinematic debut in A Nightmare on Elm Street on November 9, 1984. In this film, Nancy (Heather Langenkamp) is a middle-class teenage girl with divorced parents and is dating a boy named Glenn Lantz, who lives across the street from her. Nancy and her friends begin having the same realistic nightmares of a severely burnt man with a bladed glove trying to kill them. After her friend, Tina Gray has nightmares and her mother leaves town, Nancy and Glenn decide to have a sleepover in order to comfort her. After Tina is killed that very night, Nancy takes active steps to trace down the cause of the phenomena and finds the enigmatic figure in her dreams to be the vengeful ghost Freddy Krueger (Robert Englund), a child killer that was burned alive by local parents when she was a child. The lone survivor, Nancy realizes she can pull things out of the nightmare and devises a plan to pull him into the real world, where he is vulnerable. After Glenn is killed by Freddy, Nancy booby traps her house and manages to pull Freddy from the dream world and into the real world, causing him to run into the traps. However, Nancy's mother is killed by Krueger in the final confrontation and Nancy realizes her fear gives him his power, so she turns her back on him, defeating him as he disappears Nancy walks outside to find her mother and friends still alive. As she gets into the car with her friends to go to school, the car begins to lock them in and speeds off, just as Krueger reaches through the small window of the door and pulls Nancy's mother through it, revealing that it's a dream and that Freddy is still active in the dream world.
Although Nancy does not appear in A Nightmare on Elm Street 2: Freddy's Revenge, she maintains a presence through her diary when a new family moves into the house where she battled Freddy. Teenager Jesse Walsh (Mark Patton), who inhabits Nancy's old room and his girlfriend Lisa (Kim Myers) discover Nancy's old diary, which chronicles the events of the first film.
In A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors (1987), Nancy is a young adult studying psychology and is hired as a student intern at Westin Hills Mental Institution due to her groundbreaking research on pattern nightmares (nightmare disorder). Nancy realizes the teenagers inhabiting the hospital are the surviving children of the parents who killed Freddy when one of the patients, Kristen Parker (Patricia Arquette), pulls her into one of her nightmares. Nancy explains to them their pasts and begins to train them on how to use their "dream powers," superpowers that are unique to them in their dreams. In a last attempt effort to save one of the patients from Freddy, Nancy does a group hypnosis with them, and together they navigate the nightmare world. The film ends with Nancy dying after being stabbed by Krueger, but manages to stab him with his own glove, while Neil takes care of Freddy's corpse and doses it in holy water to fully destroy him. She is laid to rest in the cemetery, with Kristen, Joey, Kincaid and Neil in attendance.
Wes Craven's New Nightmare (1994) takes a meta approach to the character. The film is set in the "real world," following a fictionalized version of Heather Langenkamp contemplating Wes Craven's offer of her reprising her role of Nancy in another A Nightmare on Elm Street film he is directing. Heather is hesitant as she has a stalker and is reluctant to do another horror film. After several nightmares of a disfigured man, Craven tells her she is the target of an ancient entity taking on a scarier form of Freddy. As Nancy is Freddy's original nemesis, this being must kill her to be set free. The film has Heather become one with Nancy when her son Dylan (Miko Hughes) is sedated, with her obtaining the white streak and wearing her pajamas inspired by the original film. Embodying Nancy, she enters the dream world and combats the entity, saving her son.
In the 2010 remake, Nancy's last name is "Holbrook," portrayed by Rooney Mara. When people in Nancy's high school begin dying in their sleep, she joins Quentin Smith (Kyle Gallner) in an investigation into their shared nightmares. Nancy's mother (Connie Britton) admits to them that all the kids in the preschool were molested by a man named Fred Krueger, the school gardener. She claims that Freddy fled the area before they could turn him in and that their dreams of Freddy are just repressed memories. After Nancy realizes she can pull things out of her dreams and hallucinations, they plan to pull him into the real world and kill him. After killing him, they burn down the preschool with Freddy's corpse inside, and they escape. The film ends ambiguously with Freddy killing her mother.
Literature
The character appears in the 1991 short story collection The Nightmares on Elm Street: Freddy Krueger's Seven Sweetest Dreams. In the story "Asleep at the Wheel," Freddy and Nancy are long dead, and they are considered urban legends or the result of mass hysteria due to Springwood's infamous history. The pretentious band Nancy Thompson Grave Watch, which includes songwriter and guitarist Ian, rents the dilapidated house at 1428 Elm Street for musical inspiration. Nancy's spirit appears in Ian's dreams to warn him that Freddy is real. Nancy and the events of Dream Warriors are mentioned in the story "Le Morte De Freddy".
Nancy returned in Nightmares on Elm Street, a canonical six-issue comic book series published by Innovation Comics from 1991 to 1992. In the story, Nancy teams up with several other characters from the film series, including Neil Gordon, Jacob Johnson, and Alice Johnson, to fight Freddy in his nightmare world. The events of this series were meant to fill in the period between A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child and Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare films, written by Andy Mangels. The first two issues of the story explain to the readers about Nancy's life in between the first and third films. After the events of the first film, Nancy is institutionalized. In college, she studied psychology and sleep disorders and made two friends in her roommates Cybil Houch and Priscilla Martin. After Nancy dies in Dream Warriors, Kristen had dreamed her soul into the Beautiful Dream, the good side of the dream world, where Nancy now acts as its agent as Freddy acts as an agent for the nightmare realm. The next four issues, titled Loose Ends, deals with the characters from previous Nightmare movies teaming up to defeat Freddy again. Nancy defeats Freddy and manages to stop his plan of using Jacob Johnson to break into the real world with help from Neil Gordon and Devonne, a psychotic former accomplice of Freddy's.
Nancy makes an appearance in the final issue of the crossover comic series Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash: The Nightmare Warriors. In a battle against Freddy Krueger, Dream Master Jacob Johnson summons the spirits of Freddy's past victims, including Amanda Krueger and the Dream Warriors. Nancy also appears, reuniting with Neil Gordon to help him read the Necronomicons' passages needed to banish Freddy. With Freddy defeated, Nancy leaves Neil and returns to the afterlife with the other spirits.
In popular culture
Nancy is a playable character in the A Nightmare on Elm Street (1989) video game. Released by Monarch Software and Westwood Associates, Nancy and the Dream Warriors face Freddy Krueger once again. As each character has a dream power, Nancy can freeze enemies.
Nancy has accumulated a large following in the gay community since her 1984 cinematic debut. Freddy Krueger actor Robert Englund recollects the popularity of the Nancy character within the community upon attending a costume party in 1985 and seeing numerous drag queens dressed as Nancy in full drag, wearing her pajamas with the embroidery, and the white streak. Englund interprets this large following as a result of Heather Langenkamp having a "Judy Garland in The Wizard of Oz element to her", as well as the community identifying with the "strong" and "survivor" aspects of her.
In the Bollywood adaption called Mahakaal (1994) by the Ramsay Brothers, Nancy's analogue is called Anita and is played by actress Archana Puran Singh. Much like the original Nancy, Anita is the daughter of a policeman who killed Shakaal (the placeholder for Freddy's character) for murdering his young daughter, Anita's sister, as deleted scenes from Wes Craven's film hinted. She and her friends are college students instead of attending high school like Nancy. Anita has been criticized for being overly passive and doing little more than running away and screaming.
Nancy is featured in two figures by toy company Mezco Toyz. Jada Toys included Nancy alongside Freddy in the release of the die-cast model car of the 1958 Cadillac from the original film. Nancy is mentioned in Quentin Smith's biography in the video game Dead by Daylight. Additionally, a variety of Freddy's in-game power-ups are named after Nancy. Artist Matthew Therrien included Nancy alongside Freddy in his "Final Girls & Cinema Survivors" digital series. In 2019, as a part of a series of horror movie poster variant covers, visual artist Yasmine Putri created a piece for the DCeased #2 that featured Poison Ivy as Nancy and Batman as Freddy in a homage to the original poster for A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984).
Characterization
Nancy's characterization, along with Langenkamp's performance, has received praise. American literary critic John Kenneth Muir highlighted her intelligence and insightfulness for her original appearance. Muir describes her dysfunctional home life as attributing to her preparedness and courage to face the dark truth (Freddy Krueger). He attests her turning her back on him in the end counters against her character trait of facing things.
In a 2011 thesis, writer Kyle Christensen wrote that Nancy is one of the more strong representations of feminism in cinema. He cites her interactions with several male characters, noting she is not submissive to any of them and is, therefore, self-reliant and in control of her sexuality, unlike many other popular heroines within the genre.
Professor Carol J. Clover, the creator of the "final girl" theory, describes Nancy as the "grittiest of the Final Girls" in her 1992 non-fiction book Men, Women, and Chainsaws. Clover's inclusion of Nancy in this theory, however, has been both agreed with and challenged. Writer Shannon Keating states she surpasses the stereotypes of this trope coined by Clover and refers to Nancy as Freddy's equal in audience popularity.
Similarly, writer Don Sumner dismisses Nancy's association to this trope, analyzing her as an antithesis to it despite following the chaste aspects of it. Sumner states the victimization of women in horror films does not apply to Nancy due to her proactive nature. Sumner states that because of this character trait, she broke the mold for horror heroines. Psychologist Kelly Bulkeley compares Nancy to Dorothy Gale in The Wizard of Oz in that they both find their inner strength within their dreams to conquer what's troubling them in the real world.
Author Barbara Creed highlights the dysfunctional relationship that Nancy has with her parents and how her intense yearning for parental love leads to her demise in A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors. Film critic James Berardinelli writes that A Nightmare on Elm Street is Nancy's story rather than Freddy's and attests similarities to Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley in Alien (1979) due to her resourcefulness.
Notes
References
Further reading
A Nightmare on Elm Street (franchise) characters
Characters created by Wes Craven
Fictional characters from Ohio
Fictional diarists
Fictional insomniacs
Fictional parapsychologists
Fictional waiting staff
Fictional victims of child sexual abuse
Film characters introduced in 1984
Final girls
Teenage characters in film |
4511561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20the%20oldest%20Scout%20groups | List of the oldest Scout groups | Many Scout Groups claim the title of oldest Scout Group in their respective countries. Due to the rapid growth of Scouting, it took some time for central organisations to be established, and the earliest groups were only registered some time after their first meeting. Some groups first met under the banner of other organisations, including the Boys' Brigade, Church Lads' Brigade, YMCA, churches or schools, and only later registered with central Scout organisations. Some maintained dual registrations. This makes it impossible to establish which groups started first. Today, national Scout associations often do not take a stance as to which was the first group in their country.
Birth of Scouting
Scouting started on 1 August 1907 with a camp run by Robert Baden-Powell on Brownsea Island. Thereafter the publishers C. Arthur Pearson Limited and Baden-Powell began promoting Scouting in Britain, and Scouting for Boys was published, initially in six fortnightly installments from January 1908 and then in complete book form. The book was followed by The Scout magazine from April 1908. Boys began forming Scout patrols and flooding the C. Arthur Pearson Limited's Scout office and Baden-Powell with requests for assistance.
The Scouting movement developed rapidly from here, in Britain, the British Empire, among English speaking people and the rest of the world.
United Kingdom
The first Scout Patrols and Troops were formed in the United Kingdom in 1907; however there are a number of claimants to be the first troop.As Scouting was a movement and not an organisation, there was initially no central organisation. The publishers C. Arthur Pearson Limited sold registration cards to subscribers of its magazine. Numerous local or regional Boy Scouts Associations were formed and several national Scouting organisations were formed in the United Kingdom including the Boys' Brigade Scouts, Chums Scout Patrols, YMCA Boy Scouts, British Boy Scouts, Church Scout Patrols, London Diocesan Boy Scout Corps, Boys' Life Brigade Scouts, National Peace Scouts, The Boy Scouts Association and Salvation Army Boy Scouts (re-organized in 1914 as the Life-Saving Scouts of the Salvation Army). The Boy Scouts Association was formed in 1910 and does not acknowledge any single troop as being the first. The Scout Association maintains a list of all the Scout Troops who claim to have started in 1908.
The Scout Troops with the strongest claims are listed below:
The 1st Glasgow Scout Group in Scotland holds the earliest known registration certificate, dated 26 January 1908, issued by The Boy Scouts Association. The Group was formed from the Glasgow Battalion of the Army Cadet Corps; its Adjutant was Captain Robert E Young. In June 1907, they formed the 'Cadets' Winter Recreation Training Club'. The club was a success from the beginning, as 'Boss' Young related: "At first we met at my house, signalled up and down the stairs, tied knots around the banisters and always finished with a good tuck-in." 'Boss' Young met B-P during Autumn 1907 who suggested that the Club could experiment with the ideas contained in 'Scouting for Boys'. On 16 January 1908, the Club was formally disbanded and the First Glasgow Troop of Boy Scouts was registered with Scout HQ in London.
The 1st Chesham Bois Group was founded in 1908.
The first Scout Troop to receive a visit from Baden-Powell was the Vaux's Own Scout Troop in Sunderland. This visit was made on 22 February 1908, so it is assumed by The Scout Association "that it had already been in existence for some days at any rate". This was also the first Scout Troop listed in the Imperial records. The 1st Crystal Palace Patrol (now known as the 2nd Croydon, 1st Crystal Palace) is documented as being in existence on 28 February 1908. The group is still in existence.
In 2007, 1st Henfield Scout Troop was named as the oldest surviving Scout Troop in the world for the centenary of Scouting. They were the hosts of the only place that the centenary flame stopped in England for the night before reaching its goal of Brownsea Island. However, it is not the oldest Scout Troop, as others were set up before Henfield. It is said that the boys that went to Brownsea Island on the first ever Scout trip were from Henfield.
The 1st Birkenhead (YMCA) has a claim to be the oldest Scout Troop as it was founded on 24 January 1908 when B P attended a meeting at the YMCA. Documents at the District Headquarters confirm this fact. Baden-Powell at the 1929 Coming of Age Jamboree in Birkenhead said "Here in Birkenhead that I first mooted the idea of Scouting".
1st Connahs Quay Scout Group were founded in April 1908. They are believed to be the oldest Scout Group in Wales.
The 1st Croydon Scout Group (Addiscombe) were founded in the latter months of 1907. The Group was officially registered by Imperial Scout Headquarters on 16 June 1908 and can claim to be one of the earliest Groups.
1st Church Kirk, Church near Accrington Lancashire. Formed 1907. Baden Powell formed a link with Accrington during his opening of the Ambulance Drill Hall in 1904.
1st Cheltenham (Highbury) started in early 1908, they were visited by Baden-Powell on 13 January 1908 and by March 1908 the Troop was meeting regularly.
The 1st New Cross (The Greys) Scout Group was formed 17 January 1908 but was not registered until 26 May 1908 by Baden Powell before he even registered his own group.
There is an entry in Baden-Powell's diary on 4 February 1908 which mentions a Scout Troop in Nottingham.
1st Alsager, Cheshire were formed before 24 February 1908.
A troop from Hampstead was involved in various events in the first half of 1908.
5th Islington, London was formed in April 1908 by a group of boys who had formed a "secret society" at St Mary Magdalene Sunday School, inspired by the first copy of The Scout magazine.
The 1st City Of Aberdeen Scouts existed in 1908. 1st Arbroath Scout Troop (2nd Angus) dates back to June 1908.
1st Stirlingshire Scouts unofficially first met in August 1908, and later officially on the 21st of December 1908.
The 1st Norwich "Capt. Bower's Own" Sea Scouts started in January 1908. The group is one of few which has continuously run for 100 years and, remarkably, had just 4 Group Scout Leaders during that time. To celebrate their centenary year, the group published a book entitled, "It Can Be Done: The Hundred Year History of the 1st Norwich Sea Scout Group." drawing from their extensive archives.
The 1st Colchester scout group in Essex (now known as 1st Colchester Air Scouts) were founded in May 1908, the group met in the Bunting Rooms in Culver Street West (Colchester) and Baden Powell made several visits to attend local Scouting rallies. The "Air Scout Troop" gained official recognition by the Royal Air Force in 1956 and has retained this recognition.
1st Sawbridgeworth Scouts organisation in Hertfordshire claims to be among the oldest in the country, founded in the earlier months of 1908, also backing their claim is a plain red “scarf” (most groups have two or three colours).
In Poole, Dorset, there are strong claims from three current Scout Groups that all have separate newspaper articles back to 1908 listing Patrols or Troops practicing Scouting. 1st Parkstone has got a registration number back to February 1908 for a Scout Troop. Hamworthy are listed as having a Boat patrol at the Local Church in November 1908 and Broadstone having an Ambulance Scout at the Gathering on Brownsea Island in December 1908.
Wycliffe Scout Group (Gloucestershire) claims to be the oldest continuously active school-based Scout group in the world (active September 2013). It is listed in the Scout Association database with a registration date of 1 February 1909, although the Group celebrated their centenary in 2008, implying that there had been Scouting activity at the school before the Group was registered.
British Empire
1908
Australia
Scouting appears to have started as early as 1907 in Victoria in an informal way when a boy in Caulfield received from a friend, who had been a member of the experimental camp at Brownsea Island, some pamphlets which had been issued by Baden-Powell. The first Scout Group in Australia may have been founded in Northcote in Melbourne in early 1908, but the Victoria Scout Heritage Centre states that "It is very difficult to name the first Troop to start in Victoria". However, by the end of 1908, there were 11 Scout Troops in Victoria.
In New South Wales, 1st Toongabbie Scout Group in the western suburbs of Sydney was founded in 1908 by a member of the Sydney University Scouts, Errol Galbraith Knox (later Brigadier Sir Errol Knox, MBE), and is still operating. Other Sydney groups founded in 1908 and still operating include 1st Hurstville, 1st Petersham, 1st Mosman, 1st Leichhardt and 1st Paddington (now 1st Woollahra-Paddington).
Canada
In the spring of 1908, Canada became the first overseas Dominion with a sanctioned Boy Scout program. The 1st Merrickville Scout Troop, founded in 1908, is the oldest Scout troop in North America. Reference "75 Years of Scouting in Canada". The 1st Port Morien Group claims to be the first Scout Group in North America. The Nova Scotia Council of Scouts Canada recognized the centennial of the Port Morien Group by providing a crest to all Nova Scotian Scouts Canada members.
Gibraltar
The first recognized overseas unit in a country controlled by the United Kingdom was chartered in Gibraltar with the establishment of the 1st Gibraltar Scout Troop on 27 March 1908. The group is still active and has a membership of around 140. It is expected to open a new troop and pack this coming year. The group celebrated its 100th anniversary with a parade along Main Street and received the Freedom of the City of Gibraltar on 2 October 2008. To commemorate the conferment of the title Marquis of Milford Haven one hundred years ago, the present marquis visited the Group during the celebrations.
Malaysia
In Malaysia, the Scout movement started two years after it was founded in London. However, it is believed that a trial group had been established in Penang at YMCA in 1908, the same year that Scouting was formed in England.
Malta
The Malta Boy Scouts Association applied to become a member of the British Movement on 9 November 1908 and was officially recognised, as was the procedure then, exactly a year later. The 1st Sliema Scout Group in Malta was founded in 1909.
South Africa
The first Scout Group in South Africa was formed on 3 March 1908 at Claremont Public School by George French. It is still running, as 1st Claremont Scout Group.
Several other groups were founded in South Africa in 1908. Of these, 1st Belgravia Scout Group is still operational under the name 1st Kengray.
India
The Scout Movement arrived in India in 1909. A troop was formed in Bangalore by a Captain Baker, a retired naval officer. The troop had boys from St. Joseph's, Baldwin's, St. Andrew's, and Bishop Cotton's. The troop was registered with Boy Scout Headquarters in London in November 1909 and, according to records, was the first Scout troop in Asia.
Sethna's 18th West Bombay Scout Group was established in 1914, after Rustomji Edulji Sethna (1898–1954) came across Baden-Powell's Scouting for Boys. Sethna was enamoured with the book, and formed India's first Scout group for native boys. (Prior to this, there were some Scout groups, but they were primarily for British expatriate youth.) The group today is India's oldest continually running Scout group. Since its first day on 14 August 1914, the troop remains continuously active.
The FIRST DACCA, St. Gregory's Scout Troop. The date on the Approval was 7 May 1914. The Scoutmaster was Mr. Joseph Harnett. The total strength of the Troop was forty boys, as of 27 April 1914. The Britist Official Approval, Dalil lists St. Gregory's as the First Troop in the Dacca or East Bengal area, the Bengal Presidency. The first scouts were David Pogose, Peter Gomes, Alfred Ferguson, Harold Armstead, Cyril Lucas and Osmund D'Silva. The school had Five Patrols and Mr. Francis listed the total number of Scouts as 40,to be going on their first camp in January 1915. Since its first day on 27 April 1914, the troop remains continuously active.
Isle of Man
The 1st Douglas Scout Group, on the Isle of Man (a Crown Dependency of the UK and not technically part of the UK) was also founded in 1909.
Mafeking Cadets
During the Siege of Mafeking (1899–1900), boys in the town formed the Mafeking Cadet Corps, made famous by Baden-Powell in the opening chapter of Scouting for Boys. However, the cadets were not themselves Scouts.
Outside the British Empire
1908–1910
United States
There are numerous troops which claim to be first Boy Scout troop in the United States. Although there appear to be several Boy Scout troops that were operating prior to the establishment of the Boy Scouts of America, none of these claims are deemed verifiable by the organization — as far back as 1940 an official, George W. Ehler, searched records and determined “After several years of experience with these inquiries and claims, I came to the conclusion that it was not possible from any accepted record to determine which was the first Troop.”
A claimant for first Boy Scout Troop in the United States is Burnside, Kentucky in 1908.
Bala One is another claimant for first Boy Scout Troop in the United States in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania. It was started by Frank H. Sykes prior to the founding of the Boy Scouts of America.
A claimant for first Boy Scout troop is Troop #1 of Barre, Vermont in 1909. It was formed in Barre, Vermont, by William Foster Milne, who moved to the United States from Aberdeen, Scotland.
In 1907, William Foster Milne, a stonecutter, immigrated to Barre, Vermont from Aberdeen, Scotland, where he had been active in the early Scouting movement. He is referred as the "First Scoutmaster in America" by Sir Francis Vane. Sir Francis Vane was London Commissioner of Scouts in Baden Powell's organisation and also became President of the British Boy Scouts. In 1909, "Billy" Milne learned of a small group of boys at the First Baptist Church in Barre, who were already members of the Boys Brigade, he offered them an alternative to their routine of marching and drills. By re-organizing into a new "Boy Scout Club" (Troop #1 in the United States) these Scouts learned first aid, new outdoor skills and being helpful to others. "Billy" Milne went back to his native Scotland and brought back the books and materials he needed along with a British Charter. By 1910, Barre's Troop #1 joined the Boy Scouts of America.
By March 1910, the Boy Scouts in Vermont had expanded to such a degree that the girls of nearby Thetford became interested. These girls along with William Chauncy Langdon, Dr. Luther Gulick and Charlotte Vedder Gulick formed the Camp Fire Girls which became the sister organization of the Boy Scouts of America on 17 March 1910. The Camp Fire Girls preceded the Girl Scouts of the USA by 2 years. (The Boy Scouts of America has always regarded the Camp Fire Girls - not the Girl Scouts - as its sister organization. Up until the 1970s there were suggestions to merge the BSA and the CFG.)
The original group of boys that made up Troop #1 were Charles Booth, George Booth, Gerald Brock, Carl Burgess, Earl Burgess, Stanton Burgess, Raymond Cave, Clarence Geake, James Grearson, Walter Grearson, Douglas Inglis, Harry Kent, George Murray, Milton Rollins, Craig Rollins, Cecil Watt and Wallace Watt. Dr. Wallace Watt moved to Clinton County, Michigan to attend college and remained there as a Scout leader for his entire life. He received the Silver Beaver Award in 1981 and in 1984 a 75 year Diamond Jubilee service pin from the Boy Scouts of America. Upon his death his widow donated his Barre, Vermont Troop 1 artifacts to the Paine-Gillam-Scott Museum in St. Johns, Michigan.
Governor Deane C. Davis was an early member of Barre, Vermont's Troop #1.
Another claimant for first Boy Scout Troop in the United States is in Pawhuska, Oklahoma in 1909.
Another claimant for first Boy Scout troop in America was organized in Pawhuska, Osage County, Oklahoma, in May 1909 by Reverend John F. Mitchell. Rev. Mitchell was a missionary priest from England sent to St. Thomas Episcopal Church by the Church of England. Rev. Mitchell, who had been associated in Scout work with Lord Baden-Powell in England, organized the troop of Boy Scouts under English charter and equipped them with English uniforms, manuals, and badges.
In 1909, Dr. Cran, the Local Episcopal Minister, and Mr. C.H. Hamilton organized Troop 19 in Brookhaven, Mississippi through the New Orleans, LA council. In 1910, the unit was officially recognized by the local scout office in Vicksburg. Troop 19 became Troop 119 after the Andrew Jackson Council was formed. It was sponsored by the First Presbyterian Church until 1938/39 when it was then sponsored by "The Men's Bible Class" First United Methodist church where it has remained. The Troop has been continuously chartered since 1910 and is as old as the incorporated Boy Scouts of America.[
On 10 September 1910, S. F. Lester of Troy, New York, became the very first person to hold the Scouting leadership position of Scoutmaster (approved by the BSA). He received his certification from the BSA headquarters in New York City. In 1910 he led a group of 30 Scouts at Camp Ilium, in Pownal, Vermont. Camp Ilium was the starting point of the Boy Scout Movement for Troy, and Pownal. Pownal is only away from Troy.
In 1910, Dan Beard founded Boy Scouts Troop 1 in Flushing, New York, which is believed to be one of the oldest continuously chartered Boy Scout Troop in the United States.
Troop 5 of Denver holds claim to be the oldest continually chartered Boy Scout troop in the United States, west of the Mississippi River, having been chartered continuously since 1910.
In November 1910, Troop #1 of Ridgefield Park, New Jersey received the first charter from the newly organized Boy Scouts of America, with Pastor E. C. Murphy as its first Scoutmaster, with 25 boys registered as charter members and the First Baptist Church as its sponsor. Scout William Orth of Troop #1 received Scout Certificate No. 1 from Washington D.C.
Troop 1 of Brentwood, Tennessee, also holds claim to be the oldest continually chartered Boy Scout Troop in the United States, having been continuously chartered since 1910. Troop One holds the distinction of only having three Scoutmasters in its over 104-year history.
Troop 1, Park Ridge, Illinois was formed in 1910 and chartered on 22 June 1912. Charles Morison Dickenson was the first Scoutmaster from 1912 to 1914. Troop 1 has been continuously chartered by First United Methodist Church in Park Ridge since its inception.
1909
Chile
Robert Baden-Powell visited Chile and gave a speech that inspired the founding of the first Scout Group, Brigada Central. Some time later on 21 May 1909 the first Scout Camp was held.
Norway
The first recognized troop in Norway is "1. Kristiania (NGSK)", established 15 November 1909. This was a troop in Oslo, connected to an athletic organisation. This troop became a part of "Norske Gutters Speiderkorps", which was established by a national sport organisation. But there were single Scouting patrols earlier than this in some Norwegian cities.
China
In Shanghai, a troop of "Boy Scouts" was formed, as a branch of the then existing (British) "Boys' Brigade" whose members were representative of the cosmopolitan but culturally Western population of the city. The 1st Dragon Troop, run on actual Baden-Powell lines, was also formed in early 1909, in Shanghai. These were mostly British boys. The first native Scout troop was organized by Reverend Yen Chia-lin in Wuchang on 25 February 1912 and the Scouting movement spread rapidly all over the country.
1910
By 1910 Argentina, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Finland, Germany, Greece, Italy, Mexico, The Netherlands, Norway, Russia, Suriname, Sweden and the United States had Boy Scouts too.
Finland
Toimen Pojat (Unga Fribyggare in Swedish), a Scouting troop in Kauniainen, Finland was established in 1910. Toimen Pojat is the oldest continuously operating Scout troop in Finland. During the Russian ban on Scouting in the 1910s before the Finnish independence in (1917), the troop operated underground. Many traditions that distinguish the troop formed during that period.
Philippines
Elwood Stanley Brown, Physical Education Director of the Manila YMCA, founded basketball, volleyball, and Boy Scouting in the Philippine Islands (then a territory of the USA) in 1910. Hence the first Boy Scout unit in the Philippines was the YMCA troop organised by Brown.
In the official Handbook for Boys of the Boy Scouts of America, First Edition, August 1911 (still in print today!), page 354 (page 222 of PDF copy), in a letter from BSA Honorary Vice President Theodore Roosevelt (former US President) to BSA Executive Secretary (later Chief Scout Executive) James E. West, dated 20 July 1911, Roosevelt mentions a letter from a Scoutmaster in the Philippines narrating the noble work of "boy scouts of the Philippines" in rendering assistance during a big fire that hit Manila and in serving at the ten-day Manila Carnival. This is the earliest available documented mention of the phrase "boy scouts of the Philippines" in print. The Manila Scoutmaster's and Roosevelt's letters prove beyond doubt that there were Boy Scouts in the Philippines as early as 1910 - the same year that YMCA International Secretary for Boys' Work Edgar M. Robinson started actively organizing the Boy Scouts of America in the US mainland. Portions of Roosevelt's quote of the Manila Scoutmaster's letter were also printed (before and after the Handbook for Boys edition) in New Castle News (26 May 1911), The Corsicana Daily Sun (31 May 1911), The Washington Post (8 August 1911), The Youngstown Daily Vindicator (23 August 1911), and The Miami Metropolis (20 September 1911). According to The Miami Metropolis article "Boy Scouts Work with the Firemen Just Like Heroes" on page 3, it was "Elwood E. Brown, organizer in the Philippines" who had written to Roosevelt.
During his world tour in 1912, Lord Baden-Powell sent back articles for publication in [[The Scout (magazine)|The Scout]]''. In issue no. 224, 27 July 1912, in the article "In the Cannibal Islands," he made a brief narration about Philippine history and culture and his trip to Manila, illustrated with his own drawings. He mentioned "Boy Scouts of the Philippines" and that he was met by a "Guard of Honour." He also quoted from Roosevelt's letter about the Manila fire and the Manila Carnival in which Scouts rendered valuable service. In the article, Baden-Powell urged readers "to get into correspondence with your brother Scouts in Manila… The Chief Scoutmaster is Mr. Elwood Brown, Y.M.C.A., Manila."
1911
Japan
The first Boy Scout troop in Japan was organized in Yokohama in 1911 by Clarence Griffin. The boys of the troop were mostly British students of St. Joseph College, a boys' school in the Bluff area of Yokohama, and Clarence Griffin organized the troop under English charter. Clarence Griffin is recognized by the Scout Association of Japan as Japan's first Scoutmaster and is honoured with an inscription as such at his final resting place in the Yokohama Foreign General Cemetery. In 1918 Marianist Bro. Joseph Janning, a missionary teacher of St. Joseph College, assumed the position of Scoutmaster at the school and opened the Troop to boys of all nationalities. The Group subsequently became the first directly registered group of the newly formed Boy Scouts International Bureau, receiving a Charter signed by B-P formally allowing the group to accept "Scouts of mixed nationalities". The group was registered by the World Scout Bureau as "Troop 1, International Boy Scouts" and has remained continuously active in Yokohama since its formation.
Macao
Macao, at the time administered by the Portuguese, saw its first Scout troop founded by Lieutenant Álvaro de Melo Machado, the nominated interim governor of the territory. After resigning from the post the following year, Lt. Machado returned to Lisbon, and carried his fostering of scouting to mainland Portugal.
Germany
The oldest, still existing, Scout Group from germany was founded in 1911. The Scouts in Backnang, Germany were founded in 1911 by the former city vicar "Schütz" and they are thus among the oldest Protestant scout groups in Germany. The Group belongs to the German VCP, short for Verband Christlicher Pfadfinderinnen und Pfadfinder (Association of Christian Girl Scouts an Boy Scouts). The tribe St. Georg has about 50 active members today. This Year (2022), the tribe celebrates their 111th Birthday. During the Second World War and as the National Socialist Party ruled Germany, all Scout Groups, who did not want to be part of the "Hitler Youth", were forbidden. During that Time the Scouts of Backnang stayed in the underground and only met in Secret. After the Year 1945 the tribe managed to regain members.
1912
Portugal
In the Lisbon area there was at least one documented group started this year, with spotty records pointing to the existence of others around the mainland, all fostered by the Portuguese YMCA (ACM). This first group, along with the one started by Lieutenant Álvaro Machado upon his return from Macao, would later (in 1913) join to form the Associação dos Escoteiros de Portugal (AEP), which is active to this day.
1913
Greece
In Greece, Mark Mindler established in 1913 the third Sea Scout troop of Athens (3η Ομάς Αθηνών Ναυτοπροσκόπων) as the first Scouting group of the country. (The first and second Scouting groups were to be established later for training Scout officers.) The group operates to this day.
1918
Mysore State
The Chamundi Scout Group was started in December1918 by its founder M.H.R.(Mallasandra Hanumantharao Ramachandrarao) (05/05/1899-18/01/1982). as the first Open Group to be started in India & the then called Mysore State. 1918 is a year of Historical importance since the 1914-1918 war breathing a sigh of relief. The Boy Scout Movement was then taking its roots in the state. The Group consisted of Scout Section only when it was formed. A cub pack was added in 1924 and it became complete in 1924 when a rover crew was started.
When S.R.Nanjundaiah's Hindu A.V School which was in a private building at Sultanpet, got accommodation at the Govt. Middle School, Siddikutte
(Seegebeli) the Troop started its activities in the school compound. Later the group moved its operations to Naranarayana Choultry at the Market Square in Old Police Road. In course group secured A roon Tippu Sultan palace with the help of Sri. Subba Rao, the then Organising Commissioner, The Boy Scouts of Mysore.
It was here troop had all the facilities for scouting group committee was formed with Late Ananda Rao Sirsi, the then Municipal President, who was succeeded by Sri.K.Chandy, the Revenue Commissioner who later became the member of council, Sri Belvadi Ramaswamiah, Revenue Commissioner, Rao Sahib Channaiah, District Judge, N. Madhava Rao, chief secretary to government later became the 23rd Deewan of Mysore, Dr. Subba Rao, senior surgeon, D.V.Gundappa, K. Shankarnarayana Rao, Major Y.V.K Murthy, Dr. V.K. Badami and others. K. Netkallapa continued to be one of the Vice Presidents.
The group had branches in Old Sringeri Mutt, Chamrajpet, Shankar Puram. In order to cater to the needs of the units "Siddikutte" Local Association was formed and later merged with "City Local Association" to extend its activities. The group leader was the Secretary in the year 1928 this association was merged with "City District Association" one of our
Vice-Presidents Major Y.V.K Murthy became the District Scout Commissioner and one of the parents Dr. Gopakrishna Rao became the Secretary.
Royal patronage
The group has the proud legacy of being adopted as the Maharaja's Own Troop after winning the All India First Aid Mace at the All India competitions held at Nandi Hills in 1924.
M.H.R. was Baloo for sometime to the Prince Jayachamaraja Wadiyar.
On a special invitation in 1931 the group and its members including parents and well wishers attend a Hi-Tea party at the Bangalore Palace hosted by the chief Scout Sri Kanteerava Narasimharaja Wadiyar and chief cub Jayachamaraja Wadiyar.
The wheel of the group had rolled from place to place in the first fifty years. One must recollect how the Scout group was tossed from place to place before establishing its land in November 1941 on the solid rock it stands today with the efforts of Late.M.R.Narsimha Iyengar Group Scout Master and Secretary of the Group Committee. There was no den until the year 1957 with the sincere effort of Bros. V.Rangaswamy and M.Nagaraj the group put up a small den.
The group has been successfully running now for 99 years and looks forward to a whole new approach to 21st century of scouting. The group is led by Bro. K.Narasimha Murthy and with more than 80 kids meeting & doing scouting 365 days has been a dream come true of our founder M.H.R.
See also
Scouting memorials
Scouting museums
References
External links
Sri Chamundi Scout Group 21st Bangalore, claimant to be India's oldest open Scout group
Sethna's 18th West Bombay Scout Troop, claimant to be India's oldest Scout group
1st Claremont Scout Troop, claimant to be South Africa's oldest Scout group
Troop 20 in Brooklyn, New York, claimant to be the oldest Scout group in the United States of America
1st Merrickville Scout Group, Ontario, Canada, claimant to be North America's oldest Scout group
1st Sliema Scout Group, Malta, claimant to be the oldest Scout group outside the United Kingdom
3rd Athens Seascout Group, claimant to be Greece's oldest Scout group
Wr. Neustadt 1, claimant to be Austria's oldest Scout group
I.B.S, Troop 1, claimant to be Japan's oldest Scout group
Scouting
Scout groups |
4511684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20the%20Faroe%20Islands | List of birds of the Faroe Islands | This is a list of bird species confirmed in the Faroe Islands; a total of 358 species have been recorded. There are about 40 common breeding birds, including the seabirds northern fulmar (600,000 pairs), Atlantic puffin (550,000 pairs), European storm petrel (250,000 pairs), black-legged kittiwake (230,000 pairs), common guillemot (175,000 pairs), Manx shearwater (25,000 pairs).
This list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow the conventions of The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World, 2022 edition. The family accounts at the beginning of each heading reflect this taxonomy, as do the species counts found in each family account. Accidental species are included in the total species count for the Faroe Islands.
Symbolically, the most important of the birds of the Faroe Islands is the Eurasian oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus). Their annual arrival on about 12 March is celebrated by the Faroe Islanders as the start of spring. For this reason, the tjaldur (pronounced ), is recognised as the national bird of the Faroes. However, in numbers, the avifauna is dominated by an estimated two million pairs of breeding seabirds of several species. There are also some resident landbirds and many regular visitors, both passage migrants and breeders, as well as several species recorded occasionally as vagrants, mainly from Europe. The Faroese postal system, the Postverk Føroya, prints stamps portraying Faroe birds. See external links.
History
The great auk visited the Faroes and may have bred there, but became extinct throughout its range in the North Atlantic in the early 19th century due to human predation. The pied raven, a colour morph of the common raven, also occurred, but the last confirmed record was in 1902. The ordinary, black-colored variant of the common raven remains widespread in the archipelago.
Historically, harvesting seabirds for food was an important source of nutrition for the islanders. A reduced and strictly regulated harvest, mainly of fulmars and puffins, continues. In general, the seabirds and their nesting areas are now strongly protected.
The following tags highlight several categories of occurrence other than regular migrants and residents.
(A) Accidental - a species that rarely or accidentally occurs in the Faroe Islands
(I) Introduced - a species introduced to the Faroe Islands as a consequence, direct or indirect, of human actions
Ducks, geese, and waterfowl
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.
Bar-headed goose, Anser indicus (A)
Snow goose, Anser caerulescens (A)
Graylag goose (grágás), Anser anser
Greater white-fronted goose (korngás), Anser albifrons
Taiga bean-goose, Anser fabalis (A)
Tundra bean-goose, Anser serrirostris (A)
Pink-footed goose (íslandsgás), Anser brachyrhynchus
Brant (helsigás), Branta bernicla
Barnacle goose (øshvít gás), Branta leucopsis
Cackling goose, Branta hutchinsii (A)
Canada goose, Branta canadensis (I)
Mute swan (knubbsvanur), Cygnus olor (I)
Tundra swan, Cygnus columbianus (A)
Whooper swan (svanur, okn), Cygnus cygnus
Common shelduck, Tadorna tadorna (A)
Wood duck, Aix sponsa (A)
Mandarin duck, Aix galericulata (A)
Garganey, Spatula querquedula (A)
Blue-winged teal, Spatula discors (A)
Northern shoveler, Spatula clypeata (A)
Gadwall, Mareca strepera (A)
Eurasian wigeon (ennigul ont), Mareca penelope
American wigeon, Mareca americana (A)
Mallard (villdunna), Anas platyrhynchos
American black duck, Anas rubripes (A)
Northern pintail (stikkont), Anas acuta
Green-winged teal (krikkont), Anas crecca
Common pochard, Aythya ferina (A)
Ring-necked duck, Aythya collaris (A)
Ferruginous duck, Aythya nyroca (A)
Tufted duck (trøllont), Aythya fuligula
Greater scaup, Aythya marila (A)
Lesser scaup, Aythya affinis (A)
Steller's eider, Polysticta stelleri (A)
King eider (æðukongur), Somateria spectabilis (A)
Common eider (æða), Somateria mollissima
Harlequin duck, Histrionicus histrionicus (A)
Surf scoter, Melanitta perspicillata (A)
Velvet scoter, Melanitta fusca (A)
White-winged scoter, Melanitta deglandi (A)
Common scoter (kolont), Melanitta nigra
Long-tailed duck (ógvella), Clangula hyemalis
Common goldeneye (súgont), Bucephala clangula
Barrow's goldeneye (íslendsk súgont), Bucephala islandica (A)
Smew, Mergellus albellus (A)
Hooded merganser, Lophodytes cucullatus (A)
Common merganser (tannont), Mergus merganser (A)
Red-breasted merganser (toppont), Mergus serrator
Pheasants, grouse, and allies
Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae
These are terrestrial species of gamebirds, feeding and nesting on the ground. They are variable in size but generally plump, with broad and relatively short wings.
Willow ptarmigan, Lagopus lagopus (I)
Rock ptarmigan, Lagopus muta (I)
Black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix
Common quail (vaktil), Coturnix coturnix (A)
Grebes
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land.
Little grebe (smágjør), Tachybaptus ruficollis (A)
Pied-billed grebe, Podilymbus podiceps (A)
Horned grebe (gjør), Podiceps auritus
Red-necked grebe, Podiceps grisegena (A)
Great crested grebe, Podiceps cristatus (A)
Pigeons and doves
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.
Rock pigeon (bládúgva), Columba livia
Stock dove (bládúgva), Columba oenas (A)
Common wood-pigeon, Columba palumbus
European turtle-dove, Streptopelia turtur
Oriental turtle-dove, Streptopelia orientalis (A)
Eurasian collared-dove, Streptopelia decaocto (A)
Mourning dove, Zenaida macroura (A)
Sandgrouse
Order: PterocliformesFamily: Pteroclidae
Sandgrouse have small pigeon-like heads and necks, but sturdy compact bodies. They have long pointed wings and sometimes tails and a fast direct flight. Flocks fly to watering holes at dawn and dusk. Their legs are feathered down to the toes.
Pallas's sandgrouse, Syrrhaptes paradoxus (A)
Cuckoos
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners, and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails, and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites.
Common cuckoo, Cuculus canorus (A)
Nightjars and allies
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs, and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves.
Common nighthawk, Chordeiles minor (A)
Eurasian nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus (A)
Swifts
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae
Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.
White-throated needletail, Hirundapus caudacutus (A)
Alpine swift, Apus melba (A)
Common swift, Apus apus
Rails, gallinules, and coots
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots, and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Water rail (jarðakona), Rallus aquaticus
Corn crake (akurskrift), Crex crex (A)
Spotted crake, Porzana porzana (A)
Eurasian moorhen, Gallinula chloropus
Eurasian coot, Fulica atra
American coot, Fulica americana (A)
Baillon's crake, Zapornia pusilla (A)
Cranes
Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long-legged, and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances".
Sandhill crane, Antigone canadensis (A)
Common crane, Grus grus (A)
Thick-knees
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae
The thick-knees are a group of waders found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow-black bills, large yellow eyes, and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats.
Eurasian thick-knee (), Burhinus oedicnemus (A)
Stilts and avocets
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.
Pied avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta (A)
Oystercatchers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs.
Eurasian oystercatcher (tjaldur), Haematopus ostralegus
Plovers and lapwings
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short thick necks, and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water.
Black-bellied plover, Pluvialis squatarola (A)
European golden-plover (lógv), Pluvialis apricaria
Northern lapwing (vípa), Vanellus vanellus
Common ringed plover (svarthálsa), Charadrius hiaticula
Semipalmated plover, Charadrius semipalmatus (A)
Little ringed plover, Charadrius dubius (A)
Killdeer, Charadrius vociferus (A)
Eurasian dotterel, Charadrius morinellus (A)
Sandpipers and allies
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers, and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.
Whimbrel (spógvi), Numenius phaeopus
Eurasian curlew, Numenius arquata
Bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica
Black-tailed godwit (reyðspógvi), Limosa limosa
Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres
Red knot, Calidris canutus
Ruff, Calidris pugnax
Broad-billed sandpiper, Calidris falcinellus (A)
Curlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea (A)
Temminck's stint, Calidris temminckii (A)
Sanderling, Calidris alba
Dunlin (fjallmurra), Calidris alpina
Purple sandpiper (sjógrælingur), Calidris maritima
Baird's sandpiper, Calidris bairdii (A)
Little stint, Calidris minuta (A)
White-rumped sandpiper, Calidris fuscicollis (A)
Buff-breasted sandpiper, Calidris subruficollis (A)
Pectoral sandpiper, Calidris melanotos (A)
Semipalmated sandpiper, Calidris pusilla (A)
Long-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus (A)
Jack snipe, Lymnocryptes minimus
Eurasian woodcock, Scolopax rusticola
Common snipe (mýrisnípa), Gallinago gallinago
Wilson's snipe, Gallinago delicata (A)
Red-necked phalarope (hálsareyði), Phalaropus lobatus
Red phalarope, Phalaropus fulicarius
Common sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos (A)
Green sandpiper, Tringa ochropus (A)
Spotted redshank, Tringa erythropus (A)
Greater yellowlegs, Tringa melanoleuca (A)
Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia (A)
Wood sandpiper, Tringa glareola (A)
Common redshank (stelkur), Tringa totanus
Skuas and jaegers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae
The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large sea birds, typically with gray or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants.
Great skua (skúgvur), Stercorarius skua
South Polar skua, Stercorarius maccormicki (A)
Pomarine jaeger (jói), Stercorarius pomarinus
Parasitic jaeger (kjógvi), Stercorarius parasiticus
Long-tailed jaeger (snældukjógvi), Stercorarius longicaudus
Auks, murres, and puffins
Alcidae are a family of seabirds which are superficially similar to penguins with their black-and-white colors, their upright posture, and some of their habits, but which are able to fly.
Dovekie (fulkubbi), Alle alle
Common murre (lomvigi/a), Uria aalge
Thick-billed murre (íslandslomvigi/a), Uria lomvia
Razorbill (álka), Alca torda
Great auk (gorfuglur), Pinguinus impennis - extinct
Black guillemot (teisti), Cepphus grylle
Atlantic puffin (lundi), Fratercula arctica
Tufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata (A)
Gulls, terns, and skimmers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds and includes gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish, bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with gray or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years.
Black-legged kittiwake (rita), Rissa tridactyla
Ivory gull, Pagophila eburnea (A)
Sabine's gull, Xema sabini (A)
Bonaparte's gull, Chroicocephalus philadelphia (A)
Black-headed gull (fransaterna), Chroicocephalus ridibundus
Little gull, Hydrocoloeus minutus (A)
Ross's gull, Rhodostethia rosea (A)
Franklin's gull, Leucophaeus pipixcan (A)
Mediterranean gull, Ichthyaetus melanocephalus (A)
Common gull (skatumási, skata, gneggjus), Larus canus
Short-billed gull, Larus brachyrhynchus (A)
Ring-billed gull, Larus delawarensis (A)
Herring gull (fiskimási), Larus argentatus
Iceland gull (lítil valmási), Larus glaucoides
Lesser black-backed gull (likka), Larus fuscus
Glaucous gull (valmási), Larus hyperboreus
Great black-backed gull (svartbakur), Larus marinus
Little tern, Sternula albifrons (A)
Caspian tern, Hydroprogne caspia (A)
Black tern, Chlidonias niger (A)
White-winged tern, Chlidonias leucopterus (A)
Common tern, Sterna hirundo (A)
Arctic tern (terna), Sterna paradisaea
Sandwich tern, Thalasseus sandvicensis (A)
Loons
Order: GaviiformesFamily: Gaviidae
Loons are a group of aquatic birds found in many parts of North America and Northern Europe. They are the size of a large duck or small goose, which they somewhat resemble in shape when swimming, but to which they are completely unrelated. In particular, loons' legs are set very far back which assists swimming underwater but makes walking on land extremely difficult.
Red-throated loon (lómur), Gavia stellata
Arctic loon (øssvartur lómur), Gavia arctica (A)
Pacific loon, Gavia pacifica (A)
Common loon (havgás), Gavia immer
Yellow-billed loon (nevgulur lómur), Gavia adamsii (A)
Albatrosses
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae
The albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, and the great albatrosses of the genus Diomedea have the largest wingspans of any extant birds.
Yellow-nosed albatross, Thalassarche chlororhynchos (A)
Black-browed albatross (súlukongur), Thalassarche melanophris (A)
Southern storm-petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae
The southern storm-petrels are relatives of the petrels and are the smallest seabirds. They feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering.
Wilson's storm-petrel, Oceanites oceanicus (A)
Northern storm-petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae
Though the members of this family are similar in many respects to the southern storm-petrels, including their general appearance and habits, there are enough genetic differences to warrant their placement in a separate family.
European storm-petrel (drunnhvíti), Hydrobates pelagicus
Leach's storm-petrel (sýldur drunnhvíti, havtyrðil), Hydrobates leucorhous
Shearwaters and petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae
The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterized by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary.
Northern fulmar (havhestur), Fulmarus glacialis
Fea's petrel, Pterodroma feae (A)
Cory's shearwater, Calonectris borealis (A)
Great shearwater, Ardenna gravis
Sooty shearwater, Ardenna griseus (A)
Manx shearwater (skrápur), Puffinus puffinus
Boobies and gannets
Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae
The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish.
Northern gannet (súla), Morus bassanus
Cormorants and shags
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Cormorants and shags are medium-to-large aquatic birds, usually with mainly dark plumage and areas of colored skin on the face. The bill is long, thin and sharply hooked. Their feet are four-toed and webbed.
Great cormorant (hiplingur), Phalacrocorax carbo
European shag (skarvur), Gulosus aristotelis
Herons, egrets, and bitterns
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the herons, egrets, and bitterns. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more secretive. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills.
American bittern, Botaurus lentiginosus (A)
Great bittern, Botaurus stellaris (A)
Little bittern, Ixobrychus minutus (A)
Gray heron (hegri), Ardea cinerea
Purple heron, Ardea purpurea (A)
Great egret, Ardea alba (A)
Little egret, Egretta garzetta (A)
Cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis (A)
Black-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax nycticorax (A)
Ibises and spoonbills
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
The family Threskiornithidae includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings. Their bodies tend to be elongated, the neck more so, with rather long legs. The bill is also long, decurved in the case of the ibises, straight and distinctively flattened in the spoonbills.
Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus (A)
Eurasian spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia (A)
Osprey
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
Pandionidae is a family of fish-eating birds of prey, possessing a very large, powerful hooked beak for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight. The family is monotypic.
Osprey (fiskiørn), Pandion haliaetus (A)
Hawks, eagles and kites
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey and includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, and Old World vultures. These birds have very large powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight.
European honey-buzzard, Pernis apivorus (A)
Eurasian marsh-harrier, Circus aeruginosus (A)
Hen harrier, Circus cyaneus (A)
Northern harrier, Circus hudsonius (A)
Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus (A)
Northern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis (A)
Red kite, Milvus milvus (A)
Black kite, Milvus migrans (A)
White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla (A)
Rough-legged hawk, Buteo lagopus (A)
Common buzzard, Buteo buteo (A)
Owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
Typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak, and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Eurasian scops-owl, Otus scops (A)
Snowy owl, Bubo scandiacus (A)
Northern hawk owl, Surnia ulula (A)
Long-eared owl, Asio otus (A)
Short-eared owl, Asio flammeus
Hoopoes
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae
Hoopoes have black, white and orangey-pink coloring with a large erectile crest on their head.
Eurasian hoopoe, Upupa epops (A)
Bee-eaters
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae
The bee-eaters are a group of near passerine birds in the family Meropidae. Most species are found in Africa but others occur in southern Europe, Madagascar, Australia and New Guinea. They are characterized by richly colored plumage, slender bodies and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colourful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow-like appearance when seen from afar.
Blue-cheeked bee-eater, Merops persicus (A)
European bee-eater, Merops apiaster (A)
Rollers
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae
Rollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee-eaters. They share the colourful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not.
European roller, Coracias garrulus (A)
Woodpeckers
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.
Eurasian wryneck, Jynx torquilla
Great spotted woodpecker, Dendrocopos major
Falcons and caracaras
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.
Lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni (A)
Eurasian kestrel, Falco tinnunculus
Amur falcon, Falco amurensis (A)
Merlin (smyril), Falco columbarius
Eurasian hobby, Falco subbuteo (A)
Gyrfalcon, Falco rusticolus
Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus (A)
Old World orioles
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae
The Old World orioles are colourful passerine birds. They are not related to the New World orioles.
Eurasian golden oriole, Oriolus oriolus (A)
Shrikes
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A shrike's beak is hooked, like that of a typical bird of prey.
Red-backed shrike, Lanius collurio (A)
Isabelline shrike, Lanius isabellinus (A)
Great gray shrike, Lanius excubitor (A)
Lesser gray shrike, Lanius minor (A)
Crows, jays, and magpies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers, and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.
Eurasian magpie, Pica pica (A)
Eurasian jackdaw, Corvus monedula
Rook, Corvus frugilegus
Carrion crow, Corvus corone
Hooded crow (kráka), Corvus cornix
Common raven (ravnur), Corvus corax
Tits, chickadees, and titmice
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects.
Eurasian blue tit, Cyanistes caeruleus (A)
Great tit, Parus major (A)
Larks
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds.
Horned lark, Eremophila alpestris (A)
Calandra lark, Melanocorypha calandra (A)
Wood lark, Lullula arborea (A)
Eurasian skylark (lerkur), Alauda arvensis
Reed warblers and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae
The members of this family are usually rather large for "warblers". Most are rather plain olivaceous brown above with much yellow to beige below. They are usually found in open woodland, reedbeds, or tall grass. The family occurs mostly in southern to western Eurasia and surroundings, but it also ranges far into the Pacific, with some species in Africa.
Booted warbler, Iduna caligata (A)
Sykes's warbler, Iduna rama (A)
Melodious warbler, Hippolais polyglotta (A)
Icterine warbler, Hippolais icterina (A)
Sedge warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus (A)
Paddyfield warbler, Acrocephalus agricola (A)
Blyth's reed warbler, Acrocephalus dumetorum (A)
Marsh warbler, Acrocephalus palustris (A)
Eurasian reed warbler, Acrocephalus scirpaceus (A)
Great reed warbler, Acrocephalus arundinaceus (A)
Grassbirds and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae
Locustellidae are a family of small insectivorous songbirds found mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are smallish birds with tails that are usually long and pointed, and tend to be drab brownish or buffy all over.
Pallas's grasshopper warbler, Helopsaltes certhiola (A)
Lanceolated warbler, Locustella lanceolata (A)
Common grasshopper-warbler, Locustella naevia (A)
Swallows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Bank swallow, Riparia riparia (A)
Barn swallow (svala), Hirundo rustica
Red-rumped swallow, Cecropis daurica (A)
Common house-martin (lonsvala), Delichon urbicum
Leaf warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae
Leaf warblers are a family of small insectivorous birds found mostly in Eurasia and ranging into Wallacea and Africa. The species are of various sizes, often green-plumaged above and yellow below, or more subdued with grayish-green to grayish-brown colors.
Wood warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix (A)
Western Bonelli's warbler, Phylloscopus bonelli (A)
Eastern Bonelli's warbler, Phylloscopus orientalis (A)
Yellow-browed warbler, Phylloscopus inornatus (A)
Hume's warbler, Phylloscopus humei (A)
Pallas's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus proregulus (A)
Radde's warbler, Phylloscopus schwarzi (A)
Dusky warbler, Phylloscopus fuscatus (A)
Willow warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus (A)
Common chiffchaff, Phylloscopus collybita
Green warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus (A)
Greenish warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides (A)
Arctic warbler, Phylloscopus borealis (A)
Sylviid warblers, parrotbills, and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sylviidae
The family Sylviidae is a group of small insectivorous birds. They mainly occur as breeding species, as another common name (Old World warblers) implies, in Europe, Asia and, to a lesser extent, Africa. Most are of generally undistinguished appearance, but many have distinctive songs.
Eurasian blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla
Garden warbler (garðljómari), Sylvia borin
Barred warbler, Curruca nisoria
Lesser whitethroat (notuljómari), Curruca curruca
Rüppell's warbler, Curruca ruppeli (A)
Eastern subalpine warbler, Curruca cantillans (A)
Greater whitethroat, Curruca communis
Kinglets
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae
The kinglets and "crests" are a small family of birds which resemble some warblers. They are very small insectivorous birds in the single genus Regulus. The adults have colored crowns, giving rise to their name.
Goldcrest, Regulus regulus
Common firecrest, Regulus ignicapilla (A)
Treecreepers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down-curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees.
Eurasian treecreeper, Certhia familiaris (A)
Wrens
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae
The wrens are mainly small and inconspicuous except for their loud songs. These birds have short wings and thin down-turned bills. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.
Eurasian wren (músabróðir), Troglodytes troglodytes
Dippers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cinclidae
Dippers are a group of perching birds whose habitat includes aquatic environments in the Americas, Europe, and Asia. They are named for their bobbing or dipping movements.
White-throated dipper, Cinclus cinclus (A)
Starlings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Their plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen.
European starling (stari), Sturnus vulgaris
Rosy starling, Pastor roseus (A)
Thrushes and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are a family of birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft-plumaged, small-to-medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
White's thrush, Zoothera aurea (A)
Scaly thrush, Zoothera dauma (A)
Mistle thrush, Turdus viscivorus (A)
Song thrush, Turdus philomelos
Redwing (oðinshani), Turdus iliacus
Eurasian blackbird (kvørkveggja), Turdus merula
Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris
Ring ouzel, Turdus torquatus (A)
Dusky thrush, Turdus eunomus (A)
Naumann's thrush, Turdus naumanni (A)
Old World flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae
Old World flycatchers are a large group of birds which are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls.
Asian brown flycatcher, Muscicapa dauurica (A)
Spotted flycatcher, Muscicapa striata (A)
European robin, Erithacus rubecula
Thrush nightingale, Luscinia luscinia (A)
Common nightingale, Luscinia megarhynchos (A)
Bluethroat, Luscinia svecica (A)
Siberian rubythroat, Calliope calliope (A)
Red-flanked bluetail, Tarsiger cyanurus (A)
Red-breasted flycatcher, Ficedula parva (A)
European pied flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca
Collared flycatcher, Ficedula albicollis (A)
Common redstart, Phoenicurus phoenicurus
Black redstart, Phoenicurus ochruros (A)
Whinchat, Saxicola rubetra (A)
European stonechat, Saxicola rubicola (A)
Siberian stonechat, Saxicola maurus (A)
Northern wheatear (steinstólpa), Oenanthe oenanthe
Waxwings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Bombycillidae
The waxwings are a group of birds with soft silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. In the Bohemian and cedar waxwings, these tips look like sealing wax and give the group its name. These are arboreal birds of northern forests. They live on insects in summer and berries in winter.
Bohemian waxwing (), Bombycilla garrulus
Accentors
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Prunellidae
The accentors are the only bird family which is endemic to the Palearctic. They are small, fairly drab species superficially similar to sparrows.
Dunnock, Prunella modularis (A)
Old World sparrows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
In general, Old World sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or gray birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects.
House sparrow (gráspurvur), Passer domesticus
Eurasian tree sparrow (gerðisspurvur), Passer montanus
Wagtails and pipits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small birds with medium to long tails which includes the wagtails, longclaws, and pipits. They are slender ground-feeding insectivores of open country.
Gray wagtail, Motacilla cinerea (A)
Western yellow wagtail, Motacilla flava
Eastern yellow wagtail, Motacilla tschutschensis (A)
Citrine wagtail, Motacilla citreola (A)
White wagtail (erla kongsdóttir), Motacilla alba
Richard's pipit, Anthus richardi (A)
Meadow pipit (titlingur), Anthus pratensis
Tree pipit, Anthus trivialis (A)
Olive-backed pipit, Anthus hodgsoni (A)
Pechora pipit, Anthus gustavi (A)
Red-throated pipit, Anthus cervinus (A)
Rock pipit (grátitlingur), Anthus petrosus
American pipit, Anthus rubescens (A)
Finches, euphonias, and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Finches are seed-eating birds that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Common chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs
Brambling (fjallafinka), Fringilla montifringilla
Hawfinch, Coccothraustes coccothraustes (A)
Common rosefinch, Carpodacus erythrinus (A)
Eurasian bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula (A)
European greenfinch, Chloris chloris
Twite (íriskur), Linaria flavirostris (A)
Eurasian linnet, Linaria cannabina (A)
Common redpoll, Acanthis flammea
Lesser redpoll, Acanthis cabaret (A)
Hoary redpoll, Acanthis hornemanni (A)
Parrot crossbill, Loxia pytyopsittacus (A)
Red crossbill, Loxia curvirostra
White-winged crossbill, Loxia leucoptera (A)
European goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis (A)
Eurasian siskin, Spinus spinus (A)
Longspurs and snow buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Calcariidae
The Calcariidae are a family of birds that had been traditionally grouped with the New World sparrows, but differ in a number of respects and are usually found in open grassy areas.
Lapland bunting, Calcarius lapponicus (A)
Snow bunting (snjófulgur), Plectrophenax nivalis
Old World buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae
Emberizidae is a family of passerine birds containing a single genus. Until 2017, the New World sparrows (Passerellidae) were also considered part of this family.
Black-headed bunting, Emberiza melanocephala (A)
Red-headed bunting, Emberiza bruniceps (A)
Corn bunting, Emberiza calandra (A)
Yellowhammer, Emberiza citrinella (A)
Ortolan, Emberiza hortulana (A)
Reed bunting, Emberiza schoeniclus (A)
Little bunting, Emberiza pusilla (A)
Rustic bunting, Emberiza rustica (A)
New World sparrows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passerellidae
Until 2017, these species were considered part of the family Emberizidae. Most of the species are known as sparrows, but these birds are not closely related to the Old World sparrows which are in the family Passeridae. Many of these have distinctive head patterns.
White-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys (A)
New World warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Parulidae
Parulidae are a group of small, often colorful birds restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal and insectivorous.
Black-and-white warbler, Mniotilta varia (A)
Tennessee warbler, Leiothlypis peregrina (A)
Northern parula, Setophaga americana (A)
Yellow warbler, Setophaga petechia (A)
Cardinals and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cardinalidae
The cardinals are a family of robust seed-eating birds with strong bills. They are typically associated with open woodland. The sexes usually have distinct plumages.
Lazuli bunting, Passerina amoena (A)
Places
Excellent places for watching seabirds (guillemots, kittiwakes and puffins are common everywhere) including:
Svínoy with many great skuas
The Vestmanna cliffs with a boat tour
Mykines has the only Faroese population of gannets
Nólsoy has the largest colony of storm petrels in the world
Skúvoy with the largest Faroese colony of guillemots and many great skuas, which gave the island its name
Suðuroy has at the west coast the best accessible bird cliffs from the land side
See also
List of birds
Lists of birds by region
Faroese puffin
References
Williamson, Kenneth. (1970). The Atlantic Islands. Collins: London. (2nd edition).
External links
About the stamps and the birds
PDF download of Faroese birds (652.31 KB, 4 pages)
Faroenature.net - Bird Names (Latin, Faroese, English, Danish, German, Norwegian, Swedish)
Faroe Islands
Birds
Faroe Islands
'Faroe Islands
de:Färöer#Tierwelt |
4511687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toothlessness | Toothlessness | Toothlessness, or edentulism, is the condition of having no teeth. In organisms that naturally have teeth, it is the result of tooth loss.
Organisms that never possessed teeth can also be described as edentulous. Examples are the members of the former zoological classification order of Edentata, which included anteaters and sloths, as they possess no anterior teeth and no or poorly developed posterior teeth.
In naturally dentate species, edentulism is more than just the simple presence or absence of teeth. It is biochemically complex because the teeth, jaws, and oral mucosa are dynamic (changing over time). Processes such as bone remodeling (loss and gain of bone tissue) in the jaws and inflammation of soft tissue in response to the oral microbiota are clinically important for edentulous people. For example, bone resorption in the jaw is frequently how the teeth were able to detach in the first place. The jaw in an edentulous area undergoes further resorption even after the teeth are gone; and the insertion of dental implants can elicit new bone formation, leading to osseointegration. Meanwhile, bacteria and yeasts of the oral cavity and the immune system of their host create an immensely complicated and constantly changing interplay that presents clinically as gingivitis, caries, stomatitis, and other periodontal pathology.
Signs and symptoms
For people, the relevance and functionality of teeth can be easily taken for granted, but a closer examination of their considerable significance will demonstrate how they are actually very important. Among other things, teeth serve to:
support the lips and cheeks, providing for a fuller, more aesthetically pleasing appearance
maintain an individual's vertical dimension of occlusion
along with the tongue and lips, allow for the proper pronunciation of various sounds
preserve and maintain the height of the alveolar ridge
cut, grind, and otherwise chew food
Tooth loss also has a psychological impact: it has been shown to generally lower a patient's quality of life, with this compromised oral function leading to decreased self-esteem and a decline is psychological well-being. Patients may be embarrassed to smile, eat and talk.
Facial support and aesthetics
When an individual's mouth is at rest, the teeth in the opposing jaws are nearly touching; there is what is referred to as a "freeway space" of roughly 2–3 mm. However, this distance is partially maintained as a result of the teeth limiting any further closure past the point of maximum intercuspidation. When there are no teeth present in the mouth, the natural vertical dimension of occlusion is lost and the mouth has a tendency to overclose. This causes the cheeks to exhibit a "sunken-in" appearance and wrinkle lines to form at the commissures. Additionally, the anterior teeth, when present, serve to properly support the lips and provide for certain aesthetic features, such as an acute nasiolabial angle. Loss of muscle tone and skin elasticity due to old age, when most individuals begin to experience edentulism, tend to further exacerbate this condition.
The tongue, which consists of a very dynamic group of muscles, tends to fill the space it is allowed, and in the absence of teeth, will broaden out. This makes it initially difficult to fabricate both complete dentures and removable partial dentures for patients exhibiting complete and partial edentulism, respectively; however, once the space is "taken back" by the prosthetic teeth, the tongue will return to a narrower body.
Vertical dimension of occlusion
As stated, the position of maximal closure in the presence of teeth is referred to as maximum intercuspidation, and the vertical jaw relationship in this position is referred to as the vertical dimension of occlusion. With the loss of teeth, there is a decrease in this vertical dimension, as the mouth is allowed to overclose when there are no teeth present to block the further upward movement of the mandible towards the maxilla. This may contribute, as explained above, to a sunken-in appearance of the cheeks, because there is now "too much" cheek than is needed to extend from the maxilla to the mandible when in an over closed position. If this situation is left untreated for many years, the muscles and tendons of the mandible and the TMJ may manifest with altered tone and elasticity.
Pronunciation
The teeth play a major role in speech. Some letter sounds require the lips and/or tongue to make contact with teeth for proper pronunciation of the sound, and lack of teeth will obviously affect the way in which an edentulous individual can pronounce these sounds.
For example, the consonant sounds of the English language s, z, j, and x are achieved with tooth-to-tooth contact; d, n, l, t, and th are achieved with tongue-to-tooth contact; the fricatives f and v are achieved through lip-to-tooth contact. The edentulous individual finds these sounds very difficult to enunciate properly.
Preservation of alveolar ridge height
The alveolar ridges are columns of bone that surround and anchor the teeth and run the entire length, mesiodistally, of both the maxillary and mandibular dental arches. The alveolar bone is unique in that it exists for the sake of the teeth that it retains; when the teeth are absent, the bone slowly resorbs. The maxilla resorbs in a superioposterior direction, and the mandible resorbs in an inferioanterior direction, thus eventually converting an individual's occlusal scheme from a Class I to a Class III. Loss of teeth alters the form of the alveolar bone in 91% of cases.
In addition to this resorption of bone in the vertical and anterioposterior dimensions, the alveolus also resorbs faciolingually, thus diminishing the width of the ridge. What initially began as a tall bell curve (in the faciolingual dimension) eventually becomes much shorter and broader. Resorption is exacerbated by pressure on the bone; thus, long-term complete denture wearers will experience more drastic reductions to their ridges than non-denture wearers. Those individuals who do wear dentures can decrease the amount of bone loss by retaining some tooth roots in the form of overdenture abutments or have implants placed. Note that the depiction above shows a very excessive change and that this many take many years of denture wear to achieve.
Ridge resorption may also alter the form of the ridges to less predictable shapes, such as bulbous ridges with undercuts or even sharp, thin, knife-edged ridges, depending on the many possible factors that influenced the resorption.
Bone loss with missing teeth, partials and complete dentures is progressive. According to Wolff's law, bone is stimulated, strengthened and continually renewed directly by a tooth or an implant. Teeth and implants provide this direct stimulation which develops stronger bone around them.
A 1970 research study of 1012 patients by Jozewicz showed denture wearers had a significantly higher rate of bone loss. Tallgren's 25-year study in 1972 also showed denture wearers have continued bone loss over the years. The biting force on the gum tissue irritates the bone and it melts away with a decrease in volume and density. Carlsson's 1967 study showed a dramatic bone loss during the first year after a tooth extraction which continues over the years, even without a denture or partial on it.
The longer people are missing teeth, wear dentures or partials, the less bone they have in their jaws. This may result in decreased ability to chew food well, a decreased quality of life, social insecurity and decreasing esthetics because of a collapsing of the lower third of their face.
The bone loss also results in a significant decrease in chewing force, prompting many denture and partial wearers to avoid certain kinds of food. Food collecting under the appliance takes their enjoyment out of eating so they make their grocery and restaurant choices by what they can eat. There are several reports that correlate the quality and length of peoples lives with their ability to chew.
Dental implant studies from 1977 by Branemark and countless others show dental implants stop this progressive loss and stabilize the bone over the long term. Implanted teeth provide a stable, effective tooth replacement that feels natural. They also provide an improved ability to chew comfortably and for those missing many teeth an improved sense of well being. Dental implants have become the standard for replacing missing teeth in dentistry.
Masticatory efficiency
Physiologically, teeth provide for greater chewing ability. They allow us to masticate food thoroughly, increasing the surface area necessary to allow for the enzymes present in the saliva, as well as in the stomach and intestines, to digest our food. Chewing also allows food to be prepared into small boli that are more readily swallowed than haphazard chunks of considerable size. For those who are even partially endentulous, it may become extremely difficult to chew food efficiently enough to swallow comfortably, although this is entirely dependent upon which teeth are lost. When an individual loses enough posterior teeth to make it difficult to chew, he or she may need to cut their food into very small pieces and learn how to make use of their anterior teeth to chew. If enough posterior teeth are missing, this will not only affect their chewing abilities, but also their occlusion; posterior teeth, in a mutually protected occlusion, help to protect the anterior teeth and the vertical dimension of occlusion and, when missing, the anterior teeth begin to bear a greater amount of force than they are structurally prepared for. Thus, loss of posterior teeth will cause the anterior teeth to splay. This can be prevented by obtaining dental prostheses, such as removable partial dentures, bridges or implant-supported crowns. In addition to reestablishing a protected occlusion, these prostheses can greatly improve one's chewing abilities.
As a consequence of a lack of certain nutrition due to altered eating habits, various health problems can occur, from the mild to the extreme. Lack of certain vitamins (A, E and C) and low levels of riboflavin and thiamin can produce a variety of conditions, ranging from constipation, weight loss, arthritis and rheumatism. There are more serious conditions such as heart disease and Parkinson's disease and even to the extreme, certain types of Cancer. Treatments include changing approaches to eating such as cutting food in advance to make eating easier and less likely to avoid as well as consumer health products such as multivitamins and multi-minerals specifically designed to support the nutritional issues experienced by denture wearers.
Numerous studies linking edentulism with instances of disease and medical conditions have been reported. In a cross-sectional study, Hamasha and others found significant differences between edentulous and dentate individuals with respect to rates of atherosclerotic vascular disease, heart failure, ischemic heart disease and joint disease.
Cause
Edentulism is a condition which can have multiple causes. In exceedingly rare cases, toothlessness may result from the teeth not developing in the first place (anodontia). However, in most cases it is as a result of permanent tooth extraction in adulthood. This may or may not be due to dental caries, periodontal disease (gum disease), trauma or other pathology of the face and mouth (i.e. cysts, tumours). In those under 45 years of age, dental caries is considered to be the main cause of toothlessness, whereas periodontal disease is the primary cause of tooth loss in older age groups.
Replacing missing teeth
There are three main ways in which missing teeth can be replaced:
Bridges: Used to replace one or more missing teeth. False teeth are supported by the remaining, adjacent natural teeth.
Advantages:
They are fixed, they do not require removal on a frequent basis. Therefore, they are easily maintained.
Can be cleaned by normal brushing procedures.
Unlike dentures, they do not require skill in their use. They will not move about.
Disadvantages:
They generally require the preparation of adjacent teeth. This is destructive and not required for the placement of a denture.
They have a higher rate of failure than either Dentures or Implants.
Dentures: False teeth are mounted onto an acrylic base. These may be partial (to replace some missing teeth) or complete (where all the natural teeth are missing). Dentures may be removable, or fixed in the mouth by dental implants.
Advantages:
This is the least expensive option for the replacement of teeth.
The least invasive, no surgery needed (usually).
Disadvantages:
Quite often rely solely on the mucosa for support, do not tend to be as stable as the other options.
Very difficult to keep clean and can exacerbate any oral hygiene issues.
They are difficult to learn to use. Quite often require complex muscular control to hold them in place.
Not as efficient as other options. Foods such as apples and nuts will often have to be avoided.
Dental Implants: To replace a single tooth, a screw (the implant) is placed into the jaw bone, which a false tooth is screwed onto. Implants can also be used to support bridges or dentures.
Advantages:
They are much more realistic than the other options. They have similar efficiency and aesthetics to an actual tooth.
They do not require the destruction of the adjacent teeth like bridges.
They last 5-8 times longer than both bridges and dentures. Despite the initial higher cost, it pays off in the long term.
Much easier to maintain, with oral hygiene procedures being rather similar to an actual tooth.
Disadvantages:
Cost: they are very expensive. A single implant will cost between £2000-3000 on average.
Surgery: Their placement requires quite invasive surgery. With surgery comes risks (e.g. infection, swelling, bleeding).
Replacement: The actual implant itself rarely requires replacement, but the actual abutment, or tooth sitting on top of the implant will. This needs replacing on average every 10–15 years.
Time: Once an implant has been placed, the tooth replacement does not occur immediately. Implants take time for bone integration. The majority require 3 to 6 months before the final restoration is placed.
Clinical classification
A classification system has been developed by the American College of Prosthodontists. The classification are based on diagnostic findings, which is used to help practitioners determine appropriate treatments for patients.
The diagnostic criteria used to classify edentulism are:
Location and extent of the edentulous areas
Condition of abutment teeth
Occlusal scheme
Residual ridge
There are four categories which are Class I, II, III and IV.
Class I: Minimally compromised
This class is most likely to be successfully treated with complete dentures. The characteristics include:
Residual bone height of 21mm or more measured at the lowest vertical height of the mandible shown on a panoramic radiograph.
Residual ridge morphology resists horizontal and vertical movement of the denture base
Location of muscle attachments that arc conducive to denture base stability and retention
Class I maxillomandibular relationship.
Class II: Moderately compromised
This class is distinguished by the continued degradation of the denture‐supporting anatomy. It is also characterised by specific patient management and lifestyle considerations as well as systemic disease interactions. Characteristics include:
Residual bone height of 16 to 20mrn measured at the lowest vertical height of the mandible on a panoramic radiograph.
Residual ridge morphology that does not show horizontal and vertical movement of the denture base.
Location of muscle attachments with limited influence on denture base stability and retention.
Class I maxillomandibular relationship.
Minor modifiers, psychosocial considerations, mild systemic disease with oral manifestation.
Class III: Substantially compromised
This classification level is where surgical revision of supporting structures is needed to allow for adequate prosthodontic function.
Residual alveolar bone height of 11 to 15mm measured at the least vertical height of the mandible on a panoramic radiograph.
Residual ridge morphology has minimum influence to resist horizontal or vertical movement of the denture base.
Location of muscle attachments with moderate influence on denture base stability and retention.
Class I, II or III maxillomandibular relationship.
The conditions that need preprosthetic surgery include:
minor soft tissue procedures
minor hard tissue procedures including alveoloplasty
simple implant placement, no augmentation required
multiple extractions leading to complete edentulism for immediate denture placement.
Class IV: Severely compromised
This classification level depicts the most debilitated edentulous condition. Surgical reconstruction is almost always indicated but cannot always be accomplished because of the patient's health, preferences, dental history, and financial considerations. When surgical revision is not an option, prosthodontic techniques of a specialized nature must be used to achieve an adequate treatment outcome.
Residual vertical bone height of 10mm or less measured at the least vertical height of the mandible on a panoramic radiograph.
Residual ridge offers no resistance to horizontal or vertical movement.
Muscle attachment location that can be expected to have significant influence on denture base stability and retention.
Class I, II, or III maxillomandibular relationships.
History of paresthesia or dysesthesia.
Major conditions requiring preprosthetic surgery
complex implant placement, augmentation required
surgical correction of dentofacial deformities
hard tissue augmentation required
major soft tissue revision required, i.e., vestibular extensions with or without soft tissue grafting.
Epidemiology
Edentulism affects approximately 158 million people globally as of 2010 (2.3% of the population). It is more common in women at 2.7% compared to the male rate of 1.9%.
A cross-sectional analysis of data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) from 14 European countries (Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland) and Israel showed substantial variation in the age-standardized mean numbers of natural teeth amongst people aged 50 years and older, ranging from 14.3 teeth (Estonia) to 24.5 teeth (Sweden). The oral health goal of retaining at least 20 teeth at age 80 years was achieved by 25% of the population or less in most countries. A target concerning edentulism (≤15% in population aged 65–74 years) was reached in Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, France, and Germany. Tooth replacement practices varied especially for a number of up to five missing teeth which were more likely to be replaced in Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, and Switzerland than in Israel, Denmark, Estonia, Spain, and Sweden.
The prevalence of Kennedy Class III partial denture was predominant among younger population of 21-30 year and 31–40 years, whereas in group III between 41 and 50 years Class I was predominant. It can be stated that the need for prosthodontics care is expected to increase with age, and hence, more efforts should be made for improving dental education and motivation among patients.
Edentulism occurs more often in people from the lower end of the socioeconomic scale.
Society and culture
It is estimated that tooth loss results in worldwide productivity losses in the size of about US$63 billion yearly.
References
Dental anatomy
Teeth
Acquired tooth pathology |
4512092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban%20insurgency | Taliban insurgency | The Taliban insurgency began after the group's fall from power during the 2001 War in Afghanistan. The Taliban forces fought against the Afghan government, led by President Hamid Karzai, and later by President Ashraf Ghani, and against a US-led coalition of forces that has included all members of NATO; the 2021 Taliban offensive resulted in the collapse of the government of Ashraf Ghani. The private sector in Pakistan extends financial aid to the Taliban, contributing to their financial sustenance.
The insurgency had spread to some degree over the border to neighboring Pakistan, in particular Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The Taliban conducted warfare against Afghan National Security Forces and their NATO allies, as well as against civilian targets. Regional countries, particularly Pakistan, Iran, China and Russia, were often accused of funding and supporting the insurgent groups.
The allied Haqqani Network, Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin (until 2016), and smaller al-Qaeda groups had also been part of the Taliban insurgency.
Background
Following the United States invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, the Taliban was defeated and many Taliban fighters left the movement or retreated to sanctuaries in the country of Pakistan. In May and June 2003, high-ranking Taliban officials proclaimed that the Taliban regrouped and were ready to wage a guerrilla war in order to expel US forces from Afghanistan. Omar assigned five operational zones to Taliban commanders such as Dadullah. Dadullah took charge in Zabul province.
In late 2004, the then hidden Taliban leader Mohammed Omar announced that the Taliban were launching an insurgency against "America and its puppets" (i.e. transitional Afghan government forces) in order to "regain the sovereignty of our country".
The Taliban spent several years regrouping, and launched a re-escalation of the insurgency campaign in 2006.
Organization
As of 2018, the Taliban was composed of four different shuras, or representative councils. The first is the Quetta Shura. Two smaller shuras are subordinated to it, the Haqqani network (also known as the Miran Shah Shura) and the Peshawar Shura. The Peshawar Shura was established in March 2005, and is based in eastern Afghanistan. The majority of its fighters are former members of the Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin. The Haqqani network declared its autonomy from the Quetta Shura in 2007, and rejoined in August 2015. The Peshawar Shura was autonomous from 2009 until 2016.
The second autonomous shura is the Shura of the North, based in Badakhshan Province. The third is the Mashhad Shura, sponsored by Iran, and the fourth is the Rasool Shura, led by Muhammad Rasul and also known as the High Council of the Islamic Emirate.
Finances
While the pre-2001 Taliban suppressed opium production, the current insurgency "relies on opium revenues to purchase weapons, train its members, and buy support." In 2001, Afghanistan produced only 11% of the world's opium. Today it produces over 80% of the global crop, and the drug trade accounts for half of Afghanistan's GDP. However, later estimates show that drugs might not be the major source of income of the Taliban. Taxation and mineral sales under the group's shadow governments since 2001 have also been major sources.
On 28 July 2009, Richard Holbrooke, the United States special envoy for Afghanistan and Pakistan, said that money transfers from Western Europe and the Gulf States exceeded the drug trade earnings and that a new task force had been formed to shut down this source of funds.
The United States Agency for International Development is investigating the possibility that kickbacks from its contracts are being funneled to the Taliban.
A report by the London School of Economics (LSE) claimed to provide the most concrete evidence yet that the Pakistani intelligence agency ISI is providing funding, training and sanctuary to the Taliban on a scale much larger than previously thought. The report's author Matt Waldman spoke to nine Taliban field commanders in Afghanistan and concluded that Pakistan's relationship with the insurgents ran far deeper than previously realized. Some of those interviewed suggested that the organization even attended meetings of the Taliban's supreme council, the Quetta Shura. A spokesman for the Pakistani military dismissed the report, describing it as "malicious". Pakistan's armed forces and intelligence services, most notably the Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate (ISI), play a significant role in bolstering the operational capabilities of the Taliban, resulting in their emergence as a formidable military entity.
Foreign support for the Taliban
Pakistan
The Taliban's victory was facilitated in support from Pakistan. Although Pakistan was a major US ally before and after the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, elements of the Pakistan government (including the military and intelligence services) have for decades maintained strong logistical and tactical ties with Taliban militants, and this support helped support the insurgency in Afghanistan. For example, the Haqqani Network, a Taliban affiliate based in Pakistan, had strong support from Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), the Pakistan intelligence agency. Taliban leaders found a safe haven in Pakistan, lived in the country, transacted business and earned funds there, and receiving medical treatment there. Some elements of the Pakistani establishment sympathized with Taliban ideology, and many Pakistan officials considered the Taliban as an asset against India. Bruce Riedel noted that "The Pakistani army believes Afghanistan provides strategic depth against India, which is their obsession."
In 2007, Pakistan's President Pervez Musharraf admitted Taliban getting cross-border aid and said that "There is no doubt Afghan militants are supported from Pakistan soil. The problem that you have in your region is because support is provided from our side."
Pakistan's Interior minister Sheikh Rasheed Ahmad on 1 September 2021, said in an interview with Hum News that "All top Taliban leaders were born and brought up in Pakistan. This has been our 'service' that we trained them and many more might be studying."
Russia and Iran
Dr. Antonio Giustozzi, a senior research fellow at Royal United Services Institute on terrorism and conflict, wrote, "Both the Russians and the Iranians helped the Taliban advance at a breakneck pace in May–August 2021. They contributed to funding and equipping them, but perhaps even more importantly they helped them by brokering deals with parties, groups and personalities close to either country, or even both. [...] The Revolutionary Guards helped the Taliban's advance in western Afghanistan, including by lobbying various strongmen and militia commanders linked to Iran not to resist the Taliban."
2001–2006 Taliban insurgency re-grouping period
Following the Battle of Tora Bora and Operation Anaconda, the Taliban was defeated and many Taliban fighters left the movement or retreated to sanctuaries in Pakistan, where they began the initial stages of re-grouping.
Pamphlets by Taliban and other groups turned up strewn in towns and the countryside in early 2003, urging Islamic faithful to rise up against US forces and other foreign soldiers in holy war. On 27 January 2003, during Operation Mongoose (War in Afghanistan), a band of fighters were assaulted by US forces at the Adi Ghar cave complex north of Spin Boldak. Eighteen rebels were reported killed with no US casualties. The site was suspected to be a base for supplies and fighters coming from Pakistan. The first isolated attacks by relatively large Taliban bands on Afghan targets also appeared around that time.
In May 2003, the Taliban Supreme Court's chief justice, Abdul Salam, proclaimed that the Taliban were back, regrouped, rearmed, and ready for guerrilla war to expel US forces from Afghanistan. Omar assigned five operational zones to Taliban commanders such as Dadullah, who took charge in Zabul province.
Small mobile Taliban training camps were established along the border to train recruits in guerrilla warfare, according to senior Taliban warrior Mullah Malang in June 2003. Most were drawn from tribal area madrassas in Pakistan. Bases, a few with as many as 200 fighters, emerged in the tribal areas by the summer of 2003. Pakistani will to prevent infiltration was uncertain, while Pakistani military operations proved of little use.
As the summer of 2003 continued, Taliban attacks gradually increased in frequency. Dozens of Afghan government soldiers, NGO humanitarian workers, and several US soldiers died in the raids, ambushes and rocket attacks. Besides guerrilla attacks, Taliban fighters began building up forces in the district of Dai Chopan in Zabul Province. The Taliban decided to make a stand there. Over the course of the summer, up to 1,000 guerrillas moved there. Over 220 people, including several dozen Afghan police, were killed in August 2003.
Operation Valiant Strike was a major United States military ground operation in Afghanistan announced on 19 March 2003 that involved 2nd and 3rd battalions of 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, Romanian and Afghan troops. The combined forces moved through Kandahar and parts of Southern Afghanistan with the objective of eliminating Taliban enemy forces and weapons caches while also attempting to gather intelligence on Taliban activity in the area. At the conclusion of the operation on 24 March 2003, coalition forces had detained 13 suspected Taliban fighters and confiscated more than 170 rocket-propelled grenades, 180 land mines, 20 automatic rifles and machine guns, as well as many rockets, rifles, and launchers.
United States led-coalition forces carried out Operation Asbury Park on 2 June 2004, and 17 June 2004, of taskforce 1/6 BLT of the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit engaged in fighting with Taliban and other anti-coalition forces in both Oruzgan Province and Zabul Province culminating in the Dai Chopan region of Afghanistan. This operation was characterized by atypical fighting on the side of the tactics of the Taliban and the other guerillas encountered. culminating in a large battle on 8 June. During Asbury Park, the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit was faced with an opponent that frequently would dig in and engage the Marine forces, rather than the traditional hit and run (or "asymmetric attack") methods. As such, Marines, with the aid of B-1B Lancer, A-10 Warthog, and AH-64 Apache aircraft, engaged in "pitched battles each day," culminating in a large battle on 8 June. The last of the fighting which took place near Dai Chopan on 8 June was decisive in that enemy forces were depleted to such an extent that no further contact was made with the enemy for the duration of the operation. What was meant by the enemy to be a three pronged attack 8 June 2004 resulted in over eighty-five confirmed kills, with estimates well in excess of 100 enemy dead, an estimated 200–300 wounded, with dozens captured. While throughout the entire operation a "handful" of US forces and Afghan Militia were injured.
In late 2004, the then hidden Taliban leader Mohammed Omar announced an insurgency against "America and its puppets" (i.e. transitional Afghan government forces) to "regain the sovereignty of our country".
In late June through mid-July 2005, United States Navy Seals carried out Operation Red Wings as a combined / joint military operation in the Pech District of Afghanistan's Kunar Province, on the slopes of a mountain named Sawtalo Sar, approximately west of Kunar's provincial capital of Asadabad, . Operation Red Wings was intended to disrupt local Taliban anti-coalition militia (ACM) activity, thus contributing to regional stability and thereby facilitating the Afghan Parliament elections scheduled for September 2005. At the time, Taliban anti-coalition militia activity in the region was carried out most notably by a small group, led by a local man from Nangarhar Province, Ahmad Shah, who had aspirations of regional Islamic fundamentalist prominence. He and his small group were among the primary targets of the operation.
In between 13 and 18 August 2005, United States Marine Corps carried out a military operation, called Operation Whalers that took place in Afghanistan's Kunar Province, just weeks after the disastrous Operation Red Wings. Like Operation Red Wings, the objective of Operation Whalers was the disruption of Taliban Anti-Coalition Militia (ACM) activity in the region in support of further stabilizing the region for unencumbered voter turnout for the September 18, 2005 Afghan National Parliamentary Elections. Operation Whalers was planned and executed by the 2nd Battalion of the 3rd Marine Regiment (2/3). The emphasis of the operation was an Anti-Coalition Militia cell led by Ahmad Shah, which was one of 22 identified ACM groups operating in the region at that time, and was the most active. Ahmad Shah's cell was responsible for the Navy SEAL ambush and subsequent MH-47 shootdown that killed, in total, 19 US special operations personnel during Operation Red Wings. Operation Whalers, named after the Hartford / New England Whalers professional hockey team, was the "sequel" to Operation Red Wings in that it was aimed at furthering stabilization of the security situation in the restive Kunar Province of Eastern Afghanistan, a long-term goal of American and coalition forces operating in the area at that time. Operation Whalers, conducted by a number of Marine infantry companies of 2/3 with attached Afghan National Army soldiers and supported by conventional Army aviation, intelligence, and combat arms forces units and US Air Force aviation assets, proved a success. Taliban Anti-Coalition Militia activity dropped substantially and subsequent human intelligence and signals intelligence revealed that Ahmad Shah had been seriously wounded. Shah, who sought to disrupt the September 18, 2005 Afghan National Parliamentary Elections, was not able to undertake any significant Taliban Anti-Coalition operations subsequent to Operation Whalers in Kunar or neighboring provinces.
2006 escalation
In 2006, Afghanistan began facing a wave of attacks by improvised explosives and suicide bombers, particularly after NATO took command of the fight against insurgents in spring 2006.
Afghan President Hamid Karzai publicly condemned the methods used by the western powers. In June 2006 he said:
Insurgents were also criticized for their conduct. According to Human Rights Watch, bombing and other attacks on Afghan civilians by the Taliban (and to a lesser extent Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin), are reported to have "sharply escalated in 2006" with "at least 669 Afghan civilians were killed in at least 350 armed attacks, most of which appear to have been intentionally launched at civilians or civilian objects." 131 of insurgent attacks were suicide attacks which killed 212 civilians (732 wounded), 46 Afghan army and police members (101 wounded), and 12 foreign soldiers (63 wounded).
The United Nations estimated that for the first half of 2011, the civilian deaths rose by 15% and reached 1462, which is the worst death toll since the beginning of the war and despite the surge of foreign troops.
Timeline
June:
6 June: A roadside bombing leaves 2 American soldiers killed, the attack took place in the province of Nangarhar. Also a separate suicide bombing in Khost leaves three US soldiers wounded.
15 June: A bus carrying workers to an American base explodes killing 10 and wounding 15. The explosives were placed on the bus.
July:
1 July: 2 British soldiers are killed when their base came under small arms fire including rocket propelled grenades.
August:
8 August: 4 Canadian NATO soldiers are killed in two separate attacks. And a suicide bomber targeting a NATO convoy detonated, killing 21 people.
20 August: 3 American soldiers are killed and another 3 are wounded in a battle with Taliban militants after a roadside bomb hit an American patrol.
September:
8 September: A major suicide car bombing near the US embassy in Kabul kills 18 including 2 US soldiers.
10 September: The governor of Afghanistan's southeastern Paktia province is killed alongside his bodyguard and nephew when a suicide bomber detonates himself beside the governor's car.
October:
14 October: A suicide attack in Kandahar city leaves 8 dead including one NATO soldier.
15 October: 2 Canadian soldiers were killed when Taliban militants attacked NATO troops using small arms fire and rocket propelled grenades.
December:
6 December: A suicide bomber blew himself up outside a security contractor's office killing 7 including 2 Americans, the attack took place south of Afghanistan in Kandahar.
19 December: Mullah Akhtar Muhammad Osmani, reportedly number 4 in the Taliban shura, is killed by an American airstrike in southern Afghanistan.
2007
The Taliban continued to favor suicide bombing as a tactic.
In 2007 Afghanistan saw 140 more suicide bombings – more than in the past five years combined – that killed more than 300 people, many of whom were civilians.
A UN report said the perpetrators were poorly educated, disaffected young men who were recruited by Taliban leaders in Pakistani madrassas.
Western analysts estimated that the Taliban can field about 10,000 fighters at any given time, according to a 30 October report in The New York Times. Of that number, "only 2,000 to 3,000 are highly motivated, full-time insurgents", the Times reported. The rest are part-timers, made up of alienated, young Afghan men angry at bombing raids or fighting in order to get money. In 2007, more foreign fighters were showing up in Afghanistan than ever before, according to Afghan and United States officials. An estimated 100 to 300 full-time combatants are foreigners, usually from Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Chechnya, various Arab countries and perhaps even Turkey and western China. They tend to be more fanatical and violent, and they often bring skills such as the ability to post more sophisticated videos on the Internet or bombmaking expertise. It has also been reported that the Taliban now control up to 54% of Afghanistan.
On 15 April, the Afghan Government promised to end all hostage deals with the Taliban after two Afghan kidnapped victims were executed in an agreement to free an Italian journalist.
Timeline
January:
23 January: A suicide bomber blew himself up outside a US base in eastern Afghanistan, killing 10 people who were waiting outside the base.
February:
2 February: Taliban forces raided a southern Afghan town, destroying the government center and briefly holding some elders captive.
19 February: The Taliban briefly seized a small town in western Afghanistan after police fled the town, the Taliban forces moved in for 30 minutes and seized three vehicles.
20 February: A suicide bomber blew himself up during an opening hospital ceremony injuring 2 NATO soldiers and a hospital worker.
27 February: 23 people were killed when a suicide bomber attacked an American military base, Bagram Airfield (BAF), in Bagram District, Parwan Province. The attack took place while US vice president Dick Cheney was in the compound. Cheney was unhurt and was the intended target of the attack as claimed by the Taliban. The dead included an American soldier, a Korean soldier, and an American contractor.
March:
4 March: A suicide bomber attacked an American convoy which left 16 civilians dead in the aftermath as the American convey begins to sporadically fire at civilian cars around them. In a separate incident, two British soldiers were killed when a Taliban rocket was fired on them during clashes in Southern Helmand Province.
17 March: A suicide bomber targeting a Canadian military convoy left one dead and three injured, including one NATO soldier. The attack took place in Kandahar.
19 March: A car bomb blew up near a three-vehicle US embassy convoy injuring many in the convoy.
27 March: Four police officers were killed in the southern Helmand Province after a suicide bomber blew himself up outside a police station.
29 March: A suicide bomber near Kabul detonated explosives close to a high-ranking Afghan intelligence official's car, killing 4 civilians.
April:
6 April: Karzai said that he spoke to the Taliban to bring about peace in Afghanistan. He noted that the Afghan Taliban are "always welcome" in Afghanistan, although foreign militants are not.
9 April: Six Canadian soldiers were killed in southern Afghanistan when they struck a roadside bomb. A separate roadside bombing, also in south Afghanistan, left another NATO soldier dead and one wounded. In another incident, a statement from the Taliban's spokesperson claimed that they had beheaded a translator for a kidnapped Italian journalist.
15 April: A suicide bomber struck a US-private security firm, killing four Afghans working for the company.
16 April: A suicide bomber ran onto a police training field and detonated his explosive device, killed 10 police officers and wounded dozens of others. The attack took place in the relatively quiet city of Kunduz. The Taliban claimed responsibility for the attack.
20 April: Separate explosions in Southern Afghanistan leave two NATO soldiers dead.
22 April: A suicide bomber blew himself up in an eastern city of Afghanistan, killing six. A roadside bomb also hit an Afghan intelligence service vehicle, killing all four who were inside.
30 April: Hundreds of Afghans took to the streets in western Afghanistan, accusing US soldiers of killing scores of civilians in fighting which the coalition said killed 136 Taliban in a three-week operation.
May:
13 May: Mullah Dadullah, the Taliban's top military commander in Afghanistan, was killed in fighting in the south.
23 May: The Taliban's newly named top field commander, Mullah Bakht Mohammed, brother and replacement of deceased field commander Mullah Dadullah, made his first public statement, saying the Taliban will "pursue holy war until the occupying countries leave."
July:
19 July: The South Korean hostage crisis involved the hostage taking by the Taliban of twenty-three South Korean Christian aid workers in Ghazni Province. The Taliban killed two hostages later that month. The crisis ended on 30 August with the release of the remaining hostages as part of a deal with South Korean government diplomats.
August:
31 August: A suicide bomber detonated his explosive-laden vehicle after ramming three military vehicles at the military gate of Kabul International Airport. Two Afghan soldiers were killed and ten people were injured.
September:
29 September: In an effort to reach a compromise with the Taliban leaders, Karzai suggested quid quo pro by allowing militants to have a place in government if they stopped fighting. Taliban leaders replied by saying there would be no compromise unless intervening forces such as NATO and the US left.
November:
2 November: Mawlawi Abdul Manan, an important Taliban figure, was killed by Afghan Security forces. His death was confirmed by the Taliban.
2008
The US warned that in 2008 the Taliban has "coalesced into a resilient insurgency", and would "maintain or even increase the scope and pace of its terrorist attacks". Attacks by Taliban insurgents in eastern Afghanistan increased by 40% when compared to the same period in 2007.
Timeline
February
24 February: Poor military intelligence leads to conflicted reports of a possible Taliban spring offensive.
August
19 August: Taliban forces kill 9 French troops (with a 10th death in an accident) near Kabul.
October
6 October: CNN reported that, via Saudi intermediaries, the Taliban is negotiating to end the conflict in Afghanistan, and that the Taliban has split from Al Qaeda.
December:
7 December: 200 Taliban armed with RPGs and automatic weapons attack two NATO supply depots outside of Peshawar destroying 100 vehicles packed with supplies intended to support the NATO effort in Afghanistan.
8 December: 200 Taliban armed with RPGs and automatic weapons attack a NATO supply depot outside of Peshawar destroying 53 container trucks packed with supplies intended to support the NATO effort in Afghanistan.
2009
During 2009 the Taliban regained control over the countryside of several Afghan provinces. In August 2009, Taliban commanders in the province of Helmand started issuing "visa" from the "Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan" in order to allow travel to and from the provincial capital of Lashkar Gah.
Timeline
June:
30 June: US Army Private First Class soldier Bowe R. Bergdahl is captured by the Taliban in Southern Afghanistan.
July:
18 July: The Taliban release a video showing Bergdahl being interviewed by one of his captors.
August:
12 August: Taliban spokesmen threaten the public not to vote in the upcoming presidential elections.
15 August: 2009 NATO Afghanistan headquarters bombing:
A suicide car bomb explodes outside NATO headquarters in Kabul, killing at least seven and wounding almost 100. ISAF troops were reported among the wounded.
25 August: A massive car bomb shakes Kandahar, killing at least 30 and wounding dozens as buildings collapse in the city's center. The attack comes after the first results of the presidential elections were announced. Four US soldiers die in an IED explosion in southern Afghanistan bringing ISAF losses to 295, eclipsing 2008's coalition death toll of 294.
September:
4 September: US airstrike on two fuel tankers kill at least 70 people in Farah Province after it was hijacked by Taliban militants. Angry relatives of those killed claim civilians were collecting fuel from the tankers when the airstrike came.
December:
On 1 December, US President Barack Obama announced that he would send an additional 30,000 troops to help battle the Taliban insurgency. The Taliban reacted to the President's speech by saying they will step up their fight in Afghanistan. A Taliban commander told the BBC that if more US troops came, more would die.
After his disputed re-election, President Hamid Karzai announced to move ahead with a plan for a Loya Jirga to discuss the Taliban insurgency. The Taliban would be invited to take part in this Jirga.
2010
During 2010, the Taliban were ousted from parts of Helmand Province by the ISAF Operation Moshtarak that started in February 2010. In the meantime the Taliban insurgency spread to the northern provinces of the country. The new policy of the Taliban was to shift militants from the south to the north, to show they exist "everywhere", according to Faryab Province Governor Abdul Haq Shafaq. With most Afghan and NATO troops stationed in the southern and eastern provinces, villagers in the once-peaceful north found themselves confronted with a rapid deterioration of security, as insurgents seized new territory in provinces such as Kunduz and Baghlan, and even infiltrated the mountains of Badakhshan Province in the northeast.
Timeline
January:
17 January: "Kabul's day of terror":
On this day, gunbattles near the presidential palace and other government buildings paralyzed the Afghan capital for hours.
As President Karzai was swearing in his new cabinet ministers inside the presidential palace, militants performed attacks on multiple locations in Kabul, including shopping malls, a cinema and the central bank. A team of gunmen launched a spectacular assault in "commando style" with two men detonating suicide bombs and the rest fighting to the death near the gates of the presidential palace, an operation by insurgents to terrorize the Afghan capital, further demoralizing the population and lending to the impression that virtually no part of the country could be safe. The Taliban said it had deployed 20 suicide bombers in explosive vests who were also armed with heavy and light weaponry
A western security official estimated there is a security incident in Kabul, on average, every seven to 10 days.
February:
26 February: Militants target hotels and guest houses in Kabul. Up to nine Indians, an Italian diplomat and a French film maker were among the dead in the worst assault on the Afghan capital for several months. A four-hour battle began with a car bombing and included suicide bombers and Taliban fighters throwing grenades. The attacks appeared to be aimed at Indian government officials and medical workers. Three Afghan police were killed, and six more officers were among the 38 people wounded in what was described as a well-planned and co-ordinated attack.
June:
2–4 June:
The Karzai administration organized the Afghan Peace Jirga in Kabul that was announced after the 2009 presidential elections. The Taliban were not invited.
July:
20–29 July: International Conference on Afghanistan in Kabul
August:
6 August: killing of 10 members of a Christian charity's medical team in the mountains of Badakhshan.
10 August: Amnesty International states that the International Criminal Court should open a formal investigation into crimes committed by the Taliban and other insurgent groups in Afghanistan.
2011
The insurgency continued strongly in 2011.
Timeline
The Taliban continued attacking and ambushing NATO and Afghan troops as well as the targeted assassination of government officials.
January:
29 January: The deputy governor of Kandahar was killed in a suicide attack. Three months later, on 15 April the Kandahar chief police, General Khan Mohammed Mujahid was killed.
April:
It was reported that in 2011, the United States was spending 2 billion dollars per week fighting in Afghanistan against the Taliban. In a 2011 forecast the war in Afghanistan was estimated at 108 billion dollars for the year, while the Iraqi War was estimated at 50 billion.
May:
28 May: The Taliban assassinated one of their main opponents, Mohammed Daud Daud, in a bomb attack. Six others were also killed. He was the chief of the police for the northern of Afghanistan.
July:
18 July: President Karzai's advisor, Jan Mohammad Khan, was assassinated in Kabul by the Taliban in an attack that also killed an Afghan deputy.
As of 18 July, coalition forces started their plan of transition by handing power of several areas to the Afghan authority following their plan of future pull out of the country. A Taliban militant who had infiltrated the Afghan police force killed seven other policemen in Lashkar Gah. The same day the police chief of Registaan district and three other policemen were killed in bomb attacks.
As of 22 July 325 coalition fighters were killed, more than 55% of the deaths caused by IED's.
19 July: ISAF General Chief David Petraeus left his position with mixed results. During his time as the head of ISAF, 3775 insurgents were killed or captured in 2832 raids while 713 NATO soldiers were killed. Overall the level of violence in the country increased. He was replaced by General John Allen.
Between 20 and 22 July, NATO troops killed 50 Haqquani fighters in an attack on their camp.
24 July: A US military investigation discovered that a portion of the 2 billion dollars in funds given by the United States in contracts had fallen in the hands of the insurgency.
27 July: The mayor of Kandahar, Ghulam Haidar Hameedi, was killed in a suicide attack.
28 July: Suicide bombers and snipers attacked the police headquarters of Tarin Kowt in a large-scale attack which killed more than 21 people including Afghan reporter Ahmed Omed Khpulwak. According to the Afghan interior minister, for the 2-year period between 19 March 2009 and 19 March 2011, 2770 Afghan policemen were killed and 4785 wounded while 1052 Afghan soldiers were killed and 2413 wounded.
31 July: 10 Afghan policemen were killed in a suicide attack in Lashkar Gah where Afghan security forces had taken over from NATO a week before. The same day, 10 Afghan guards who were protecting a NATO supplies convoy were killed in the attack. One day before, 5 Afghans soldiers and 2 NATO soldiers were killed in a bomb attack on their patrol.
August:
6 August: 31 American Special Forces soldiers were killed in the crash of their helicopter probably shot down during a fight with the Taliban. Seven Afghan soldiers were also killed. This was the biggest death toll for NATO troops in the whole war. Most of the American soldiers killed were Navy SEALs.
7 August: 4 NATO soldiers were killed, including two French Foreign Legion members, and 5 others were wounded.
2012
The Taliban insurgency continued into 2012.
Timeline
August:
27 August:
Taliban insurgents in the Taliban-controlled southern Helmand area killed 17 civilians – fifteen men and two women – who were attending a party. A government official said that the victims were beheaded for celebrating with music and mixgender dancing in the Musa Qala district of Helmand, which ran contrary to the Taliban's extreme brand of Islam. Later, however, a provincial government official said that the 17 people killed were due to a fight between two Taliban commanders over two women (who were also killed). The civilians were either beheaded or had their throats cut, but some showed signs of gunshot wounds or beatings.
The attacks were condemned by Afghanistan President Hamid Karzai, who ordered an investigation into the attack, the leader of the NATO coalition led by the United States, the United Nations, and the European Union. However, the Taliban has denied responsibility for the attack, saying that no Taliban members have ever killed civilians.
The attack occurred on the same day when two United States troops were killed by an Afghan soldier.
10 Afghan soldiers were killed by the Taliban, also in the Helmand province.
2013
Timeline
January
January 6 – Suicide bombers kill four in an attack in Spin Boldak.
January 16 – The Afghan National Directorate of Security headquarters in Kabul are attacked by a team of suicide bombers, leaving a security guard dead and 17 others injured.
January 26 – A suicide bombing at a market in Kunduz kills at least ten people and wounds up to twenty others.
January 27 – At least twenty members of the Afghan National Police have been killed in bomb attacks over the past day with eight police officers killed in the latest attack in Kandahar.
February
February 24
Two guards and an Afghan police officer are killed in coordinated suicide bombing attacks in Jalalabad and Logar Province in eastern Afghanistan, while a third such attack on the National Directorate of Security in Kabul is foiled.
February 27 – Taliban insurgents kill 17 Afghan government-affiliated militia personnel in an overnight attack in Andar District of eastern Ghazni Province.
March
March 11 – Two US and three Afghan soldiers are killed in Wardak Province in the latest insider attack against coalition forces. In a separate incident, two Afghan civilians are shot dead by American soldiers after failing to stop at a checkpoint near Kabul.
March 13 – A suicide bomber kills 10 spectators, including the district police chief, during a local gaming event in Kunduz province of northern Afghanistan.
March 26
A suicide attack on a police station in Jalalabad, kills five police officers while seven attackers die.
One British soldier is killed and nine are wounded by Taliban insurgents in an attack on a patrol base with a truck bomb and small arms fire in Helmand Province, Nad Ali District.
April
April 3 – more than 46 people are killed and more than 100 injured following an attack by Taliban militants armed with suicide vests on a courthouse in Farah.
Taliban gunmen and bombers attacked Farah, killing 34 civilians and 10 members of the security forces. Nine attackers were killed.
April 5 – An explosive-laden donkey is used in an attack on a police security post in the Alingar District of Laghman Province in eastern Afghanistan, killing a policeman and wounding three civilians.
April 6 – A bombing in Qalat, capital of the southern Kabul Province, kills three U.S. soldiers and two U.S. civilians, along with an Afghan doctor. An American civilian dies in another attack in the east of the country.
April 8
Taliban fighters are suspected of being responsible for a bus explosion that kills at least nine people and injures more than twenty others in Maidan Wardak Province.
April 12 – Thirteen soldiers of the Afghan National Army are killed and one is injured in an ambush in the eastern Kunar Province.
April 22–11 people are kidnapped in Afghanistan after the helicopter they were in was forced to land. The Taliban takes responsibility for the abductions.
April 26 – Six police officers are poisoned and fatally shot in Kunduz Province while another one is missing.
April 26 – At least 30 people die in southern Afghanistan after a bus crashes into the wreckage of a truck attacked by Taliban insurgents.
April 29 – A Boeing 747 crashes near an American military base in Bagram, killing all seven American crew members on board.
April 30 – A roadside bomb kills three members of NATO's ISAF force in Afghanistan.
May
May 4 – Five US soldiers are killed when a bomb detonates in Kandahar. Additionally, three more are killed in separate incidents.
May 6 – An Afghan border police guard is killed and two Pakistani troops are injured in border violence.
May 13 – Three Georgian soldiers are killed and several wounded in a large-scale insurgent attack on an ISAF base in the Helmand Province.
May 14 – The Taliban kills four US soldiers in Kandahar Province.
May 16 – A suicide bomber killed 15 people including two US soldiers and four NATO employees in Kabul. The explosion also wounded 39 people.
May 24 – Afghan security forces battle Taliban insurgents in central Kabul. An Afghan policeman, a Nepalese soldier, and numerous insurgents are killed.
June
June 2 – Taliban insurgents attack two checkpoints in the Kamdesh District in eastern Afghanistan killing four Afghan police officers.
June 3 – A suicide bombing in eastern Afghanistan kills at least 20 people, including 10 children.
June 6 – Seven Georgian servicemen are killed and nine wounded in an insurgent attack with a truck bomb on the ISAF base in Shir Ghazay.
June 8
In Afghanistan, a man wearing an Afghan military uniform attacks and kills three American soldiers, in what appears to be an insider attack on U.S. International Security Assistance Force soldiers, based in east Afghanistan's Paktika Province.
In a separate unrelated incident, an Italian soldier is killed and three are wounded when a child throws a grenade at a NATO convoy in west Afghanistan's Farah Province.
June 10 – Seven heavily armed Taliban militants launch a coordinated attack near the main international airport of Kabul and seize a five-story building under construction nearby. Afghan security forces retake the building, killing all seven militants and sustaining no military or civilian casualties.
June 11 – A bomb detonates near the Afghan Supreme Court killing eight people and wounding dozens.
On 11 June in Kabul, a Taliban suicide car bomber killed 16 people.
June 18
A bomb explodes in Kabul killing three people and wounding six.
Four United States troops are killed near Bagram Airfield.
June 25 – Taliban forces attack near the Presidential Palace in Kabul.
On 25 June, Gunmen and bombers killed three security guards. On the same day the Taliban attacked the presidential palace, about seven or eight explosions happened and eight attackers were killed.
July
July 2 – Militants attack NATO headquarters in the north of Kabul resulting in at least two deaths.
July 9 – Seventeen people are killed by a roadside bomb.
July 23 – A bomb kills eight people in Awardak Province, including three United States Army soldiers, four Afghan National Army soldiers and an Afghan interpreter.
August
August 3 – Nine children die in a suicide bombing near the Indian consulate in Jalalabad.
August 5 – A bomb explodes at a market in Kandahar, killing at least four people.
August 8 – A bomb explodes at a cemetery in Nangarhar Province, killing at least 14 people.
August 11 – Three U.S. soldiers are killed in an attack in Paktia province.
August 17–10 people are killed in a camp by insurgents in western Afghanistan.
August 23 – A routine joint patrol composed of British paratroopers, US Marines and Afghan soldiers targeted a village to search for illegal weapons in Helmand Province. After insertion by a Chinook helicopter, the patrol was ambushed by the Taliban, the resulting skirmish lasted approximately 45 minutes which killed 11 insurgents and wounded four more, a US Marine officer was also wounded, one soldier was awarded the Victoria Cross.
September
September 8 – The Taliban kills four Afghan National Army troops in an attack on an intelligence office near Kabul.
September 13 – Taliban insurgents attack the United States consulate in Herat, with two members of the Afghan National Police reported as killed and about 20 civilians injured.
On 13 September, Taliban gunmen and bombers killed eight security guards and a policeman in Herat. All seven attackers were killed.
October
October 15 – A bomb in a mosque in Logar Province kills the governor Arsala Jamal and results in other injuries.
October 27 – A roadside bomb in eastern Afghanistan kills 18 people.
November
November 16 – Suicide car bombing in Kabul kills six people and injures twenty.
December
December 23 – Captain Richard Holloway of the Special Boat Service was killed by Taliban gunfire whilst on a joint SBS-Afghan forces raid (with air support) on Taliban insurgents in a valley east of Kabul, ahead of the Afghanistan elections.
December 27 – A suicide bomber attacks a foreign military convoy on the eastern outskirts of Kabul, killing at least three foreign soldiers, police and the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force.
2014
As the American troops began to depart, and the number of Taliban attacks increased, there was speculation that the Taliban were waiting for an American withdrawal before launching a major offensive.
Timeline
January
January 6 – A suicide car bomber detonates at a police checkpoint in Ghazni Province, killing three police officers.
January 8 – A book released by former U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates criticizes President Barack Obama for his handling of the War in Afghanistan.
January 9 – The government of Afghanistan announces the release of 72 Taliban fighters from jails, despite American objections that they pose a security threat.
January 11 – A four-year-old Afghan boy is killed by U.S. troops.
January 17 – Twenty-one people are killed in a suicide bombing attack on a Kabul restaurant.
January 26 – A suicide bomber attacks an army bus in Kabul, killing two soldiers and two civilians.
February
February 10 – A car bomb detonates in Kabul, killing two contractors working with ISAF.
February 18 – A suicide bombing attack in Kabul kills at least two people.
February 24 – Senior Taliban commander Asmatullah Shaheen Bhittani is killed in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
March
March 11 – Gunmen in Kabul kill Swedish Radio foreign correspondent Nils Horner.
March 12 – Three Taliban insurgents are killed by a team of Afghan police and private commandos after attacking a former National Directorate of Security headquarters in Kandahar. The Taliban claims they killed four commandos and five policemen, which police deny.
March 18 – A suicide rickshaw bomber detonates in a marketplace in Maymana, killing 15 people and wounding dozens.
March 20 –
Four suspected Taliban members attack the luxurious Kabul Serena Hotel, killing at least nine people, including four foreigners.
Suicide bombers attack a police station in the city of Jalalabad resulting in at least 11 deaths and 22 people being injured.
April
April 2 – A suicide bomber wearing a military uniform strikes a voter registration office in Kabul, killing six police officers.
April 4 – Two members of the Associated Press are shot by an Afghan wearing a police uniform in Khost. One of them, Pulitzer Prize winner and photojournalist Anja Niedringhaus, is killed. The other is seriously injured.
May
May 8 – A roadside bomb near the Afghan border in North Waziristan, Pakistan, kills eight Pakistani soldiers.
May 21 – The Taliban launch attacks in Badakhshan and Laghman provinces, killing 10 policemen and three civilians.
May 23 – Gunmen attack the Indian consulate in Herat Province.
June
June 9 – Five NATO International Security Assistance Force troops are killed in fighting the Taliban.
July
July 2 – A suicide bomber attacks an Afghan National Army air force bus in Kabul killing at least five people.
July 8 – The Taliban claims responsibility for an attack in central Afghanistan that claims the lives of 10 civilians, four Czech members of the International Security Assistance Force and two Afghan police officers.
July 12 – A cross border attack by the Afghan Taliban kills three Pakistan Army soldiers in Bajaur Agency of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.
July 15 – A car bomb explodes at a market in the eastern Afghanistan province of Paktika, killing at least 89 people and injuring scores more in one of the deadliest attacks of the war.
July 17 – Explosions and gunfire are reported near Kabul International Airport as militants temporarily capture a building under construction.
July 22 – A Taliban suicide bomber blows himself up outside Kabul International Airport, killing three foreign advisers and an Afghan interpreter.
July 24 – In Herat, two Finnish women working for a foreign aid organization are shot and killed.
July 25 – Afghan insurgents killed 17 Shia civilians travelling from Kabul.
July 26 – Insurgents stop minibuses in Ghōr Province and execute 14 Shiite Muslims.
July 29 – A suicide bomber kills Hashmat Karzai, the cousin of the President of Afghanistan and a regional powerbroker, in the city of Kandahar.
August
August 5 – A U.S. major general Harold J. Greene is killed, and a German brigadier general and several American troops are among the 15 wounded, in an attack by an Afghan soldier gunman – who was killed by Afghan soldiers – at Kabul's Marshal Fahim National Defense University.
August 14 – A roadside bomb detonates next to a police car in Laghman Province, killing three police officers and injuring another four.
August 30 – Taliban insurgents attack the National Directorate of Security building in Jalalabad resulting in at least six deaths.
September
September 8 – A suicide bomb attack kills the police chief of southern Kandahar Province.
September 16 – A large bomb explodes in Kabul resulting in the death of three international troops (including a U.S Army Major) and five injuries.
September 30 – A double suicide attack killed seven people and wounded 21 others including Afghan soldiers in Kabul.
October
October 1 – Taliban suicide bombers attack an Afghan National Army convoy in Kabul, killing at least seven people and injuring 19.
October 8 – A suicide bomber kills at least four people and wounds 16 in Helmand province.
October 13 – A Taliban attack killed 22 Afghan military in northern Afghanistan
October 21 – A Kabul roadside bomb kills at least four Afghan National Security Force soldiers with six other soldiers and six civilians injured.
November
10 November – Ten policemen, including a commander, are killed by bomb blasts in Jalalabad and Logar Province.
13 December – Assassination of Atiqullah Raufi.
18 November – A suicide bomber attacks in Kabul and kills at least two people.
27 November – A suicide attack in Kabul killed six people including a Briton.
December
December 1 – A suicide bomb kills at least nine, including two policemen, at a funeral for a tribal elder in Baghlan Province.
December 11 – A Taliban suicide bomber kills at least six Afghan National Army soldiers in Tangi Tarakhil on the outskirts of Kabul.
December 13 – Killings
Gunmen assassinate Atiqullah Rawoofi, the head of the Secretariat of the Supreme Court of Afghanistan, in the outskirts of Kabul.
Twenty-one people die in attacks across Afghanistan including two American soldiers.
2015
2015 saw the Taliban make various gains in Afghanistan in an attempt to fracture the fledgling Afghan government with successes not seen since NATO intervened in 2001. The Taliban has increased suicide attacks and has made multiple territorial gains across the country.
Kunduz offensive
Beginning in April, the Taliban fought for the city of Kunduz in the northern Kunduz Province with them capturing the city by September. Afghan Armed Forces recaptured the city in October but local sources dispute this claim. The quick fall of the city resulted in calls by some government officials for President Ashraf Ghani and CEO Abdullah Abdullah to resign.
Helmand offensive
In December, the Taliban made more territorial gains by besieging Afghan forces in the cities of Lashkar Gah, Sangin and outlying towns in the Helmand Province in Southern Afghanistan. By late December, most of Sangin was captured by the Taliban with local Afghan forces surrounded and forced to rely on airlifts for ammunition and food.
Effects
The gains made by the Taliban have hampered peace talks between them and the government and made rifts appear in the Taliban over negotiations. In response to the new offensives, it was reported that the United States would slow down their withdrawal of troops to help in counter-insurgency operations.
2016
14 April: Taliban attacking Kunduz;
31 May: kidnapping a bus with 220 people, killing 10;
1 June storming a court in Ghazni, 5 dead Taliban and 5 dead others;
June: Taliban have 25,000 fighters in Helmand, Kandahar and Uruzgan, according to US sources;
18 July attacking Qalai Zal, unsuccessfully;
July: 20% of Afghanistan is in Taliban hands, said Time magazine;
December: Taliban controls 10% of Afghanistan, said the US military.
2017
On 10 January, the Taliban killed dozens of people in bombings in Kabul and Lashkargah, Helmand Province.
On 21 April, a least 10 Taliban members attacked Camp Shaheen in Mazar-i-Sharif, Balkh Province, killing at least 140 soldiers. All attackers were killed.
On 22 June, a Taliban suicide bomber killed at least 34 people at a bank in Lashkargah.
2018
On 27 January, a Taliban suicide bomber killed over 100 people in Kabul using a bomb in an ambulance.
2019
Throughout most of the year, the US government maintained high-level talks with the Taliban, in an effort to secure a peace deal with the insurgency. However, a suicide bombing in Kabul on 7 September 2019 which killed 11 people and one American soldier prompted the US president to break-off peace talks with the Taliban. In mid September, US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo alleged that the Taliban had suffered more than 1,000 war casualties in the space of only one week since the US broke off peace negotiations with the Taliban.
2020
On 29 February, the US–Taliban deal was signed in Doha, Qatar. The agreement called for the withdrawal of all 13,000 US and allied troops over the next 14 months, on the condition that the Taliban continues with the peace process. The first withdrawal, of around 5,000 personnel, would occur within the next 135 days.
The peace deal stipulated that the Taliban not allow terrorist organizations like al-Qaeda "to use the soil of Afghanistan to threaten the security of the United States and its allies." If successful, the peace deal will bring an end to 18-years of conflict. Only days after signing the historic deal, US forces conducted airstrikes on Taliban soldiers as a "defensive" measure, as Taliban fighters were "actively attacking" an Afghan government checkpoint.
On 2 May, the US revealed that the agreement included an informal commitment for both sides to cut violence by 80%. Since the agreement was signed, attacks on cities and coalition forces had decreased, but overall attacks had increased 70% compared with the same period in 2019, according to Reuters. The Taliban claim that attacks have fallen since the agreement was signed.
On 14 May, a Taliban suicide truck bomber killed five civilians in Gardez, Paktia Province. On 18 May, the Taliban killed nine people in a similar attack in Ghazni Province.
On 29 May, it was revealed that numerous Taliban and Taliban-aligned Haqqani Network leaders were infected with COVID-19. This resulted in the late founder Mullah Mohammad Omar's son Mullah Mohammad Yaqoob being made the entire organization's acting leader.
2021
In 2021, the United States forces and allies started to withdraw from Afghanistan which allowed the Taliban to intensify their insurgency.
On 16 June, the Taliban executed 22 soldiers from the Afghan National Army as they tried to surrender; local eyewitnesses stated that the language the militants used among themselves was foreign, indicating that the fighters were not from the area.
On 29 June, intense fighting between Taliban insurgents and government forces killed 28 civilians and injured another 290 during the past week, according to the head of a hospital in Kunduz, with the majority of the dead being children, women and elderly people. The Taliban had moved beyond its southern strongholds and had intensified the fighting in the north, according to military experts.
On 2 July, US troops fully left Bagram Airfield, handing it to the Afghan Armed Forces as the coalition, including the US, prepared to leave Afghanistan after 20 years. Meanwhile, fighting continued between the Taliban and government forces, with analysts said that the Taliban would be "at the door of Kabul". Afterwards, Bagram Airfield was looted by locals following the sudden American withdrawal from the airbase, which was conducted without any coordination with local officials. Afghan troops later cleared the airbase of looters and secured control of it.
However, it was reported that, during June, the Taliban captured 700 Humvees as well as dozens of armored vehicles and artillery systems from the Afghan National Army as more districts fall under the group's control during their offensive in the north.
On 4 July, the Taliban took control of several further districts overnight as Afghan troops abandoned their posts and fled into neighboring Tajikistan via Badakhshan Province. The State Committee for National Security of Tajikistan reported that more than 300 Afghan troops crossed the Tajik border as Taliban spokesperson Zabiullah Mujahid confirmed that most of the territory gaining occurred without a fight.
On 5 July, Afghan presidential advisor Hamdullah Mohib said that there would be a counter-offensive against the Taliban in the north after the group captured six districts in Badakhshan Province. A day earlier, at least 1,037 Afghan troops abandoned their positions and fled into Tajikistan.
On 7 July, Taliban insurgents entered Qala e Naw, the provincial capital of Badghis Province, with heavy fighting reported as the militants moved "towards the centre of the city". All government officials in the city had been moved to a nearby army base, while the Taliban had freed about 400 prisoners from the city's prison.
On 9 July, the Taliban captured the border town of Islam Qala, Herat, Afghanistan's biggest border crossing with Iran. On the same day, Taliban insurgents captured the border town of Torghundi on the border with Turkmenistan as the Afghan National Security Forces collapsed in Herat. The Interior Ministry said that troops had been "temporarily relocated" and that efforts were underway to recapture the border crossing. In addition, a spokesperson for Kandahar Province Governor Rohullah Khanzada mentioned that the Taliban had started fighting to capture the city of Kandahar.
On 22 July 100 people were killed in a mass shooting in Spin Boldak District.
On 3 August, a suicide car bomber and gunmen attacked Kabul. Eight people were killed, not including the attackers.
On 9 August, #SanctionPakistan became one of the top Twitter trends in Afghanistan and worldwide, with Afghans holding Pakistan responsible for its support of the Taliban.
On 12 August, about two-thirds of the country was in Taliban hands, with only four cities outside of Taliban control. Sectors of the United States government (CIA) estimated that Kabul would fall within 90 days, and American diplomats were reportedly requesting that the Taliban not deface the American embassy there.
On 15 August, Kabul was captured by the Taliban.
Aftermath
The end of the Taliban insurgency resulted in the beginning of a new insurgency against the restored Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan by the National Resistance Front and allied groups which fight under the banner of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
See also
Afghan conflict
Crime in Afghanistan
War in Afghanistan order of battle, 2012
Operation Herrick
Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Coalition casualties in Afghanistan
List of aviation accidents and incidents in the war in Afghanistan
British Forces casualties in Afghanistan
Canadian Forces casualties in Afghanistan
Islamic Emirate of Waziristan
Foreign hostages in Afghanistan
War crimes by the Taliban
References
External links
Who Are the Taliban? by Anand Gopal
2000s conflicts
2010s conflicts
Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)
Conflicts in 2020
Conflicts in 2021
Guerrilla wars
insurgency
Wars involving the Taliban
Insurgencies in Asia |
4512175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin%20obscenity | Latin obscenity | Latin obscenity is the profane, indecent, or impolite vocabulary of Latin, and its uses. Words deemed obscene were described as (obscene, lewd, unfit for public use), or (improper, in poor taste, undignified). Documented obscenities occurred rarely in classical Latin literature, limited to certain types of writing such as epigrams, but they are commonly used in the graffiti written on the walls of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Among the documents of interest in this area is a letter written by Cicero in 45 BC (ad Fam. 9.22) to a friend called Paetus, in which he alludes to a number of obscene words without actually naming them.
Apart from graffiti, the writers who used obscene words most were Catullus and Martial in their shorter poems. Another source is the anonymous Priapeia (see External links below), a collection of 95 epigrams supposedly written to adorn statues of the fertility god Priapus, whose wooden image was customarily set up to protect orchards against thieves. The earlier poems of Horace also contained some obscenities. However, the satirists Persius and Juvenal, although often describing obscene acts, did so without mentioning the obscene words. Medical, especially veterinary, texts also use certain anatomical words that, outside of their technical context, might have been considered obscene.
Latin taboo words
Cicero's letter ad Fam. 9.22
In a letter to one of his friends, written about 45 BC, Cicero discusses a number of obscenities in Latin. It appears that the friend, Lucius Papirius Paetus, (whose letters to Cicero have not been preserved) had used the word ("penis") in one of his letters. Cicero praises him for his forthrightness, which he says conforms to the teachings of the Stoic philosophers, but says that he himself prefers modesty ().
In the letter Cicero alludes to a number of obscene words, without actually mentioning them. The words which he alludes to but avoids are: ("arsehole"), ("penis"), ("cunt"), ("clitoris"), and ("testicles"). He also objects to words which mean "to fuck", as well as to the Latin word "twice" because for bilingual speakers it sounds like the Greek () ("he fucks or sodomises"), and also to two words for passing wind, and . He does not object to using the word , and says that , which in his day was obscene, was formerly just a euphemism meaning "tail".
Degrees of obscenity
There thus appear to have been various degrees of obscenity in Latin, with words for anything to do with sex in the most obscene category. These words are strictly avoided in most types of Latin literature; however, they are common in graffiti, and also in certain genres of poetry, such as the short poems known as epigrams, such as those written by Catullus and Martial. The poet Horace also used obscenities in his early poems, that is the Epodes and the first book of Satires, but later writers of satire such as Juvenal and Persius avoided the coarser words even when discussing obscene topics. There were, however, some occasions in public life, such as in triumphal processions, at weddings, and at certain festivals, where obscenities were traditionally allowed. The purpose of these was presumably twofold, first to ward off the evil eye or potential envy of the gods, and second to promote fertility.
Euphemistic expressions
A very common way of avoiding words for sexual acts was simply to omit the word in question. J.N. Adams collects numerous examples of this. For example, in Horace (Epodes 12.15):
("You are capable of [having sex with] Inachia three times in a night.")
Another way was to substitute the taboo word with a milder one or a metaphor, for example using ("rump (of an animal)") for or for .
Sometimes the offending word was replaced by a pronoun such as ("that") or an adverb such as ("there"), as in Martial (11.104.16):
("And when the Ithacan was snoring, modest though she was, Penelope always kept her hand there.")
: the penis
is the basic Latin word for penis. It is used 48 times in Martial, 26 times in the Priapeia, and 18 times in Pompeian inscriptions. Its status as a basic obscenity is confirmed by the Priapeia 29, in which and are given as ideal examples of obscene words:
("May I die if it doesn't shame meto use obscene and improper words;but when you, Priapus, as a god, shamelesslyshow me your balls hanging out,it is appropriate for me to speak of cunts and cocks.")
Martial mocks a friend who despised effeminate clothing, explaining why he suspects that he is secretly homosexual:
("He will ask why I suspect him to be a 'soft' man.We go to the baths together. He never looks at anything above,but examines the athletes with devouring eyes,and looks at their dicks with constantly moving lips.")
A (the word occurs only in Martial), according to Housman, was a man "who performs feats of strength in public". Rabun Taylor disagrees and sees a more as a kind of rent boy who hung around in the baths in search of patrons.
also frequently appears in the poetry of Catullus. He uses as a nickname for Mamurra, as if it were an ordinary name, as in his epigram 105:
("That prick tries to climb the Pimpleian mount (of poetry);the Muses drive him out with pitchforks.")
(Pimpleia was a place in Pieria in northern Greece associated with the Muses (the nine goddesses of poetry and music).)
Etymology
The etymology of is obscure, although outwardly it would appear to be a diminutive of , gen. , the "mind" (i.e.; "the little mind"). Cicero's letter 9:22 relates it to , a spearmint stalk. Tucker's Etymological Dictionary of Latin relates it to , "to project outwards", , "chin", and , "a mountain", all of which suggest an Indo-European root *men-. Other hypotheses have also been suggested, though none generally accepted.
Synonyms and metaphors
is also a basic Latin obscenity for "penis", in particular for a penis with the foreskin retracted due to erection and glans exposed, as in the illustration of the god Mercury below. As a result, it was "not a neutral technical term, but an emotive and highly offensive word", most commonly used in despective or threatening contexts of violent acts against a fellow male or rival rather than mere sex ( "fucking"). It is found frequently in graffiti of the type (= ) ("Whoever reads this, you're a dickhead").
It is found less frequently in Classical Latin literature, but it does appear in Catullus 28:
("O Memmius, while I lay on my back for a long timeyou fed me good and slow with that entire beam of yours.But as far as I can see, you guys have met with the same fate:for you have been stuffed with a "verpa" no less large!")
Catullus is here speaking metaphorically. He complains that when he accompanied Gaius Memmius, the governor of Bithynia (57-56 BC), as part of his entourage, he was not allowed to make money out of the position. From this poem it is clear that Catullus's friends Veranius and Fabullus were kept under an equally close rein when they accompanied Lucius Piso to his province of Macedonia in 57-55 BC.
By extension, as a masculine adjective or noun, referred to a man whose was exposed by erection or by circumcision; thus Juvenal (14.100) has
("To guide only the circumcised [i.e. Jews] to the fountain that they seek").
And in poem 47 Catullus writes:
("Did that unsheathed Priapus prefer you guysto my little Veranius and Fabullus?")
In Martial's time, it was a common practice for actors and athletes to be fitted with a (a pin or brooch covering the foreskin) to prevent accidental exposure of the , discouraging sex and thereby preserving their voice or strength. Martial (7.81) mocks one such actor as follows:
("Such a big brooch clothes Menophilus's penisthat it is enough for all the comic actors in the world.I believed (since we often go to the baths together)that he was anxious to preserve his voice, Flaccus.But one day, while he was wrestling in the middle of the palaestra with everyone watching,the poor man's brooch fell off. He was circumcised!")
or
A third word for "penis" was (or ). This is very rare and found only in one line of Horace and a fragment of the satirist Lucilius. The passage in Horace (Sat. 1.2.68) is as follows, in which he advises a young man who was beaten up as a result of an affair with the dictator Sulla's daughter:
("What if, in the words of his penis, his mind were to say to the man when he sees such troubles: 'What exactly do you want? Do I ever demand a cunt descended from a famous consul or veiled in a fancy gown when my passion grows hot?'")
And Lucilius says, referring to the fact that Roman men apparently used to masturbate with their left hand:
("But with his left hand as his girlfriend, he wipes away his muttō'''s tears.")
The word may be related to the marriage deity Mutunus Tutunus.
Although itself is rare, the derivative ("well-endowed") is found twice in Martial, as at 3.73:
("You sleep with well-endowed boys, Phoebus,and the thing that stands up for them does not stand up for you.")
The derivative , meaning the same as , is found in Lucilius and in two Pompeian graffiti.
The Latin word itself originally meant "tail". Cicero's , 9.22, observes that originally was an innocuous word, but that the meaning of male sexual organ had become primary by his day. The euphemism is used occasionally by Catullus, Persius, Juvenal, and Martial, and even once by the historian Sallust, who writes that the supporters of the anti-government rebel Catiline included
("whatever shameless man, adulterer, or glutton had ruined his ancestral property by hand, stomach, or 'tail'")
Commenting on this passage, St Augustine notes that Sallust's use of the term in this phrase was not offensive. The word did not survive into Romance, however, and occurs only once in a Pompeian inscription.
Juvenal, showing his knack for describing grossly obscene matters without using taboo words, writes as follows in one of his satires (9.43-4):
("Or do you think it is an easy or straightforward thing to drive a proper-sized 'tail'inside someone's guts and there meet with yesterday's dinner?")
Another euphemism for the penis was ("tail"), which occurs twice in Horace, and continues today in the French derivative ("tail" or "penis"). In one place in his Satires (Serm. 2.7.50) Horace writes:
("Whichever girl receives the blows of my swelling 'tail',or when I'm on my back sexily rides my 'horse' with her buttocks,sends me away neither with a bad reputation nor worried thata richer or more handsome guy might piss in the same place.")
For the metaphorical use of ("to piss"), see below.
The words ("nerve" or "sinew") and In one of Horace's Epodes (12) a woman boasts of one of her lovers, Coan Amyntas,
("on whose indomitable groin a sinew grows, more constant than a new tree clings to the hills.")
or
or , which meant a phallic image or amulet in the form of a penis, were also sometimes used as euphemisms for the penis.
And one of the characters in Petronius's Satyricon, Ascyltus, is described as follows:
("For he had a weight on his groins so big that you'd think the man himself was just an appendage of his phallus.")
or
Yet another euphemism is or or , which literally means the stem or stalk of a plant (such as a cabbage, onion, or vine). This word was used by the satirist Lucilius and by the medical writer Celsus (6.18.2).
In the same passage (6.18.2), Celsus refers to the foreskin as "skin", and to the glans as "acorn". Martial also uses the word in an obscene pun (12.75.3):
("Secundus has buttocks fed with acorns")
The word seems to have been children's slang for the penis; compare English pee-pee. It appears in Martial 11.71:
("Natta sucks the pee-pee of his athlete,compared to whom, Priapus is a eunuch.")
For , see on above. was an emasculated member of the cult of Cybele; according to Taylor (1997), they had much in common with the hijras of India today.
The penis was compared to a throat or neck in these lines of Martial (9.27.1–2), which mock a philosopher who has plucked the hairs from his private parts with tweezers ():
("when you carry around depilated balls, Chrestus,and a dick just like a vulture's neck")
Similarly Persius in his 4th satire refers to the penis as "neck, gullet". In the following lines he imagines young Alcibiades (or an Alcibiades-like youth) sunbathing in a public bath and comments on the fact that though he now has a full beard on his chin he still "weeds" all the hairs out of his private parts:
("But if after being oiled you take a rest and fix the sun on your skin,near you there is a stranger to nudge you will his elbow and spit scornfully:'What morals! To weed one's penis and the secret parts of one's loinsand to display a withered to the public!And when you comb a balsamed rug on your jaw,why does a shorn stick out from your groin?Even though five gym-attendants pluck at that vegetationand make your boiled buttocks smooth with their curved tweezers,yet that "bracken" of yours can't be tamed by any plough.' ")
That here means "throat" or "gullet" is supported by a scholiast (early commentator). However, Adams, the expert on Roman sexual vocabulary, prefers the idea that this word is also a by-form of , a grain weevil. Another scholar Wehrle, pointing to the horticultural imagery, thinks the metaphor refers to the larva of a weevil.
The word (literally, "lizard"), like the equivalent saurā in the pederastic poems of Strato or Straton, appears sometimes to have been used of the penis. Since the word "to die" can be used of orgasm, an obscene meaning seems to be implied by the following couplet of Martial (14.172):
("Spare this lizard crawling towards you, treacherous boy,It wants to die between your fingers)"
Since Strato also uses the word batos "bramble" metaphorically of the female genitalia, a similar erotic implication has been seen in Horace's Odes 1.23 where Horace writes:
("green lizards have parted the bramble bush")
an action which has apparently caused the knees of Chloe (the girl Horace is pursuing) to tremble. A similar sexual implication has been seen in Virgil's Eclogue 2.9, in which the rustic shepherd Corydon is singing of his hopeless love for the boy Alexis:
("now the thickets are even hiding the green lizards")
The obscure word (gen. ) seems to have meant a sexualized caricature with an abnormally large penis, such as the Romans were known to draw. It appears in Catullus 37:
("I will graffiti the front of the tavern with s")
and in a graffito from Pompeii:
("may you guys eat shit, whoever you are who drew sopios!'")
The grammarian Sacerdos preserves a quotation about Pompey, that says ("whoever is not ashamed, and does not blush, is not a man, but a .") would appear to describe drawings such as that of the god Mercury in the illustration.
Erection
The verb meant "to have an erection". Martial (6.36) in one epigram teases a certain friend:
("Your cock is as big as your nose is long, Papylus, so that you can smell it whenever you get an erection.")
Suetonius's Lives of the Twelve Caesars, quotes a letter from Mark Antony to Augustus which contains the sentence:
("Does it make any difference where or in which woman you get hard?")
The participle means 'erect'. Martial describes the habit of a certain girl of weighing a lover's penis in her hand (10.55.1):
("Whenever Marulla weighs an erect penis in her fingers...")
Martial uses the word ("a hard one") alone to refer to a penis in the following line, mocking a certain Greek philosopher who despite his beard was effeminate (9.47.6):
("You enjoy having a hard one in your soft backside")
Another word for "erect" was ("stretched, extended"). Priapus is addressed as in Priāpeia 81, and as being ("heavy with an extended phallus") in Priāpeia 79.
An "erection" or "impatience to have sex" was . Horace (Sat. 1.2.116-8) writes:
...
("When your groin swells up, then ifa slave girl or home-reared slave boy is available, on whom you can mount an attackstraightaway, do you prefer to burst with the erection?")
Similarly in Priapeia 33.5, the god Priapus says:
("Shameful indeed to do, but so that I don't burst with desire,I shall put down my sickle and my hand will become my girlfriend.")
An adjective to describe a penis which refused to become erect was . Ovid (Amōrēs 3.7.65-6):
("But my members lay there as if prematurely dead, shamefully, more languid than yesterday's rose.")
And a girlfriend of Horace's chides him with the words (Epodes 12):
("You are less languid with Inachia than with me!")
While Catullus (67.23) speaks of an impotent husband in these terms:
("whose little dagger, hanging more flaccid than a tender beet (a vegetable)never raised itself to the middle of his tunic")
In the Romance languages
has evolved into Sicilian and Italian and South Sardinian . also exists in Spanish. is preserved in some Romance dialects, usually with another meaning; is a sort of stirrup and spur in a Calabrian dialect, possibly named for its shape. Most Romance languages have adopted metaphorical euphemisms as the chief words for the penis; as in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian , obscene for penis, and in Romanian (although is far more common), in Catalan and French , from Latin , "staff", and French ("tail"), from Latin "tail". The Portuguese "penis", first attested in the 10th century, is thought to derive from a Vulgar Latin word "a little stake". The Italian has no obvious Latin ancestor. A number of different suggestions have been made for its origin, but none has yet gained general acceptance.
: the testicles
The basic word for the testicles in Latin was (singular: ). It appears to have had an alternative form * (singular: ), from which the Spanish and other Romance forms are derived. (One late Latin source has the spelling .)
Etymology
The etymology of is obscure. Tucker, without explanation, gives *qogh-sleǐ-os (*kwogh-sley-os?), and relates it to cohum, an obscure word for "yoke".
Lewis and Short's Latin Dictionary relates the word to ("a leather sack for liquids"). However, this etymology is not generally accepted today, and according to the the etymology is unknown. In texts, the word for testicles is always spelled with col- not cull-, and is plural.
Usage
Cicero in his letter discussing obscene Latin words (ad Fam. 9.22) says at one point ("Lanuvian are respectable, but "Cliternian" ones are indecent"). (Lanuvium and Cliternia were small towns not far from Rome.) However, the meaning of these phrases is not known, according to the .
The word occurs in Petronius (44):
("if we had any balls (i.e. if we were real men), he wouldn't be so pleased with himself!")
A Pompeian graffito quotes a line of iambic verse:
("When an old man lies down, his testicles cover his butthole.")
The form of the line is reminiscent of the proverbial sayings of Publilius Syrus, many of which employ the same metre.
Synonyms and metaphors
The more decent word in Latin for testicles was (sing. ). This word may have derived from the Latin for "witnesses". Cicero's letter says ("In a court of law, witnesses is a quite decent word; not too much so elsewhere.") Katz (1998) draws attention to the fact that in some cultures it was customary to take a solemn oath while laying hands on the testicles either of a living person (as in Genesis 24:2-4; 47:29-31), or of a sacrificed animal (as described in Demosthenes 23.67f); a similar ritual took place in Umbria when dedicating a sacrificial animal. According to Katz, the word itself appears to be derived from the root trityo- ("third") and originally meant a third party.
The two meanings of open the door for puns such as the following from Martial (2.72):
("What about the fact that Caecilius has witnesses/testicles, Postumus?")
Or Cicero's ("outstanding witnesses!") in his amusing account of two witnesses hiding naked in a public bathhouse.
The diminutive was entirely confined to the anatomical sense; it is used 33 times by the medical writer Celsus, but not at all. The satirists Persius and Juvenal also used the word . Veterinary writers use both and .
In Catullus (63.5), the testicles are famously referred to as ("weights"), perhaps a metaphor of the weights hung on threads of a loom. The exact words of the text here are disputed, but the general sense is clear:
("He tore off the weights of his groin with a sharp flint")
Ovid ( 2.241) recounting the same story, and perhaps implying that Attis removed the whole organ, similarly uses the phrase ("the burden of his groin").
Other euphemisms are used in other writers. Ovid (Amōrēs 2.3) uses the phrase :
("He who first cut off the genital parts of boys ought himself to have suffered the wounds which he made.")
In the Romance languages
is productive in most of the Romance languages: cf. Italian , French ; Portuguese , Galician , Catalan , Sardinian , Romanian , Spanish (now a loanword in English).
Cunnus: the vulva
was the basic Latin word for the vulva. The Priapeia mention it in connection with , above.
Etymology
has a distinguished Indo-European lineage. It is cognate with Persian "anus" and "vulva", and with Greek (kusthos). Tucker and de Vaan derive it from an Indo-European *kut-nos akin to Welsh 'bag, scrotum'. Despite its similarity to "cunt", the Oxford English Dictionary cautions that the two words may have developed from different roots.
Usage
Cicero's §154 confirms its obscene status. Cicero writes:
("We say ("with them"), but we don't say ['with us'], but rather ; because if we said it like that, the letters would run together in a rather obscene way.")
Because the /m/ of assimilates to the /n/ of , sounds very similar to , meaning "in/from/with a cunt twice". A similar euphemism occurs in French: the avoidance of , homophone to (cunt), by the insertion of a superfluous letter: .
Horace, however, uses the word in his Satires () at 1.2.70, and again at 1.3.105:
("For even before Helen, the cunt was a most loathsome cause of war")
Martial also uses it freely, for example (3.87):
("Rumour has it, Chione, that you have never been fucked and that there is nothing purer than your cunt.However, you go to the baths without covering the part you should; if you have any modesty, transfer your loincloth to your face!")
The following obscene poetic graffito from Pompeii is written in the trochaic septenarius metre:
("A hairy cunt is fucked much better than a smooth one:at the same time it retains the heat and at the same time it brushes the cock")
The word occurs in literary Latin, most frequently in Martial; it denotes the person who performs the action, not the action itself as in modern English, where it is not obscene but technical. The term comes from the Latin word for the vulva () and the verb "to lick" (, cf. "tongue").
Synonyms and metaphors
These include , "indentation", and , "ditch"; also or "pot".
The modern scientific or polite words vulva and vagina both stem from Latin, but originally they had different meanings. The word is the Latin word for scabbard or sword-sheath.
(or ) in classical Latin generally signified the womb, especially in medical writing, and also it is also common in the Vetus Latina (pre-Jerome) version of the Bible. The meanings of and have changed by means of metaphor and metonymy, respectively. Other words for the womb are , (in later Latin), ("belly"), and (also "belly"). At Juvenal 6.129, however, the word is used of the vagina or clitoris of the (allegedly) nymphomaniac empress Messalina, who is described as departing from a session in a brothel:
("still burning with the excitement of her rigid 'volva',tired out by men but still not satisfied, she departs")
In the Romance languages
is preserved in almost every Romance language: e.g. French , Catalan , Spanish , Galician , Portuguese , (South) Sardinian , Old Italian . In Calabrian dialects the forms (m.) and (f.) are used as synonyms of "stupid, dumb"; the same is true of the French and in fact this has become the primary meaning of the words, both eclipsing the genital sense and significantly reducing the word's obscenity. In Portuguese it has been transferred to the feminine gender; the form is also attested in Pompeian graffiti and in some late Latin texts.
: the clitoris
The ancient Romans had medical knowledge of the clitoris, and their native word for it was . This appears to have been one of the most obscene words in the entire Latin lexicon. It is alluded to, but does not appear, in literary sources, except in the Priapeia 79, which calls it , the "poor little clitoris". It does, however, appear in graffiti.
Usage
Not even the poets Catullus and Martial, whose frankness is notorious, ever refer to landīca. In a letter to a friend, Cicero discusses which words in Latin are potentially obscene or subject to obscene punning, and there hints at the word by quoting an unintentionally obscene utterance made in the Senate:
"shall I say that this or that was the greater fault?"
with echoing the forbidden word. Note that the "m" at the end of was pronounced like "n" before the following "d."
The word is found in Roman graffiti: ("I seek Fulvia's clitoris") appears on a leaden projectile found at Perugia left over from the Perusine War, while a derivative word is found in Pompeii: ("Euplia (is) loose and has a large clitoris").
It also occurs in Priapeia 78.5 (in some versions 79.5), where a girl who has received the attentions of a is described as suffering from ("cracks in her clitoris").
("But may the gods and goddesses deny your teeth any food, you who licked the cunt of my neighbouring girlfriend, because of whom this brave girl who has never told a lie, and who used to come running quickly to me, now, poor thing, swears she can hardly walk because of the grooves in her clitoris.")
The word also occurs twice in a medical context in a 5th-6th century Latin translation of Soranus of Ephesus's book on gynaecology.
Fay (1907) suggests one possible etymology as ("a little gland").
Synonyms and metaphors
Martial's epigram 1.90 alludes to a woman who uses her clitoris as a penis in a lesbian encounter, referring to it as her "prodigious Venus":
("You dare to rub two cunts together and your prodigious Venus pretends to be a man.")
In the Satires of Juvenal it is referred to euphemistically as a crista, "crest" in this line (6.420), describing a lady's massage after an exercise session:
("And the cunning masseur presses his fingers on her 'crest'and causes the top of his mistress's thigh to cry aloud")
In the Romance languages
survived in Old French landie (extremely rare), and in Romanian lindic.
: the anus
The basic Latin word for the anus was . Though not very common, it occurs in both Catullus and Martial, and is productive in Romance. The word is of uncertain etymology, according to Adams.
Usage
In the texts appears to be used mainly of humans. It was associated with both defecation and with sex. Catullus (23) mocks a certain Furius with these words:
("Because your arsehole is purer than a salt-cellarand you don't shit even ten times in a whole year,and the shit is harder than beans and pebbles;which, if you were to rub it and crumble it with your hands,you could never dirty your finger")
Martial (2.51) mocks a passive homosexual in these terms:
("Though you often have only one denarius in your whole money-chest, Hyllus, and that rubbed smoother than your arsehole,yet it's not the baker, nor the innkeeper, who will take that away from you, but anyone who is proud of his over-sized penis.Your unlucky stomach looks at the banquets of your arsehole, and the former is always hungry, poor thing, while the latter devours.")
In a verse fable of Phaedrus, the word is used of dogs:
("Whenever (a dog) sees a new one coming, he smells its anus.")
The word was synonymous with , "arsehole". This word is thought to be an o-stem version of the same root as "to fart", identifying it as the source of flatulence. Lewis and Short's Dictionary cites only two instances. In an unattractive picture of an old woman Horace (Epodes 8.6) writes:
("And (when) there gapes between your wrinkled buttocksan ugly arsehole like that of a cow with diarrhoea.")
Juvenal (2.12), writing of outwardly virile but in practice effeminate philosophers, writes:
("Your hairy limbs and the tough bristles along your armspromise a stern spirit, it's true, but from your smooth arseholeswollen figs (i.e. piles) are cut out as the doctor laughs.")
The implication is that the piles have been caused by anal sex; that such anal piles or sores are caused by sex is a common theme in the poems of Martial.
Martial uses both and synonymously in the following poem (6.37):
("Of his arsehole cut open right up to his navelCharimus has no trace left;and yet he itches right up to his navel.O, under what great urges the poor man labours!He has no anus, and yet he's still a fag!")
seems to have been rather a rarer word than . It is not used by Catullus, and only twice by Martial. It is not found in Pompeii, and did not produce derivatives in vulgar Latin or in the Romance languages. The fact that it is used once by Juvenal (who avoided obscene vocabulary) shows that it was less offensive than . In later medical Latin, such as the 5th century Cassius Felix, it could be used as an alternative for .
(not to be confused with "an old woman") corresponds to the English derivative "anus". The word is metaphorical and originally meant "ring". Its anatomical sense drove out its other meanings, and for this reason the diminutive became the usual Latin name for a ring or circle.
The word is common in medical writings. In his book on agriculture, Columella describes how to treat a cow with stomach-ache:
("If any pain remains, trim your nails, insert your oiled hand through its anus and extract the dung.")
It does not seem to have been regarded as an obscenity, and in his letter on different Latin obscene words, Cicero says:
("You call an 'anus' by a name not its own; why not use its own name? If it is something obscene, it should not be referred to even by another name; if it is not, it should be called by its own name.")
In the Latin Bible, the word is used for "haemorrhoids":
("You shall make five golden haemorrhoids.")
In Phaedrus's fable of the dogs who are sent on an embassy to Jupiter, it is used as a synonym of , which occurs later in the same poem:
("Fearing lest something similar might happen again,they fill the dogs' anus with perfume, and a lot of it.")
An example of the usage of "ring" as a metaphor in a modern Romance language can be found in Brazilian Portuguese slang, in which the word anel can have the same double meaning, especially in the expression o anel de couro (the leather ring). "Ring" is also British slang for "anus".
Buttocks
A more seemly Latin word for the backside was (singular ) "buttocks"; this word was generally more decent than , and older, as well: it has several Indo-European cognates. It can be used for the rump of animals as well as humans, and even birds. The word is usually plural but sometimes singular. In the same satire quoted above Juvenal (2.20–21) speaks scathingly of philosophers who have double standards, preaching about virtue but practising vice:
("They speak of virtuebut waggle their rump. 'Am I going to respect you, Sextus, when you behave in such a camp way?'")
Another word for buttocks, slightly less common, was natēs, which is generally used only of the buttocks of humans. It seems to have been a more vulgar or colloquial word than clūnēs. In one of the Priapeia epigrams (22, in some editions 21) the god Priapus threatens potential thieves with punishment as follows:
("If any woman steals (from my garden) or a man or a boy,the first must provide her cunt, the second his head, the third his buttocks.")
In the Romance languages
has been preserved as meaning the buttocks (rather than the anus) in most Romance languages except for Portuguese, which kept the original semantics. It yields the forms culo in Spanish and Italian; in French and Catalan it becomes cul, in Romanian cur, in Vegliot Dalmatian čol, in Sardinian and Sicilian culu, in Portuguese cu and in Galician cu. Its offensiveness varies from one language to another; in French it was incorporated into ordinary words and expressions such as culottes, "breeches", and cul-de-sac.
: to fuck
, infinitive , perfect , supine , Latin for "to fuck", is richly attested and useful.
The etymology of is "obscure". It may be related to "repel, rebut" and , "suppress" or "beat down", and come from a root meaning "beat".
is richly attested in all its forms in Latin literature. In one poem (10.81.1) Martial writes, using the supine:
("When two men came one morning to Phyllis for a fuck...")
Not only the word itself, but also derived words such as , "fucked out, exhausted from sex" (Catullus 41), (Catullus 29, same meaning), and "to have sex with" (Catullus 37) are attested in Classical Latin literature. The derived noun , "act of intercourse", also exists in Classical Latin, and the , which corresponds to the English epithet "fucker", but lacking the derogatory tone of the English word. The god Priapus says in one poem (Priapeia 63):
("To this (p....) of mine, a girl – I almost added the name –is accustomed to come with her boyfriend")
It is also used metaphorically in Catullus 6, which speaks of , funds exhausted, literally "fucked away".
, unlike the English word "fuck", was more frequently used in erotic and celebratory senses rather than derogatory ones or insults. A woman of Pompeii wrote the graffito ("I got laid here") and prostitutes, canny at marketing, appear to have written other graffiti complimenting their customers for their sexual prowess:
("Lucky boy, you fuck well");
("Victorious, best wishes to one who fucks well").
It is famously used in Catullus 32:
("but you remain at home and prepare for usnine acts of fucking, one after the other.")
in its active voice was used of women only when it was imagined that they were taking the active role thought appropriate to the male partner by the Romans. The woman in Martial 7.70 is described as a , a lesbian.
("Lesbian of all lesbians, Philaenis,you are right to call the woman you fuck, your 'girlfriend'.")
Other more neutral synonyms for in Latin include , literally "to enter", as in this sentence from Suetonius, supposedly from a letter written by Mark Antony (lover of Queen Cleopatra) to his brother-in-law Octavian (later to become the Emperor Augustus):
("What has changed you? Is it because I'm sleeping with the queen? ... So is Drusilla the only woman you sleep with?")
The word , literally "to go with," whence Latin and English coitus, is also used euphemistically for sexual intercourse, but it is not exactly a synonym for . It can be used for both men and women, and also of animals and birds.
Another word found on Pompeian inscriptions was , which appears to be a borrowing from the Greek () "loosen". A Pompeian inscription says ("Dionysius is allowed to fuck whenever he wants to"). The Latin word appears to be used in the same sense in Priapeia 31: ("these weapons of my belly will relax you" (of ).
Adams (1982) lists a large number of other euphemisms for the sexual act, such as this one from Juvenal (6.126):
("And lying on her back she absorbed the blows of all and sundry")
In the Romance languages
, a core item of the lexicon, lives on in most of the Romance languages, sometimes with its sense somewhat weakened: Catalan fotre, French foutre, Spanish joder, Portuguese foder, Galician foder, Romanian fute (futere), Italian fottere. A famous ribald song in Old Occitan sometimes attributed to the troubadour William IX of Aquitaine reads:
Tant las fotei com auziretz:Cen e quatre vint et ueit vetz,<br/ >Q'a pauc no-i rompei mos corretzE mos arnes ("I fucked them as much as you will hear:a hundred and eighty-eight times.I most nearly broke my equipment-- and my tool.")
: to sodomise
The aggressive sense of English "fuck" and "screw" was not strongly attached to futuō in Latin. Instead, these aggressive connotations attached themselves to pēdīcāre "to sodomise" and "to force fellatio" respectively, which were used with mock hostility in Catullus 16:
("I will bugger and facefuck you,pervert Aurelius and faggot Furius,since you thought me indecentbecause my poems are somewhat sissified.")
The passive voice, , is used of the person who is forced to submit to anal sex, as in Priapeia 35, in which the god Priapus threatens a thief:
("You will be buggered, thief, on the first offence; but ifyou are caught a second time, I will stick it in your mouth.")
The verb could also be used of having anal sex with women, as in the following lines from Martial (11.104.17–18) (in the poem he claims to be speaking to his wife):
("You refuse to let me have anal sex with you: but Cornelia granted this to Gracchus, Julia to Pompey, and Porcia, Brutus, to you.")
There is some doubt in the dictionaries whether the correct spelling was ped- or paed- (Lewis and Short give the latter). Bücheler (1915, p. 105) argues that ped- is correct on the basis of the following epigram in the Priapeia (no. 67):
("Let the first syllable of 'Penelope' be followed by the first of 'Dido', and the first of 'Cadmus' by the first of 'Remus',and what comes out of them is what you will pay to me if you are caught in the garden, thief; it is with this penalty you must pay for your crime.")
and (noun)
The word ("buggerer") is used in a poem by Catullus's friend the orator Licinius Calvus quoted by Suetonius (Caesar 49), in which the King of Bithynia is referred to as ("the buggerer of Caesar"), referring to a rumour that in his youth Julius Caesar had had an affair with king Nicomedes.
Martial, in contrast, preferred to use the shorter form or , of the same meaning, for example at 11.87:
("Once you were rich; but in those days you were a pēdīco, and for a long time no woman was known to you.Now you chase after old women. O the things that poverty forces one to do! That woman is making a fucker out of you, Charidemus!")
The activities of a are hinted at in the following lines of Martial (12.85):
("You say that buggerers' mouths stink.If this is true as you say, Fabullus,what do you think the mouth of pussy-lickers smells of?")
The various distinctions in sexual activity are made clear in the following poem of Martial (2.28):
("Laugh a lot, Sextillus, if anyone calls you effeminate (cinaedus), and show him your middle finger;but you're also neither a buggerer (pēdīco) nor a fucker (futūtor), nor does the hot mouth of Vetustina please you.You're none of those, I admit, Sextillus, so what are you? I don't know, but you know there are only two other possibilities!")
The fourth line rules out Sextillus as an ; the two remaining possibilities were in Roman eyes the most degrading, that he was either a or a .
Etymology
is often thought to be a Greek loanword in Latin (from the noun (paidika) "boyfriend"), but the long "i" is an obstacle. Bücheler (1915, p. 105), who rejects this etymology, suggests there may be a connection to and .
In Romance
Unlike , the word has no reflexes in Romance. The French slang word pédé ("male homosexual") is an abbreviated form of pédéraste, according to the Dictionnaire historique de la langue française.
and : oral sex
: to make suck
, which in English is denoted by the passive construction "to be sucked", is an active verb in Latin, since the was considered to be the active partner, the fellātor the passive. is the counterpart of ; in Roman terms, which are the opposite way round to modern conceptions, the giver of oral sex inserts his penis into the mouth of the receiver.
To be forced to submit to oral sex was apparently a worse punishment than to be sodomised. Martial (2.47) advises one effeminate man who is having an adulterous affair, and who would not perhaps have objected too much if the husband punished him by sodomising him:
("Do you rely on your buttocks (to avoid a worse punishment)? Your girlfriend's husband is not a sodomiser. He does two things only: puts it in your mouth or screws women.")
According to Adams (1982, p. 126-7), it was a standard joke to speak of as a means of silencing someone. Martial (3.96) writes:
("You gossip like an adulterer and a womaniser;but if I catch you, Gargilius, you will be quiet!")
was seen as a hostile act that enemies might inflict on one. An inscription says:
("I would prefer my friends to suck me than that my enemies make me suck them.")
It is also a standard threat made by the god Priapus, protector of orchards, to potential adult male thieves, as in Priapeia 13:
("You will be thoroughly 'cut', boy, I warn you; girl, you will be fucked; for the bearded thief, a third penalty awaits.")
: to suck
The word originally had an innocent sense, meaning to suck the teat or to suck milk, but in classical times the sexual sense was predominant. The verb fellō and the nouns and (less often) the feminine are common in graffiti, and the first two also occur several times in Martial's epigrams. The practice was thought particularly degrading for a man, and Martial, mocking a certain masculine lesbian, writes (7.67):
("She does not suck cocks – she thinks this not masculine enough –but absolutely devours the middle parts of girls.")
was generally used absolutely, without an object. A Pompeian wall inscription says ("Myrtis, you suck well"), and another says ("Romula does fellatio with her boyfriend here and everywhere").
A possible obscene innuendo of fellation with a boy has been seen in the following line of Virgil (Eclogues, 2.34), in which the shepherd Corydon is trying to seduce a handsome boy Alexis by offering to teach him to play the pipes:
("You will not regret having rubbed your lip on my pipe").
leaves little trace in Romance languages, being replaced by ("to suck") and its derivatives. Though it is not represented by descendants, it is represented by learned borrowings such as the French fellation.
and : to lick
The verb ("I lick") was common in both sexual and non-sexual contexts. As a sexual term, it could have , , or as its object. Martial (3.96) writes:
("You lick my girlfriend, you don't fuck her;and you boast about it as if you were an adulterer and a fucker.But if I catch you, Gargilius, you'll shut up!")
Its synonym was also sometimes used in a sexual sense. Martial (3.81) criticises a eunuch who presumed to have oral sex with women:
("That tongue of yours ought to be licking the middle parts of men (not women)")
: to "peel"
"to take the bark off", "peel" and "to take the husk off", "to skin, flay" are famously used in a sexual sense in two places in Latin literature by Catullus and Ausonius. It has been argued that the meaning is to pull back a man's foreskin, in order to masturbate him. Ausonius (Ep. 71), after mentioning various perversions (), says:
("Crispa, however, practices all the perversions in one body:she 'peels', she sucks, she puts it in either hole,lest she leave anything untried before she dies.")
What seems to shock Ausonius is that Crispa actively enjoyed taking an active role in such practices rather than passively submitting to male desires as was the norm.
The other sexual use of this word is in Catullus (57), who says in a moment of bitterness:
("Caelius, our Lesbia, that Lesbia,that one woman whom Catullusloved more than himself and all his dear onesnow on crossroads and in alleys'peels' the grandsons of magnanimous Remus.")
Some, noting that in Italian the phrases cavar la pelle, scorticare ("debark") can mean "strip someone of their money", and similar uses of ("to shear") and ("to skin") in Latin, have argued that Catullus is also using the word in a non-sexual sense; that is, Lesbia is acting like a prostitute and fleecing the spendthrift Roman young men () of their money.Muse (2009), pp. 310-11.
and : to waggle
() and ( etc.) are basic Latin obscenities that have no exact English equivalents. referred to the actions of the female partner in sexual intercourse (i.e. grinding or riding on a penis); as, similarly to the case in English, , which is often translated "fuck", primarily referred to the male action (i.e. thrusting, pounding, slamming). referred to the similar activity of the passive partner in anal sex.
Etymology
Both of these verbs are of fairly obscure origin.
Unlike some of the vocabulary of homosexuality in Latin (, ), seems not to be of Greek origin. Francis A. Wood relates it to an Indo-European root *kweu- or *qeu-, relating to a variety of back and forth motions.
Usage
always refers to a male taking the bottom role in anal sex. Martial 3.95 contains the phrase:
("But you get buggered and you wiggle your arse so prettily, Naevolus.")
appears to have had a similar meaning, but to have been used of the female. Martial writes of a Spanish dancing-girl (who he suggests would make a suitable present for someone):
("She waggles so tremulously, she arouses so charmingly, that she has made Hippolytus himself into a masturbator")
Again Martial 10.68:
("Could you possibly be prettier as you grind? You learn easily, and could do everything they do in Corinth; but you'll never quite be Lais, Laelia.")
Lais was a famous prostitute or courtesan, and Corinth was the site of a major temple of Aphrodite; the temple employed more than a thousand cult prostitutes.
Synonyms and metaphors
These words have few synonyms or metaphors, and belong almost to a sort of technical vocabulary.
In the Romance languages
Both words seem to have been lost in Romance.
: to masturbate
This word is found twice in the poet Martial, but apparently not in earlier writers. Martial writes in one poem (11.104):
("The Phrygian slaves used to masturbate behind the doors whenever Hector's wife sat on her husband's 'horse'.")
The word also occurs. In 14.203 Martial writes of a Spanish girl from Gādēs (Cádiz):
("She wiggles so sexily and itches for it so charmingly that she would have made a masturbator out of Hippolytus himself!")
Hippolytus was famous in mythology for his chastity, and for refusing the advances of his stepmother, Phaedra.
Etymology
Lewis and Short suggest that the word may be derived from "to defile oneself with a hand", and this is the usual view, and supported ("with some hesitation") by J.N. Adams. Another view,D. Q. Adams (1985). however, is that it comes from * + ("to excite the penis"), assuming an otherwise unattested meaning of "penis" for ("male"). The supporters of this view cite another word (from ), which occurs once in Latin literature in Petronius (134.5), and which appears from the context to mean "beating the penis with a wand (to stimulate it)". It is argued that in this word, the element mās- may be the same as in . Yet another proposed etymology is that the element masturb- derives from a Proto-Indo-European root *mostrgh- meaning "brain, marrow", and hence "semen".
Synonyms and euphemisms
Martial (9.41) criticises a Roman gentleman for masturbating, using the phrase:
("you use your left hand as a concubine and your hand serves Venus as your girlfriend")
The hand used for masturbating by the Romans was evidently the left one, as Martial 11.73 confirms. (Compare also the fragment of the satirist Lucilius quoted above in the section on .)
In another poem (11.22) Martial advises a friend:
("do at least cease from troubling your groins with copulating hand").
He continues:
("In smooth-skinned boys this (i.e their hand) sins more than their cock, and their fingers hasten the process of turning them into a man.")
This apparently dates back to a belief of Aristotle that vigorous sexual activity caused a boy's voice to turn rapidly into that of a man.
In another poem (2.43), however, Martial admits that he himself for want of a sexual partner sometimes resorts to the practice:
("but as for me, my hand has to serve instead of Ganymede").
In another (11.46), addressed to a man who finds it difficult in middle age to get an erection, Martial uses the word ("I shove" or "prod") to signify masturbation:
("and your shrivelled dick is prodded by your fingers until they get tired, but doesn't raise its worn out head even when provoked").
The frequentative form of is ("to thrust or shove repeatedly"). This occurs in only one place, in Catullus 56:
("Recently I caught the ward of my girlfriend'thrusting'; this boy, if it please Dione,using my 'hard one' as a weapon, I 'cut'.")
The meaning of here is disputed. "Masturbating" was the interpretation of A. E. Housman;Adams (1982), p. 146. he also wanted to read as with the meaning "there and then". Others,Uden (2007), pp. 11-12. however, understand Catullus to mean that the boy was caught having sex with a girl; in which case, probably means "in a threesome", since a , according to the agricultural writer Cato the Elder, was a team of three oxen pulling a plough. Uden (2007) translates: "I just caught a kid banging his girlfriend", explaining that is a derogatory diminutive.
The verb (literally "to cut" or "kill") is used as slang for homosexual penetration elsewhere in Latin literature, such as at Priapeia 26.10, a poem in which Priapus boasts that in his earlier days ("I used to 'cut' (i.e. sodomise) thieves, however strong they were"). Dione, was the mother of Aphrodite (Venus), goddess of love; but the term was also used in poetry for Venus herself.
: to defecate
was the chief Latin word for defecation.
Etymology
The word has a distinguished Indo-European parentage, which may perhaps relate to nursery words or children's slang that tends to recur across many different cultures. It would appear to be cognate with the Greek noun , kopros, meaning "excrement" (hence, coprophilia). It also exists in Germanic; in German, Swedish (kack), Scots (as both noun and verb, cack or cackie, the diminutive), whilst English "poppiecock" derives from Dutch pappe kak, "diarrhea". It exists in Turkish (kaka), Irish and Scottish Gaelic (cac), Hebrew, Arabic dialects, Hungarian (kaka), Ukrainian (какати), Russian, Lithuanian and Persian/Isfahani accent (keke). In British English, "caca" is occasionally used as childish slang for excrement (similar to American English "poop"), a word whose level of obscene loading varies from country to country; whilst in Scotland and in Ireland, "cack" is occasionally used either as a mild interjection, or as an impolite adjective to mean of poor quality, broken, nonsense. It also exists as a loan in Finnish (kakka). The derivatives of this Latin word appear in Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, Italian (cacca), Romanian, and French.
Also, in Slavic languages: kakati.
Usage
The verb is usually used intransitively. Martial (1.92.11) says:
("not your arsehole, for something that never shits isn't an arsehole")
However, in the phrase below, from Catullus 36, it is transitive:
("Volusius's Annals, paper covered in shit")
The prefixed form is transitive. Seneca describes the Emperor Claudius's final words, spoken after farting loudly:
("His last saying heard among mortals was the following, after he had let out a rather loud sound from that part with which he spoke more easily: 'O no, I think I've shat myself!' Whether he did or not, I don't know. He certainly shat on everything else.")
Synonyms and metaphors
Few synonyms are attested in Classical Latin, apart from a word , attested by the grammarian Festus (but nowhere else) in the meaning . The word comes much later.
A euphemism which occurs in Petronius (116) is :
("We also had whole-wheat bread, which I prefer to white, since it gives you strength and also when I relieve myself, I don't feel pain.")
The same euphemism is used in Petronius of relieving oneself of gas (see below).
In the Romance languages
is preserved unaltered in Sardinian and the southern Italian dialects, and with little alteration in Italian (cagare). It becomes Galician, Catalan, Spanish, and Portuguese cagar, in Vegliot Dalmatian kakuor, in French chier, and in Romanian as căcare (the act of taking a dump) or a (se) căca. (Feces are referred to as caca in French, Catalan, Romanian (besides căcat) and Spanish childhood slang, while Portuguese and Romanian use the very same word with the general meaning of anything that looks or smells malodorous or reminiscent of excrement.) German kacken, Dutch kakken, Czech kakat, Lithuanian kakoti, Russian какать (kakat), Icelandic kúka, Bosnian kakiti etc. are all slang words meaning "to defecate", most of them having roughly the same level of severity as the English expression "take a dump".
: feces
is the basic Latin word for excrement. Frequently used, it appears in most of the Romance languages.
Etymology
represents Indo-European *s-merd-, whose root sense was likely "something malodorous." It is cognate with German Mist (dung), Lithuanian "smirdė́ti" ("to stink"), Russian "смерде́ть" (smerdét, "to stink") and Polish śmierdzieć ("to stink").
Usage
The word is attested in classical texts mostly in veterinary and agricultural contexts, meaning "manure". Cato the Elder uses it, as well as , while the Mulomedicina Chironis speaks of , "cattle manure".
Unlike the English word "shit", could be both singular and plural. In Horace (Satires 1.8.37), a talking statue of Priapus says:
("But if I'm telling a lie, may my head be spattered with the white droppingsof ravens, and may Julius, delicate Pediatia, and the thief Voranuscome to piss and shit on me!")
In one of his verse fables (4.18.25), Phaedrus speaks of some dogs who have had their backsides deodorised with perfume. But on hearing thunder,
("suddenly they shit out the perfume mixed with turds")
The word can also be used in a metaphorical sense, as at Martial 3.17, speaking of a pastry which had been blown on by a man with impure breath (caused no doubt by oral sex) to cool it down:
("But nobody could touch it: it was a piece of shit'''.")
Synonyms and metaphors
The politer terms for in Classical Latin were (gen. ), "manure" and or , "filth." was used frequently in the Vulgate, as in its well-known translation of Psalm 112:7: (Psalm 113:7 in the KJV.)
("Raising up the needy from the earth : and lifting up the poor out of the dunghill." DRC)
In Classical Latin, , plural , meant the dregs, such as are found in a bottle of wine; the word did not acquire the sense of feces until later.
In the Romance languages
is productive in the Romance languages, and is the etymon of French merde, Spanish mierda, and in Vegliot Dalmatian miarda. It is preserved unaltered in Catalan, Galician, Italian, Portuguese, and Sardinian. It was preserved in Romanian too, not for feces, where căcat (derived from caco) is used instead, but in the word dezmierda, originally meaning "to clean the bottom of (an infant)"; subsequently becoming "to cuddle" or "to fondle".
and : passing wind
is the basic Latin word for passing intestinal wind. In the Sermones 1.8, 46, Horace writes:
Christopher Smart translates this passage as "from my cleft bum of fig-tree I let out a fart, which made as great an explosion as a burst bladder". The "I" of this satire is the god Priapus, and Smart explains that he was made of fig-tree wood which split through being poorly prepared.
Martial also uses the word several times, including the following (10.15):
("I don't see any other reason why I should believe you a friend, other than that you are in the habit of farting in front of me, Crispus.")
A word ("to fart in the face of, mock") is used in Horace (Sat. 1.9.70).
Catullus also uses the noun in one of his poems (54).
A rarer word, meaning "to fart silently", was . This is hinted at in Cicero's letter ad Fam. 9.22, where he says that the word is potentially obscene, in the same way as the word . The word is not recorded in Lewis and Short's Latin Dictionary and does not appear to have been used by any extant author. However, the Oxford Latin Dictionary quotes an inscription from a public bath in Ostia which says
("cunning Chilon taught how to fart silently").
Judging from derivatives in some of the daughter languages (see below), there was also a noun * "a silent fart", but no trace of this is found in the extant texts.
The noise made by escaping flatulence was usually called , a word which could refer to "a noise" of various kinds, and the verb was used of breaking wind noisily. Martial writes of a certain man, who after an embarrassing incident of flatulence when praying in the temple of Jupiter, was careful in the future to take precautions:
("Whenever he wants to come to the Capitolium (to pray)he first heads for the toilets of Paterclusand farts ten or twenty times.But however much he takes precautions by breaking wind,he still salutes Jupiter with clenched buttocks.")
Euphemisms
In Petronius (47), in the speech of the vulgar millionaire Trimalchio, euphemisms and "do what helps one" are both used for relieving oneself of wind:
("And so if any of you wants to relieve himself (of wind), there's no need for him to be ashamed. Personally I think there's nothing worse than holding it in. And I never forbid anyone to relieve himself of wind even in the dining-room, and doctors forbid people to hold it in as well.")
Etymology
The antiquity of and its membership in the core inherited vocabulary is clear from its reduplicating perfect stem. It is cognate with Greek (perdomai), English fart, Bulgarian prdi, Polish pierdzieć, Russian пердеть (perdet), Lithuanian persti, Sanskrit pardate, and Avestan pərəδaiti, all of which mean the same thing.
is clearly onomatopoeic. The Old Norse fisa may be compared, although the correspondence in sounds is not exact.
In the Romance languages and English
and survive in Romance. In French, the noun pet from pēditum and the derived verb péter (for earlier poire from pēdere) are very much alive. In Catalan, the verb is petar-se and the noun is pet. In Spanish the noun pedo as well as the verbs peerse and pedorrear are similarly derived. Portuguese peido and peidar(-se), (-dei) and Galician peido and peidar(se) are related. Italian peto is less common than scorreggia and its derived verb scorreggiare, but in Neapolitan pireto is frequently used.
The English word petard, found mostly in the cliché "hoist with his own petard", comes from an early explosive device, the noise of which was likened to that of farting. English also has petomania for a musical performance of breaking intestinal wind, and petomane for the performer, after Le Pétomane, a French performer active in the early 20th century.
, though rare in Latin texts, has derivates in several Romance languages, such as Romanian bășí (verb) and bășínă (noun); French vesse (noun) and vesser (verb).
and : urination
(infinitive ) and (infinitive ) are two variant forms of what is likely a single Latin verb meaning "to urinate", or in more vulgar usage, "to take a piss." The two verbs share a perfect or , and a past participle or . It is likely that represents a variant conjugation of with a nasal infix.
In Classical Latin, the form was more common than . In some Late Latin texts a variant first conjugation form is attested. This is the form that is productive in Romance.
The Classical Latin word became the accepted medical word meaning "to urinate". It is the source of the English medical term "micturition reflex".
Usage
Martial's epigram 3.78 uses and to make a bilingual pun:
("You pissed once off the side of a boat, Paulinus. Do you want to piss again? then you will be Palinurus.")
(Note that palin is a Greek word meaning "once again". Palinurus was Aeneas's helmsman who fell overboard in a storm in the Aeneid.)
The verbs and could also be used euphemistically of sexual intercourse. Horace (Satires 1.2.44), speaking of the punishments meted out to adulterers, says:
("One got thoroughly 'pissed on' (i.e. raped) by the servants; it evenhappened once that they cut off someone's balls and lecherous 'tail'with a knife.")
Catullus (67.23) speaks of a father who "pissed in the lap of his own son" (), that is, had sex with his son's wife.
Urine
The most usual word for urine was , which is attested in Latin as early as Cicero, and became the usual polite term. The relationship with the Greek verb (oureō), "to urinate", is not clear. In Classical Latin, however, the verb ūrīnārī meant "to dive into water", and was "a diver", "those who dive".
Catullus (37) writes contemptuously of a certain Spaniard who was one of the lovers of his girlfriend Lesbia:
("You above all, one of the long-haired ones,son of rabbit-filled Celtiberia,Egnatius, made handsome by your dark beard,and your teeth brushed clean with Iberian piss.")
Another word for urine, but less commonly used, was . This word relates to , "to wash". The Romans, innocent of soap, collected urine as a source of ammonia to use in laundering clothes. The early agricultural writer Cato, an advocate of cabbage, used this word when he wrote ( 156):
("Cabbage is good for the digestion and for the urine.")
Etymology
Meiere is an inherited Indo-European word. It relates to Sanskrit mehati, "urinates", Persian mīz, "urine", Lithuanian myža, "he/she urinates", Greek (omeikhein), "to urinate", which, taken together, point to an Indo-European *h3meiģh-. This IE root with a palatal ģh was formerly mixed up (e. g. in Pokorny's IEW) with another one with velar *gh meaning "mist" (Russian mgla), hence erroneous tentative overall translations like "to sprinkle" or "to wet" which still turn up sometimes.
In the Romance languages
Though mingere and meiere are the Classical Latin forms, meiāre seems to have been the popular form in Late Latin. This underlies Galician mexar, Portuguese mijar, and Spanish mear. *Pissiāre represents a borrowing from the Germanic languages, and appears elsewhere in the Romance territory, as in French pisser, Catalan pixar, Italian pisciare and Romanian a (se) pișa, along with English to piss.
Latin words relating to prostitution
Compared to the anatomical frankness of the Roman vocabulary about sexual acts and body parts, the Roman vocabulary relating to prostitution seems euphemistic and metaphorical.
Prostitutes were called meretrīx, "earner", and lupa, "she-wolf"; a brothel was a lupānar; these words referred to the mercantile and perceived predatory activities of prostitutes. The Latin verb prōstō meant "to be up for sale" and prōstituō meant "to expose for public sale."
The poet Juvenal (6.120-3) describes how the disgraced Empress Messalina used to enjoy playing the part of a prostitute in a brothel:
sed nigrum flāvō crīnem abscondente galērōintrāvit calidum veterī centōne lupānaret cellam vacuam atque suam; tunc nūda papillīsprōstitit aurātīs titulum mentīta Lyciscae
("But hiding her black hair with a yellow wig,wearing an old patchwork cloak, she entered the hot brotheland an empty cell of her own; then she offered herself for sale nudewith her nipples covered in gold, using the false name of 'Lycisca'.")
The pimp or pander in charge of the brothel, who dismissed the girls at closing time, was called lēnō if male (Juvenal 6.127) and lēna if female.
The neuter word scortum could refer to either a male or female prostitute. This word may relate to Latin scorteus, "made of leather or hide", much as English refers to the skin trade. Lewis and Short quote Varro: pellem antīquī dīcēbant scortum ("in the old days people referred to skin as scortum").
Another word for a male prostitute, notably one who is no longer a boy, is exolētus (literally "grown up, adult"). Cicero (pro Milone, 21, 55) writes:
Clōdius, quī semper sēcum scorta, semper exolētōs, semper lupās dūceret
("Clodius, who always used to take with him whores, and male and female prostitutes")
The verb scortor, scortārī, which occurs chiefly in Plautus, means "to go whoring" or "to employ prostitutes". Plautus illustrates its use in Asinaria:
quandō mēcum pariter pōtant, pariter scortārī solent,hanc quidem, quam nactus, praedam pariter cum illīs partiam.
("Whenever they go drinking with me, they also usually go whoring with me.So I'll share this booty which I've captured with them equally.")
The important and productive words for a prostitute in Romance, *pūta or *pūtāna, are not attested in Classical Latin, despite their many Romance derivatives: French putain and pute, Italian puttana, Spanish, Filipino, Catalan, Portuguese and Galician puta. French linguists state that they relate to Latin pūteō, pūtēre, "to stink," and thus represent yet another metaphor.. Spaniards María Moliner (author of a famous dictionary of Spanish) and Joan Coromines think they came from Vulgar Latin *putta, feminine form of *puttus, an emphatic form of pūtus, "pure" or "boy". In Portugal, the word puto has the same connotation as "small kid" or "little boy"; in Brazil, on the other hand, it is slang for "pissed off" or enraged males in general or as a colloquial, mildly offensive term for male escorts (more formally called prostitutos or michês) – the male counterpart of the slang puta, with the same meanings.
In popular culture
The HBO/BBC2 original television series Rome depicts the city with the grit and grime that is often absent from earlier productions, including that of language. But since the actors speak English, Latin profanity is mostly seen in written graffiti, such as:
ATIA FELLAT, "Atia sucks"; "fellatio" is a noun derived from this verb.
ATIA AMAT OMNES, "Atia loves all [men]". Thus calling her a whore or slut.
CAESARI SERVILIA FUTATRIX, "Servilia is Caesar's bitch". Graffito in HBO's Rome, episode 5 See fututor and fututrix.
See also
Vulgar Latin
Sexuality in ancient Rome
Homosexuality in ancient Rome
Bibliography
Primary literary sources are discussed in the text. Many of the graffiti discussed are found in the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
Adams, Douglas Q. (1985) "Latin Mas and Masturbari". Glotta, 63. Bd., 3./4. H. (1985), pp. 241–247.
Adams, James N. (1981a). "A Type of Sexual Euphemism in Latin". Phoenix, Vol. 35, No. 2 (Summer, 1981), pp. 120–128. Published by: Classical Association of Canada.
Adams, James N. (1981b). "Culus, Clunes and Their Synonyms in Latin". Glotta, 59. Bd., 3./4. H. (1981), pp. 231–264.
Adams, James N. (1983). "Martial 2. 83". Classical Philology, Vol. 78, No. 4 (Oct., 1983), pp. 311–315. (A reply to Richlin (1981).)
Adams, James N. (1990 [1982]). The Latin Sexual Vocabulary (Johns Hopkins, 1990 [1982]) . (Introduction.)
(Anon.) (1868). The Index Expurgatorius of Martial, Literally Translated, Comprising All the Epigrams hitherto Omitted by English Translators. Believed to have been written by George Augustus Sala and Edward Sellon among others.
Bain, David (1991). "Six Greek Verbs of Sexual Congress (βινω̑, κινω̑, πυγίζω, ληκω̑, οἴϕω, λαικάζω)"The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 1 (1991), pp. 51–77.
Beckelhymer, Samuel David (2014). "The Way That Our Catullus Walked: Grammar and Poetry in the Late Republic". Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 1205.
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Currie, Bruno (1996). "A Note on Catullus 63.5". Classical Quarterly, Vol. 46, No. 2 (1996), pp. 579–581.
Dutsch, Dorota and Ann Suter (ed.) (2015), Ancient Obscenities: Their Nature and Use in the Ancient Greek and Roman Worlds. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. . Reviewed by Jeffrey Henderson Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2017.05.46.
Fay, Edwin W. (1907) "Greek and Latin Word Studies". The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Apr., 1907), pp. 13–30.
Fisher, John (1976). The lexical affiliations of Vegliote (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1976)
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Wood, Francis A. (1905) "The IE. Root '*Qeu'-: Nuere, Nutare, Cevere; Quatere, Cudere; Cubare, Incumbere. II" In Modern Philology, vol. 17, p. 567 ff. (Univ. Chicago, 1905)
Wray, David (2001). "Attis' Groin Weights (Catullus 63.5)". Classical Philology, Vol. 96, No. 2 (Apr., 2001), pp. 120–126.
Notes
External links
The Priapeia (Latin and English)
Poems of Martial (Latin)
Poems of Catullus (Latin)
Poems of Horace (Latin)
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (German and English; partial)
Latein-Online List of Swear Words (German)
Cicero's letter ad Fam. 9.22. (Perseus database (Latin only))
Cicero's ad Fam. 9.22 (English translation by E. S. Shuckburgh 1908)
Obs
Profanity by language |
4512251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Munster%20Fusiliers%20%28New%20Army%29 | Royal Munster Fusiliers (New Army) | The Royal Munster Fusiliers was a regular infantry regiment of the British Army. One of eight Irish regiments raised largely in Ireland, its home depot in Tralee. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 the immediate need for a considerable expansion of the British Army resulted in the formation of the New Army under Lord Kitchener. The war target was seventy divisions in all, the New Army to have thirty volunteer divisions separate and under Army Order 324, as additional from the Regular Army, with a planned period of service of at least three years. On 7 August a general United Kingdom-wide call for 100,000 volunteers aged 19–30 was issued. The battalions were to be distinguished by the word 'Service' after their number.
The first new battalions were raised as units of Kitchener's new K1 Army Group, which led to the formation of the 6th and 7th (Service) Battalions, Royal Munster Fusiliers (RMF) comprising the 30th Brigade of the 10th (Irish) Division, under the command of General Bryan Mahon.
The 8th and 9th RMF (Service) Battalions followed as units of the 16th (Irish) Division's 47th and 48th Brigades, part of Kitchener's second new K2 Army Group, the 16th Division under the command of Major General William Hickie . In the course of the war heavy losses suffered by the Regular RMF Battalions caused the new service battalions to be disbanded and absorbed in turn by the regular battalions, the last on 2 June 1918 when the 8th (Service) RMF was amalgamated with the 1st (Regular) RMF Battalion.
6th, 7th (Service) Battalions
Curragh
Both battalions were formed at Tralee Depot, Co. Kerry in August 1914 and moved to the Curragh as the 30th Brigade of their division for initial training and receiving recruits from the recruiting districts. An early problem was to find 29 sufficiently experienced officers for the battalions. By the time they transferred to Basingstoke England in May they had a variety of regular, retired and reserve officers designated from other battalions. Both battalions had their ranks further diversified, receiving surplus recruits from other British regiments, such as the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers to the 6th RMF, Ulster recruits then numbering Munster recruits.
Gallipoli
After very hard training, both battalions embarked on 9 July 1915 from Liverpool, disembarking on 19 July in Greece at Mudros on the Aegean island of Lemnos. Disease reduced battalion strength from 1000 to 800 even before the planned landing at Suvla Bay on the Gallipoli peninsula. The intention was to land north of the Turkish forces and cut them off, opening the way to Constantinople. The 1st Regular RMF had already been engaged in fighting with varying intensity since its landing in April. The 10th (Irish) Division landed at Suvla Bay on 7 August, already weakened by the fact that a number of its battalions had been landed on the wrong beaches. The tenth division was left with only five battalions, including the two RMFs, out of 13. Their objective was to capture the Kiretch Tepe Sirk ridge along the North side of the bay. The 6th landed first with 25 officers and 749 men, then the 7th with 28 officers and 750 men.
Retreat
The 6th were raw troops in action for the first time in what was known as the Battle of Sari Bair Ridge. Held up by concealed trenches, lack of water, heat and exhaustion, they lost over 70 killed by dusk when they withdrew. Although they outnumbered the Turks, a further day was lost due to lack of leadership at Corps level, during which the enemy reinforced its position. The RMF attack resumed on 9. August but came to a halt at the bottom of the ridge. A naval bombardment failed its objectives. When scrub caught fire they withdrew and entrenched. Bitter cold nights made them retire to the beaches where 350 reinforcements arrived. On 15 August the 10th Division made its final thrust taking the north slope of the ridge costing the 6th RMF 43 killed, the 7th RMF in support lost 23 killed. The 6th held its position overnight under heavy bombardment, then had to withdraw next day.
The ridge had been nearly captured, but by the 19. both battalions were down to half strength since landing. During the last offensive by the British forces in the Battle of Scimitar Hill on 21. August, the battalions played a supportive role, after which static trench warfare ensued to the end of September. Casualties from sickness now exceeded those from enemy action. The 10th (Irish) Division was withdrawn and embarked for Mudras on the 30., the 7th RMF with only 6 officers and 305 men, the 6th RMF with fewer than 450 men.
Serbia
With the Bulgarian invasion of Serbia, both Greece and Serbia requested Allied help. In response the 10th (Irish) Division was shipped to Salonika for the Macedonian campaign. The division received extensive training as well as reinforcements from non-regimental sources changing the character of the two battalions. Still wearing summer uniforms the severe snow and frost at high level caused many casualties. The Bulgarian forces made intensive progress and threatened the Anglo-French force, the 7th RMF in a front line position. At Kosturino it held the rearguard as the 10th Division, which included Connaught Rangers and Royal Dublin Fusiliers, was ordered to retreat at the end of December. Having failed to prevent the fall of Serbia, the Allied forces remained at Salonika, where during early 1916 the two RMF battalions were built up to strength again.
Greece
The Bulgarians, with German support, crossed the Greek frontier on 26 May. The 10th Division was first sent into action in August along the Struma River valley, coming into action against the Bulgarians on 30 September in the 'Struma offensive', crossing the river and taking the village of Yenikoi (present-day Provatas in Serres Prefecture, Greece), then reoccupying it again after a Bulgarian counterattack, but at the cost of 500 men. Both RMF battalions crossed back on 15 October for a rest period. Now well below strength due to the malaria in summer and lack of recruits, it resulted in the amalgamation, on 3 November, of the 7th into the 6th RMF after they returned again to Yeninkoi. . The division withstood further Bulgarian attacks in March 1917. In late summer the 10th was withdrawn to be deployed to stem the Turks on the Palestine front.
Palestine
They embarked from Salonika on the 9. September 1917, arriving via Egypt in Ismalia on 12. September, October spent training after redress, entering the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. During the Battle of Gaza from the 27. October the 6th RMF were not greatly involved to their disappointment, the Turks withdrawing by 7 November. Following a refit the 10th Division returned to the line 25. November, the 6th RMF encountering considerable sniper fire on the way to the capture of Jerusalem, which was entered unopposed on 9. December. With relatively low losses the 6th RMF had taken what was asked of it. After so many defeats since Gallipoli, they were at last tasting victory. . Into 1918 was spent on reconstruction work, when fighting flared up again in March requiring an advance towards Nablus. This enemy engagement was to be the last action in Palestine.
France
Heavy losses had been encountered on the Western Front after the great German March offensive, resulting in the transfer of 60,000 men from Palestine to France, their place taken by Indian battalions. Ten battalions of the 10th (Irish) Division were included, the 6th RMF one of them. 35 officers and 812 other ranks embarked at Alexandria arriving Marseilles on 2. June. It was entrained for the journey northward, reaching Arques on 6. June, marching from there to the camp of the remaining 2nd Regular RMF which had suffered heavily in March and was at cadre level. The 2nd RMF was largely reconstructed with disbanded personnel of the 6th RMF.
The remaining 6th RMF self at cadre strength, was assigned to instruct an American infantry brigade. After completion, they re-joined the 2nd RMF in Dieppe which was in reality the rebuilt 6th RMF. These had been a closely knit unit with relatively low losses since Gallipoli but were soon to suffer heavily in fierce combat during the Hundred Days Offensive and the final weeks before the Armistice in November 1918.
8th, 9th (Service) Battalions
An Army Order 352 of 11 September 1914 authorised the formation of a second six divisions to be called the K2 Army Group of Kitchener's New Army, and included the 8th and 9th Munsters as battalions of the 16th (Irish) Division's thirteen battalions. The 16th Division officers were all former Regulars. This caused much controversy because experienced officers had previously been drafted to the 10th (Irish) Division and the fact that the 16th (Irish) Division in contrast to the 10th, was to be solely for recruits enlisting in Ireland. Other rebuffs were the rejection by the War Office of distinctive regimental colours and shamrock cap badges. This very much hampered recruitment to the Division.
8th (Service) Battalion
This battalion was formed at Fermoy, in October 1914 and reserved for recruits from the Irish National Volunteers by order of the Secretary of State for War, as the 47th Brigade of the 16th (Irish) Division. It also comprised the largest number of recruits from the County Limerick area. It moved to Mitchelstown in November 1914 where it was visited by the Belfast Nationalist M.P. Joseph Devlin. After a stay in Templemore from February 1915, it returned to Fermoy again in May 1915. Then in August it crossed over to Blackdown camp Aldershot, Hampshire, England, undergoing harder training.
France
Sailing from Southampton the 8th RMF landed in France with the 16th (Irish) Division under its new commander Major-General William Hickie on 19. December 1915 with 33 officers and 948 other ranks, going straight to the Winter trenches on the Loos salient, the front line of the earlier lost Battle of Loos, alongside the 15th (Scottish) Division. Casualties occurred throughout January. During February it was stationed at Béthune for training, returning to the lines, rotating with the 9th RMF through April. In May its casualties were replenished by 12 officers and 200 men from the disbanded 9th Battalion. During June and July it took part on several raids along the Loos sector with its brigade, suffering significant losses, often the battalion's best soldiers. It left with the 16th Division for the Somme sector on 30 August 1916.
Ginchy
Its area of operation was to the front at Guillemont and Ginchy. It was part of the assault which took Guillemont on 3 September 1916 along with the Connaught Rangers. After the initial attack on Ginchy failed, it was left open to a counter-attack, then withdrawn to recover from its losses. It returned on 7 September 1916 with 200 men for the next attack on Ginchy. With inadequate cover, by 9 September 1916 it was inflicted with heavy casualties and was unable to bury its dead. The other battalions of the 16th (Irish) Division captured Ginchy. The Division was then transferred northwards to the Ypres salient. The 8th RMF was on rotating trench engagements with continual casualties up to 7. November 1916. It was disbanded with 21 officers and 446 other ranks on 22 November 1916, and its personnel drafted into the 1st RMF (Regular) Battalion which had returned from Gallipoli, just three weeks after the disbandment of the 7th RMF in Macedonia.
9th (Service) Battalion
The battalion was raised mostly in County Cork between late autumn 1914 and the spring of 1915, having the highest proportion of soldiers from the regimental county. The Independent Nationalist MP. for mid-Cork, Capt. D. D. Sheehan, played a considerable role as officer in its recruitment. After initial training at Kilworth near Buttevant it was stationed at Mallow then moved to Fermoy in June 1915, before crossing to Blackdown camp, Aldershot.
France
Landing in France on 29. December, it joined the 8th Battalion on the Loos Salient near Aire, described as 'hideous territory', suffering first casualties of its short history in January. Terrific artillery harassment followed right through March. Constant enemy activity, vile weather and appalling trench conditions greatly fatigued the battalion. Heavy losses were caused by mines and trench mortars. It endured a chlorine gas attack at the Battle of Hulluch in April. All enemy assaults were however repelled. The 9th spent its last tour of the trenches as a unit from 6–25 May. The manpower shortages in other RMF regiments necessitated the battalion's disbandment on 30 May. Being the last raised new battalion its personnel were drafted to the 1st, 2nd and 8th RMF Battalions.
10th (Service) Battalion
This was unusual in many respects. The initiative did not originate with the British Army, but from the West Clare M.P. Arthur Lynch whose intention was to raise a unit in 1918 which did not have the barriers against national identity which had affected the raising of the 16th Division. He had previously raised the Second Irish Brigade to fight for the Boers in the South African War, for which he had been sentenced to death by the British, which was later commuted. He then became involved in constitutional politics.
He campaigned to raise recruits separately from the British recruiting drive in Ireland, which caused much aggravation, putting many obstacles in his way, including having those he recruited diverted elsewhere and the familiar denial of concessions to Irish national sentiments. He only managed to get a special uniform approved for his six pipers, they were to be kilted, their hat badges with the design of an Irish Wolfhound rather than the traditional Munster's emblem of a Bengal tiger.
The battalion was initiated on 18 September 1918 at Ballyvonare Camp, Buttevant, County Cork. It was to be officered only by men with front line experience. Col. Lynch had enlisted 29 men by 5 October and 77 by the middle of the month. He then visited the front in France, calling his unit "my nominal regiment", which made the battalions connection with the RMF tenuous, many of the RMF's prominent officers not knowing the RMF had a 10th battalion. Its numbers were never high, a recruit enlisting on 4 December was the 146th. The unit was not on active service, the Armistice removing any justification for its existence. It was disbanded 14 March 1919, Col. Lynch resigning his commission in April.
Notes
RMF (Regular) Battalions
History of 1st and 2nd (Regular) Battalions related under
Royal Munster Fusiliers
Reserve and Garrison Battalions
History of 3rd (Reserve), 4th and 5th (Extra Reserve) Battalions
History of 1st and 2nd (Garrison) Battalions related under
Royal Munster Fusiliers (Reserves)
Great War Memorials
National War Memorial, Islandbridge Dublin.
Island of Ireland Peace Park Messines, Belgium.
Menin Gate Memorial Ypres, Belgium.
Reading references
Martin Staunton: The Royal Munster Fusiliers (1914-1919) MA thesis UCD (1986).
Thomas P. Dooley: Irishmen or English Soldiers ? The Times and World of a Southern Catholic Irish Man (1876-1916) enlistingin the 9th Battalion Royal Munster Fusiliers, during the First World WarLiverpool Press (1995), .
Bryan Cooper (1918): The 10th (Irish) Division in Gallipoli Irish Academic Press (1993), (2003), .
Terence Denman: Ireland's unknown Soldiers The 16th (Irish) Division in the Great War, 1914-1918 Irish Academic Press (1992), (2003), .
Desmond & Jean Bowen: Heroic Option: The Irish in the British ArmyPen & Sword Books (2005), .
Steven Moore: The Irish on the Somme (2005), .
Peter Hart: The Somme Weidenfeld & Nicolson (2005), .
White, Gerry and O’Shea, Brendan: A Great Sacrifice Cork Servicemen who died in the Great War Echo Publications (Cork) (2010),
External links
Read account of:How a Trench Raid V.C. was won, andNight Raid by the Royal Munster Fusiliers.
Homepage of the Royal Munster Fusilier's Association
Homepage of the Bandon War Memorial Committee
The Battle for Messines RidgeHomepage of the Island of Ireland Peace Park Memorial
Department of the Taoiseach: Irish Soldiers in the First World War
Royal Munster Fusiliers
Ireland in World War I
Defunct Irish regiments of the British Army
1914 establishments in the United Kingdom
1918 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Military units and formations established in 1914
Military units and formations disestablished in 1918 |
4512427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Pondsmith | Mike Pondsmith | Michael Alyn Pondsmith is an American roleplaying, board, and video game designer. He is best known for founding the publisher R. Talsorian Games in 1982, where he developed a majority of the company's role-playing game lines. Pondsmith is the author of several RPG lines, including Mekton (1984), Cyberpunk (1988) and Castle Falkenstein (1994). He also contributed to the Forgotten Realms and Oriental Adventures lines of the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game, worked in various capacities on video games, and authored or co-created several board games. Pondsmith also worked as an instructor at the DigiPen Institute of Technology.
Early life and education
Born into a military family, Mike Pondsmith was the son of a psychologist and an Air Force officer, who traveled around the world with the U.S. Air Force for the first 18 years of his life. He graduated from the University of California, Davis with a B.A. in graphic design and a B.S. in behavioral psychology.
Pondsmith recalls that he had been designing games even as a child, but it was not until college that he was introduced to the idea of pen and paper roleplaying games when a friend got a copy of the original Dungeons & Dragons (D&D). Having a lot of naval wargaming experience, he became interested in the gameplay mechanics used by D&D but not in the fantasy setting it presented. His interest spiked, however, when he acquired a copy of Traveller, a science fiction role-playing game published in 1977 by Game Designers' Workshop. Dissatisfied with its mechanics, Pondsmith rewrote the game for his personal use under the name Imperial Star. Pondsmith later called Traveller the best roleplaying game he had encountered in the Green Ronin's award-winning Hobby Games: The 100 Best.
Early career
Before he became a pen and paper game designer, Pondsmith worked in the video game industry as a graphic designer. His first job after college involved designing packaging and advertising materials for the now-defunct California Pacific Computer Company (CPCC). Repackaging Japanese games for the Western world market was the main focus of CPCC in its early days. He later moved on to create designs for the original titles produced by Bill Budge and for the early Ultima games designed by Richard Garriott, all of which were published by CPCC. Pondsmith's job at CPCC ended because of problems the owner encountered, and he started managing a typesetting house at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Pondsmith got his start in amateur game design in the early 1980s, designing a game for himself called Imperial Star as a result of trying to improve the combat system of Traveller.
According to Pondsmith, there was not much to do in the area of video game design in the early 1980s due largely to the constraints of available technology. Most of the games released by CPCC were for Apple II machines. However, he was familiar with pen and paper games, which he played at the time, and became interested in paper game design. Thanks to his side-job in typesetting, he had access to very modern (for the time) computers with advanced software used in book and magazine layout. Taking advantage of this access, he wrote a game called Mekton, a mecha game based on Japanese manga books he had stumbled upon in the past. Due to the interest his work on paper games generated, game design consumed his graphic design career (although he continued designing and laying out most of the R. Talsorian Games' books).
Early role-playing games
The first game Pondsmith designed from the ground up was Mekton, a mecha game with heavy manga and anime influences, released in 1984. Pondsmith admitted that he was mostly basing his work on the Mobile Suit Gundam manga written in Japanese, which he had acquired. Not understanding the text, he inaccurately recreated the world dynamics purely from the imagery of the comic books. The game's first public testing occurred at a local convention. The initial public release of Mekton focused on its battle mechanics with no roleplaying elements at all; this made it a pure tactical war-game. The success of Mekton proved to Pondsmith that he could make a living out of game design, and he founded the company R. Talsorian Games (RTG) in 1985. In 1986, Mekton was re-released as a proper roleplaying game with Pondsmith and Mike Jones credited as authors. In 1987, RTG released another of Pondsmith's games inspired by Japanese manga, Teenagers from Outer Space, (RPGA Gamer's Choice Award). In 1987, Pondsmith released Mekton II, a new edition of the system, featuring mechanics based on the Interlock System, later used with slight modifications in the Cyberpunk line. Teenagers from Outer Space was re-released with significant changes to the mechanics in 1989. Games such as Cyberpunk (later Cyberpunk 2020) and Cyberpunk V3 were translated into 9 languages. Castle Falkenstein (Best Game of 1994), Cybergeneration, and Dream Park soon followed. He also collaborated with the Hero Games designers on the Fuzion system.
Cyberpunk roleplaying game
In 1988 R. Talsorian Games released Mike Pondsmith's Cyberpunk The Roleplaying Game of the Dark Future. Set in the year 2013 (and often referred to as Cyberpunk 2013), the game was a boxed product consisting of three separate books penned by Pondsmith, with Mike Blum, Colin Fisk, Dave Friedland, Will Moss and Scott Ruggels as co-authors. Several expansions by Pondsmith and other authors followed and Pondsmith released Cyberpunk 2020, a handbook with an updated story arc and mechanics, (although existing expansions remained compatible with the new game) in 1990.
Pondsmith designed Cyberpunk 2013 as the second game to use the Interlock system. Pondsmith attributes creation of Cyberpunk to his interest in the genre sparked primarily by Ridley Scott's Blade Runner released in 1982. The motivation behind the Cyberpunk roleplaying game was his desire to recreate the technology and dark, film noir style of the movie. Cyberpunk is the most expansive line of products in the RTG library with forty-four sourcebooks containing over 4,700 pages. The game has had an estimated 5 million players to date.
In 1993, again under the RTG banner, Pondsmith released an alternate timeline for the Cyberpunk line. The sourcebook titled Cybergeneration was further enhanced by additional expansions and a second edition was released in 1995, that built further upon existing, explored themes. A license for the line was later acquired by Jonathan Lavallee, owner of Firestorm Ink, founded specifically to continue RTG's CyberGeneration product line in 2003.
In 1996, Wizards of the Coast licensed Cyberpunk for their collectible card game Netrunner. Designed by Richard Garfield, Netrunner featured locations, entities, and characters familiar to Cyberpunk 2020 players. The game was named one of The Millennium's Most Underrated Games in 1999 in Pyramid magazine published by the Steve Jackson Games. Mike Pondsmith is featured in the game's credits in the 'special thanks' section and makes a cameo appearance as "Omni Kismet, Ph.D." (character's name is an anagram of his). On May 10, 2012, Fantasy Flight Games announced that they would be releasing Android: Netrunner, a new card game based on Netrunner, under license from Wizards of the Coast. Another short-lived card game based on Pondsmith's IP was Cyberpunk CCG, designed by Peter Wacks, and published by Social Games in 2003.
In 1989, West End Games released a Cyberpunk and Paranoia crossover. The game, called Alice Through the Mirrorshades, was designed by Edward Bolme and is compatible with both Cyberpunk and Paranoia games. At least two fan magazines were created around the time of Cyberpunks peak popularity with Pondsmith's approval: Interface Magazine, which evolved from the unofficial Cyberpunk Update run by Chris Hockabout, and UK-published 'Punk '21.
Castle Falkenstein
In 1994, R. Talsorian Games released Pondsmith's steampunk-themed fantasy role-playing game titled Castle Falkenstein. The game's mechanics were based on playing cards, instead of dice, and geared towards live action role-playing. Castle Falkenstein remains Pondsmith's most critically acclaimed game to date with the 1994 Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Rules, and the 1995 Nigel D. Findley Memorial Award for Best Role-Playing Product recognitions. In 2000, Castle Falkenstein was adapted to the GURPS system by James Cambias and Phil Masters, and released by Steve Jackson Games.
Design contributions outside of R. Talsorian Games
Pondsmith was briefly associated with TSR, Inc., where he worked on Buck Rogers XXVC, a science-fiction RPG, and two sourcebooks for the Dungeons & Dragons: Kara-Tur: The Eastern Realms for Oriental Adventures in 1988 and Hall of Heroes for Forgotten Realms in 1989. He also made minor, uncredited contributions to the original Star Wars: The Roleplaying Game released in 1987 by West End Games.
Pondsmith has also been president of the Game Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and in his role of GAMA President in 1993, he arbitrated an out-of-court settlement between Palladium Books and Wizards of the Coast over Wizards' use of Palladium system integration notes in The Primal Order.
R. Talsorian's hiatus and video game design
After encountering challenges in the role-playing game industry, on February 15, 1998, Pondsmith announced that R. Talsorian would only operate part-time. Putting the major game lines on hiatus at this time meant doing the same with Hero Games products, and in September 1998, Hero Games announced their separation from R. Talsorian Games. Late in the year 2000, Pondsmith accepted a job offer at Microsoft to produce games for Xbox. As a design manager at Microsoft, he contributed to various games (mostly to the lineup of the original Xbox console's exclusive titles) released by the company's Microsoft Game Studios. In MechCommander 2, released in 2001, he played the role of Steel, a character featured in cut-scenes (he also voiced the character for the in-game chatter between characters). He was also credited in Stormfront Studios' Blood Wake released in the same year. The last Microsoft title he was credited with was Crimson Skies: High Road to Revenge (2003). In 2004 he left Microsoft to join Monolith Productions where he worked on The Matrix Online (2005). During his time at Microsoft, his wife Lisa Pondsmith kept R. Talsorian in business with limited publications.
The idea of a Matrix game was initially pitched internally at Microsoft by Pondsmith and one of his coworkers. Despite advanced talks with the Wachowskis, the film's producers, the project never came to fruition. Pitches to Shiny Entertainment did not succeed either and he later learned that a Matrix game was being worked on at Monolith. Given the opportunity to join the live team (responsible for maintaining the game and producing content post-launch) he decided to join Monolith. Pondsmith ended up doing mission design for the game under Online Creative Director and Lead Game Designer Toby Ragaini.
Cyberpunk v3.0
In 2000 Pondsmith announced that he was working on the third edition of Cyberpunk. The work itself started even earlier, right after the release of the Dragon Ball Z Adventure Game in 1999; and the third edition of Cyberpunk was expected to ship soon afterwards. Initially called Cyberpunk 203X, the game was scheduled for a release in the spring of 2001. The first two-page preview of the game was released on August 20, 2001, marking the first pushback of the game's release date. During the prolonged development of the game, Pondsmith released another preview of the third edition of Cyberpunk on December 31, 2004. The game's early manuscript was previewed, and the first public playtesting took place during I-Con in Ronkonkoma, New York between April 8 and 10, 2005. The game was written by Pondsmith, Mike Blum, Colin Fisk, Dave Friedland, Will Moss, and Scott Ruggels and was finally released on December 13, 2005 to mixed reviews.
Illustrations in the game were criticized, for being photographs of slightly modified action figures of which Pondsmith was a collector at the time. The game was successful enough, however, to justify several accessories and supplements which were announced immediately after the core book's release. This included DataPack (initially called Dossier Pak), FlashPak, Gangbook and AltCult Insider. Cyberpunk v3.0, much like its predecessors, was influenced by the classic cyberpunk books written by Neal Stephenson and William Gibson, but also incorporated ideas from new literary sources, Japanese animation, and movies. According to Pondsmith, it was designed to become a commentary on the 21st century, corporate influences on everyday life, ideologies of groups, the place of government, warfare and advancements in biotechnology.
Interlock and Fuzion system
In addition to working at RTG, Pondsmith contributed to the Hero Games' Champions line. Working mostly as an editorial assistant on books such as Alliances for the Champions: New Millennium, he was introduced to the Hero Games' mechanics (Hero System) which he later decided to merge with the Interlock System used by most of the RTG's games up to that point. The end result of this process was the Fuzion system used by the later RTG titles, most notably the third edition of the Cyberpunk game. In the foreword to the third edition of Cyberpunk, Pondsmith justified these changes as necessary for streamlining the game, and attracting new players. But like the game itself these were met with mixed reviews. Pondsmith holds the rights to Fuzion jointly with Steve Peterson and Ray Greer of Hero Games.
R. Talsorian Games
R. Talsorian Games is a Washington-based roleplaying game publisher. Founded in 1985 in California by Mike Pondsmith, it was one of the first RPG publishers to embrace desktop publishing. Currently Lisa Pondsmith, Mike Pondsmith's wife, serves as a general manager of the company, with Mike Pondsmith remaining the owner, CEO and lead designer. Regarding the source of the name of the company, Pondsmith has stated that "R. Talsorian is a real person who never plays RPGs". In a 2016 interview he clarified that the name "R. Talsorian" derived from one of the company's investors, a "raisin farmer in Fresno." A fellow game designer, Warren Spector, advised him to avoid naming his company after himself; Pondsmith and his associates heeded that advice by naming their company after "the one person who would never show up at a convention ever," Talsorian.
Maximum Mike
Mike Pondsmith uses his alter-ego "Maximum Mike" across many of the Cyberpunk books. Unlike reoccurring characters like Morgan Blackhand, Johnny Silverhand or Nomad Santiago, Maximum Mike breaks the fourth wall and talks to the reader directly. Pondsmith's likeness and name, however, were used directly in the Cyberpunk world under different name; he is featured as "Omni Kismet, Ph.D.", one of the characters in the Netrunner CCG (character's name is an anagram of "Mike Pondsmith").
Cyberpunk 2077
On May 30, 2012, it was confirmed that Pondsmith was working with CD Projekt Red on a video game set in the Cyberpunk universe. On October 18, 2012, the game's name and settings were revealed to be Cyberpunk 2077. Immediately afterwards, Brian Crecente was able to confirm with the game's creators that Pondsmith was also working on a new edition of Cyberpunk pen and paper RPG game that would evolve the genre. In the interview for GameSpot, CD Projekt's Marcin Iwiński divulged that Pondsmith's involvement in the video game development mostly focuses on the game world aspect and mechanics and his input, though constant, does not happen on a daily basis due to the distance between the parties. Video game creators as well as Mike Pondsmith and other RTG designers will contribute on the newly formed cyberpunk.net blog.
Mike Pondsmith also voices two characters in Cyberpunk 2077, one of them being Maximum Mike the DJ of Morro Rock Radio, a continuation of his persona from the Cyberpunk sourcebooks.
Personal life
Pondsmith has a wife, Lisa, and a son, Cody who both work at RTG. Although Mike and Lisa had met earlier, their relationship began around 1977 while both were still in college. They were married in February 1982. Lisa serves as a general manager of RTG and has been credited in various titles, most notably as author alongside Jeff Grubb of The Memoirs of Auberon of Faerie sourcebook for the Castle Falkenstein system; and Cody is credited as a member of the production staff in the Cyberpunk V3.0 supplement Flashpak. He was also involved in the promotion and community communications relating to RTG's steampunk title Castle Falkenstein. Before designing games, Mike Pondsmith worked as an amateur paleontologist. In his spare time he collects plastic GI Joe action figures, prominently featured in Cyberpunk v3.0 core rulebook, and enjoys outdoor activities, reading, as well as playing around with radio-controlled cars and planes.
Public appearances
Pondsmith has been very active in gaming communities and has appeared at many gaming conventions over the years. He was present at many of the Gen Cons which led to his memories of his experiences to be featured in Robin D. Laws' 40 Years of Gen Con published in August 2007 by Atlas Games. He attended I-CON, A-Kon, Norwescon, Origins, DexCon, DunDraCon and others. Pondsmith was a guest of honor at Ropecon 1999, Astronomicon 2001 and I-CON 25 (March 24–26, 2006). Both Mike and his son Cody run various games during different gaming conventions. Pondsmith also appeared on stage to talk about the Cyberpunk 2077 video game during two of CD Projekt Red's conferences.
Academic career
Between years 2010 and 2011 Pondsmith was working in the Department of Game Software Design and Production at the DigiPen Institute of Technology in Redmond, where he taught game design classes. The two courses he taught were Game History (GAT 110) and Game Mechanics I (GAT 210).
Awards and recognitions
Various games designed or co-created by Mike Pondsmith received awards over the years.
Teenagers from Outer Space received the RPGA Gamer's Choice Award.
Castle Falkenstein received the Best Roleplaying Rules of 1994 Origins Award.
Castle Falkenstein received the 1995 Nigel D. Findley Memorial Award for the Best Role-Playing Product.
Six Guns and Sorcery for Castle Falkenstein written by Edward Bolme, James Cambias, Eric Floch, Angela Hyatt, Jim Parks, Derek Quintanar, Barrie Rosen, Mark Schumann, and Chris Williams received the Best Roleplaying Supplement of 1996 Origins Award.
Teenagers from Outer Space received the Best Other Category Role-Playing Game of 1987 Origins Gamer's Choice Award.
Cyberpunk received the Best Science-Fiction Role-Playing Game of 1989 Origins Gamer's Choice Award.
Kara-Tur: The Eastern Realms written by Jay Batista, Deborah Christian, John Nephew, Mike Pondsmith, and Rick Swan received the Best Role-Playing Accessory of 1989 Origins Gamer's Choice Award.
On July 1, 2006, he was inducted into the Origins Awards Hall of fame, along with Jolly R. Blackburn, Rodger MacGowan, Dennis Mize (posthumously), Aaron Allston, and the game Star Fleet Battles.
On September 12, 2020, Pondsmith was presented with the Jerry Lawson Lifetime Achievement Award at the fourth annual Black in Gaming awards.
Board games designed
In 1990, during his time with TSR, Pondsmith co-designed three, two-player board games for the publisher.
Attack in the Asteroids with Paul Lidberg and Kim Mohan
Battle for the Sprawls with Paul Lidberg
Craters of Tharsis with Paul Lidberg
Additionally R. Talsorian Games released Pondsmith's board game GoDice! in 2006. The initial release of Mekton is also considered to be a board game.
Bibliography
Mike Pondsmith worked on or contributed to various R. Talsorian Games' and TSR's products over the years and wrote several articles in gaming magazines.For R. Talsorian Games:For TSR'''
Kara-Tur: The Eastern Realms (Oriental Adventures) (1988) with Jay Batista, Deborah Christian, John Nephew, Rick Swan ()
Hall of Heroes (Forgotten Realms) (1989) with Jeff Grubb, James Lowder, David Edward Martin, Bruce Nesmith, Kate Novak, Steve Perrin, R. A. Salvatore ()
Buck Rogers XXVc: The 25th Century Science Fiction Role Playing Game'' (1990)
Boxed set contains: Characters & Combat, The World Book, The Technology Book, maps, cards, counters
References
External links
R. Talsorian Official Site
R. Talsorian Games Store
Mike Pondsmith at RPGGeek
Mike Pondsmith at BoardGameGeek
Part 1, part 2, and part 3 of Mike Pondsmith's Introduction on the cyberpunk.net blog
Mike Pondsmith at GenCon 2001 (photo)
21st-century African-American people
African-American businesspeople
African-American inventors
Cyberpunk (role-playing game)
Dungeons & Dragons game designers
Living people
University of California, Davis alumni
Year of birth missing (living people) |
4513000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Ethiopia | Human rights in Ethiopia | According to the U.S. Department of State's human rights report for 2022, there exists "significant human rights issues" in Ethiopia. In addition to extrajudicial killings and instances of "enforced disappearance", other human right issues in Ethiopia include arbitrary arrest, the censorship and unjustified arrests of journalists, the use of child soldiers, and more.
Reports of human rights violations within the country have been levied at the federal government of Ethiopia, and by various militant groups and regional militias; including the Tigray People's Liberation Front.
History
During Emperor Haile Selassie's reign, laws began to be systematically codified, allowing for the enactment of Ethiopia's first two constitutions: the Constitution of 1931 and the Revised Constitution of the Empire of Ethiopia of 1955, as well as six Codes that remain fundamental to Ethiopia's laws today. However, both the 1931 Constitution and the 1955 Constitution systematized the power of the Emperor, leaving out what rights and freedoms his subjects should possess.
After overthrowing Selassie in 1974, Major Mengistu Haile Marium established a military dictatorship that subjected its political opponents to "arbitrary arrests and detentions, torture, enforced disappearances and extra-judicial execution." Five years later, Mengistu began the Derg's planned transition to a civil government, forming a Commission for the Establishment of the Worker's Party in 1979 and declaring a socialist republic, led by the Workers Party of Ethiopia, in 1984. In 1987, the Constitution of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE Constitution) formally dissolved the Derg and inaugurated the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE), a Marxist–Leninist one-party state that was dominated by the military and former Derg members. The PDRE Constitution outlined basic rights and freedoms, including freedom of speech, press, and assembly; freedom of conscience and religion; and the rights of the accused and arrested. Due to the PDRE's socialist ideology, the PDRE Constitution emphasized socioeconomic and cultural rights, such as the right to free education; the right to healthcare; and the freedom to participate in science, technology, and the arts. However, the same rights established in the PDRE Constitution were violated by Mengistu's military state.
Mengistu's authoritarian military regime faced organized opposition for all of its fourteen years of rule. Opposition groups including the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP), a rival Marxist–Leninist group, and the Tigray-based Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front, a coalition of ethnic democratic forces, led armed resistance to the Derg in a conflict known as the Ethiopian Civil War. The Derg used violence, commonly enacted through military campaigns, to suppress dissidents. In 1976, the Derg instigated the Qey Shibir (Ethiopian Red Terror), a violent political repression campaign targeting the EPRP. Under Mengistu's leadership, the Derg did not only rely on state personnel to carry out the Qey Shibir; it also armed militias and civilian supporters and granted "genuine revolutionaries and patriots" impunity, further localizing state violence. The Qey Shibir resulted in 50,000 fatalities. In addition, many victims of the Qey Shibir were subjected to torture, exile, and sexual assault. The Qey Shibir and the 1983-1985 famine, an event partly created and exacerbated by the government's military policies, increased popular support for the EPRDF, which successfully overthrew Mengistu's regime in 1991.
The EPRDF took power in 1991 with the promise of a transitional program that would rehabilitate those negatively impacted by the previous regime, promote democracy, and recognize and protect human and minority group rights. The Transitional Period Charter, which was adopted during the post-war conference in 1991, officially established a transitional government. Drawing from the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1 of the Charter guaranteed basic rights and civil liberties, specifically freedom of expression, association, and assembly; freedom of conscience; and the right to "unrestricted" political participation and party organization, "provided the exercise of such right does not infringe upon the rights of others." The Charter also addressed the state of interethnic relations in Ethiopia. Article 17 of the Charter stated that the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) would work to de-escalate ethnic conflict as it led the country toward a full democracy. Article 2 proclaimed the rights of ethnic groups in Ethiopia, which are officially referred to as nations or nationalities. Among the rights granted to all Ethiopian "nations, nationalities, and peoples" was the right to self-determination, including the right to secede.
In 1994, the EPRDF adopted the Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, which came into effect following the 1995 general election. Following the blueprint laid out by the Transitional Period Charter, the 1995 Constitution established an ethnic federal system. Like the Charter, the 1995 Constitution draws from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights while also establishing protections of group rights. Articles 14 through 44 of the 1995 Constitution codify "fundamental rights and freedoms," with Articles 14 through 28 pertaining to "human rights" and articles 29 through 44 establishing "democratic rights."
In April 2018, Abiy Ahmed became Prime Minister and promised multiple reforms in terms of human rights. In 2018, his government freed thousands of political prisoners, lifted the state of emergency, ended the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, selected a new cabinet among which half the ministers were women, and appointed a woman judge, Birtukan Mideksa, as the head of the National Election Board of Ethiopia (NEBE).
Anti-Terrorism Proclamation
Ethiopia's Anti-Terrorism Proclamation was introduced in 2009. The broad provisions of the Anti-Terrorism Proclamation allow the authorities to criminalize the exercise of freedom of expression. Amnesty International believes that at least 108 journalists and opposition members were arrested in 2011 primarily because of their legitimate and peaceful criticism of the government. The sheer numbers involved in this wave of arrests represents the most far-reaching crackdown on freedom of expression seen in many years in Ethiopia.
From March 2011 to December 2011 at least 108 opposition party members and six journalists were arrested in Ethiopia for alleged involvement with various proscribed terrorist groups. The detainees had been charged with crimes under the Anti-Terrorism Proclamation and the Criminal Code. Many arrests in 2011 came in the days immediately after individuals publicly criticized the government, were involved in public calls for reform, applied for permission to hold demonstrations, or attempted to conduct investigative journalism in a region of Ethiopia to which the government severely restricts access.
Amnesty International believes the individuals will not receive a fair trial and will be convicted for exercising their right to freedom of expression. Many of the detainees complained that they experienced torture and were forced to sign confessions or incriminating evidence. Almost all were denied access to lawyers and family at the start of detention.
The trials have become deeply politicized owing to the interest of senior government officials including the Prime Minister who declared in the national parliament that all the defendants are guilty. The Prime Minister has publicly threatened to carry out further arrests. In the first
week of December 135 people were reported to be arrested in Oromia. Amnesty International calls on the United Nations, European Union, African Union, and governments to: Conduct systematic monitoring of the ongoing terrorism trials and the trials of members of the Oromo people political opposition arrested during 2011 and make findings public.
Political freedom
Two journalists and four opposition politicians of the Unity for Democracy and Justice (UDJ) party, and the Ethiopian National Democratic party, were arrested on 14 September and on 9 September 2011. They were accused of involvement with the Ginbot 7 group, a banned political party.
Elections
According to Amnesty International citizens were pressured to leave opposition parties in May 2010 elections. Voters in Addis Ababa were reportedly threatened with the withdrawal of state assistance if they did not vote for the EPRDF. There was political violence: One candidate and several activists were killed. Registration as candidates was reportedly prevented by armed forces. Opposition parties said that their members were harassed, beaten, and detained by the EPRDF in the build-up to the elections. Hundreds of people were allegedly arrested arbitrarily in the Oromia region, often on the grounds of supporting the (OLF), an armed group. Detention without trial, torture and killings of Oromos were reported.
The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) consolidated political control with 99.6 percent victory in the May 2010 parliamentary elections. According to Human Rights Watch the polls were preceded by months of intimidation of opposition party supporters. According to European election observers, the election fell
short of international standards. The government had a five-year strategy to systematically close down space for political dissent and independent criticism.
Freedom of the press
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 19 of the freedom of expression states: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
1991–2018: EPRDF
According to Reporters Without Borders Ethiopia was 139 out of 178 in its latest worldwide index in January 2012. Freedom House stated in 2007 that citizens had little access to media other than the state-owned networks, and most private newspapers struggled to remain open and suffered periodic harassment from the government.
Government censorship, harassment and arrest of bloggers and journalists severely restricts freedom of the press in Ethiopia:
Between 2005 and 2007, at least 18 journalists who had written articles critical of the government, were arrested on genocide and treason charges. The government used press laws governing libel to intimidate journalists who were critical of its policies. Authorities used concerns over insurgency and terrorism to use torture, imprisonment, and other repressive methods to silence critics following the election, particularly people sympathetic to the registered opposition party Oromo National Congress (ONC).
In December 2009, Martin Schibbye and Johan Persson were convicted for "rendering support to terrorism" and entering the country illegally "to commit an act that is a threat to the well-being of the people of Ethiopia." Status:Pardoned
In 2011, Hellman-Hammett Award winner Woubshet Taye Abebe was arrested. He was charged under the anti-terrorism law. Before his arrest, he was the deputy editor of the Awramba Times. Status: In prison
In 2012, Reeyot Alemu Gobebo, a journalist for Feteh, was convicted on three counts under the terrorism law and initially sentenced to 14 years in prison. This sentence was reduced to 5 years on appeal. Status: In prison.
In 2012 PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award recipient Eskinder Nega was arrested under terrorism charges for his reporting on the Arab Spring;
In 2014 six members of the Zone 9 blogging collective were arrested under terrorism charges related to their reporting and use of online encryption tools.
Habtamu Ayalew and other opposition leaders were also imprisoned and tortured from July 2014 to late 2015.
All of the above individuals were held at the Kaliti Prison.
2018–present: Abiy Ahmed
During the Abiy Ahmed prime ministership that started in April 2018, thousands of political prisoners were released in May 2018. The rate of imprisonment of journalists during Abiy's first year of power dropped for the first time since 2004. In April 2019, the media remained reluctant to criticize the government out of fear of punishment. From May 2019 to December 2020, Addis Standard counted 33 detentions of journalists. Most were released on bail, some without charges. The longest detention prior to bail among those listed was that of Kenyan freelance journalist Yassin Juma, who was detained for 49 days, accused of "inciting ethnic violence and plotting to kill senior Ethiopian officials".
On 27 March 2020, Ethiopian police arrested journalist Yayesew Shimelis following his report about the COVID-19 pandemic. Following court orders to release him, police added additional charges, including terrorism charges. The Committee to Protect Journalists called the new accusations "dubious", and the One Free Press Coalition highlighted him in its May 2020 list of "10 Most Urgent" list of journalists under attack.
Freedom of association
Protesters
In 2005, the Ethiopian Police Massacre took place. In this, it was claimed that the Ethiopian police massacred almost 200 opposition protesters, who were protesting in response to the May 2005 General Elections. During this, live gunfire from government forces was directed at protesters and bystanders.
Civil society
On 6 January 2009, the Ethiopian parliament passed the "Charities and Societies Proclamation (NGO law)", which "criminalizes most human rights work in the country" according to HRW, who added that "the law is a direct rebuke to governments that assist Ethiopia and that had expressed concerns about the law's restrictions on freedom of association and expression." The Charities and Societies Proclamation No. 621/2009 of Ethiopia (Civil Society Law or CSO law) was enacted on 6 January 2009. The 2009 CSO law was part of the many measures behind the government's post-2005 authoritarian turn and sought to and to some degree succeeded in either dominating independent civil society or replacing them with Government Owned Non-Governmental Organizations (GONGOs).
According to a paper by the Center for International Human Rights at Northwestern University School of Law, "The CSO law is the product of the Ethiopian government's deep suspicion of civil society" and has been frequently used to silence any organization that advocates for human rights in Ethiopia. This law is more draconian than a similar Russian law and is most similar to a draft of a Zimbabwean NGO bill that was never signed into law. Research indicates that Ethiopia's CSO law is among the most restrictive in the world.
This law prohibits "foreign" NGO's from engaging in a very wide range of activities including human rights, women's rights, children's rights, disability rights, citizenship rights, conflict resolution or democratic governance. The definition of "foreign" NGO was broadened to include local NGOs that receive more than ten percent of their funding from foreign sources. Given that most local NGO's cannot sustain themselves without some foreign funding, this definition is broad enough to include almost all NGO's in Ethiopia. However, the government of Ethiopia itself receives 50 to 60 percent of its national budget from foreign governments, which according to its own definition would clearly make it a foreign entity as well.
Over the years Ethiopian organizations that have found themselves to be targets of harassment using the CSO Law include the Ethiopian Human Rights Council (EHRCO), the Ethiopian Women Lawyers' Association (EWLA) which provided pro bono service to Ethiopian women who could not afford a lawyer. Despite the fact that Article 31 of the Ethiopian Constitution provides that "every person has the right to freedom of association for any cause or purpose", the prohibition of NGO's by the CSO Law has had the effect of severely restricting citizens' right of association, as members of NGO's can not associate freely.
Electronic communications
In 2012, Ethiopia passed a law that criminalizes providing Internet voice communication (VoIP) and requiring inspection of any imported voice communications equipment. Additionally, it prohibits "bypasses the telecom infrastructure established by the telecom service provider", which restricts Internet access to only the ETC.
According to Freedom House's Freedom on the Net 2013 report, Ethiopia ranked 56th out of 60 countries on Internet freedom and 47th out of 53 in 2012.
In October 2016, many Ethiopians protested against the government after they prohibited use of social media, and banned several television channels. As a result, hundreds of people were killed and hundreds more imprisoned.
Women's rights
According to surveys in 2003 by the National Committee on Traditional Practices in Ethiopia, marriage by abduction accounts for 69% of the nation's marriages, with around 80% in the largest region, Oromia, and as high as 92 percent in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region.
On 9 November 2021, the Human Rights Watch reported that the blocking of Tigray aid by the Ethiopian government, along with health facilities in Ethiopia's northern Tigray region destroyed, is preventing sexual violence survivors from obtaining essential care. The report named “I Always Remember That Day: Access to Services for Gender-Based Violence Survivors in Ethiopia's Tigray Region,” documents the serious health impact, trauma, and stigma experienced by rape survivors since the beginning of the armed conflict in Tigray.
Female genital mutilation
According to the 2005 Ethiopian Demographic Health Survey, more than 74% of women between the ages of 15 and 49 have undergone some form of genital mutilation and cutting with more than 97% in the Somali Region.
Disability rights
Among certain Omotic Karo and Hamar communities in southern Ethiopia, adults and children with physical abnormalities are considered to be mingi, "ritually impure". The latter are believed to exert an evil influence upon others; disabled infants have traditionally been murdered without a proper burial. The Karo officially banned the practice in July 2012.
Ethnic violence
Violence against Afar people
Violence against Amhara people
Violence against Oromo people
A nationwide series of violent protests, concentrated in the Oromia Region, broke out starting on 23 October 2019, sparked by activist and media owner Jawar Mohammed's allegation that security forces had attempted to detain him. According to official reports, 86 people were killed. On 29 May 2020, Amnesty International released a report accusing the security forces of Ethiopia of mass detentions and extrajudicial killings. The report stated that in 2019, at least 25 people, suspected of supporting the Oromo Liberation Army, were killed by the forces in parts of the Oromia Region. Between January and September 2019, at least 10,000 people were detained under suspicion, where most were "subjected to brutal beatings".
Ethnic conflict in the Southern regions
Violence in Konso
Violence against the Amaro Koore people
Other violence in Gedeo and neighboring Woredas
Ethnic violence in the south between Oromo, the largest ethnic group in the country, and the Gedeo and, in the east, between the Oromo and the Somalis led to Ethiopia having the largest number of people to flee their homes in the world in 2018. About 1.4 million refugees fled their homes in Ethiopia in 2018. The largest number were from the Gedeo–Oromo clashes, where about 800,000 mostly ethnic Gedeos fled the district of West Guji in Oromia, a higher number and over a shorter period of time, than occurred at the height of Myanmar's Rohingya crisis the year before. The government pressures the refugees to return to their homes even though they fear for their lives, often by denying refugees access to humanitarian aid.
The violence against the Anuak people in Gambela
Gambela Region has a population of 307,000, mainly indigenous Anuak and Nuer. Its richly fertile soil has attracted foreign and domestic investors who have leased large tracts of land at favorable prices. From 2008 through January 2011, Ethiopia leased out at least 3.6 million hectares of land, an area the size of the Netherlands. An additional 2.1 million hectares of land is available through the federal government's land bank for agricultural investment. In Gambella, 42 percent of the land is marketed for investors. A similar 2012 report by Human Rights Watch also describes the Ethiopian government's 2010–2011 villagization program in Gambela, with plans to carry out similar resettlements in other regions.
In 2013, the Oakland Institute released a report accusing the Ethiopian government of forcing the relocation of "hundreds of thousands of indigenous people from their lands" in the Gambela Region. According to several reports by the organization, those who refused were the subject of a variety of intimidation techniques including physical and sexual abuse, which sometimes led to deaths.
The Ethiopian government has denied the accusations of land grabbing and instead pointed to the positive trajectory of the country's economy as evidence of the development program's benefits.
LGBT rights
Homosexual acts are illegal in Ethiopia. According to Criminal Code Article 629, same-sex activity is punished up to 15 years to life in prison. Ethiopia has been a socially conservative country. The majority of people are hostile towards LGBT people and persecution is commonplace on the grounds of religious and societal norms. Homosexuality came to light in the country after the failed 2008 appeal to the Council of Ministers, and the LGBT scene began to thrive slightly in major metropolitan locations, such as Addis Ababa. Some notable hotels like Sheraton Addis and Hilton Hotel became hotbeds of accusations for alleged lobbying.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church plays a frontal role in opposition; some of its members formed anti-gay organizations. For example, Dereje Negash, one prominent activist, founded "Zim Anlem" in 2014, which is a traditionalism and anti-gender movement. According to the 2007 Pew Global Attitudes Project, 97 percent of Ethiopians believe homosexuality is a way of life that society should not accept. This was the second-highest rate of non-acceptance in the 45 countries surveyed.
Law enforcement
Police force unlawful use of force has become a recent phenomena in Ethiopia. During the Derg regime, the security sector had a primary role to repress opposition groups and rebel rivals. There have also been sightings of abusing the local population. The violation also existed during the EPRDF era; in the protest of the 2005 general election, 193 people were killed by police forces initiated by government crackdown. In Article 52 of the Constitution, the Federal Police was obligated to administer state police force and maintain public order and peace within the state.
Police brutality reappeared during Abiy Ahmed tenure. On 26 August 2019, a video of a handcuffed man beaten by two officers went viral on Twitter, with many shared outrage against the government administration.
Incidents
According to a report released by Human Rights Watch (HRW) in June 2008, the Ethiopian army has committed widespread executions, torture and rape in Ogaden, as part of a counterinsurgency campaign. The Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded with a big press release stating that they performed an investigation during August and September of that year, which "found no trace of serious human rights violation let alone war crimes or crimes against humanity" during their response to the Abole oil field raid, but claimed the investigation found "a mass of evidence of further systematic abuses committed by the ONLF." However, the U.S. State Department's annual report on human rights notes that Lisan Yohannes, a "former ruling party insider", led the investigation, an appointment which "opens questions about the independence of the investigation."
Following the State of Emergency declared in 2016, there were reports of thousands of deaths of citizens. After protests in Oromo, Amhara, and the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's region, The Ethiopian Human Rights Council reported that there were 669 deaths on aggregate. According to other NGOs and Oromo region officials, there were hundreds of deaths due to militia groups in the eastern side of Ethiopia.
On 30 June 2020, Amnesty International called upon the Ethiopian authorities to thoroughly and impartially investigate the 29 June killing of popular Oromo singer Hachalu Hundessa.
Detention centers
In a 2017 HRCO report, detention centers in Ethiopia came under scrutiny. The prisons are overcrowded, for example a prison in Asella has a capacity of 400 people, but holds 3000 detainees. The prisoners were beaten and some killed, like Ayele Beyene in Kilinto who was beaten by guards and then his wounds were ignored which eventually led to his death. Once people are placed in the prison system their families have little knowledge of their whereabouts. Detainees in some places cannot receive visitors and there is no database or organization to find the location of prisoners.
In the 2017 HRCO report, the conditions of the Finote Selam Prison in Amhara, the Awash Arba Prison, and Kilinto Prison, were revealed. In the Finote Selam Prison the reports indicated the detainees were beaten and tortured, and the Amahara and Oromo ethnicities were given worse treatment than other groups. Detainees were also subjected to spend time immersed in latrine pits of human feces. In the Awash Arba Prison, they were overcrowded, unfed, beaten, and forced to do manual labor. In addition, the detainees spent time outside walking barefoot and sitting in the sun for consecutive days. In Kilinto, the prisoners were forced to give confessions at the threat of physical punishment, while being mistreated.
In 2018, under the new leadership of Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, the Ethiopian Government closed Jail Ogaden in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. Jail Ogaden was operated under the former leader of the Somali Region, Abdi Mohamoud Omar, with many of the imprisoned there without charges against them. A Human Rights Watch report indicates that the prisoners were malnourished, beaten, and kept in small confines that promoted rampant disease spread. The former head of the prison Shamaahiye Sheikh Farah was arrested in September 2018 for his role in the prison. Shamaahiye's most infamous incident of torture was having a month of hunger, where none of the prisoners were allowed to eat.
Historical situation
The following chart shows Ethiopia's ratings from 1972 to 2011 in the Freedom in the World reports, published annually by Freedom House. A rating of 1 is "free"; 7, "not free".
International treaties
Ethiopia's stances on international human rights treaties are as follows:
See also
Ethiopian Judicial Authority v Swedish journalists 2011
Human trafficking in Ethiopia
Internet in Ethiopia#Censorship
Kaliti Prison, a notorious prison where numerous journalists are held
LGBT rights in Ethiopia
Politics of Ethiopia
Woineshet Zebene
Yegna, feminist pop group
List of detained journalists and activists in Ethiopia (2023)
Tigray War
War crimes in the Tigray War
Sexual violence in the Tigray War
Famine in northern Ethiopia (2020–present)
Notes
1.Note that the "Year" signifies the "Year covered". Therefore, the information for the year marked 2008 is from the report published in 2009, and so on.
2.As of 1 January.
3.The 1982 report covers the year 1981 and the first half of 1982, and the following 1984 report covers the second half of 1982 and the whole of 1983. In the interest of simplicity, these two aberrant "year and a half" reports have been split into three-year-long reports through interpolation.
References
External links
Censorship in Ethiopia - IFEX
2012 Annual Report, by Amnesty International
Freedom in the World 2012 Report, by Freedom House
World Report 2012, by Human Rights Watch
Ethiopia after Meles: Democracy and Human Rights: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health, Global Human Rights, and International Organizations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, 20 June 2013
Ethiopia
Politics of Ethiopia
Society of Ethiopia |
4513092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Libya | Human rights in Libya | Human rights in Libya is the record of human rights upheld and violated in various stages of Libya's history. The Kingdom of Libya, from 1951 to 1969, was heavily influenced and educated by the British and Y.R.K companies. Under the King, Libya had a constitution. The kingdom, however, was marked by a feudal regime, where Libya had a low literacy rate of 10%, a low life expectancy of 57 years, and 40% of the population lived in shanties, tents, or caves. Illiteracy and homelessness were chronic problems during this era, when iron shacks dotted many urban centres on the country.
From 1969 to 2011, the history of Libya was marked by the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (where jamahiriya means "state of the masses"), a "direct democracy" political system established by Muammar Gaddafi, who nominally stepped down from power in 1977, but remained an unofficial "Brother Leader" until 2011. Under the Jamahiriya, Libya maintained a relatively high quality of life due to its nationalized oil wealth and small population, coupled with government policies that undid the social injustices of the Senussi era. The country's literacy rate rose to 90%, and welfare systems were introduced that allowed access to free education, free healthcare, and financial assistance for housing. In 2008, the General People's Congress had declared the Great Green Charter of Human Rights of the Jamahiriyan Era. The Great Manmade River was also built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country. In addition, illiteracy and homelessness had been "almost wiped out," and financial support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs, while the nation as a whole remained debt-free. As a result, Libya's Human Development Index in 2010 was the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia.
Throughout Gaddafi's rule, international non-governmental organizations routinely characterized Libya's human rights situation as poor, citing systematic abuses such as political repression, restrictions on political freedoms and civil liberties, and arbitrary imprisonment; the American government funded Freedom House's annual Freedom in the World report consistently gave it a ranking of "Not Free" and gave Libya their lowest possible rating of "7" in their evaluations of civil liberties and political freedoms from 1989 to 2010. Gaddafi also publicly bragged about sending hit squads to assassinate exiled dissidents, and Libyan state media openly announced bounties on the heads of political opponents. The Gaddafi regime was also accused of the 1996 Abu Salim prison massacre. In 2010, Amnesty International, published a critical report on Libya, raising concerns about cases of enforced disappearances and other human rights violations that remained unresolved, and that Internal Security Agency members implicated in those violations continued to operate with impunity. In January 2011, the United Nations Human Rights Council published a report analysing the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya's human rights record with input from member nations, most of which (including many European and most Asian, African and South American nations) generally praised the country's progressive efforts in human rights, though some (particularly Australia, France, Israel, Switzerland, and the United States) raised concerns about human rights abuses concerning cases of disappearance and torture, and restrictions on free press and free association; Libya agreed to investigate cases involving disappearance and torture, and to repeal any laws criminalizing political expression or restricting a free independent press, and affirmed that it had an independent judiciary.
Libya under Gaddafi
Revolutionary Committees
In the early 1970s, Gaddafi created the Revolutionary Committees as conduits for raising political consciousness, with the aim of direct political participation by all Libyans. In 1979, however, some of these committees had eventually evolved into self-appointed, sometimes zealous, enforcers of revolutionary orthodoxy. During the early 1980s, these committees had considerable power and became a growing source of tension within the Jamahiriya, to the extent that Gaddafi sometimes criticized their effectiveness and excessive repression, until the power of the Revolutionary Committees was eventually restricted in the late 1980s.
The Revolutionary Committees had been resembling similar systems in totalitarian countries; reportedly, 10 to 20 percent of Libyans worked in surveillance for these committees, with surveillance taking place in government, in factories, and in the education sector. They also posted bounties for the killing of Libyan critics charged with treason abroad. Opposition activists were occasionally executed publicly and the executions were rebroadcast on public television channels.
In 1988, Gaddafi criticized the excessive measures taken by the Revolutionary Councils, stating that "they deviated, harmed, tortured" and that "the true revolutionary does not practise repression." That same year, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya issued the Great Green Document on Human Rights, in which Article 5 established laws that allowed greater freedom of expression. Article 8 of The Code on the Promotion of
Freedom stated that "each citizen has the right to express his opinions and ideas openly in People’s Congresses and in all mass media." A number of restrictions were also placed on the power of the Revolutionary Committees, leading to a resurgence in the Libyan state's popularity by the early 1990s. In 2004, however, Libya posted a $1 million bounty for journalist Ashur Shamis, under the allegation that he was linked to Al-Qaeda and terror suspect Abu Qatada.
Foreign languages and migrant workers
Until 1998, foreign languages were not part of the school curriculum. One protester in 2011 described the situation as: "None of us can speak English or French. He kept us ignorant and blindfolded". The US State Department claimed that ethnic, Islamic fundamentalist and tribal minorities suffer discrimination, and that the state continues to restrict the labour rights of foreign workers. In 1998, CERD expressed concern about alleged "acts of discrimination against migrant workers on the basis of their national or ethnic origin", which the United Nations Human Rights Council also expressed concern about in 2010. Human Rights Watch in September 2006 documented how migrant workers and other foreigners were subjected to human rights abuses, which have increased drastically against black Africans under the National Transitional Council following the Libyan Civil War.
Criticism of allegations
The Libyan Arab Jamahiriya rejected the allegations against the country. They pointed to how their country is founded on direct people's democracy that guaranteed direct exercise of authority by all citizens through the people's congresses. Citizens were able to express opinions of the congresses on issues related to political, economic, social, and cultural issues. In addition, there were information platforms such as newspapers and TV channels for people to express their opinions through. Libyan authorities also argued that no one in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya suffered from extreme poverty and hunger, and that the government guaranteed a minimum of food and essential needs to people with low incomes. In 2006, an initiative was adopted for providing people with low incomes investment portfolios amounting to $30,000 to be deposited with banks and companies.
HIV trial
The HIV trial in Libya (or Bulgarian nurses affair) concerns the trials, appeals and eventual release of six foreign medical workers charged with conspiring to deliberately infect over 400 children with HIV-tainted blood in 1998, causing an epidemic at El-Fatih Children's Hospital in Benghazi.
On 6 May 2004, a Libyan court sentenced the workers to death. They were eventually remanded to Bulgarian custody in 2007, and subsequently pardoned. The Libyan government filed complaints about the matter with the Arab League before the government's overthrow in 2011.
Abu Salim prison massacre
In 2006, Amnesty International called for an independent inquiry into unconfirmed deaths that occurred in Abu Salim maximum security prison during the 1996 riot. In 2009, Human Rights Watch believes that 1,270 prisoners were killed. However, Human Rights Watch states that they were unable to independently verify the allegations. The claims cited by Human Rights Watch are based on the testimony of a single former inmate, Hussein Al Shafa’i, who stated that he did not witness a prisoner being killed: "I could not see the dead prisoners who were shot..."
The figure of 1200 killed was arrived at by Al Shafa’i allegedly calculating the number of meals he prepared when he was working in the prison's kitchen. At the same time, Al Shafa'i stated "I was asked by the prison guards to wash the watches that were taken from the bodies of the dead prisoners..." Al Shafa’i lives in the United States, where he applied for asylum, Hussein al-Shafa'i said he entered Abu Salim from 1988 to 2000 on political charges.
The Libyan Government rejected the allegations about Abu Salim. In May 2005, the Internal Security Agency head of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya told Human Rights Watch that the prisoners captured some guards and stole weapons from the prison cache. The prisoners and guards died as security personnel tried to restore order, and the government opened an investigation on the order of the Minister of Justice. The Libyan official stated that more than 400 prisoners escaped Abu Salim in four separate break-outs prior to and after the incident: in July 1995, December 1995, June 1996 and July 2001. Among the escapees were men who then fought with Islamist militant groups in Afghanistan, Iran, and Iraq.
In 2009, the Libyan government stated that the killings took place amid confrontation between the government and rebels from the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, and that some 200 guards were killed as well. In August 2009, several were granted amnesty by the government. Those released included 45 members of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG), most of whom had been in prison since the mid-1990s after being sentenced in unfair trials for an attempt to overthrow then-jamahiriya leader Muammar Gaddafi. The releases came after the group renounced violence in August 2009. Authorities at Abu Salim prison also released 43 "members of other jihadist groups," a press release said.
In January 2011, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya confirmed that it was carrying out an investigation into the incident along with international investigators.
The Libyan insurgents claimed that 1270 people were buried at a supposed mass grave they discovered. However, investigators from CNN and other organizations found only what appeared to be animal bones at the site.
Torture
In January 2011, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya stated that the practice of torture and ill treatment was forbidden in article 434 of the Penal Code, which stated that public officials who had ordered the torture of a person or had committed an act of torture were sentenced to 3 to 10 years' imprisonment. Gaddafi openly condemned the use of torture, as a criticism against several Revolutionary Committees that had condoned the use of torture.
Torture was allegedly used by Libya's security forces to punish rebels after the rebellion hit north west Libya during the civil war. Torture has been used by rebel forces, who established unofficial detention facilities equipped with torture devices such as ropes, sticks and rubber hoses. The rebels have used torture against many suspected Gaddafi supporters, targeting black Africans in particular.
Civil war
Various states and supranational bodies have condemned the use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians during the Libyan Civil War, an allegation that Saif al-Islam Gaddafi denies.
After an emergency meeting on 22 February, the Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings and Moussa issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities." Libya was suspended from the UN Human Rights Council by United Nations General Assembly Resolution 65/265, which was adopted by consensus and cited the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters. A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia took action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates. The move was criticised as double-standard as numerous similar human right abuses in Bahrain, Yemen or elsewhere produced no action at all.
Luis Moreno Ocampo, chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, estimated that between 500 and 700 people were killed by Gaddafi's security forces in February 2011, before the rebels even took up arms. "Shooting at protestors was systematic," Moreno-Ocampo stated, discussing the Libyan government's response to the initial pro-democracy demonstrations.
Moreno-Ocampo further stated that during the ongoing civil war, "War crimes are apparently committed as a matter of policy" by forces loyal to Gaddafi.
This is further supported by claims of Human Rights Watch, that 10 protesters, who had already agreed to lay down arms, were executed by a government paramilitary group in Bani Walid in May.
On 26 February 2011, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously in a resolution to impose strict sanctions, including targeted travel bans, against Gaddafi's government, as well as to refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians, which could constitute crimes against humanity in violation of international law. There are many reports of these sanctions being broken where support against Libyan government forces is the case.
Rebel forces have been criticized for a number of human rights violations, including indiscriminate bombardment of heavily populated cities, torture and killing of prisoners of war, and racist lynchings of black people.
In June 2011, a detailed investigation carried out by Amnesty International claimed that many of the allegations against Gaddafi and the Libyan state turned out to either be false or lack any credible evidence, noting that rebels at times appeared to have knowingly made false claims or manufactured evidence. According to the Amnesty investigation, the number of casualties was heavily exaggerated, some of the protesters may have been armed, "there is no proof of mass killing of civilians on the scale of Syria or Yemen," and there is no evidence that aircraft or heavy anti-aircraft machine guns were used against crowds. It also doubted claims from the Western media that the protest movement was "entirely peaceful" and "presented no security challenge."
However, in a later report from Amnesty International it was found that "al-Gaddafi forces committed serious violations of international humanitarian law (IHL), including war crimes, and gross human rights violations,which point to the commission of crimes against humanity. They deliberately killed and injured scores of unarmed protesters; subjected perceived opponents and critics to enforced disappearance and torture and other ill- treatment; and arbitrarily detained scores of civilians. They launched indiscriminate attacks and attacks targeting civilians in their efforts to regain control of Misratah and territory in the east. They launched artillery, mortar and rocket attacks against residential areas. They used inherently indiscriminate weapons such as anti-personnel land mines and cluster bombs, including in residential areas."
In July 2011, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi had an interview with Russia Today, where he denied the ICC's allegations that he or his father Muammar Gaddafi ordered the killing of civilian protesters. He pointed out that he is not a member of the government or the military, and therefore has no authority to give such orders. According to Saif, he made recorded calls to General Abdul Fatah Younis, who later defected to the rebel forces, in order to request not to use force against protesters, to which Fatah responded that they are attacking a military site, where surprised guards fired in self-defense.
In August 2011, Physicians for Human Rights released a report documenting severe violations of human rights and evidence of war crimes and possible crimes against humanity in Misrata. In December 2011, PHR released another report documenting evidence of a massacre at a warehouse in Tripoli in which soldiers of Khamis Qaddafi’s 32nd Brigade unlawfully detained, raped, tortured and executed at least 53 detainees. PHR’s medico-legal investigation and resulting report provided the first comprehensive account of the 32nd Brigade massacre, and provided forensic evidence needed to secure accountability for crimes according to international legal standards.
In January 2012, independent human rights groups published a report describing the human rights violations committed by all sides, including NATO, anti-Gaddafi forces, and pro-Gaddafi forces. The same report also accused NATO of war crimes. During and after the war, the National Transitional Council implemented a new Law 37, restricting freedom of speech, where any praise of glorification of Gaddafi or the previous government is punishable with imprisonment, with sentences ranging from three to fifteen years. The law was eventually revoked in June 2012.
According to Human Rights Watch annual report 2016, journalists are still being targeted by the armed groups in Libya. One of the victims was Muftah Al-Qatrani, who worked for media production company, he was killed in Benghazi in April 2015. In other case, the fate of two Tunisian journalist, Sofiane Chourabi and Nadhir Ktari, is still unknown since September 2014. Later, in April 2015, Groups affiliated with ISIS claimed the responsibility of killing them. In November 2015, the NGO Reporters Without Borders (RSF) claimed that journalists in Libya were targeted in 31 incidents during 2015. The organization added that Libya has very low rank in the 2015 press freedom index as it occupied 154 out of 180 countries.
August 2016, Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor warned from the illicit spreading of weapons among Libyan population. According to the monitor, dozens of loosely formed, armed groups have formed, which makes a "chaos of weapons". The spreading of weapons represents a major obstacle to the reconstruction of Libya. It is also paves the way to murder, drug, arm trafficking and kidnapping. The monitor calls central authorities in Libya to act urgently, with the UN support to put an end to this chaos.
December 2016, Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor issued a report regarding the violation of human rights in Libya. According to the report, since July 2014, Ganfoda has been besieged by Khalifa Haftar’s Libyan National Army forces; the civilian has suffered long-month power cut, resulting in shortage of food, water, and medicine. As the civilians have been prevented from access to food and medical aid, more than 170 families were evacuated, yet the children are being used as bait by the Libyan army forces in order to prevent their families fleeing away to use them as a part of their militant operations. They are, therefore, at risk of detention and prolonged investigation, in case of attempting to cross the checkpoints. It also showed ambulance crews cannot enter the town due to ground and air attacks; and the Libyan Red Crescent Society cannot provide any humanitarian relief for the people.
On September 21, 2020, the European Union Council imposed sanctions on three companies and two people, which were responsible for human rights abuses in Libya and violated the UN arms embargo. The sanctions consisted of asset freeze and a travel ban for persons, and asset freeze for the companies.
On 25 July 2022, Martha Ama Akyaa Pobee, UN Assistant Secretary-General for political affairs and peace operations stated that the overall situation in Libya remains “highly volatile”, while clashes in and around Tripoli surged. Frustrated Libyans demonstrated over the lack of progress on elections and poor State services, prolonging tensions and fuelling insecurity.
Women's rights
As in many modern revolutions, women played a major role in the 2011 Libyan Revolution. After the revolution, concerns were raised by human rights groups about attempts to sideline women in Libya's political and economic environments as well as a lack of strong protections for women's rights in the new constitution.
GNC opponents argue that it supported Islamist actions against women. Sadiq Ghariani, the Grand Mufti of Libya, is perceived to be linked closely to Islamist parties. He has issued fatwas ordering Muslims to obey the GNC, and fatwas ordering Muslims to fight against Haftar's forces.
Later in 2013, lawyer Hamida al-Hadi al-Asfar, advocate of women's rights, was abducted, tortured and killed. It is alleged she was targeted for criticising the Grand Mufti's declaration. No arrests were made.
In June 2013, two politicians, Ali Tekbali and Fathi Sager, appeared in court for "insulting Islam" for publishing a cartoon promoting women's rights. Under sharia law they were facing a possible death penalty. The case caused widespread concern although they were eventually acquitted in March 2014. The GNC yielded to pressure for organising new elections, voting 124 out of 133 in favour of a new Electoral Law on 30 March 2014. In the 25 June 2014 elections, Ali Tekbali was elected to the new House of Representatives in the seat of Tripoli Central, with 4777 votes. Out of 200 seats, Article 16 of the Electoral Laws reserved 30 seats for women.
During Nouri Abusahmain's presidency of the GNC and subsequent to GNC's decision to enforce sharia law in December 2013, gender segregation and compulsory hijab were being imposed in Libyan universities from early 2014, provoking strong criticism from women's rights groups.
On 15 July 2020, Amnesty International urged the Libyan National Army to reveal the whereabouts of Siham Sergiwa, a Libyan politician and women’s rights defender who was violently abducted from her home a year ago.
Libyan coastguard's violation of migrants' rights
The Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor published a report condemning the Libyan coastguard officers' whipping of a group of migrants rescued near Libya’s Sabratha. In September 2014, nearly 450 migrants were drowned in the Mediterranean. In 2016, more than 4,578 migrants drowned there, following an agreement between the EU and Turkey and the closure of the Balkan route. According to the report, the migrants smuggled into Libya are subject to human trafficking, torture, forced labor, sexual exploitation, and arbitrary detention through their way. The Libyan forces were caught on video while humiliating migrants, including women and children. Besides, Human Rights Watch documented similar cases in which Libyan coastguard forces assaulted them verbally and physically in July 2016.
According to the UNHCR figures, as of March 2019, 879 people have been rescued at sea by the Libyan Coast Guard in 10 operations in 2019. Around 6,000 migrants and asylum seekers are being held in Libyan detention centers. More than 3,000 are at a risk of getting involved in the fight over Tripoli.
As per the report published by Amnesty International, migrants in Libya’s detention camp faced unabated human rights violations during the first six months of 2021. Diana Eltahawy, Amnesty’s Middle East and North Africa director was quoted as saying “The report also highlights the ongoing complicity of European states that have shamefully continued to enable and assist Libyan coastguards in capturing people at sea and forcibly returning them to the hellscape of detention in Libya, despite knowing full well the horrors they will endure.”
On 11 October 2022, UN human rights reported that migrants in Libya were often compelled to accept ‘assisted return’ to their home countries in conditions that may not meet international human rights laws and standards. Additionally, the report finds that many migrants were returned to the same adverse drivers and structural conditions which compelled their movement in the first place, putting them in precarious and vulnerable situations upon their return. Such returns were unlikely to be sustainable from a human rights perspective.
Historical situation
The following table shows Libya's ratings since 1972 in the Freedom in the World reports, published annually by the US government-funded Freedom House. A score of 1 is "best"; 7 is "worst".
International treaties
Libya's stances on international human rights treaties are as follows:
See also
Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights
Detention Centres in Libya
Health in Libya
Human rights violations in the Libyan civil war
Internet censorship in Libya
LGBT rights in Libya
Libyan Civil War
Women in Libya
Notes
1.Note that the "Year" signifies the year the report was issued. The information for the year marked 2009 covers the year 2008, and so on.
2.As of 1 January.
3.The 1982 report covers 1981 and the first half of 1982, and the following 1984 report covers the second half of 1982 and the whole of 1983. In the interest of simplicity, these two aberrant "year and a half" reports have been split into three-year-long reports through interpolation.
References
External links
Amnesty International. LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA.BRIEFING TO THE UN HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE, 2007
US Department of State.2008 Human Rights Report: Libya
Library of Congress country study
Censorship in Libya - IFEX
2012 Annual Report, by Amnesty International
Freedom in the World 2011 Report, by Freedom House
World Report 2012, by Human Rights Watch
Government of Libya
Libya
Law of Libya
Society of Libya |
4513169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Mali | Human rights in Mali | According to the U.S. Department of State's annual report on human rights in Mali for 2003, Mali's government generally respects the human rights of its citizens and observes relevant constitutional provisions (e.g., freedom of speech and of the press, freedom of assembly and association, freedom of religion) and prohibitions (e.g., arbitrary arrest and detention, forced exile, torture, and discrimination based on race, sex, disability, language, or social status).
There have been no reports of political prisoners or politically motivated disappearances in Mali. But prison conditions are poor (overcrowded, with inadequate medical facilities and food supplies), and there are occasional instances of arbitrary arrest or detention. Moreover, the judicial system has a large case backlog, which has caused significant delays in trials as well as long periods of pretrial detention.
Men play a dominant role in society, and women continue to suffer from widespread discrimination and domestic violence. Child labor and trafficking in children as forced labor remain serious problems. Relationships based on hereditary servitude and bondage persist between some ethnic groups.
Respect for the integrity of the person
Arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of life
There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings.
On August 12, the body of Youssouf Dembele, secretary general of the Niono chapter of the opposition African Solidarity for Democracy and Independence party, was found in the town of Niono in the region of Segou. Dembele was one of the primary whistle-blowers in a $15.5 million (7.21 billion CFA francs) corruption scandal involving the governmental Office du Niger, which oversees agricultural production in Segou. Dembele's death was under investigation at year's end.
On October 17, in Gao, soldiers arrested and killed Assaleh ag Mohamed, a gendarme and ethnic Tuareg. Several soldiers associated with the killing were taken into custody and were awaiting trial at year's end.
On 15 march 2022, the Human Rights Watch documented that the Malian army and armed Islamist groups have allegedly killed at least 107 civilians in central and southwestern Mali since December 2021. The victims, most allegedly summarily executed, include traders, village chiefs, religious leaders, and children.
Disappearance
There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances.
Torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment
The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, there were occasional reports that police abused civilians, and police use of excessive force to disperse demonstrators resulted in injuries.
Prison and detention center conditions
Overall prison conditions remained poor. Prisons continued to be overcrowded, medical facilities were inadequate, and food supplies were insufficient.
Men and women were separated in Bamako prisons; however, outside the capital, men and women were held in the same building but in separate cells. In Bamako juvenile offenders usually were held in the same prison as adult offenders, but they were kept in separate cells. Pretrial detainees were held with convicted prisoners.
The government permitted prison visits by human rights monitors; however, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and other monitors were required to submit a request to the prison director, who then forwarded it to the Ministry of Justice. Approvals, which took up to one week, were routinely granted, but the week delay hindered the ability of monitors to ascertain if there were human rights violations. Several NGOs, including the Malian Association of Human Rights and the Malian Association of Women Lawyers, visited prisoners and worked with female and juvenile prisoners to improve their conditions.
Arbitrary arrest or detention
The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions; however, on occasion, police arrested and detained persons arbitrarily.
In December 2020, the Malian authorities arbitrarily arrested and detained seven high-profile individuals for several months. It was demonstrated that the Minister of Justice Mohamed Sidda Dicko ordered those detentions to put the newly putsch-instituted government in control of potential major corruption outlets. The former CEO of PMU Mali Arouna Modibo Touré was suspected of designing some of those corruption outlets and conspiring those detentions to keep a stronghold on his self-made corruption system.
Role of the police and security apparatus
Security forces include the army, air force, gendarmerie, National Guard, and police. The army and air force are under the control of the civilian minister of defense. The National Guard is administratively under the minister of defense; however, it is effectively under the control of the minister of internal security and civil protection. The police and gendarmerie are under the Ministry of Internal Security and Civil Protection. Police have responsibility for law enforcement and maintaining order in urban areas, while gendarmes have that responsibility in rural areas.
The national police force is organized into districts. Each district has a commissioner who reports to the regional director at national headquarters. The police force was moderately effective but lacked resources and training. Corruption was a problem, and some police and gendarmes extorted bribes. Impunity was not a problem, and individual police were charged and convicted of abuses. The gendarmerie conducted investigations of police officers.
Arrest and detention
Judicial warrants are required for arrest. Complainants normally deliver warrants, which stipulate when a person is scheduled to appear at a police station. However, police sometimes served warrants, generally in response to an influential relative of the complainant or if they received a bribe. In cases involving a monetary debt, the arrested person frequently resolved the case at the police precinct, and the police received a portion of the recovered money. The law provides that suspects must be charged or released within 48 hours and that they are entitled to counsel; however, in practice detainees were not always charged within the 48‑hour period. Limited rights of bail or the granting of conditional liberty exist, particularly for minor crimes and civil matters. On occasion authorities released defendants on their own recognizance. Detainees have the right to a lawyer of their choice or a state-provided lawyer if indigent, but administrative backlogs and an insufficient number of lawyers often prevented prompt access. Detainees were allowed prompt access to family members.
Police arbitrarily arrested journalists, demonstrators, students, and one teacher during the year.
Lengthy pretrial detention was a problem. In extreme cases, individuals remained in prison for several years before their cases came to trial. Approximately 77 percent of imprisoned persons were awaiting trial
Denial of fair public trial
The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary; however, the executive branch continued to exert influence over the judicial system, and corruption and limited resources affected the fairness of some trials. Domestic human rights groups alleged that there were instances of bribery and influence peddling in the courts. The minister of justice appoints and may suspend judges, and the Justice Ministry supervises both law enforcement and judicial functions. The president heads the Council of Magistrates, which oversees judicial activity.
On September 10, a deputy public prosecutor, senior magistrate, and judge accused of corruption in 2005 were tried and found not guilty.
The country has a lower Circuit Court, a Supreme Court with both judicial and administrative powers, and a Constitutional Court that oversees constitutional issues and acts as an election arbiter. The constitution also provides for the convening of a high court of justice to try senior government officials in cases of treason.
Trial procedures
Except in the case of minors, trials generally are public, and defendants have the right to be present and have an attorney of their choice. Court-appointed attorneys are provided for the indigent without charge. Defendants have the right to consult with their attorney, but administrative backlogs and an insufficient number of lawyers often prevented prompt access. Defendants and attorneys have access to government evidence relevant to their cases. Defendants are presumed innocent and have the right to confront witnesses and to appeal decisions to the Supreme Court. These rights extend to all citizens and all groups.
Contrary to customary procedures, the June 26 trial of six persons charged with "offending" the head of state was conducted behind closed doors (see Freedom of speech, below).
Village chiefs, in consultation with the elders, decided the majority of disputes in rural areas. If these decisions were challenged in court, only those found to have legal merit were upheld.
Political prisoners and detainees
Journalists and a high school teacher were imprisoned in June for "offending" the head of state (see Freedom of speech, below).
Civil judicial procedures and remedies
There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters.
Arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence
The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions.
Civil liberties
Freedom of speech and press
The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government limited press freedom during the year and intimidated journalists or publishers into practicing self-censorship.
Individuals criticized the government publicly and privately, generally without reprisal; however, on occasion the government attempted to impede such criticism.
The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views.
Journalists were subject to harassment and arrest. For example, on March 5, a court convicted Kabako newspaper journalists Diaby Macoro Camara and Oumar Bore of defaming Marimantia Diarra, the minister of planning; a December 2006 article in Kabako alleged that the minister ordered a local mayor to annul the marriage of his ex-fiancé and compelled police to raid her residence. The newspaper claimed the mayor and police confirmed the allegations. Both journalists received a four‑month suspended sentence and a $100 (46,500 CFA francs) fine. Referring to the case, the Committee to Protect Journalists issued a statement that "sending journalists to jail for their reporting is out of step with Mali's democratic values".
In June Bassirou Kassim Minta, a local high school teacher, assigned his class a fictional essay about the mistress of an unnamed head of state and was arrested on June 14 for "offending the head of state"; Info-Matin journalist Seydina Oumar Diarra wrote an article criticizing Minta's judgment, but was arrested on the same charge on June 14. On June 20, four newspaper editors—Sambi Toure of Info-Matin, Birama Fall of Le Republican, Alexis Kalambry of Les Echos, and Mahamane Hameye Cisse of Le Scorpion—also were charged and arrested after they reprinted the original article to demonstrate solidarity with Diarra. Defense lawyers for the six boycotted legal proceedings to protest the government's restrictions on the press and handling of the case.
At the June 26 trial, the judge accepted a motion from the public prosecutor to remove the press and observers from the courtroom to "protect" the public from the "salacious" details of the case. The five journalists were convicted, given suspended prison sentences, and fined between $400 (178,800 CFA francs) and $1,200 (536,400 CFA francs). Minta, the teacher, was sentenced to two additional months' imprisonment and fined $1,200 (536,400 CFA francs). Outside the courtroom, leaders of the local journalists union objected to being barred from attending legal proceedings involving professional colleagues.
The government harassed media outlets during the year. For example, in March the Office du Niger (ON), a government agency that regulates irrigation and agriculture in the country's rice-growing region, served an eviction notice on Radio Jamakan, a local radio station that operated out of an ON‑owned building in Markala. Radio Jamakan and the CPJ charged that the eviction was a result of the station's March 3–4 broadcast of an opposition meeting. In 2006 ON stopped supplying electricity to the station after it broadcast a conference of government critics.
Internet freedom
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet except for pornography or material deemed objectionable to Islamic values. There were no credible reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. Individuals and groups engage in the expression of views via the Internet, including by e‑mail.
The Ministry of Islamic Affairs continues to block Web sites considered anti-Islamic or pornographic. In November 2011 the Telecommunications Authority blocked and banned a local blog, Hilath.com, at the request of the Islamic Ministry because of its anti-Islamic content. The blog was known for promoting religious tolerance, as well as for discussing the blogger's homosexuality. NGO sources stated that in general the media practiced self-censorship on issues related to Islam due to fears of being labeled "anti-Islamic" and subsequently harassed. This self-censorship also applied to reporting on problems in and criticisms of the judiciary.
There were numerous Internet cafes in Bamako, although home access in the capital was limited to those able to pay the high installation and monthly fees. Outside of Bamako, there were a few sites where the Internet was available for public use, but many towns in the country had no Internet access.
Academic freedom and cultural events
Apart from the arrest of a high school teacher for assigning an essay topic deemed offensive to the head of state, there were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events.
Freedom of peaceful assembly and association
The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right; however, on June 21, police used tear gas and batons to disrupt a march of approximately 100 journalists who were protesting the arrests of five colleagues and a high school teacher (see section 2.a.). At least one demonstrator—Ibrahim Coulibaly, the president of the Union of Journalists—was injured by police and required hospitalization.
Trials were still pending for five medical students, who were arrested in November 2006 for damaging property. The students' union claimed that the five, including one woman, were physically and sexually abused while in police custody.
The constitution and law provide for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right; however, the law prohibits association deemed immoral. In June 2005 the governor of the District of Bamako cited this law to refuse official recognition of a gay rights association.
Freedom of religion
The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right. The government required that all public associations, including religious associations, register; the process was routine and not burdensome. Traditional indigenous religious groups were not required to register. The Jewish population was estimated at less than 50, and there were no reports of antisemitic acts.
Freedom of movement, internally displaced persons, protection of refugees, and stateless persons
The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights. Police routinely stopped and checked both citizens and foreigners to restrict the movement of contraband and to verify vehicle registrations. Some police and gendarmes extorted bribes.
The constitution and law specifically prohibit forced exile; the government did not use it.
Protection of refugees
The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice, the government provided protection against refoulement, the return of persons to a country where there is reason to believe they feared persecution, and granted refugee status or asylum. A national committee in charge of refugees operated with institutional assistance from the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees.
During the year the government also provided temporary protection to 241 individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol.
Political rights
The constitution and law provide citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage.
Elections and political participation
On April 29, President Amadou Toumani Toure was elected to a second five-year term with 71 percent of the vote. Legislative elections were held in July. Domestic and international observers characterized both elections as generally free, fair, and without evident fraud, but there were administrative irregularities.
Political parties generally operated without restrictions.
Fourteen women were elected to the 147-member National Assembly. There were five women in the 27-seat cabinet, five women on the 33-member Supreme Court, and three women on the nine-member Constitutional Court; a woman chaired the Supreme Court.
The National Assembly had 14 members of historically marginalized pastoralist and nomadic ethnic minorities representing the northern regions of Gao, Timbuktu, and Kidal. The cabinet also had two members from such ethnic minorities.
Government corruption and transparency
The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, officials frequently engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. The government continued its campaign to curb corruption, which hindered development and governmental efforts to improve human rights.
The auditor general's 2007 annual report cited approximately $218 million (101.4 billion CFA francs) in lost revenues in 2006 due to financial mismanagement, corruption, and fraud. The report charged local fuel importation companies with widespread tax evasion and customs duty fraud, including missing revenues of $15.5 million (7.2 billion CFA francs) from the governmental Office du Niger. The auditor general also identified cases of fraud and fiscal mismanagement within the ministries of education, health, and energy.
The constitution requires the prime minister and other cabinet members to annually submit to the Supreme Court a financial statement and written declaration of their earnings. These documents were not made public.
The law provides for public access to government information, and the government granted such access. If an information request is refused, the person inquiring can appeal to an administrative court, which must handle the appeal within three months.
Governmental attitude regarding external investigation of alleged violations of human rights
A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to their views.
Discrimination, societal abuses, and trafficking in persons
The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on social origin, color, language, sex, or race, and the government generally enforced these provisions effectively; however, violence and discrimination against women, FGM, and trafficking in children were problems.
Women
The law criminalizes rape, but spousal rape is legal, and most cases of rape were unreported.
Domestic violence against women, including spousal abuse, was tolerated and common. Spousal abuse is a crime, but police were reluctant to enforce laws against or intervene in cases of domestic violence. Assault is punishable by prison terms of one to five years and fines of up to $1,000 (465,000 CFA francs) or, if premeditated, up to 10 years' imprisonment. Many women were reluctant to file complaints against their husbands because they were unable to support themselves financially. The Ministry for the Promotion of Women, Children, and the Family produced a guide on violence against women for use by health care providers, police, lawyers, and judges. The guide provides definitions of the types of violence and guidelines on how each should be handled. NGOs Action for the Defense and Promotion of Women Rights and Action for the Promotion of Household Maids operated shelters.
Prostitution is not addressed by any law, but third party activities (procuring) are illegal. Prostitution is common in cities.
The law does not specifically address sexual harassment, which occurred commonly.
Family law favored men, and women were particularly vulnerable in cases of divorce, child custody, and inheritance rights, as well as in the general protection of civil rights. Women had very limited access to legal services due to their lack of education and information, as well as the prohibitive cost. For example, if a woman wanted a divorce, she had to pay approximately $60 (28,000 CFA francs) to start the process, a prohibitive amount for most women.
While the law gives women equal property rights, traditional practice and ignorance of the law prevented women—even educated women—from taking full advantage of their rights. A community property marriage must be specified in the marriage contract. In addition, if the type of marriage was not specified on the marriage certificate, judges presumed the marriage was polygynous. Traditional practice discriminated against women in inheritance matters, and men inherited most of the family wealth.
Women's access to employment and to economic and educational opportunities was limited. Women constituted approximately 15 percent of the formal labor force, and the government, the country's major employer, paid women the same as men for similar work. Women often lived under harsh conditions, particularly in rural areas, where they performed difficult farm work and did most of the childrearing. The Ministry for the Promotion of Women, Children, and the Family was charged with ensuring the legal rights of women.
Under a 2004–08 national plan of action to promote the status of women, the government continued efforts to reduce inequalities between men and women and to create links between women within the Economic Community of West African States and throughout Africa.
Several women's rights groups, such as the Association of Malian Women Lawyers, the Association of Women in Law and Development, the Collective of Women's Associations, and the Association for the Defense of Women's Rights, worked to highlight legal inequities, primarily in the family code, through debates, conferences, and women's rights training. These groups also provided legal assistance to women and targeted magistrates, police officers, and religious and traditional leaders in educational outreach to promote women's rights.
Children
The government has shown a commitment to providing for children's welfare and rights. Several laws protect children and provide for their welfare, including an ordinance that provides for regional positions as "child delegates" to safeguard the rights and interests of children.
Education was tuition free and, in principle, open to all; however, students were required to provide their own uniforms and supplies. Only 56.6 percent of children from seven to 12 years old attended primary school during the 2005–06 school year, and girls' enrollment was lower than boys'. Approximately 11 percent of students attended private Arabic-language schools, or "medersas", most of which taught core subjects including math, science, and foreign languages. An unknown number of primary school-aged children throughout the country attended part-time Koranic schools teaching only the Koran. These schools are partially funded by students, who are required to beg for money.
The government provided subsidized medical care to children as well as adults, but the care was limited in quality and availability. Boys and girls had equal access to medical care.
Statistics on child abuse were unreliable, and reported cases of abuse were rare, according to local human rights organizations. The social services department investigated and intervened in cases of child abuse or neglect. Most cases of sexual exploitation go unreported, and a government study recommended that the country strengthen its laws to protect children. Female genital cutting was common, particularly in rural areas, and was performed on girls between the ages of six months to six years. Government programs aim to eliminate FGM by 2008.
Women may legally marry at age 18 (or at age 15 with parental consent) and men at age 21. Underage marriage was a problem throughout the country with parents in some cases arranging marriages for girls as young as nine.
Trafficking in persons and slavery
Most trafficking occurred within the country. Children were trafficked to rice fields in the central regions; boys were trafficked to mines in the south; and girls were trafficked for involuntary domestic servitude in Bamako. Victims were generally trafficked for agricultural work, domestic servitude, begging, gold mining, and prostitution. The victims were usually from the central regions of the country and not a specific ethnic group. Women and girls were trafficked from Nigeria for sexual exploitation, mainly by Nigerian traffickers.
The law prohibits the contractual use of persons without their consent. Penalties increase if a minor is involved and range from five to 20 years' imprisonment. Although legal protections and measures are in place, parents of child victims were reluctant to file charges, and cases often languished within the justice system.
During the year there also were reports of trafficking in persons between Mali and its neighbors, primarily Guinea, Burkina Faso, and Côte d'Ivoire.
For example, in March security forces in Sikasso arrested two Ivorian nationals for trafficking 34 boys from Côte d'Ivoire, ranging in age from 16 to 18. A Malian accomplice escaped. The victims, who believed they were going to play for European soccer teams, were repatriated by a local NGO and the UN. Officials in Sikasso refused to release the two suspects on bail. The accused traffickers were awaiting trial at year's end.
Authorities took no action during the year against two persons who were arrested in October 2006 for allegedly trafficking 24 citizens, including 20 children, from Burkina Faso.
The Ministry for the Promotion of Women, Children, and the Family and the Ministry of Labor and Civil Service shared responsibility for combating trafficking. The two ministries, in cooperation with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Territorial Administration, developed a program to identify and rehabilitate victims, educate the population on trafficking, and strengthen the legal system with regard to the movement and trafficking of minors.
When asked, the government assisted with international trafficking investigations and the extradition of citizens accused of trafficking in other countries, but there were no such cases during the year.
The government worked closely with international organizations and NGOs to coordinate the repatriation and reintegration of trafficking victims.
Welcome centers in Mopti, Segou, Sikasso, and Bamako assisted in returning trafficked children to their families. The government provided temporary shelter and protection for victims at these centers.
Persons with disabilities
There was no specific law protecting the rights of persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or in the provision of other state services; however, the government did not discriminate against persons with disabilities.
There is no law mandating accessibility to public buildings. There were no reports of societal discrimination against persons with disabilities. The Ministry of Social Affairs is charged with the protection of the rights of persons with disabilities.
National/racial/ethnic minorities
Societal discrimination continues against Tuareg servile caste members (éklan / Ikelan in Tamasheq, Bouzou in Hausa, Bella in Songhai). Often these castes formed distinct settled communities traditionally bonded to semi-nomadic Tuareg aristocratic castes. Hereditary servitude relationships between certain ethnic groups continue in some places to the present day. Members of hereditary Tuareg servile communities reported that they have not benefited from equal education opportunities and were deprived of civil liberties by other groups and castes.
Ikelan communities in Gao and Ménaka also reported systematic discrimination by local officials and others that hindered their ability to obtain identity documents or voter registration cards, locate adequate housing, protect their animals from theft, seek legal protection, or access development aid. In 2008, the Tuareg-based human rights group Temedt, along with Anti-Slavery International, reported that "several thousand" members of the Tuareg Bella caste remain enslaved in the Gao Region and especially around the towns of Ménaka and Ansongo. They complain that while laws provide redress, cases are rarely resolved by Malian courts.
LGBT rights
Societal discrimination based on sexual orientation occurred. Additionally, Mali was one of two countries behind removing specific protection for gays from a UN resolution on executions in 2010.
Other social abuses and discrimination
Societal discrimination based on persons with HIV/AIDS occurred.
Worker rights
The right of association
The law provides for workers to form or join unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights. Only the military, the gendarmerie, and the National Guard were excluded from forming unions. An estimated 95 percent of salaried employees were organized, including teachers, magistrates, health workers, and senior civil servants.
The law does not prohibit antiunion discrimination, but there were no reports of antiunion behavior or activities during the year.
The right to organize and bargain collectively
The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government respected these rights. The law provides for the right to collective bargaining, and workers exercised this right freely. Unions have the right to strike, and workers exercised this right.
There are no export processing zones.
Civil servants and workers in state-owned enterprises are required to give two weeks' notice of a planned strike and to enter into mediation and negotiations with the employer and a third party, usually the Ministry of Labor and State Reforms. The labor code prohibits retribution against strikers, and the government generally enforced these laws effectively.
Prohibition of forced or compulsory labor
The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred.
The law prohibits the contractual use of persons without their consent, and penalties include a fine and hard labor. Penalties increase significantly if a minor, defined as someone less than 15 years of age, is involved.
Hereditary servitude relationships continued to informally link different ethnic groups, particularly in the north.
There was evidence that members of the black Tamachek community continued to live in forced servitude and were deprived of civil liberties by members of other ethnic groups. During the year members of the black Tamachek community reported on the continued existence of feudal slave-related practices in the country. Black Tamachek residents in Anderamboukane reported that they were regularly forced to work as domestics or day laborers for Tuareg notables.
On September 4, a three-year-old Tamachek child named Moumou ag Tamou was taken from his family in Kidal by a man claiming traditional ownership rights over the child. Family members in Kidal immediately notified local authorities, and black Tamachek leaders in Bamako met with the minister of justice to discuss the case. An investigation was ongoing at year's end.
On August 22, several black Tamachek groups urged the government to adopt a law criminalizing slavery. No action had been taken on the request by year's end.
Prohibition of child labor and minimum age for employment
The labor code has specific policies that pertain to child labor; however, these regulations often were ignored in practice, and child labor was a problem. The labor code permits children between the ages of 12 and 14 to work up to two hours per day during school vacations with parental approval. Children 14 to 16 may work up to 4.5 hours per day with the permission of a labor inspector, but not during nights, on Sundays, or on holidays. Children aged 16 to 18 could work in jobs that were not physically demanding; boys could work up to eight hours per day, and girls up to six hours per day.
Child labor predominated in the agricultural, mining, and domestic help sectors and, to a lesser degree, in craft and trade apprenticeships and cottage industries.
Laws against unjust compensation, excessive hours, or capricious discharge did not apply to the vast number of children who worked in rural areas helping with family farms, household chores and herds, apprenticing in trades, or working in the informal sector, such as street vendors.
Trafficking in children was a problem.
The authorities enforced labor code provisions through inspectors from the Ministry of Labor and State Reforms, which conducted surprise inspections and complaint-based inspections; however, resource limitations restricted the frequency and effectiveness of oversight by the Labor Inspection Service, which operated only in the formal sector.
The Ministry for the Promotion of Women, Children, and Families, with the assistance of the International Program for the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC), led a week-long National Campaign Against Child Labor to publicize and combat child labor. IPEC worked with labor inspectors, ministry officials, and local NGOs to prevent child labor.
Acceptable conditions of work
The national minimum wage rate, set during the year, was approximately $53 (24,660 CFA francs) per month, which did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The minimum wage was supplemented by a required package of benefits, including social security and health care. While this total package could provide a minimum standard of living for one person, most wage earners supported large extended families and supplemented their income by subsistence farming or employment in the informal sector. The labor code specifies conditions of employment, including hours, wages, and social security; however, many employers either ignored or did not comply completely with the regulations.
The legal workweek was 40 hours (45 hours for agricultural employees), with a requirement for a 24-hour rest period. Workers had to be paid overtime for additional hours.
The law provides a broad range of legal protections against hazards in the workplace, and workers' groups brought pressure on employers to respect sections of the regulations, particularly those affecting personal hygiene. With high unemployment, however, workers often were reluctant to report violations of occupational safety regulations. The Labor Inspection Service oversees these standards but limited enforcement to the modern, formal sector. It was not effective in investigating and enforcing workers' safety and was insufficiently funded for its responsibilities. Workers had the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations and to request an investigation by the Social Security Department, which is responsible for recommending remedial action where deemed necessary; it was not known if any worker had done so.
Historical situation
The following chart shows Mali's ratings since 1972 in the Freedom in the World reports, published annually by Freedom House. A score of 1 is "most free"; 7 is "least free".
International treaties
Mali's stances on international human rights treaties are as follows:
See also
Politics of Mali
Notes
1.Note that the "Year" signifies the "Year covered". Therefore the information for the year marked 2008 is from the report published in 2009, and so on.
2.As of January 1.
3.The 1982 report covers the year 1981 and the first half of 1982, and the following 1984 report covers the second half of 1982 and the whole of 1983. In the interest of simplicity, these two aberrant "year and a half" reports have been split into three year-long reports through interpolation.
4.Acting.
References
External links
Freedom of expression in Mali - IFEX
2012 Annual Report, by Amnesty International
Freedom in the World 2011 Report, by Freedom House |
4513212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Pakistan | Human rights in Pakistan | The situation of Human Rights in Pakistan () is complex as a result of the country's diversity, large population, its status as a developing country and a sovereign Islamic democracy with a mixture of both Islamic and secular law.
Overview
The Constitution of Pakistan provides for fundamental rights. The Clauses also provide for an independent Supreme Court, separation of executive and judiciary, an independent judiciary, independent Human Rights commission and freedom of movement within the country and abroad. However these clauses are not respected in practice.
Although Pakistan was created to uphold the principles of democracy, military coups in Pakistan are commonplace, and for most of its history after independence has been ruled by military dictators who declare themselves president. The 2013 Pakistani general election were the first elections in the country where there was a constitutional transfer of power from one civilian government to another.
Elections in Pakistan have been prone to irregularities including vote rigging, use of threats and coercion, and discrimination between Muslims and non-Muslims. Additionally the Government of Pakistan has itself admitted on several occasions that it has absolutely no control over the Military of Pakistan and related security agencies.
In 2022, Freedom House rated Pakistan’s human rights at 37 out 100 (partly free). Violence against women is an important social issue in Pakistan. An estimated 5,000 women are killed per year as a result of domestic violence, with many maimed or disabled. In 2016 the provincial parliaments of Punjab and Sindh, which together comprise 65% of the country's population, independently condemned violence against women and took steps toward reducing its prevalence. Opposition to this type of legislation remains.
According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 2,134,900 people are enslaved in modern-day Pakistan, or 1.13% of the population.
Religious discrimination, religious violence, and lack of religious freedom continue to remain serious issues in Pakistan, and they have often been condoned by politicians such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, the 2nd Prime Minister of Pakistan, who stated: "I do not agree that religion is a private affair of the individual nor do I agree that in an Islamic state every citizen has identical rights, no matter what his caste, creed or faith be". This stands in contrast to the position of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, who stated in an address to the constituent assembly of Pakistan, "You will find that in course of time Hindus will cease to be Hindus and Muslims will cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as the citizens of the State."
Political Freedom in Pakistan
Although Pakistan was created to uphold the principles of democracy, its history is rife with Military coups in Pakistan, and for most of its history after independence has been ruled by military dictators who declare themselves president. The 2013 Pakistani general election were the first elections in the country where there was a constitutional transfer of power from one civilian government to another. The elections were marred by terrorist attacks that killed hundreds and wounded more than 500 and widespread rigging of polls, the highest in the country's recorded history.
Religious minorities were prevented from voting for Muslim candidates after Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization and non-Muslims are restricted in the posts they may contest for, with several of the higher posts being unavailable to them. Although some of these laws were later repealed, religious minorities still continue to face several restrictions in politics.
Although slow but steady progress has been made towards return to democracy in the last decade, many Pakistanis and foreign observers see the military still firmly entrenched in politics with the government playing second fiddle to the military. The government is widely seen as having no control over the armed forces and the Inter-Services Intelligence.
Most of Pakistan's laws are secular in nature, some of which were inherited from the United Kingdom's colonial rule of modern-day Pakistan before 1947. However, in practice, Sharia Law takes precedence over Pakistani law. The Constitution of Pakistan provides for fundamental rights which include freedom of speech, freedom of thought, freedom of information, freedom of religion, freedom of association, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly and the (conditional) right to bear arms. It has been changed several times in its short history, with Islamization being the driving factor. Although the government has enacted a few measures to counter any problems, abuses remain. Furthermore, courts suffer from lack of funds, outside intervention, and deep case backlogs that lead to long trial delays and lengthy pretrial detentions. Many observers inside and outside Pakistan contend that Pakistan's legal code is largely concerned with crime, national security, and domestic tranquility and less with the protection of individual rights.
In 2010, Foreign Policy ranked Pakistan as number ten on its Failed States Index, placing it in the "critical" category with such other failed or failing states as Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Somalia. Pakistan consistently figures near the top of the list of failed states year after year.
In September 2015, The Lahore High Court imposed a ban on speeches of Altaf Hussain, the founder and chief of Muttahida Qaumi Movement, a party known for its advocacy of interests of the Muhajir community in Pakistan. The court directed the Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority and Additional Attorney-General Naseer Ahmed Bhutta to implement a ban on the broadcast of images and speeches of Muttahida Qaumi Movement chief Altaf Hussain across all electronic and print media till further orders.
Freedom of the press in Pakistan
Freedom of the press in Pakistan is legally protected by the law of Pakistan as stated in its constitutional amendments, but any reports critical of the government policy or critical of the military is censored. Journalists face widespread threats and violence making Pakistan one of the worst countries to be a journalist in, with 61 being killed since September 2001 and at least 6 murdered in 2013 alone. TV stations and news papers are routinely shut down for publishing any reports critical of the government or the military.
Freedom House rated Pakistan as "Not Free" in its report of 2013 and gave it a score of 64 (on a scale of 0–100, with 0 being most free and 100 being least free). The report brought to light widespread intimidation of journalists by various government, military and security agencies with killings allegedly being carried out by the Inter-Services Intelligence. Reporters Without Borders has ranked Pakistan number 158 out of 180 countries listed in its Press Freedom Index of 2014.
In 2013 veteran journalist Hamid Mir, a recipient of the Hilal-i-Imtiaz, Pakistan's second-highest civil award, was shot at by unidentified assailants wounding him with bullets thrice. He alleged that the Inter-Services Intelligence was behind the attack. His TV channel Geo Tv was shut down by the government for 15 days for airing reports that the ISI may have carried out the attacks.
Websites such as YouTube and many others were in the past blocked by the government for violating blasphemy laws. Websites that are deemed to criticize the government or the military, websites that expose human rights violations of minorities and websites that are perceived as blasphemous are all regularly blocked.
In May 2012, President Asif Ali Zardari signed the National Commission for Human Rights Bill 2012 for the promotion of the protection of human rights in the country. However, it remains to be seen if any positive effects will be derived from this.
In May 2018, a new constitutional amendment was passed that allowed tribal people to access their rights. The amendment allowed the people in tribal areas to enjoy the same constitutional rights as other Pakistanis. The constitutional amendment ended the Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR), imposed under British rule in the 1850s. Under the FCR, people in the tribal areas were explicitly denied their right to appeal their detention, the right to legal representation, and their right to present evidence in their defence – sanctioning a wide-ranging series of human rights violations.
In 2019, a woman journalist was allegedly murdered by her husband - who was also a journalist - because she refused to quit her job. Urool Iqbal had been living alone at the time of her murder and had only recently filed a complaint against her husband with the police. The Coalition For Women In Journalism founding director Kiran Nazish said: “This case crystalizes the multi-layered dangers women journalists face in many countries, Pakistan being one of them. After speaking to those who were close to Urooj, it is very clear that her job as a journalist was a problem for her partner, who is accused in the fatal shooting that killed the young journalist."
In 2016, Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (Pemra) has imposed a complete ban on airing Indian content on local television and FM radio channels, in an effort to crackdown on “culturally-damaging” soaps from across the border. In 2017, The Lahore High Court lifted the ban, claiming that the world had become a global village and asked how long will unreasonable restrictions be imposed. This was overturned and the ban was reinstated by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in 2018. In 2019, the Supreme Court of Pakistan endorsed the ban and declined the request of Pemra to air ads of global big brands containing Indian content on the ground that they would damage Pakistani culture. Chairman of Pemra once again threatened cable operators with severe actions against the cable operators airing Indian Channels, a move which was strongly condemned by The Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists.
Provincial inequality
Miscarriage of Justice
Security forces routinely violate human rights in the course of counter-terrorism operations in Balochistan and elsewhere. Suspects are frequently detained without charge and or convicted without a fair trial. Thousands of people rounded up as suspected terrorists continue to languish in illegal military detention without being produced in court or prosecuted. The army continues to deny independent monitors, lawyers, relatives, or humanitarian agencies access to the prisoners.
The 1997 Anti-Terrorism Act, which established Anti Terrorism Court, and subsequent anti-terrorist legislation, has arisen concerns about the protection of fundamental rights.
Muslim groups have persecuted non-Muslims and used some laws as the legal basis for doing so. The Blasphemy law, for example, allows life imprisonment or the death penalty for contravening Islamic principles, but the legislation was passed in October 2004 to attempt to counter misuse of the law.
Provisions of the Islamic Qisas and Diyat laws allow the murder victim's nearest relative or Wali (ولي) (legal guardian) to if the court approves, take the life of the killer or to agree to financial compensation paid to the heirs of the victim.
Enforced disappearances in Pakistan
Pakistan's military intelligence agency, Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), and law enforcement have been accused of arresting and kidnapping political leaders who have demanded more autonomy or freedom from Pakistan. They have also been accused of arresting student activists and teachers protesting the exploitation of the Pakistani government. Many human-rights activists in Pakistan have protested against forced disappearances and kidnappings.
Pakistan's former military ruler and President Gen. Pervez Musharraf explained in his 2006 autobiography, In the Line of Fire: “We have captured 689 and handed over 369 to the United States. We have earned bounties totaling millions of dollars. Those who habitually accuse the U.S. of not doing enough in the war on terror should simply ask the CIA how much prize money it has paid to the Government of Pakistan.”
Multiple forced disappearances have been reported in Balochistan. According to Voice for Baloch Missing Persons (VBMP) around 528 Baloch have gone missing from 2001 to 2017. In 16 cases documented by Human Rights Watch, the abductions were carried out by, in the presence of, or with the assistance of uniformed personnel of the Frontier Corps (FC), an Interior Ministry paramilitary force. In a number of cases, police assisted by being present at the scene or securing an area while plainclothes intelligence officers abducted individuals who later “disappeared.”
Pakistani-administered Kashmir
Pakistani-administered Kashmir, including Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) and Gilgit-Baltistan are recognized by the Government of Pakistan as nominally self-governing entities, though they are de facto provinces of Pakistan that lack political representation in the National Assembly and other constitutional rights that the provinces are entitled to. With the long-term goal of the eventual accession of AJK and Gilgit-Baltistan into Pakistan proper, the Pakistani government has routinely restricted free expression, freedom of the press and free assembly in the region. In 2021, Freedom House gave Pakistani Kashmir a score of 29/100 for the strength of their political rights and civil liberties along with a rating of "Not Free."
In October 2019, the People National Alliance organised a rally to free Kashmir from Pakistani rule. As a result of the police trying to stop the rally, 100 people were injured.
Women's rights
The social status of women in Pakistan is one of systemic gender subordination even though it varies considerably across classes, regions, and the rural/urban divide due to uneven socioeconomic development and the impact of tribal, feudal, and capitalist social formations on women's lives. The Pakistani women of today do, however, enjoy a better status than in the past.
Pakistan has a dual system of civil and sharia law. The Constitution of Pakistan recognizes equality between men and women (Art. 25(2) states "There shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex") but also recognizes as valid Sharia law (Chapter 3A. – Federal Shariat Court).
Violence against women
Domestic violence in Pakistan is an endemic social problem. According to a study carried out in 2009 by Human Rights Watch, it is estimated that between 70 and 90 percent of women and girls in Pakistan have suffered some form of abuse. An estimated 5,000 women are killed per year from domestic violence, with thousands of others maimed or disabled. The majority of victims of violence have no legal recourse. Law enforcement authorities do not view domestic violence as a crime and usually refuse to register any cases brought to them. Given the very few women's shelters in the country, victims have limited ability to escape from violent situations.
Human Rights Watch said in its report released in 2014 that "Violence against women and girls – including rape, honour killings, acid attacks, domestic violence, and forced marriage all remain serious problems in Pakistan. Despite high levels of domestic violence, the parliament has failed to enact laws to prevent it and protect women." In 2002, women's rights activists Saba and Gulalai Ismail founded Aware Girls, a grassroots women's rights initiative to empower women and girls against domestic and terrorist violence based in Peshawar. More recently Saba Ismail has represented women's rights at the United Nations.
Rape in Pakistan came to international attention after the politically sanctioned rape of Mukhtaran Bibi. The group War Against Rape (WAR) has documented the severity of rape in Pakistan, and the police indifference to it. According to Women's Studies professor Shahla Haeri, rape in Pakistan is "often institutionalized and has the tacit and at times the explicit approval of the state". According to a study carried out by Human Rights Watch there is a rape once every two hours and a gang rape every hour. According to lawyer Asma Jahangir, who is a co-founder of the women's rights group Women's Action Forum, up to seventy-two percent of women in custody in Pakistan are physically or sexually abused.
There have been several thousand "honour" killings in Pakistan in the past decade, with hundreds reported in 2013. An Amnesty International report noted "the failure of the authorities to prevent these killings by investigating and punishing the perpetrators." Honour killings are supposed to be prosecuted as ordinary murder, but in practice, police and prosecutors often ignore it.
Women's eNews reported 4,000 women attacked by Bride burning in Islamabad's surroundings over an eight-year period and that the average age range of victims is between 18 and 35 with an estimated 30 percent being pregnant at the time death. Shahnaz Bukhari has said of such attacks Either Pakistan is home to possessed stoves which burn only young housewives, and are particularly fond of genitalia, or looking at the frequency with which these incidences occur there is a grim pattern that these women are victims of deliberate murder According to the Progressive Women's Association such attacks are a growing problem and in 1994 on International Women's Day announced that various NGO's would join to raise awareness of the issue.
Notable attacks against women
On 9 October 2012, the Pakistani Taliban claimed responsibility for attempting to assassinate 15-year-old Malala Yousafzai. They vowed to continue to target her for promoting education for women and girls. In response, a new law was signed by the President on 20 December, guaranteeing free and compulsory education to boys and girls between the ages of five and 16.
On 4 July 2012, women's human rights activist Fareeda Kokikhel Afridi was killed in a drive-by shooting as she left her home in Peshawar for work in the Khyber Tribal Agency. Local civil society groups said she had been targeted for promoting the human rights of women. The authorities failed to bring the perpetrators to justice.
In 2007, Kainat Soomro a 13-year-old was kidnapped at gunpoint and gang raped. Her family faced widespread condemnation for refusing to "honor" kill their daughter and faced several attacks which resulted in the death of her brother. Her rapists were all acquitted and she was put under trial for premarital sex which is a crime under Islamic law.
In June 2002, Mukhtaran Bibi was gang raped on the orders of a tribal council and paraded naked in front of a cheering crowd of 300 people. She did not commit suicide, as is customary in gang rape incidents in Pakistan, but instead attempted to seek justice. Nearly a decade after the incident 5 of the 6 accused of gang-raping her were acquitted while the sixth faces life in prison. She continues to face widespread discrimination in Pakistan and has been subject to house arrest, illegal detention, and harassment from the government and law enforcement agencies.
Political abuse of human rights
Provincial and local governments have arrested journalists and closed newspapers that report on matters perceived as socially offensive or critical of the government or military. Journalists also have been victims of violence and intimidation by various groups and individuals. In spite of these difficulties, the press publishes freely on other matters, although journalists often exercise self-restraint in their writing to avoid inuring the wrath of the government or military.
In 2001, citizens participated in general elections, but those elections were criticized as deeply flawed by domestic and international observers. Societal actors also are responsible for human rights abuses. Violence by drug lords and sectarian militias claims numerous innocent lives, discrimination and violence against women are widespread, human trafficking is problematic, and debt slavery and bonded labor persist.
The government often ignores abuses against children and religious minorities, and some government institutions and Muslim groups have persecuted non-Muslims and used some laws as the legal basis for doing so. The Blasphemy law, for example, allows life imprisonment or the death penalty for contravening Islamic principles, but legislation was passed in October 2004 to attempt to counter misuse of the law.
Furthermore, the social acceptance of many of these problems hinders their eradication. One prominent example is honor killings (“karo kari”), which are believed to have accounted for more than 4,000 deaths from 1998 to 2003. Many view this practice as indicative of a feudal mentality and falsely anathema to Islam, but others defend the practice as a means of punishing violators of cultural norms and view attempts to stop it to as an assault on cultural heritage.
Pakistan was recommended by the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) in May to be designated as a “Country of Particular Concern” (CPC) by the Department of State because of its government's engagement or toleration of systematic, ongoing, and egregious violations of religious freedom.
Humanitarian response to conflict
Violence in Pakistan and the Taliban conflict with the government have heightened humanitarian problems in Pakistan. Political and military interests have been prioritized over humanitarian considerations in the offensives against the Taliban, and issues are likely to get worse as people are encouraged back home prematurely and often face once again being victims of the Taliban terrorists. Displacement is a key problem and humanitarian organizations are failing to address the basic needs of people outside displacement camps, nor are they able to address issues such as the conduct of hostilities and the politicization of the emergency response. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute argue that aid agencies face dilemmas with engaging with the government, as this does not always produce the desired results and can conflict with their aim of promoting stability and maintaining a principled approach. A principled approach limits their ability to operate when the government emphasizes political and security considerations.
Internally displaced people
There were over 500,000 people displaced in 2008 mainly from the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) on the border with Afghanistan, and a further 1.4 million from Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa in May 2009. By mid-July 2009, Pakistan's National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) put the total of Internally Displaced People (IDPs) at just over 2m, while unofficial figures are as high as 3.5m. Most of those displaced (up to 80%) were taken in by relatives, friends and even strangers – Pashtun communities, in particular, have displayed great efforts in assisting the displaced despite their own high levels of poverty. Still others use schools, but only a small minority live in approximately 30 official camps, mainly in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
There is little support for those living outside of camps, official support consists only of some food and non-food items and government cash grants. Many of those who have been taken in are looked after by political and religious groups providing assistance in return for membership or support. The government has been struggling to provide support to an area traditionally marginalized and remote and is also keen to downplay the scale of the crisis. Before military operations are undertaken, little preparation is made for the predictable increase in displaced peoples in order to avoid attracting the attention of opposing forces. There are also suggestions that help given to IDPs is informed by cultural and political expediency, as in the case of a $300 family cash grant.
The international community's assistance is marginal in comparison to local efforts due to the rate and scale of displacement; the scattering of displaced populations among host families and in spontaneous settlements; access difficulties due to insecurity and the role of the military in the relief effort. International humanitarian organizations have focused on camp-based populations and this limited interaction has hampered their attempts to analyze the full complexity of the situation, the context, its different actors, and their interests – all of which are key to ensuring that the humanitarian imperative is achieved in this complex operating environment.
The cluster method often used for the coordination and funding of humanitarian responses to IDPs has been criticized many agencies have bypassed the UN cluster, such as OFDA and DfID. However, operational agencies also indicated that donors have also been slow to challenge government policy due to their overall support to the Pakistani counter-insurgency effort, as well as lack of influence.
The government has come under criticism also for downplaying the crisis, but also for weakening the position of the UN through the ‘One UN Approach’ in Pakistan, leaving a UN unable to function properly. Furthermore, in an effort to force refugees back to the areas they have fled (in order to create a sense of normalcy), the government has cut off power and water supply to the IDP camps.
"Friends of Pakistan"
Many donors see the conflict as an opportunity for more comprehensive engagement in an effort to promote stability in the region, to promote a legitimate government, and curtail transnational threats. The ‘Friends of Pakistan’ group, which includes the US, the UK, and the UN, is key in the international community's drive to promote stability. The US has adopted a joint ‘Af-Pak’ (Afghanistan and Pakistan) strategy in order to suppress the insurgency and defend its national security interests. This strategy seeks engagement with the government and the military intelligence communities, develop civilian and democratic governance, for instance through the provision of services and support in ‘cleared areas’ in FATA and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, and increasing assistance including direct budget support, development aid and support with counter-insurgency work. The UK equally sees an opportunity to counter instability and militancy through a combined military and 'hearts and minds' approach, through judicial, governance, and security sector reform. The UNDP/WFP takes a similar line.
Yet the success of this approach is by no means clear, as both the government and society at large are not welcoming of foreign interference. USAID takes into account political as well as humanitarian dimensions in its decision making process. Many civilians see little distinction between aid agencies, the military operations, and "western interests"; ‘you bomb our villages and then build hospitals’. Many humanitarian organisations thus avoid being too visible and do not mark their aid with their logos.
Discrimination against ethnic and religious minorities
Pakistan is known for widespread discrimination against religious minorities, with attacks against Christians, Hindus, Ahmadiyya, Shia, Sufi and Sikh communities being widespread. These attacks are usually blamed on religious extremists but certain laws in the Pakistan Criminal Code and government inaction have only caused these attacks to surge higher.
Sunni militant groups operate with impunity across Pakistan, as law enforcement officials either turn a blind eye or appear helpless to prevent widespread attacks against religious minorities.
Though the Constitution includes adequate accommodation for Pakistan's religious minorities, in practice non-Sunni Muslims tend to face religious discrimination in both the public and private spheres (for example – non Muslims cannot hold any of the top positions in the country's government). In response to rising sectarian and religious violence, the Pakistani government has unveiled several high-profile efforts to reduce tension and support religious pluralism, giving new authority to the National Commission for Minorities and creating a Minister for Minority Affairs post. Nonetheless, religious violence and intimidation, as well as periodic charges of blasphemy, have occurred. Attacks against Shia Muslims, who make up between 5–20% of Pakistani Muslims, have also been carried out by terrorist organizations such as the TTP and LeJ. However, in recent years, the Pakistani military and law enforcement agencies have conducted vast and extensive operations against these terrorist organizations which has resulted in a dramatic decrease in violence against minorities and restoration of relative peace. Pakistani lawmakers have also taken action against the misuse of blasphemy laws, putting forward amendments that seek to equate punishments for a false accusation of blasphemy to the punishment for actually committing blasphemy. Furthermore, they have been incidents where Pakistani courts have taken action against the misuse of blasphemy laws, in one case sentencing multiple people to life in prison and death for starting a blasphemy mob.
Ethnic killing of Punjabis in Balochistan
The Punjabis who are local settlers in Pakistan's Balochistan province as well as outsiders who come for work in the province are seen as collaborators of the Pakistan Government and Pakistan Army and are targeted by Baloch Separatists such as the Balochistan Liberation Army and Balochistan Liberation Front.
Extrajudicial killings of Pashtuns
The Pashtun Protection Movement has accused the Pakistan Army of "a campaign of intimidation that includes extrajudicial killings and thousands of disappearances and detentions." The killing of Naqeebullah Mehsud has brought forth accusations that Pashtuns are racially profiled. Military operations in Pakistan's tribal areas have caused the dispersal of Pashtuns away from their homes. Pashtuns who have advocated for human rights for their ethnic group have been attacked and murdered.
Founder of Aware Girls, Gulalai Ismail, was threatened with death by the Inter-Services Intelligence after she joined the Pashtun Tahafuz Movement and protested against enforced disappearances and extrajudicial killings by the Pakistani state. After raising awareness of sexual assault committed by Pakistani security forces on women, Gulalai Ismail fled the country as police forces were on their way to arrest her.
Ethnic killing of Hazaras
On January 3 of 2021, a group of miners in Balochistan were victims of terrorist attacks. The attackers infiltrated and ambushed a coal mine near Mach, Pakistan; after which they "separated those who belonged to an ethnic group called Hazaras, blindfolded them, tied their hands behind their backs and brutally killed them". The Hazara community is an ethnic community from central Afghanistan of Hazarajat that have a mostly strong Shia religious identity. This event lead to a nationwide outcry and protest on social media. Imran Khan responded to the atrocities by accepting the demands of the attackers which infuriated the Pakistani victims.
Silencing of human rights abuses in Balochistan
As of 2018, the Pakistani state was using Islamist militants to crush Balochi separatists. Academics and journalists in the United States have been approached by Inter-Services Intelligence spies, who threatened them not to speak about the insurgency in Balochistan, as well as human rights abuses by the Pakistani Army or else their family would be harmed.
Extrajudicial killings of Muhajirs
According to Amnesty International, extrajudicial executions of Muhajirs by law enforcement personnel, often portrayed by the authorities as "encounters" with police, continued to be reported from Karachi with distressing frequency. In Karachi, extra judicial killings against Muhajirs is not a new phenomenon. It began in 1992 during an operation against MQM. During Operation Clean-up, the police and army carried out raids, mass round-ups and siege-and-search operations in pursuit of MQM(A) leaders and militants over the next 30 months, thousands of ordinary MQM supporters and Muhajirs were subjected to arbitrary arrest and detention, extrajudicial execution, beatings, torture, extortion and other ill-treatment.
Human rights violations against Ahmadi community
Several minority communities, such as the Ahmadiyya have been attacked in pogroms in Pakistan over the years.
The human rights violations of the Ahmadiyya community has been systematic and state-sponsored.
General Zia, the military dictator of Pakistan, went many steps further in 1984, when to gain the support of Islamic fundamentalists in Pakistan, he promulgated the anti-Ahmadiyya Ordinance XX that added Sections 298-B and 298-C in Pakistan Criminal Code.
298-B. Misuse of epithets, descriptions, and titles, etc., reserved for certain holy personages or places:
Any person of the Qadiani group or the Lahori group who call themselves 'Ahmadis' or by any other name who by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representation-
refers to or addresses, any person, other than a Caliph or companion of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), as "Ameer-ul-Mumineen", "Khalifatul- Mumineen", Khalifa-tul-Muslimeen", "Sahaabi" or "Razi Allah Anho";
refers to, or addresses, any person, other than a wife of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), as "Ummul-Mumineen";
refers to, or addresses, any person, other than a member of the family "Ahle-bait" of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), as "Ahle-bait"; or
refers to, or names, or calls, his place of worship a "Masjid";
shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years, and shall also be liable to fine.
Any person of the Qadiani group or Lahori group (who call themselves "Ahmadis" or by any other name) who by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representation refers to the mode or form of call to prayers followed by his faith as "Azan", or recites Azan as used by the Muslims, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years, and shall also be liable to fine.
298-C. Person of Qadiani group, etc., calling himself a Muslim or preaching or propagating his faith:
Any person of the Qadiani group or the Lahori group (who call themselves 'Ahmadis' or by any other name), who directly or indirectly, poses himself as a Muslim, or calls, or refers to, his faith as Islam, or preaches or propagates his faith, or invites others to accept his faith, by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representations, or in any manner whatsoever outrages the religious feelings of Muslims shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years and shall also be liable to fine.
Through this ordinance, Ahmadi Muslims were deprived of most of their basic human rights and their freedom of faith. Under the provisions of this ordinance, an Ahmadi Muslim could be given rigorous imprisonment of 3 years and fined any amount. An Ahmadi can be easily charged for profession of his faith or for ‘posing’ as a Muslim. The ordinance was a green signal for anti-Ahmadiyya elements to open the floodgates of tyranny with the help of the State. The ordinance provides a ready and convenient tool in the hands of fundamentalists and the government to incriminate Ahmadis on flimsy grounds and petty excuses.
Freedom of religion in Pakistan
In 2022, Freedom House rated Pakistan’s religious freedom as 1 out of 4, noting that the blasphemy laws are often exploited by religious vigilantes and also curtail the freedom of expression by Christians and Muslims, especially Ahmadis. Hindus have spoken of vulnerability to kidnapping and forced conversions.
Blasphemy laws
In Pakistan, 1.5% of the population are Christian. Pakistani law mandates that any "blasphemies" of the Quran are to be met with punishment. On July 28, 1994, Amnesty International urged Pakistan's Prime Minister, Benazir Bhutto to change the law because it was being used to terrorize religious minorities. She tried, but was unsuccessful. However, she modified the laws to make them more moderate. Her changes were reversed by the Nawaz Sharif administration which was backed by religious political parties.
Here is a list of some notable incidents involving blasphemy accusations:
Ayub Masih, a Christian, was convicted of blasphemy and sentenced to death in 1998. He was accused by a neighbor of stating that he supported British writer, Salman Rushdie, author of The Satanic Verses. Lower appeals courts upheld the conviction. However, before the Pakistan Supreme Court, his lawyer was able to prove that the accuser had used the conviction to force Masih's family off their land and then acquired control of the property. Masih has been released.
On October 28, 2001, in Lahore, Pakistan, Islamic militants killed 15 Christians at a church.
On September 25, 2002, two terrorists entered the "Peace and Justice Institute", Karachi, where they separated Muslims from the Christians, and then executed eight Christians by shooting them in the head.
In 2001, Pervaiz Masih, Head Master of a Christian High School in Sialkot was arrested on false blasphemy charges by the owner of another school in the vicinity.
On September 25, 2002, unidentified gunmen shot dead seven people at a Christian charity in Karachi's central business district. They entered the third-floor offices of the Institute for Peace and Justice (IPJ) and shot their victims in the head. All of the victims were Pakistani Christians. Karachi police chief Tariq Jamil said the victims had their hands tied and their mouths had been covered with tape. Pakistani Christians have alleged that they have "become increasingly victimised since the launch of the US-led international war on terror."
In November 2005, 3,000 militant Islamists attacked Christians in Sangla Hill in Pakistan and destroyed Roman Catholic, Salvation Army, and United Presbyterian churches. The attack was over allegations of violation of blasphemy laws by a Pakistani Christian named Yousaf Masih. The attacks were widely condemned by some political parties in Pakistan. However, Pakistani Christians have expressed disappointment that they have not received justice. Samson Dilawar, a parish priest in Sangla Hill, has said that the police have not committed to trial any of the people who were arrested for committing the assaults and that the Pakistani government did not inform the Christian community that a judicial inquiry was underway by a local judge. He continued to say that Muslim clerics "make hateful speeches about Christians" and "continue insulting Christians and our faith".
In February 2006, churches and Christian schools were targeted in protests over the publications of the Jyllands-Posten cartoons in Denmark, leaving two elderly women injured and many homes and properties destroyed. Some of the mobs were stopped by police.
In August 2006, a church and Christian homes were attacked in a village outside of Lahore, Pakistan in a land dispute. Three Christians were seriously injured and one missing after some 35 Muslims burned buildings, desecrated Bibles and attacked Christians.
On September 22, 2006, a Pakistani Christian named Shahid Masih was arrested and jailed for allegedly violating Islamic "blasphemy laws" in Pakistan. He is presently held in confinement and has expressed fear of reprisals by Islamic Fundamentalists.
On August 1, 2009, nearly 40 houses and a church in Gojra were torched on the suspicion that Quran had been burnt there. While police watched, 8 victims were burned alive, 4 of them women, one aged 7. Eighteen more were injured.
In 2010, a Pakistani Christian woman named Aasiya Noreen (also known as Asia Bibi) was sentenced to death for blasphemy after an incident occurred with co-workers while picking berries. The verdict received worldwide attention, including petitions for her release. Minorities Minister Shahbaz Bhatti and Punjab Governor Salmaan Taseer were both assassinated for advocating on her behalf and opposing the blasphemy laws. In October 2018, the Supreme Court of Pakistan acquitted her based on insufficient evidence. Noreen's defense lawyer Saif-ul-Mulook fled to the Netherlands in November 2018, fearing for his life. Noreen finally fled to Canada in May 2019, after overcoming several more legal hurdles following her acquittal, including a petition to appeal the Supreme Court's acquittal decision.
In 2012 a young Christian woman, Rimsha Masih, was arrested on blasphemy charge, but released after a few weeks in high security lock-up as a result of international outrage.
On March 9, 2013, two days after Sawan Masih, a Christian, was accused of blasphemy. A mob of two thousand Muslims torched over 200 homes and two churches. Masih was sentenced to death the following year.
In April 2014 a Christian couple from Gojra, Shafqat Emmanuel and Shagufta Kausar received death sentences.
On May 7, 2014, Rashid Rahman, a lawyer representing a university professor Junaid Hafeez accused of blasphemy was murdered in the Pakistani city of Multan. In response the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan and some other civil organizations protested in front of the Karachi Press Club in the city of Karachi.
On April 16, 2023, radical islamists in Pakistan attacked and demolished an over 100-year-old worship place of the minority Ahmadi community in the Punjab province.
Based, in part, on such incidents, Pakistan was recommended by the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) in May 2006 to be designated as a "Country of Particular Concern" (CPC) by the Department of State.
Intolerance against Hindus and other minorities
As of April 2012, Pakistan did not provide a legal system for registration of marriages for certain minorities including Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and Baháʼí. Denial of recognition of Hindu marriages is often used to intimidate and harass Hindus. Married Hindu women have been forcibly kidnapped and married to Muslims, and are left without legal recourse due to inability to prove their previous marriage. It also makes it difficult for Hindus to obtain the Computerized National Identity Card.
The increasing Islamization has caused many Hindus to leave Hinduism and seek emancipation by converting to other faiths such as Buddhism and Christianity. Such Islamization includes blasphemy laws, which make it dangerous for religious minorities to express themselves freely and engage freely in religious and cultural activities.
Minority members of the Pakistan National Assembly have alleged that Hindus were being hounded and humiliated to force them to leave Pakistan. Hindu women have been known to be victims of kidnapping and forced conversion to Islam. Krishan Bheel, one of a handful of Hindu members of the National Assembly of Pakistan, came into news recently for manhandling Qari Gul Rehman, who had repeatedly provoked him by making declaratory statements against his religion.
Hindus in what is now Pakistan have declined from 23% of the total population in 1947 to 1.5% today. The report condemns Pakistan for systematic state-sponsored religious discrimination against Hindus through bigoted "anti-blasphemy" laws. It documents numerous reports of millions of Hindus being held as "bonded laborers" in slavery-like conditions in rural Pakistan, something repeatedly ignored by the Pakistani government.
Separate electorates for Hindus and Christians were established in 1985—a policy originally proposed by Islamist leader Abul A'la Maududi. Christian and Hindu leaders complained that they felt excluded from the county's political process, but the policy had strong support from Islamists. In the aftermath of the Babri Masjid demolition Pakistani Hindus faced riots. Mobs attacked five Hindu temples in Karachi and set fire to 25 temples in towns across the province of Sindh. Shops owned by Hindus were also attacked in Sukkur. Hindu homes and temples were also attacked in Quetta. In 2005, 32 Hindus were killed by firing from the government side near Nawab Akbar Bugti's residence during bloody clashes between Bugti tribesmen and paramilitary forces in Balochistan. The firing left the Hindu residential locality near Bugti's residence badly hit.
The rise of Taliban insurgency in Pakistan has been an influential and increasing factor in the persecution of and discrimination against religious minorities in Pakistan, such as Hindus, Christians, Sikhs, and other minorities. It is said that there is persecution of religious minorities in Pakistan. In July 2010, around 60 members of the minority Hindu community in Karachi were attacked and evicted from their homes following an incident of a Dalit Hindu youth drinking water from a tap near an Islamic Mosque. In January 2014, a policeman standing guard outside a Hindu temple at Peshawar was gunned down. Pakistan's Supreme Court has sought a report from the government on its efforts to ensure access for the minority Hindu community to temples – the Karachi bench of the apex court was hearing applications against the alleged denial of access to the members of the minority community.
Since March 2005, 209 people have been killed and 560 injured in 29 different terrorist attacks targeting shrines devoted to Sufi saints in Pakistan, according to data compiled by the Center for Islamic Research Collaboration and Learning (CIRCLe). At least as of 2010, the attacks have increased each year. The attacks are generally attributed to banned militant organizations of Deobandi or Ahl-e-Hadith (Salafi) backgrounds. (Primarily Deobandi background according to another source—author John R. Schmidt).
Pakistan's citizens have had serious Shia-Sunni discord. An estimated 75–95% of Pakistan's Muslim population is Sunni, while an estimated 5–20% is Shia, but this Shia minority forms the second-largest Shia population of any country, larger than the Shia majority in Iraq. Although relations between Shia and Sunni were once cordial, some see a precursor of Pakistani Shia–Sunni strife in the April 1979 execution of deposed President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on questionable charges by Islamic fundamentalist General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, who subsequently took over as dictator of Pakistan. Zia ul-Haq was a Sunni.
Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization that followed was resisted by Shia who saw it as "Sunnification" as the laws and regulations were based on Sunni fiqh. In July 1980, 25,000 Shia protested the Islamization laws in the capital Islamabad. Further exacerbating the situation was the dislike between Shia leader Imam Khomeini and General Zia ul-Haq. Zia-ul-Haq pursued anti-Shia policies and attacks on Shias also increased under Zia's presidency, with the first major sectarian riots in Pakistan breaking out in 1983 in Karachi and later spreading to Lahore and Balochistan. Sectarian violence became a recurring feature of the Muharram month every year, with sectarian violence between Sunnis and Shias taking place in 1986 in Parachinar. In one notorious incident, the 1988 Gilgit Massacre, Osama bin Laden-led Sunni tribals assaulted, massacred and raped Shia civilians in Gilgit after being inducted by the Pakistan Army to quell a Shia uprising in Gilgit. From 1987 to 2007, "as many as 4,000 people are estimated to have died in sectarian fighting in Pakistan", 300 being killed in 2006. With thousands more being killed since then as the violence has only gotten much worse. In 2013 alone more than 400 Shia have been killed in targeted attacks that took place across Pakistan. Amongst the culprits blamed for the killing are Al-Qaeda working "with local sectarian groups" to kill what they perceive as Shia apostates, and "foreign powers ... trying to sow discord." Outside funding for these Sunni Militia comes mostly from Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states which have a predominantly Sunni population and leadership. Most violence takes place in the largest province of Punjab and the country's commercial and financial capital, Karachi. There have also been conflagrations in the provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Balochistan and Azad Kashmir.
Due to religious persecution in Pakistan, Hindus continue to flee to India. Most of them tend to settle in the state of Rajasthan in India. According to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan data, just around 1,000 Hindu families fled to India in 2013. In May 2014, a member of the ruling Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz (PML-N), Dr Ramesh Kumar Vankwani, claimed in the National Assembly of Pakistan that around 5,000 Hindus are migrating from Pakistan to India every year.
In Pakistan, Hindu and Christian girls are kidnapped, raped, forcibly converted to Islam and married to Muslim men. These girls are generally 12 to 19 years old. According to the Aurat Foundation, about 1,000 non-Muslim girls are forcibly converted to Islam in Pakistan every year.
Forced and coerced conversions of religious minorities to Islam occurred at the hands of societal actors. Religious minorities claimed that government actions to stem the problem were inadequate. Several human rights groups have highlighted the increased phenomenon of Hindu girls, particularly in Karachi, being kidnapped from their families and forced to convert to Islam. The Human Rights groups have reported that the cases of forced conversion are increasing. A 2014 report says about 1,000 Christian and Hindu women in Pakistan are forcibly converted to Islam every year.
In 2003 a six-year-old Sikh girl was kidnapped by a member of the Afridi tribe in Northwest Frontier Province; he also claimed the girl had converted to Islam and therefore could not be returned to her family.
Since the turn of the century non-Sunni minorities as the Kalash and Ismailis have been threatened with conversion to Islam or death by the Taliban and other radical Islamic groups. Well known Pakistani sportsperson-politician Imran Khan (now the Prime minister) had condemned the forced conversions threat as un-Islamic.
On October 12, 2012, Ryan Stanton, a Christian boy of 16, went into hiding after being accused of blasphemy and after his home was ransacked by a crowd. Stanton stated that he had been framed because he had rebuffed pressures to convert to Islam.
In February 2012, Rinkle, Lata, and Asha Kumari were allegedly forced to convert from Hinduism to Islam. Their cases were appealed all the way to the Supreme Court of Pakistan. The appeal was admitted but remained unheard as of December 2016. In 2020, a 15-year-old Hindu girl was kidnapped, forcibly converted and married to a Muslim man. She was later rescued by the police. The Court ordered her to be sent to a Women's protection centre. In a separate case the police aided in a bride's abduction.
In October 2020, the Pakistani High Court upheld the validity of a forced marriage between 44-year-old man and 13-year-old Christian girl. The man had abducted the girl and then forced her to marry him and convert to Islam. However, on November 9 the High Court in Sindh ruled that the girl was a minor and that her marriage to Azhar violated the Sindh Child Marriage Restraint Act. She returned to the women's shelter after she refused to reunite with her family.
See also
Fundamental rights in Pakistan
2020 Karak temple attack
Acid throwing
Blasphemy law in Pakistan
Child labour in Pakistan
Domestic violence in Pakistan
Dowry death
Forced disappearance in Pakistan
Feudalism in Pakistan
Honour killing in Pakistan
Human rights in Islamic countries
Human Rights in Pakistan under General Zia-ul-Haq
Human trafficking in Pakistan
LGBT rights in Pakistan
Persecution of Ahmadis#Pakistan
Rape in Pakistan
Sectarian violence in Pakistan
Violence against women in Pakistan
Women related laws in Pakistan
Organisations
Ministry of Human Rights
Human Rights Commission of Pakistan
Campaign for Innocent Victims in Conflict
Asian Human Rights Development Organization
References
External links
– (Government of Pakistan) Official website
– Pakistan
Censorship in Pakistan – IFEX |
4513266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathanamthitta | Pathanamthitta | Pathanamthitta (), is a municipality situated in the Southern Kerala, India, spread over an area of 23.50 km2. It is the administrative capital of Pathanamthitta district. The town has a population of 37,538. The Hindu pilgrim centre Sabarimala is situated in the Pathanamthitta district; as the main transport hub to Sabarimala, the town is known as the 'Pilgrim Capital of Kerala'. Pathanamthitta District, the thirteenth revenue district of the State of Kerala, was formed with effect from 1 November 1982, with headquarters at Pathanamthitta. Forest covers more than half of the total area of the District. Pathanamthitta District ranks the 7th in area in the State. The district has its borders with Allepey, Kottayam, Kollam and Idukki districts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.Nearest City Is Thiruvalla,Located At A Distance Of 30 km .Thiruvalla Railway Station Is 30 km via Thiruvalla-Kumbazha Highway.Buses Ply Every 30 Minutes From Thiruvalla To Pathanamthitta & Vice Versa.
Etymology
The district's name is a combination of two Malayalam words, and , which together mean 'array of houses on the river side'. The district capital is located on the banks of the river Achankovil.
History
The regions that form the town were formerly under the rule of Pandalam, which had connections with the Pandya kingdom. It is believed that Hindu God Lord Ayyappa was the King of this region. When Pandalam was added to the princely state of Travancore in 1820, the region came under Travancore administration.
Modern day Pathanamthitta District, the thirteenth revenue district of the State of Kerala was formed with effect from 1 November 1982, with headquarters at Pathanamthitta. It was formed due to the efforts made by Indian politician K. K. Nair. He is known as the founder of Pathanamthitta District.
Geography
Pathanamthitta has an average elevation of 18 metres (62 ft) above sea level.
The main trunk road from south to Sabarimala starts from MC Road at Adoor via NH 183A Pathanamthitta. From The North it Starts from Thiruvalla MC Road and Continues through State Highway 7 (Kerala), The Main Eastern Highway (Punalur-Muvattupuzha Road/SH-08), Main Central Road (Kesavadasapuram-Angamaly Road/SH-01), NH 183A Kollam -Teni via Adoor- Pathanamthitta.
Climate
Pathanamthitta has a Tropical monsoon climate bordering a Tropical rainforest climate, more or less the same as is prevalent elsewhere in Kerala. Annual temperatures range between 20 °C (68 °F) and 39 °C (102 °F). The district experiences three distinct weather conditions: winter, summer and the monsoon. The winter season is experienced from December to February and summer season from March to May. There are two rainy seasons: The South-West monsoon (June to September) and the North-East monsoon (October to November). The South-West monsoon is usually very heavy. About 75% of its annual rainfall is received during this season.
The town enjoys a tropical climate, the monsoons start in June. The months of April–May can get pretty humid. The best weather is from October to February.
Pathanamthitta experiences three distinct seasons: summer, monsoon and winter. Typical summer months are from March to May. The warmest month in Pathanamthitta is April. Although summer doesn't end until May, the city often receives locally developed heavy thundershowers in May (although humidity remains high).
The monsoon lasts from June to August, with moderate rainfall. Most of the heavy rainfall in the city falls between June and July, and June is the wettest month of the year. The Last weeks of June is also days of floods. The three major rivers viz Pampa, Achankovil and Manimala swell with rainwater.
Winter begins in December. December through February are the winter months. The lowest temperatures are experienced during January.
According to the latest World Health Organisation (WHO) study on ambient air quality among 123 Indian cities, Pathanamthitta was found to have the cleanest air in India, in terms of least concentration of dust particles in air. Two out of the three least polluted cities in India are from Kerala, Kollam being the second least polluted. As per the database, in Pathanamthitta, the annual mean of PM10 and PM2.5 is recorded at 23 and 10 respectively, which is closer to the recommended level of concentration of particulate matter. While a number of Indian cities are among the world's most polluted, Pathanamthitta's air quality is comparable to some of the cleanest cities in North America, Europe and Australia.
Economy
Agriculture
Agriculture is the main occupation of the people. About 75% people are dependent on this sector. Rubber is the most important crop, with its plantations covering over . The hilly terrain coupled with high humidity makes the region suitable for rubber plantations. Paddy is the most important crop cultivated in the wet lands. Tapioca and pulses are the important dry land crops. Other major crops are coconut, banana, pepper and ginger. In certain areas cashew, pineapple, sugarcane, cocoa and other tree spices are cultivated. The land available for cultivation is less since sizeable area of the district is reserve forest.
Source : Statistics for Planning-DES 2006
Fisheries
Pathanamthitta district has a unique position in the inland fisheries map of Kerala state with its freshwater resources like rivers, reservoirs, streams, ponds, quarries and paddy fields. The fisheries activities in this region started with the establishment of a Fresh Water Survey Station. The district has an Ornamental Fish Breeding resource centre and a National Fish Seed Farm. There are 2444 fishermen depending on this sector for their livelihood.
Administration
Pathanamthitta assembly constituency was part of the Idukki (Lok Sabha constituency) but now Pathanamthitta is a separate Lok Sabha constituency.
Pathanamthitta comes under Aranmula Assembly constituency. Earlier, Pathanamthitta itself was an Assembly constituency. But after delimitation, Pathanamthitta lost its named constituency.
The district headquarters is at Pathanamthitta town. The district administration is headed by the District Collector Divya S. Iyer. He is assisted by five Deputy Collectors holding charges of general matters, revenue recovery, land acquisition, land reforms and election.
Under the three tier system of panchayat in rural areas, Pathanamthitta has one district panchayat, 9 block panchayat and 57 grama panchayats.
Under the single tier system in urban areas, there are 4 municipalities the district. In addition, there is a census town (Kozhencherry).
As per the Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008, Pathanamthitta has five Assembly constituencies, down from eight. However, the district was unified into a single Parliamentary constituency, thus contributing a seat to the Lok Sabha. The Pathanamthitta parliamentary constituency is formed by including all the five Assembly constituencies of the district along with two other Assembly constituencies in the neighboring Kottayam district.
Indian National Congress, the CPM/CPI, Bharathiya Janatha party(BJP)and[Kerala Congress]] are the main political parties.
Municipalities: 4
Thiruvalla
Pathanamthitta
Adoor
Pandalam
Transportation
Airport
The proposed Sabari International Airport, Cheruvally would be the closest airport upon completion, at 28 km away from Pathanamthitta town.
Thiruvananthapuram International Airport (113 km), Cochin International Airport, at Nedumbassery, Kochi (142 km) are the nearest airports.
Heliport
Perunad Heliport (helipad) is situated in Kuttikayam estate, Mampara road. Which is known as Sabarimala helipad. Chipsan Aviation Pvt Ltd, having service from various location. Most of the Sabarimala pilgrimages are using this heliport.
Railway
Chengannur railway station (Code: CNGR) (24 km) is the nearest Railway station. Tiruvalla railway station (Code: TRVL) (30 km) is the only railway station in the District. Mavelikara railway station (Code: MVLK) (32.5 km) is also nearest station after Chengannur and Tiruvalla stations. Kollam Junction Railway Station (Code: QLN) is 62 km away from Pathanamthitta. The location of Chengannur private bus stand in front of the station makes it the most convenient one. Direct Bus services to Pathanamthitta are operated from both Tiruvalla and Chengannur.
The proposed Chengannur – Pandalam – Kottarakkara – Thiruvananthapuram railway line passes through the district.
Road
Pathanamthitta is the meeting point of two major State Highways T.K. Road (SH – 07) and Main Eastern Highway (Punalur-Muvattupuzha Road / SH – 08). The town is well connected to major towns and cities inside and outside Kerala by the State run K.S.R.T.C and private buses as well as Luxury Services. Both the KSRTC and private buses play equal roles in satisfying the transportation needs of the town. The cities of Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Thrissur etc. are connected by KSRTC services whereas hi-range townships like Punalur, Kumali, Pala and the Malabar Area of Northern Kerala are connected by private bus services. KSRTC is running chain services that connect Pathanamthitta with the City of Kollam via Adoor, Also to Chengannur railway via Elavumthitta or Kozhencherry. Plenty of A/C Luxury Bus services are operated from Pathanamthitta to Bangalore, Chennai, Mangalore and Mumbai on a daily basis.
KSRTC bus depots in Pathanamthitta district are Pathanamthitta, Konni,Thiruvalla, Adoor, Mallapally, KSRTC Operating centers are situated in Ranni, Pandalam and a Temporary KSRTC Depot working during Sabarimala season at Pamba.
Tourism
Pathanamthitta district is known as the Headquarters of Pilgrimage Tourism, of the Kerala State. Situated near the Western Ghats and bordered by the hills, Pathanamthitta district is a treat to eyes with its vast unending stretches of forests, rivers and rural landscapes. Blessed by nature, the district is famous for its scenic beauty, fairs and festivals. Land of Lord Ayyappa is the tag-line of Pathanamthitta tourism.
Pathanamthitta attracts a large number of tourists every year. Pilgrim centres and other eco tourism spots like Gavi and Adavi are most visited in Pathanamthitta.
Distance from Pathanamthitta
Konni (10;Km)
Kozhencherry (13 km)
Aranmula (15 km)
Ranny (15 km)
Pandalam (16 km)
Adoor (17 km)
Kalanjoor (22 km)
Chengannur (24 km)
Thiruvalla (30.7 km)
Mavelikara (32 km)
Kayamkulam (40 km)
Kottayam (58 km)
Sabarimala (65 km)
Culture zone
Places around Pathanamthitta city within a distance of 15 km include, Elanthoor, Ranny, Vadaserikara, Kozhencherry, Vechoochira, Kadammanitta, Vazhamuttom, Adoor, Pandalam, Manjinikara, Mathoor, Cheekanal, Omallur, Malayalappuzha, Kodumthara, Elavumthitta-Muloor Smarakam, Kodumon, Kalanjoor, Ayroor Cherukolpuzha, Ulanadu, Kaipattoor, Mylapra, Uthimoodu, Thumpamon, Maroor, Pramadom, Konni, Chengara and Valamchuzhy. The places beyond these are Thiruvalla, Nilackal, Parumala, and Maramon. Pathanamthitta lies on the road route to the pilgrim town of Sabarimala, which is 65 km away. The Chettikulangara temple, at Mavelikkara is about 35 km from Pathanamthitta. Padanilam Parabrahma Temple is situated 26 km from Pathanamthitta. Aranmula is around 14 km from Pathanamthitta. Aranmula Temple is one of the biggest temples in South India en route to Sabarimala.
Sabarimala Mandala Pooja.
Maramon Convention was recorded in 2010 as one of the largest Christian gatherings in Asia. The annual conventions are held during the first half of February.
Cherukolpuzha Hindu matha convention
Aranmula annual boat race.
Aranmula Kannadi – Centuries old art of mirror making from metal composites.
Kumbanadu Convention is the largest Pentecostal peoples gathering at Kumbanadu.
Mylapra Perunnal - The feast of St. George at Mylapra Valiyapally, on May 6th and May 7th, is a grand celebration that attracts thousands of devotees from far and wide.
Notable people from Pathanamthitta District
See List of people from Pathanamthitta District
Demographics
As per Census of India 2011 Pathanamthitta district had a population
of 11,97,412 (11.97 Lakh) and which was lower than 12.34
lakh of previous Census of 2001. Males constitute 46.9% of the population and
females 53.1%. 89% of Total population in Pathanamthitta lives in Rural area
and only 11% lives in urban. Pathanamthitta District ranks the 12th
place in terms of population size in the state. In total density of the District
is 452 Persons per km2 which the 12th in States as per 2011 Census. In
Sex-ratio, the District is in the 2nd position with 1132 females per 1,000
males. In Child Sex-ratio, the District has the 1st rank with 976 female
children per 1000 male children. The District has the second position in total
literacy rate (96.55 per cent) and female literacy rate (95.83 per cent). Agricultural
Labourers constitute 14.1 per cent while Cultivators form 10.5 per cent of the
Total Workers in the District. There are five engineering colleges and one medical college in Pathanamthitta District.
Religion
Hinduism (56%) is the majority faith in Pathanamthitta. Christians (39%) forms significant minority.
Religious conventions
The Cherukolpuzha Convention, in Pathanamthitta is an important religious convention of the Hindus. It is held at Cherukole on the sand banks of Pamba River, usually in February every year. It is organized by the Ayroor-Cherukolpuzha Hindumatha Maha Mandalam at Vidyadhiraja Nagar at Ayroor village.
The Maramon Convention, one of the largest Christian convention in Asia, is held at Maramon, Pathanamthitta, Kerala, India annually during the month of February on the vast sand-bed of the Pampa River next to the Kozhencherry Bridge. It is organised by Malabar Mar Thoma Syrian Christian Evangelistic Association, commonly known as MTEA, the missionary wing of the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church.
Kumbanad Convention is the second largest Christian convention in Kerala and it is the general convention of India Pentecostal Church of God.It is held at the second last week of January annually at Hebronpuram, Kumbanad.
Madhya Thiruvithamcore Syrian convention held every year during the 3 day Lent in February. It was started in 1918 under the auspices of Thumpamon diocese and is held on the grounds of St Stephen's cathedral, Makamkunnu, Pathanamthitta. It was started when Thengumtharayil Geevarghese corepiscopa was the vicar of the church. It is the oldest and largest convention in the orthodox Syrian church.
Places of Worship
The Sabarimala Sree Ayyappa Temple, a world-famous pilgrim centre, situated in the Sabarimala hills in the Pathanamthitta district. It is known as the 'Pilgrim Capital of Kerala'.
Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple is one of the Divya Desams, the 108 temples of Vishnu revered by 12 poet saints, or Alwars.
Anikkattilammakshethram, Shivaparvathy temple
Thrikalanjoor SreeMahadeva Temple
Vaipur Mahadeva Temple
Malayalappuzha Devi Temple in Malayalappuzha
St.Peter's Malankara Syrian Catholic Cathedral,Pathanamthitta
Assemblies of God in India, Thiruvalla
India Pentecostal Church of God, Hebronpuram, Kumbanad
St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Parumala
St. George Orthodox Church, Mylapra, also known as 'Mylapra Valiyapalli
St Mary's Orthodox Church, Kallooppara
Flora and fauna
Pathanamthitta has tropical biodiversity with forest, plantations, rivers and fertile land. Fifty percent of the district is covered with forest, providing rich flora and fauna. The district has a variety of plants including medicinal, spices, tuber crops and those yielding fruits and fiber. Aromatic plants and spices such as pepper, ginger, cardamom and turmeric are cultivated on a large scale. Trees such as timber, teak, rosewood, jack tree, manjakadambu, anjili, pala can be found in abundance.
The forests of the district have excellent wild life habitats. A variety of animals and birds can be found. Tigers, elephants, gaur, deer, monkeys and other wild animals are found in the forest. Giant squirrel, lion-tailed macaques, barking deer and bear can also be spotted in the reserve. Malabar grey hornbill and great Indian hornbill are found. Pathanamthitta also houses the Indian peacock. Wide variety of other birds such as sunbirds, woodpeckers and kingfishers can also be seen.
The existence of the wildlife habitat is under threat from various areas. Pollution from fertilizer and industries and illegal sand mining are the major threats. Issues connected to Sabarimala pilgrimage such as clearing of forest land and large amount of waste discharged also threatens the habitat.
Educational Institutions
Sports
Main stadiums in the town are Pathanamthitta K. K. Nair Stadium and Pathanamthitta Indoor Stadium. Other stadiums include Pramadom Rajiv Gandhi Indoor Stadium. These stadiums host sports events in state, district levels and is also used for other purposes.
Cultural Sports
The Aranmula Boat Race is part of a festival celebrated during the month of September. Though the snake boat race is also performed at nearby places, the race held at Aranmula is unique because of the boats' shape and design. Maramadimatsaram (Ox Race) is another such seasonal sport. This is held as part of the largest annual cattle fair of Central Travancore region. The race is held in three categories.
See also
Kubhazha
Kudamuck
Kurisumuttom
Malamekkara Mulluthara Devi Temple
Notes
References
pib.nic.in
External links
pathanamthittainfo.com
http://www.elanthoordevi.org
Cities and towns in Pathanamthitta district
Tourist attractions in Pathanamthitta district |
4513322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20the%20Philippines | Human rights in the Philippines | Human rights in the Philippines are protected by the Constitution of the Philippines, to make sure that persons in the Philippines are able to live peacefully and with dignity, safe from the abuse of any individuals or institutions, including the state.
The concept and practice of human rights within the Philippines is defined by Article III of the Philippine Constitution, as well as the United Nations' International Bill of Human Rights, to which the Philippines is a signatory.
Concept
The concept of "human rights," in the context of the Philippines, pertains mainly (but is not limited) to the civil and political rights of a person living in the Philippines.
Human rights are a justified set of claims that set moral standards to members of the human race, not exclusive to a specific community or citizenship. Membership in the human race is the sole qualification to obtain these rights. Human rights, unlike area-specific conventions of international laws (e.g. European Convention on Human Rights and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), are universally justifiable as it pertains to the entire human race, regardless of geographical location.
Human rights issues
Torture
Numerous sources had reported that torture was being practiced by the Communist Party of the Philippines-New Peoples Army, police and other security forces.
Labor
The Labor Code of the Philippines is the legal code governing employment practices and labor relations in the Philippines. The Labor Code stipulates standards in terms of wages and monetary benefits, hours of work, leave, rest days, holiday pays, and benefits, among others. The Labor Code sets the rules for hiring and firing of private employees; the conditions of work including maximum work hours and overtime; employee benefits such as holiday pay, thirteenth-month pay and retirement pay; and the guidelines in the organization and membership in labor unions as well as in collective bargaining. The prevailing labor code allows the typical working hour to be 8 hours a day, i.e. 48 hours a week with the provision that at least a day should be allowed to the workers as weekly off. The right to self-organization of a union is recognized, as is the right of a union to strike and to insist on a closed shop.
Indigenous peoples' rights
The Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act
The Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997 recognized and promoted the rights of Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous Peoples (ICC/IPs) enumerated within the framework of the Constitution. It committed the State to recognize and promote the rights of ICCs/IPs to:
Protect the rights of ICCs/IPs to their ancestral domains to ensure their economic, social and cultural well-being and shall recognize the applicability of customary laws governing property rights or relations in determining the ownership and extent of ancestral domain;
Recognize, respect and protect the rights of ICCs/IPs to preserve and develop their cultures, traditions and institutions. It shall consider these rights in the formulation of national laws and policies;
Guarantee that members of the ICCs/IPs regardless of sex, shall equally enjoy the full measure of human rights and freedoms without distinction or discrimination;
Take measures, with the participation of the ICCs/IPs concerned, to protect their rights and guarantee respect for their cultural integrity, and to ensure that members of the ICCs/IPs benefit on an equal footing from the rights and opportunities which national laws and regulations grant to other members of the population.
It declared that the State recognizes its obligations to respond to the strong expression of the ICCs/IPs for cultural integrity by assuring maximum ICC/IP participation in the direction of education, health, as well as other services of ICCs/IPs, in order to render such services more responsive to the needs and desires of these communities.
Transnational advocacy
There are international advocacy groups that aim to promote the causes of environmental and human rights defenders in Mindanao, Philippines. Activism carried out by transnational organizations, which may be described as ‘participatory’, may solicit engagement from local actors, stakeholders, and poor members of communities and include them all in policymaking decisions. Regarding the Lumad, human rights defenders wish to bring attention to Indigenous social issues. According to Duraippah et al., ideal participation is reached when the principles of transparency and empowerment—through the education of transnational actors through local actors —emphasize the needs of Indigenous peoples.
Social power illustrates the exclusion of Lumad people from political decisions, which in turn, perpetuates existing human rights issues. Power in this case is an umbrella term since social power is the real desire in order to pursue true control over livelihoods and the rules that govern them. , social power was not in the hands of Indigenous peoples, therefore, online organizing serves to arm individuals in their community organizing network with education to balance with the inherent power conflict.
Lumad peoples rely on the natural resources on their ancestral lands for their livelihoods; they are therefore deprived of means to support themselves and their families when they are displaced or forced to evacuate. Fundraising by advocacy groups serve to support Lumad communities and their highest form of protest.
Stakeholder organizations
Government
Commission on Human Rights
The Commission on Human Rights (CHR) is an independent office created by Section 18, Article XIII of the Philippine Constitution, with the primary function of investigating all forms of human rights violations involving civil and political rights in the Philippines. The commission is composed of a Chairperson and four members, majority of which must be lawyers under the constitution.
The commission is empowered to investigate all forms of human rights violations involving civil and political rights, adopt rules of procedure and issue contempt citations, provide appropriate legal measures for the protection of human rights of all criminals within the Philippines, and several other powers in relation to the protection of human rights.
Programs
The CHR is in charge of the following programs;
Human Rights Protection Program
The Human Rights Protection Program implemented the Legal and Investigation Office which provides legal aid and counseling services; conducts monitoring of cases/complaints with concerned agencies; conducts rights based public inquiry on issues and concerns of marginalized and disadvantage sectors; and conducts studies to establish certain human rights conditions/situations affecting human development for the adoption of policies, programs and measures for the promotion of human rights. The Legal and Investigation Office also provides appropriate human rights investigative interventions; medico-legal services; conducts alternative dispute resolution of cases thru mediation; quick reaction activities; fact finding missions; rights based situation tracking and rights based investigative monitoring.
The Human Rights Education Teaching Exemplars
The CHR established linkages and collaboration efforts with the Department of Education with this effort, the two agencies forged a Joint of Declaration of Undertaking (JDU) in 1992 and a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) in 1996 which provided development of human rights education curriculum for integration across the two levels of education. To implement the main provision of the Memorandum of Agreement, a joint project was undertaken entitled: Writing Workshop in the Development of Human Rights Education Teaching Exemplars for the Elementary and the Secondary Levels.
Human Rights Linkages Development and Strategic Planning
The CHR established a Legislative and Program Division which is in charge of monitoring bills with human rights implications filed in Congress and coordinating in the preparation of the CHRP position on proposed measures. The LPD has participated in almost all committee hearings and Technical Working Group meetings in both houses of Congress and in such other fora on matters with human rights implications. Right to Development Program. A system of developing and monitoring rights-based programs and measures across institutions aimed at creating enabling environment for poverty reduction linked with the nine components of good governance as follows: Electoral and Political Reforms, Right to Development, Judicial Reform, Anti-Corruption, Governance Review, Civil Service & Economic Management, Globalization and Corporate Citizenship, Decentralization & Local Governance.
Department Of Justice
The Department of Justice of the Philippine Government is its principal law agency. It derives its mandate primarily from the Administrative Code of 1987 (Executive Order No. 292). It carries out this mandate through the Department Proper and the Department's attached agencies under the direct control and supervision of the Secretary of Justice.
The DOJ, through its offices and constituent/attached agencies, is also the government's legal counsel and representative in litigations and proceedings requiring the services of a Lawyer; implements the Philippines' laws on the admission and stay of aliens within its territory; and provides free legal services to indigent and other qualified citizens.
Functions
As the principal law agency of the Philippines, the Department of Justice carries out specific functions in order to fulfill its basic functions
Administration of the Criminal Justice System
The DOJ investigates the commission of crimes and prosecutes offenders through the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) and the National Prosecution Service (NPS), respectively. The DOJ administers the probation and correction system of the country through the Bureau of Corrections (BuCor), the Board of Pardons and Parole (BPP) and the Parole and Probation Administration (PPA).
Legal Counsel of Government
The DOJ, through the Office of the Solicitor General (OSG) and the Office of the Government Corporate Counsel (OGCC), acts as the legal representative of the Government of the Philippines, its agencies and instrumentalities including government owned and controlled corporations and their subsidiaries, officials and agents in any proceeding, investigation or matter requiring the services of a lawyer.
Provision of Free Legal Assistance
The DOJ provides free legal assistance/representation to indigents and poor litigants as well as other qualified persons in criminal, civil, and labor cases, administrative and other quasi-judicial proceedings and non-commercial disputes through the Public Attorney's Office (PAO) pursuant to Republic act No. 9406.
Alternative Dispute Resolution
The Alternative Dispute Resolution Act of 2004 (RA 9285) created the Office for Alternative Dispute Resolution (OADR), which is an agency attached to the DOJ which function is to promote, develop and expand the use of alternative dispute resolution in civil and commercial disputes.
Other Functions
Witness protection – The Witness Protection, Security and Benefit Act (R.A. 6981), mandates the DOJ to formulate and implement a Witness Protection, Security and Benefit Program for the admission and protection of witnesses.
Anti Human trafficking – The Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003 (R.A. 9208), mandates the prosecution of persons accused of human trafficking and for that purpose, created the Inter-Agency Council Against Trafficking (IACAT).
Rape Victim Assistance and Protection – The Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act of 1998 (RA 8505), mandated the DOJ to participate in inter-agency efforts to establish Rape Crisis Centers in every city or province for the purpose of rendering assistance to rape victims.
Anti-Child Pornography – The Anti-Child Pornography Act of 2009 (R.A. 9775), designates the Secretary of Justice as member of Inter-Agency Council Against Child Pornography that is tasked to coordinate, monitor and oversee the implementation of Anti-Child Pornography Act
Programs
The Department of Justice heads a number of projects, among others are as follows;
Child Protection Program
The Child Protection program implemented the Special Committee for Child Protection which is a body charged with monitoring the implementation of The Special Protection For a Child Against Abuse, Exploitation, and Discrimination Act (R.A. 7610). Which protects a child who is below 18 years of age or one who is over 18 years of age but who cannot take care of himself fully because of a physical or mental disability or condition from abuse.
Criminal Code Committee
The purpose of the Criminal Code Committee is to form a new Criminal Code of the Philippines that is updated, modern, simplified, responsive and truly Filipino, in order to improve the administration of justice in the country and enhance access to justice of the poor and other marginalized sectors. It is composed of representatives from the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government.
DOJ Action Center
The Department of Justice Action Center acts on complaints, requests for legal assistance and queries of walk-in clients as well as over the telephone. Any caller can talk to a lawyer or paralegal officer who can render him assistance.
Juvenile Justice and Welfare
The Secretary of Justice is in charge of supervising the implementation of the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006. (R.A. 9344). This act covers the different stages involving children at risk and children in conflict with the law from prevention to rehabilitation and reintegration.
Office of Cybercrime
The Office of Cybercrime is in charge of implementing the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (R.A. 10175).
Department of Labor and Employment
The Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) concerns itself with the protection and welfare of Filipino workers both in the country as well as abroad, and responds accordingly to socio-political and economic challenges that would affect the workers. DOLE is also mandated to create policies and programs as an arm of the Executive Branch in its field of concern. It has set up a number of offices and agencies: 16 regional offices, 83 field offices, 4 satellite offices, 28 overseas posts, 6 bureaus, 7 staff services, and 11 attached agencies. These subgroups are tasked to closely monitor and coordinate the implementation of policies and programs.
Major final outputs
There are seven major services offered by DOLE, namely:
Job Search Assistance Services to assist jobseekers opting for wage employment. The service aims to provide employment guidance and counseling, job referral and facilitation, and timely and accurate jobs and skills description.
Capacity Building Services for Livelihood and Employability of Workers in the Informal and other Specific Sectors to assist the marginalized and disadvantaged workers—informal sector workers, returning OFWs, indigent students and out-of-school youth—by providing skills and entrepreneurship training; access to livelihood opportunities and development, and employment interventions.
Social Partnership Promotion and Dispute Resolution Services to minimize lost working days of workers in formal employment. These lost working days should be a result of avoidance, settlement, and disposition concerns.
Skills Competency, Productivity Training Tech-Voc Education Services to aid the unemployed and underemployed with vocational and technical skills to adapt to the demands of a fluctuating labor market. They provide training and information on productivity technologies.
Services to Safeguard Fair and Just Terms and Conditions of Employment to effectively enforce standards of labor through education, advocacy, inspection, and verification of all required documents.
Social Protection and Welfare Services for Workers in the Informal and Other Specific Sectors to aid workers not usually covered by the protection of government laws. This is done through DOLE'S Social Protection Program.
Work Accident/Illnesses Prevention, Work Compensation and Rehabilitation Services to reduce the number of accidents, injuries, and illnesses caused by labor. These services provide compensation and rehabilitation for occupationally disabled workers.
DOLE, with the International Labour Organization (ILO), was a major contributor to the adoption of the Convention on Decent Work for Domestic Workers, the Maritime Labour Convention of 2006, and The Kasambahay Law (R.A. 10461).
National Commission on Indigenous Peoples
The National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) was born through the merging of the Office for Northern Cultural Communities (ONCC), and the Office for Southern Cultural Communities (OSCC) in the year 1997 through RA 8371 or "Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997". It is a highly specialized commission with different projects for each region.
Security sector
Reform of the Philippines' security organizations, particularly the Armed Forces of the Philippines and later the Philippine National Police, to align them with the principles of human rights and the rule of civilian law has been a government concern ever since the 1986 People Power Revolution deposed Ferdinand Marcos and restored the principle of civilian control of the military. Broad principles to this effect were embedded in the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines, and the various coup attempts of the years immediately following the People Power Revolution led to the recommendation of more systemic reforms, as recommended by the 1990 Davide Commission Report and later reiterated by the 2003 Feliciano Commission Report.
However, issues such as extrajudicial killings, red-tagging, assaults on the media and other human rights issues have persisted through all the Philippine administrations after Marcos.
Intergovernmental organizations
International Labor Organization
The International Labor Organization (ILO) is a tripartite organization that started working with the Philippines in 1994. Its vision is as follows:
"The main aims of the ILO are to promote rights at work, encourage decent employment opportunities, enhance social protection and strengthen dialogue on work-related issues."
The ILO Manila office has been active since its founding, starting with the ratifying of the Workman's Compensation (Accidents) Convention 17 based on Act. No. 1874 to extend responsibility of employers for personal injuries and death suffered by employees at work.
Programs and projects
Below are a number of the programs and projects by ILO Manila .
Decent Work Country Programme (DWCP) is ILO Manila's main project. It was made to support the country's Labor Employment Program (LEP). The two major priorities are decent jobs for a competitive Philippines, and improved labor market governance. To achieve this, the ILO will help strengthen the working capacity of the Philippines and apply international labor conventions to constantly update the LEP. The United Nations Development Assistance Framework has listed the DWCP as ILO Manila's top priority.
Infrastructure for Rural Productivity Enhancement Sector (INFRES) Project (June 4, 2001 – December 31, 2006) was completed to improve their living conditions, poor people require access to employment and basic goods and services. The poor can improve their situation through national and local investment in infrastructure that provides jobs.
ILO-IPEC Project in support of the Philippine Time-Bound Programme (September 2, 2002 – August 31, 2007) was the first and most significant contribution toward the elimination of the worst forms of child labour. It has been designed to leverage resources, and to link up with national and international programs for the benefit of Filipino boys and girls.
Strategies and Tools Against Social Exclusion and Poverty (STEP) (January 1, 2003 – June 1, 2005) aimed to provide better quality of life to informal economy workers and their families through better access to health care. This is a donor project from the Government of Norway.
Protecting Domestic Workers against Forced Labour and Trafficking (DOMWORK) (May 3, 2004 – December 31, 2006) was a program on the regulation and condition of Filipino domestic workers. It aimed to empower domestic workers on their rights as well as reduce the cases of abuse.
"Through discussions on gender equality, the ILO noted that problems had deepened for the most vulnerable, including women in domestic work. Yet while the global economic downturn has contributed to aggravating their vulnerabilities, domestic workers are beginning to realize gains through changes in public attitude."
Indigenous Peoples Development Programme (IPDP) - to protect the rights of indigenous peoples.
Tripartite Action for the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers in the ASEAN Region (May 1, 2012 – March 31, 2016) is an ongoing ASEAN TRIANGLE project that aims to significantly reduce the exploitation of labour migrants in the region through increased legal and safe migration and improved labour protection. This is a donor project from the Government of Canada.
Building the Capacity of the Philippines Labour Inspectorate (December 15, 2014 – December 14, 2017) is a collaborative project with DOLE to strengthen its Labour Law Compliance System (LLCS) by promoting a positive mindset towards work.
Civil society organizations
Focused on indigenous peoples
Tebtebba
Tebtebba is an organization that was established in 1996. They have been an active participant in processes that have led to the adoption of international human rights law and other international instruments, policies, and agreements. These include the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and the establishment of spaces within the United Nations, such as the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, among others.
Cordillera Peoples Alliance
The Cordillera Peoples Alliance (CPA) was founded in 1984. Among many other projects and campaigns, CPA has pushed for regional autonomy, campaigns for the defense of land, life, and resources, opposed large-scale mining in the Cordillera to save Abra river, and exposed violations of human rights committed in their region.
Kalipunan Ng Mga Katutubong Mamamayanng Pilipinas – KATRIBU (National Federation of Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines)
KATRIBU was founded in the year 1987. Previously known as KAMP, KATRIBU aims for the attainment of land rights and for the formation of allegiances and government of the indigenous peoples. KATRIBU is currently protesting DMCI's planned 15-megawatt coal-fired power plant in Narra, Palawan and the mining policy of the Aquino administration.
Sabokahan Unity of Lumad Women
Sabokahan Unity of Lumad Women was founded in 2003. Composed of eight ethnolinguistic tribes across Southern Mindanao, Sabokahan is a grassroots organization led and created by Lumad women dedicated to the advancement of women's rights, equality, and liberation. Save Pantaron and Pulangi River Campaigns are two projects Sabokahan hold to protect biodiversity. To generate income to support themselves, Sabokahan organizes collective bead-making cooperatives among Lumad women.
Liyang Network
Liyang Network is a local-to-global advocacy group that emerged from the calls-to-action of Sabokahan. Before the pandemic, Liyang Network held immersion trips alongside Sabokahan in administering opportunities to educate and provide a transformative cultural experience to those who wish to engage in the history of the community directly from the voices of the Lumad people. Their current remote work entails organizing forums and webinars for educational discussions on current sociopolitical issues and the root causes of these issues—mainly the needs of Lumad and rural communities. These activities aim to address and amplify the push against human rights violations, exploitation, and discrimination, such as the militarization of communities, the closure of Indigenous schools, and illegal arrests.
Notable violations in Philippine history
Marcos administration (1965–1986)
On September 21, 1972, then President Ferdinand Marcos declared Martial Law in the Philippines. Marcos gave the armed forces the power to prevent or suppress... any act of insurrection or rebellion. A total of 398 disappearances, 1,388 extrajudicial killings, and 1,499 killed or wounded in massacres were recorded but not every victim was accounted for.
After the declaration of Martial Law, Marcos issued six general orders and an instruction to close privately owned media facilities. The Press Secretary, Francisco Tatad, and Secretary for National Defense, Juan Ponce Enrile, were ordered by Marcos "to take over and control or cause the taking over and control of all such newspapers, magazines, radio and television facilities and all other media communications..." The information released to the public was highly censored and prevented journalists from releasing any suspicious information about the administration. For the dictatorship, failure to abide would lead to arrest and eventual torture and execution. Lawyer and statesman Sen. Jose W. Diokno, the father of human rights, was one of those arrested. He would be released and later founded the Free Legal Assistance Group (FLAG), the largest group of lawyers to combat human rights abuses by the dictatorship, and it managed to deal with over 90 percent of human rights cases during martial law.
The assassination of Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino triggered the peaceful 1986 EDSA People Power Revolution, led by Aquino's wife, Corazon "Cory" Aquino. The peaceful revolution united the nation in a call against Marcos to uphold their human rights. It led to the abolition of Martial Law (de jure abolished in 1981), the exile of the Marcos family, as well as Cory Aquino's rise to the presidency and the current 1987 Constitution. This, in turn paved the way for the creation of the Presidential Committee on Human Rights, now the Commission on Human Rights which was founded by Atty. Diokno.
Arroyo administration (2001–2010)
The Arroyo Administration was riddled by its several issues on several forms of violations against human rights. Most of these which include the increase in military power and presence, especially in Muslim Mindanao. Philip Alston, a UN Rapporteur, published Promotion and Protection of all Human Rights, Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, including the Right To Development in 2008 that chronicled and reported the situation he had found while in the Philippines. Many incidents of extrajudicial killings were linked to this report, most notable of which is Sichi Bustamante-Gandinao, who was a direct testimony of the abuses concerning the military.
Maguindanao massacre
Sichi Bustamante-Gandinao
Sichi Bustamante-Gandinao was a peasant organizer in Salay, Misamis Oriental. She was the chair of the Misamis Oriental Farmers Organization and the coordinator of the party list group Bayan Muna. She was also an outspoken critic of the actions the Citizens' Armed Force Geographical Unit (CAFGU), and how they disrupt the relatively peaceful communities in Misamis Oriental. Philip Alston was a UN Rapporteur, who had Gandinao as a testimony to the extrajudicial killings, and other violations of human rights the military was practicing, whether it was the military is contested by the Military. The Alston report was published in 2008, which highlighted these abuses through the United Nations General Assembly. In March 2007, however, Gandinao, together with her husband and daughter, was walking home after a day of doing farm work. Gandinao was then shot four times by two men on a motorcycle heading towards a nearby military camp, while Gandinao's family helplessly watched the attack. The local officials and passers-by all told Gandinao's husband and daughter that they were too busy to tend to the bleeding Gandinao. According to reports, after two hours of bleeding profusely, the assailants went back to the scene of the crime and even watched the entire ordeal of Gandinao. Her husband had to carry her to the Cagayan de Oro ambulance, which took another hour to get to the actual hospital. In the Cagayan de Oro hospital, Gandinao was pronounced dead on arrival.
Vigilantism and death squad
According to the Alston report, the presence of "vigilantism" and death squad in Davao has been a commonplace occurrence, and has been going on for some time now, prior to his visit in the Philippines from 2006 to 2007. The Death Squad, however, operate with no intention of hiding their identities, and in broad daylight. Davao Mayor Rodrigo Duterte has held office, aside from a brief stint as a congressman, since 1988. Rodrigo Duterte is known for his strict, anti-criminal approach in governing Davao City. However, in the same report, Rodrigo Duterte has admitted that hundreds of unsolved murders were committed during his time as mayor, and that he takes "full responsibility" for the fact that the murders have remained unsolved. When Duterte was first elected as mayor, he faced a Davao with problems like rampant youth gangs, the New Peoples' Army (NPA) killing policemen routinely, and crime. The Davao Death Squad (DDS) has had over 500 victims since 1998; killing targets in public and in broad daylight. These executions were a response to petty crimes, and targets are sent warnings explaining why they are targeted by the DDS. It was, however, noted that during Duterte's term as mayor, criminal activity has decreased significantly. It should also be noted, however, that there are hundreds of unsolved murders.
Benigno Aquino administration (2010–2016)
In 2016, the Philippines was ranked the world's 4th most dangerous country for journalists, "where journalists are murdered and their killers go unpunished", according to data from the Committee to Protect Journalists. According to Human Rights Watch, almost 300 leftists activist, human rights workers, and people alleged to be supporters of the New People's Army were killed from 2010 to 2016.
Information about disappearances and murders of reporters are kept from the public, making several agencies/organizations as well as whistleblowers at risk of exposure to harm. Some of the journalists killed in their line of work during the Aquino government were Gerry Ortega, Christopher Guarin, and Rubylita Garcia.
The Aquino administration implemented reforms towards more effective criminal investigation procedures, in addition to passing laws to better uphold human rights. However, these reforms are underdeveloped. An example is the formation of the Inter-Agency Committee on Extra-Legal Killings, which encountered problems in identifying which case to pursue due to the process requirements.
Duterte administration (2016–2022)
On June 15, 2020, Maria Ressa, the founder and executive editor of the news website Rappler, and Reynaldo Santos Jr. researcher at Rappler were sentenced with a minimum of six months and one day and a maximum of six years’ imprisonment and fine of USD4,000 for moral damages and USD4000 for exemplary damages. They were the critics of President Rodrigo Duterte and reported on his “war of drugs” campaign that killed more than 12,000 Filipinos. Human Rights Watch found in an investigation that the police are falsifying the evidence to justify the illegal killing of civilians.
On June 26, 2020, Philippines police arrested around 20 people at the LGBT pride event. They were protesting against an anti-terrorism bill, which will eliminate legal protection and police can detain groups and individuals without any warrant under the label of terrorism. The arrest took place without any explanation from the police force. Human Rights Watch urged the authority to release those detained and allow them to exercise their fundamental right of protesting peacefully.
On July 3, 2020, Amnesty International criticized the controversial Anti-Terrorism Act, signed by President Rodrigo Duterte and said that the new law is the latest example of the country's ever-worsening human rights record.
On March 21, 2021, woman human rights defender Renalyn Tejero was arbitrarily arrested by officials of the Philippine National Police and the Philippine Army in Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental. She was subsequently falsely accused and her request to call her family and lawyer was also denied. Prior to her arrest, Tejero had been a victim of red-tagging, a stigmatization practice used by the authorities to target as "terrorists" or "communists" any individuals or groups perceived to be critical of the government.
Extrajudicial killings
With the vigilante killings becoming rampant, the Citizen's Council for Human Rights (CCHR) asked President Duterte to initiate measures to stop the surge of extrajudicial killings.
The killing of Larry Que on December 20, 2016, was the first recorded media-related killing under the administration of President Rodrigo Duterte. Shortly before becoming president Duterte said, "Just because you're a journalist you are not exempted from assassination, if you're a son of a bitch. Freedom of expression cannot help you if you have done something wrong." Recognizing the danger to journalists, the president established the Presidential Task Force on Violations of the Right to Life, Liberty and Security of the Members of the Media in October 2016.
On August 21, 2020, the United Nations raised concerns with the Philippine government over the killing of peace consultant Randall "Randy" Echanis and human rights defender Zara Alvarez. The UN Human Rights Office described the situation as alarming since the two victims were previously tagged as terrorists because of their work, and called for transparent investigations.
On August 24, 2020, Human Rights Watch revealed that employees of Karapatan, a human rights organization in Philippines had received death threats. The threats came a week after unidentified gunmen shot dead Zara Alvarez, a paralegal worker for the group, in Bacolod City in the central Philippines on August 17. Karapatan has been alleged to be a particular target of Philippine security forces and their agents.
The International Criminal Court is investigating extrajudicial killings in the Philippines and looking into the alleged involvement of President Duterte. The Supreme Court of the Philippines has ruled that the country has an obligation to cooperate in proceedings conducted by the International Criminal Court.
Marcos Jr. administration (2022–present)
President Bongbong Marcos promised to uphold human rights during his term. The Philippines stated in 2022 that it was committed to cooperate with United Nations human rights mechanisms. The United Nations noted the failure of law enforcement to address human rights violations and recommended that the Philippines review all killings in the government's drug war.
Drug war killings, attacks on activists, harassment of media, and red-tagging have continued. During the first year of Bongbong Marcos's term, there were 336 drug war killings, mostly during police operations, and 8 cases of forced disappearances.
International agreements
The Philippines is a signatory to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) drafted by the United Nations (UN) in the 1948. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted, alongside the Genocide Convention and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, by the United Nations in response to the tragic and horrendous violations of human rights during the Second World War. The United Nations Charter, a treaty, was created in order to define what roles, powers, and duties the United Nations is allowed to practice in dealing with international relations. Article I of the UN Charter states that the UN aims: "To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion;"According to the Charter, the jurisdiction of the United Nations is to provide cooperation among the nations, and not act as an international government. The UN Charter paved the way for the drafting of the UDHR. The UDHR aims to promote "universal respect for, and the observance of, human rights." Thus, the UDHR is merely a declaration for each signatory to adopt to its own political system. The significance of the UDHR as stated in its Preamble is: "Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge."As a signatory to the UDHR, the Philippines then declares an understanding and adherence of these fundamental and inalienable rights to its population. The Philippines has adhered to the UDHR through the Bill of Rights, and continued to create laws and policies that cater to a specific sector, like the Labor Code and the Indigenous Peoples' Rights.
Besides the UDHR, the Philippines is a signatory to 8 of the 9 UN core human rights treaties, namely:
The International Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination or (ICERD), ratified on September 15, 1967,
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights or (ICESR), ratified on June 7, 1974,
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women or (CEDAW), ratified on August 5, 1981,
The Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment or (CAT), acceded to on June 18, 1986,
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights or (ICCPR), ratified on October 23, 1986,
The Convention on the Rights of the Child or (CRC), ratified on August 21, 1990,
The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families or (CMW), ratified on July 5, 1995, and
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities or (CRPD), ratified April 15, 2008.
The Philippines was re-elected through the vote of 165 separate States out of 192 to the 47-member UN Human Rights Council during the 73rd Session of the UN General Assembly on October 12, 2018.
The country is a party to the Geneva Conventions, which set standards for humanitarian conduct in times of war and local or international armed conflict.
The Philippines is a member of the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights and is party to the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration.
Proposed legislation
House Bill No. 10576, also known as the Human Rights Defenders Protection Act, was passed by the Philippine House of Representatives in 2022. In the Senate, Senators Leila de Lima and Risa Hontiveros filed Senate Bill No. 179. The bill has been pending in the committee level since 2019.
Human rights advocates from the Philippines and internationally have called on Philippine lawmakers to pass the measure to protect human rights workers in the country. United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights Defenders Mary Lawlor supported the proposed law, citing the need to comply with global treaties and standards and expressing concern over the red-tagging, judicial harassment, and killings of human rights workers in the country.
See also
Extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances in the Philippines
LGBT rights in the Philippines
Women's rights in the Philippines
Security sector governance and reform in the Philippines
References
Further reading |
4514436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher%20%28surname%29 | Fisher (surname) | Fisher is an English occupational name for one who obtained a living by fishing. In the United States, it is also a common anglicization of the German "Fischer" as well as various Ashkenazi Jewish surnames.
Notable people
A
Aaron R. Fisher (1895–1985), United States Army officer
Abbi Fisher (born 1957), American alpine skier
Abby Fisher (1831–?), American slave and writer
Ada Fisher (1947-2022), American physician and politician
Ada Lois Sipuel Fisher (1924-1995), American civil rights activist
Adam Fisher, American baseball executive
Adrian Fisher (maze designer) (born 1951), maze designer
Adrian Fisher (musician) (1952–2000), British musician
Adrian S. Fisher (1914–1983), American lawyer
Aileen Fisher (1906–2002), American writer
Aimee Fisher (born 1995), New Zealand canoeist
Al Fisher (born 1986), American basketball player
Alan Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Alastair Fisher, Scottish rugby union player
Albert Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Alexander Fisher (disambiguation) or Alex Fisher, multiple people
Alexandra Fisher (born 1988), Kazakhstani shot putter
Alfred Fisher, English rugby league player
Alice Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Allan George Barnard Fisher, New Zealand-born economist
Allen Fisher (born 1944), British poet
Allison Fisher (born 1968), English pool and snooker player
Almond E. Fisher (1913–1982), United States Army officer and Medal of Honor recipient
Alvan Fisher (1792–1863), American painter
Alvin Fisher (1893–1937), Canadian ice hockey player
Amanda Fisher, British cell biologist
Amy Fisher (born 1974), American criminal
Andrew Fisher (disambiguation) or Andy Fisher, multiple people
Angie Fisher, American singer
Anna Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Anne Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Annie Fisher (1867–1938), American cook and entrepreneur
Anthony Fisher (disambiguation) or Antony Fisher, multiple people
Antwone Fisher (born 1959), the subject of a 2002 film based on his life
Archie Fisher (born 1939), Scottish folk singer
Archie Fisher (painter) (1896–1959), New Zealand painter
Arnie Fisher (born 1938), American bridge player
Arthur Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Ashley Fisher (born 1975), Australian tennis player
Ashley Lauren Fisher (born 1975), American model and restaurateur
A.S.T. Fisher (20th century), English clergyman and writer
Avery Fisher (1906–1994), American audio engineer
B
B. H. Fisher ("Red" Fisher, 1914–2006), American writer and outdoorsman
Barb Fisher (fl. c. 2000), Canadian politician
Barbara Loe Fisher (fl. late 20th century), American chiropractor
Ben Fisher (born 1981), Scottish rugby league player
Benjamin Fisher (1842–1920), Australian accountant and auctioneer
Benjamin F. Fisher (1834–1915), American general
Bernard Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Bernice Fisher (1916–1966), American civil rights activist
Bertie Fisher (1878–1972), British general
Beth Fisher (artist) (born 1944), American artist
Bob Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Bobby Fisher (footballer) (born 1956), English footballer
Brad Fisher (born 1984), Australian rules footballer
Brandy Fisher (born 1975), American women's ice hockey player
Brenda Fisher (1927–2022), English long-distance swimmer
Brent Fisher (born 1983), New Zealand footballer
Brian Fisher (disambiguation) or Bryan Fisher, multiple people
Bruce Fisher (born 1954), American songwriter, record producer and playwright
Bryce Fisher (born 1977), American football player
Bud Fisher (1885–1954), American cartoonist
C
Carl Anthony Fisher (1945–1993), American Roman Catholic bishop
Carl G. Fisher (1874–1939), American entrepreneur
Carlos Fisher (born 1983), American baseball player
Carrie Fisher (1956–2016), American actress, writer and humorist
Catherine Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Cathrew Fisher (1871–1929), English Anglican bishop
Celia B. Fisher, American developmental psychologist
Cevin Fisher (born 1963), American music producer
C. B. Fisher (1817–1908) Australian pastoralist and racehorse breeder
Charles Fisher (disambiguation) or Charlie Fisher, multiple people
Charron Fisher (born 1985), American basketball player
Cherokee Fisher (1844–1912), American baseball player
Chris Fisher (born 1971), American film and television director, writer and producer
Chris Fisher (athlete) (born 1949), Australian middle-distance runner
Cicely Corbett Fisher (1885–1959), British suffragist
Cilla Fisher (born 1952), founding member of The Singing Kettle
Cindy Fisher (born 1964), American women's basketball coach
Cindy Fisher (actress) (born 1960), American actress
Clara Fisher (1811–1898), English actress
Clarence Fisher (1898–1965), American baseball player
Clarence Stanley Fisher (1876–1941), American archaeologist
Clarkson Sherman Fisher (1921–1997), American judge
Clem Fisher (1908–1988), Australian rules footballer
Clement Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
C. Miller Fisher (1913–2012), Canadian neurologist
Col Fisher (1923–2003), Australian politician
Colin Fisher (born 1949), Scottish rugby union player
Connie Fisher (born 1983), British actress, singer and television presenter
Constance Fisher (1929–1973), American serial killer
Corey Fisher (born 1988), American basketball player
Craig Fisher (born 1970), Canadian ice hockey player
Craig B. Fisher (1932–2006), American television producer
Cynthia Fisher (born 1961), American businesswoman
D
Daisy Fisher (1888–1967), English writer and playwright
Dana R. Fisher, American sociologist
Daniel Fisher (disambiguation), Danny Fisher or Dan Fisher, multiple people
Danielle Fisher (born 1985), American mountain climber
Darius Fisher, English filmmaker and producer
Darnell Fisher (born 1994), English footballer
Darren Fisher (born 1965), Canadian politician
Darren Paul Fisher, British screenwriter, film producer and director
Darryl Fisher (born 1976), New Zealand rugby league player, coach and administrator
David Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Davis Fisher (born 1997), American motorcycle racer
Dean Fisher (born 1956), American politician
Denys Fisher (1918–2002), English engineer and inventor
Derek Fisher (born 1974), American basketball player and coach
Derek Fisher (baseball) (born 1993), American baseball player
Devon Fisher (born 1993), American soccer player
Diane Gilliam Fisher (born 1957), American poet
D. Michael Fisher (born 1944), American judge
Don Fisher (1916–1973), American baseball player
Donald Fisher (1928–2009), American entrepreneur
Doris Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Dorothy Canfield Fisher (1879–1958), American author
Douglas Fisher (disambiguation) or Doug Fisher, multiple people
Dudley Fisher (1890–1951), American cartoonist
Dudu Fisher (born 1951), Israeli cantor, actor and singer
Dunc Fisher (1927–2017), Canadian ice hockey player
E
Ebon Fisher, American artist
Ed Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Eddie Fisher (drummer) (born 1973), American drummer
Eddie Fisher (singer) (1928–2010), American singer
Edmund Fisher (architect) (1872–1918), British architect
Edmund Fisher (publisher) (1939–1995), British publisher
Edward Fisher (disambiguation) or Eddie Fisher, multiple people
Edwin Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Eileen Fisher (born 1950), American clothing designer and businesswoman
Elizabeth Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Ellen Thayer Fisher (1847–1911), American botanical illustrator
Elliott S. Fisher, American health researcher and advocate
Elmer H. Fisher (1840–1905), American architect
Else Fisher (1918–2006), Swedish choreographer, dancer, theatre director and writer
Elsie Fisher (born 2003), American actress
Elvis Fisher (born 1988), American football player
Emmanuel Fisher (1921–2001), British composer and conductor
English Fisher (c. 1928–2011), American boxing trainer
Ephraim S. Fisher (1815–1876), justice of the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals
Eric Fisher (cricketer) (1924–1996), New Zealand cricketer
Eric Fisher (American football) (born 1991), American football offensive tackle
Erik Fisher (born 1985), American alpine skier
Ezra Fisher (1800–1874), American Baptist missionary and pioneer
F
Florrie Fisher (1918–1972), American motivational speaker
Frances Fisher (born 1952), British-American actress
Francesca Fisher-Eastwood (born 1993), American actress
Francis Fisher (1877–1960), New Zealand politician
Frank Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Franklin M. Fisher (1934–2019), American economist
Frederic Fisher (1851–1943), British Royal Navy officer
Frederick Fisher (disambiguation), Fred Fisher or Freddie Fisher, multiple people
Fritz Fisher (born 1941), American baseball player
G
Gail Fisher (1935–2000), American actress
Garrett Fisher (born 1970), American composer
Garth Fisher (born 1958), American plastic surgeon
Gary Fisher (born 1950), American cyclist and engineer
Gary Fisher (footballer) (born 1992), Scottish footballer
Gavin Fisher (born 1964), American engineer
Gene Fisher, American poker player
Geoffrey Fisher (1887–1972), British religious leader
George Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Gerry Fisher (1926–2014), English cinematographer
Gideon Fisher (born 1965), Israeli lawyer
Gilbert Dempster Fisher (1906–1985), Scottish naturalist, writer and broadcaster
Gladys Caldwell Fisher (1907–1952), American sculptor
Grant Fisher (born 1997), Canadian-born American long-distance runner
Grant U. Fisher, American politician
Gregg S. Fisher, American investment manager
Gregor Fisher (born 1953), Scottish comedian and actor
Gus Fisher (1885–1972), American baseball player
Gus Fisher (fashion) (1920–2010), New Zealand philanthropist
Guy Fisher (born 1947), American mobster
H
H. A. L. Fisher (1865–1940), English historian, educator and politician
Ham Fisher (1900/01–1955), American artist/cartoonist
Harold Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Harrison Fisher (1875 or 1877 – 1934), American illustrator
Harry Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Hart D. Fisher, American writer
Harvey Sid Fisher (born 1940), American musician
Hayes Fisher, 1st Baron Downham (1853–1920), British politician
Heather Fisher (born 1984), English rugby union and rugby sevens player
Hector Fisher, Swiss tennis player
Helen Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Hendrick Fisher (1697–1779), American politician
Hendrick V. Fisher (1846–1909), American businessman and politician
Henry Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Herbert Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Herman Fisher (1898–1975), American businessman
Horace Fisher (1903–1974), English cricketer
Horace Fisher (painter) (1861–1928), British painter
Horatio Gates Fisher (1838–1890), American politician
Howard T. Fisher (1903–1979), American architect, city planner and educator
Hubert Fisher (1877–1941), American politician
Hugh Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Hugo Anton Fisher (1854–1916), Czechoslovakian-born American painter
I
Ian Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Idwal Fisher (1935–2012), Welsh rugby union and league player
India Fisher (born 1974), British actress
Ingals Fisher (1909–1942), American sport shooter
Ira Joe Fisher (born 1947), American journalist
Irving Fisher (1867–1947), American economist and activist
Isaac Fisher (1851–1944), Australian cricket umpire
Isaac Fisher (educator) (1877–1957), American educator
Isla Fisher (born 1976), Australian actress, voice actress and writer
Ivan Fisher (born 1943), American lawyer
J
J. Fisher (Yorkshire cricketer), English cricketer
Jackie Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Jake Fisher (born 1993), American football player
James Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Jameson Fisher (born 1995), American baseball player
Jane Lane, Lady Fisher (c. 1626 – 1689), English activist
Janice Fisher, American politician
Jasen Fisher, American child actor
Jasper Fisher (fl. 1639), English divine and dramatist
Jean Fisher (1942–2016), English art critic
Jeannie Fisher (born 1947), Scottish actress
Jeff Fisher (disambiguation) or Jeffrey Fisher, multiple people
Jennifer Fisher (art historian), Canadian art historian and curator
Jennifer Fisher (designer), American jewelry designer
Jeremy Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Jerrold Fisher, American composer
Jerry Fisher (born 1942), American singer
Jessica Fisher (born 1976), American poet, translator and critic
Jimbo Fisher (born 1965), American football player and coach
Jimmie Lou Fisher (1941-2022), American politician
Jo Fisher, New Zealand soccer player
Joan Fisher (born 1949), Canadian sprinter
Jodie Fisher (born 1960), American actress
Joel Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Joely Fisher (born 1967), American actress and singer
John Fisher (disambiguation), Jackie Fisher or Jack Fisher, multiple people
Jon Fisher (born 1972), American entrepreneur, philanthropist and inventor
Jon Fisher (rugby union) (born 1988), English rugby union player
Jonah Fisher, British television journalist
Jonathan Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Jordan Fisher (born 1994), American singer, dancer and actor
Joseph Fisher (disambiguation) or Joe Fisher, multiple people
Josh Fisher (born c. 1950s), American computer scientist
Josh Fisher (basketball) (born 1980), American basketball player and coach
Joshua Fisher (merchant) (1707–1783), American merchant and cartographer
Joshua Fisher (Massachusetts politician), colonial Massachusetts politician
Joshua Fisher (musician) (born 1989), English singer-songwriter
Joshua Francis Fisher (1807–1873), American author and philanthropist
Jules Fisher (born 1937), American lighting designer
Juni Fisher (born c. 1957), American musician
Justin Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
K
Kate Fisher (1850–1940), American prostitute, also known as Big Nose Kate
Kathleen Fisher, American computer scientist
Kelly Fisher (born 1978), British snooker player
Ken Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Kendra Fisher (born 1979), Canadian ice hockey player
Kenneth Fisher (born 1950), American financial manager and journalist
Kenneth Fisher (educationalist) (1882–1945), British educationalist
Kevin Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
King Fisher (1853–1884), American gunslinger
Kitty Fisher (died 1767), British courtesan
Kyle Fisher (born 1994), American soccer player
L
Lala Fisher (1872–1929), Australian poet, writer and editor
Lamar Fisher, American politician
Larry Fisher (1907–2001), American real estate developer
Larry Fisher (murderer) (1949–2015), Canadian criminal
Laurie Fisher, Australian rugby union coach
Lavinia Fisher (1793–1820), American serial killer
Lee Fisher (born 1951), American businessman, lawyer and politician
Leigh Fisher (born 1984), Australian rules footballer and umpire
Lenora Fisher (born 1937), Canadian swimmer
Leonard Fisher (1881–1963), English Anglican bishop
Leonard Everett Fisher (born 1924), American artist
Les Fisher (born 1941), Royal Australian Air Force officer
Leslie Fisher (1906–1988), English Anglican priest
Lester E. Fisher, American zoologist
Lettice Fisher (1875–1956), British economist
Levar Fisher (born 1979), American football player
Lillian Estelle Fisher (1891–1988), American historian
Linda Fisher, American businesswoman
Lorraine Fisher (1928–2007), American baseball player
Lotan Fisher, Israeli bridge player
Louis Fisher (1913–2001), American politician
Louis Matshwenyego Fisher, Botswana general
Luchina Fisher American journalist, film director, writer and producer
Lucy Fisher (born 1949), American film producer
M
Marc Fisher, American journalist
Margaret Fisher (c. 1874 – 1958), wife of Andrew Fisher, Prime Minister of Australia
Maria Anna Fisher (1819–1911), American businesswoman
Marie Fisher (1931–2008), Australian politician
Mark Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Martin Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Mary Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Matthew Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Matthew Fisher (English cricketer) (born 1997), English cricketer
Matthew P. A. Fisher (born 1960), American theoretical physicist
Maurice Fisher (1931–2022), American baseball player
Max Fisher (1908–2005), American businessman and philanthropist
Mea Fisher, American DJ
Mel Fisher (1922–1998), American treasure hunter
M. F. K. Fisher (1908–1992), American writer
Michoel Fisher (c. 1910 – 2004), British rabbi and Talmudic scholar
Mickey Fisher (politician) (1940–2021), Canadian politician
Mickey Fisher (basketball) (1904/05–1963), American basketball coach
Mika'ela Fisher, German actress, film director, writer, producer, model and tailor
Mike Fisher (ice hockey) (born 1980), Canadian hockey player
Miles Fisher (born 1983), American actor and musician
Morgan Fisher (born 1950), English musician
Morgan Fisher (artist) (born 1942), American filmmaker and artist
Morris Fisher (1890–1968), American sport shooter
Morton P. Fisher (1897–1965), United States Tax Court judge
Myrta Fisher (1917–1999), British artist
N
Nate Fisher (born 1996), American baseball player
Nathan Fisher (born 1989), English footballer
Neil Fisher (born 1970), English footballer
Nellie Ivy Fisher (1907–1995), London-born industrial chemist
Newt Fisher (1871–1947), American baseball player
Nigel Fisher (1913–1996), British politician
Nigel Fisher (United Nations), Canadian diplomat
Noel Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Norm Fisher (born 1963), Canadian bass guitarist
Norman Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
O
Oatten Fisher (1924–2006), American player of Canadian football
O. C. Fisher (1903–1994), American politician and writer
Oliver Fisher (born 1988), English golfer
Oniel Fisher (born 1991), Jamaican footballer
Oscar Fisher (1812–1882), American politician
Osmond Fisher (1817–1914), English geologist
P
Paddy Fisher (born 1998), American football player
Patrice Fisher (born 1978), American actress
Paul Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Payne Fisher (1616–1693), English poet
Peter Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Philip Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Phineas Fisher, unidentified hacktivist
R
Raymond Fisher (disambiguation) or Ray Fisher, multiple people
Rebecca Fisher (disambiguation) or Becky Fisher, multiple people
Red Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Reggie Fisher (born 1948), American record producer
Reginald Fisher (disambiguation) or Reg Fisher, multiple people
Rhett Fisher (born 1980), American actor, writer and record producer
Rich Fisher (news anchor) (1949–2017), American news anchor
Richard Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Rick Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Robert Fisher (disambiguation) or Rob Fisher, multiple people
Robert William Fisher (born 1961) American Fugitive
Robin Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Robson Fisher (1921–2000), British educationalist and headmaster
Roger Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Rolland Fisher (1900–1982), American religious leader and activist
Ron Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), British eugenicist, statistician, and geneticist
Rose-Lynn Fisher (born 1955), American photographer
Ross Fisher (born 1980), English golfer
Ross Fisher (footballer) (born 1964), Australian rules footballer
Rowland Fisher (1885–1969), English painter
Roy Fisher (1930–2017), British poet
Roy M. Fisher (1918–1999), American journalist
Rudolph Fisher (1897–1934), American writer
Ryan Fisher (born 1983), American motorcycle speedway rider
Ryan Fisher (triathlete) (born 1991), Australian triathlete
S
Sallie Fisher (1880–1950), American actress
Sally Caldwell Fisher (born 1951), American painter
Sam Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Samuel Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Sandra Fisher (1947–1994), American painter
Sarah Fisher (born 1980), American racing driver
Scott Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Seth Fisher (1972–2006), American comics artist
Shannon Fisher, American radio personality, activist and writer
Shea Fisher (born 1988), Australian singer
Shireen Avis Fisher, American judge
Showboat Fisher (1899–1994), American baseball player
Shug Fisher (1907–1984), American actor, singer, songwriter, musician and comedian
Sidney George Fisher, American lawyer and author
Simon Fisher (born 1970), British geneticist and neuroscientist
Sonny Fisher (1931–2005), American singer-songwriter and guitarist
Spencer O. Fisher (1843–1919), American politician
Spencer Fisher (born 1976), American mixed martial artist
Stan Fisher (1911–1961), Australian rules footballer
Stanley Fisher (1867–1949), Chief Justice of Ceylon
Steve Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Steven Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Stink Fisher (born 1970), American actor and restaurateur
Stu Fisher, English musician
Susan Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Sydney Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Sylvia Fisher (1910–1996), Australian opera singer
T
Tanya Fisher, Australian women's basketball player
Ted Fisher (1887–1954), Australian rules footballer
Terence Fisher (1904–1980), British film director
Terry Louise Fisher (born 1946), American screenwriter and producer
Theodosia Abrams Fisher (1770–1849), English singer
Thomas Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Timothy S. Fisher (born 1969), American educator and engineer
TJ Fisher, American writer
Todd Fisher (born 1958), American actor, director, cinematographer, producer and curator
Tom Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Toni Fisher (1924–1999), American singer
Tony Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Travis Fisher (born 1979), American football player
Trevor Fisher Jnr (born 1979), South African golfer
Tricia Leigh Fisher (born 1968), American actress and singer
Tyler Fisher (born 1993), South African rugby union player
V
Vardis Fisher (1895–1968), American historical novelist
Vernon Fisher (born 1943), American artist
Vic Fisher (1924–1999), Australian rules footballer
Victor Fisher (1870–1954), British activist
Vilyam Genrikhovich Fisher (1903–1971), better known as Rudolf Abel, Soviet intelligence agent
Violet L. Fisher, American United Methodist bishop
Viv Fisher (born 1952), British audio engineer and musician
W
Walter Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Warren Fisher (civil servant), British civil servant
Warren Fisher (rugby league), Australian rugby league player
Warren Samuel Fisher (1878–1971), American entomologist
Welthy Honsinger Fisher (1879–1980), American activist
Wilbur Fisher (1894–1960), American baseball player
William Fisher (disambiguation), multiple people
Woolf Fisher (1912–1975), New Zealand businessman and philanthropist
Y
Yisroel Yaakov Fisher (1928–2003), Israeli rabbi
Z
Zachary Fisher (1910–1999), American businessman and philanthropist, founder of Fisher House Foundation
Fictional characters
Donald Fisher (Home and Away), a character in the soap opera Home and Away
Elena Fisher, a character in the video game series Uncharted
Jeremy Fisher, a character in the children's book The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher
Kris Fisher, a character in the soap opera Hollyoaks
Malachy Fisher, a character in the soap opera Hollyoaks
Nate Fisher, a character in the television series Six Feet Under
Phryne Fisher, protagonist of a series of detective novels by Kerry Greenwood
Ruth Fisher, a character in the television series Six Feet Under
Sam Fisher (Splinter Cell), protagonist of the video game series Splinter Cell
See also
Ann Fisher-Wirth (born 1947), American poet
Norman Fisher-Jones (fl. late 20th century), British musician
Simon Fisher-Becker, British actor
Baron Fisher
A Stone for Danny Fisher, a novel
References
English-language surnames
Occupational surnames
English-language occupational surnames
Surnames of English origin |
4514687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-participation | E-participation | Electronic participation (e-participation) refers to the use of ICT in facilitating citizen participation in government-related processes, encompassing areas such as administration, service delivery, decision-making, and policy-making. As such, e-participation shares close ties with e-government and e-governance participation. The term's emergence aligns with the digitization of citizen interests and interactions with political service providers, primarily due to the proliferation of e-government.
E-participation can be further defined as a mechanism that augments and intensifies political participation, enabling citizens to connect with each other and their elected representatives through information and communication technologies (ICTs). This comprehensive definition encompasses all stakeholders in democratic decision-making processes, not merely top-down government initiatives centered on citizens. E-participation is a significant component of e-democracy, involving various entities such as governments, media, political parties, interest groups, civil society organizations, international governmental organizations, as well as citizens and voters in the political processes at the local, national, and global levels.
The intricacies of e-participation processes arise from the diversity of participation domains, the variety of involved stakeholders, differing levels of engagement, and the various stages in policy making.
History
Originating in the early 2000s, the term "e-participation" emerged from the idea of promoting civic involvement in public policies via information and communication technologies (ICTs). The evolution of e-participation generally hinges on three factors: the progression of ICTs, the expansion of e-democracy, and the advancement of e-government.
The greatest catalyst for the surge in e-participation is the advancement of ICTs, which have facilitated improved collaboration between the public and the government. The development of CSCW (Computer Supported Cooperative Work) and groupware, designed to foster collaborative environments, has significantly enhanced human interaction mediated by ICTs in both professional and social settings. Consequently, e-participation has emerged as a societal activity, involving collaboration among politicians, administrative figures, and the public.
The evolution of e-democracy since the late 1990s has significantly influenced the advent of e-participation. This interest quickly expanded from e-voting to various forms of ICT-assisted and ICT-enabled interactions between governments and citizens. These interactions encompass both direct methods like consultations, lobbying, petitioning, and polling, as well as indirect ones, such as campaigning and community informatics conducted outside the direct government purview. The extent of participation allowed in democratic processes is often determined by the institutional conditions of the chosen democratic model, such as direct or representative democracy or any hybrid forms.
The progression in e-government towards increasingly intricate service-delivery is another factor contributing to the rise of e-participation. Complex services necessitate extensive interaction, including searching, option selection based on various criteria, outcome calculations, notifications, inquiries, and complaints. While numerous ICT tools exist for these tasks, ranging from FAQs to call centers, there remains a need for their coordination into user-friendly yet robust toolsets for client-organization encounters. Given the complexity of interactions in such contexts, and the goals to be achieved, these arenas become social spaces for ICT-supported participation.
On the Definition
Participation is a goal-oriented process involving decision-making and control. In the contexts of political science and management theory, e-participation refers to the direct public involvement in political, economic, or management decisions. As participation grows complex, decision-making becomes essential, with every participatory process potentially influencing the rule system governing the activities. In cases where service processes become intricate, their implementation relies not only on political decisions but also on practical solutions.
Instead of passively absorbing information disseminated by the media and government, engaging in participation transforms an individual into an active citizen, contributing to a democratic society. When these practical actions are integrated into government e-service systems, they influence decision-making, as later changes become challenging once existing procedures have been implemented in ICT systems and government agencies' procedures. Several theories, such as structuration theory, institutional theory, and actor-network theory, examine institutionalization, exploring how operational methods become established or rejected, and how established methods increasingly influence societal norms for task completion. From a citizen's perspective, the capability approach is employed to understand individual behaviors. This method enables institutions to identify normative capabilities that can enhance citizens' opportunities to participate in the governance process.
E-participation Index
The E-Participation Index (EPI) is a tool developed by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. It serves as a supplementary index to the UN E-Government Survey and is used to assess the effectiveness of online services that facilitate information exchange and interaction between government and citizens, and citizen involvement in policy and decision-making. The EPI evaluates the extent to which a government provides information to its constituents, involves citizens in policy design, and empowers citizens in decision-making processes, forming the framework of "e-information", "e-consultation", and "e-decision making". The index is calculated by subtracting the lowest e-participation score from the e-participation score of the country in question, and then dividing this by the range of scores for all countries. The resulting index score serves as a foundational measure of a government's inclusivity.
A range of tools and models linked to Web 2.0 have emerged that can either be used directly or inspire the creation of architectures for e-participation. Notably, "the rise of online communities focused on the creation of valuable products suggests the feasibility of designing socially mediating technologies to support collaborations between the public and government"..
Tools for Participation
Social networking services, including popular media platforms and blogs, have established online platforms that enable people to connect and engage in interactive activities. These online platforms have facilitated social activities such as interactions between citizens and government agencies. Governments have increasingly utilized social networking to keep abreast of public trends and identify political issues of significant interest to the public. Widely used platforms such as Twitter and Facebook have empowered users to actively participate in politics online by expressing their political perspectives and organizing movements to highlight key issues. The rapid sharing and response mechanisms enabled by social networking platforms have emerged as a crucial tool for e-participation, facilitating citizen involvement in decision-making and encouraging government agencies to address public concerns proactively.
Wikis offer another online collaborative platform for individuals to participate, albeit not directly with politicians or government administrators. The dynamic and collaborative nature of wikis allows citizens to contribute their expertise on various topics and share that knowledge with others. This platform promotes debates and interactions among contributors, ensuring that the content is regularly updated to provide the most recent and comprehensive understanding of each subject. Wikis can serve as tools that facilitate and inspire e-participation, enabling people to highlight various movements and issues and educating others about potential impacts.
Mechanisms
Electronic voting typically takes two forms: physical e-voting, such as electronic voting machines at polling stations, and remote e-voting via the Internet. Remote e-voting is a potent tool for e-participation as it provides the convenience of voting from any location at any time, thereby reducing the time and cost associated with voting. This convenience can increase voter turnout and civic engagement by making it easier for citizens to express their support for various policies and political figures. The advent of blockchain technology has significantly improved the security and transparency of electronic voting. The decentralized nature of blockchain technologies holds potential for transforming future electronic voting models. However, e-voting is not without drawbacks. Most notably, it can exacerbate the digital divide between individuals of different socioeconomic backgrounds and age groups, as the technology may not be universally accessible. Thus, e-voting could potentially alienate those lacking access to technology or stable internet connections, possibly hindering rather than promoting citizen engagement.
Internet petitions have emerged as a popular platform for citizens to engage in policy review and issue petitioning. These petitions offer a flexible and easy means to voice concerns on pressing social and political issues, enhancing citizen engagement and enabling administrations to respond more effectively to the population's needs. Government-created petitioning platforms like We The People are directly linked to administrative officials who can address and advance important movements. Internet petitions foster increased citizen participation, contributing to a more inclusive relationship between the government and society.
Quadratic voting is a burgeoning technology that utilizes blockchain technology to enhance e-participation. This method allows citizens to express the intensity of their feelings about a policy. It works by assigning individuals a set number of tokens, which they can then use to vote multiple times on policies they feel strongly about, thereby expressing urgency or passion. Quadratic voting introduces greater flexibility and interactivity into the voting process. The potential to express the "strength" of voters' voices and opinions more distinctly in the voting process enhances citizen engagement and provides more nuanced feedback on particular issues and policies than a traditional voting system.
Reputation systems
Transparency tools (social translucence mechanisms)
Tracking and Analysis Tools
Digital traces
Data mining
Data visualization
Simulations, such as agent-based social simulation
Crowdsourcing
Crowdsourcing exemplifies e-participation in action. Generally defined as soliciting a group of individuals via the World Wide Web to solve problems, this platform can gather human resources from the furthest and most unexpected places, contributing to the overall pool of intellectual capital. Crowdsourcing can be incorporated into various stages of the policy-making process, unfolding at the information, consultation, and active participation levels.
At the information level, a one-way relationship exists where participants receive information from the government. The consultation level facilitates a two-way interaction, allowing citizens to provide their inputs, feedback, and reactions. Active participation refers to deeper involvement, with citizens directly contributing to policy content formulation. This degree of e-participation is increasingly facilitated through tools such as online petitions, e-referendums, e-panels, citizen e-juries, and participatory GIS, among others.
Challenges of E-participation
The primary challenge to e-participation is the prevailing digital divide. E-participation heavily depends on access to modern technologies and stable internet connections. Often, it necessitates advanced digital literacy, such as the skills to digitally scrutinize policy proposals and contribute input in a digital environment. Moreover, knowledge of internet safety and effective online collaboration are crucial for successfully navigating e-participation tools. These requirements, together with physical access to technology, present barriers to individuals of varying socioeconomic levels, and particularly those unable to afford access to these technologies. Consequently, the digital divide impedes and restricts the ability of certain groups to express their views, excluding them from participation, and ultimately contradicting the intended purpose of e-participation.
European E-participation Initiatives
European E-participation Preparatory Actions
The E-participation Preparatory Actions were implemented from 2006 to 2008 to enhance citizens' participation in the legislative process through online tools. Initiated by the EU on January 1, 2007, these actions consisted of interconnected projects designed to boost citizens' awareness and engagement in the legislative process, from the initial drafting to regional and local implementation.
Each project was targeted at enhancing the transparency, understandability, and accessibility of legislative language and procedures for citizens. Additionally, they focused on improving the communication of legislation to augment citizens' participation and contribution in formulating and implementing laws.
To date, 21 projects have been initiated and financially supported. These projects actively involve the European Parliament, national parliaments, and local and regional authorities. Cutting-edge ICT tools are utilized to streamline the creation of legal texts, including translation into various languages and drafting of amendments, while making these texts more accessible and comprehensible to non-experts. Innovative digital technologies are also employed to provide citizens with easier access to information and greater opportunities to impact decisions that shape their lives. A MOMENTUM white paper report by presents important data and results from these projects, offering preliminary policy suggestions for future application.
European eParticipation Initiatives
The European Commission has initiated several actions aimed at enhancing the support for eParticipation.
These include:
FP7 : ICT Challenge 7 : Objective ICT-2009.7.3 ICT for Governance and Policy Modelling. The Commission has issued calls in this area to fund research. Currently, the Integrated Program Future Policy Modelling (FUPOL) is the most extensive project in this field. FUPOL
The ICT Policy Support Programme (or ICT PSP) under the Competitiveness and Innovation Framework (CIP). The European project has announced a call in the CIP program on Theme 3: ICT for government and governance.
See also
Collaborative e-democracy
Direct democracy
E-democracy
eGovernment
Electronic civil disobedience
eRulemaking
Emergent democracy
Hacktivism
Internet activism
Online consultation
Online deliberation
Online participation
Online petition
Open politics
Open source governance
Parliamentary informatics
Participatory democracy
Radical transparency
Second Superpower
Smart mob
Spatial Citizenship
Social translucence
Virtual volunteering
YoDono
Notes
References
Huffman, B. (2017). "E-Participation in the Philippines: A Capabilities Approach to Socially Inclusive Governance". JeDEM - eJournal of EDemocracy and Open Government. 9 (2): 24–46. doi:10.29379/jedem.v9i2.461. ISSN 2075-9517.
External links
Democracies Online Newswire
Organizations
International
World e-Gov Forum
Detailed list of participatory governance projects
E-participation Country Index - Provides an index on E-participation
ICEGOV - International Conference on Electronic Governance
Internet Society - Organization home for the groups responsible for Internet infrastructure standards, including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).
International Teledemocracy Centre, Napier University, Edinburgh
Europe
FUPOL: Future Policy Modelling project
MOMENTUM: The European Commission Support Action in eParticipation
PEP-NET: Pan European eParticipation Network
European eParticipation Portal
TID+: The software suite developed for the Estonian public participation portal, also used by the Slovenian government
E-democracy
Democracy
Collective intelligence
Active citizenship |
4514708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liceo%20scientifico | Liceo scientifico | Liceo scientifico (; literally "scientific lyceum") is a type of secondary school in Italy. It is designed to give students the skills to progress to any university or higher educational institution. Students can attend the liceo scientifico after successfully completing middle school (scuola media).
The curriculum is devised by the Ministry of Education, and emphasises the link between the humanistic tradition and scientific culture. It covers a complete and widespread range of disciplines, including Italian language and literature, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, anatomy, Earth science, astronomy, history, geography, philosophy, Latin language and Latin literature, English language and English literature, physical education, art history and technical drawing. Students typically study for five years, and attend the school from the age of 14 to 19. At the end of the fifth year all students sit for the esame di Stato, a final examination which leads to the maturità scientifica.
A student attending a liceo is called "liceale", although the more generic terms studente (male) and studentessa (female) are also in common use. Teachers are known as professore (male) or professoressa (female).
History
The Liceo Cavour was established in 1871 as the Physics and Mathematics branch of the Regio Istituto Tecnico di Roma (which later became the Istituto Tecnico-Commerciale Leonardo Da Vinci). After the Gentile Reform in 1923, this school became the Regio Liceo Scientifico di Roma, under the royal legislative decree of 9 September 1923, n. 1915. It was founded in 1923-24, as the scientific branch of liceo classico Ennio Quirino Visconti, the first liceo classico in Rome. In 1926 the Regio Liceo Scientifico di Roma was established as an independent body, starting teaching in 1926-27. In 1946, with the inauguration of the Liceo Scientifico Statale Augusto Righi (a branch of the Regio Liceo), the school was renamed "Liceo Scientifico Camillo Cavour".
Among the more famous people to have worked here were the poet Margherita Guidacci, English language and literature teacher from 1965 to 1975, Gioacchino Gesmundo, History and Philosophy teacher from 1934 to 1944, and the physicist Bruno Pontecorvo (who was part of the group of physicists and scientists named 'I Ragazzi di Via Panisperna', translated as Via Panisperna Boys) with his younger brother Umberto. Notable former students include Franca Falcucci, the future Minister of public education, and Marta Russo, whose murder garnered huge media attention. Maria Montessori also graduated here with a degree in physics and mathematics in 1889 while the school was still referred to as Istituto Tecnico-Commerciale Leonardo Da Vinci.
The law Daneo-Credaro
A Royal Commission established in 1906 presented a reform plan that included, among other things, three five-year high schools:
the liceo classico ("classical lyceum"), which was based on the then existing liceo – established by the Casati law – and was characterized by the teaching of classical languages (Ancient Greek and Latin, from which is based the Italian language); allowed access to any university faculty;
the liceo moderno ("modern lyceum"), without Greek, with the strengthening of the foreign language (French), with the teaching of a second foreign language (German or English), of the law and the economy; it did not allow access to the Faculty of Letters;
the liceo scientifico ("scientific lyceum"), without classical languages, with the teaching of a second foreign language and a strengthening of scientific subjects; it did not allow access to the Faculties of Letters and Jurisprudence.
The proposal was accepted by the minister Luigi Credaro in 1911 (Daneo-Credaro law). See the entry history of education in Italy for further details.
Gentile reform
The liceo scientifico was confirmed, but radically modified, in 1923 with the Gentile reform, which at the same time suppressed the liceo moderno and the physical-mathematical section of the Regio Istituto Tecnico (Royal Technical Institute). The course was of four years and ended with the Diploma, an extremely demanding state exam with five written tests (Italian, Latin, mathematics, foreign language and drawing) and an oral interview-test (which covered all the subjects studied in the last three years of the course), lasting one hour, in two sessions: one for the literary subjects and one for the scientific subjects.
After the first four years of one of the three lower secondary schools which, at the time, allowed the continuation of the studies (ginnasio, lower technical institute and the istituto magistrale inferiore) and after passing an entrance examination.
The original liceo scientifico was evidently derived from the ginnasio-liceo (gymnasium-lyceum) (the current liceo classico), but compared to this it had the disadvantage of not allowing access to studies of letters and philosophy and above all of jurisprudence whose degree course, in addition to presenting some specific professions (judiciary, advocacy, notary) was attended by most of those who held positions of command. The proposal of the Gentile liceo scientifico was examined by a Commission of the Accademia dei Lincei which deprecated the unification of disparate subjects and the fact that, despite the name, of "scientific" it had very little, especially when compared to the physical-mathematical section of the Regio Istituto Tecnico, just deleted. And indeed, calculating the total weekly hours over the four years, the main subjects were Latin (16 hours), then Italian, foreign language and mathematics (14 hours).
Also, should be considered that, at the time, the three lower-secondary-schools that allowed the continuation of the studies (the ginnasio, the istituto tecnico inferiore and the istituto magistrale inferiore), were preparatory to as many secondary schools (liceo, istituto tecnico superiore and istituto magistrale superiore). In this outline, without an "own" lower-secondary-school counterpart, was inserted the liceo scientifico which was accessible both from the ginnasio and, after the admission examination, from the istituto tecnico or the istituto magistrale. This meant that to attend the liceo scientifico it was necessary to "change" school, even physically because the lower-secondary-schools were housed in the same buildings of the respective higher-secondary-schools, with which they constituted a single course of study. And this change was unnatural both for those who attended the gymnasium, which folded on a de fact "inferior"-school because already at the beginning precluded some prestigious professional outlets, both for those who attended the other two institutes, and after four years of study had to give up at a title immediately expendable in the way of work to go to attend a high school, which evidently required quite another application, moreover with a demanding entrance examination.
For all these reasons, the liceo scientifico had a little success so much that, in a city like Rome, the second liceo scientifico (the Liceo scientifico "Augusto Righi") arrived only in 1946.
timetable outline
Bottai reform
The structure of the liceo scientifico changed in 1940, when the Bottai reform established the single three-years scuola media and the access to the high schools was rationalized; those who wanted to attend the liceo scientifico did not have to change schools, or rather, at the end of lower-secondary-school, everyone had to change schools to attend the chosen secondary school. The liceo scientifico began to establish itself and the number of students grew steadily until reaching the number of students of the liceo classico. Persisted the prohibition on signing in letters and jurisprudence faculties.
Because of the war events, the timetable has been altered several times and the final one will only be in 1952.
Apart from a few tweaks to the timetable, a consequence of the extension of the liceo to a five-year type, the new course reproduced the previous course. The most important subject for number of hours remained Latin (20), then Italian (19), mathematics (18) and foreign language (17).
In 1962 it was established that the scientific examination was valid for the signing into any faculty excluded letters; was, in fact, allowed the signation also into the jurisprudence faculty.
From 1969 onwards, when access to university was liberalized, there was a real boom at the liceo scientifico, so much that at the approval of the Gelmini reform (2010), among the students signed in the last year of the course, the liceo scientifico had 103,000 students compared to 51,000 of the liceo classico Nowadays the liceo scientifico, among the Italian high schools, is the one that welcomes the relative majority of students (22 percent, of which more than a half are females).
The substantial prevalence of Latin with respect to the same scientific-mathematical subjects and the greater number of students enrolled in the liceo scientifico have meant that Italy is still, among Western countries, the one in which Latin is more studied (40 percent of signed in high schools, of which more than half at the liceo scientifico) thing that has caused quite a few controversies.
Timetable outline
Sperimentazioni (1970-2010)
Sperimentazioni were alternative experimental curriculum bands offered in Liceo scientifico. These specialisms were based on the official curriculum, but enriched by increasing the number of hours dedicated to one or more subjects, or including new subjects.
They started in the 1970s, when more local autonomy was granted. Schools could offer one or more specialism. When the Gelmini reform (2010) came into force, practically all the high schools were offering these experimental streams.
The most widespread alternative streams were:
P.N.I. ("National Plan of Computer studies" specialism)
bilinguismo (Bilinguism specialism)
scienze naturali (Natural sciences specialism).
con studi musicali riconosciuti (Alternative with recognised musical studies)
sportiva (Sports specialism)
umanistica (Humanistic specialism)
scientifico-tecnologica (Brocca) (Scientific-technological specialism)
scientifico-biologica (Brocca) (Scientific-biological specialism)
P.N.I. con bilinguismo (P.N.I. specialism with bilingualism)
P.N.I.
Bilinguismo
Natural sciences
Brocca scientifica
The Liceo scientifico a indirizzo Brocca included, before the Gelmini reform, in addition of how included in the traditional Liceo scientifico, the law and economy subjects at the biennium, the laboratories of chemistry and physics, the computer technology included in the mathematics subjects for all the five years, and more hours of sciences (chemistry, biology, earth sciences). The various subjects in the five years of course are distributed as follows:
Brocca scientifico-tecnologica
This option was one of the seventeen lyceum courses developed by the Project Brocca. This course was characterized by the absence of Latin, by the addition of information technology, technology and drawing, and by the considerable number of hours for laboratorial work.
Gelmini reform (2010) and the current curriculum
The current course stems from the Gelmini reform and entered into force on 1 September 2010. Compared to the 1947 course of regulation, there is a significant increase in the number of hours devoted to scientific subjects and a lightening of Latin. At the time the reform came into force, all the experimentations activated were banned. However, a school autonomy is provided which allows each lyceum to redistribute up to 20% of the total hours between the various courses or to activate new ones. The reform has created a new curriculum, the applied sciences option, which gathers the experiences of the pre-existent Brocca scientifico-tecnologica and Brocca scientifico-biologica experimentations that, compared to the liceo scientifico basic curriculum, includes a reduction in the number of hours dedicated to humanistic subjects, the elimination of Latin, an increase in the hours of mathematics, physics and natural sciences and the addition of computer technology as a separated subject. For this reason the "liceo scientifico ad opzione delle scienze applicate" is present mainly at school facilities that already housed Technical Institutes, where laboratory practice is already consolidated.
The liceo scientifico mostly follows the liceo classico, adopting the same ministerial programs for teaching Italian, history and geography (for the biennium), and philosophy. For the rest, the course includes a reduction of the hours and programs concerning the Latin language and the history of the triennium to facilitate the in-depth study of scientific disciplines such as mathematics, physics, natural sciences and computing, the last only in the applied sciences option; there is also instruction of geometric and architectural drawing.
Traditional curriculum
Applied sciences option
1 with Computer Technology at the biennium
2 Biology, Chemistry, Earth sciences
It is included the teaching, in a foreign language (the language must be a co-official language of the European Union different from the main language of the curse), of a non-linguistic subject (due to CLIL European project) included in the area of activities and compulsory courses for all students or in the area of the teachings that can be activated by the educational institutions within the limits of the teaching staff annually assigned.
Sports curriculum
The first phase of changes to the order structure brought about by the Gelmini reform did not touch on some experimentations and addresses already activated, including the lyceums sports curricula. The revision of these guidelines was launched in 2008, and ended with the proposal in 2011 of a sports curriculum that can be activated at lyceum institutes.
The curriculum is an articulation of the liceo scientifico and issues a scientific baccalaureate curriculum sporting courses. Presents the study of a new subject: "Sports law and economics", there is an increase in the hours of physical and sports sciences and of the natural sciences, while the Latin language is absent (in some cases it is included for 3 hours a week among biennium and triennium) and the history of art, also, the hours devoted to philosophy have been reduced.
The first curse with sports curriculum was inaugurated in the school year 2012-2013 at the liceo scientifico of the Convitto Nazionale "Vittorio Emanuele II" of Rome, in collaboration with the "Giulio Onesti" Olympic Preparation Center of the CONI.
The study plan is as follows:
1 with Computer Technology at the biennium
2 Biology, Chemistry, Earth sciences
It is included the teaching, in a foreign language (the language must be a co-official language of the European Union different from the main language of the course), of a non-linguistic subject (due to CLIL European project) included in the area of activities and compulsory courses for all students or in the area of the teachings that can be activated by the educational institutions within the limits of the teaching staff annually assigned.
Final exam
As all kind of Italian high secondary school, also the liceo scientifico ends with an examination whose final score is on a 100-point scale.
The exam is compound of three different written tests and an oral test:
prima prova ("first test"), an Italian language written test, same as in the other kinds of Italian high seconday school. In those parts of Italy where Italian is not the only official language, the first test can be alternatively held in the local co-official language (German in province of Bolzano, Slovenian in some areas of the province of Trieste and Ladin in some municipalities of the provinces of Trento and Bolzano);
seconda prova ("second test"), a written test of mathematics or physics, decided at national level for each curriculum. This test for the liceo scientifico is compound by 2 problems and 10 questions, the examinee have to choose and resolve 1 problem and 5 questions out of them, problems and questions vary among curricula;
terza prova ("third test"), a multidisciplinary test decided by the exam committee, which contains questions about four subjects of the last year of course, two subjects are nationally chosen, while the other two are chosen by the school, one of the four subjects must be a foreign language.
This test was removed in 2018, all subject now were asked in the colloquio orale:
colloquio orale ("oral interview"), an overall oral test (prova orale) regarding all the subjects of the last year, during the oral test, the exam committee value a presentation made by the examinee related to the last years arguments and as questions related to the presentation or to the previous tests (an oral test judged sufficient is awarded at least 13 points).
Students are examined by an exam committee which is formed in equal parts by their own teachers and teachers coming from other schools. The first and second tests are written by the Ministry of Education, while the third test and the oral test are prepared and administered by the exam committee.
The total score is the sum of the pre-exam score, the written tests scores and the oral test score.
Examinee whom at the end of the third written test have less than 30 total points are not admitted to the oral test.
If the total points exceed 100, the final score is rounded to 100, if the total points exceed 101, the final score becomes 100 con lode ("100 cum laude").
The final exam is passed with a score of 60 or more.
The final exam is officially called esame di Stato ("state exam"), although the old name esame di maturità ("maturity exam") is still in common use.
See also
List of schools in Italy
Liceo linguistico
Liceo classico
References
Education in Italy
School types |
4514731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris%20Commons | Kris Commons | Kristian Arran Commons (born 30 August 1983) is an English-born Scottish professional footballer who played as an attacking midfielder.
Commons started his career at Stoke City and made his debut in 2000. After four years with the club, he rejected a new contract and signed for Nottingham Forest on a free transfer. He made over 150 appearances for Forest in four years there, and helped them win promotion to the Championship in his final season. He then moved to Derby, again on a free transfer. Injury problems curtailed his goalscoring in his first two years there, but in his final season there he had scored 13 goals by the time of the mid-season transfer window.
In January 2011, Commons moved to Celtic for £300,000. He went on to win five Scottish League Championships, two Scottish Cups and one Scottish League Cup. He was the top goalscorer in Scotland in season 2013–14 with 32 goals, and that same season won both the PFA Scotland and Scottish Football Writers' Association Player of the Year awards. Commons fell out of favour at Celtic during 2016 and was briefly loaned to Hibernian. He was released by Celtic in May 2017 and subsequently retired.
Commons was born in England but qualified to play for Scotland, as his grandmother was born in Dundee. He made his Scotland debut in 2008, and went on to win twelve caps.
Club career
Stoke City
Commons signed a professional contract with Stoke City on his 17th birthday and made his debut in a 3–2 Football League Trophy defeat away to Blackpool on 16 October 2001. However, shortly after making his first team debut, he was out injured for a year due to a ruptured anterior cruciate ligament. Commons managed to come back from this and made his league debut the following season on 10 August 2002 in a scoreless draw against Sheffield Wednesday. Commons won praise from his manager Steve Cotterill who stated "Kris is a great prospect with a fantastic left foot", adding "If he keeps working hard he has a great future." His first goal came in a 1–1 draw against Norwich City on 26 August 2002. His good form and promise led to him to being offered a new contract by Stoke, but he rejected it and joined Nottingham Forest on 1 July 2004. In his time at Stoke City, Commons made a total of 46 appearances for the club in all competitions (22 of which were starts), scoring five goals.
Nottingham Forest
Commons made his Nottingham Forest debut as a substitute for Eoin Jess in a 2–0 League Cup victory over Scunthorpe United on 25 August 2004 and scored his first goal for the club in a 3–0 away win at Queens Park Rangers in the FA Cup. The FA Cup proved to be a successful competition for Commons, as during his time in Nottingham as he was named player of the first round, with over 60% of the votes, after his hat-trick and match-winning display against Yeading. In doing so, he became the first player to win the award twice in different seasons having also won it in 2005 after his performance in the fifth round against Tottenham Hotspur.
Commons endured an injury plagued 2006–07 season, but still managed to hit 13 goals in all competitions in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to keep the club's dream of promotion to the Championship alive, which including a vital goal against league leaders Scunthorpe United. He had a particularly productive last six matches scoring six and chipping in with a further four assists, though Forest ultimately came unstuck in the playoff semi-finals against Yeovil Town. Despite rumours that he was going elsewhere on a Bosman deal, Commons signed a new one-year deal with Forest on 2 July 2007. He made his 100th league appearance for Forest in the opening game of the 2007–08 campaign, which finished 0–0 at home to AFC Bournemouth. Forest eventually won promotion back into the second tier as runners up to Swansea City, following a 3–2 home victory against Yeovil Town, the team who had gained a playoff final spot at Forest's expense the previous May. Commons was named in the PFA League One Team of the Year.
Derby County
In June 2008 it was announced that Commons had signed for Derby County on a free transfer, penning a three-year contract with the club.
2008–09
He made his full league debut against Doncaster Rovers on the opening day of the 2008–09 season, which Derby lost 1–0, and played in Derby's opening five league fixtures before injury forced him to miss much of the next six weeks. He made his return at the end of October and scored his first goal for the club from a free kick in a 3–2 defeat away to Blackpool. Under Paul Jewell's management, Commons played predominantly as a wide midfielder but, following Jewell's resignation on 28 December following a 1–0 home defeat to Ipswich Town, he was moved into a supporting striker role by caretaker manager David Lowe for the first leg of the 2008–09 League Cup semi-final against Manchester United. Commons scored the only goal of the game, a 25-yard strike, as Derby ran out surprising 1–0 winners and was awarded the Man of the Match Award. Jewell's permanent successor, Nigel Clough, kept Commons in his new role and he played alongside Rob Hulse in Derby's attack for the rest of the season. Commons enjoyed his best form of the season in Clough's first few months in charge, scoring the winner against Coventry City, and netting twice in a 4–1 rout of Blackpool. He also scored the winner in a 3–2 win over Nottingham Forest in an FA Cup Fourth Round replay, as Derby came from 2–0 down to claim a first win at The City Ground for over 30 years. Derby fans named the goal the seventh greatest in the club's history, behind Commons' goal against Manchester United in the League Cup in joint fifth, in a poll as part of the club's 125th Anniversary celebrations. Commons' rich vein of form was curtailed when injury ruled him out for six weeks at the end of February before returning to the side for the final eight games of the season. He ended his first season at Derby with five goals from 30 league starts.
2009–10
Commons began the 2009–10 season alongside Hulse as Derby beat Peterborough United 2–1. Commons grabbed his first of the season in the following match, as Derby lost 3–2 away to Scunthorpe United. However, once again, injury curtailed Commons productivity as he appeared in just one match between 20 October and 2 January, a 0–0 draw away to eventual champions Newcastle United, where he came on as a 69th-minute substitute. An extended run in the first team followed and Commons once again approached his best from and helped revive Derby's stuttering campaign and dragged them away from the relegation zone. The team netted a 3–0 home win over Newcastle and a 5–3 victory over Preston North End. Commons provided the assist for Rob Hulse's winner as Derby beat Nottingham Forest 1–0 and ended their rivals' 19 match unbeaten streak. However, an injury sustained in the first half of a 1–0 home defeat to Swansea City on 20 February ruled Commons out until the final game of the season, against Cardiff City on 2 May, as Derby avoided relegation for the second time in two seasons. Commons completed a full 90 minutes on just one occasion and managed just 11 league starts and a further nine substitute appearances, scoring three times.
2010–11
Commons started the 2010–11 season playing as one of the three advanced midfielders behind the main striker in Derby's new 4–2–3–1 formation. He managed his best run of games for almost 18 months when he started seven of Derby's opening eight games, appearing as substitute in the other, and scored two goals, including the winner in a 2–1 opening day victory at Leeds United. Despite this, Nigel Clough voiced his concerns over Commons' early season form, saying after a 1–1 draw with Barnsley: "For the amount of good possession we got to Kris Commons on Saturday, we didn't get anything from it and I said that to him after the game. We got the ball to him in decent areas, running at the back four, 10 yards outside the box, and we didn't get a cross, shot or save from the goalkeeper. If he is going to play in there he must start producing something." Commons responded with seven goals in his next nine games, including braces in a 3–1 win over Middlesbrough (in which he also missed a penalty), a 3–2 win at Doncaster Rovers and a 2–0 win at Ipswich Town to take his goal tally to nine from 15 league starts.
In October 2010, the final year of his contract, Commons expressed his desire to stay at Derby, though the club stated he would have to maintain his form if he hoped to earn a new deal. He entered into contract negotiations with the club towards the end of October, stating his desire that contract negotiations be concluded as swiftly as possible. Commons hit his 10th goal of the season, the first time he had reached double figures in league goals in a single campaign, with a first half penalty in a 3–2 win over Scunthorpe United. His performance earned him a place in the Championship Team of the Week.
Celtic
2010–11
On 28 January 2011, despite interest from Rangers, Commons signed a three-and-a-half-year deal with Celtic for a fee of around £300,000 and was given squad number 15. The following day, he made an immediate impact, scoring the opening goal on his debut in Celtic's 4–1 League Cup semi-final win against Aberdeen with a lob from outside the box. On 6 February, Commons scored against Rangers in a Scottish Cup tie at Ibrox. The match ended 2–2. On his home debut at Celtic Park, he again scored against Rangers to add Celtic's third goal. In his next home league game, Commons scored both goals, including a volley from 25 yards, as Celtic won 2–0 against Hamilton. Commons had now become an integral part of the Celtic side; playing just behind the main strikers, occasionally in a central role but more often fielded wide left.
On 9 April, Commons came off the bench to score the winning goal in a 1–0 SPL win over St Mirren. On 17 April, he scored from the penalty spot in Celtic's 4–0 victory over Aberdeen in the Scottish Cup semi-final at Hampden Park, and then netted twice in a 4–0 league win against Kilmarnock at Rugby Park three days later. On 4 May, Commons notched yet another brace as Celtic lost 3–2 away to Inverness Caledonian Thistle. Five days later, Commons scored in a 2–0 victory against Kilmarnock with a 30-yard strike into the top right hand corner of the net. On 11 May, Commons scored the final goal of Celtic's 3–0 win against Hearts. After scoring, he was sent off for the first time in his entire career after receiving a second yellow card for celebrating with the fans; resulting in him missing the last league game of the season through suspension. Commons picked up his first winner's medal on 21 May when Celtic won the Scottish Cup, beating Motherwell 3–0. The opening goal was set up by Commons, who played a square pass to Ki Sung-Yeung which set up the Korean midfielder to score from distance with a powerful shot.
2011–12
Commons began 2011–12 season as a regular in the Celtic team, but in their fourth league match of the season against St Johnstone, he missed an early penalty after slipping at the vital moment. Celtic ended up losing 0–1. As a result of missing the penalty, Manager Neil Lennon removed Commons as a penalty taker. On 2 October 2011, in the second half of Celtic's 2–0 defeat against Hearts, Commons was shown a straight red card for a dangerous tackle. Commons was struggling to match the form he had shown the previous season and, also hampered by suspension and injuries, was no longer playing regularly. On 29 April 2012, Commons scored his first, and only, goal of the season in a 3–0 win over Rangers on 29 April 2012. Celtic finished the season as league champions, and Commons' 24 league appearances saw him gain an SPL winner's medal.
2012–13
On 4 August 2012, Commons scored the only goal of the game as Celtic beat Aberdeen 1–0 in the opening game of the 2012–13 league season. In Celtic's next league game on 18 August, Commons scored a last-minute equaliser to clinch a 1–1 draw against Ross County. On 21 August, Commons scored the opening goal in a 2–0 win against Helsingborgs in the Champions League play-off round first leg. Commons had now regained the form he had shown when he first joined Celtic in 2011. Manager Neil Lennon commented "Last season, Kris was curtailed by injuries and self-doubt, for whatever reason, I don't know." He added regarding his current performances, "I think he is playing even better now than he was in his first season." On 5 December, Commons scored the winning goal against Spartak Moscow from the penalty spot at Celtic Park, sending Celtic through to the last 16 of the Champions League for the first time in five years. On 16 March 2013 in the 4–3 home win over Aberdeen, Commons broke the record for the fastest goal in the SPL with a time of 12.2 seconds; a record previously held by Celtic teammate Anthony Stokes. Commons finished the season with both a League Championship winner's medal and a Scottish Cup winner's medal as Celtic completed a league and cup double.
2013–14
Commons played in nine of Celtic's opening ten fixtures of season 2013–14, scoring against Elfsborg and Shakhter Karagandy in Champions League qualifying ties and against Aberdeen in the league from the penalty-spot. He continued to play and score regularly, and hit a purple patch during December. On 1 December 2013, Commons scored a hat-trick at Tynecastle in a 7–0 rout of Hearts in the Scottish Cup. Five days later, he scored twice in a 5–0 league win away against Motherwell, the first of which he cleverly back-heeled an off-target Anthony Stokes shot past the Motherwell goalkeeper. On 21 December 2013, he scored again against Hearts, this time in a home 1–0 victory. Commons finished 2013 with another strike, the only goal in a 1–0 win away at Inverness CT on 29 December 2013. This impressive run of form saw Commons named the Scottish Premiership's Player of the Month for December. Commons continued his goalscoring form into January, scoring twice in a 4–0 win away at St Mirren on 5 January 2014, the first of which was his 50th competitive goal for Celtic. Commons finished the season as the top scorer in Scotland, netting 32 goals, and won both the PFA Scotland and Scottish Football Writers' Player of the Year awards.
2014–15
The arrival of new manager Ronny Deila in June 2014 saw Commons feature less regularly in the team. By January 2015, he had only started in around half of Celtic's games in season 2014–15, and scored seven goals. However, amidst speculation over his future at Celtic, Commons began playing more regularly for the team. On 1 February 2015, he scored the second goal of Celtic's 2–0 win over Rangers in the Scottish League Cup semi-final, which was the first Old Firm meeting since April 2012. On 5 February, Commons signed a two-year extension keeping him at the club until 2017. Commons said "I'm absolutely delighted to have signed this new contract with the club", adding "I've loved my time at Celtic and this is where I want to continue playing my football." On 15 March, he scored the opening goal in Celtic's 2–0 win over Dundee United in the League Cup Final.
2015–16
On 22 October 2015, Commons scored Celtic's only goal in their 3–1 defeat to Molde in the Europa League before being substituted 20 minutes later, despite being one of the side's few attacking threats during the match. He reacted with fury towards Ronny Deila and assistant boss John Collins. Commons scored what turned out to be his final Celtic goal on 16 January 2016 against Dundee United at Tannadice, netting a stunning scissor-kick volley in a 4–1 victory.
2016–17
With the appointment of Brendan Rodgers as Celtic's new manager in May 2016, Commons was told he was not in Rodgers' plans. He was left out of their Champions League group stage squad and stayed at the club beyond transfer deadline day in August. Commons did not feature at all under Rodgers, and was eventually released by the club in May 2017 following the end of his contract.
Hibernian (loan)
On 16 December 2016, Commons signed for Hibernian on an emergency loan deal until 15 January 2017. He played the full 90 minutes on his debut, in a 1–1 draw at Greenock Morton one day later, winning the free-kick that eventually led to Hibs' equaliser. Commons' first goal for the club was an 88th minute winning goal from a free-kick, in a 2–1 victory at Falkirk on 31 December 2016, having also set-up Hibs' equaliser. He scored again a fortnight later, in a 1–0 win at Dumbarton. The loan agreement expired a day after the Dumbarton match, when Hibs head coach Neil Lennon said that he hoped to keep Commons for a longer period.
Retirement
After his release by Celtic in May 2017, Commons said that Lennon had approached him about signing for Hibs, however, he was still recovering from a back operation at the time. By September, he was still recuperating and undecided about whether to continue his playing career. Commons subsequently accepted that he would not be able to come back and said in August 2018 that he had retired from playing.
International career
Although he was born in England, Commons qualified to play for Scotland through his paternal grandmother who was born in Dundee. On 12 August 2008, he was named in the Scotland squad for a friendly against Northern Ireland on 20 August. He made his international debut in that game, coming on as a 62nd-minute substitute for James Morrison. He made his competitive debut for Scotland in a 2010 World Cup qualifier against Macedonia on 6 September, again coming on as a substitute, this time for Paul Hartley. Commons' first full 90 minutes in international football came in Scotland's 1–0 home defeat to Argentina on 19 November 2008.
His form for Derby in the 2010–11 season led to speculation of a Scotland recall, with Commons stating "They're well aware that I can play for Scotland. All I can do is concentrate on playing well and scoring goals for Derby and hope that I grab their attention." The following month he was recalled to the squad. His first international goal came in a 3–0 victory over the Faroe Islands on 16 November 2010. Commons was also awarded the Sky Sports man of the match.
Commons withdrew from the Scotland squad for the 2011 Nations Cup matches in May 2011, claiming that he was exhausted at the end of the 2010–11 season. Injuries and loss of form meant that he was not selected during the 2011–12 season by Scotland manager Craig Levein. Despite Commons showing improved form early in the 2012–13 season, Levein claimed that he would not pick Commons because he had seven alternative players available.
On 21 May 2013, Commons announced his retirement from international football, having won 12 caps and scored two goals for Scotland.
Personal life
Commons was educated at Quarrydale School in Sutton-in-Ashfield. His younger brother Spencer was also a footballer, but his career was ended after he suffered a knee injury in 2002.
He lives with his fiancée Lisa Hague and the couple have four children; Lola, April, William and Jax. The couple's first child, Lola, was still-born in 2008 and Lisa has since become an ambassador for SiMBA, a Scots charity that helps families cope with the ordeal of stillbirth and preserve memories of their children. She has also set up her own charity, the Lola Commons Fund, which is intended to raise funds to create special care rooms for grieving parents at every maternity unit in Scotland.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honours
Celtic
Scottish Premiership: 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16
Scottish Cup: 2011, 2013
Scottish League Cup: 2015
Individual
PFA Scotland Players' Player of the Year: 2013–14
SFWA Footballer of the Year: 2013–14
PFA Team of the Year: 2007–08 Football League One
See also
List of Scotland international footballers born outside Scotland
References
External links
1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Mansfield
English men's footballers
Scottish men's footballers
Scotland men's international footballers
Men's association football wingers
Stoke City F.C. players
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
Derby County F.C. players
Celtic F.C. players
English Football League players
Scottish Premier League players
English people of Scottish descent
Scottish Professional Football League players
Scottish league football top scorers
Hibernian F.C. players |
4514860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nero%20Wolfe%20supporting%20characters | Nero Wolfe supporting characters | The Nero Wolfe stories are populated by a cast of supporting characters who help sustain the sense that each story takes place in familiar surroundings. The main characters are Nero Wolfe and Archie Goodwin.
Household
Fritz Brenner
Fritz Brenner is an exceptionally talented Swiss cook who prepares and serves all of Wolfe's meals except those that Wolfe occasionally takes at Rusterman's Restaurant. Fritz also acts as the household's majordomo and butler. Fritz's living quarters are in the basement of Wolfe's brownstone; here he keeps 289 cookbooks, the head of a wild boar he shot in the Vosges, and busts of Escoffier and Brillat-Savarin as well as a cooking vessel thought to have been used by Julius Caesar's chef. A reference to a war wound in 1935's The League of Frightened Men implies that Fritz fought in World War I.
Archie and Fritz have an easygoing working relationship, and Archie often spends time in the kitchen, as he puts it, "chinning" with Fritz. Fritz's relationship with Wolfe is one of mutual respect, admiration and devotion, excepting the times when they quarrel over a recipe. The notoriously finicky Wolfe has even gone so far as to refuse to eat one of Fritz's dishes when he used tarragon and saffron instead of sage to season starlings.
In Champagne for One it is noted that Fritz is very interested in Wolfe getting new clients, since the fees they pay Wolfe are the source from which Fritz's own salary is derived. Fritz can become anxious when a long time passes without a new paying client appearing. However, when the new client does arrive, Fritz is singularly uninterested in the details of the mystery, being supremely confident that Wolfe will solve it and duly collect his fee. When Archie is unavailable Fritz fields phone calls and follows Wolfe's instructions regarding callers at the front door, but his involvement in business is limited to taking messages (and serving drinks and snacks to clients in Wolfe's office). When Wolfe does not want his own and Archie's movements to be known, he arranges for Fritz to be able to claim truthfully that he does not know where they are or when they will return.
In the Columbia Pictures feature film Meet Nero Wolfe (1936), the character of Fritz was transformed into a Scandinavian cook named Olaf, played by John Qualen.
In the ABC-TV movie Nero Wolfe (1977), Fritz is portrayed by David Hurst. In the NBC TV series Nero Wolfe (1981), Fritz Brenner is played by George Voskovec. In the A&E TV original series A Nero Wolfe Mystery, Fritz is played by Colin Fox.
Theodore Horstmann
Theodore Horstmann is an orchid expert who assists Wolfe in the plant rooms. His living quarters are adjacent to the plant rooms on the top floor of the brownstone (although in The Silent Speaker, Archie's commentary suggests that Theodore has separate living arrangements, noting that Wolfe is not letting Horstmann in on a complex deception he has orchestrated because he might accidentally let slip the truth outside the house). In the first Wolfe book, Fer-de-Lance, Archie remarks that he sometimes hears "old Horstmann" yelling at Wolfe, who "seemed to have the same effect on Horstmann that an umpire had on John J. McGraw," though he is sure that Theodore does not dislike Wolfe.
Horstmann seldom appears in person in the narratives. In "Door to Death", he provides a plot device, as his extended absence forces Wolfe to find another orchid tender. In "Black Orchids", though, Theodore's actions are central to the denouement, and in chapter five of The Second Confession, Wolfe becomes concerned for Theodore's safety after the plant rooms are badly damaged by gunfire.
In spite of the great emphasis on food and eating throughout the series, little mention is made of where, when, or what Horstmann eats, except that in Plot It Yourself he is said to eat in the kitchen with Fritz. Theodore has a sister in New Jersey and sometimes spends his Sundays there.
Theodore is portrayed by Robert Coote in the NBC TV series Nero Wolfe (1981). In the A&E TV original series A Nero Wolfe Mystery, Theodore is an unseen character. He is regularly mentioned as being present in the brownstone, and Wolfe is seen speaking to him on the house phone on occasion, but the character himself is never seen or heard on screen. In one episode, Inspector Cramer demands to speak to him (but ultimately does not get to).
The 'teers
Saul Panzer, Fred Durkin, and Orrie Cather are collectively known as the 'teers, the three freelance detectives who make up the extended professional family. Though Wolfe hired a range of freelance operators, after the first few novels the 'teers were always Wolfe's first choices when extra manpower was needed. If only one extra detective was needed, Saul Panzer was the automatic first choice.
"They were the three 'teers because once at a conference Orrie had said they were the three musketeers and we had tried to change it to fit," Archie writes in The Father Hunt (1968, chapter 11). "We tried snoopeteers, privateers (for private eyes), dicketeers, wolfeteers, hawketeers, and others, and ended up by deciding that none of them was good enough and settling for the three 'teers."
Although he possesses a formidable memory, Archie begins chapter 7 of A Family Affair (1975)reporting a meeting of Saul, Fred, and Orrie in Wolfe's office by writing, "I forget who once called them the Three Musketeers." In the short story "Counterfeit for Murder," he expresses his respective opinions of the three by commenting on their hourly rates and relative worth: "[Saul Panzer's] rate is ten dollars an hour and he is worth twenty. Fred Durkin's rate is seven dollars and he is worth seven-fifty. Orrie Cather's rate is also seven dollars and he is worth six-fifty."
Saul Panzer
Saul Panzer is a top-notch private detective who is frequently hired by Wolfe either to assist Archie or to carry out assignments that Wolfe prefers that Archie not know about or for which Archie cannot be spared. Panzer is not an impressive-looking character; he dresses sloppily, has a big nose, and almost always needs a shave. In Counterfeit for Murder, he is "undersized and wiry" and looks like he "could be a hackie." Even so, Archie and Wolfe respect Saul immensely. He charges much higher fees than other New York detectives, but Archie insists that he is worth it. "With an office and a staff, he could have cleaned up," Archie writes in chapter 6 of Champagne for One (1958), "but that wouldn't have left him enough time for playing the piano or playing pinochle or keeping up with his reading, so he preferred to free-lance at seventy bucks a day" – equivalent to more than $600 today.
Saul has an eidetic memory, which Archie frequently comments is better than his own, and an uncanny ability to connect people's names and identities permanently with their faces in his mind, even with only a glance. When a character in Too Many Women (1947, chapter 26) emphatically insists that Saul must have mistakenly identified someone else as her, Archie comments to Wolfe, "… with Saul, you know how good that is. Even if she has a twin, it was her." Wolfe emphatically agrees.
Saul's marital status is one of the inconsistencies in the corpus. "He is himself a bachelor," Wolfe tells Hilda Lindquist in The Rubber Band (1936, chapter 7). A change is indicated in the 1948 novella "Bullet for One" (chapter 7), when Wolfe asks Saul about his family. In "Door to Death" (1949, chapter 7), Archie leaves a phone message with Saul's wife in Brooklyn. Saul has a wife and children in Brooklyn in The Second Confession (1949, chapter 5); he has a wife and children in In the Best Families (1950, chapter 14).
No mention is made of Saul's wife or children after 1950, though, and readers are left to decide whether the marriage ended, or Saul's family was simply retconned out of existence. In "The Next Witness", first published in May 1955, Saul has an apartment in Manhattan to himself. He lives alone on the fifth (top) floor of a remodeled house on 38th Street, between Lexington and Third Avenues. In chapter 4, Archie describes Saul's living room, which Wolfe deems "a good room" when he sees it for the first time:
It was a big room, lighted with two floor lamps and two table lamps. One wall had windows, another was solid with books, and the other two had pictures and shelves that were cluttered with everything from chunks of minerals to walrus tusks. In the far corner was a grand piano.
The role of Saul Panzer is played by George Wyner in the NBC TV series Nero Wolfe (1981); by Saul Rubinek in the A&E original film The Golden Spiders: A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2000); and by Conrad Dunn in the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–2002).
Fred Durkin
Fred Durkin is a blue-collar investigator who is often hired for mundane tasks such as surveillance. In his earliest appearances, Archie is very dismissive of Durkin, calling him "dumb". However, over the course of the series, Archie comes to appreciate Fred more; though not prone to flashes of insight, Fred Durkin is reliably hard-working and stubborn about getting details right. In the novella "Kill Now—Pay Later," Archie opines that Fred "wasn't in Saul's class but was way above average." In Counterfeit for Murder, he is described as "broad and burly and bald" and might be mistaken for "a piano mover."
Married with several children, Fred is honest and likable, but unsophisticated. He is often nervous around Wolfe, whom he once offended by stirring vinegar into a roux for squab at Wolfe's table. To curry favor with Wolfe, he sometimes accepts Wolfe's offer of beer, though Archie has heard Fred call beer "slop".
In later works, Archie Goodwin notes that Fred is "worth at least half as much as Saul – which was his price," and also approvingly notes that, unlike some other detectives, Fred knows his limitations and works extremely well within them. Likewise, in The Golden Spiders, Wolfe is willing to disburse more than twice as much expense money to Fred than to Orrie and Saul, remarking that Fred never goes over budget when given cash.
In the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–2002) and the series pilot, The Golden Spiders: A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2000), the role of Fred Durkin is played by Fulvio Cecere.
Orrie Cather
Orrie Cather is a handsome, personable detective, someone people want to tell thingsbut he can be too full of himself. In The Mother Hunt (chapter 9), after Wolfe leaves it to Saul to teach Orrie better manners, Archie warns Wolfe, "You know, if you pile it on enough to give Orrie an inferiority complex, it will be a lulu, and a damn good op will be ruined." But Archie, too, has an occasional run-in with Orrie, who thinks he would look just fine sitting at Archie's desk. In Counterfeit for Murder, he is described as "tall and trim and dressy" and who might mistaken for "an automobile salesman."
Orrie's talents as a professional operative are much narrower than Archie's. He has neither Saul Panzer's genius for tailing nor Fred Durkin's bulldog tenacity, and he is more willing than the others to take less-than-legal shortcuts. He is more than competent, and Stout furnishes him more complex motives than he does Saul or Fred. Ambiguities in Orrie's character are introduced as early as The League of Frightened Men (1935). In 1966's Death of a Doxy, in which he is accused of murder, the state of his character forces Wolfe and his associate to debate whether or not he is capable of the crime; Wolfe himself states "You must know that I have no affection for him." In Champagne for One Orrie pulls a major coup, breaking into a suspect's apartment and finding a key document on which the solution of the book's mystery largely hinges – a document which he insists upon handing to Wolfe personally rather than through Goodwin (who reluctantly admits that that was Orrie's due). Orrie also plays a key role in the last Nero Wolfe novel, A Family Affair.
Orrie's full first name is one of the inconsistencies in the corpus. In chapter 16 of The Golden Spiders (1953), clothing store owner Bernard Levine states that he was shown "a New York detective license with his picture on it and his name, Orvald Cather." In chapter 3 of If Death Ever Slept, Archie calls the office and Orrie answers the phone, "Nero Wolfe's residence. Orville Cather speaking." And, thinking he was clarifying the matter, Rex Stout's biographer John McAleer asked the author, "Is Orrie Cather's given name Orrin?" "Probably," Stout replied.
In the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–2002) and the series pilot, The Golden Spiders: A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2000), the role of Orrie Cather is played by Trent McMullen.
Law enforcement officials
"I am much kinder to the police than most writers of detective stories," Rex Stout said. "My two main police characters, Cramer and Stebbins, are neither stupid nor brutal, and, judging from letters I get from readers, they are likable."
Inspector Cramer
Inspector Cramer, head of the New York Police Department's Homicide Division, is Wolfe's main foil. Cramer collaborates with Wolfe in the majority of the novels and short stories, but resents the high-handed manner in which Wolfe pursues his investigationsparticularly Wolfe's tendency to manipulate murderers into committing suicide rather than allowing them to face trial. Cramer is usually assisted by Sergeant Purley Stebbins, and at times by Lt. George Rowcliff, Archie's personal nemesis.
Wolfe and Archie collaborate with Cramer on his homicide cases, but the relationship is a contentious one. Wolfe regularly and deliberately withholds information from Cramer to ensure that Wolfe, rather than the police, will solve a case. In return, Cramer has enjoyed twitting Wolfe by rising from the red leather chair without using his arms for leverage – something that Wolfe cannot do. Nearly every novel that involves Cramer shows him calling on Wolfe in a barely suppressed rage, demanding the information he is suresometimes quite rightlythat Wolfe is withholding.
Despite their argumentative relationship, Cramer has considerable respect for Wolfe's investigative skill. In The Doorbell Rang, Cramer goes to some lengths to keep the state of New York from taking Wolfe and Archie's licenses as private investigators, and in In the Best Families, Cramer says, "Wolfe is too cocky to live ... I would love to bloody his nose for him. I've tried to often enough, and someday I will and enjoy it. But I would hate to see him break his neck on a deal like this where he hasn't got a chance." Cramer is also grateful to Wolfe for saving his job in The Silent Speaker, and at the end of that book, Cramer expresses his gratitude by bringing Wolfe " ... a misshapen object covered with green florist's paper" that turns out to be an orchid. In return, Wolfe holds the inspector in high regard, admiring his tenacity and preferring to deal with him than any other member of the police force.
For example, speaking of Cramer, Wolfe says, "By luck I had made a hole in the wall and I've let him through, and if you knew him as I do you would realize that he can't be chased out again." Cramer is aware that Wolfe appreciates the Homicide Division's capabilities: "As conceited as you are, Wolfe, you told me once that I am better equipped to handle nine murder cases out of ten than you are."
Cramer shares few, if any, of Wolfe's tastes; in the story "Black Orchids", for example, Wolfe exclaims that the black orchids are unique, matchless, and incomparable, Cramer replies, "They're pretty ... Kind of drab, though. Not much color. I like geraniums better."
One taste that Cramer does share with Wolfe is that he appears to enjoy a good beer. Wolfe often offers him one, except when the visit is particularly contentious. Cramer almost always declines, claiming not to have the time. But on the occasion that he accepts, he appears to actually enjoy the less formal chat with Wolfe over a beer.
Cramer is a cigar chewer. In early Nero Wolfe novels, Cramer lights and smokes them (in The League of Frightened Men he smokes a pipe), but in later novels, Archie notes that Cramer only chews on cigars and has never been known to light one. Cramer often ends his visits to Wolfe's office by angrily throwing his chewed cigar at the wastebasket, usually missing the target. Archie suspects that the cigars give Cramer a moment to calm down before he says something regrettable.
Cramer is married and has one son, who fights in the Australian theater during World War II.
Cramer's first name is given once only, as Fergus, in 1940's Where There's a Will (chapter 17). However, his initials are later given as "L.T.C." in 1946's The Silent Speaker, due to Stout's failure to recall that he had earlier given Cramer a first name. This led to Robert Goldsborough giving him the full name of "Lionel T. Cramer" in Goldsborough's version of Nero Wolfe novels. "To me he is just Inspector Cramer," Stout said.
Cramer is the protagonist of one Stout novel, Red Threads (1939). This novel does not feature Wolfe or any of his employees, but does have appearances from some tertiary series characters like Police Commissioner Humbert and District Attorney Skinner.
Inspector Cramer was portrayed by Biff McGuire in the 1977 TV movie Nero Wolfe, by Allan Miller in NBC TV's 1981 series, and by Sergey Parshin in Russian TV-series Nero Wolfe and Archie Goodwin (2001–2002). In the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–2002), the role of Inspector Cramer is played by Bill Smitrovich. Archie hears him called Fergus in the episode "The Silent Speaker", when he makes the brief acquaintance of Mrs. Cramer.
Sergeant Purley Stebbins
Sergeant Purley Stebbins is Inspector Cramer's assistant. Stebbins is in many ways the archetypal good cop: tough, brave, and dedicated, but also gruff and unpolished. Stebbins is ambivalent about Archie, and Archie makes frequent references to the few times Stebbins has let his guard down and called him by his first name. Archie believes that Stebbins harbors some resentment toward him due to the great discrepancy in their salaries, but Stebbins recognizes Archie as an expert and talented detective. In Champagne for One, Stebbins' keen observation of the behavior of a group of murder suspects earns a comment of admiration from Wolfe. He also appears in the Alphabet Hicks short story "By His Own Hand (Curtain Line)" published in April 1955.
In the A&E TV series, the role of Purley Stebbins is played by R.D. Reid.
Lieutenant Rowcliff
Lieutenant George Rowcliff is a police lieutenant for whom Wolfe harbors special animus, partly due to an incident in which Rowcliff took Wolfe into custody. As Wolfe once put it, "This whole performance is based on an idiotic assumption, which was natural and indeed inevitable, since Mr. Rowcliff is your champion ass – the assumption that Mr. Goodwin and I are both cretins." As noted above, Rowcliff starts to stutter when he is sufficiently angry or frustrated; Archie sometimes makes a private game of seeing how quickly he can bring Rowcliff to this point, and occasionally affects the stutter to goad him into it.
As with Cramer, Stout made a continuity error in Rowcliff's first name. Though it is given as George elsewhere, in Please Pass the Guilt, his first two initials are stated as "J.M." in a letter dictated by Wolfe. There is also inconsistency in the spelling of the lieutenant's surname; it occasionally appears as "Rowcliffe." (This variant is the version that appears in The Silent Speaker, the same novel in which the continuity error regarding Cramer's first name is introduced.)
Rowcliff is the only character acknowledged by Stout to have been consciously modeled and named after a real-life persona young naval attache under whom Stout served while a yeoman on Theodore Roosevelt's presidential yacht Mayflower in 1906–07 and to whom Stout took an intense and enduring dislike. Whether or not the connection between the real and fictional Rowcliffs was known contemporaneously, clearly the source of Stout’s obnoxious cop suffered no ill effects professionally: Gilbert Jonathan Rowcliff went on to a distinguished naval career spanning both world wars, at sea as an honored commander and in Washington as judge advocate general, a position he assumed in June 1936, shortly after his namesake was introduced in The Rubber Band. Also, whether or not the naval Rowcliff followed Stout’s career or read and recognized himself in the Nero Wolfe books, Stout clearly followed his; in an interview with John McAleer, the author dead-panned, “he retired in December 1945, with the rank of rear admiral.”
The role of Rowcliff is played by Bill MacDonald in the A&E TV series.
Others
Police Commissioner HombertIn some of the novels, the New York police commissioner. A politician, rather than a policeman, he is not especially respected by either Wolfe or Cramer.
Skinnerdistrict attorney for Manhattan
Mandelbaum (aka Mandel)assistant district attorney for Manhattan.
Cleveland Archerdistrict attorney in Westchester County
Ben Dykeshead of detectives for Westchester County
Con Noonanlieutenant with the New York State Police, a suburban version of Lieutenant Rowcliff
Richard WraggFBI Special Agent in Charge of the New York Office
Friends
Lon Cohen
Lon Cohen is a journalist near the top of the fictional New York Gazette, a major New York daily newspaper. Lon is Archie's pipeline to breaking crime news, and Archie frequently asks Lon for background information on current or prospective clients.
Archie, Lon, and some other Wolfe regulars play poker Thursday nights at Saul Panzer's apartment.
Over the years, Wolfe and the Gazette develop a symbiotic relationship that gives the newspaper exclusive information regarding Wolfe's cases, and that gives Wolfe publicity – sometimes more than he would want.
Lon Cohen first appeared in the 1946 novel, The Silent Speaker (chapter 8). Prior to that, the detectives used other contacts from the Gazette, such as Harry Foster in Fer-de-Lance.
In The Second Confession (chapter 19), Archie says Lon had risen to "second in command at the Gazette's city desk," and by A Right to Die (chapter 5) he is "confidential assistant to the publisher of the Gazette." Lon's role at the New York Gazette is not further detailed in the Rex Stout stories, and in fact, in later books Archie explicitly states that he is not entirely sure what Lon's exact job entails. Lon's actual job duties later become central to the story line in Robert Goldsborough's novel Death on Deadline.
In the 1977 TV movie Nero Wolfe, Lon Cohen is played by John Randolph. In the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–2002), Lon Cohen is played by Saul Rubinek.
Lily Rowan
Lily Rowan, heiress and socialite, often appears as Archie Goodwin's romantic companion, although the relationship is not an exclusive one. Lily and Archie meet in Some Buried Caesar, in which she calls him "Escamillo" after his near-encounters with a pastured bull. Subsequently, she appears in several stories (and is mentioned in passing in others) and provides needed assistance on occasion (see, particularly, In the Best Families and A Right to Die).
Lily is one of the few women for whom Nero Wolfe has a grudging respect: "I have not only eaten her bread and salt, I have eaten her grouse. I am in her debt."
Lily's father, who made his money building New York's sewer system and was a power in Tammany Hall, helped Inspector Cramer get started at the NYPD; this background connection with Cramer surfaces in one of the early stories, "Not Quite Dead Enough", when Cramer expresses discomfort about dealing with Lily as a murder suspect, but does not come up again in the series.
In three episodes of the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–2002) – "Door to Death", "Christmas Party" and "Death of a Doxy" – the role of Lily Rowan is played by Kari Matchett.
Others
Marko VukčićA fellow Montenegrin whom Wolfe has known since childhood. Marko owns the upscale Rusterman's Restaurant in Manhattan. In later novels, Wolfe acts as the restaurant's trustee following Marko's murder in The Black Mountain.
Lewis HewittWell-heeled orchid fancier, whom Wolfe saved from notoriety (as told in "Black Orchids"). During a prolonged absence, Wolfe arranges for his orchids to be cared for at Hewitt's estate. Hewitt is a member of the Ten for Aristology, a group of gourmets that figures in "Poison à la Carte" and The Doorbell Rang. In the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery the role of Hewitt is played by David Hemblen.
Nathaniel ParkerWolfe's lawyer (and occasionally a client's lawyer, on Wolfe's recommendation) when only a lawyer will do. Parker succeeded Henry H. Barber, who played this role earlier in the series. On the way from Henry Barber to Nathaniel Parker, Wolfe consults Henry Parker in chapter 9 of The Golden Spiders. Parker is well educated: for example, Parker converses with Wolfe in French during the story "Immune to Murder". In the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery, Parker was played by Hrant Alianak in "Prisoner's Base," and by George Plimpton in "Death of a Doxy" and "Murder is Corny."
Edwin A. "Doc" VollmerA medical doctor who is Wolfe's neighbor and occasional confidante. In the novel The Silent Speaker, Vollmer certifies an illness severe enough that Wolfe cannot be interrogated by the police. In the novel Please Pass the Guilt, Wolfe and Goodwin become involved in a murder case by doing a favor for Vollmer and his friend Irwin Ostrow, who runs a crisis intervention center. In the A&E television series A Nero Wolfe Mystery Vollmer was played by Ken Kramer in "The Doorbell Rang" and "Disguise for Murder," and by Joe Flaherty in "The Silent Speaker."
Carla LovchenWolfe's adopted daughter, who appears in two stories, Over My Dead Body and The Black Mountain. Her murder in The Black Mountain, as well as that of Marko Vukčić, prompts Wolfe to leave the country for the only time in the series and return to Montenegro. In the A&E television series A Nero Wolfe Mystery Carla Lovchen was played by Kari Matchett in the concluding episode of the first season, "Over My Dead Body."
Felix CourbetPart owner and manager of Rusterman's Restaurant following the death of Marko Vukčić. Felix plays a major role in both "Poison à la Carte" and A Family Affair, in which his surname is changed to Mauer. In The Black Mountain his surname is Martin. In the adaptation of "Poison à la Carte" for the A&E TV series A Nero Wolfe Mystery Felix is played by Carlo Rota.
Freelance operatives
The three 'teers were always Wolfe's first choice when hiring extra manpower for a job. In certain specialized cases where a man would be unsuitable for the particular assignment, two female detectives are sometimes called upon:
Dol Bonner
Theodolinda "Dol" Bonner is a smart, attractive female private detective, introduced as the protagonist of Rex Stout's 1937 novel The Hand in the Glove. Head of her own detective agency, she makes another appearance in Stout's Tecumseh Fox novel Bad for Business (1940). Dol plays a major role in the Nero Wolfe novella "Too Many Detectives", and she is employed by Wolfe in If Death Ever Slept and Plot It Yourself.
In Lady Against the Odds, a 1992 TV adaptation of The Hand in the Glove, Dol Bonner is played by Crystal Bernard.
Sally Corbett
Wolfe and Archie first meet Dol Bonner's assistant Sally Corbett (aka Sally Colt) in the first chapter of "Too Many Detectives", when they are summoned to Albany for questioning about wiretapping activities. Archie starts his report by stating, "I am against female detectives on principle." Still Sally Colt, she is again called on to help out in If Death Ever Slept. In Plot It Yourself, it is a Sally Corbett, not Colt, who helps out on Wolfe's case: "Sally Corbett was one of the two women who, a couple of years back, had made me feel that there might be some flaw in my attitude toward female dicks," Archie writes. Sally Colt/Corbett makes a final appearance in The Mother Hunt, in which Archie again remarks that Sally and Dol had made him change his attitude about female detectives.
Sally Corbett is played by Manon von Gerkan in Motherhunt, part of the second season of the A&E original series A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–2002).
Others
Wolfe generally only called on these operatives in cases where manpower beyond the three 'teers was needed, or when one of the 'teers was unavailable, or when certain specialized talents were required.
Bill GoreFreelance operative occasionally called in when Wolfe requires additional help in the field. Very early on, in The League Of Frightened Men, Bill is actually third on the list of operatives Wolfe calls uponbehind Saul and Fred but ahead of Orrie Cather. Big, muscular and not especially bright, Bill's chief attributes are his size, stamina and determination. As well, having decided that Archie is a funny guy, he laughs at all Archie's quips and comments, even if he doesn't understand them. Despite Wolfe's apparent early approval of Bill, he is infrequently seen and makes his last appearance in 1955's Before Midnight, although he is mentioned in passing in at least one later Stout story. He is glimpsed again in some of Goldsborough's books more than 30 years after his previous appearance.
Johnny KeemsFreelance operative occasionally called in by Wolfe. Flashy, and prone to showboating, Johnny is generally reliable if given specific instructions. He makes his last appearance in the novel Might as Well Be Dead, where he is killed by a hit-and-run driver. Johnny, like Orrie, is said by Archie to covet his (Archie's) job.
Del BascomIndependent investigator who runs a large detective agency in Manhattan. Wolfe sometimes subcontracts to Bascom when he needs more operatives than usual (The Silent Speaker, for example).
Herb Aronson and Al GollerCabdrivers hired by Archie for mobile surveillance work.
Ethelbert (or "Geoffrey") HitchcockWolfe's contact in London who handles inquiries to be made in Europe.
Arnold Zeck
Arnold Zeck appears in three Nero Wolfe novels. Zeck is a mysterious and powerful crime boss, possessed of a superior intellect. He and Wolfe become mutual admirers and antagonists in the course of several cases; when he is first mentioned in And Be a Villain, Archie indicates that he became aware of Zeck following a telephone call to Wolfe made several months before the events of the novel during an unreported case, but Wolfe has warned him not to investigate any further and to do his best to forget that the criminal exists.
Wolfe summarises his activities and tactics in The Second Confession (1949) as follows: "He has varied and extensive sources of income. All of them are illegal and some of them are morally repulsive. Narcotics, smuggling, industrial and commercial rackets, gambling, waterfront blackguardism, professional larceny, blackmailing, political malfeasance – that by no means exhausts his curriculum, but it sufficiently indicates his character. He has, up to now, triumphantly kept himself invulnerable by having the perspicacity to see that a criminal practising on a large scale over a wide area and a long period of time can get impunity only by maintaining a gap between his person and his crimes which cannot be bridged; and by having unexcelled talent, a remorseless purpose and a will that cannot be dented or deflected." Wolfe considers Zeck the most dangerous criminal he has encountered in his career and informs Archie that any direct conflict between them would by necessity become a battle to the death, intimating that he would be compelled to abandon the brownstone and work to destroy Zeck utterly if such circumstances arose.
Zeck’s malevolent presence intrudes via telephone in two novels, And Be a Villain (1948) and The Second Confession (1949). In the latter, he sends gunmen to fire on Wolfe's orchid rooms in an attempt to dissuade Wolfe from investigating a case that could lead back to him. Zeck had previously telephoned Wolfe twice: on June 9, 1943, concerning Wolfe’s work for General Carpenter; and on January 16, 1946, regarding Mrs. Tremont.
Zeck himself appears in In the Best Families (1950), the third book of what is popularly called The Zeck Trilogy, in which Nero Wolfe finds it necessary to defeat Zeck once and for all. In 1974, the Viking Press collected the three Zeck novels in an omnibus volume, Triple Zeck, and in 2016, Random House issued an e-book set of the three books titled The Zeck Trilogy.
"I was thrilled when Wolfe finally encountered his own Moriarty in the archvillain Arnold Zeck," wrote Michael Dirda, Pulitzer Prize-winning book critic for The Washington Post. British author and literary critic David Langford and others have compared the relationship between Zeck and Wolfe to that of Professor Moriarty and Sherlock Holmes.
As described in "In the Best Families", Zeck operates virtually unseen, out of an underground base which has several layers of security, and even his own gang mostly have no access to his presence. Mostly they will only hear his voice on the telephone, or in an outer room at the base. They won't meet him in person, making his defences very hard to penetrate.
The role of Arnold Zeck (renamed Arnold Dorso) is played by Robert Loggia in "In the Best Families", an episode of the 1981 NBC TV series Nero Wolfe.
Notes
References
External links |
4514936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonkers%20%28compilation%20album%20series%29 | Bonkers (compilation album series) | The Bonkers series was one of the leading happy hardcore compilation series in the UK. The first release was in 1996 on the record label React (now Resist). It was available on 2xCD and 2xTC formats. DJs Sharkey and Hixxy were signed by React, and they released "Bonkers", the first in a series of albums that has become the best-selling hardcore compilation series of all time. As of 11 May 2009, the series had reached its nineteenth release, titled Bonkers: The Original Hardcore.
History
The Bonkers name was based on the bar with the same name at Butlins Minehead (which has since changed to an Irish Bar). DJ Hixxy said in an interview with Vice “React wanted to sign 'Toytown', so we went up to London to meet them. I said, 'Listen, forget ‘Toytown’. You can have that, no problem. But I’ve got a bigger idea.' It totally changed the meeting. We sat and discussed [the idea for the happy hardcore compilation albums] 'Bonkers' for hours. The name came from a bar in Minehead Butlin’s that we’d played with Ramos and Supreme. I just loved the name.” Frequent contributors to the Bonkers collection include DJ Hixxy, DJ Dougal, DJ Sharkey, Neophyte and Scott Brown.
In 2019, the music publication DJ Mag published a retrospective article about the Bonkers album series, highlighting how it had "ushered in a new era" even though the critical reception at the time had been varied.
Bonkers has also been licensed for local release in Australia via Central Station Records. Bonkers 1-15 was also licensed to "Get over the records" in 2005 for Japanese branded releases. The Japanese edition of Bonkers vol. 1 went on sale on 26 October 2005 with a full TV advert in Japanese. "Get Over the Records" only released Bonkers 1-7 in the Japanese market and has since 2007 stopped releasing albums altogether.
In June 2008, Hardcore online news site 'happyhardcore.com' announced that British dance label All Around the World (AATW) had purchased the rights to Bonkers starting from what would have been volume 18, set to be released in 2009. There had been speculation about a label change for some time, but AATW finally confirmed it. The UK Hardcore genre, which has seen a recent unprecedented rise in popularity, has already helped AATW in securing number one chart positions with its Clubland Xtreme Hardcore releases. The label also expressed their desire to expand the Bonkers brand, suggesting the use of Universal Music TV as their distributor for future releases, as they do for their successful Clubland compilations. All Around the World relaunched the Bonkers series on 11 May 2009 under the title Bonkers: The Original Hardcore, which was mixed by Hixxy, Sharkey and Chris Unknown.
In 2017, Scottish rave promoters Twisted Events and Intenzifi revived the name with annual Bonkers events in Scotland (2017, 2018, 2019, 2020 missed due to Government action regarding Covid-19, 2021 and 2022).
In 2021, Scottish Internet Radio Station Beat 106 created the Bonkers Beats radio series alongside Hixxy, Sharkey, Dougal and Scott Brown. The show features previous Bonkers contributors.
In 2022, Bonkers started touring events up and down the United Kingdom.
September 2023 - Bonkers published a Mission Statement regarding is to relaunch in October as two record labels by Sharkey and Al Twisted. The main "Bonkers" which would have a multi-genre approach with all forms of Hard Rave and "Bonkers Legacy" celebrating the past.
Compilation Series overview
Bonkers
Disc 1: Mixed by Hixxy
Hixxy & MC Sharkey - "Toytown"
Dougal & Eruption - "Party Time (Remix)"
Hixxy & Ikon - "The Wizard of Oz"
Hixxy - "Thumper"
Hopscotch & Dougal - "Steam Train"
Hixxy & Bananaman - "Forever"
Dr Who (Northern Lights) - "Love of My Life"
A Sense Of Summer - "On Top (Hixxy Remix)"
Highlander - "Hold Me Now (Bass-D & King Remix)"
Bass-D & King Matthew feat. DJ XD - "Like a Dream"
Seduction (artist) & Eruption - "Bust the New Jam (Remix)"
Seduction - "Step To The Side'"
Vinylgroover & Quatro - "Calypso Summer"
Brisk (artist) - "Airhead (SMD Remix)"
Eruption - "Let the Music (Original Mix)"
Force & Styles - "Funfair (Exclusive Remix)"
Hixxy - "A - Ha Ha Ha"
Scott Brown Vs DJ Rab S - "Now Is the Time (Hixxy & Trixxy Remix)"
Disc 2: Mixed by Sharkey
Marc Smith & Sharkey - "Truth"
Force & Styles - "All Systems Go"
Terrible Twins - "Burn This Joint (Tekno Dred & Helix Mix)"
Seb - "Rainbow Islands (Sharkey Mix)"
Billy Bunter, D-Zyne, Supreme - "Outside World"
Vampire - "Teknostorm (Sharkey Remix)"
Ham - "Is There Anybody There"
Druid & Bananaman - "Tweedledum"
Sy & Sharkey - "Feel the Heat"
Druid & Sharkey - "Bonkers Anthem"
A Sense Of Summer - "Techno Round the World (Remix)"
Druid & Sharkey - "Pumpin'"
Druid & Sharkey - "Rocket to the Moon"
Druid & Sharkey - "Frantik"
MC Sharkey - "Revolution (Slipmatt Remix)"
Brisk - "On & On"
Force & Styles - "Wonderland"
Bonkers 2: Now We're Totally Bonkers
Disc 1: Hixxy Mix
Evolve - "The Living Dream" - feat Lisa - 4:51
Antisocial - "My Way" - 4:19
Demo - "I've Got a Feeling" - 1:37
A Sense of Summer - "On Top (Hixxy '97 Mix)" - 4:13
Antisocial - "Now You've Got" - 5:00
Antisocial - "Forever Young" - 4:49
Antisocial - "Whistle" - 4:17
Hixxy & Sunset - "People's Party" - 4:38
The DJ Unknown Project - "Critical Heights (DJ Hixxy remix)" - 4:28
Vinylgroover - "Wham Bam" - 1:25
Fade & Melody - "Is This Love?" - 2:43
Fade & Bananaman - "A Dreams Surprise" - 2:30
Dougal & Mickey Skedale - "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" - 2:52
Antisocial - "Antisocial" - 3:46
DJ Demo - "Your Mine (Slipmatt Remix)" - 4:07
Evolve - "Sugar & Spice" - 2:41
Blitz, Blaze & Revolution - "Big Up the Bass" - 2:09
Antisocial - "24-7" - 5:43
Antisocial - "Scream" - 3:56
Force & Styles - "Paradise & Dreams" - 4:39
Disc 2: Sharkey Mix
Ramos, Supreme & UFO - "Ravestation (X-clusive RSR remix)" - 5:39
Ramos, Supreme & UFO - "Tekniq" - 3:32
Druid & Energy - "Future Dimensions" - 3:53
Bang the Future - "Body Slam" - 4:57
GSI - "Twister" - 5:49
Darryl - "Whores in the House" - 3:07
Quatro - "Rock 'n' Roll" - 3:52
Druid & Trixxy - "E-Motion" - 4:01
Rapido - "Inside Beat" - 4:32
Marc Smith - "Boom 'n' Pow (Exclusive Marc Smith Remix)" - 4:21
Fury - "Droppin' Bombs (Exclusive remix)" - 3:15
Sharkey & Trixxy - "Genesis" - 5:59
Helix - "UR Everything" - 5:03
Sharkey & Trixxy - "Therapy" - 5:52
Sharkey - "Revolution pt.1" - 4:27
Trixxy - "See The Stars" - 2:54
Eclipse - "Ultraworld 5" - 4:15
Bonkers 3: A Journey into Madness
Disc 1: Mixed by Hixxy
Hixxy & Bananaman - "Together Forever (Evolve Remix)" - 5:06
Hixxy & Sharkey - "Return to Toytown" - 4:45
Daydream - "Galaxy" - 5:06
Q-Tex - "Power of Love '97 (The Digital Boy Italian Rave Remix)" - 2:44
Visa - "Fly Away" - 2:38
Daydream - "Make Your Own Kind of Music" - 3:52
Bang! - "Cloudy Daze" - 4:03
Spitfire - "Feel This Way" - 4:23
4 Tune Fairytales - "Take Me to the Wonderland" - 2:24
Fade & Melody - "Liquid Night" - 4:17
Antisocial - "Fairytale" - 4:29
Antisocial - "See Me Through" - 5:19
Antisocial - "Legends" - 4:57
Antisocial - "Happy Days" - 4:00
Hixxy - "Starry Night" - 4:35
Antisocial - "Need Your Love" - 5:02
Disc 2: Mixed by Sharkey
Sharkey & UFO - "The Beginning of the End" - 1:53
UFO - "Inner Sanctum" - 4:48
Ramos & UFO - "The Ravechief" - 4:25
Supreme & UFO - "Trip to the Other Side" - 6:34
Brisk & Trixxy - "Back to the Top" - 4:20
Druid & UFO - "Temporal Rift" - 4:19
Sharkey & UFO - "Terra Nova (Exclusive Bonkers Mix)" - 5:31
Quattro & Dizzy D - "Future Trance Project 2" - 4:47
Brisk & Trixxy - "Rock the Beat" - 4:15
Energy & Loopy - "Overdose" - 4:03
Slam - "Influence (Slam & Helix Remix)" - 3:34
Slam & Helix - "Acid Break" - 3:33
Trixxy - "Here to Invade" - 4:17
Eclipse - "Devastator" - 4:31
Marc Smith (hardcore artist) - "Nothing More" - 4:14
Go Mental - "I Can Feel It (VIP Acid & Bass Mix)" - 4:47
Sharkey - "Sound Assassin (Exclusive Instrumental Mix)" - 3:41
Marc Smith - "The Procrastinator" - 5:47
Sharkey & UFO - "The End of the Beginning" - 0:29
Disc 3: Mixed by Dougal
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - "Gotta Go (Remix)" - 4:22
E-Logic & DNA - "Going All the Way" - 4:07
Innovate - "It's Out There" - 3:44
Dougal - "Tranquility" - 4:18
Triple J - "Follow the Sun" - 4:30
Euphony - "Dancin' in the Rain" - 3:32
Hopscotch & Dougal - "Steamtrain (Remix)" - 4:52
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - "Re-Create Creation" - 4:52
Triple J - "Have It All" - 5:07
Ham, Demo & Justin Time - "The Big Spill (Demo Remix)" - 3:47
Breeze - "Jump a Little Higher" - 5:03
Dougal & DNA - "Tears in Your Eyes" - 4:40
Demo - "Muzik (Ham Remix)" - 4:18
Fade & Bananaman - "Dream's Surprise (Seduction Remix)" - 3:58
Innovate - "Talkin' 'Bout Love" - 3:35
Stompy - "Follow Me" - 5:20
Innovate - "Stop Me" - 4:22
Bonkers 4: World Frenzy
Disc 1: Hixxy's Mix
Slashing Funkids - "Imagination" - 5:07
Los Bonitos - "The Lights" - 4:10
Sequel Base - "The Third Chapter" - 3:05
OMG - "Different Outlook" - 5:22
The Saints - "Fire" - 4:56
Sub-Ace & Aura - "A Guiding Light" - 2:12
OMG - "14th Dream" - 4:58
Bananaman & Blitz - "The Quickening" - 1:51
Q-Tex - "Equazion Pt 9" - 4:03
2 without Heads - "U & Me" - 2:23
Visa - "Don't Go Away" - 4:03
Devil Licious - "By My Side" - 5:30
OMG - "The One" - 4:24
Q-Tex - "Power of Love '98" - 3:40
Unique - "Distant Skies" - 3:20
Devilicious - "Better Days" - 4:20
Disc 2: Sharkey's Mix
Johnny Go Mental - "Acid Rain" - 6:48
Fury - "De-Sensitize (98 Remix)" - 4:25
Equinox - "The Hustler" - 5:21
Marc Smith - "Encounters" - 6:44
Brisk & Trixxy - "Back to the Top (Remix)" - 4:39
Energy - "Future Dimensions Pt 2" - 4:37
Helix & Tekno Dred - "Mindless Pleasure" - 4:28
Energy - "The King of Rock" - 4:48
Slam - "The Bell" - 4:37
Eclipse - "Light Cycle" - 3:54
Marc Smith & Sharkey - "Death by Stereo" - 5:34
Marc Smith - "Gotta Hold on" - 5:33
Marc Smith - "On Two Turntables" - 4:22
Sharkey - "It's a Hard Life" - 5:02
Sharkey - "Product of Society" - 3:50
Disc 3: Dougal's Mix
Innovate - "Innovate Anthem" - 4:35
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - "Don't You Realise" (feat Jenna) - 3:36
Datcha & DNA - "Dub Star" - 3:28
Brisk & Trixxy - "Eye Opener" - 4:09
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - "Life Is Like a Dance (Remix)" - 4:41
S-Scape - "Express Yourself" - 3:56
Bang! - "Shooting Star" - 4:07
Seduction - "Leaving the World Behind" - 4:30
Unique - "Feelin' Fine" - 5:14
Dougal & Skeedale - "Words of Wisdom" - 5:13
Bang! - "Sailaway" - 3:39
Breeze - "Let's Fly" - 4:24
Sub-Ace & Aura - "My Dreams" - 5:24
Dougal & Skeedale - "Zurich (Storm Remix)" - 4:29
Dyanoiss - "The Underground" - 3:44 - (G. Henderson & L. Horsfield)
The Projek - "Sweet Thing" - 2:51
Innovate - "The Universe" - 5:22
Bonkers 5: Anarchy in the Universe
Disc 1: Hixxy's Mix
Hixxy & UFO - Eternity Has Passed - 4:43
Elevate - Virtual Dreams (Euro Mix) - 4:08
O.M.G. - Definition of Hardcore - 5:30
Quest - Reach for Love - 6:21
Hixxy & UFO - Back in Business - 4:00
Hixxy & Sunset Regime - New Day Dawning - 5:05
Vinylgroover & Ed C - Bright Eyes (Select Remix) - 4:21
Hixxy & Sunset Regime - Legends - 5:37
Elevate - Together Again - 4:10
Sy & Unknown - Listen to the Ace (Hixxy Remix) - 4:21
Hixxy & Sunset Regime - Desire - 4:10
Sy & Unknown feat. Storm - Scratchin' (Remix) - 4:54
Triple J - Follow the Sun (Hixxy & Sunset Regime Remix) - 6:00
Scott Brown - Hardcore Vibes - 4:10
Scott Brown - Rockin' Strong - 4:43
Scott Brown - Liberation - 4:14
Disc 2: Sharkey's Mix
Eclipse vs Force Mass Motion - Point Zero - 5:28
DJ Fury - Lemonade Raygun (Remix) - 3:40
DJ Energy - Warped Reality - 4:02
Sharkey & Eclipse - Mind Launch - 3:12
Surgery - Cybersurfin' - 5:17
Marc Smith - Rok the House - 3:52
Helix - Cluster - 3:50
Sharkey - The Awakening - 6:41
Sharkey - Distant Dreams - 4:31
Tekno Dred & Ad Man - A Voice Spoke to Me (Helix Remix) - 4:09
Marc Smith & Sharkey - It's All Just Hardcore - 4:52
DJ Energy & Loopy - Overdose (Sharkey '98 Remix) - 3:29
Terminal Force - Don't Move - 4:52
Helix - Now Control - 5:36
Dark Myth - Fucking Trippy - 3:08
Sharkey & Eclipse - The Warning - 3:35
Disc 3: Dougal's Mix
Triple J - Wonderful World - 4:48
Innovate - Just Believe - 4:34
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - Back to the Future - 5:16
Force & Styles - Fireworks (Storm Remix) - 4:21
Innovate - Invincible - 6:03
Dougal - Sky High (Storm Remix) - 4:09
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - Emerald (Remix) - 4:54
TKM - Time Out - 4:48
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - Peace of Mind - 5:05
Quest - Images of You - 3:56
Faber - A Better Day - 3:56
Breeze & DNA - High in the Sun - 4:55
Dougal & Eruption - Party Time (Exclusive Remix) - 4:52
Bang! - Break of Dawn - 3:37
Bang! - Shooting Star (Unique Remix) - 3:45
Unique - Higher Ground - 6:12
Bonkers 6: Wheel Crazy
Disc 1: Dougal's Mix
Innovate - Captured - 5:11
Tkm - Sitar - 5:16
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - Revival - 4:08
Force & The Evolution - Perfect Dreams (DB7 Back for 99 Mix) - 4:21
Innovate - Higher Ground - 5:16
DJ Seduction - Holding on (Vinylgroover Remix) - 3:45
Eumovater - Funkravebrother - 3:23
Dougal & Tkm - The Chant - 5:56
Breeze - I Feel U - 3:35
Ramos - Sunshine (Dougal & Skeedale Mix) - 3:01
Brisk & Trixxy - Eye Opener (Remix) - 4:09
Mickey Skeedale & Doctor Who - Emotion - 4:42
Stealth - See Me Climb (Brisk'S Electro Flava Mix) - 4:39
Eumovater - Musical Life - 4:19
Bang! - Hyperspace (Brisk Mix) - 2:42
The Projek - Rhythm On Time - 5:51
Euphony - Space Invader (Scott Brown Remix) - 4:08
Quest - Yin Yang - 4:25
Disc 2: Sy's Mix
Sy & Unknown - Here Comes the Music - 5:16
Stealth - Flower Needs the Rain (Brisk Mix) - 5:41
Elevate - Virtual Dreams (99 Remix) - 4:55
Vinyltrixta - Come Again - 4:00
Slippery Project - Something Like Dis (Slipmatt Mix) - 4:22
Sy & Unknown feat Elayne - Distant Love (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 4:00
Sy & Demo - Movin on - 5:13
Bang! - Give Me a Reason (Ham Mix) - 4:27
Sy & Unknown - What Is a DJ? (Remix) - 5:03
Class of 94 - Lift You One Stage Higher - 4:43
Ham, Demo & Justin Time - Here I Am (Remix) - 3:59
Sy & Demo - Sensation (Remix) - 5:04
Dj Seduction - Leaving the World Behind (Ham Mix) - 4:22
Sy & Unknown - Head in the Clouds - 5:03
Codeine - Natural High (Sy & Unknown Mix) - 3:37
Brisk & Trixxy - Euro Love - 4:45
Disc 3: Vibes' Mix
James Venus & Atomics - Heaven (Exclusive Bonkers Mix) - 5:15
Elevate - All I Need Is Love (Exclusive Bonkers Mix) - 4:54
S-Real - Sanctuary - 5:58
DJ Kaos - Delirious (Exclusive Bonkers Mix) - 5:46
CB Project - Screamin Dreams - 4:23
Dougal & Skeedale - Look at the Stars - 4:55
Techno-Phobic - The Rave Theme - 5:08
DJ Breeze - Complete Heaven - 4:05
James Venus - Night Driving - 5:39
DJ Slam - I'm Back (Exclusive Bonkers Remix) - 3:43
SMD - SMD 5 (Exclusive Bonkers Remix) - 3:33
DJ Stompy - This Is the Night - 4:40
Frisky feat Daniella - Clearly Now (Brisk Mix) - 3:56
DJ Vibes - Techno Wonderland (Stompy's Bonkers Mix) - 6:04
E-Logic - The Gate (Remix) - 5:19
Raver's Choice - Raver's Choice 8½ - 5:13
Bonkers 7: Millennium Fever
Disc 1: Hixxy's Mix
Hixxy & U.F.O - Seen The Future - 6:42
Hixxy & U.F.O - 1999 (Cover Version Mix) - 6:16
Sonic Boom Boys - World Apart - 4:45
Sonic Boom Boys - Tsunami - 5:44
Ferris & Arantz feat. Elaine - X=Y - 6:01
Jamie Baker & Karl Allen feat. Elaine - Under-Current - 4:53
Josh Ferris & Ben Arantz - The Rhythm - 4:43
In-Iki & El Niño - Timescape - 4:58
Hixxy - Warehouse - 6:27
In-Iki & El Niño - Lost In Love - 4:52
Scanners - Return of Mr.X - 4:05
In-Iki & El Niño - Remembrance - 3:45
Download - White Dust - 2:56
Hixxy - Adrenalin Rising - 3:58
Hixxy & U.F.O feat. Elaine - Baby Tainted - 5:18
Ina-State feat. Elaine - Forever Comes - 4:27
Disc 2: Dougal's Mix
Innovate - Dance With Destiny - 5:43
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - Rockin' It - 4:11
Interstate - Lost Generation (Scott Brown Remix) - 3:47
Dougal & TKM - Totality - 5:29
North West - Full On - 4:56
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - Translucent - 3:36
S Real - Blast It - 4:33
Dougal & TKM - Night Breeze - 5:18
Scott Brown - Healing Mind - 5:41
Force & Styles - Sunshine - 4:33
Breeze - Complete Heaven (Unique Remix) - 5:18
Steve Ed - Another Level - 6:04
Frisky - Another Day (Unique Remix) - 4:56
Bang! - Shooting Star (Unique Remix) - 3:24
DJ's Unite - Vol.1 (Hixxy Mix) - 4:21
Mickey Muddyman - Ocean Blue - 4:59
Disc 3: Sy's Mix
Sy & Unknown - Welcome to the New Skool - 4:27
The Collective - Kick It (Exclusive Bonkers Mix) - 4:15
Sy & Unknown feat. MC Storm - Everybody Say Yeah - 4:04
The Vampire - Warped Optimism - 4:26
Rhythm Warriors - Dance Sucker - 5:42
Interstate - Basic Nature - 4:42
Sy & Unknown feat MC Storm - Gotta Rock Ya! - 4:55
Sy & Demo - Stay with Me - 5:17
Jimmy J & Cru-L-T - Six Days (Sy & Unknown Mix) - 4:43
Tranzit feat. Chrissy - Beautiful Stranger - 4:53
Too Ruff - We Can Do This - 5:21
E-Logik feat MC Whizzkid - Run to Me (Brisk Remix) - 4:19
Jon Doe - BMH Volume III - 4:53
Rhythm Warriors - Addiction - 4:29
Sy & Unknown - Bring It Back - 3:13
Rapido - Ultraviolet - 4:08
Bonkers 8: The Rezurrection
Disc 1: Hixxy's Mix
Antisocial - Get into Love (Hixxy Remix) - 6:37
Breeze & Styles - You're Shining - 5:06
Hixxy - Nothing - 5:31
Scott Brown - Elysium Plus - 4:45
Dowster & Uprise - Steps Ahead - 4:58
MC Storm - Just Accept It - 4:17
Hixxy - Feel It in the Air - 4:34
UFO - Deep Inside (Hixxy Remix) - 4:47
Antisocial - My Way (Hixxy Remix) - 5:15
Scott Brown - Gang Bang Society - 5:01
Hixxy & Styles - Rush-ins - 5:07
Styles & Breeze - Black Magic Bad Magic - 3:51
Scott Brown - Rock Rock On - 3:06
UFO - Music Makers - 6:04
Disc 2: Sharkey's Mix
K Complex - Indestructible - 3:46
Cynista vs Safe n Sound - Chemical Warfare - 4:21
Kevin Energy - Vertigo - 3:59
Dave Blackman and AMS vs Safe n Sound - Inverted Reality - 4:28
DJs Vinal and Devotion feat DJ Impact - Say It Again - 4:54
Cris E. Manic - Acid Aftermath - 3:49
Brisk & Fade - Skillz N Styles - 4:46
Kaos and Ethos - Get Rockin - 4:06
DJ Kaos - Baddest Ass (Exclusive Remix) - 5:03
Brisk & Ham - Serious Hardcore - 4:41
Marc Smith and Mennis - Thik And Fast - 5:13
2 Damn Tuff - Blow The Roof - 5:40
Marc Smith vs Safe n Sound - Identify The Beat - 4:42
Sharkey, A.M.S. & Robbie Long - Where's The Party At? - 4:39
Robbie Long & Devastate - P.S.A. - 4:46
Disc 3: Sy's Mix
Marc Smith - Boom 'n' Pow - 5:09
Seb - Rainbow Islands (Sharkey Mix) - 5:19
Hopscotch & Dougal - Steamtrain - 4:25
Hixxy & Sharkey - Toytown - 2:30
Vampire - Teknostorm (Sharkey Remix) - 5:00
Druid & Sharkey - Bonkers Anthem - 3:56
Hixxy & Sunset - People's Party - 5:00
Force & Styles - All Systems Go - 4:49
Sharkey - Revolution - 5:21
Bang The Future - Body Slam - 5:42
Druid & DJ Energy - Future Dimensions - 3:12
Hixxy & Bananaman - Together Forever - 3:56
Force & Styles - Wonderland - 4:27
DJ Fade & Melody - Is This Love? - 3:43
Antisocial - Forever Young - 5:16
Bonkers 9: Hardcore Mutation
Disc 1: Hixxy
N-Trance - Set You Free (Hixxy Remix) - 3:55
Ufo + MC Marley - Connection - 5:01
Styles + Breeze - Sonic - 4:53
Dougal & Gammer - Go Widda Flow - 5:27
Kelly Llorenna - Heart Of Gold (Hixxy Remix) - 5:36
Dowster + Uprise - Here We Go - 4:06
Flip N Fill - Field Of Dreams (Hixxy Remix) - 4:31
Antisocial - Im Ready - 3:44
UFO - Breaka - 6:10
Dougal & Gammer - Fire In The Sky - 5:35
Breeze + Styles - Oxygen - 5:35
Insight feat Lynn Eden - If That's Alright With You - 2:58
Brisk, Fade & Kelly - New Sensation - 4:53
Charlie Lownoise & Mental Theo - Wonderful Days (Hixxy Remix) - 4:00
Disc 2: Sharkey
DJ Kevin Energy + Blackout - Crazy Styles (DJ's Vinal & Devotion Remix) - 7:12
Robbie Long & Devastate - 50,000 Watts Of Hardcore Power - 6:14
DJ Kevin Energy - Crescendos Of Ecstasy - 4:51
DJ Kevin Energy & Just Rich - Wanna be a DJ - 5:13
Simon Apex & Orion - Hardcore Frequency (Ethos Remix) - 4:14
Kaos & Ethos - Technorocker - 5:18
Brisk & Fade - Retro Rush - 5:12
Ethos & Dan Devotion - Party Zone - 4:39
Ethos & Brisk - Unlock Your Brain - 5:52
Sharkey, Kevin Energy, K-Complex & Just Rich - Visions Of Infinity (Sharkey & Kevin Energy Remix) - 4:16
Marc Smith - The Deviant - 3:32
Sharkey & K-Complex - Delusion - 4:55
Sharkey & A.M.S. - Mind Control - 4:59
Shanty, Tazz & Concept - Beast Of Hardcore - 4:43
Devastate & MC Marley - Terrabeat - 4:54
Disc 3: Scott Brown
Plus System - Neck Breaker - 5:08
Double Dutch - Heaven - 4:04
Scott Brown - Definition Of A Badboy - 5:29
Sy & Unknown - Bring Me Round to Love' (VIP Mix) - 2:55
Scott Brown - Rock You Softly - 4:01
Dougal & Gammer - Get Hype - 4:01
Scott Brown - Turn Up The Music (Breeze & Styles Mix) - 5:16
Q-Tex - Like An Angel - 4:44
Styles & Breeze - You're Shining - 5:28
Plus System - Take A Final Breath - 4:22
DJ Ruboy Vs Markos 13 - Distort Overload - 3:22
Q-Tex - Feel The Beats Bang - 4:12
The Playah - Hit 'Em - 3:39
Scott Brown - Ghosts - 4:31
Scott Brown & DJ Brisk - Do Not Attempt (Sukkaz) - 5:09
Bonkers X
Disc 1: Hixxy
Hixxy - Thou Shalt Not Forget - 1:14
Planet Perfecto - Bullet In The Gun (Hixxy Remix) - 5:47
UFO - Punk - 4:39
Breeze & Styles - The Beat Kicks - 5:23
UFO & Marley - Underground - 6:19
Ultrabeat - Pretty Green Eyes (Hixxy, Styles & Breeze Remix) - 4:47
Hixxy - Summer Sensation - 5:12
Dougal and Gammer - Jam The Nightclub (Remix) - 4:56
Breeze & Styles - Future Shining - 5:29
DJ Weaver - Come Into My Dream - 6:16
DJ Stompy - Nu-beginning - 4:04
Sy and Unknown - Tekno Harmony 2003 - 5:05
Stargazer - Ultimate High (Breeze & Styles Remix) - 4:36
Dowster - Starlight - 5:45
G Spencer meets Dougal & Gammer - Wonderful Life - 2:36
UFO - Hardcore - 2:46
Disc 2: Sharkey
Ham - Kinda Funky - 4:47
Ham & MC Sharkey - Don't Stop - 3:40
Ham & Robbie Long - Get Hard - 2:56
CLSM - Sound of the Future - 4:40
CLSM - Liberation - 4:02
K Complex - Outta Control - 3:25
Dair & Devastate - Music Power - 5:06
DJ justrich and DJ phosphor - Ain't No Stoppin' This - 4:04
Social Outkast v Shanty, Tazz & Concept - Twist of Faith - 4:27
DJ Kevin Energy - Fuckin' With Da Frequency - 3:44
DJ Fade - The Future - 4:58
Scott Majestik - Acid Dreams - 2:31
DJ Fade - The Other Side - 4:11
Bass-X vs Scott Brown - Pilgrim (Kevin Energy & K Komplex Nu Energy Collective Remix) - 4:29
Marc Smith - Revival - 4:23
Stormtrooper and Social Outcast - Body Groove - 4:51
Sharkey and AMS Featuring Carol Sharland - Freedom - 5:21
Marc Smith - Give Yourself To Me - 4:23
Disc 3: Scott Brown
Scott Brown - Dehumanize (Synthetic Edit) - 5:00
Plus System - Commence - 3:53
Deejay Bee & Overflow Feat. Vision - Sunrise (Dougal & Gammer Remix) - 4:49
Scott Brown Feat. Donji - I'm In Heaven - 4:04
Scott Brown - The Saga Continues - 3:43
Scott Brown - This is Hardcore - 3:53
Dougal & Gammer - The 6th Gate - 5:04
Interstate - Hardcore Hustler - 5:28
Scott Brown - Synthetic Dreams - 4:57
Brisk & Brown - Back & Forth - 4:57
Art Of Fighters - Earthquake - 3:47
Hyperbass v Scott Brown - Life Or Death - 3:37
Tommy Knocker - The World Is Mine - 3:14
The Playah - Tha Bounce - 2:49
Scott Brown - How Else Can I Say It - 4:18
Bonkers XI: Forevolution
Disc 1: Hixxy
Adam Harris - Heavens Above (Hixxy Remix) - 5:35
Eclipse feat. Melvinia - 24-7 (Breeze & Styles Remix) - 4:48
Re-Con & Fluxx - Free Again - 4:59
G Spencer & Gammer - Steam - 5:18
Darren Styles - Takin' Me Higher - 4:10
DJ Weaver - Falling In (Hixxy Remix) - 5:15
Breeze & Styles - The Craft - 5:21
Dougal & Gammer feat. Stefan B - Fall From The Stars - 4:37
Hixxy & Styles - Takin' Over Me - 3:52
UFO Feat. Elaine - Far Away - 5:59
In Effect & Impact - Close Your Eyes - 5:53
Ultrabeat - Feeling Fine (Darren Styles Remix) - 4:38
Breeze & Styles - Drop The Beats - 4:20
DJ Kambel - No More Jokin (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 4:37
Re-Con - Rock Da Crowd - 3:58
2 Players - Close Your Eyes (Hixxy & Spacey Remix) - 6:21
Disc 2: Sharkey
K Complex - Cyberspace! (Exclusive Bonkers Mix) Exclusive To Bonkers - 3:48
Gammer - The Power Within - 5:03
Kevin Energy & Chris C - Forward to the Past (Kevin Energy's Freeform Edit) - 2:42
Deviance & Desire - Voice of the Abyss - 4:00
CLSM - John Peel (not enough) (Fergus Mayhem Remix) Exclusive To Bonkers - 4:46
DJ Marc Smith - Gravity - Exclusive To Bonkers - 3:40
Sharkey Vs CLSM - Wicked MC - 5:07
Brisk & Ham - Sounds Legit - 4:53
CLSM - Hardstyle Beatz Exclusive To Bonkers - 3:08
Brisk & Ham - Get Down - 5:47
The Blizzard Boys - Rock The Jam - 4:08
Lee UHF - Let's Fight (Devastate's Vocal Overkill Remix) - 3:45
Impact & Exert - Phat as Fuck! - 4:30
Sharkey & Marc Smith - Utopia - Exclusive To Bonkers - 4:09
Scott Majestik - Sirens Exclusive To Bonkers - 2:52
Devastate - Crowd Noise Exclusive To Bonkers - 4:33
Sharkey - Funk D' Hardcore (K Komplex Special Bonkers Edit) Exclusive To Bonkers - 5:37
Robbie Long & AMS - Feelin' Good - 3:48
Disc 3: Scott Brown
Plus System - Prince of Darkness - 3:30
Brisk & Ham - Taste the Rainbow - 3:29
Scott Brown - Let The Beat Drop - 2:01
Scott Brown - Definition Of A Badboy (Hardcorevolution Remix) - 3:29
Dougal & Gammer - Stomp - 4:40
Scott Brown Meets Hyperbass - We're Droppin' This - 2:56
Euphony & DJ Storm - Blinded - 3:42
Sy & Unknown - Keep The Crowd Jumping - 2:12
Plus System - Darkness - 2:59
Brisk & Ham - Angel Eyes - 3:51
Plus System - Blue Anthem - 3:06
Scott Brown - Come On (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 2:11
Scott Brown - Fly With You - 3:28
Gammer - Kickin' Hard - 1:49
Evil Activities - Dedicated (To Those Who Tried To Hold Me Down) - 3:15
Dione - Pain Till I Die - 2:46
Evil Activities - To You Who Doubt Me (Feat. DJ Neophyte) - 2:44
Dr. Z-Vago - My Destiny - 2:22
Scott Brown feat. DJ Neophyte - Self Destruction - 4:21
Bonkers 12: The Dirty Dozen
Disc 1: Mixed by Hixxy
DJ UFO feat Shelly - Waiting - 5:34
Hixxy - Take a Look (Dub Mix) - 3:40
Hixxy & MC Storm - Just Accept It (Hixxy Remix) - 4:16
Dougal & Gammer - The Piano Tune - 4:54
Billy 'Daniel' Bunter & John Doe - Round & Round (Breeze & Styles Remix) - 4:02
Impact & In Effect - Close Your Eyes - 4:32
69 - You're My Angel - 4:53
DJ Uplift - Midnight Resistance - 3:15
CLSM - Reaching Out (Billy 'Daniel' Bunter & CLSM Remix) - 4:47
DJ Weaver - Fallen Angel - 5:57
DJ UFO feat Shelly - Always - 5:35
Asa & S1 - Whole - 3:13
Yum-Yi feat Becky Judge - Tantric - 5:26
Hixxy - C.O.N. - 3:04
Disc 2: Mixed by Sharkey
Kevin Energy and The *TING* - Power In The Light - 4:42
Lost Soul - Dark Side Of The Moon - 4:51
Mark Ashley and K Complex - Atomix Orbital - 4:41
Andy Vinal and Matt Style - Loosing Control (Remix) - 4:24
Invader - Enraptured Soulz - 4:41
Gammer - Can't Complete - 4:08
Wizbit & Ponder - New Zealand Story - 4:41
CLSM feat Bello B - Transmission To Mars - 4:00
Dougal & Gammer - Know The Score - 3:47
Robbie Long and Stormtrooper - Hitmen - 4:52
Marc Smith and Kevin Energy - That's The Hardcore - 3:45
V.A.G.A.B.O.N.D feat MC Wotsee - Hugger Mugger - 3:47
Impact - Funky Technician - 5:01
Marc Smith - What The Fuck - 3:41
A.M.S and Robbie Long - Kill Bill - 3:58
A.M.S and TAZZ - Getting Dirty - 4:26
Sharkey vs CLSM - Wicked MC (A.M.S Remix) - 4:55
Outsidaz - Punk - 3:43
Disc 3: Mixed by Scott Brown
Plus System - This Is How We Do it - 5:22
Brisk & Ham - To the Floor - 3:10 (This is most likely the correct name, although it is uncertain if it is Dreadhead with "Chaos & Might")
Scott Brown feat Cat Knight - All About You - 5:30
Expression & GBH - Night Time (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 3:16
Brisk & Ham - Crazy Love - 4:47
Scott Brown feat DMO - Really Need You - 4:22
DJ Kurt - Rock Ya Hardcore - 4:27
Interstate - This Is My Bass - 4:22
Euphony & DJ Storm - First Kontact - 4:36
Breeze & Styles - Heartbeatz (Scott Brown Remix) - 5:06
Plus System - Is This The Future - 3:16
Scott Brown vs Marc Smith - Hardcore U Know The Score - 4:13
Endymion - Payback - 4:32
Scott Brown - This One's For All Of Us - 3:37
David Pamies - Cesar Benito - Torn (Scott Brown Karaoke Remix) - 2:54
Interstate - We Can Dance - 3:37
Scott Brown - Boomstick - 3:37
Neophyte & Evil Activities - Alles Kapot - 4:10
Disc 4: Mixed by Breeze & Styles
Aluna - All Of My Life (Breeze & Styles remix) - 5:29
Breeze & Styles - Feel The Power - 4:27
Recon - The Sun - 5:24
Dougal & Gammer - 3000 Cycles - 4:05
Evil Angel - Today (Breeze & Styles Remix) - 4:55
Darren Styles - Skydivin - 4:09
Clear Vu - I Adore (Breeze & Styles Remix) - 3:24
Uplift & Cloudskipper - Revolution - 3:25
Euphonic feat Lisa Abbott - The One (Breeze & Styles Remix) - 4:24
Scott Brown feat Cat Knight - Flow - 4:31
Breeze & Styles - Electric (Bonkers Remix) - 4:37
Eclipse - Before Tomorrow (Breeze & Styles Remix) - 4:44
Breeze & UFO - Take Your Time - 4:58
David Pamies - Cesar Benito - Torn (Breeze & Styles Remix) - 4:49
Futureworld - Chemical Love (Hardcore Mix) - 4:32
Sonic State & MC Storm - I'm A Raver - 5:15
Bonkers 13: Hardcore Horror Show
Disc 1: Hixxy's Old Skool Killa Kuts
Q-Tex - Equazion Remix EP - 2:28
Scott Brown - Detonated - 2:16
Jimmy J & Cru-l-t - Take Me Away (Slipmatt's Bangin' Remix) - 2:05
DJ Seduction - Sample Mania - 2:28
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - Take Me On Up - 0:45
Kevin Energy - Hardcore Fever - 1:40
Kevin Energy - Wham Bam - 2:14
Helix - Get It Right - 3:21
Sy & Unknown - Critical Heights (Hixxy Remix) - 3:21
The Time Span - Shout Now (Hixxy Remix) - 4:39
Scott Brown - Do What You Like (The Rez Anthem) - 1:29
I2U - Euro Core - 2:03
Force & Styles - All Systems Go - 2:14
I2U - Euro Stomp - 2:24
Brisk - On And On - 3:43
Visa - All I Need (Original Mix) - 3:22
Demo - I've Got A Feeling - 4:08
Vinylgroover & The Red Hed - Virtual Dreams - 3:54
Hixxy - Bang The Future / Body Slam - 2:25
Brisk & Trixxy - Eye Opener - 2:02
Scott Brown - Andromeda - 2:25
Hixxy & UFO - Welcome - 2:47
Scott Brown - Turn Up The Music - 4:30
Disc 2: Sharkey
Sharkey Ft. K-Complex - Overdrive (Exclusive Bonkers Mix) - 3:22
D - D1A (CLSM Remix) - 2:57
AMS - Black Notice - 2:43
K-Complex - Adagio - 5:12
A.M.S - Blazing Guns - 4:11
Kevin Energy & DJ Proteus - London-Helsinki (K-Complex Remix) - 3:17
Two's Company - Dreams (A.M.S Remix) - 5:50
A.M.S - Hardcore Revolution - 3:29
Robbie Long & Stormtrooper - Future Dimension - 3:41
Ham - Jump 2 Da Groove - 4:52
Cris.E.Manic - Just One More - 3:37
Visionary - Taste The Funk - 4:07
In Effect - Back With A Vengeance - 2:37
V.A.G.A.B.O.N.D - Chemicals In Motion - 4:46
Robbie Long & A.M.S - Kill Bill - 3:55
AC Slater - Overdose - 3:50
A.M.S - Dazed & Confused - 3:33
V.A.G.A.B.O.N.D - Bonecrusher - 4:21
Oli G - Gir - 4:31
Disc 3: Scott Brown
Scott Brown - Rock Da Beat - 5:49
Scott Brown & Hyperbass - We're Droppin' This (Plus System Remix) - 3:55
Sy & Unknown - Rock It Like This - 2:44
Plus System - Let's All Get Down - 4:22
Scott Brown - Pro'To*Plasm - 3:08
Scott Brown - Neckbreaker (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 4:33
Scott Brown - Taking Drugs? - 4:11
Plus System - Rock That Body - 3:38
Insight - Only Your Love (Scott Brown Remix) - 4:00
Q-Tex - The Reason - 5:06
Brisk & Ham - In Your Life - 3:36
Endymion - Rock The Part-E - 3:47
Scott Brown - Don't Fuck With This - 3:52
The Viper & Tommyknocker - The Prophecy Unfolds (The Playah Remix) - 3:04
DJ Nosferatu - Have It Your Way - 4:33
Brisk & V.A.G.A.B.O.N.D - Punchdrunk - 4:06
Scott Brown - A Few Moments - 3:14
Disc 4: Dougal
Dougal & Mickey Skeedale - Really Love You (Dougal & Gammer Remix) - 4:53
Dougal & Gammer feat. Jenna - Heaven On Earth - 5:27
Gammer - Back 2 Front - 3:11
Re-Con - Right Here - 4:19
United In Dance Ft. Lisa Marie - Still The One - 5:38
Hixxy & Styles - The Theme - 6:01
Jess - Find Your Way - 2:38
Dougal & Gammer - Get Hype (Scott Brown Remix) - 3:06
Mickey Skeedale Ft. Jenna - Through The Darkness (Dougal & Gammer Remix) - 4:19
Asa & S1 Ft. Lou Lou - Makin' Me Wanna Dance (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 3:23
Euphoria - Silver Dawn - 5:30
Dougal & Gammer - Xtreme - 5:50
Styles feat. Lisa Abbott - Getting Better - 5:04
Ham - Be Happy - 3:47
Uplift - Night Flight - 4:07
Mickey Skeedale - Close Your Eyes - 3:23
G Spencer & Gammer - Substance - 4:31
CLSM feat. Stefan B - Drifting Away - 4:24
Bonkers 14: Hardcore Strikes Back
Disc 1: Hixxy
Ramos, Supreme & Sunset Regime feat Lenny - All I Ever Wanted - 5:43
UFO Featuring Shelly - Something to Believe - 4:39
Re-Con & Chris Henry - Baby I Know You're Mine - 4:26
Scott Brown - Memories (Plus System Remix) - 4:39
UFO - Heaven In My Heart - 5:54
Geos- Power & The Glory - 6:27
Brisk & Ham - Crazy Love (Styles & Breeze RMX) - 4:43
N-Trance - Set You Free (Hixxy's Bonkers Remix) - 4:03
Frisk & Hujib - Believe (Styles & Breeze Mix) - 5:23
Ultrabeat - Pretty Green Eyes (Hixxy Remix) - 4:38
Darren Styles - Getting Better - 4:47
Scott Brown - Fly With You - 5:29
DJ Kurt - Rock Ya Hardcore (Hixxy Remix) - 4:36
Styles, Breeze & MC Storm - Dark Like Vader - 4:21
Hixxy - Open Up & Look Inside - 4:53
Gammer - Let Me Hear Ya - 3:44
Disc 2: Sharkey
Ephexis - Tracktion - 1:53
Kevin Energy - The White Stuff (Kevin Energy Remix) - 5:32
Ephexis - Perpetuate - 3:22
Jon Doe - Frenzy (Billy Daniel Bunter & CLSM Remix) - 4:10
Sharkey & Jon Doe - Damage - 4:53
Bang the Future - Bodyslam (Billy 'Daniel Bunter' Bunter & CLSM Remix) - 3:47
Stormtrooper - Addictz - 4:27
AMS - Hardstyle Beatz - 4:19
Double Decka - Rock N Roll (Kevin Energy Remix) - 5:23
Social Outcast - Freedom (Kevin Energy Remix) - 4:23
Arkitech - De-Humanise - 4:28
K Complex & AMS - Echelon - 2:55
Arkitech - Under The Influence - 4:06
AMS - Show Me The Way - 3:11
Gammer - Got Ya - 2:55
Gammer feat MC Sharkey - Let's Get Rockin' - 4:53
AMS - Bounce to Da Beat - 2:56
AMS & Robbie Long feat MC Ethos - Wakey Wakey - 4:27
Brisk & Ham - Serious Hardcore (Vagabond Remix) - 4:38
Disc 3: Scott Brown
Plus System - Bassline Of The Century - 5:08
Scott Brown - Neckbreaker (Plus System Remix) - 2:33
Eclipse - Be Happy (Brisk & Vagabond Remix) - 3:46
Plus System - Make You Freak - 3:06
Gammer - Into The Future - 4:56
Scott Brown - Rock You Softly 2005 - 4:20
Scott Brown - Serial Killer - 2:55
Plus System - Rhythm Machine - 2:33
Scott Brown & DMO - Call My Name - 4:44
Styles & Breeze - You're My Angel (Scott Brown Remix) - 4:44
Scott Brown & DMO - Just Walk Away - 2:54
Tekno Dred Alliance - Break Free (Scott Brown Remix) - 3:51
The Viper - Blow Da Club Down - 4:01
Tommyknocker - Shogun - 1:16
Evil Activities - Do You Like Bass (Tha Playah Remix) - 2:25
Scott Brown - Enemy - 2:21
Evil Activities - To You Who Doubt Me (Tommyknocker Remix) - 3:49
Scott Brown - Fuck You Up - 2:32
Scott Brown - Fuck Your Style - 4:29
Disc 4: Dougal
Dougal & Gammer feat Lisa Marie - Drive Me Crazy - 5:21
Dougal & Gammer - Testing 1.2 - 4:22
Styles & Breeze - Oxygen (Styles & Breeze Exclusive Mix) - 2:35
Transit - Count the Hours - 5:05
Dougal & Eruption - Party Time (Essential Platinum Remix) - 3:54
Ultravibes - We Need More Core - 4:44
United in Dance Ft. JENNA - Shining Down - 4:09
Dougal & Gammer - Make Noise - 4:47
Dougal & Gammer - Mars Atx - 4:48
United in Dance feat Lisa Marie - Lift Me Above - 4:56
DJ Seduction - Raise Your Hands - 2:04
G Spencer & Gammer - Feel This Way - 2:36
Brisk & Ham - Getting High - 3:29
Hixxy & UFO - Welcome 2005 (Hixxy Remix) - 1:53
Billy Daniel Bunter & Jon Doe - Need Your Emotion (Hardcore Remix) - 2:35
Cobalt & Heffer - Express Ur Self - 3:53
Micky Skeedale - In The House - 2:25
DJ Vibes & Hattrixx - I Know - 2:27
Gammer - Ready For War - 3:55
Bonkers 15: Legends of the Core
Disc 1: Hixxy & Re-Con
Dreadhed - On Fire (Hixxy Remix) - 5:37
Paradise - See the Light (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 3:47
Heaven-7 - Dance Me - 4:20
Hixxy & Re-con - Love Comes - 4:20
Headtrippers - Life on Life (Squad-E Remix) - 5:25
Hixxy & Re-Con - We Can Do This - 4:43
Frantic & Resist - Spending My Time - 5:16
Scott Brown - Trance Sect / Lost Generation (Kevin Energy Megamix) - 4:31
Access 3 - Promised Land (Squad-E Remix) - 4:36
Re-Con - Enjoy - 4:44
Heaven-7 - Speak of Love - 4:20
Wizzkid & Gammer - Scream - 5:37
Re-Con - Pull Over - 3:56
D-Code - Out of My Hands (Squad-E Remix) - 5:12
Storm & Gammer - 21st Century Rush - 3:41
Geos - Gonna Take U High - 4:12
Styles & Breeze - Love Garden - 5:22
Disc 2: Sharkey & Marc Smith
Sharkey - Ascending Angels (Inst) - 6:06
Cube::Hard - Hold the Beat - 3:17
Carbon Based - Anger Ball (Kevin Energy Remix) - 5:21
Oli G vs Ephexis - Spatial Inversion - 5:30
Arkitech vs Double Decka - Life Is a Construct - 4:14
Sharkey vs Arkitech - Never Say Die - 4:58
Ephexis - Intensify - 3:58
Cube::Hard v CLSM - See You on the Other Side - 2:10
Ethos vs A.M.S. - Pump It Up - 2:45
Fergus Mayhem - Take Control - 3:14
Ham - Count of 3 - 2:03
Sean Apollo - Raise It Up (Kevin Energy Remix) - 5:25
Ham - Working Up a Sweat - 4:54
A.M.S vs Kevin Energy - Go Insane - 4:13
Kevin Energy vs K Complex - Suck My Rock - 4:26
Sharkey vs Stormtrooper - Lazerbeam Addict - 4:12
Sharkey - Pumpin' Religion - 4:46
Marc Smith vs Sharkey - Bring on the Noise - 4:56
Dreadhed - Take the Blame - 3:16
Disc 3: Scott Brown & Neophyte
Tommyknocker - Nocturnal Rituals (feat. MC Justice) - 4:50
Scott Brown - Capital Murder - 4:09
Bass-X - Motherfucker (Scott Brown Remix) - 3:21
Tommyknocker - Twist - 3:55
Scott Brown - I'll Get You - 4:28
Scott Brown - Fasten Your Seatbelt - 5:02
Tommyknocker - Domination - 4:28
Plus System - This Is How We Do It (Scott Brown Hardcore Mix) - 4:17
Scott Brown - We Don't Stop - 4:28
Masters Of Ceremony - A Way of Life (DJ Promo Remix) - 3:24
DJ D - Skullcrack (DJ Dione Remix) - 2:14
Evil Activities & DJ Panic - Never Fall Asleep (feat. MC Alee) - 4:54
Jappo & Lancinhouse - Exlxaxl (Neophyte & Evil Activities Remix) - 2:59
Ophidian & Tapage - The Mine - 3:41
Hardcore United - Time to Make a Stand (Neophyte & Evil Activities Mix) - 4:40
Evil Activities - Back On Track (feat. DJ Neophyte) - 3:43
Neophyte vs Evil Activities - One of These Days - 3:41
Neophyte vs Lenny Dee - The Future Priests of Now - 5:13
Disc 4: Dougal & Gammer
Dougal & Gammer - Tell Me a Story (feat. Lisa Marie) - 4:37
Dougal & Gammer - Rock the Dancefloor - 3:42
Gammer & G Spencer - Reflections - 3:03
Scott Brown - Detonated 2005 Remix - 2:44
Dougal & Gammer - Open Ur Eyes (feat. Lisa Marie) - 4:42
Ultravibes - Dopest DJ - 2:00
Adam Harris - My Star (Brisk & Vagabond Remix) - 2:06
Dougal & Gammer - The Underground - 3:35
Jenna - All the Tears I've Cried - 4:23
Ultravibes - Accorbation - 1:49
DJ Seduction - Rock That Body - 2:41
CLSM - Sensory Vision Part 2 (feat. Ant Johnson) - 3:07
Darren Styles - Dropzone (Bonkers Mix) - 4:15
Gammer - A New Feeling - 2:06
Eclipse - Things You Do (Gammer Remix) - 3:17
Gammer - Now It's My Turn - 3:31
Cube::Hard - Show Me a Sign (feat. Jennifer Bolton) - 2:22
Dougal & Gammer - Tripod - 2:54
CLSM - Heey - 2:24
Oli G - Gir (Arkitech Remix) - 3:58
Gammer - Let's All Say Fuck - 2:13
Bonkers 16: Maximum Hardcore Energy!
Disc 1: Hixxy & Re-Con
D-Code featuring Emma - My Direction (Squad-E Remix) - 6:04
Hixxy & Re-Con - I Can Wait - 5:14
CLSM - Free Your Mind (Darren Styles Remix) - 5:40
Re-Con - Report To The Bass Line - 4:31
DJ Robbo (Geos) - Raise Ya Hands (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 4:08
Technikore - WTF (Dub Mix) - 4:19
Statik - Got A Feeling (Darren Styles Remix) - 3:34
Clear Vu - Close To You (Re-Con Remix) - 4:31
Whizzkid, Flyin' & Sparky - Rave Phenomenon - 4:08
Footprintz - Angels (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 5:16
Vince Nysse & N J Hinton - Silver Water (Darren Styles Remix) - 3:59
Squad-E - Lost (Squad-E Vs D-Code) - 5:30
Hixxy & Euphony featuring Donna Marie - Night Life - 4:29
Hixxy & Re-Con - Devastated Motivated - 4:21
Breeze & Re-Con - Only If I Had More - 3:32
Disc 2: Sharkey & CLSM feat Kutski
Hellix - U R Everything (Cube::Hard Remix) - 4:17
Sharkey, Arkitech & Susi Ankah - Dual Illumination - 4:21
Darwin featuring Justin - SOS (Save Our Souls) - 3:38
Cortez & York - Give It All (Max Factor Remix) - 4:00
DJ Entity - Spice - 5:50
D - D3A (Cube::Hard Remix) - 2:11
Ponder & Wizbit - New Zealand Story (CLSM Remix) - 2:49
Cube::Hard - Music Of The Primes - 3:27
DJ Wink - Over Me - 4:00
Sharkey & A.M.S - Motion Maker - 4:45
Ethos & A.M.S - Nose Bleed (Ethos & Stormtrooper Remix) - 3:16
Marc Smith & Arkitech - Rock N Roll - 3:19
Ethos - Music (Kevin Energy Remix) - 3:55
Nu Foundation - In Kontrol - 1:16
Arkitech - Tranzport - 3:11
Cube::Hard - Dark and Light (Setting Sun) - 3:16
Rampant Gammer - Enigma - 3:33
Human Resource - Dominator (Brisk & Ham Remix) - 4:21
CLSM featuring MC Sharkey & Kadi - Hit The Beat - 1:59
CLSM - Drive Away (Faster Mix) - 4:52
Marc Smith & Gammer - One With The Beat - 3:33
Sharkey - Bang Like A Mother - 3:49
Disc 3: Scott Brown & Gammer
Cube::Hard - Micro N2 - 5:55
Scott Brown - Invite The Violence - 2:57
Adam Harris - Hyperspeed (Sy & Unknown Remix) - 3:04
Sy & Unknown featuring Lou Lou - Caught Up In Your Love (Scott Brown Remix) - 4:33
Eclipse - 24/7 (Squad-E Mix) - 3:55
Scott Brown - What You Gonna Do - 3:14
Whizzkid Vs United In Dance - Don't Want This Night To End - 3:14
Scott Brown - Lost Generation (Nu Foundation Mix) - 3:14
Dougal and Gammer - This Is A Virus - 3:36
Scott Brown - Wakey Wakey - 3:14
Scott Brown - This Is How We Do It (Gammer's Muffin Mix) - 5:03
Scott Brown - Go Bezerk - 1:37
Gammer - Body Flow - 2:53
Ewigkeit - It's Not Reality (Scott Brown Mix) - 2:30
Stormtrooper & Devastate - Battle Of The Mind - 3:14
A.M.S - Rock The Jam (Hardcore Mix) - 2:34
Scott Brown - How Many Sukka's - 2:53
DJ Kurt - Ruff Ride Provider - 2:47
Scott Brown - Sonic Boomstick - 2:31
DJ Nosferatu - Knock Out - 3:36
Art Of Fighters Vs Nico & Tetta - Shotgun (Aof Reloaded) - 2:41
The A.M.D.A - Fuck The Rails - 4:32
Best of Bonkers
Disc 1: Hixxy & Re-Con
Ikon - Give Yourself To Me (Fade and Bananaman Remix) - 4:50
J.D.S. - Higher Love (Slipmatt Remix) - 4:05
Hixxy and Sunset - People Party (remix) - 4:50
Force and Styles - Harmony - 4:16
Vampire - Techno Storm (Sharkey Remix) - 3:42
Force and Styles - Wonderland - 4:02
E-Logic and DNA - Kick Your Legs In The Air - 4:24
O.M.G. - The One - 4:13
Triple J - Have It All (Pan Mix) - 5:35
Antisocial - 24-7 - 4:00
DJ Paul Elstak - Don't Leave Me Alone (Hardcore Mix) - 3:51
Critical Mass - Burnin Love (DJ Weirdo and DJ Sim 173.683 Remix) - 4:28
Antisocial - Forever Young - 4:55
Wedlock - Ganjaman - 3:25
Lockjaw - Deep In The Underground - 3:03
Phoenix - Now Who's In Control - 3:25
Diss Reaction - Jiiieehaaaa - 3:04
Lockjaw - Reactor - 3:02
Nosferatu - The Future - 2:44
Wedlock - I'm The Fuck You Man - 3:34
Disc 2: Sharkey & Druid
Hixxy and Sharkey - Toytown (Exclusive Intro Mix) - 2:53
Seb - Rainbow Islands (Sharkey Remix) - 1:28
Druid and Sharkey - Bonkers Anthem - 3:14
Helix and Tekno Dred - U R Everything Feat Marlon and Becks - 3:05
Druid and Kevin Energy - Future Dimensions - 1:59
Brisk and Trixxy - Back To The Top - 2:32
Bang The Future - Body Slam - 1:48
Sharkey - Revolutions Pt.2 (Slipmatt Remix) - 1:48
DJ Slam - Influence (Exclusive Bonkers Remix) - 2:53
DJ Fury - Lemonade Raygun - 2:42
Kevin Energy - Vertigo - 2:40
DJ Fury - De Sensitize 98 - 2:21
Kevin Energy - Waves Of Desire - 3:44
Sharkey - The Awakening - 3:55
K Complex - Adagio - 3:29
DJ Kaos - Can You Feel It (Acid and Bass VIP Mix) - 4:18
Ethos and Kaos Ft Mc Sharkey - Get Fucked - 3:46
CLSM - John Peel (Its Not Enough) - 3:06
Kaos and Ethos - Technorocker - 4:31
CLSM and Sharkey - Wicked MC - 4:10
Marc Smith - Boom 'n' Pow (Exclusive Marc Smith Bonkers Remix) - 4:15
Alas Smith and Sharkey - Oh No! - 1:46
Helix - Now Control - 4:26
Sharkey - Product Of Society - 5:25
DJ Eclipse - Ultraworld 5 - 2:59
Disc 3: Scott Brown
Scott Brown and Hyperbass - We're Droppin This (Plus System Remix) - 3:44
Plus System - Make You Freak - 3:06
Plus System - Prince of Darkness - 2:00
Scott Brown - Turn Up The Music (Breeze and Styles Remix) - 2:35
Plus System - Commence - 2:00
Scott Brown - Wakey Wakey - 2:33
Plus System - Neckbreaker - 2:11
SY and Unknown - Bring Me Round To Love (Scott Brown Evolution Remix) - 2:33
Scott Brown - Rock You Softly - 3:39
Scott Brown feat Cat Knight - All About You - 2:00
Scott Brown - Taking Drugs? - 2:33
Plus System - This Is How We Do It - 3:16
Scott Brown - Elysium Plus - 2:33
Brisk and Ham - Angel Eyes - 3:49
Tommyknocker - Twist - 3:05
Art Of Fighters - Earthquake - 3:44
Scott Brown - Ghosts - 2:49
Hard Creation - Bastard / Asshole - 2:53
The Viper and Tommyknocker - The Prophecy Unfolds (Tha Playah Remix) - 3:59
Scott Brown - Boomstick - 3:54
Bonkers 17: Re-Booted
Disc 1: Brisk & Ham Mix
Brisk & Vagabond Vs Uraken - Tokyo Rush
Brisk & Vagabond Vs MC Wotsee - The Last Word
Ham & DMO - Every Single Day
Uplift, Sc@r & Vicky Fee - One
DJ Stormtrooper feat. MC Knight - Hardcore Raver
Druid & Stormtrooper feat. Kristy - Electrified
Brisk & Vagabond ft. Lisa Marie - Free
Ham & DMO - In Your Eyes
Fracus - Snowstorm
Ham & DMO - This Emotion
Sharkey - My Everything (Ham Remix)
Euphoria ft MC Wotsee & Tess - Final Goodbye
Drew Derivative - Rock Da Groove
Fracus ft. Ali - Your Guiding Light
Scott Brown - Roll The Track (Gammer Remix)
Eclipse - Hearts Desire (Brisk & Vagabond Remix)
Brisk & Vagabond - Lift Me Up
Joey Riot Vs Davey Forbes - Rock The Dancefloor
Ham ft. MC Casper - Detonate This Sound
DJ Kurt - World Domination
Brisk & Ham - Step 2 Da Flaw (Bonkers VIP Mix)
Brisk & Vagabond - Night & Days (Joey Riot 2007 Remix)
Brisk & Vagabond - Mental Mission
Nerve Centre - Get Busier
Darwin & Obie vs Mr E - Hits you like Thunder
Thian Brodie - Beat Master
The Wishmaster - Pump Up The Pressure
Bodylotion - Neighbourhood Crime (Tha Playah Remix)
Disc 2: Sharkey & Kevin Energy Mix
Sharkey - Today's The Day
K90 - Red Snapper (K Complex v's ADT Remix)
Darwin - Peak 1.1
Sharkey - My Everything
Kevin Energy - Tribal Resistance (Rave Mix)
Firefly - Dimensions
Alek Szahala - Alanarama (Arkitech Remix)
Lost Soul - Taking Over Me
Infinite Dimensions feat. Ephexis - Krater
Darwin & Entity - The End of time
Vibes Vs Splash - Techno Wonderland 2007
Mister Stewart & Barry Diston - 7 Colours
Sharkey ft. Lisa Abbott - Bonkers Anthem
Arkitech & Double Decka - I May Be Dreaming
MDA and Spherical Vs DJ GRH - Illusion (Splash Remix)
Darwin - Coral Beach
Nick Xero, Arkitech & Douglas - Hardcore Junkie
Robbie Long & Stormtrooper - Acid Man
Freeza - Virtual Darkness
S3RL - Weekend
Ham - Bass Kiks
Arkitech - De Humanise 2007
Robbie Long Feat Ethos - Wakey Wakey (AMS Remix)
Darwin & Obie - Futureshock
Sharkey and Arkitech - Quadraphinix
Disc 3: Scott Brown & Marc Smith Mix
Scott Brown - Enlightened (DJ Weaver Remix)
Fracus - I Can't Stand It
Sean Apollo & DMO - I Can Feel You Now
Fonzarelli - Moonlight Party (Kurt Remix)
Scott Brown & Kelly C - Hold You In My Arms
Robbie Long & Stormtrooper - Nasty Time
Scott Brown - Do It Like We Do (Al Storm Mix)
Al Storm, Mike Euphony & Donna Marie - Runaway (Exclusive Bonkers Mix)
Darwin vs Rampant feat Ant Johnson - No More
Darwin - Floor Damage
DJ Weaver & DMO - Paradise
Scott Brown & DMO - Fall Into Your Arms
Joey Riot - Party Alarm
Frisky Hujib - Get Away (Gammer Remix)
Weaver & Andy L Feat. Fran - Cannonball (Scott Brown Remix)
Scott Brown - Livewired
DJ Marc Smith & Gammer - You Can Dance
DJ Marc Smith - Let It Hit Em
Brisk & Vagabond - Environmental Product
Men of steel - The Future Is Ours (Panic & Tha Playah Remix)
Hard Creation - I will have that power (The Stunned Guys Remix)
Bonkers: The Original Hardcore
Disc 1 - Mixed by DJ Sharkey
Darwin Feat Fraz - We're Getting Faster
Arkitech - When Tears Fall - Kaotik
Ham - Jump 2 Da Groove 2009
Sharkey, Odyssey & Arkitech - Black Rain
Baby D - Let Me Be Your Fantasy (Darwin's 'Arena Space 5' Remix)
Sharkey & Clsm - Wikkid M.C (2009 Exclusive)
Slippery Disco - Feeling High (Kevin Energy Remix)
Brisk & Ham - Dance Don't Slip
Sharkey - Never Say Die (Kevin Energy Remix)
Sharkey - Today's The Day (Darwin Remix)
Marc Smith & Gammer - Building Shaker (V.I.P Rmx)
Al Storm - Jumpin
S3rl - Here We Go
Scooter - Jumping All Over The World (Sharkey & K-Complex Rmx)
Scooter - Posse (I Need You On The Floor) (Weaver Rmx)
Porn Kings V Dj Supreme - Up To Da Wildstyle (Gammer & Andy Whitby Remix)
S3rl - Dealer (V.I.P Remix)
Marc Smith & Darwin - Let The Bass Kick
Kevin Energy - Freeform Will Never Die
Disc 2 - Mixed by Chris Unknown
Lmc V U2 - Take Me To The Clouds Above
Styles & Breeze - Amigos
Rampant Djs Featuring Jt - Alabama (Sy & Unknown Remix)
Insight Featuring Emily Reed - Heaven Help Me Now
Topvibe Vs Dj Sy - Pacman
Chris Unknown & Re-Con - Welcome To The Trip
Sy & Unknown - If You Believe
Chris Unknown - Wanna Be Here With You
Chris Unknown Featuring Grant Paterson - Come Together
Dougal & Gammer - Guitar Hero
Flip & Fill - Discoland
Scott Brown - Pilgrim
Phaze4 - You're Never Gonna Know (Scott Brown Remix)
Sy & Unknown - Hardcore
E-Type - Rain
Emily Reed - Your Love Is Shining
Stykal Brix Vs Mc Storm - Cold As Ice
Sy & Unknown Featuring Grant Paterson - Bring You Down
Disc 3 - Mixed by Hixxy
Bo - Judgement Day
Hixxy - R U Ready
Darren Styles - Getting Better
United In Dance Feat Lisa Marie - Still The One
Clear Vu - I Adore
Hixxy - C.O.N
Clsm - Set Your Body Free
Hixxy & Styles - Elevator
Clear Vu - Close To You
Re-Con - Report To The Bassline
Clsm - See You On The Other
Hixxy & Squad-E - Beat Drop
Squad-E - Lost Without You
Gammer - Body Flow
Styles & Breeze - Electric
Styles & Breeze - You're My Angel
Hixxy & Styles - The Theme
See also
Clubland X-Treme Hardcore (compilation series)
References
External links
Resist Music's discography on Discogs
Resist's release discography (including all bonkers releases released on Resist)
React's release discography (including all bonkers releases released on React)
Compilation album series |
4515347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Gibson%20players | List of Gibson players | This is an alphabetized list of musicians who have made notable use of Gibson Guitar models in live performances or studio recordings. Because of the great popularity of these models, musicians are listed here only if their use of these instruments was especially significant—that is, if:
they are musicians with long careers who have a history of faithful Gibson use.
the particular instrument they used was unique or of historical importance.
their use of the Gibson model contributed significantly to the popularization of that particular instrument.
A
Johnny A uses a Johnny A Signature model designed to his specifications.
Jan Akkerman has used a Gibson L5, Les Paul Custom and a modified Les Paul Personal. The Custom is the guitar he is generally associated with.
Duane Allman (The Allman Brothers Band) used a 1957 Les Paul Goldtop with PAF pickups, a 1959 cherry sunburst Les Paul, a 1958 tobacco sunburst Les Paul and a 1968 cherry SG which he used for slide guitar.
Billie Joe Armstrong (Green Day) uses several vintage 1950s single and double cutaway Les Paul Junior models. Gibson has also produced two Billie Joe Armstrong Signature Les Paul Junior models (one double cutaway, and one single cutaway) as well as a very limited run of signature acoustic guitars.
Chet Atkins switched from Gretsch to Gibson in the mid-1980s and brought with him the popular Country Gentleman and Tennessean model designs. Atkins also helped to design several innovative acoustic/electric models including the SST, the CE, and the C.E.C. Since his death, Gibson has discontinued all Chet Atkins models and Gretsch has resumed the manufacturing and distribution of the Chet Atkins line.
B
Martin Barre (Jethro Tull) has used numerous Gibson models over the course of his career including a sunburst ES-330, a 1958 Les Paul Special and a 1959 Les Paul Standard.
Jeff Beck (The Yardbirds/solo) purchased his first Les Paul, a 1959 model, for £150 while a member of The Yardbirds. Beck's fascination with the guitar sprang as much from his interest in Les Paul, the man, as from his love of the guitar itself. Beck told an interviewer: "It had a deep powerful sound and you could use it to imitate just about anything - violin, sax, cello, even a sitar." Beck also used an "oxblood" coloured 1954 Les Paul Standard, with PAF pickups, from 1972 to 1976 and is pictured with the guitar on the cover artwork of his Blow by Blow album.
Franny Beecher played a black 1956 Les Paul Custom throughout his career with Bill Haley and the Comets in the 1950s and early 1960s.
Anthony Duster Bennett (British blues singer, harmonica player and musician) played a 1952 Les Paul Goldtop throughout his career. The guitar was given to him in 1968 by Peter Green. After Bennett's death the guitar was given to musician Anthony Top Topham.
Wayne Bennett (Bobby Bland) used a white Byrdland
George Benson played a Gibson L5 until he entered into an endorsement deal with Ibanez.
Chuck Berry used an ES-350T early in his career, later switching to ES-345s and ES-355s.
Dickey Betts (The Allman Brothers Band) uses a variety of Gibson models including a 1961 SG and a 1957 Les Paul.
Matt Bigland (Dinosaur Pile-Up) uses a black Explorer.
Ritchie Blackmore used a 1961 ES335 from 1962 until 1970. Blackmore can be seen for example using the guitar in Deep Purple's official live video of "Child in Time"
Mike Bloomfield (The Paul Butterfield Blues Band, The Electric Flag) During his tenure with the Butterfield Blues Band he used a 1954 Gibson Les Paul, which he used for some of the East-West sessions. In due course, according to biographers Jan Mark Wolkin and Bill Keenom, Bloomfield swapped that guitar for a 1959 Les Paul Standard and $100. This was the guitar Bloomfield used as a member of the Electric Flag, and on the Super Session album and concerts. He later veered between the Les Paul and the Fender Telecaster, but Bloomfield's use of the Les Paul, as did Keith Richards' with the Rolling Stones and Eric Clapton's with John Mayall influenced many others to use the model. Bloomfield eventually lost the guitar in Canada; Wolkin and Keenom's biography revealed a club owner kept the guitar as partial compensation after Bloomfield cut short a round of appearances. Its whereabouts today are unknown.
Marc Bolan (T.Rex) used Les Paul Standards, Customs and Flying Vs. His main Les Paul model was refinished in an opaque orange to resemble the Gretsch guitars played by his hero Eddie Cochran.
Mick Box (Uriah Heep) uses a Les Paul Custom, a 1958 double-cutaway Les Paul Junior, a Flying V and a 1968 SG with a Maestro tailpiece.
Chuck Brown who was "The Godfather of Go-Go music", played a blonde Gibson ES-335.
Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown used various Gibsons including ES-335s and L5s. His main guitar was a late-60s non-reverse Firebird.
Jack Bruce (Cream/solo) used several EB-3 basses during the late 1960s and early 1970s; during the 2005 Cream reunion concerts he used a 1950s EB bass.
Buckethead (real name: Brian Carroll) uses several Les Pauls custom-made by Gibson which feature oversized bodies, 24-fret necks, DiMarzio pickups and his trademark kill switch. They are usually all white. He is also known to own a modified Les Paul custom in Alpine White with gold hardware.
Sam Bush, noted bluegrass mandolin player, plays and endorses the Gibson Sam Bush Signature model mandolin.
Billy Byrd (Nashville guitarist who worked with Ernest Tubb among others) worked with Gibson and fellow Nashville player Hank Garland to design the Byrdland guitar, which was named for them (Byrd + Garland. Earlier in his career, Byrd also played an electrified L-7C and later, a custom Byrdland with double cutaways and full size/normal scale length.
C
Jerry Cantrell (Alice in Chains) has used several Gibson models throughout his career, most notably an Ivory White Les Paul with torch burn marks that Cantrell made on the guitar's top. Cantrell used this guitar on all of the Alice in Chains albums and on his solo record Degradation Trip. Other models Cantrell has used include a '52 Goldtop, a Les Paul Studio, a Les Paul Classic Custom, and a Gibson Custom Shop Jerry Cantrell SG.
Larry Carlton favours a sunburst 1968 ES-335, also occasionally using a 1956 Les Paul Special and a 1963 L5. A Larry Carlton Signature model has been produced by Gibson for the man they call "Mr 335".
Maybelle Carter matriarch of the Carter Family and one of the earliest country recording stars, played a 1928 L-5 archtop almost exclusively. "I consider this to be the most important single guitar in the entire history of country music" said George Gruhn.
Charlie Christian used an ES-150. The model was Gibson's first archtop electric guitar and was, as described by author Tony Bacon, "used with devastating effect by Christian throughout his short career." The "blade" style pickup installed on early ES-150 models has since become known as the "Charlie Christian pickup" in honor of the legendary jazzman.
John Cipollina (Quicksilver Messenger Service) used two heavily customized SGs with bat-shaped plastic embellishments cut from pickguard material, extensive bindings, older Les Paul pickups (with the neck pickup mounted in reverse), Grover Imperial tuning machines, and mercury dimes glued to the tops of the volume and tone controls. He also added Bigsby B5 vibrato assemblies to both guitars.
Eric Clapton has used a variety of Gibsons throughout his career. The second electric guitar Clapton owned was a red 1964 ES-335 that he used with The Yardbirds, Cream, Blind Faith and as a solo artist. In 2004 Clapton donated the guitar to an auction to benefit the Crossroads Centre, where it sold for $750,000 – a world-record auction price for a Gibson. In 1965 Clapton bought a 1960 sunburst Les Paul that he used while a member of John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers and Cream. This was the first of several 1958-60 Les Pauls that Clapton has used, contributing significantly to these models' popularity. Clapton also owned a 1957 goldtop Les Paul Custom that was refinished in deep cherry. He later gave this guitar to his friend George Harrison, who dubbed the guitar with the nickname "Lucy". In 1967 Clapton acquired a 1964 SG painted by the Dutch artists collectively known as The Fool; he used this guitar on the Cream albums Disraeli Gears and Wheels of Fire. Other models Clapton has used extensively include a Firebird I and a 1958 Explorer that he used on his 461 Ocean Boulevard and EC Was Here albums.
Steve Clark (Def Leppard) Throughout his career, Clark used various Les Pauls, including a rare Les Paul XR-1 as his main instrument during his Pyromania years, as well as various Firebirds and EDS-1275 double-necks
Allen Collins (Lynyrd Skynyrd, The Rossington-Collins Band, Allen Collins Band) used a Firebird, and later switched to an Explorer. Starting in late 1977, he also occasionally used a double-cutaway Les Paul Junior.
Stompin' Tom Connors used an SJ-200 (purchased from a furniture store for $80) from 1956 to 1972; he owned it until his death on March 6, 2013.
Laura Cox has used a Gibson Les Paul Classic and a Gibson Firebird Standard.
Sheryl Crow uses a Country Western model, Hummingbird, L-00 Blues King, J-200 Western Classic, 96 Advanced Jumbo, 96 Southern Jumbo, J45, ES-120, ES-125, ES-335 and various Les Pauls. Her original 1962 Country Western model was exactly measured and reproduced as the "Sheryl Crow Signature" in a limited edition with autographed label on the inside.
D
Dave Davies (The Kinks) has used numerous Gibson models over the years, including a 1958 Flying V (prototype model), a 1960 Goldtop Les Paul and a 1978 Artisan.
Reverend Gary Davis used a Gibson SJ-200 and a slope-shouldered Gibson B-45-12 twelve-string guitar.
Buck Dharma (Blue Öyster Cult) played a 1969 SG and used an ES 175 for the guitar riff in "Don't Fear The Reaper". He also used a 1974 Les Paul.
Al Di Meola joined Chick Corea's Return to Forever in 1974 (at age 19), and became an influential jazz-rock fusion guitarist thereafter. He used a black '71 Les Paul model almost exclusively for his electric guitar work, both during his tenure with Return to Forever and on his early solo albums.
Chris Daughtry of Daughtry (band) plays a Gibson Explorer.
Bob Dylan has his own signature Gibson SJ-200.
E
Elliot Easton (The Cars) used several Gibson SG models and a Les Paul Custom in the "Since You're Gone" video. Gibson currently produces an Elliot Easton signature model SG as part of their "Inspired By" series manufactured by the Gibson Custom Shop.
Duane Eddy - "The King of Twang Guitar" - has used many different Gibson models throughout his career. Gibson produces a Duane Eddy Signature model.
The Edge (U2) uses several Gibson models including a 1976 Gibson Explorer Limited Edition, a Les Paul Custom, a 1983 30th Anniversary Goldtop, an ES-335, an SG and a J-200.
Herb Ellis Played a 1953 ES-175. Gibson released the Herb Ellis ES-165 as a signature-model reissue of his instrument.
John Entwistle (The Who) used several Thunderbird IV basses during the early 1970s and later used custom-made "Fenderbird" models with Fender Precision Bass necks. Entwistle also used an EB-2 bass during the early days of The Who.
The Everly Brothers favoured J-200s in the 1950s; in the 1960s they used the Everly Brothers model, featuring a J-185-style body and an adjustable bridge, which Gibson produced from 1962 to 1972.
F
Tal Farlow usually played an ES-350. Gibson made a "Tal Farlow" model in their Artist Model series beginning in 1962.
Peter Frampton (Humble Pie and a solo artist) uses a three-pickup Les Paul Custom. Gibson has produced two completely different Signature models for him.
Richie Faulkner (Judas Priest) frequently plays Gibson Custom Shop Flying V and Gibson Les Paul Custom models.
Samantha Fish Gibson SG Standard in Alpine white
Ace Frehley (Kiss) used a three-pickup Les Paul Custom as well as an Ace Frehley Signature model and an EDS-1275. He also used a Les Paul Standard.
Vic Fuentes (Pierce the Veil) plays a Gibson Explorer, finished in a black and white finish Reminiscent of the EVH eruption finish.
G
Jerry Garcia (Grateful Dead) played Gibson Les Paul and Gibson SG guitars early in his career, before moving to Fender Stratocasters in the early 1970s, and then on to custom built instruments.
Hank Garland (Nashville guitarist who worked with Elvis Presley among others) worked with Gibson and fellow Nashville player Billy Byrd to design the Byrdland guitar, which was named for them (Byrd + Garland). Garland also played an ES-150 and an electrified L-7.
Billy Gibbons (ZZ Top) has used several different Gibson models over the course of his career including Goldtop Les Pauls, Flying Vs, Explorers, ES-5 Switchmasters and Les Paul Juniors. His main guitar is a 1959 Les Paul Standard nicknamed "Pearly Gates". "Pearly has such an unmistakable character that we felt it was necessary to find another instrument with a similar sound to use as a spare guitar. We accumulated dozens of guitars, but nothing quite matched her. But instead of tossing these other acquisitions away, they kept accumulating. It's an ongoing saga that never ends."
Scott Gorham (Thin Lizzy, Black Star Riders) played Les Pauls throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, and now uses a Les Paul Axcess.
Grant Green Influential jazz guitarist who recorded more dates with the Blue Note record label in the early to mid-1960s than any other musician, both as a leader and as a sideman. He used a Gibson ES-330 during this period.
Peter Green, formerly with John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers and the founder of Fleetwood Mac, is most notable for his 1959 Les Paul that had the pickups accidentally wired out of phase. Green bought and used it in almost every notable recording he made from 1965 to 1970. The guitar used to be owned by Gary Moore, but it was sold to a private owner in 2006.
Dave Grohl (Foo Fighters, Them Crooked Vultures, Nirvana) uses many different Gibson models including: Les Pauls, the DG-335 (a Gibson custom made Trini Lopez inspired by him), Explorers, SGs, ES-335s, Firebirds, and a 1970s Trini Lopez Standard. He also has his own Gibson model, the DG-335, modeled after the Trini Lopez Standard.
Arlo Guthrie uses a 3/4 sized LG-2. Gibson currently produces an Arlo Guthrie Signature model.
Woody Guthrie used an L-0 and a Southern Jumbo. Gibson has replicated his 1945 model including his famous "this machine kills fascists" sign.
Noel Gallagher (Oasis, Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds) notably uses a red 1960s Gibson ES-335 throughout his career. He also uses a sunburst Les Paul given to him by Johnny Marr of The Smiths. He also has his signature J-150 acoustic guitar, that looked identical to the Gibson J-200.
H
Steve Hackett (Genesis, GTR) uses numerous Les Paul models. His main guitar for many years was a 1957 Goldtop. He also owns a black Les Paul custom fitted with a Fernandes Sustainer and Floyd Rose tremolo system.
Jim Hall used Gibson guitars for over 20 years.
Kirk Hammett (Metallica) has used various Flying V and Les Paul models throughout his career.
Emmylou Harris uses a Dove, various J-200s and a J-200 Western Classic.
George Harrison used a Les Paul, an SG, a Gibson ES-345, a J-160E and a J-200. One of the most famous Gibson guitars is George's Lucy
Warren Haynes (Gov't Mule, Allman Brothers Band) uses a Les Paul Custom, Les Paul Standard, SG, an ES-335 and a non-reverse Firebird. Gibson produces an "inspired by" version of Haynes' main Les Paul.
Justin Hayward (The Moody Blues) has used a 1963 ES-335 with a factory-installed Bigsby vibrato tailpiece for virtually his entire career.
Jimi Hendrix (The Jimi Hendrix Experience) is generally regarded as an iconic Stratocaster player, but Hendrix used several Gibson models including an SG Custom, Flying V, Les Paul Special and a Les Paul Custom occasionally. Gibson also gave him two guitars in 1970, a custom Flying V and an ES-345 (both left-handed models). Gibson has released an "inspired by" Flying V replicating his 1967 Flying V including the psychedelic floral design which Hendrix himself had hand painted on the original.
James Hetfield (Metallica) has used various Explorer models and also a Les Paul Custom. He used a Cherry red Gibson SG for the filming of the "Turn the Page" Video
Brent Hinds (Mastodon) uses a variety of models during recording & live performances. He favors a series of silverburst Flying Vs, but has also played a Goldtop Les Paul and SG Custom, among others.
Noddy Holder (Slade) is a notable SG user, and can be seen during many concerts and televised performances sporting mainly a Cherry red SG throughout the height of Slade’s career.
Lightnin' Hopkins played a J-160e. It is now on display at the Rock Hall of Fame in Cleveland OH. Lightnin's last guitar was a 1980 Les Paul Silverburst given to him on his 68th birthday by his wife and his bass player, Congressman Ron Wilson. Both are part of the Joe Kessler Collection.
Steve Howe (Yes, Asia, GTR) favours an ES-175, and has also used an ES-345, an EDS-1275 and an ornate Les Paul model named "The Les Paul". In 2002, Gibson introduced the Steve Howe Signature ES-175.
I
Tony Iommi (Black Sabbath) has used an SG throughout most of his career, and also owns other Gibson models. Currently his collection includes a rare "Barney Kessel" left-handed model, a red 1965 SG Special nicknamed "monkey" (used on all of Black Sabbath's early albums and pictured on the inside cover of Black Sabbath Vol. 4), a red Custom Shop SG, a black Custom Shop SG and a black SG Standard. Gibson has produced a Tony Iommi Signature SG.
Izzy Stradlin (Guns N' Roses) Stradlin was best known for using an ES-175, which he used to record Appetite for Destruction.
Frank Iero (My Chemical Romance) is notable for using Gibson Les Paul and SG guitars during the recording of The Black Parade on The Black Parade World Tour. Prior to this, he was known for playing Epiphone instruments.
J
Matthias Jabs (Scorpions) uses over 20 different Explorers including seven Korina models and several Explorer 90s. A prototype signature model was produced for him by Gibson which was 90% the size of a regular Explorer. Jabs also owns several Les Pauls as well as a Moderne.
Joan Jett the first female to receive her own Gibson signature electric guitar model, a worn white Melody Maker, after years of faithful use of the model.
Eric Johnson used an ES-335 for all but the bridge section of the recorded version of "Cliffs of Dover". Also uses the ES-335 during live performances. He can also be seen playing a Gibson SG in the "Eric Johnson-Art of Guitar" DVD.
Gordie Johnson (Big Sugar) has used many Gibson models in the past, notably a Les Paul Black Beauty, a vintage ES-335, a white double-neck, and several other models. He also has a Gibson SGJ Signature model, which features P94 pickups in place of the standard P90s.
Robert Johnson used an L-1 acoustic. Gibson makes a Robert Johnson Signature model.
Brian Jones (The Rolling Stones) used an acoustic SJ-200, an ES-330, reverse and non-reverse Firebirds and a Les Paul Goldtop.
Mick Jones (Foreigner) used a black Les Paul Custom retrofitted with DiMarzio Super Distortion humbuckers and two coil-tap switches. Gibson produces an "Inspired by" series of Jones' Les Paul.
Mick Jones (The Clash/Big Audio Dynamite/ Carbon/Silicon) used a Les Paul Junior, Les Paul Standard, several Les Paul Customs, and a Melody maker during his tenure with The Clash. He currently uses Les Paul Junior Double Cut.
Steve Jones (Sex Pistols) uses Les Paul Customs, Firebirds, Flying Vs, and a Gibson Les Paul Double Cut in his early days. Gibson produces an "Inspired by" series of Jones' Les Paul model.
K
Jorma Kaukonen, a self-described "Gibson nut," played an ES-345 or 355 for most of his career with Jefferson Airplane, and a J-45, a J-190 and an Advanced Jumbo as a solo artist. He has also endorsed the Epiphone equivalents.
Bill Kelliher (Mastodon) used several different models during the band's early recording/touring career including a trio of Les Paul Customs (ebony, silverburst, & alpine white) and a trio of Explorers (a vintage CMT in tobacco sunburst plus ebony & white models).
Barney Kessel used an ES-350 and ES-350T. Gibson produced a "Barney Kessel" model in their Artist Model series in 1960.
Albert King was a left-handed "upside-down/backwards" guitarist: he usually played a Flying V flipped over upside-down so the low E string was on the bottom.
B. B. King used many different Gibson models, including an ES-5 and an ES-175 early in his career; later he began using thinline hollow-body (ES-330) and semi-hollow (aka "semi-acoustic") models (ES-335 and ES-345.) King's Signature ES-355, nicknamed Lucille, was his main guitar for many years.
Freddie King used a Goldtop Les Paul with P-90 pickups. Also used an ES-355 in some live performances.
Guy KingPlays a 1982 Gibson ES-335TD Natural and a 1982 Gibson ES-335TD Sunburst.
Mark Knopfler Played a 1979 Gibson Les Paul Standard Reissue '59 on the Dire Straits song 'Money for Nothing'. He also owns a 1985 Gibson Les Paul Standard Reissue '59, Sunburst. This custom shop model has got his birthdate (12849) as the serial number. He also plays other Gibson models like a 'super 400', an 'es 175' and a 'Chet Atkins'.
Paul Kossoff (Free) "was a passionate Les Paul player able to say in a few notes what many dozens were attempting." Kossoff used several late-50s Les Paul models as well as an ES-335 for occasional studio use.
Lenny Kravitz used a Flying V in his music video "Are You Gonna Go My Way". He also plays a sunburst Les Paul.
Robby Krieger (The Doors) uses an SG, an ES-335 and a Melody Maker. He also used a black Gibson Les Paul for slide guitar in the studio while with The Doors.
L
Andrew Latimer (Camel) uses a variety of Les Paul models, for instance Gibson Les Paul.
Albert Lee owns a black 1958 Les Paul Custom given to him by Eric Clapton, a black 1958 J-200 given to him by Don Everly and an Everly Brothers model. Lee played the J-200 during the Concert For George. The guitars are usually kept under lock and key.
Alvin Lee (Ten Years After) used a customized ES-335 nicknamed "Big Red". The Gibson Custom shop now produces a reissue of Lee's guitar.
John Lennon used a J-160E while with The Beatles. Several of the songs on the White Album he composed in India on Donovan's J-45. As a solo artist, Lennon used a Les Paul Special and a modified Les Paul Junior. Gibson makes a limited-edition replica of his J-160E and an "inspired by" John Lennon Les Paul replicating the modified Junior.
Terry Lewis of The Time played a Gibson Flying V Bass, which was prominently featured in their 1982 video, "Cool".
Alex Lifeson (Rush) has used many different Gibson models over the course of his career including: a '68 sunburst ES-335, a '78 black / '77 sunburst ES-345, a '77 white ES-355, a '78 white / '76 cherry EDS-1275, a cherry SG, a sunburst Howard Roberts Fusion, an ES-369, a variety of Les Paul models, a Dove, and a J-45 acoustic. Gibson now has issued an "Inspired By series" of Lifeson's original white 355 as well as the Alex Lifeson Axxess Les Paul guitar.
Jeff Lynne (ELO) uses a variety of Gibson guitars in live performance and recordings.
M
Lonnie Mack has used a 1958 Flying V fitted with a Bigsby vibrato tailpiece since the first year the Flying V was manufactured. He refers to it a "No. 7", as he was told that it was the seventh guitar off the production line. In the mid-1990s Gibson issued a limited-edition "Lonnie Mack" model of the guitar.
Ian MacKaye always played one of two different Gibson SG with Fugazi.
Phil Manzanera uses a Gibson Firebird V11. He named his album Firebird V11 (2008) after that instrument.
Frank Marino has used 1960s Gibson SG guitars throughout his entire career.
Bob Marley (Bob Marley and The Wailers) used a Les Paul Special. The guitar is buried with him in his mausoleum. Gibson has released a Bob Marley Signature Les Paul Special.
Bernie Marsden uses a 1959 Les Paul known as The Beast which he acquired in 1974 and has used extensively since, particularly through his time with Whitesnake.
Pat Martino uses a Pat Martino Signature model. He formerly used an L5S.
Tak Matsumoto (B'z/solo) uses his own Les Paul signature model issued in 1999, which made him the first Asian artist to be bestowed with the honor. A number of other Gibson models comprise his collection, including a number of custom-issued Gibson DC's designed solely for him.
Paul McCartney owns a rare left-handed 1957 Les Paul Goldtop Like many players, McCartney has replaced the fragile original tuning machines with a more modern sturdy set. He uses a left-handed 1960 Les Paul Standard (one of three known examples) as his main stage guitar. He also uses a C-5 in the studio. There is also photographic evidence of him using a Firebird VII fitted with a Bigsby vibrato, which appears to be a right-handed non-reverse model refitted as left-handed.
Jimmy McCulloch used a Gibson SG and Les Paul with Wings.
John McLaughlin has used many different Gibson models over the years, including Les Pauls, an EDS-1275, ES-335s, Byrdlands, a sunburst dual-pickup Johnny Smith model, an ES-345 and Hummingbird acoustics. He also used an SG on "Bitches Brew", Miles Davis' breakout fusion album from 1969.
Ralph McTell uses a J-45, and records with a 'Robert Johnson Reissue' L-1
Pat Metheny used a humbucker-equipped 1960 ES-175N for much of his career, until switching to a signature model Ibanez hollowbody in the 2000s. Metheny has also used a Les Paul on occasion, notably on Zero Tolerance for Silence.
Bill Monroe, the "Father of Bluegrass," used a Lloyd Loar-signed Gibson scroll-top F5 mandolin, making it the reference standard for bluegrass mandolinists. Monroe's F5 is now in the Country Music Hall of Fame.
Wes Montgomery used an ES-175 early in his career as well as an L5 CES. Gibson currently produces a Wes Montgomery Signature model L5 CES.
Gary Moore (Thin Lizzy/Skid Row/solo) used a Les Paul Standard and had two separate Les Paul signature models released by Gibson. Moore formerly owned the famous 1959 Les Paul used by Peter Green during his Fleetwood Mac tenure. and had his own personal Les Paul model reconfigured to match the unusual modification of the Green original. He was also vocal about his fondness for the Explorer, which he used in his later solo career.
Scotty Moore (Elvis Presley's original lead guitarist) initially played an ES-295, before switching to an L5 CES and subsequently a Super 400 CES. In 1999, Gibson reissued the ES-295 as the Scotty Moore Signature model.
N
Jimmy Nolen (The J.B.'s) used various Gibson models.
Ted Nugent is most closely associated with early 1960s Byrdland models in black, sunburst and natural, and Gibson has developed a Byrdland model named for him. More recently, he has occasionally used a '59 sunburst Les Paul and an American-flag-motif Les Paul.
O
Mike Oldfield used an L6S around 1978, various Les Paul models and an SG Junior, which featured on many of his albums in the seventies and eighties.
Roy Orbison used an ES-335 and a Les Paul with a Bigsby tailpiece.
Dolores O'Riordan used an ES-335 throughout her entire career and later, also used a white SG Standard.
Buzz Osborne (Melvins) primarily used Gibson Les Paul guitars from the 1960s and 1970s played through Boss effect pedals and variety of vintage amplifiers and cabinets.
P
Jimmy Page (The Yardbirds/Led Zeppelin/solo) uses a 1959 Les Paul ("Number 1", acquired from Joe Walsh), a 1959 Les Paul ("Number 2"), a 1973 Les Paul, an EDS-1275, a 1977 RD Artist, an ES5 Switchmaster, a Goldtop Premium Les Paul and a 1991 Custom Shop Les Paul (built to be an exact replica of "Number 1" and re-nicknamed "Number 3"). Page also owned a modified 1960 Les Paul Custom "Black Beauty" with a Bigsby tailpiece and a 3-pickup configuration. This guitar was stolen in 1970 but was recovered in early 2016. For acoustics Page used a Hummingbird, a J-200 and an A-2 mandolin. Gibson has released a Jimmy Page Signature model Les Paul replicating the features of "Number 2". Page used an EDS-1275 double neck guitar during his live performances of Stairway to Heaven, The Rain Song and The Song Remains the Same.
Joe Pass used a sunburst ES-175; Epiphone currently produces a Joe Pass signature Emperor model.
Les Paul helped design the guitar named after him, and used a custom model.
Joe Perry (Aerosmith) has used many Gibson models over the years, including ES-335s, Les Pauls, Flying Vs, and Firebirds; has signature Gibson and Epiphone Les Paul models nicknamed "Boneyard".
Tony Perry (Pierce the Veil) has used Gibson SG guitars.
Carl Perkins - "the King of Rockabilly" - used, at various points in his career, a Les Paul Goldtop, an L5 and an SG.
Vicki Peterson of The Bangles plays a Les Paul Custom.
Eddie Phillips (The Creation), used a Gibson ES-335, also with a violin bow in the mid-1960s.
Andy Powell (Wishbone Ash) has used a Flying V throughout his entire career.
Elvis Presley appeared frequently in concert and films playing a 1956 J-200N, which he had inlaid with his name in 1960.
John Prine used a J-200.
R
Mick Ralphs (Bad Company/Mott the Hoople) used a Les Paul Junior, a Firebird and a Les Paul during his Mott the Hoople tenure; and a Les Paul Standard and a Flying V during his years with Bad Company. Ralphs currently uses Les Paul Custom Shop '58 & '59 reissue models.
Randy Rhoads (Quiet Riot/Ozzy Osbourne) used an off-white Les Paul Custom.
Keith Richards (The Rolling Stones) has used a variety of Gibsons throughout his career; he's favoured Les Pauls and ES models, but has also occasionally been seen with assorted other models, including Firebirds, a Flying V, an SG, an L6S and a Melody Maker. In 1964 Richards got a 1959 sunburst Les Paul with a Bigsby tailpiece; the guitar was the first "star-owned" Les Paul in Britain and served as one of Richards' main instruments through 1966. He later sold the guitar to future Rolling Stones bandmate Mick Taylor. In the mid-60s Richards acquired a 1953 Les Paul Goldtop and the first of a series of 1957 Les Paul Customs. One of the latter, hand-painted with psychedelic patterns, would be one of his main stage and studio guitars from 1968 through the end of the Rolling Stones' 1970 European tour. Throughout the 1970s he continued to use various Gibson models on stage and in music videos. Among these were a second 1959 sunburst Les Paul, a 1954 Les Paul Custom "Black Beauty" and a cherry red 1958 Les Paul Junior, which he replaced in 1979 with a 1959 TV-yellow Les Paul Junior that he has used regularly on stage ever since. Since 1997 an ebony ES-355 has been among his favourite stage guitars, along with a white ES-345 that he unveiled in 2006. In rehearsal and studio photos and footage he's frequently seen with an ES-350 and ES-175D. Hummingbirds have been among his preferred acoustic models since 1965.
Lee Ritenour - initially noted for playing a red ES-335, he also possesses a 1959 Les Paul which was a gift from Wes Montgomery. More recently he is using a 1959 Les Paul Reissue, and his own signature model Lee Ritenour L-5 archtop.
Howard Roberts - used several Gibson models over the course of his career including: an ES-175, an L-10 and a heavily modified ES-150 simply known as "The Black Guitar". Gibson produces a Howard Roberts Fusion III signature model, which is a variation of an ES-165.
Brian Robertson (Thin Lizzy/Motörhead) has used a Les Paul throughout his entire career, particularly during his time with Thin Lizzy.
Rich Robinson (The Black Crowes) uses several different Gibson models, including a 1968 Les Paul Goldtop, a 1964 ES-335, a Customshop Flametop Les Paul, vintage SGs and double-cut Les Paul Specials, and a Dove.
Mick Ronson (David Bowie) used a Les Paul Custom with the finish stripped for his guitar work on Ziggy Stardust and Aladdin Sane, among others.
Gary Rossington (Lynyrd Skynyrd) uses Les Pauls and SGs. Previously had a signature model Les Paul and SG released by Gibson.
S
Carlos Santana used an SG Special onstage at Woodstock and appeared in advertisements for the L-6S in the 1970s. Santana has also used a sunburst 1968 Les Paul Custom.
Michael Schenker (Scorpions/UFO/Michael Schenker Group) used four different 1970s Flying V models. Number 1 was a modified 1975 model; Numbers 2 and 3 were 1979 block-inlay Flying Vs; and Number 4 was a mid-70s white Flying V. Numbers 1, 2 and 3 had Schenker's trademark "half black/half white" paint scheme.
Rudolf Schenker (Scorpions) uses various Flying V models dating from 1958 to 2001. He uses three 1958 original Flying Vs, three 1967-1969 Flying Vs, two 1971 Medallions (one was repainted black & white), a 1975 natural-finish Flying V, three 1983 replicas of the 1958 originals, four 1980 models and two 1984 Rudolf Schenker Signature models. Schenker has over 70 vintage and collectible Flying Vs along with several Custom Shop limited editions including a doubleneck Flying V.
Tom Scholz (Boston) uses a 1968 Les Paul Goldtop with a DiMarzio SuperDistorion pickup in the bridge.
Neal Schon (Journey) uses a heavily modified Les Paul, including a Floyd Rose locking tremolo, custom electronics and sustainer unit. Gibson produces a signature model of Schon's guitar.
John Scofield initially used a 1962 Gibson ES-335 before playing a 1982 Ibanez Artist AS-200. His ES-335 is featured on the cover of his 1979 release Who's Who.
Earl Scruggs (one of the original Bill Monroe Blue Grass Boys) is noted for inventing a unique banjo style (now referred to as Scruggs style) that has become one of the defining characteristics of bluegrass music. Scruggs' use of a flathead Gibson Mastertone Granada has made that model the standard for bluegrass players. An inductee into both the Country Music Hall of Fame and the Bluegrass Hall of Honor, Gibson produces a signature model banjo, simply titled "The Earl", to honor Scruggs' monumental career achievements.
Nikki Sixx (Mötley Crüe/Sixx A.M.) has used a number of Thunderbird basses throughout his career. Between 2000 and 2003 Gibson manufactured a Sixx signature bass, the 'Blackbird'.
Slash (Guns N' Roses/Slash's Snakepit/Velvet Revolver/Slash's Blues Ball) uses many different Les Paul models including his own custom shop Les Paul model. He has also used an EDS-1275. In addition to his custom shop Les Paul, Gibson has manufactured two other Slash Les Pauls.
Johnny Smith was a Gibson endorsee from 1961 to 1989, during which time Gibson sold the Johnny Smith model. Smith switched to Heritage in 1989. Gibson continues to produce the design as the LeGrande.
Chris Spedding, a top British session guitarist of the 1970s is well known for playing a Flying V.
Bill Spooner (The Tubes) used a Flying V, an Explorer, a Les Paul, an SG and a 1959 Melody Maker.
Paul Stanley (Kiss) used a Flying V, an Explorer, a Firebird I, an SG, and an L6S.
Hubert Sumlin used a 1956 Les Paul Goldtop for many years and has used various Les Pauls and ES-335s.
Bernard Sumner (Joy Division/New Order) used a Gibson SG Standard (customized, "without Vibrola") during his career with Joy Division and for the first phase of New Order. He then switched to an ES-335 for the latter part of New Order and still uses this today.
T
Mick Taylor (The Rolling Stones/solo) has used Les Pauls throughout his career, along with SGs, ES models and Firebirds. Taylor bought his first Les Paul from Selmer Musical Instruments in London. It was stolen in September 1967. In 1967 for a replacement, he bought Keith Richards' Bigsby-equipped 1959 sunburst Les Paul, which he used on stage until 1971, first with John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers and then (from July 1969) with The Rolling Stones. Taylor used other sunburst Les Pauls on the Rolling Stones' 1972-73 tours, and still frequently uses Les Pauls on stage.
Sister Rosetta Tharpe was an early adopter of the Les Paul Gold-Top in 1956, and used a 1961 double-cutaway Les Paul Custom. She also used a white SG.
George Thorogood uses an ES-125.
Johnny Thunders used Les Paul Juniors.
Pete Townshend (The Who/solo) used an SG Special from 1967 to 1972 and various customized Les Paul models from 1973 to 1979; he has also used an EDS-1275. Gibson produced a Townshend Signature model SG based on the guitar he played at Woodstock in August, 1969. The Townsend model was a limited edition and was discontinued by Gibson in 2003. In 2006 the Gibson Custom Shop started production of three different Les Paul signature models based on the guitars he played in the late 1970s. For acoustic work Townshend has consistently used SJ-200s. The cover of his 1982 solo album, All the Best Cowboys Have Chinese Eyes, shows Townshend holding a 1958 Flying V, Korina body with natural finish (gifted by Joe Walsh) which he also plays in the video for the album's song, "Slit Skirts".
Derek Trucks of the Allman Brothers Band and the Derek Trucks Band uses a modified Gibson USA SG '61 reissue with factory Vibrola, which has had the tailpiece modified and a stopbar tailpiece installed.
Ray Toro of My Chemical Romance has used Gibson Les Paul guitars throughout his career. He has also been seen to play Explorer and SG shapes. He is also known for frequently playing Epiphone guitars.
V
Eddie Van Halen used a Les Paul, an ES-335 and a 1958 Flying V.
W
T-Bone Walker electric blues guitar pioneer, used a Gibson ES-250, ES-5, and ES-335.
Joe Walsh (James Gang/Eagles) uses a Les Paul Standard and an EDS-1275. Walsh was known for "hot-wiring" the pickups on these guitars to create his trademark "attack" sound.
Muddy Waters used a Les Paul Goldtop in his early career.
Paul Weller mentions that his favorite guitar is his 1968 Gibson SG Standard in Cherry Red. He uses a J-45 as his primary acoustic guitar, but has also used a B-45-12 12-string as well. More recently he has acquired a J-180 Everly Brothers signature model.
Leslie West (Mountain) favoured a Les Paul Junior; demand for this model greatly increased after guitarists saw one in his hands, and Gibson began to reissue the model in the mid-1970s. West also used an SG and a Flying V.
Snowy White uses a 1957 Les Paul Goldtop acquired in a trade for a Fender Stratocaster while in Sweden in 1968. White has been nicknamed "Gold Top" due to his longtime use of the model.
Charlie Whitney of Family was known for playing a double-neck Gibson EDS-1275.
Carl Wilson (The Beach Boys) used an ES-335. Custom made in 1962, it has blonde finish and gold hardware with a Bigsby B-7 tremolo. In 1983 the original guitar neck was broken and replaced with a neck from an ES-355.
Johnny Winter - Played a Firebird, Les Pauls, SGs and Flying Vs.
Ronnie Wood (Faces/The Rolling Stones) regularly uses Firebirds, Les Pauls and a J-200 acoustic on stage; he also owns a custom-built single-pickup L5S, a Super 400 CES and an L5. In the late 1970s Wood endorsed the S-1 guitar. In 1997 Gibson announced three Ron Wood signature models: a J-200, a Firebird and a Dobro.
Zakk Wylde (Ozzy Osbourne/Pride & Glory/Black Label Society) uses a signature Les Paul "Bulls Eye" model, a signature Les Paul "Buzzsaw" model and signature "Camo" model with a camouflage finish. He is seen using a black EDS-1275 in the promotional video for In This River. Lately he has been using a custom SG/Flying V hybrid "Bulls Eye" model called the "ZV" for live Ozzy Osbourne shows. Wylde also has a new Custom Shop Flying V "Bulls Eye" that is currently in production complete with a Floyd Rose tremolo. His most recent signature, the "Zakk Wylde BFG" Les Paul is essentially a stripped-down version of his custom bullseye Les Pauls, available in bullseye and buzzsaw finishes. He also has a coffin shaped signature guitar produced by Epiphone called the "Graveyard Disciple" it is equipped with a Floyd Rose tremolo.
Y
Angus Young (AC/DC) uses an SG. Gibson has produced an Angus Young Signature SG model with lightning bolt inlays and an Angus Young signature humbucker in the bridge position.
Neil Young uses several Gibson acoustic and electric models. Young's main guitar, "Old Black", is a 1953 Goldtop Les Paul (painted black) with a mini-humbucker from a Firebird in the bridge position and a Bigsby tailpiece. Young also has two other 1953 Goldtops, one which has modifications similar to "Old Black", the other a stock original. Also uses a J-200 and a Mastertone GB-3 banjo; on the Time Fades Away tour he used a 1958 Flying V.
Z
Frank Zappa used a 1953/54 Les Paul Goldtop, an SG, a late 70s Les Paul Custom and an ES-5 Switchmaster. An ES-355 was his main guitar on his 1970 tour. Zappa usually heavily modified his guitars to include preamps, balanced outputs for studio work, and later, Fernandes sustainers.
See also
Gibson Guitar Corporation
Gibson Guitar Corporation product list
References
Bibliography
External links
Gibson |
4515733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme%20Prejudice%20%28film%29 | Extreme Prejudice (film) | Extreme Prejudice is a 1987 American neo-Western action thriller film starring Nick Nolte and Powers Boothe, with a supporting cast including Michael Ironside, María Conchita Alonso, Rip Torn, William Forsythe, and Clancy Brown. The film was directed by Walter Hill, with a screenplay by Harry Kleiner and Deric Washburn (the latter collaborated with Michael Cimino on Silent Running and The Deer Hunter) from a story by John Milius and Fred Rexer.
Extreme Prejudice is an homage, of sorts, to The Wild Bunch, a western directed by Sam Peckinpah, with whom Hill worked on The Getaway. Both films end with a massive gunfight in a Mexican border town. The title originates from "terminate with extreme prejudice", a phrase popularized by Apocalypse Now, also written by Milius.
The lead character of Jack Benteen (Nolte) was loosely based on Joaquin Jackson. Nolte spent three weeks in Texas with Jackson learning the day-to-day activities of a Ranger. Nolte took what he learned and incorporated it into his character's mannerisms and dress.
Plot
A teletype message flashes across the screen:
Master Sergeant Larry McRose (Clancy Brown), U.S. Army, Frankfurt, West Germany
Report to Zombie Unit, El Paso, Texas
At the airport in El Paso, Texas, five U.S. Army sergeants meet up with Major Paul Hackett (Michael Ironside), the leader of the clandestine Zombie Unit, composed of soldiers reported to be killed-in-action and on temporary assignment under Hackett for the duration of a secret mission.
Jack Benteen (Nick Nolte) is a tough Texas Ranger. His best friend from high school is Cash Bailey (Powers Boothe), a former police informer who has crossed into Mexico and became a major drug trafficker. Bailey tries to bribe Benteen to look the other way while sending major drug shipments to the U.S. When Benteen refuses, he is left with a warning by Bailey: Look the other way, or die trying.
Benteen and his friend, Sheriff Hank Pearson (Rip Torn), are ambushed by Bailey's men at a gas station outside of town, and Pearson is killed in the shootout; Benteen realizes Bailey set them up. Hackett and McRose watch the firefight from a distance. Two of Bailey's men who escaped the shootout try to steal their vehicle and are killed.
The Zombie Unit arrives in town tracking Bailey. When they attempt to rob a local bank, the getaway is inadvertently foiled; one soldier is killed and two others are caught and detained by Benteen. Benteen discovers the men are listed as dead in all official records and is later confronted at his home by Major Hackett, who tells him they were robbing the bank in order to get Bailey's money and a safety deposit box containing accounts on all the drug money deposited in his name. Now knowing the full story, Benteen teams up with the soldiers and crosses the border into Mexico to track down Bailey and end his drug running. At Bailey's hacienda, they are joined by Benteen's girlfriend Sarita (María Conchita Alonso), who was once Bailey's woman and has followed Benteen into Mexico.
At an Independence Day festival, Benteen confronts Bailey while the soldiers prepare to attack Bailey's private army. Hackett, who has given elimination orders for everyone, including Benteen, is caught murdering Bailey's accountant by McRose. It is revealed that there never was a mission, that Hackett is actually Bailey's partner, and that all the other soldiers were assigned to die. The town erupts into a massive gunfight, with the remaining soldiers going after Hackett as Benteen and Sarita escape in a Jeep. Eventually, Hackett is gunned down by the soldiers, who are then in turn all killed by Bailey's men.
Afterwards, Benteen and Bailey confront each other again in a duel. Benteen pleads with Bailey to surrender, but Bailey refuses and is ultimately shot to death. Benteen strikes a deal with Bailey's right-hand man, Lupo, allowing him to take over the local drug business in exchange for being allowed to leave Mexico unharmed with Salita; Lupo advises Benteen to return the favor for him someday, as the two walk off to an uncertain future.
Cast
Nick Nolte as Ranger Jack Benteen
Powers Boothe as Cash Bailey
María Conchita Alonso as Sarita Cisneros
Rip Torn as Sheriff Hank Pearson
John Dennis Johnston as Merv
Marco Rodríguez as Deputy Emil Cortez
Luis Contreras as Lupo
Tommy "Tiny" Lister as Monday
Mickey Jones as Chub Luke
Thomas Rosales Jr. as Scarza
Zombie Unit
Michael Ironside as Major Paul Hackett
Clancy Brown as Master Sergeant Larry McRose
William Forsythe as Sergeant 1st Class Buckman Atwater
Matt Mulhern as Staff Sergeant Declan Patrick Coker
Larry B. Scott as Sergeant 1st Class Charles Biddle
Dan Tullis, Jr. as Sergeant 1st Class Luther Fry
Andrew Robinson was cast as a CIA agent acting as a liaison to Hackett, but his scenes were among those cut in order to reduce the film's runtime by 45 minutes.
Production
John Milius
The film was first announced for production in 1976 with Milius to direct from his own script. "It's very complicated", said Milius. "I've never been able to put what the movie's about in a few words. All I can say is it's a modern-day story about subversion and espionage."
He elaborated in a 1976 interview saying it was "about Special Forces. It's a rightwing political thriller, a rightwing Costa-Gavras film. It takes place in Texas and involves the Texas Rangers as well. I shouldn't talk about it." However he did describe one scene:
There's an operation carried out with peak efficiency where four highly trained specialists wipe out forty men. They don't wipe them out in the usual sense, because they're so good and heroic. I wanted to give the sense that these four are more than a match for forty because they're so skilled at what they do: use of explosives, automatic weapons fire, interlocking fields of fire. Their planning is so precise and perfect: they're used to thinking this way. When you come away from this battle, you're not just impressed with their skill, but also with how cold they are. Ruthlessly efficient.
He also said there was a line in the film "where a Ranger is talking about being in a gunfight with people in a car and the other guy says, 'That gun won't stop a car', and the Ranger says, 'It will if you shoot it in the driver.' That's a Milius line. I'm trying to get away from that; the rest of the script is very flat. I'm trying to write more mundane now. Rather than dazzle constantly, I'm trying to let the weight of the story carry it, and the more subtle implications of it, letting scenes play themselves out the way they would in reality. We'll see what happens. It's a definite development."
In an interview for the July 1978 issue of "Crawdaddy" magazine, Milius spoke about the film as a future project, giving away the original ending. "A group of drug dealers take over a town in Texas, then finally one person, a Vietnam veteran, stands up to them and wipes them out. Then we cut to a meeting room at the Pentagon, where we find out it was all a top secret experiment to find out how far Americans can be pushed before they fight back." The film was to be made in October 1976 in Texas, but Milius instead decided to make Big Wednesday.
Development
In 1982 the project was in the hands of Walter Hill. He assigned Larry Gross to do some work on the script before the latter did work on 48 Hours.
In 1983 it was reported that Carolco Pictures, then flush with money from the success of First Blood, had purchased the script from Warner Bros and were hoping for Ted Kotcheff to direct. Milius was reportedly rewriting the script to bring it up to date.
In 1985 Jonathan Demme was linked to the project. Then Carolco signed Walter Hill to direct and he hired Harry Kleiner to rewrite the film. Hill had known Kleiner from the film Bullitt, on which Hill was an assistant director and Kleiner the writer; Hill was impressed by Kleiner's talent for writing and rewriting on the set daily, which he needed for this film.
Casting
The lead role was played by Nick Nolte with whom Hill had made 48 Hours. Hill:
I wanted someone who was representative of the tradition of the American West—taciturn, stoical, enduring. Someone who carried a lot of pain with him. I told Nick, "The kind of thing I'm talking about is Cooperesque." I had him look at a lot of Gary Cooper films.
Nick Nolte said the role made a change of pace for him:
It was a chance to play a morally perfect character. Like Walter said, we spent a lot of time looking at old films to get this Old West flavor. We looked at Wayne films, at Cooper films, at Randolph Scott films. Yeah, there's a lot of High Noon in this movie. There's a lot of Howard Hawks director of Red River. There's a lot of Sam Peckinpah ... I needed to find the demeanor of how those '40s characters carried themselves—how they dressed and carried their guns.
Nolte got writer friend Peter Gent, who had written North Dallas Forty, to recommend a real-life Texas Ranger to act as a model for his character. Gent suggested veteran Ranger Joaquin Jackson. Jackson later said he:
More or less edited the script with Nick. We got more into the type of language Rangers use, as well as the Rangers' relationship with other law enforcement agencies—the federal narcotics people, FBI, etc. What I'm trying to get back to the press is that it all relates back to narcotics.
Nolte concurred:
This film is kind of about the drug wars. Walter and I wanted to do a story about the distribution of drugs, not in the city, but across the border. There's two points of view about this drug situation in America. One is educational, and the other has to do with the prevalence of drugs, the availability of them. Being a child out of the '60s, I was very much involved in drugs. If you wanted to be part of the subculture in the '60s, you had to seek out your drugs. It's different today. Kids don't have a chance. They're confronted by drugs on every block ... It sounds hypocritical, I know, but there's not so much hypocrisy being a child of the '60s and having to make this kind of change because we come from a generation that accepts change.
The role of Nolte's antagonist was played by another actor who had worked with Hill before, Powers Boothe. Boothe:
Every movie Walter's ever made is a western—it's just that people don't know it. Thematically, men standing up for themselves and making their way in the world is a theme that's been in movies throughout the world. But it's particularly an American genre, and it has to do, in my mind, with the development of our nation: you can do anything you're strong enough to do; right is right, and wrong is wrong. And at least in the movies, right wins out.
Shooting
Walter Hill had worked with Sam Peckinpah in the early 1970s on The Getaway and said he "tipped my hat to Sam a couple of times" in the film. Michael Ironside later recalled that the film was greatly cut in post production:
Andy Robinson and I play CIA agents, we're trying to do this whole covert op, and my character was the go-between between the military side of the story, the police side of the story, and the government side of the story. But when they put it all together, Walter [Hill] said to me, "It looks like it's starring Michael Ironside, with Nick Nolte, Powers Boothe, and Rip Torn supporting him, so we're gonna cut the whole Andy Robinson side of the film out." [Laughs.] ... They cut something like 45 minutes out of it!
Ironside said a highlight of the film was meeting composer Ry Cooder.
Ry had an ancient guitar—it was about 100 years old —that he was using for the soundtrack, and it got stolen off the set when we were shooting. That was a priceless guitar that he'd brought in because he was giving Walter ideas on what he wanted to do. We were shooting down on one of the old sets, at the studio where they shot the burning of Atlanta in Gone with the Wind, and there were a lot of other things shooting there, so there was a lot of traffic going through the studio. I remember him coming back at one point, and he was all panicked. I said, "What's the matter?" He said, "I can't find my guitar!" Someone had just picked up his guitar case and walked off. I remember he was so devastated by that. He said, "It's not that they stole it; it's that they won't understand the value of it." He was just gutted by that. It was such a sad day.
According to soundtrack notes;
Funeral scene of sheriff Hank Pearson was deleted after first two screenings of the movie. Soundtrack release for the movie does however includes track called "The Funeral" which was composed by Jerry Goldsmith for that deleted scene.
After filming of final shootout was done, director Walter Hill was told to include more of it so he went back and shot more footage but in the end he cut it down because, in his words, "it got too big". This is probably why this scene has some continuity mistakes which are often thought to be caused by cuts made on violent scenes in order to avoid X rating.
Tri-Star Pictures studio executives disliked the first version of theatrical trailer so they made their own. However, their version of the trailer made the movie look like it is ex-soldiers versus Texas Ranger type of movie, which it isn't. Jerry Goldsmith composed the music for original trailer but after it was rejected the track which he composed was not used. Instead the trailer which was released included two tracks from other movies: "Paul's Theme" by Giorgio Moroder from Cat People (1982) and "Evacuation" by Mike Oldfield from The Killing Fields (1984).
Release
Tri-Star announced the film as their Christmas release for the year which upset the filmmakers as they had planned to finish it by April.
Reception
The movie received generally positive reviews. It currently holds a 73% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 11 reviews with an average rating of 6.7/10.
Hill later said "I don't think it was understood how much genre parodying was involved in that picture. It rather mystified a lot of American critics but it has its defenders."
Nick Nolte later said the response to the movie was "a little tougher" than the success of his previous collaboration with Hill, 48 Hours.
Co-editor Billy Weber was also very fond of the movie despite the lukewarm reception: “Critics didn’t like it, and it didn’t do any business, but it’s a fun movie, and it’s a pure Walter movie. Powers Boothe was fantastic as the villain and of course, Nick Nolte was great. He’s always great.“
Box office
Extreme Prejudice debuted at the US box office with $3.5 million at 1,071 screens its first weekend. It was not a box office success.
Home media
The film was released on videocassette in the United States in 1987 by International Video Entertainment and again in 1989 by the same company. In 1991, it was re-released on VHS by Avid Home Entertainment, but in the EP (low quality) Mode. In 2001, Artisan Entertainment released the film on DVD in a pan and scan format. A DVD in the United Kingdom shows the film in widescreen and also contains the theatrical trailer as well as the teaser trailer and a 1987 5 minute documentary.
In Scandinavia a Blu-ray is available, but only in 1080i50 and a compressed English Dolby Digital 2.0 audio. In Japan a region-free 1080p Blu-ray is available with an English Dolby TrueHD 2.0 track. In France, a combo Blu-ray/DVD including a region-free 1080p Blu-ray is also available with an English DTS-HD Master Audio 2.0 stereo (possibly with forced French subtitles).
Lionsgate released a Region A 1080p Blu-ray on May 17, 2022, presented in 1.85:1 and English 2.0 DTS-HD Master Audio. It contains a commentary track with Film Historians C. Courtney Joyner & Henry Parke. Also included are interviews with director Walter Hill, actors Micheal Ironside and Clancy Brown, and DP Matthew F. Leonetti, as well as trailers and TV spots.
See also
List of American films of 1987
References
External links
1987 films
1987 action thriller films
1980s crime thriller films
1987 Western (genre) films
American action thriller films
American crime drama films
American crime thriller films
American Western (genre) films
1980s English-language films
Carolco Pictures films
Films about the Texas Ranger Division
Films directed by Walter Hill
Films scored by Jerry Goldsmith
Films set in Mexico
Films set in Texas
TriStar Pictures films
Films with screenplays by John Milius
Films shot in El Paso, Texas
Contemporary Western films
Films with screenplays by Harry Kleiner
Films produced by Buzz Feitshans
1980s American films
Films produced by Mario F. Kassar |
4515869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolas%20Cassadine | Nikolas Cassadine | Nikolas Cassadine is a fictional character from General Hospital, an American soap opera on the ABC network. Originated by actor Tyler Christopher in 1996, he left the show on July 14, 1999. Due to Nikolas' importance on the soap, he was immediately replaced by Coltin Scott on July 20, 1999. Scott left the role on April 16, 2003, as Christopher made his return on April 21, 2003. Chris Beetem temporarily played the role in 2005. Christopher vacated the role on July 28, 2011, after he was let go from the series. Christopher once again reprised the role on a recurring basis in honor of the soaps' fiftieth anniversary; he was later upgraded to a series regular. Actor Nick Stabile took claim of the role in June 2016 in Christopher's absence. In 2019, Marcus Coloma was cast in the role as a series regular, with Adam Huss temporarily stepping in 2021–2023. Coloma departed in January 2023. In August 2023, Huss returned to the role.
Created by head-writers Robert Guza, Jr. and Karen Harris and introduced by executive producer Wendy Riche in 1996 as the illegitimate son of Laura Spencer, the character was immediately popular with audiences. Hailed by Soap Opera Digest as the "Best New Male Character" in 1996, Nikolas's arrival immediately implodes the happy life of supercouple Luke and Laura.
Casting
The role was originated by daytime newcomer, Tyler Christopher then known as Tyler Baker on July 15, 1996. Christopher tried to audition for the role of Stone Cates in 1993 but was turned away. In April 1996, Christopher was one of several actors to audition for casting director Mark Teschner. Christopher hired an acting coach to prepare him for the audition and worked regularly with General Hospital's onset acting coach, John Homa. In June 1996, Christopher received a call back to read for executive producer Wendy Riche and was later brought back to screen test with several actors, including Stephen Nichols, who would play Stefan. Christopher was hired two days later, signed a three-year contract, and filmed his first scenes in late June 1996. In May 1999, rumors circulated that Christopher would not renew his contract which was set to expire in June. The series had also put out a casting call for an actor similar to Christopher which meant he could potentially be replaced. By the time of Christopher's departure, Nikolas had become integral to the series, a recast was very much needed, and Christopher was immediately replaced by Coltin Scott. Of his casting, Scott said that viewers didn't have any warning. "Tyler was there Monday, and I came in on Tuesday" he said. Though inexperienced, Scott was immediately put to the test opposite Nichols, Geary, and Francis so he got "very comfortable very quickly." After a year without finding work, Scott's mother wanted him to come home. And he promised her he would if he didn't get a job in six months. Scott booked the role of Nikolas six months to the day of his promise to his mother. In late March 2003, Scott would vacate the role in the summer of 2003 after failed contract negotiations. According to his official website, Scott was very upset by the decisions made. At the same time, Christopher also became available and it was an opportunity the series couldn't pass up, revealed executive producer, Jill Farren Phelps. In November 2005, Tyler Christopher underwent surgery for a broken arm and Chris Beetem served as a temporary recast starting on December 6 and lasting five episodes.
In March 2011, Soap Opera Digest reported that Christopher had been let go from the series as he would soon appear on ABC Family's The Lying Game produced by former GH head writer Charles Pratt, Jr. Christopher confirmed the news to Soaps in Depth that he had been released from his contract on Friday March 18, 2011, and the character of Nikolas was to be written out. Christopher's contract was set to expire in June and the date would have marked the beginning of the last 13-week-cycle period in his deal—at which time the network would notify the actor of their decision to offer another contract. While Christopher had previously admitted he was unsure about renewing his contract, he was open to working both shows and thought it was a likely possibility considering they were both under ABC. On-Air On-Soaps also revealed that "cost cutting measures GH" also factored into the decision. "I haven't had time to absorb it. It was pretty unexpected. I didn't really see it coming" the actor said of his firing. In an interview with Soap Opera Digest, Tyler Christopher made it very clear that he was fired from the series and that his recurring role on The Lying Game did not factor into the decision. "I was trying to stay on GH, however that worked out financially" Christopher explained of his expecting to take a pay cut. However, the actor was instead told that a "pay cut was not an option," though it was an option for others. The actor was angry over the decision and said "I felt like I earned my spot as a permanent fixture on the show." Christopher filmed his last scenes on May 20, 2011 and last appeared in June. Christoper revealed that things felt awkward on his last day because "nobody really knew what to say to me." While the manner in which the situation was handled gave Christopher a "bad taste in my mouth," the actor had already agreed to a three episode return stint under newly appointed head writer Garin Wolf by the time his final scenes aired. Those scenes would air in late July 2011.
In January 2013, executive producer Frank Valentini revealed he had met with Christopher about potentially reprising the role of Nikolas in celebration of show's 50th anniversary. In February 2013, Christopher's co-star Nancy Lee Grahn—who played Alexis Davis—revealed that Christopher had been on set. However, there was speculation that Christopher's return was supposed to be a surprise because there was no prior announcement from the network. Christopher himself announced his return on Twitter a month later and reappeared on March 22. "It's an absolute honor" Christopher said of being included in the 50th anniversary storylines. Though the possibility of his return had always been a thought, the actor did not expect anything to come of it. Valentini told Christopher his return would be open ended while the actor awaited news on production for The Lying Game. While renewal of The Lying Game was stalled, Christopher revealed that he would remain with the series longer than planned. Soap Opera Digest announced in June 2013 that Christopher had been placed on contract. In the summer of 2014, Christopher revealed that he would be going on a four-month-long road trip with his family leading to immediate speculation that he would be off screen for the duration and would not affect his airtime. Head writer Ron Carlivati quickly clarified that Christopher's trip would occur during the weeks in which the show went on hiatus.
In May 2016, actor Nick Stabile was temporarily cast in the role of Nikolas, with Christopher being unavailable, for an undisclosed amount of time. Stabile's tenure began on June 17, 2016 and ended on July 19, 2016. In September 2016, Soap Opera Digest reported that contract negotiations between Christopher and the soap had fallen apart, and that he would not be reprising his portrayal of Nikolas. Christopher made his last appearance on June 16, 2016. In 2019, actor Marcus Coloma was cast in the role of Nikolas; he made his first appearance during the October 31, 2019, episode.
On September 29, 2021, Adam Huss portrayed the role of Nikolas, when Coloma was unavailable. In November of the following year, Huss once again stepped into the role, following Coloma testing positive for COVID-19. The following month, after three years on canvas, it was announced Coloma had been let go from the role and he would last appear at the end of January 2023. Daytime Confidential reported Coloma had allegedly refused to tape his final scenes upon learning of his dismissal. In a statement to Deadline Hollywood, a representative for Coloma refuted Daytime Confidentials claims, citing Coloma did not complete filming "due to health issues with his recent Covid exposure" and that "the network graciously agreed that he should not film the remaining few days of the year." Coloma made his last appearance on January 26. Huss assumed the role on January 31, to complete scenes Coloma was unable to film. On March 1, 2023, Huss wrapped his stint as Nikolas. Huss returned during the final moments of the August 31 episode.
Development
Characterization
According to Christopher, Nikolas is initially introduced as a "self-assured" teen who comes from money. While he immediately causes trouble, he is not a "villain" but he is "misguided" due to growing up without his parents. Christopher believed the character could go in any direction. In his early years, Nikolas is very "conflicted" and has a certain "sneer" about him but a "sympathy" that can win anyone over. Christopher later voiced his frustrations with playing such a young character and consciously chose to develop Nikolas in more a young man with a "firmer grasp" on his life. He needs to be "more of a man, taking more control" Christopher said. Christopher revealed that it was the character's "complexity" that initially drew him to the role. "Nikolas was sophisticated, and it took it in a different direction than they wanted." While the writers intended for Nikolas to be "stern, hardnosed" and unwilling to allow anyone in, Christopher made the choice to throw in some vulnerability for the character, whether he puts it on display or not. Christopher wanted viewers to like the character despite his bad deeds. Unlike the actor, Nikolas is very "elegant," "refined," and "proper." Nikolas is "the moody, teen-in-turmoil." Robert Schork of Soap Opera Weekly describe Nikolas an "adolescent wise beyond his years" and an "old soul whose sophistication and maturity belie his youthful facade." Nikolas is not comfortable with his royal status at all, and it makes him feel out of place.
Paternity
In 1998, Nikolas's paternity comes into question when it is revealed that Stefan is his biological father. Not only does it further complicate his relationship with Laura, but Christopher said Nikolas could be "angry" or "grateful to discover that he has a father after all these years of thinking he didn't." The revelation drives a wedge between Nikolas and his family until he realizes that the family he is running from is the family he has always wanted. The paternity story is key to Nikolas's evolution as a character. Christopher was actually aware of the plot twist when he joined the show and kept the secret until the onscreen reveal in 1999. The reveal is "pivotal" because it forces Nikolas to start growing up, and become a bit more independent. "He has an identity now." Stefan and Laura explained that they hid Nikolas's paternity to protect him from Helena, who likely would have killed him if he were Stefan's son because she hated Stefan. However, by the end of 1999, it was revealed that Helena herself orchestrated the plan to take control of the family fortune away from Nikolas. Changing Nikolas's paternity would take away his right to the Cassadine inheritance which automatically goes to the prince.
Relationships
In 1996, when asked about Nikolas's potential love life, Christopher said he did know of any plans. Though described by Soap Opera Digest as an "Unwitting Cassa-Nova," Nikolas has trouble trusting others because he has lived such a sheltered life and even dumps his girlfriend, Sarah Webber (Jennifer Sky) when they get too close. According to Christopher, Nikolas is more interested in having a relationship with someone who can teach him something, because he longs for normalcy and is very uncomfortable with the "prince title." Christopher said that for Nikolas, Emily (Amber Tamblyn) has the right personality, but she at the time is too young. On the other hand, Christopher saw Robin Scorpio (Kimberly McCullough) as a good match for Nikolas, but Robin is more interested in his friendship than romance.
Storylines
Backstory
Nikolas is a Greek Prince and the son of Stavros Cassadine and Laura Spencer. Nikolas faces a constant struggle to define his own identity within the context of the history of the Cassadine and Spencer families. He and his half brother Lucky Spencer often face the crossfire of the long-standing war between them, often at the hands of Nikolas' grandmother, Helena Cassadine.
Nikolas Mikhail Stavrosovich Cassadine was born in Greece on November 5, 1982. However his birth year is revised to 1981 when he enters the canvas as a 15-year-old in July 1996. In 1998, he is seen celebrating his 18th birthday, revising his birth year again to 1980. It is later assumed his birth year is 1977 in comparison to the aging of his younger brother birth year shown as 1979 marriage certificate, in May 5, 2011.
In 1983, Nikolas' presumed-dead mother Laura is revealed to be alive and to have been held captive by Stavros as an act of revenge against Luke Spencer for the events leading to the death of his grandfather Mikkos Cassadine. Laura had been forced to marry Stavros, but is able to return home and reunite with Luke, meanwhile Stavros is presumed dead. In 1996, it is revealed that Laura had been pregnant during that time. The child had been named Nikolas, after Tsar Nicholas II. It is also revealed at this point that when Laura tried to secretly reclaim Nikolas in 1984, his grandmother Helena presumably murdered Laura's mother Lesley Webber. To protect her loved ones, Laura had decided to keep the secret.
1996–2006
Fifteen-year-old Nikolas comes to Port Charles to donate his bone marrow to his sister Lulu Spencer. He and his half-brother Lucky have instant animosity. Nikolas decides to stay and eventually becomes best friends with Emily Quartermaine, who develops romantic feelings for him. Nikolas and Lucky work with Emily and Elizabeth Webber to catch Emily's blackmailer, and it is the first time Nikolas and Lucky start to bond as brothers. They become closer while Nikolas deals with being told that his uncle Stefan Cassadine is instead his father. Laura is determined to foster her relationship with her son, and the two bond when it appears Lucky perished in a fire.
In December 1999, Nikolas learns Stavros really is his father. A few months later, he learns Helena is holding Lucky hostage, as well as having kept Stavros alive by cryogenically freezing him. Helena's plan is thwarted and Stavros falls to his death in a fight with Luke Spencer. Nikolas is then devastated when Laura enters a catatonic state after the murder of her adoptive father Rick Webber. As a result of losing their mother, Lucky, Lulu, and Nikolas become extremely close.
Though Nikolas has romances with both Sarah Webber and Gia Campbell, his greatest love turns out to be Emily. They become close as Emily battles breast cancer. As their feelings grow, Emily becomes torn between Nikolas and her first love Zander Smith. Believing she is dying, Emily marries Zander as her last gift to him. She then enters remission, and eventually Emily and Nikolas slept with one another. Witnessing their adultery starts Zander on a downward spiral, and Emily ends their marriage. Zander tries to kidnap Emily, but is killed by the police. Stefan also interferes, but eventually commits suicide.
When a car accident leaves Nikolas with amnesia, war-widow Mary Bishop takes him in, making it seem like he is dead. Mary lies to Nikolas and tells him he is her late husband Connor, who coincidentally looks just like Nikolas. Emily eventually finds Nikolas, and gently tries to help him regain his memory. Finally remembering Emily, the two reconcile, causing Mary to break down and go on a murder spree. She is eventually shot and killed. Helena returns to stop their relationship, and Nikolas throws her off of cliff, at which point she is presumed dead. Nikolas pleads guilty and the two marry before he is sent to prison. Nikolas' doppelgänger Connor Bishop returns to town alive, and begins romancing Emily as vengeance for Mary, and on the orders of Helena, who turns out to be alive. Connor rapes Emily, who afterwards emotionally retreats from Nikolas due to their similarity. Their marriage is strained, and Nikolas begins an adulterous affair with Courtney Matthews. Emily and Nikolas divorce, and Courtney becomes pregnant. It is unclear if the father is Nikolas or her ex-husband Jasper Jacks. Jax learns Nikolas is the father, and switches the DNA results to make it look like he is.
During the Port Charles encephalitis outbreak, Nikolas and Courtney both become ill, and Courtney gives birth to a boy. On Courtney's deathbed, Jax reveals Nikolas is the father, but Courtney dies before she can tell Nikolas. The real DNA results are discovered by Robin Scorpio, who reveals the truth to Nikolas. Nikolas names his son Spencer.
Emily and Nikolas start to become close again. Nikolas hires a nanny named Colleen McHenry. Colleen turns out to be unstable, and obsessed with Nikolas. She is eventually fired when Emily discovers all of the other fathers she had worked with had been murdered. Nikolas allows Spencer to be in a Christmas pageant, where he is kidnapped by Colleen. Helena takes the baby from Colleen and attempts to christen him as the next Cassadine heir. However, Emily and Nikolas thwart her, and Nikolas has Spencer baptized, naming Emily as his godmother.
2007–2009
Nikolas and Emily continue their romance. They are held hostage at the Metro Court Hotel with several others, and Emily's father Alan Quartermaine dies as a result. After the crisis, the hostage taker, still using the alias James Craig, injects Nikolas with an experimental poison to blackmail him into financing a new life. Robin Scorpio discovers them, and Craig forces her to pretend she is dating Nikolas. Nikolas is forced to end his relationship with Emily, but she learns the truth and works with Robin to save him. Robin and Patrick Drake are able to create the antidote and cure Nikolas. It is revealed that Craig is actually Jerry Jacks. As he recovers, Nikolas begins exhibiting symptoms of uncontrollable violence, anger and blackouts. Nikolas and Emily plan a romantic Black and White Ball, and get engaged. During the ball, Nikolas is devastated when Emily becomes the next victim of the Text Message Killer and is strangled to death. Nikolas begins having hallucinations of Emily, and is eventually diagnosed with a brain tumor. Nikolas befriends nurse Nadine Crowell, who is able to get him to admit he does not want to stop having hallucinations of Emily. When he realizes Diego Alcazar is the killer, the two fight and Diego inadvertently hangs himself during the struggle. Nikolas starts the Emily Bowen Quartermaine Clinic to treat patients without insurance, as a way to honor Emily. Nikolas finally decides to go forward with the surgery, for the sake of his son and knowing it would be what Emily would want.
Nikolas has a brief attraction with Claudia Zacchara, whom he rescues when she washes ashore Spoon Island. His relationship with Nadine also progresses. Nikolas admits to himself though he cares for her, Nadine's feelings for him are much stronger. They attend a benefit at General Hospital, where Nikolas sees a mysterious woman named Rebecca who looks just like Emily. While the benefit is going on, a biotoxin is released and the hospital catches on fire. Nikolas saves Rebecca, though she tells him to stay away. Nadine breaks up with Nikolas when she realizes how attached he is to Rebecca. When Lucky starts to date Rebecca, it bothers both Nikolas and Elizabeth. Nikolas kisses Elizabeth to make them jealous, prompting Elizabeth and Lucky to reconcile. However, Elizabeth finds herself increasingly attracted to Nikolas. Lucky proposes to Elizabeth, and she goes to Wyndemere to see Nikolas. Nikolas and Elizabeth sleep together, but she leaves and accepts Lucky's proposal. Nikolas finds out Rebecca is scamming him and the Quartermaines for Emily's money, and he begins dating her in a plot of revenge. He eventually breaks off the relationship. Rebecca tries to reconcile, but Nikolas tells her he will never be able to care for her. Elizabeth and Nikolas wrestle with their feelings for months, continuing to sleep together. Lucky finds out eventually and confronts them, saying he's done with both of them.
2010–2011
On Valentine's Day, Elizabeth passes out from hypothermia and is found by Lucky. She finds out she is pregnant and the baby could be either Nikolas' or Lucky's. After finding Elizabeth on the hospital roof looking ready to jump, she is sent to Shadybrook. When the paternity test is taken, Lucky is revealed to be the father of Elizabeth's baby. However, Helena tampers with the results, making it seem that Nikolas is the father. During the pregnancy, Elizabeth and Nikolas mend their relationship, with the help of Shirley, a terminal patient they both befriend. In July 2010, Aiden Alexi Nikolossovich Cassadine is born. He is briefly kidnapped by Franco, but Lucky finds him and brings him home. In September, Nikolas invites Brook Lynn Ashton to be his escort for a formal dinner, leading to her officially working as his escort for social commitments. Eventually their relationship turns into a brief romance, but they break up amicably and she leaves town to pursue a music career.
When Jake Spencer is killed by Luke in a hit-and-run accident, Nikolas manages to repair his relationship with Lucky, helping him pull through his grief and setting up a wedding night for Lucky and his new wife Siobhan McKenna. Nikolas participates in a forced intervention meant to coax Luke into rehab for his alleged alcoholism after Jake's death. He briefly agrees to finally enter rehab later on, but flees almost immediately. Lulu believes that she can lure Luke back by managing Luke's casino, The Haunted Star. Nikolas gives Lulu money to buy the casino from Luke's wife Tracy Quartermaine. On the night of Jake's death, Elizabeth finds out that Lucky is Aiden's father but keeps the secret for months. She tells Lucky when he begins a downward spiral dealing with his father. Nikolas refuses to believe it and plans to leave the country with Aiden. He reconsiders and leaves Aiden with Elizabeth and Lucky before leaving town in June 2011.
Nikolas briefly returns in July, when he comes to Cassadine Island, where Lulu is looking for Luke, to speak with Helena. After telling Helena to stay away from Aiden and to never speak of him again, Nikolas tells Lulu how he always felt second to Lucky because everyone was worried about how Lucky felt when he was growing up. He also tells Lulu her search for Luke is just like their mother's belief that Luke was a good man, which eventually destroyed their marriage. He leaves, and Lulu realizes her mistake and returns to Port Charles.
2013–2016, 2019–present
Nikolas returns to town in March 2013 when Lulu is abducted and is about to provide information on her whereabouts when he is shot and rendered comatose. Nikolas recovers and reveals that Stavros is alive and behind Lulu's kidnapping. Fortunately Lulu is rescued by her parents, and Stavros and Helena are eliminated. Nikolas pursues Elizabeth again but she rejects him for A. J. Quartermaine. He later partners with Tracy to oust her nephew as CEO, but Elizabeth talks him out of it. As Nikolas welcomes Spencer home, he befriends the pregnant Britt Westbourne who has been rejected by her child's supposed father, Patrick Drake. The duo commiserates over their love lives, and Nikolas invites Britt to move in with him. He later defends her against an angry Patrick, who has discovered that he is not her child's father after all. A romance blossoms between Nikolas and Britt, and they become engaged. Unfortunately, the relationship ends in disaster when Nikolas discovers that Britt's son Ben is actually his nephew, as Britt had stolen Lulu's frozen embryo to entrap Patrick.
Helena resurfaces very much alive, and Nikolas is shocked to learn that Helena's new henchman "Jake Doe" is actually Jason Morgan, Emily's brother who was presumed dead. However, he keeps Jason's identity a secret so he can take over ELQ, the Quartermaine family business, to rebuild Cassadine Industries, as Helena's schemes had fleeced the Cassadines out of their fortune. Nikolas begins an affair with con artist Hayden Barnes, who has been posing as Jake Doe's wife. When Hayden's scheme is exposed during the Nurses' Ball, Nikolas informs Elizabeth that "Jake" is really Jason. Elizabeth chooses to keep the secret, wanting to be with Jason. Hayden overhears this, and blackmails Nikolas into taking her in. With the help of Lucy Coe, Nikolas gains control of ELQ. When Hayden decides to reveal Jake's identity, Nikolas sends a hitman to kill her. Hayden is shot, and ends up in a coma. Hayden wakes up with amnesia. and Nikolas moves her back into Wyndemere, and hires her at ELQ to keep an eye on her. The two continue their romance.
Jason eventually learns his true identity, and breaks up with Elizabeth for covering it up. He also realizes Nikolas knew the truth, sparking a feud between the two. Nikolas and Hayden elope to Las Vegas. However, Nikolas discovers Hayden is actually Rachel Berlin, the daughter of a businessman in prison for a massive Ponzi scheme. Nikolas demands Hayden give him a divorce, but Hayden blackmails him into staying married, revealing she knows Nikolas had her shot. Jason and his wife, Sam, also figure out Nikolas had Hayden shot, and they blackmail him into selling ELQ back to Jason. Nikolas, meanwhile, finds Hayden in possession of diamonds that belonged to her father, which she stole before the IRS could seize. He tries to use the diamonds to make Hayden miserable enough to ask for a divorce.
Nikolas pawns one of Hayden's diamonds to make a donation to the Nurses' Ball. Hayden is furious, and decides to turn Nikolas in at the Nurses' Ball, but he stalls her. He goes home with the diamonds and, hours later, is on the cliffs beneath Wyndemere, having apparently fallen out of the window. His body is never recovered, and he is presumed dead. Jason is arrested for his murder, but goes on the run and figures out Nikolas faked his death and tried to frame Hayden. Nikolas, meanwhile, heads to London and bumps into Ava Jerome. Nikolas and Ava are briefly kidnapped, but escape and head to Cassadine Island. Jason and Sam find him there, trying to track down Nikolas to clear Jason's name. The group then meets the mysterious Theo Hart, who claims to be a fisherman taking shelter on the island because of the storm. As the storm clears, Theo leaves and Nikolas is reunited with Laura and Lulu, who have come to the island looking for him after Spencer revealed that Nikolas is alive. As the group prepares to leave the island, Theo returns wielding a gun and reveals himself to be Nikolas' bastard uncle Valentin Cassadine. Valentin forces Nikolas to sign over the Cassadine estate to him, then proceeds to shoot Nikolas, causing him to stumble off the balcony into the waters below, leaving him presumed dead. In late 2019, Nikolas returns to Port Charles.
Reception
Viewers and critics immediately loved the Nikolas character and his introduction. Christopher was praised for the "depth and sensitivity" he brought to the role of Nikolas and Soap Opera Magazine hailed Christopher as "the find of the summer." Stephen Nichols said Christopher's inexperience worked in his favor as it brought a "childlike quality" to the character. Soap Opera Digest awarded Christopher as the "Rookie of the Year" in 1996 and said Christopher joined the cast with a "bang." Christopher was also nominated for the Soap Opera Digest Awards in the "Outstanding Newcomer" category which he won. Another article described Christopher as the "Soap Opera Discovery of 1996." Christopher's portrayal was said to have rivaled that of his onscreen mother's portrayal of Laura since she joined the cast in 1996. In 1997, Soap Opera Magazine listed Christopher as one of the 60 Most Beautiful People in daytime. Christopher's portrayal of Nikolas after his shooting in front of Luke's "masterfully portrayed." In 1999, TV Guide's Michael Logan criticized the writers for never investing in a "worthy" romance for Nikolas.
In 2023, Charlie Mason from Soaps She Knows placed Nikolas 28th on his ranked list of General Hospital’s 40+ Greatest Characters of All Time, commenting that "No one ever need wonder what an individual would be like if they possessed in equal measure both light (thanks to mom Laura Collins) and dark (courtesy of father Stavros); they need only meet the Cassadines' dark prince."
Mason also put Huss' portrayals of Nikolas on his list of the best soap opera temporary recasts, commenting that "General Hospital fans sat up and took notice in 2021 when Marcus Coloma was out sick and replaced as Nikolas Cassadine. They missed the character's regular portrayer, of course, but couldn't help but notice that that Huss guy… he had something, an intensity, maybe, a gravitas that made him an unusually good sub. So although it was a bummer when, in 2023, Coloma bowed out at the end of Nikolas' storyline, it was also a treat to see Huss dive into those especially explosive final episodes."
References
External links
Character profile at Soapcentral.com
General Hospital characters
Fictional businesspeople
Fictional princes
Fictional Greek people in television
Fictional characters who committed familicide
Male characters in television
Fictional offspring of rape
Fictional characters incorrectly presumed dead
Cassadine family |
4516020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palliser%20novels | Palliser novels | The Palliser novels are six novels written in series by Anthony Trollope. They were more commonly known as the Parliamentary novels prior to their 1974 television dramatisation by the BBC broadcast as The Pallisers. Marketed as "polite literature" during their initial publication, the novels encompass several literary genres including: family saga, bildungsroman, picaresque, as well as satire and parody of Victorian (or English) life, and criticism of the British government's predilection for attracting corrupt and corruptible people to power.
The common characters throughout the series are the wealthy aristocrat and politician Plantagenet Palliser, and his wife, Lady Glencora. The plots involve British and Irish politics in varying degrees, specifically in and around Parliament. The Pallisers themselves do not always play major roles, and in The Eustace Diamonds they merely comment on the main action.
The series overlaps with Trollope's Chronicles of Barsetshire, also a series of six novels, which deal with life in the fictional county Barsetshire where the Palliser family is politically important.
Trollope considered Can You Forgive Her?, Phineas Finn, Phineas Redux and The Prime Minister to be the four novels that constitute the Palliser series. In his autobiography he wrote:
Plantagenet Palliser
Plantagenet Palliser is a main character in the Palliser novels. First introduced as a minor character in The Small House at Allington, one of the Barsetshire novels, Palliser is the heir presumptive to the Duke of Omnium. Palliser is a quiet, hardworking and conscientious man whose chief ambition in life is to become Chancellor of the Exchequer. After an unwise flirtation with the married Lady Dumbello (daughter of Dr Grantly, and granddaughter of the Reverend Mr Harding, characters in The Warden and Barchester Towers), he agrees to an arranged marriage with the great heiress of the day, the free-spirited, spontaneous Lady Glencora M'Cluskie. At first she finds him boring, and considers running away with her other suitor prior to her marriage, the dashing but penniless Burgo Fitzgerald. After he learns of his wife's feelings and plans, Palliser persuades her to travel in Europe to cement their relationship, and is promptly offered the post of Chancellor, which he declines with great regret, since his first priority is his wife. Despite their greatly different natures, the couple settle down to a happy married life. The last book of the series, The Duke's Children, deals with the lives and loves of their three children.
Palliser is eventually offered the post of Chancellor of the Exchequer anyway. However, upon inheriting the dukedom, he is forced to relinquish the beloved post, as it is against constitutional convention for a member of the House of Lords to hold it. In The Prime Minister, when neither the Liberals nor the Conservatives are able to form a majority, a weak coalition government is the only solution. Palliser is asked to become Prime Minister because he is a non-divisive figure, but he is too sensitive to enjoy his tenure. Socially awkward, he is especially vexed by his wife's lavish parties, which represent her attempt to help influence others to support him. Due to the fragile nature of the coalition, Palliser accomplishes little other than to keep the country on an even keel. By the time he leaves office it is with regret, since he has grown accustomed to the power of his position and is greatly disappointed that he has not been able to do more. He declines a place in the Liberal cabinet which follows his, feeling it inappropriate to serve in a cabinet once he has led one, but after some thought he leaves the door open to a return to participation in the government in future. When the Liberals form a government some years later at the end of The Duke's Children, he accepts a cabinet post as Lord President of the Council.
When the Duchess dies unexpectedly, Palliser comes to realise how necessary she has been to his happiness. She has been his only true friend: all others were either merely political allies or her friends. The widower is left to deal with the marriages of two of his three grown children, neither of which initially meets with his approval.
The Omnium Government (characters mentioned in novels only)
Cabinet members
Duke of Omnium (Plantagenet Palliser): Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury, and Leader of the House of Lords
Lord Ramsden: Lord Chancellor
Duke of St Bungay: Lord President of the Council
Lord Drummond: Secretary of State for the Colonies
Sir Orlando Drought: First Lord of the Admiralty and Leader of the House of Commons
Joshua Monk: Chancellor of the Exchequer
Barrington Erle, Postmaster General
Non-cabinet
Phineas Finn: Chief Secretary for Ireland
Sir Gregory Grogram: Attorney General
Sir Timothy Beeswax: Solicitor General
Mr Rattler: Patronage Secretary
Thomas Roby: Undersecretary for the Admiralty
Changes
Sir Orlando Drought resigns, ostensibly over disagreements with government policy, but in reality because he believes that the Leader of the House of Commons should be Prime Minister given Palliser's place in the House of Lords, and his political ambitions have been frustrated. He is replaced as First Lord of the Admiralty by Phineas Finn and as Leader of the House of Commons by Joshua Monk, who concurrently retains his post as Chancellor of the Exchequer. The name of Finn's replacement as Chief Secretary for Ireland is not mentioned.
Sir Timothy Beeswax resigns over the County Suffrage Bill. No replacement for him is mentioned.
List of other characters
A
Marchioness of Auld Reekie. Lady Glencora's aunt. The Marchioness pressures Glencora to marry Plantagenet Palliser.
B
Lady Baldock. Violet Effingham's aunt.
Ezekiel Boncassen Father of Isabel. A learned American, he is spoken of as a potential President of the United States.
Isabel Boncassen Love interest of Silverbridge in The Duke's Children. Marries him after being assured that his father approves of the match.
Mrs Boncassen Mother of Isabel. Portrayed as somewhat ridiculous in London society, but her great love for her daughter is stressed.
Mr Bott. A somewhat overbearing and fawning member of Parliament, he shadows Palliser. He offends Lady Glencora by watching her dance with Burgo Fitzgerald, and also loses his seat in Parliament during the election held while the Pallisers are abroad.
Mr and Mrs Bunce. Phineas Finn's landlady and her husband.
C
Miss Cassewary. Companion of Lady Mabel Grex.
Oswald Standish, Lord Chiltern. Aggressive brother of Lady Laura Standish. He was thought at the time to be based on Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire.
D
Mr Daubeny: Conservative Leader of the House of Commons and later Prime Minister. Believed to be based on Benjamin Disraeli.
Lady Rosina de Courcy. A shrivelled-up old woman whose aristocratic family is now impoverished. She lives in a small cottage near her old home. Plantagenet enjoys her company, although Glencora scornfully reminds her husband that Lady Rosina once tried to marry a brewer to solve her financial troubles.
Lord de Terrier: Conservative leader, Prime Minister at the time of Phineas Finn's entry into the Commons, but ousted soon afterwards; based on Lord Derby
Sir Orlando Drought Conservative MP, Leader of the House of Commons and First Lord of the Admiralty in the Omnium government. He believes that as Leader of the House of Commons, he should be Prime Minister, but finds that the Duke of Omnium is not friendly to his views. Resigns, ostensibly over a matter of principle. Appears to have returned to the Conservative Front Bench during the Drummond government.
Lord Drummond Secretary of State for the Colonies in the Omnium Government; later becomes Conservative Prime Minister, but his government falls near the end of The Duke's Children.
E
Violet Effingham. Love interest of Phineas Finn in Phineas Finn. Later the wife of Oswald Standish, Lord Chiltern.
Barrington Erle Liberal MP and minor Cabinet minister. Postmaster General in the Omnium government.
Lizzie, Lady Eustace. Formerly Lizzie Greystock, the protagonist of The Eustace Diamonds. The apparent theft of her diamonds rivets society, but at the end of the novel her lies are exposed. She later appears in Phineas Redux and also in The Prime Minister, in which she repels Ferdinand Lopez's advances and attempts to obtain her money.
F
Marie Finn: Originally appears in Phineas Finn as Madame Max Goesler, a Viennese widow, and becomes a close friend and confidant to the old Duke of Omnium. At his death she is left diamonds, which she refuses to take. She marries Phineas Finn. An intimate friend of Lady Glencora, and thereafter of her daughter Mary, she is shunned by Glencora's widower Plantagenet, now Duke of Omnium, when he believes that she has encouraged the marriage between Lady Mary and Frank Tregear. Later, she and the Duke reconcile.
Burgo Fitzgerald. Loved by Lady Glencora before she enters into an arranged marriage with Plantagenet Palliser. Handsome but penniless, he nearly persuades Lady Glencora to run away with her. By the time she encounters him again in a German gambling town, she feels only pity for him, and Palliser arranges for a small pension to be paid to him there.
Arthur Fletcher. Elected MP for Silverbridge after Grey resigns; marries Emily Lopez (née Wharton) whom he has long loved.
G
Mrs Arabella Greenow. Daughter of Squire Vavasor, sister of John and aunt of George, Kate and Alice. Married a rich elderly man, Mr Greenow, and was soon his widow. Shows an interest in her niece Kate and takes her to Yarmouth with her. Mrs Greenow is courted by the dashing wastrel Captain Bellfield and also by the less attractive but well-off Mr Cheesacre.
Mr. Gresham. Liberal leader and friendly rival of Mr. Daubeny. Prime Minister, succeeding the Duke of Omnium. Believed to be based on William Ewart Gladstone.
Lady Mabel Grex. Initial love interest of Lord Silverbridge in The Duke's Children. While not in love with Silverbridge, but with Frank Tregear, she plays Silverbridge along in the hope of becoming Duchess of Omnium, but he soon becomes infatuated with Isabel Boncassen. The death of her father, the dissipated Lord Grex, leaves her impoverished, and she is left alone with her companion Miss Cassewary, two old maids together.
John Grey. Love interest of Alice Vavasor, who later marries him. A wealthy gentleman farmer, he becomes member of Parliament for Silverbridge after Palliser gives up that seat to become member for Barsetshire instead, county seats being more prestigious.
J
Mary Jones. Childhood sweetheart, and eventually first wife, of Phineas Finn. She dies soon after they marry.
K
Robert Kennedy: Member of Parliament and Phineas Finn's rival for the affections of Lady Laura Standish. He eventually becomes insane.
Sarah Kennedy. Elderly mother of Robert Kennedy, whom she survives.
L
Lady Linlithgow. Acerbic aunt of Lizzie Eustace.
Ferdinand Lopez: Of doubtful origins, he marries Emily Wharton for her money. Persuades Glencora, Duchess of Omnium, to back him as a candidate in the Silverbridge by-election, which is won by Arthur Fletcher. When in dire financial straits, he throws himself beneath a train at the Tenway Junction.
M
Mrs Marsham. She was a friend of Plantagenet Palliser's mother but is disliked by Lady Glencora. Mrs Marsham eventually marries Mr Bott, to Plantagenet's disgust.
Miss McNulty. Companion of Lady Linlithgow, Lizzie Eustace's aunt, and afterwards of Lizzie herself.
Countess of Midlothian. A meddlesome old woman who helped to pressure Lady Glencora to marry Plantagenet Palliser. The Countess also interferes in Alice Vavasor's life, though Alice indignantly rejects her advice.
William Mildmay: Liberal Prime Minister early in the series, greatly admired by Palliser; based on Lord John Russell
Joshua Monk. Radical member of Parliament for the Potteries, risen from humble origins. Later becomes Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Omnium government, and Prime Minister as the series ends.
O
George Plantagenet Palliser, Duke of Omnium; Plantagenet Palliser's uncle. Never married; responsible for the building of the monstrous Gatherum Castle, with some love affairs in his younger years. Former member of Parliament for Silverbridge. Considers marrying Madame Max Goesler (later Marie Finn) but she refuses his offer. Dies, leaving Madame Goesler money and all of his jewels. She does not accept the bequest.
P
Lord Gerald Palliser. Second son and second child of the Duke and Duchess of Omnium. Is sent down from Cambridge for unexcused absences, but is later enrolled at Oxford. Loses money at cards.
Lady Glencora Palliser (daughter). Mentioned once in The Prime Minister and never before or after as Plantagenet and Glencora Palliser's eldest daughter. Possible oversight by Trollope as there is no mention of her death and in The Duke's Children it is made clear that the Omniums have only three children, Lord Silverbridge, Lord Gerald and Lady Mary.
Jeffrey Palliser. Cousin of Plantagenet Palliser and at the time of Can You Forgive Her? next in line to the dukedom of Omnium after him. Later marries and lives in Gloucestershire.
Lady Mary Palliser. Youngest child and daughter of Plantagenet and Glencora. Falls in love with Frank Tregear. Her father's initial refusal to accept the match and gradual reconciliation to it forms much of the plot of The Duke's Children.
Plantagenet Palliser (father). See main article.
Plantagenet Palliser (son), holds the courtesy title Earl of Silverbridge. See under "Earl of Silverbridge".
Sexty Parker. Partner of Ferdinand Lopez in The Prime Minister and ruined by him.
S
Duke of St Bungay. Liberal politician, who offers Palliser the post of Chancellor of the Exchequer in Can You Forgive Her? Is spoken of as a possible prime minister in Phineas Finn. Serves in a variety of Cabinet posts, and is a close friend and confidant of Palliser.
Plantagenet Palliser, Earl of Silverbridge Eldest child of Plantagenet and Glencora Palliser. His love initially for Lady Mabel Grex and later for Isabel Boncassen forms much of the plot of The Duke's Children. Involved in a betting scandal. He serves initially as a Conservative, but later as a Liberal Member of Parliament.
Lady Laura Standish. Friend and love interest of Phineas Finn in Phineas Finn.
T
Frank Tregear. Falls in love with Lady Mary Palliser. Her father's objections to the match are gradually worn down, especially once Tregear is elected as a member of Parliament.
V
Alice Vavasor. A friend and cousin of Lady Glencora's; eventually marries John Grey after long rejecting him.
Arabella Vavasor. Daughter of Squire Vavasor. See under Greenow, Mrs Arabella.
George Adam St George Vavasor. A ne'er do well, who takes money from his cousin Alice to finance ruinously expensive runs for Parliament. Briefly sits in the Commons, but is disinherited by his grandfather and eventually flees to America.
John Vavasor. Alice's father and George's uncle. Heir to the Vavasor fortune after George is disinherited.
Kate Vavasor. Sister of George Vavasor and cousin of Alice Vavasor.
Squire Vavasor. Strong-willed father of John and grandfather of George, Kate and Alice. Though a strong believer in primogeniture, he eventually disinherits George shortly before his own death.
W
Emily Wharton. Marries Ferdinand Lopez and is widowed when he kills himself. Later marries Arthur Fletcher.
Everett Wharton. Emily's brother.
Mr. Abel Wharton. Emily's father, an attorney in commercial law.
Adaptations
In 1974 the BBC adapted the Palliser novels as a twenty-six part serial The Pallisers, using some material from Trollope's Barsetshire novel The Small House at Allington (1864). This was in turn novelised in a single volume by John Garforth under the alias Tony Hussey.
There was also a 12-part BBC Radio 4 "Classic Serial" dramatisation in 2004, which has been re-broadcast a number of times on BBC Radio 4 Extra. The serial was narrated by David Troughton as Trollope, with Ben Miles as Plantagenet Palliser and Sophie Thompson as Lady Glencora. A new six-part adaptation by Mike Harris under the title The Pallisers began on BBC Radio 4 on 10 November 2019.
The 2017 novel Rich People Problems by Kevin Kwan makes numerous references to the Palliser novels. A secondary character, Colette Bing, marries Lucien Plantagenet Montagu-Scott, Earl of Palliser, son of the Duke of Glencora, whose family seat is located in Barchester in the county of Barsetshire.
References
External links
Book series introduced in 1864
Hexalogies
Novel series
British novels adapted into television shows |
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