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4541419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20David%20Letterman%20sketches | List of David Letterman sketches | CBS's Late Show with David Letterman regularly featured different sketches that follow the monologue and precede interviews with guests. Often these are repeated absurdist segments, involving various cast members, Dave's friends, audience participation, edited or contrived news or promotional videos, or competitions or stunts staged outside the Ed Sullivan Theater. Many of the same sketches originally debuted on Letterman's previous series, NBC's Late Night with David Letterman and The David Letterman Show.
The show's regularly scheduled segments consisted of "Small Town News" on Mondays and "Fun Facts" on Fridays. Thursdays often featured a rotating set of three audience participation segments: "Know Your Current Events", "Stump the Band", and "Audience Show and Tell."
"Stupid Pet Tricks" and "Stupid Human Tricks", two of Letterman's trademark bits from Late Night, continued to be presented on the Late Show, though much less frequently.
There were also running gags, which may continue for about a month, such as playing José Feliciano's "Old Turkey Buzzard" or other sound effects when a card "crashes through the window" or telephone calls from "Len Easton, California Highway Patrol" or Joe McCain on a telephone that Dave acknowledges is a prop that is not connected. Dave expresses amusement or annoyance during these recurring events.
This article focuses on sketches that have been featured on the Late Show with David Letterman.
Kalter introduction
Announcer Alan Kalter's (and before him, Bill Wendell's) introduction of Letterman, while technically not a skit, assigned a bizarre modification to Letterman's name and appears at the beginning of every show. ("And now: Microscopic Sea Creature, David Letterman!") Letterman's title changes every night and often makes reference to a current event. ("And now: Disenfranchised French Youth, David Letterman!") Prior to September 11, 2001, the first line of Wendell's and Kalter's introductions contained humorous descriptions of New York City ("From New York! Where the rats hate the subways, too!"). Once the Late Show returned to air on September 17, 2001, the introduction changed simply to, "From New York! The greatest city in the world!" This remained the standard introduction for over ten years; however, "The greatest city in the world!" is omitted from episodes with guest hosts, as is the host 'title'. In 2011, Kalter took to shortening 'David' to 'Dave', in his introduction of Letterman. At some point prior to late 2012, he once again returned to using 'David'. Beginning on January 2, 2013, the introduction began "From the heart of Broadway, broadcasting across the nation and around the world!", while Alan also included a brief self-introduction of himself ("I'm Alan Kalter") after introducing Paul Shaffer & The CBS Orchestra at this time as well.
Sketch participants
While Letterman himself often participated in many of the show's non-"desk comedy" routines in its earlier years (as well as on Late Night), over time he has increasingly preferred to have others star in them instead. Letterman is now rarely featured in any of the show's frequent pre-taped bits.
Kalter, bandleader and sidekick Paul Shaffer, and Hello Deli proprietor Rupert Jee are often used instead in comedy routines, as are stage manager Biff Henderson, stagehands Pat Farmer and Kenny Sheehan, handyman George Clarke, "cue card boy" Tony Mendez, head carpenter Harold Larkin, cameraman Dave Dorsett, assistant Stephanie Birkitt, former writers Gerard Mulligan and Chris Elliott (who almost always appear together), and Johnny Dark (a personal comedy friend of Letterman's).
Letterman's mother, Dorothy, also made appearances (via satellite from Indianapolis) from time to time, including each Thanksgiving. She perhaps rose to fame mostly as a result of her nightly reporting from the 1994 Winter Olympics in Norway.
Former recurring players from the show include Mujibur Rahman and Sirajul Islam (employees of a nearby gift store which has since relocated), Calvert DeForest (a.k.a. Larry "Bud" Melman), and scenic designer Kathleen Ankers (reprising her Late Night role of "Peggy, the Foulmouthed Chambermaid"; on CBS, she was the equally censored "Helen, the Ill-tempered Ticket Lady").
Random cameo appearances were made during the span of the show, most notably in the earlier years by the Tony Randall, with Regis Philbin later filling that void.
For a while, Letterman took great delight in making fun of his employer, continuing a tradition established at NBC, with senior CBS Corporation executive Les Moonves often serving as the target of his abuse. In time, Letterman's relationship with Moonves improved; a segment titled "More with Les" featured jocular phone calls between Letterman and Moonves.
Alan Kalter
Announcer Alan Kalter was frequently used in comedy bits, often with Kalter as the butt of the joke:
Kalter the Pervert
In some skits, Kalter is portrayed as a deluded sexual deviant, often referring to himself as "Big Red." Letterman will frequently follow them up by jokingly commenting to Shaffer on Kalter's disturbing, sickening nature, while Kalter grins mischievously. Often such skits begin with Letterman informing the audience that Kalter had approached Letterman prior to the show (about which Letterman often adds, "I've asked him not to do that"), and explaining that Kalter had asked to comment on a current news or pop cultural event.
Kalter then begins a monologue where he speaks directly to the camera, setting up the nature of the topic (often the separation of a public couple) in a serious manner. He then addresses a separate, closer camera in a sexually provocative manner as amorous music plays in the background. The material is often a series of double entendre, with Kalter offering to romantically console the woman that is the center of the issue, and ends with him making passionate moans. A disturbed Letterman then interrupts Kalter and chides him for behaving inappropriately. Kalter often ends the bit by making a provocative quip to Letterman and then rips off his headset and exits the stage in a "huff."
Kalterworld
Occasionally, Kalter used his segments to promote "Kalterworld", a supposed web site selling "the finest in adult toys, games, and novelties." The Kalterworld.com URL leads to the official Late Show web site.
"Alan Kalter Makes Your Product Sound Sexy"
Kalter promotes an actual commercial product (such as Ajax) in a provocative, suggestive manner. He then pours the product on his head and smears it on his body, often moaning as he does so and then screaming in pain as it gets into his eyes. A bland voice-over then encourages companies to participate in the segment by submitting their own product to a particular address.
Kalter the Singer
Kalter is introduced with the implication that he will provide a serious commentary on current events, but instead exuberantly sings a contemporary pop song filled with sexual innuendos (often from the female perspective). Songs thus far have included "My Humps" on "Alan Kalter's Political Roundup", "Don't Cha" on "Alan Kalter's Mideast Update" and "London Bridge." As he performs, Kalter struts across the stage with a disturbed and annoyed Letterman visible at his desk, and ultimately exits at the other side.
Kalter Gets Maimed
The show will often employ bits where severe bodily harm is supposedly inflicted on Kalter (such as when a cocktail waitress walks across the stage in Kalter's direction and then tosses the drink into his face). He then writhes on the ground groaning and acting as if in serious pain. A wry Letterman will sometimes advise an inattentive Kalter to use a medication normally used for more mild injuries, such as Neosporin or Ibuprofin.
The Guy Who Beats Up Alan
In one recurring gag, Kalter will make a statement on a particular topic, only to have a large man appear from nowhere and object to Kalter's comments. He then proceeds to pummel him, which results in Kalter rolling on the ground in agony, and storms off backstage. Letterman will often amusedly ridicule the obviously fake nature of the violence, as the man's blows never come anywhere near Kalter, despite Kalter's best efforts to sell his pain. ("That last punch came at least within a foot.")
Later the beatings were followed up by pre-taped pieces, in which the relationship between Alan and the man who beats him (identified as "Brian") was shown to be more complicated. One sketch involved Kalter catching Brian being "unfaithful" by beating up another man on the street, and the two being heartbroken by the event. Another followed Brian punching Kalter in the face despite his "Not the face!" pleas. After Brian storms off backstage, a video shows Brian expressing guilt to his wife or girlfriend about his abuse towards Kalter, fearing it was "pushing him away." The two later make up at the end with Brian meeting Kalter and punching him in the stomach instead of the face, much to Kalter's happiness. The videos are presented in a mock romance-drama style, with a soundtrack of emotional pop songs.
"TV's Uncle Jerry"
In 2006, Alan began to introduce himself by saying "I'm Alan Kalter, TV's Uncle Jerry", much to Letterman's delight at first, but over time Letterman would regard the moniker with faux-irritation, which appeared to be part of the joke. In August of that year, several weeks after the bit started, the Late Show aired a clip from a new, fake CBS domestic sitcom entitled "Oh, Brother!" where Kalter played the aforementioned "Uncle Jerry" character. In the clip, Jerry abandons babysitting his brother's children on his wedding anniversary to instead join a friend at a bar who had met two flight attendants. He then uses a would-be catch-phrase: "Hey, Uncle Jerry's gonna get busy!" Despite introducing the clip with some enthusiasm, Letterman quickly dismissed it afterwards, saying "That sucked! That just sucked!" Kalter has taken to introducing himself as other beloved television characters such as TV's Professor Withers, TV's Johnny Mambo and TV's Uptown Ricky Brown. He has also introduced himself as "TV's Howie Mandel", to which Dave said that made no sense at all.
"Alan Kalter's Campaign Roundup"
A near-daily running gag presented late in the 2000 presidential election season began with Letterman introducing Kalter, who would ostensibly give a summary of the latest campaign news. Instead, Kalter would perform an energetic rendition of the chorus to "Who Let the Dogs Out?" which was a popular and ubiquitous song at the time, and walk across the stage. In the skit's later occurrences, Kalter would sometimes rip off his shirt as he sang (revealing a pale and flabby physique), while adding a manic and deranged tone to his performance. Kalter has demonstrated a compulsion to disrobe in many of his other segments before and since.
Alan Punches Someone Out
In another long-running gag, Kalter would take issue with something said at his expense, such as a Top Ten List entry, or a letter read during the "CBS Mailbag" segment. Kalter would press Letterman about the statement, asking "Did he really say that?" and Letterman would confirm its accuracy. Kalter would then leave the stage to hunt down the person who said it, usually up in the Late Show offices. During his transit, an individual would often greet Kalter with "Hi, Alan!" only to be ignored. Upon finding the guilty party, Kalter would then punch him out and walk away with a look of satisfaction. In one instance, the person on the receiving end was Regis Philbin, who had just been shown in a "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" clip where a question described Kalter as "creepy."
Alan Kalter's Celebrity Interview
Occasionally after the first or second guest, Letterman will turn over the show to Kalter, who's supposed to conduct an interview of his own with a celebrity. Invariably, it turns out the guest booked for "Celebrity Interview", who is seated next to Kalter, has already appeared on the show as the first or second guest earlier that night. An angry Kalter accuses Letterman of deliberately booking the same person as a regular guest on the show in an attempt to sabotage Kalter's segment and steal the limelight. The sketch typically ends with Kalter storming off the stage after hurling insults at Letterman, as well as the celebrity interviewee, who usually deadpans confusion or mortification.
Regular sketches
When Letterman left NBC and moved to CBS to begin the Late Show in the summer of 1993, several of Late Night's long-running comedy bits made the move with him, including perhaps his best known, the Top Ten List. Letterman renamed a few of his regular bits to avoid legal problems over trademark infringement (NBC claimed that what he did on Late Night was "intellectual property" of the network). For example, "Viewer Mail" on NBC became the "CBS Mailbag", and Larry "Bud" Melman began to use his real name, Calvert DeForest.
One recurring sketch on both the NBC and CBS shows has been the destruction of household items by various methods including explosives, steamrollers, and - most often - throwing them off the roof of the Ed Sullivan Theater. While popular with fans, Letterman gradually lessened the frequency of such segments.
Letterman also has a knack for consuming food products and drinks that appear on his show. Among the items that he has consumed are: wine from a bottle used for a cooking demonstration; various kinds of liquor (while quipping "We're gonna lose our liquor license"); Popeyes "Full Flavor Green Beans"; "motor oil" (actually chocolate syrup) from a bottle that bore a "Quaker State" label; Red Bull; liquid from a bottle that supposedly contained Wite-Out; pills from boxes labeled "Lipitor" and "Cialis" (obviously not really the drugs); and even cosmetic products. On one occasion, Letterman took a healthy swig of "low-carb suntan lotion" and immediately spit it out, having discovered that it actually was suntan lotion.
The Late Show is well known for its repeated absurdist segments, often taking the form of competitions or audience participation. The charm of such segments is often that they are completely pointless, yet are taken seriously by Letterman and all involved.
Top Ten List
The Top Ten List appears almost daily on the Late Show, and remains one of the few regular segments carried over from Late Night. It is often the last comedic segment presented prior to the show's first guest. List topics are often inspired by current news and pop cultural events, with typical lists bearing titles such as "Top Ten Signs..." and "Top Ten Reasons..." The Top Ten List is compiled by the show's writing staff, and is usually read by Letterman, although the show occasionally uses guest presenters. Some Top Ten List themes reappear seasonally, such as the carolers singing "Top Ten Least Popular Holiday Songs."
For a long time, the Top Ten Lists were said to have been written in a so-called "Home Office". There were various Home Offices before the part was dropped, but the list included Sioux City, Iowa; Grand Rapids, Michigan; and Wahoo, Nebraska - all actual, extant towns. (Late Show staffer Mike McIntee's nightly online recap of the show, the "Wahoo Gazette", is named after the Nebraska town.)
The Top Ten List has occasionally been a casualty of time constraints. Letterman may announce that the Top Ten List is coming up, or Kalter will promote it before the first commercial, when, in fact, it is not delivered on that night's show and is instead held until the next morning, when it is broadcast across Westwood One/CBS Radio Network.
Great Moments in Presidential Speeches
Great Moments in Presidential Speeches was a near-daily segment which presented a series of three video excerpts. Originally, the first two come from actual famous moments, Franklin D. Roosevelt's inaugural speech ("The only thing we have to fear is fear itself") and John F. Kennedy's inaugural speech ("Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country").
The third excerpt featured President George W. Bush in an unintentionally comical moment, often during press conferences or town hall gatherings. These moments frequently focused on President Bush stuttering, finding himself at a loss for words, or uttering a nonsensical Bushism. The excerpts were also often taken out of context for humorous effect, such as when Bush declared, "My kids can't read!", "My lawyer's a Latino" or "Why should I care about Africa?"
The "Great Moments" presentation also featured Dwight Eisenhower, Harry S. Truman, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, and even President Bush's father, followed by Bush himself. One adaptation was of President Kennedy's Berlin speech, with the words "Ich bin ein Berliner", followed by President Reagan's Berlin speech ("Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall") in 1987 (Reagan was also featured in another Letterman skit "The Reagan Diaries"), and as always, an excerpt from President Bush's recent speeches. An Abraham Lincoln impostor (Johnny Dark) has also given the "Tear down this wall" speech. President Lyndon Johnson made his debut on "Great Moments" with his declaration not to seek reelection in 1968. George Washington's, Abraham Lincoln's, Roosevelt's, and Kennedy's portraits were shown in the graphic at the beginning and end of "Great Moments."
After a few months into the segment's inception, the Kennedy inauguration clip began to include a Late Show staffer (often dressed in formal period garb) superimposed over the empty seat to Kennedy's right. The staffers included announcer Alan Kalter, "cue card boy" Tony "Inky" Mendez (who showed cue cards to President Kennedy), costume designer Susan Hum (whose actions included taking his picture with a disposable camera, removing lint from his shoulder, stealing his wallet, and eating a jumbo pretzel), associate producer Nancy Agostini, and stage manager Biff Henderson. All "cameos" ended with the staffers clapping along in real-time response to Kennedy's speech.
After the incident when an Iraqi journalist threw his shoes at Bush, flying shoes were shown in the introductory vignettes of the other Presidents, including shoes thrown at Abraham Lincoln giving the Gettysburg Address.
The last airing of the sketch involving Bush was January 16, four days before the inauguration of President Barack Obama.
The first airing of the sketch after President Obama entered office was Monday, January 26, 2009, but the Obama speech that was captured appeared to have no comedic value, thus heralding the beginning of the Obama presidency as well as fulfilling the actual purpose of the Great Moments segment. On the next GMIPS, aired January 28, 2009, President Obama's face was superimposed over the body of former President Bush in one of his speeches, pretending that Obama was speaking comically, but it was actually the voice of President Bush. After that, other sketches, such as "This Day in the Clinton Marriage", were substituted in the time slot when "Great Moments" previously appeared.
Will It Float?
An item is dropped into a tank of water by two models, often referred to by Letterman as "The Hi-Ho Girls." The segment starts out with Kalter identifying a household item that will be tested, and a faux prize that is supposedly at stake. A picture of that prize is flashed on screen for a split second. Letterman and Shaffer debate the buoyant properties of the item before they each decide on whether it will sink or float (a frequent deciding factor is the nature of the item's container).
Two models then drop the item into the tank while the Late Show "Hula Hoop Girl" (Anna Jack) and "Grinder Girl" (Kiva Kahl) perform on either side of the tank. Depending upon the outcome, large flashing words appear reading, "It Floats!" (accompanied by a ringing bell) or "It Sinks!" (accompanied by a buzzer).
Letterman often espouses the educational merit of the game in jest, citing positive feedback from parents, educators, and clergymen. He has acknowledged that while the segment is not popular with the Late Show staff, he insists on continuing it for his own amusement. Letterman joked that the skit was adapted from a similar BBC programme entitled "Is It Buoyant?" He also often advertises the (fictional) "Will It Float" home game, which "has everything you need in a box to play the game for only $19.99." The game consists only of a list of suggested household items and a bottle of water. Latterly, Letterman also plugged the PlayStation 3 version of the "Will It Float?" home game, and in the past would highlight the Xbox 360 version. At one point, he issued viewers a warning to stay away from the knockoff version, "Does it Sink?", which could be found being hawked by street vendors on Canal Street. After the game is over, Letterman often addresses the women by saying he will see them at "the big 'Will It Float?' party" after the show.
Is This Anything?
In this segment, the stage curtain is raised to reveal an individual or team performing an unusual stunt, often accompanied by music from the CBS Orchestra. Flanking the performer, who varies, are two previous performers who became regulars for the segment:
The "Hula Hoop Girl" (Anna Jack), who spins numerous hula hoops around different parts of her body, and
The "Grinder Girl" (Kiva Kahl), who operates a hand-held grinder against metal parts of her costume, producing sparks.
After about thirty seconds the curtain is lowered and Letterman discusses with Shaffer whether the act was "something" or "nothing." As the segment continued over the course of time, Letterman would increasingly express disinterest in the featured performer, opting instead to admire the Grinder Girl. Shaffer in turn would often admit to having been too distracted with his performance of the music.
On an episode in June 2003, the curtain rose to reveal members of the Stanley Cup champion New Jersey Devils. Martin Brodeur hoisted the trophy, leading the crowd in a chant of "Devils! Devils!" Letterman and Shaffer ruled it as definitely "something."
Is This Anything lay dormant for almost a year before it was resurrected on the March 22, 2006 episode. A man balanced himself on a ladder and juggled: Paul Shaffer voted a clear "nothing", and Letterman was going to vote "something" before he noticed a safety mat. Letterman then concurred with Shaffer.
In an uncharacteristic move, Letterman invited Sharon Osbourne to assist in officiating Is This Anything on the July 26, 2007 episode, due to her involvement with America's Got Talent. The act consisted of a man balancing an aluminum ladder on his chin while riding a unicycle, and all three agreed that it was nothing.
Small Town News
Often presented on Mondays, Letterman presents a series of actual news items, advertisements, and police blotter excerpts which are shown to be unintentionally humorous. In earlier incarnations, these items would be the setup for a punchline from Letterman, and Letterman would occasionally tell the audience to "please wait for the humorous comment." "Small Town News" was a segment that began on The David Letterman Show in 1980 and continued through his tenure on Late Night and the Late Show. For most of the run of the Late Show, Letterman dropped the punchlines, thereby making the sketch nearly identical to Headlines, a sketch on Jay Leno's programs that relied on the news items themselves being the punchline. Letterman long stated that he believed Leno stole the concept from Letterman.
Audience participation games
Thursday episodes usually include one of three rotating variations of audience participation segments. Each game starts with Letterman making small talk with each of the featured audience members, asking about their background and occupations, often with humorous results. When the individual has completed their portion, they are given a gift certificate to a local restaurant as well as random gift items. Occasionally, the participant is a ringer from the show staff.
Know Your Current Events
In what Letterman describes as "America's Fastest Growing Quiz Sensation", a "contestant" is chosen from the audience to play a quiz game. He or she first chooses a category. Besides the title category, there are often a total of "six big ways to win big", with other categories being topical and often esoteric, and rarely reappearing. Some of these have included "Know Your Home Depot Locations in Delaware", "Know Your Late Show Production Accountant Joe DeGeorge", "Know Your Department Store Return Policies", and "Know Your Shocking Facts about Peter Jennings." Some categories are merely for show; in the event a fake category is picked, Letterman will encourage the contestant to pick a different category.
A regular category is "Know Your Cuts of Meat", which itself consists of five categories: beef, lamb, veal, pork, and "variety meats", as Shaffer heavily accentuates when he chuckles and says, "Variety meats, David." After playing, the individual is also rewarded with a box of assorted meat cuts from "Lobel's: pound for pound, the finest butcher shop in the world."
Throughout the course of the segment's history on the show, Letterman has varied back and forth between discreetly feeding the contestants the answers, and making them guess.
Each selected category is accompanied by a brief theme song, based on Nobody But Me.
Stump the Band
This is a variation of the segment from Johnny Carson's (and earlier, Jack Paar's) tenure on The Tonight Show. A pre-selected audience member requests an obscure song from the CBS Orchestra, which then performs a humorous pre-scripted song based only on the title of the requested song (often a parody of a more popular song). The band will then jokingly insist that they have correctly played the song, only to be told otherwise by the individual, who then performs the actual song. The novelty song "Wadaliacha" is a recurring joke on the show, having been suggested multiple times, but yet never performed right. However, on more than one occasion, the audience member affirmed that the band correctly performed the song, which always surprised Letterman and Shaffer, since the performances were meant to be humorously inaccurate. These segments often feature a segment with Shaffer in character as Carnac the Magnificent, another Carson carryover.
Audience Show and Tell
This revolves around a pre-selected audience member relating an anecdote, presenting a personal item of note, or demonstrating a hidden talent.
Fun Facts
Usually presented on Fridays, the segment consists of Letterman reading a series of trivia, records, and statistics. Letterman explains that the "Fun Facts" are submitted to the show each week by "Gary Sherman", the head of the fictional "Federal Bureau of Miscellaneous Information" (FBMI) and a supposed acquaintance of Shaffer whom Letterman claims he met at Shaffer's wedding. The segment often begins with Letterman presenting a few real facts to set up the premise (although they are often of a humorous nature in their own right and are mistaken by some audience members as made-up). He then presents several humorous, fictional "facts." Most of these are of an absurdist nature, such as "The first pair of binoculars had a 1x magnification", or "For a short amount of time, the rock band The Who broke up, and formed two new bands called The When and The What." An irrelevant fictitious promotional announcement of some kind is mixed in on occasion, much to Letterman's confusion.
The segment was initially presented on the show sporadically before being made a regular weekly feature. Letterman is also promoting a Fun Facts book (unlike the Will it Float? game, a real book, ).
Hello Deli Games
A camera crew is sent to Rupert Jee in the neighboring Hello Deli, where Jee is asked to invite a potential player from the crowd outside. The player introduces him or herself, relates his or her background, and is told what prize is to be won. Regardless of the outcome, the player is also awarded a "Hello Deli Platter" by the Hi-Ho Girls.
Recurring games include "Beat the Clock"—echoing the title of a game show from the early days of television—in which the confused player helplessly attempts to stop a clock from counting down to zero, and "What's on the iPod?", in which Rupert tunelessly sings along to a song on his iPod and the contestant has to guess what song he is listening to.
Other games involve a player searching for a hidden item in the deli, and guessing the nature of an item obscured under an item of clothing worn by Jee (such as a Hillary Clinton-esque pantsuit). Occasionally, the supposed player is a "plant" and the segment ends when the "player" appears to be severely injured. Johnny Dark has appeared, under various names, as the contestant, in which case the routine consists of him asking so many questions that there is no time for the game itself. Biff Henderson has hosted similar games on the street.
Stupid Pet Tricks/Stupid Human Tricks
These segments were carried over from Late Night, and consist of three pre-selected participants (or in the case of "Pet Tricks", pets and their owners), who each demonstrate an unusual talent or stunt on the stage. Letterman will often precede the segment with the tongue-in-cheek warning: "Remember, this is not a competition, it is only an exhibition — please, no wagering." While still a trademark feature of the Late Show, the segment has been featured on a more sporadic basis in recent years. The show's regular "Audience Show and Tell" bit will often include an audience member performing a "Stupid Human Trick"-type act.
Explod-O-Pop
Explod-O-Pop is a brand of popping corn, and is usually given as a prize to the participants of the audience participation games. Letterman often describes the product using various slogans such as "America's Only Atomic Popping Corn", "It's Carbolicious", and "It's Contaminated with Flavor!"
It was available at CBS's online store, with the proceeds benefitting the American Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming, a charity of Letterman's which contributes its proceeds to a wide variety of foundations, most of which are of a health, youth, or educational nature.
Audience sweep
Late in the show, a short segment will consist of a camera panning across the audience as it applauds during the break. A comedy piece will usually be superimposed above this video; in most cases this is either a graphic presenting a game or announcement narrated by Kalter, or a comedy piece featuring Kalter himself. Since returning from the hiatus caused by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, however, these segments now usually feature a Kalter voice-over promoting future guests, concluded by a phrase such as "Get your VCRs ready!"
Games
Games often consist of parodies of simple time-killers such as word jumbles or quizzes. One example consists of the viewer being shown a short jumble where the letters are barely mixed up, seemingly making for an obvious answer. When the letters are supposedly shuffled into their "correct" order, the answer will actually consist of a completely different, longer set of letters.
Announcements
Some examples of announcements include "Late Show Reminders" (advising viewers to set their VCR for an "upcoming" episode featuring guests that have already appeared earlier that very night), "contest winners" (such as a supposed "My Pet Looks Like Dave" contest), and promotions for "all-new" episodes of old CBS shows, such as Jake and the Fatman.
Bored Kalter
A common example of Kalter's audience sweep comedy bits consists only of a silent and apathetic Kalter engaging in some mundane activity, such as eating or shaving.
The Quiz Machine
During the mid-1990s a frequent Late Show routine was The Quiz Machine, a large device wheeled out onto the stage, which progressively got bigger and more advanced as weeks went on. The Quiz Machine contained answers to questions that Letterman had on his note cards, and would be revealed by contestants pushing buttons or pulling levers. Frequently the machine failed to work, adding to its humor. In a notable appearance by Bill Gates, dressed in lab coat and hard hat, he joked that if Microsoft would have invented a machine this bad, he would have it recalled.
Non-regular sketches
7-Eleven Giveaways
Letterman introduces a man claiming to be James Keyes, President and CEO of 7-Eleven, who then announces to the audience and viewers of the convenience store's latest promotional tie-in with the Late Show. The announcements first began with a commemoration of the date of July 11, 2006 ("7-11"), when all 7-Eleven stores would supposedly give away free Slurpees, hot dogs, and muffins to anyone who said "Dave sent me!" (all items were said to be paid for by Letterman). Since then, the man portraying Keyes (actor Roger Rathburn) has sporadically appeared, enthusiastically announcing other food item giveaways and lavish prize drawings. After the man walks off stage, Shaffer then asks Letterman if the man really is president and CEO of 7-Eleven, only to have Letterman reluctantly admit that he is not.
"Action News"
Letterman will occasionally interrupt a bit for "Action News", a bit that mocks "teaser" promos for local newscasts. Dave will look to the camera to his left and read a fake news headline with an ostensibly disingenuous smile and cheery demeanor. On the screen, in the style of a newscast, appears a news graphic next to Dave's face and the legend "Dave Letterman, Action News" at the bottom of the screen. After delivering the headline, Dave will then turn to the camera to his right and deliver another fake headline. He then "promotes" Action News ("That's all coming up tonight on 'Action News.'") and returns to the original bit as if nothing had happened. Occasionally, a weather reporter from an actual CBS affiliate will also deliver a pre-recorded fake weather tease. "Action News" most frequently interrupts "Fun Facts", although it occasionally interrupts other bits, including the Top Ten List. "Action News" began appearing in early 2008.
Cameraman Dave Dorsett Leaves the Theatre
During the segment of the show following the monologue, Letterman will be setting up a comedy bit when the camera trained on him begins to drift downward and stops with Letterman's head out of frame. Letterman will continue for several seconds before noticing the camera's new position, when he stops his bit and asks the cameraman, Dave Dorsett, what is happening. Dorsett explains that he has to leave the theatre for one reason or another (normally tied to a hyped event such as a new movie or video game release), and speaks of his disdain for the show as he exits through the guest entrance. The camera remains in its resting position for the remainder of the segment, causing Letterman to have to lean down and turn his head sideways to get into the shot. In another variation, Dorsett will not leave the studio, but will be preoccupied with something else, such as reading. When the show returns from commercial, the camera shot is back to normal.
Campaign 2000
Throughout the summer and fall of 2000, Dave and the cast (featuring producer Maria Pope) would ostensibly recap the latest on the presidential campaign between Al Gore and George W. Bush. An opening animation would roll accompanied by the orchestra, after which Alan Kalter would read a series of "sponsors", which included party ice (available in clear, semi-clear and opaque), the "ComposTumbler", onetime informercial sensation Hairagami and the then-new "Liquid Plumbr Foaming Pipe Snake". One of the most notable (and well-worn) bits from this segment was a video clip of then-candidate Bush whispering (despite an open lavalier microphone) to Dick Cheney that a reporter was a "major league asshole", to which Cheney chuckled back "Oh, big time." Outside this, however, it was common for Campaign 2000 to include no campaign-related content whatsoever.
Coincidentally, that was the same summer in which Survivor achieved its initial meteoric success. Campaign 2000 segments on days following new Survivor episodes (usually Monday, but occasionally other days) soon included that week's eliminated castaway. Dave often feigned disinterest with the castoffs, forcing them to stand next to Pope at the producer's podium; in fact, only one contestant, Elisabeth Filarski from Survivor: The Australian Outback, was ever invited to sit in a guest chair. Generally Dave would ask the contestants irrelevant, nonsensical questions; over time, he began to work Stephanie Birkitt into the segment, initially calling her upstairs in the office and later having her appear on stage in costume. She would routinely ask the castaways, "Did you see or touch any monkeys?" to which Dave would scold her. As time passed, she would promise, increasingly vehemently, not to ask the question and then ask it anyway.
For reasons unknown, the Campaign 2000 segment would appear at first regularly and then sporadically into 2001 (retaining the name "Campaign 2000"); Dave would feign exasperation at discovering its inclusion in the show, open the segment, and immediately close it without any of the "sponsors" or jokes.
"CBS Mailbag"
A Late Show staple on Fridays (originally Thursdays) until it was phased out in Letterman's later years (the last time it aired was December 3, 2004), the CBS Mailbag carried on the Late Night tradition of taking actual viewer letters (usually four at a time), and responding to each of them with a pre-written comedy routine. This segment was a carryover from Late Night, where it was known by the name "Viewer Mail"; NBC kept the segment when Letterman moved to CBS, though he quickly revived it under the "CBS Mailbag" name. "Please Mr. Postman" was the segment's theme song for the last few years (replacing the "We Get Letters" theme from The Perry Como Show that was originally used).
"Charts and Graphs"
Letterman displays poster boards with various charts and graphs, usually with the last element on each being the absurd one. (Pie Chart: What will be the top priority of the next president? 43%: Stabilizing Iraq. 31%: Stabilizing climate change. 26% Stabilizing The View.)
"A Day in the Life of..." (such as "A Day in the Life of George W. Bush")
A slide show with the time of day indicated on each slide, accompanied by a humorous caption, such as "4:30 p.m. Receives FTD's 'Good Luck Bouquet' from Osama bin Laden", "5:30 p.m. Yoo-Hoo break", "6:00 p.m. Nap."
"Fun with Rupert"
One of the most popular pre-taped pieces during the show's earlier years was a Candid Camera-style bit which featured the normally mild-mannered Rupert Jee interacting with ordinary, unsuspecting people around the city. Letterman - usually hidden in a van - would covertly observe the action and provide a disguised Jee (wearing a cap, glasses, backpack, and headphones) with ad-libbed instructions via two-way communication. This resulted in Jee performing humorous and unusual antics while amusing, confusing, and in some cases irritating, various victims. The segment was ceased after an unaired incident in which Letterman would only explain that a man had pulled a knife on Jee. It was unofficially revived in a few live bits in 2006 where Jee (not in disguise) would visit a neighboring restaurant and perform similar antics.
George Clarke's "It's a Fact"
Handyman Clarke is seen backstage, bloodied and severely injured from an earlier incident. He addresses the camera, indirectly explaining the incident by imparting advice such as "Women on the street don't like to be called 'Candy Pants.'" He will then point to the camera and say, "It's a fact!"
The Guy Who Swears at Dave
A man, often portraying a Late Show staffer, calls out Letterman, expressing his irritation with him. He then addresses Kalter and Shaffer in turn, flipping off each while shouting something that is bleeped. He then repeats this with Letterman, using both hands and repeating the same phrase with extra emphasis. He then storms away, much to the shock of the three men. One time, after Dave and Paul decided that an "Is This Anything" act was nothing, the performer turned out to be the Guy, who then went into that routine. After a Stupid Pet Trick, in which a dog barked at someone giving it the finger, Dave said that he hoped the dog would not run into the Guy backstage, but in the segue before the next commercial, they were together.
"How Many Guys in... Suits Can Get into a ...?"
Examples include "How Many Guys in Spider-Man Suits Can Get Into a Jamba Juice?" and "How Many Guys in Pirate Costumes Can Fit Into A Sandwich Shop?" As the title indicates, the camera is focused on a local establishment, and Dave counts the number of persons wearing the costumes entering the store (first one at a time, then "send in 5 more") until the store is crowded. The bit usually ends with persons in other random costumes being sent in, like a horse, tooth fairy, panda bear or wizard.
"Late Show Equations"
Similar in concept to "Charts and Graphs", except there is a slide covering the comic answer to the equation. ("A rollercoaster + the smell of goat = New York City cab ride.")
"NBC 4 News Update"
A portion of a news report from WNBC in New York City is aired and then at the very end of the clip is punctuated by Sue Simmons's infamous "What the (censored) are you doing?" outburst.
"On 53rd Street"
A daredevil demonstrates his or her skills outside the theater (such as Tony Hawk performing skateboarding jumps), a half-ton pumpkin is exploded on the street, or dogs compete in the Diving Dog Competition (in which the dogs long jump into a pool). The remainder of one show was canceled when a snowboarder was injured while performing a stunt.
Osama bin Laden Tapes
Usually on the heels of recent news reports of actual propaganda video announcements released by bin Laden or Al-Qaeda, the Late Show will present their own satires of such videos. Often this consists of a stock clip of bin Laden speaking into a microphone, with the audio being overdubbed. The new dialogue will range from bin Laden partaking in distinctly American pastimes (such as giving personal football predictions) to providing Al-Qaeda members with mundane advice (such as staying home during periods of extreme weather).
A common conclusion to the bin Laden parodies depicts him putting down his microphone, only to pick it back up and declare in a blasé manner: "Oh, and death to America."
"Pat and Kenny Read Oprah Transcripts"
The segment starts with a taped opening theme song, in which stagehands Pat Farmer and Kenny Sheehan perform a brief re-enactment of Winfrey's opening sequence ("Run on with Oprah"). Then Farmer and Sheehan read from an actual transcript of an episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show, usually involving a female celebrity guest, with Farmer taking the part of Winfrey and Sheehan the guest. Each read their lines in a distinctly monotone fashion, in humorous contrast to the enthusiastic nature of the original interview (which often includes Winfrey utterances such as "Woo hoo!" and "You go, girl!" to Letterman's amusement). During the reading, Sheehan sports a cigarette consisting mostly of ash which rarely breaks off. On some occasions the absurd nature of the bit will cause the two to break character (more often just Sheehan). At the end of the routine, Kalter gives an address for where to write to obtain a transcript of Pat and Kenny Read Oprah Transcripts. He finishes with a plug for "PK -- The Pat & Kenny Magazine" which is shown onscreen, and styled after Oprah's O, The Oprah Magazine.
Pat Farmer's "Surprise, You're on TV!"
Presented as a supposed clip from Farmer's own reality prank show, Farmer is seen standing next to an unsuspecting male victim in an ordinary setting, such as an elevator. Farmer is then shown to be holding a baseball bat, which he uses to strike the man in the pelvic area. As the man doubles over in pain, Farmer will address him and point to the camera, saying "Surprise, you're on TV!" Ostensibly this is a blunt satire of reality shows which utilize lowbrow physical humor, such as Jackass, as well as slapstick shows such as America's Funniest Home Videos.
"...Quiz" (such as the "Auto Show Quiz", "Boat Show Quiz", and "Toy Show Quiz")
Letterman presents video clips of people at a current event, on which is superimposed a multiple choice question, with the last choice being the punchline. For example the circus is in town. A slide shows a couple of clowns performing with a mode of transportation not quite visible with the question being "These brave and daring clowns are performing on A) An Unicycle, B) A small Car, or C) A small bear that devoured Regis Philbin.
"Rejected FDA Products"
A desk segment where Letterman displays samples of bad food concepts, such as "NyQuil Dessert Topping", and eats some of them. Likely inspired by the Topps card series Wacky Packages, which utilizes a similar emphasis on food.
"Sorry, Tom"
Letterman will explain that while not a scheduled guest, actor Tom Hanks is waiting backstage to make a surprise appearance. Hanks is then shown in the green room, smiling and waving to the delight of the audience. Letterman then informs Hanks that the show does not have enough time for him, causing Hanks to yell at an individual off-screen (ostensibly including obscenities). In reality, the footage of Hanks is a recycled clip from his visit on a much older episode, recorded specifically for later use in this bit. A notable use of this bit occurred during an interview with Hanks' own actor son, Colin. (Hanks also does many other comedy bits for the show whenever he's a guest, from making a glass-breaking noise, to a memorable "Audience Q & A" where he posed as a seat-filler for a member of the audience and was told "Wanna get outta my seat now, Fathead" by the angry woman.)
Susan Hum
As Letterman presents a comedy bit or converses with Shaffer, costume designer Hum will approach his desk carrying a food or drink item. Only after some time will Letterman acknowledge Hum, who will then inform him of the item she has with her. She then stands silently as Letterman attempts to proceed with the show. After noticing that she is still there, he will politely inform her that he is not interested in the item, provoking Hum to angrily insult Letterman (and sometimes throw the item to the floor) and walk off stage.
Ticket Scalper
Letterman will be setting up a bit when a man wearing a ski cap and jacket walks onto the set behind Dave and nervously and quietly gets Dave's attention and offers to sell him scalped tickets to a high-profile sporting event or concert that has already taken place. Dave points out that the man is obviously holding tickets to the past year's Super Bowl (which is when the bits began), and that the current event for which he's trying to sell tickets has already taken place. The man will then quickly change his story, announcing another event which grabs Dave's attention. Dave pulls out his wallet and approaches the man, when the nervous broker thinks he hears the police and both he and Dave quickly scatter. Dave then returns to his original bit.
Weekend Late Show
On Friday shows, Letterman sometimes threw to a promotion for a purported Saturday edition of the Late Show. The hosts, identified only as Bruce and Linda, discussed "upcoming" features, which might include interviews with B-list celebrities and cooking segments. The segment served as a parody of the weekend editions of network morning news shows (e.g. Weekend Today and CBS This Morning Saturday); these editions normally have different hosts and an even greater focus on human interest stories than their weekday counterparts.
Letterman often spent a great deal of time complaining about the Weekend Late Show, and especially about Bruce, whom he felt should "be in prison". The Weekend Late Show was ostensibly cancelled as of the episode of February 15, 2013, when Letterman walked into the midst of a Weekend Late Show promotion and fired Bruce and Linda. However, by March, Bruce and Linda were back on a recurring basis to promote their hosting of the very similar Showbiz Weekend, a show Letterman frequently calls "unwatchable" and "even worse" than the cancelled Weekend Late Show.
Recurring comedy bits
The following is a partial list of recurring comedy bits that appeared on the show on a sporadic basis, as well as other notable bits from the show's earlier past:
Alan Kalter's "Are You F*cking Kidding Me?" segment, which questions the sanity behind major news stories (for example, after the Michael Jackson verdict, Kalter's response: "Are You F*cking Kidding Me?!!")
Alan Kalter's "Oh No You Didn't!" in which Kalter mentions a recent news story (such as a 5-week working vacation George W. Bush had once announced) and then says "Oh No You Di-int!", which is immediately followed by a mention of a celebrity who has recently done something which Alan finds sexy, and a "Oh, yes you did."
Alex Trebek Came Back Too Soon. Starting with a premise such as that Alex Trebek is losing it, or just suffered a heart attack and came back to work too soon, an edited piece of Jeopardy! is shown where the question does not match the answer and Alex says "correct", such as "The J in J.D. stands for this kind of doctor", the contestant says "What are jujubes?", and Alex says "correct." It began with Ken Jennings' long winning streak on the show being lampooned in the same manner after the rule of a Jeopardy player's winning streak being capped at 5 episodes was abolished.
"Ape Or Artist?" A game in which an abstract painting is shown to Letterman and Shaffer, who then discuss whether it was an ape or an artist who painted it. After the first couple of instances, Letterman based his guesses more on psychology than the painting itself (saying things along the lines of "They want me to think it's an artist this time, so I'm going with ape"). After a while, the game became "Ape or Artist or Elephant?"
"Ask ..." Dave says that a celebrity, such as Hillary Clinton or Paris Hilton, will appear to answer questions the audience has submitted in advance. However, it is always Gerard Mulligan. There is usually one question about the celebrity being egotistical, which Mulligan does not initially answer, and then says to Dave, "Oh, sorry. I thought that one was for you."
"Bruce Willis's Mystery Word." Bruce Willis says a random word from a pre-recorded video.
"Can A ... Hail A Cab?" Usually someone in an animal (Can a Guy in a Turkey Suit ...") or superhero ("Can Spider-Man...") suit stands on Broadway and hails a cab, seeing if a taxi driver will stop and give the person a ride. This has also been tried by a person wearing a surgical mask portraying the traveler with drug resistant tuberculosis.
... Cards. Before Valentine's Day or Mother's Day, Dave displays a series of mock greeting cards, with messages such as "I'm sorry I called you a dirty whore on Maury."
CBS News Special Report. The news bulletin slide appears, but there is no bulletin.
Chris and Gerry. Dave introduces former writers Chris Elliot and Gerry Mulligan, who are there to promote their latest television program, which end up being parodies of existing shows (e.g., "Skink the Bounty Hunter"). Often they explain that the development of their new shows are due to the failure of their previous efforts. After the interview, a short clip of the contrived show is played. The interview segments usually involve the two wearing the outlandish costumes they don in the clip. Another recent version consists of clips from John Adams on HBO, where Elliot plays President Adams, and Mulligan plays a portrait artist or some other part. In one of these, Adams and companion did a Mac vs. PC commercial.
Chris and Gerry also appear in "Late Show Tips for Green Living with Chris and Gerry." In addition to the recorded spots, showing the unexpected effects of carpooling or turning out the lights, they were together on stage in a sketch in which Gerry implied that Chris would taste organic and conventional produce, but instead tasted organically fertilized and chemically treated soil.
Coach's Corner. Debuting in 2008 to 2011, the sketch features Art Kelly, a receptionist at the Letterman studio, who imitates former San Francisco 49ers coach Mike Singletary. When asked by Letterman about football-related topics, Kelly as Singletary would sometimes give a delayed or an answer not relating to the question and also talking in football jargon which makes no sense. Sometimes he is repeating responses from someone off-screen. He always has called Dave by the name of "Jim". Kelly is usually dressed in 49ers clothing with a red shirt and hat and glasses like the real Mike Singletary. He sometimes would appear with a headset on. When asked about his schedule he either has no idea who his team is playing, or who he is coaching as once he referenced coaching in Tampa during a supposed week off, or playing against defunct teams such as the Birmingham Stallions of the then United States Football League which Dave reminds him that it has been defunct since 1987. The segment returned for one last time on November 4, 2011, when Singletary was with the Minnesota Vikings. Once the segment had the participation of Billy Crystal who was a guest on the show in 2009.
Cool or Not Cool. Debuting in June 2008, this is a sketch designed to juxtapose presidential candidate Barack Obama with President George W. Bush. First, a clip of Obama engaging in an activity is shown, followed by an on-screen graphic reading "COOL" and the sound of a bell. That is immediately followed by a clip of Bush engaging unsuccessfully in a similar activity, and then a graphic reading "NOT COOL" with the sound of a buzzer.
Crystal Clear Party Ice - In 2000, Kalter presented a running gag in which he promoted this fake sponsor of the show. The lengthy pitch was recited daily with little variation: "Campaign 2000 has been brought to you by Crystal Clear Party Ice. It's not a party without Party Ice, and it's not Crystal Clear Party Ice unless it's crystal clear, the way party ice is supposed to be! Have you been to a party where the ice was cloudy? How did that make you feel? (Letterman would respond, 'Like a loser.') Like a loooooooseeer! Crystal Clear Party Ice is really, REALLY clear! AAAAND, it comes in a bag! Crystal Clear Party Ice is available in 'Crystal Clear,' 'Semi-Clear,' and the all new 'Opaque.' Visit our website at: 'www.CrystalClearPartyIce.com,' and find out how you can win a million dollars worth of Crystal Clear Party Ice for your next party, wedding or get together! Aaaaah, Party Ice!" He would sometimes add, "The weekend is right around the corner, so why not pick up a 'couple' of bags of Crystal Clear Party Ice? You'll be glad you did!" As the bit wore on, Letterman would respond to Kalter's pitch, such as pointing out that the weekend was still several days away.
"Get To Know Delaware." In recognition of Joe Biden being selected as the Democratic vice presidential nominee, this series promoted tourist attractions such as Independence Hall and the Franklin Institute in Pennsylvania, which is next to Delaware, or, in another installment, the announcer described the Battle of New Castle, and then admitted that he made it up because he knows nothing about Delaware.
Hose cam. On a hot day, a hose shoots water on pedestrians near the Ed Sullivan Theater. Inside, Dave uses a toggle switch to turn the water on and off, and a microphone (similar to one used with a taxicab radio) to make comments to the people on the street.
"Immigration Success Stories." A segment running since immigration reform was brought to the United States Congress in 2006. The segment profiles various well-known immigrants, before switching to archival footage of actor and Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger shown doing suggestive things with females.
Jeter's place. Derek Jeter's mansion, which, according to the staff, is horrendous, is shown repetitively when Letterman calls for a picture to be seen. The staff says the viewers can call or email them if they want to get rid of Jeter's mansion, but the audience loves it (the repetition and the nature of the "error").
Joe Grossman: Sometimes based on the premise that it is difficult to write jokes about President Barack Obama, Late Show writer Joe Grossman appears on stage to read his proposed material (usually substituting Obama's name for references to George Bush or Al Gore) from a note pad.
Joe McCain Call. Following the incident when Joe McCain ended a 911 call with an expletive, Dave receives a call from McCain, usually saying something irrelevant followed by "Bleep you." The setup by Barbara Gaines is essentially the same as for a Lt. Len Easton call. While a guest, Regis Philbin was told to answer a call on Dave's cell phone, which was from "McCain." Similar calls have also been received from "Christian Bale" after his tirade.
"Johnny Twain Tonight." Johnny Dark dressed as Mark Twain sits in a rocking chair and recites Rodney Dangerfield jokes. Dark has also appeared in a similar segment called "Johnny Lincoln Tonight", with the only modification being Dark dressed as Abraham Lincoln.
Lance Armstrong. An overweight man pretending to be a prominent athlete of the day, usually Lance Armstrong, but also (among other examples) a recently victorious NASCAR driver, golfer, or jockey, but always dressed in Armstrong's yellow Discovery Team jersey. He is introduced with, "Ladies and gentleman, name of athlete" while riding a bicycle through the aisles of the theatre and exiting through a door in the back. This segment is always accompanied by the CBS Orchestra playing the Ike and Tina Turner version of "Proud Mary". On the August 21, 2006 show, the segment was mixed up even further, with an introduction of golfer Tiger Woods, and a caption of cyclist Floyd Landis. (This sketch had its roots in a 1994 sketch, when Johnny Carson was introduced to the crowd and Calvert DeForest came out instead. After DeForest left, Letterman summoned to "Johnny" that he had the wrong Top Ten List, and the real Johnny Carson came out, with the list in his hand.)
"Let's Talk About the Candidates." A faux audience participation bit where Letterman initially chats with actual audience members about the 2008 presidential campaign. After Letterman comments on a recent candidate's departure from the race, a plant in the audience, always played by the same show staffer, reacts with disbelief and outrage. He then storms out of the theater and pummels pages along the way. In one segment, the plant reacts in this manner to the news that John Edwards was ending his campaign. Afterwards, the first audience member, himself a staffer, reacts in the same violent manner upon learning that Rudy Giuliani was also dropping out, and beats the same pages as he leaves. Letterman often closes the segment by lamenting that they no longer have any time due to the outbursts. This series of sketches culminated with "Let's Talk About the Election" on November 5, 2008, where the mock assault occurred after the plant complained that he was duped by a flier that Democrats vote on Wednesday.
For the 2012 United States presidential election, "Get to know the candidates" in which faux facts about the Republican Party presidential candidates, 2012 are shown; (and, the even more obscure "Get to know the guy behind the Get to know the Candidates" in which a video editor declares personal despair after giving "10 hours a day" to the effort of watching the Republican candidate tapes.)
Live Crash Footage. Letterman will point to his ear, as if taking instructions from the director, and announce that he is being told that they have "live" footage of various celebrities and public figures driving to a particular destination, and ultimately crashing (actually stock news footage of actual, spectacular crashes). Subjects have included Patrick J. Kennedy, Billy Joel, Nicole Richie, and NFL quarterback Ben Roethlisberger (on a motorcycle). Letterman will then assure the audiences that he is being told that the celebrity is "all right."
Lt. Len Easton. Barbara Gaines asks Letterman to pick up his phone, on which he gets a radio call from a fictitious Lt. Len Easton (voiced by Jeff Altman) of the California Highway Patrol driving on a California freeway on police business, requesting backup. The majority of these calls begin by sounding seemingly normal but will end with an absurd, humorous statement or request. In recent sketches, Letterman says that he is not the only one who is getting Easton's calls, and then shows a clip from a popular call-in show showing its host, such as Larry King, Suze Orman, or Mike and the Mad Dog, receiving a call with the audio of Easton being overdubbed, and occasionally a caption such as "Len from California" superimposed.
Lyle the Intern. A supposed Late Show intern (played by actor Jimmi Simpson) who appears out of nowhere to interrupt a befuddled Letterman for a casual chat. He is portrayed as a smooth, laid-back slacker-type who often uses hipster slang and fancies himself a ladies man. In his first appearance, he encouraged Letterman to act as his "wingman" at a bar after the show. On his February 17, 2009 appearance, several stations on the eastern time zone shut off their analog signals at 11:59pm in accordance with the original Digital Television transition date, including WDEF-TV in Chattanooga, Tennessee and WWNY in Watertown, New York. As a result of this, the last words that ever aired on these stations were Lyle saying "I know where you live, be-yoooooooootch!" before the signal cuts out for good.
Mac vs. PC. A parody of Apple's Get a Mac series of commercials, with former writers Chris Elliott and Gerard Mulligan portraying the roles of Mac and PC, respectively. The bits often end with Mulligan inflicting bodily harm on Elliott.
The Man on Fire. A stuntman wildly runs across the stage back and forth while screaming with his clothes on fire before being extinguished backstage. A variation of this was performed in which the man was not on fire but acted as if he were.
"Millionaire or Kenny?" A man is shown while Dave and Paul debate whether the man is a millionaire or a man named Kenny.
News Bulletin. Suddenly, an old ABC Radio News theme is played, Dave confusedly looks through his papers, and then tells Barbara Gaines that he thought he had to read a bulletin.
Portrait of Biff Henderson. Various artists create a portrait, using ketchup, Legos, post-it notes, and other "art media."
"Psychic Sandwich." In the Hello Deli, Deborah Lynn - a self-described "intuitive" - attempts to guess the sandwich being made by Jee, which are all named after various Late Show staffers. Lynn, who is blindfolded, had never successfully named a sandwich. In 2005, a variation of the game involving chocolates was played, in which Lynn picked up a piece at random before guessing its content. On her second try, Lynn successfully guessed "nougat." On another episode later that year, a variation was played involving Jee's Slurpee-like drinks, and Lynn correctly guessed "cherry" on her first try. In these segments, Lynn is often asked by Letterman to explain the difference between a psychic and intuitive. On a recent episode, Lynn was asked to guess the price of a gallon of gas that Rupert provided her in a gasoline can. She guessed $4.40, however the gas was actually $4.30. Dave made note of the fact that Lynn admitted she had heard something on the news that morning about gas prices in New York by saying she had integrity in disclosing that information up front.
Putting Away the Late Show Bear. A man in a bear suit is pushed and locked into a closet. The last time this sketch was played, a young intern lost control of the bear and it went on a rampage before finally calling for a taxi.
Quarterback Challenge. Letterman challenges an NFL quarterback on the show to throw as many footballs at some target, such as into the open back window of a moving cab, as possible. A version of this challenge gave rise to the annual throwing of the football at the ornament at the top of the Christmas tree, when Vinny Testaverde could not hit the target, but Jay Thomas did. In recent years, the ornament has been replaced by a meatball.
"Telemundo Highlight of the Night." Usually a short clip from a Telemundo show, such as Laura en América, showing something similar to a Jerry Springer Show fight, but, of course, in Spanish. A similar concept is "Spanish Television is Better."
This Day In The Clinton Marriage: While Secretary of State Hillary Clinton is out of the country on a diplomatic mission, this clip purportedly shows what Bill Clinton is doing, implying partying and possibly marital infidelity.
"Trump or Monkey?" Played in the Hello Deli, the game involves a contestant being presented by Jee with two photos of monkeys, and a photo of celebrity businessman Donald Trump. Only the tops of the heads are visible, with the rest covered by a card. The contestant then attempts to guess which of the photos is Trump's. Around the release of the film Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith in 2005, a variation of the game called "Trump or Wookiee?" was played.
"What the Hell is it?" In the style of "Is this Anything" and "Will it Float", this game had Letterman guess the name of a mystery object. The game was played only a handful of times. A running gag was that when Alan Kalter would announce the object's name to the audience, Letterman would unintentionally hear it clearly, thus leading to greater and greater amounts of soundproofing each time the game was played.
"What's the Deal with Old Guys and Giant Glasses?" Letterman simply presents a series of photographs of celebrity men (and occasionally, women). The photos are often dated with the subjects sporting large, old-fashioned style glasses.
"Who Asked for It?" A staple of late-night television, audience members approach a microphone and ask a question, resulting in a prearranged sketch in response (such as a person asking if Regis Philbin will run into the theater, and a staffer does instead).
"Women in Prison." Dave offers to conduct a remote interview of Martha Stewart or Paris Hilton in jail, but the show then runs stock footage of women in prison having a food fight or rioting.
Writers' Guild Strike. Some other routine (usually a fake promotional announcement) is interrupted by Head Writer Bill Scheft, who announces that the Writers Guild is currently in negotiations for a new contract, and at this time we have chosen not to reveal the punchline to this hilarious joke until the big media companies show they' ae ready to play fair with the writers. The routine continued after Worldwide Pants settled with the WGA and the Late Show returned, to show solidarity with the other writers still on strike, and Scheft has interrupted other routines, such as one dealing with Hillary Clinton's pantsuit, to protest having to write those jokes after she should have left the race.
Biff Henderson's "Fun with a Bullhorn"
Biff Henderson's "Fun with a Stopwatch"
Biff Henderson's "Wanna Hang Out?"
"Celebrity X-ray Challenge"
"Dave's Record Collection"
Dick Assman, who made several appearances in 1995
"Dr. Phil's Words of Wisdom." Out-of-context clips from the Dr. Phil Show. This bit was similar to the "Great Moments in Presidential Speeches" sketch.
"Dumb Ads"
"George W. Bush Joke That's Not Really a Joke"
Harold Larkin's "Sidewalk Idol"
"Late Show Checklist"
"Late Show Pay Phone Trifecta"
"Late Show Unfair Edit", later "Late Show Fun with Editing", later "Late Show Editing Fun"
"May We See Your Photos Please?"/"May We See Your Digital Photos Please?"
Pat Farmer's "Gaffe-Busters"
Pat Farmer's "Long Story Short"
Pat Farmer's "Anything Can Be a Musical Instrument"
Paul Shaffer's James Brown cape routine (with various celebrities, including James Brown himself on one occasion, caping Shaffer)
"Pedestrian Theme Songs" - A sketch in which various clips of pedestrians walking around New York City were accompanied by a humorous short song clip performed by The CBS Orchestra.
"Week in Review" (used to be a regular Friday feature, using a variation of the "Laugh-In Looks at the News" theme).
"Who Said It?"
"Dave interviews coach Mike Singletary"
Notes
References
The Wahoo Gazette is the verifiable source for this information.
External links
The Late Show official website
Letterman
Sketches
Sketches
David Letterman
American television-related lists |
4541632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter%20Two%20of%20the%20Constitution%20of%20South%20Africa | Chapter Two of the Constitution of South Africa | Chapter Two of the Constitution of South Africa contains the Bill of Rights, a human rights charter that protects the civil, political and socio-economic rights of all people in South Africa. The rights in the Bill apply to all law, including the common law, and bind all branches of the government, including the national executive, Parliament, the judiciary, provincial governments, and municipal councils. Some provisions, such as those prohibiting unfair discrimination, also apply to the actions of private persons.
South Africa's first bill of rights was drafted primarily by Kader Asmal and Albie Sachs in 1988 from Asmal's home in Dublin, Ireland. The text was eventually contained in Chapter 3 of the transitional Constitution of 1993, which was drawn up as part of the negotiations to end apartheid. This "interim Bill of Rights", which came into force on 27 April 1994 (the date of the first non-racial election), was largely limited to civil and political rights (negative rights). The current Bill of Rights, which replaced it on 4 February 1997 (the commencement date of the final Constitution), retained all of these rights and added a number of new positive economic, social and cultural rights
Application
The extent of the jurisdiction and application of the Bill of Rights (; ; ; ; ; Southern Ndebele: ivikelamalungelo; ; ; ; ) is defined by sections seven and eight, entitled "Rights" and "Application" respectively. Section seven provides that the rights apply to "all people in our country" (although certain rights are limited to citizens) and requires the state (by which is meant government at all levels) to "respect, protect, promote and fulfill" the Bill of Rights. It also notes that the rights in the Bill are subject to the limitations provided for in section thirty-six and elsewhere in the Bill; see Limitations below.
Although section two already provides for the supremacy of the Constitution over all laws and government actions, section eight explicitly states that the Bill of Rights applies to all laws and binds all branches and organs of government. It further states that the provisions of the Bill also bind private parties to the extent that they are applicable, given the nature of the rights in question, and requires the courts to develop the common law to this effect. Finally, section eight extends the benefits of the Bill of Rights to juristic persons, taking into account the nature of the rights and the juristic persons in question. Thus, for example, the right to human dignity and the right to health care clearly only apply to actual human beings, while the right to freedom of expression and the property right apply also to corporations.
Rights
Equality
Section 9 contains strong provisions on legal and social equality. Section 9 is in line with internationally recognised human rights law, but the provision is more detailed than for example in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The Section starts with "Everyone is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and benefit of the law. Equality includes the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms. To promote the achievement of equality, legislative and other measures designed to protect or advance persons, or categories of persons, disadvantaged by unfair discrimination may be taken."
The Section, like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, prohibits all discrimination "on one or more grounds, including...", but specifically lists the following grounds "race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language, and birth." This list is more extensive than the equality provisions in most human rights instruments, noteworthy is the distinction between "gender" and "sex", the inclusion of "pregnancy", the distinction between "race" and "colour", and the inclusion of "age" and "disability".
Section 8 again not only indicates negative responsibilities, in that the State is not allowed to discriminate but also positive responsibilities in that it provides that "No person may unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds in terms of subsection (3). National legislation must be enacted to prevent or prohibit unfair discrimination." See negative and positive rights.
Section 8 includes the limitation "Discrimination on one or more of the grounds listed in subsection (3) is unfair unless it is established that the discrimination is fair." This limitation allows for the South African government to enact the Black Economic Empowerment program, which seeks to redress the inequalities of Apartheid by giving previously disadvantaged groups (black Africans, Coloureds and Indians who are SA citizens) preference treatment in employment, tenders, etc.
Human dignity
Section 10 states "Everyone has inherent dignity and the right to have their dignity respected and protected".
The bill of rights is the basis on which constitutional matters form. It consists of several limitations including violating people's dignity in a form of body shaming, race, sex, cultural background, social background, and wealth.
Life
Section 11 states "Everyone has the right to life". In S v Makwanyane the Court found the right to life guaranteed by the Interim Constitution prohibited the death penalty. The court has subsequently ruled that capital punishment is also forbidden by the current constitution.
Freedom and security of the person
Section 12 protects "Freedom and Security of the Person". The Section sets out the rights contained under this provision, which include standard due process provisions, freedom from arbitrary arrest, freedom from torture, and freedom from cruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment. The Section also stipulates the freedom from all forms of violence, regardless of whether a public or private source. This provision is unique amongst human rights instruments.
The Section starts with "Everyone has the right to freedom and security of the person, which includes the right not to be deprived of freedom arbitrarily or without just cause; not to be detained without trial; to be free from all forms of violence from either public or private sources; not to be tortured in any way; and not to be treated or punished in a cruel, inhuman or degrading way".
The Section also covers reproductive rights, although not extensively defined. Adding to this the Section grants "security in and control over" the own body and to not be subjected to medical or scientific experiments without informed consent. These two provisions are unique amongst human rights instruments.
The Section reads "Everyone has the right to bodily and psychological integrity, which includes the right to make decisions concerning reproduction; to security in and control over their body; and not to be subjected to medical or scientific experiments without their informed consent.
Slavery, servitude and forced labour
Section 13 states "No one may be subjected to slavery, servitude or forced labour".
Privacy
Section 14 contains detailed provisions on the right to privacy. Defining the scope as follows: "Everyone has the right to privacy, which includes the right not to have the person or their home searched; their property searched; their possessions seized, or the privacy of their communications infringed".;
Freedom of religion, belief and opinion
Section 15 states "Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion".
The Section expands on the Right to freedom of religion by stating “ Religious observances may be conducted at state or state-aided institutions, provided that those observances follow rules made by the appropriate public authorities; they are conducted on an equitable basis, and attendance at them is free and voluntary.
The Section also seeks to define how the right to freedom of religion, belief, and opinion is balanced against tradition and custom, by stating "This section does not prevent legislation recognizing marriages concluded under any tradition, or a system of religious, personal or family law; or systems of personal and family law under any tradition, or adhered to by persons professing a particular religion. “ The Section also provides that "Recognition in terms of paragraph (a) must be consistent with this section and the other provisions of the Constitution".
Freedom of expression
Section 16 contains detailed provisions concerning freedom of expression, stating "Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes freedom of the press and other media; freedom to receive or impart information or ideas;
freedom of artistic creativity; and academic freedom and freedom of scientific research".
Section 16 contains the following limitations to freedom of expression "The right in subsection (1) does not extend to propaganda for war; incitement of imminent violence; or advocacy of hatred that is based on race, ethnicity, gender or religion, and that constitutes incitement to cause harm..”
Assembly, demonstration, picket and petition
Section 17 states "Everyone has the right, peacefully and unarmed, to assemble, to demonstrate, to picket and to present petitions".
..
Freedom of association
Section 18 states "Everyone has the right to freedom of association".
Political rights
Section 19 sets out a detailed set of political rights, stating "Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form a political party; to participate in the activities of, or recruit members for, a political party; and to campaign for a political party or cause.“
The Section also safeguards public participation by the means of election by stating "Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections for any legislative body established in terms of the Constitution. Every adult citizen has the right to vote in elections for any legislative body established in terms of the Constitution, and to do so in secret; and to stand for public office and, if elected, to hold office". These provisions contain the implied limitation that only citizens of South Africa have a right to vote and that they must be "adults".
Citizenship
Section 20 states that "No citizen may be deprived of citizenship".
Freedom of movement and residence
Section 21 provides that "Everyone has the right to freedom of movement. Everyone has the right to leave the Republic". Hence these provisions apply to all humans, while the following are limited to South African citizens. "Every citizen has the right to enter, to remain in, and to reside anywhere in, the Republic. Every citizen has the right to a passport".
Freedom of trade, occupation and profession
Section 22 enshrines freedom of trade occupation and profession. This set of rights is unique among human rights instruments.
The Section states "Every citizen has the right to choose their trade, occupation or profession freely. The practice of a trade, occupation or profession may be regulated by law". It is important to note that this right is not unqualified. It may be restricted by the law if it is in the interests of the public in an open, fair, and democratic environment.
Labour relations
Section 23 sets out several labour rights, including the right to collective bargaining, and to join a trade union. The Section also stipulates the rights of the employer, as well as the rights of a trade union or employers' organisation, in great detail, which is unique amongst human rights instruments.
The Section states "Everyone has the right to fair labour practices. Every worker has the right to form and join a trade union; to participate in the activities and programmes of a trade union; and to strike".
With regard to employers, the Section states "Every employer has the right
to form and join an employers' organisation; and to participate in the activities and programmes of an employers' organisation".
The Section lists the following rights for trade unions and employer organisations "Every trade union and every employers' organisation has the right to determine its own administration, programmes, and activities; to organise; and to form and join a federation. Every trade union, employers' organisation, and employer has the right to engage in collective bargaining".
The section concludes with the following limitation "National legislation may be enacted to regulate collective bargaining. To the extent that the legislation may limit a right in this Chapter, the limitation must comply with section 36(1). National legislation may recognize union security arrangements contained in collective agreements. To the extent that the legislation may limit a right in this Chapter, the limitation must comply with section 36(1).”
Environment
Section 24 sets out a number of environmental rights, which is unique in terms of human rights instruments, although environmental rights are recognized in the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, although not in detail, and the Stockholm Declaration.
Article 24 specifically puts environmental rights into the context of human health, stating "Everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being;” As well as recognising the rights of future generations in the context of sustainable development by stating "and to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that prevent pollution and ecological degradation; promote conservation, and secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development".
Property
Section 25 enshrines the right to property, which is a standard international human right. The Section is very detailed, making it unique among human rights instruments. The Section amongst others covers arbitrary deprivation of property and compensation in great detail, which is in the context of the South African post-apartheid era and the Black Economic Empowerment program.
The Section states "No one may be deprived of property except in terms of law of general application, and no law may permit arbitrary deprivation of property. Property may be expropriated only in terms of law of general application for a public purpose or in the public interest; and subject to compensation, the amount of which and the time and manner of payment of which have either been agreed to by those affected or decided or approved by a court".
The Section makes detailed provisions on compensation by stating "The amount of the compensation and the time and manner of payment must be just and equitable, reflecting an equitable balance between the public interest and the interests of those affected, having regard to all relevant circumstances".
The Section sets out the context in which these provisions may be of relevance, stating "For the purposes of this section the public interest includes the nation's commitment to land reform, and to reforms to bring about equitable access to all South Africa's natural resources; and property is not limited to land. The state must take reasonable legislative and other measures, within its available resources, to foster conditions that enable citizens to gain access to land on an equitable basis. A person or community whose tenure of land is legally insecure as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices is entitled, to the extent provided by an Act of Parliament, either to tenure which is legally secure or to comparable redress. A person or community dispossessed of property after 19 June 1913 as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices is entitled, to the extent provided by an Act of Parliament, either to restitution of that property or to equitable redress".
Housing
Section 26 grants the right to housing, which is recognised by the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights. In the case SERAC v Nigeria (2001), the Commission concluded that the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights should be understood to include a right to housing and a right to food.
The Section states that "Everyone has the right to have access to adequate housing".
Section 26 places positive responsibilities upon the state in stating that "The state must take reasonable legislative and other measures, within its available resources, to achieve the progressive realisation of this right". The primary responsibility for fulfilling this mandate lies with the Department of Human Settlements.
Section 26 also grants the right to due process with regard to housing, stating that "No one may be evicted from their home, or have their home demolished, without an order of court made after considering all the relevant circumstances. No legislation may permit arbitrary evictions".
Health care, food, water, and social security
Section 27 sets out a number of rights with regard to health, including right to access to health care, including reproductive rights. Section 27 also enshrines the right to social security, the right to food, and the right to water. Section 27 states, "No one may be refused emergency medical treatment".
Again, positive responsibilities are placed on the state, the Section stating that "The state must take reasonable legislative and other measures, within its available resources, to achieve the progressive realisation of each of these rights.“
Children
Section 28 lists a number of rights held by children. These rights relate to domestic family life, child labour, education, imprisonment, and armed conflict. It is stated that "In this section, "child" means a person under the age of 18 years.“ and "A child's best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child.“
The rights listed are as follows
” to a name and a nationality from birth;”
” to family care or parental care, or to appropriate alternative care when removed from the family environment;”
” to basic nutrition, shelter, basic health care services, and social services;”
” to be protected from maltreatment, neglect, abuse or degradation;”
” to be protected from exploitative labour practices;”
” not to be required or permitted to perform work or provide services that are inappropriate for a person of that child's age; or place at risk the child's well-being, education, physical or mental health or spiritual, moral or social development;”
” not to be detained except as a measure of last resort, in which case, in addition to the rights a child enjoys under sections 12 and 35, the child may be detained only for the shortest appropriate period of time, and has the right to be kept separately from detained persons over the age of 18 years; and treated in a manner, and kept in conditions, that take account of the child's age;”
” to have a legal practitioner assigned to the child by the state, and at state expense, in civil proceedings affecting the child, if substantial injustice would otherwise result;”
” not to be used directly in armed conflict, and to be protected in times of armed conflict".
Education
Section 29 enshrines the right to education, and defines the positive responsibilities of the state in this respect. The Section states "Everyone has the right to a basic education, including adult basic education; and to further education, which the state, through reasonable measures, must make progressively available and accessible".
The right to education is amongst others recognised in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and Section 29 expands on this provision in detail with regard to language, and the right to the establishment of self-funded private schools.
The detailed provisions with regard to language reflect the fact that South Africa is a culturally diverse nation and has 11 official languages. Chapter 1 (Founding Provisions), Section 6 (Languages) of the Constitution of South Africa is the basis for the government language policy, and Section 29 (Chapter 2, Bill of Rights) places positive responsibilities upon the state in this regard.
Section 29 states that "Everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in public educational institutions where that education is reasonably practicable. In order to ensure the effective access to, and implementation of, this right, the state must consider all reasonable educational alternatives, including single medium institutions, taking into account equity; practicability; and the need to redress the results of past racially discriminatory laws and practices".
See: Languages of South Africa
Language and culture
Section 30 also considers the issue of language in terms of cultural rights, although with limitation. Section 30 states that "Everyone has the right to use the language and to participate in the cultural life of their choice, but no one exercising these rights may do so in a manner inconsistent with any provision of the Bill of Rights".
See: Languages of South Africa
Cultural, religious and linguistic communities
Section 31 specifically considers cultural, religious, and linguistic communities within South Africa. Section 31 does not grant these communities group rights, but reaffirms their individual rights to exercise a number of cultural rights.
Section 31 states that "Persons belonging to a cultural, religious or linguistic community may not be denied the right, with other members of that community to enjoy their culture, practice their religion and use their language; and to form, join and maintain cultural, religious and linguistic associations and other organs of civil society".
Section 31 concludes with the following limitation "The rights in subsection (1) may not be exercised in a manner inconsistent with any provision of the Bill of Rights".
Access to information
Section 32 provides for the right to access to information, also known as the right to know. This provision is unique among human rights instruments but is comparable with freedom of information legislation in other countries. The right to know was enshrined in the South African Bill of Rights in reaction to the restrictive information policies of the Apartheid regime.
Section 32 states that "Everyone has the right of access to any information held by the state; and any information that is held by another person and that is required for the exercise or protection of any rights".
Section 32 not only provides for access to information held by the state but also from a third party if it is required to exercise or protect any right. This makes this provision unique, even among freedom of information legislation, which commonly only applies to public bodies. Section 32 applies to public bodies, as well as private bodies, including companies.
Procedures for access to information under section 32, and the limitations on the release of information, are regulated by the Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000.
Just administrative action
Section 33 states that "Everyone has the right to administrative action that is lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair". This section is unique amongst human rights instruments in terms of its detail on administrative due process.
Access to courts
Section 34 effectively provides for the right to a fair trial. It states "Everyone has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved by the application of law decided in a fair public hearing before a court or, where appropriate, another independent and impartial tribunal or forum".
Arrested, detained and accused persons
Section 35 is a detailed list of rights, or right to due process. The Section lists rights with regard to arrest, court appearance, detention, and fair trial.
Limitations
Rights contained in the Bill of Rights are not absolute and may be limited by way of specific limitation clauses where individual rights are subject to limitations set out in the individual Sections, e.g. Section 9 on equality. In addition, the Constitution provides a General Limitation Clause at Section 36, which provides for all rights in the Bill of Rights to be limited in terms of law of general application and that "limitations must be reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society based on human dignity, equality, and freedom." Any limitation must therefore be reasonable and may only be made with good cause. Limits should also be less restrictive.
Organs of state, such as the judiciary, the legislature, or the executive, may invariably limit rights in carrying out their functions. For example, by limiting the freedom of a prisoner. Further, because of the horizontal application of the Bill of Rights, rights may be limited by the actions or decisions of other persons. The courts are empowered to test the validity of the limitation in terms of S36.
Section 36 provides certain factors that must be taken into account by the courts when determining if a limitation is reasonable and justifiable:
The nature of the right.
The importance of the limitation
The nature and extent of the limitation
The relation between the limitation and its purpose, and
Less restrictive means to achieve the purpose.
These factors are not absolute and other factors that the court may deem necessary may also be taken into account. When the nature of the right is considered, the courts will have to take into account the content of the right, the importance of the right and the interest which is protected. It is, for instance, very difficult to justifiably limit the right to life as the Constitutional Court held in S v Makwanyane where capital punishment was abolished. The promotion and protection of a permissible or lawful public interest will be important when considering the limitation and its purpose. Further, the Constitution requires a less restrictive means to be considered, rather than limiting the rights of an individual, in achieving that purpose.
Comparison with other human rights instruments
The limitations clause under section 36 has been compared to similar clauses in the European Convention on Human Rights. Specifically, there are limits on privacy rights (Section 8(2)), "except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society", limits on freedom of thought and religion (art. 9(2)), "subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary for a democratic society," etc. In Canada, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was adopted in 1982. Section 1 of that Charter, like section 36 of the South African law, states that rights are "subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society."
References
External links
Bill of Rights – Government of South Africa
Constitution of South Africa
National human rights instruments
Human rights in South Africa |
4541688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20Philadelphia | Demographics of Philadelphia | At the 2010 census, there were 1,526,006 people, 590,071 households, and 352,272 families residing in the consolidated city-county of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The population density was 4,337.3/km2 (11,233.6/mi2). There were 661,958 housing units at an average density of 1,891.9/km2 (4,900.1/mi2).
Of the 590,071 households, 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.1% were married couples living together, 22.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.3% were non-families. 33.8% of households were one person and 11.9% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.22.
The age distribution was 25.3% under the age of 18, 11.1% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% 65 or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.8 males.
The median household income was $30,746 and the median family income was $37,036. Males had a median income of $34,199 versus $28,477 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,509. 22.9% of the population and 18.4% of families were below the poverty line. 31.3% of those under the age of 18 and 16.9% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
The male-female ratio was 86.8 to 100, with 46.5% of the population male and 53.5% female. Of places with 100,000 or more people, this was the third lowest in the United States. Only Gary, Indiana and Birmingham, Alabama had a higher proportion of women.
Of housing units, 590,071 (89.1%) were occupied and 71,887 (10.9%) were vacant. Of occupied housing units, 349,633 (59.3%) were owner-occupied and 240,438 (40.7%) were renter-occupied.
The mean travel time to work was 32.0 minutes for workers 16 years of age and older. Residents of Center City, however, had much shorter commutes. Center City has the second largest downtown residential population in the country, surpassing Chicago in 2015, and most walk to work.
63.97% of Philadelphians drove an automobile to work (including carpools), 25.93% commuted by public transit, 9.22% walked to work, and 0.88% commuted by bicycle. 35.74% of households did not have an automobile. The proportion of Philadelphians who do not commute by auto is high compared to most other American cities, although lower than the proportions in New York City and Washington, D.C.
Population history
From its founding in the 17th century through the early 19th century, the City of Philadelphia was considered the area between the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers and between Vine and South Streets. Although the city proper was second to New York City in population at the time of the first U.S. Census in 1790, Philadelphia County was the most populous urban (or metropolitan) area in the nation until 1810, when it was surpassed by New York. In 1854, the Act of Consolidation incorporated the rest of Philadelphia County and created Philadelphia's modern border. This resulted in a large population increase, evident in the 1860 census.
Philadelphia experienced steady growth between 1860 and 1950, except for a brief lull in the 1930s, which was due in part to the Great Depression. Its population peaked at 2,071,605 in 1950. Between 1950 and 2000, the city lost 554,055 people, or 26.7% of its population. To put this into perspective, Chicago lost 20.0% of its population during the same era, and Baltimore lost 31.4%, according to US Census data. This nationwide trend is often referred to as "white flight", named for the movement of upper- and middle-class white families from the increasingly racially diverse cities in favor of more racially homogeneous suburbs.
In 2011, census data was released showing that Philadelphia had achieved its first confirmed population growth in 60 years. The increase was 0.6 percent. It is attributed to a variety of factors, including increased immigration (especially from countries like India, South Korea and Mexico) and migration from more expensive cities in the Northeast Corridor. Between 2000 and 2010, the city's Hispanic population increased by 44 percent to 187,611 and its Asian population grew by 42 percent to 95,521. Wealthy transplants, Asian American investors from New York City, and African Americans from Washington, D.C. have received media attention for setting their sights on Philadelphia. The ten-year tax abatement, a historically undervalued housing market, improvements to the waterfront, and continuing redevelopment throughout the city are thought to be factors drawing people to the area.
Ethnography
For most of its early history from the 1600s and up until the mid to late 1800s, the vast majority of Philadelphia's population was Protestant and composed mainly of Protestant Anglo-Saxon English Americans, many of whom were Quakers or of Quaker descent. The city also contained significant populations of free Blacks, Welsh Americans, including a great number of Welsh Quakers, such as in the Welsh Tract; Scottish Americans, Ulster Scots Americans, and Pennsylvania Dutch, most notably the German American Mennonites and German Quakers that founded Germantown, as well as the Protestant Swedish American, Finnish American, and Dutch American families that had originally arrived in the Philadelphia area to live in the colony of New Sweden, later taken over by the Dutch colony of New Netherlands before being absorbed into the British colonies. The roots of the Mummers Parade can be traced back to a blend of the traditions of these ethnic groups in Philadelphia during this period, though the celebration would evolve and be altered by the traditions of subsequent immigrant groups.
Statistics
First Immigrant Wave
Prior to the 1820s, the overwhelming majority of German and German-speaking settlers in Philadelphia such as the Pennsylvania Dutch had belonged to Protestant sects. Starting around the 1820s, an increasing number of poor Catholic Germans began to immigrate to Philadelphia, though most German immigrants to Philadelphia continued to be Protestant. By the 1840s, in response to the starvation and poverty that would lead to Great Famine of Ireland, a growing number of impoverished Irish Catholic immigrants began to settle in Philadelphia, leading to a rise in anti-Catholicism, nativism, and anti-Irish sentiment among the majority Protestant population in the city. Hatred for the newly arrived Irish Catholic immigrants culminated in the bloody anti-Irish, anti-Catholic Philadelphia Nativist Riot of 1844 and fueled the rise of the Know-Nothing Party in Philadelphia. At the same time, as the number of poor and unskilled Irish Catholic and German immigrants increased, Philadelphia experienced an increase in freed and fugitive slaves from the South seeking refuge and employment in the city. Both blacks and Irish Catholics were at the bottom of the social hierarchy in Philadelphia at the time, and poor Irish immigrants often competed with African American ex-slaves for menial or unskilled work. The competition between the two ethnic groups led to the 1842 Lombard Street Riot. Also, beginning in the mid to late 1800s, immigrants from China began to settle in Philadelphia, establishing Philadelphia's Chinatown and further diversifying the city's demographics.
Second Immigrant Wave
Like its other immigrant-magnet peers in the Northeast, starting in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Philadelphia experienced an unprecedented heightened level of immigration. This period of immigration consisted of mainly impoverished Catholic and Jewish, and to a less extent Orthodox Christian immigrants from Southern European and Eastern European countries such as Italy and Poland, as well as a second wave of Catholic immigrants from Ireland. Around this same time, an increasing number of African Americans from the Southern United States began to settle in Philadelphia during the Great Migration.
Though Italians in Philadelphia would experience high levels of discrimination and prejudice, including intense redlining, Italians in Philadelphia also significantly altered the culture of Philadelphia and the cuisine, creating the Philadelphia Italian Market, the cheesesteak, the hoagie, and water ice, and introducing pizza and other Italian cuisine to the city. Italian and Irish immigrants and their children in South Philadelphia also revived, altered, and continued the Philadelphia tradition of the Mummers Parade.
1940s to present
Since the 1940s, Philadelphia experienced large waves of Puerto Rican migration. They remain an integral part of the city and a sizable swath of eastern North Philadelphia is considered to have the highest urban concentration of Puerto Ricans in the continental United States. The number of Hispanics and Asian Americans has increased over the past 20 years and continues to accelerate. The number of foreign-born residents increased by 34,000 between 1990 and 2000. Of foreign-born Philadelphians, 38.5% were from Asia, 30.3% were from Europe, 23.4% were from Latin America, and 6.7% were from Africa.
Recent immigrants from Asia are mainly of Indian, Korean, Chinese, Vietnamese, Laotian, Hmong, Filipino, Cambodian, Thai, Pakistani and Bangladeshi backgrounds. In addition, the Latino population continues to grow, as Dominican, Mexican, Colombian, Salvadoran, Guatemalan, Cuban, Honduran and Brazilian immigrants. Puerto Rican often choose Philadelphia when moving to the US mainland. Immigration from various Caribbean countries has also increased substantially since the 1940s. Immigrants from Africa, mainly West Africa and, to a lesser extent, Ethiopia, have also established significant communities in the city.
Non-Hispanic White people
Large concentrations of non-Hispanic whites live in Center City, Northeast Philadelphia, and Northwest Philadelphia (although this is changing). Gentrification is altering the racial demographics of predominantly Black neighborhoods close to Center City.
European immigration is also growing, with more Irish, Italian, and Polish immigrants. Recently, thousands of Russian and Ukrainian immigrants from Eastern Europe, many of whom are Jewish have arrived, mainly in Northeast Philadelphia. There are other growing nationalities, which include Spanish, Portuguese, Slovak, Greek and Serbian.
The city's Middle Eastern population has tripled since 1990, with people of Palestinian, Turkish, Azeri, Lebanese, Iranian, Egyptian, Iraqi, Saudi, Syrian and Afghan backgrounds residing in Philadelphia.
Irish
Irish immigrants and the Irish Americans are associated in the North and Northeast Philadelphia neighborhoods, including Fishtown, Kensington, Mayfair, Frankford, Port Richmond, Holmesburg, Harrowgate, and Juniata, as well as Devil's Pocket, Whitman, Gray's Ferry, and particularly Pennsport in South Philadelphia. Philadelphia has the 3rd largest Irish American population in the country.
In the 1960s, many of the Irish in Philadelphia were known to join the Philadelphia Police Department and Philadelphia Fire Department.
Italians
Italian immigrants and the Italian American community are frequently associated with South Philadelphia, including Bella Vista, Central South Philadelphia, Girard Estates, Marconi Plaza, Packer Park, and the Philadelphia Italian Market area. In Northeast Philadelphia and Northwest Philadelphia, Italian neighborhoods are found in Roxborough, Frankford, Wissinoming and Tacony, among others. West Philadelphia also has a smaller but significant Italian and Italian American population in certain neighborhoods. Philadelphia has the 2nd largest Italian American population in the U.S.
Armenians
, there were about 25,000 people of Armenian ancestry in the Philadelphia area and/or in South Jersey. The Hamidian massacres prior to the beginning of the 20th century, and subsequent Adana massacre of 1909 and Armenian genocide prompted Armenian immigration to the U.S. There is an Armenian day school in Upper Merion Township, Armenian Sisters Academy (ASA), with a Radnor postal address. In addition organizations catering to children and churches have sponsored weekend Armenian schools. Armenian National Committee of Pennsylvania chairperson Ara Chalian stated in 2012 that the distribution of the ethnic Armenians in the area became more widespread but with the overall numbers about remaining the same.
Polish
Poles and Polish Americans, as well as Polish Jews, have a rich history in the Port Richmond-Bridesburg area, as well as areas of Kensington and the Northeast.
Non-Hispanic Black people
Non-Hispanic Black people make up 32% of Philadelphia's population, and 44% when including Hispanic Black people. The African-American population represents the vast majority of Black residents in the city and about 39% of the citywide population. The remaining Black population being Black immigrants from the Caribbean and Africa, and Afro-Hispanics within the Puerto Rican and Dominican communities.
Circa 2008, a phenomenon of polygamy occurred among Muslims in Philadelphia who were Black. Persons engaging in that behavior had the potential of being prosecuted by the state government for bigamy.
African Americans
The largest concentrations of native-born Black people are in Germantown, North Philadelphia East of Germantown Avenue, the Point Breeze neighborhood of South Philadelphia, parts of Southwest Philadelphia, and West Philadelphia. Together these neighborhoods have a population of about 610,000 and are roughly 82% black; making it the 4th largest predominantly Black area in the United States after Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, Detroit, and South Side Chicago. Philadelphia has one of the largest African American communities in the US.
African immigrant groups
Philadelphia has one of the most notable West African populations in the United States. As of 2010, there were 25,570 people of recent African origins living in Philadelphia. The largest Sub-Saharan African populations within the city are Nigerians and Liberians.
In 2005, Philadelphia had immigrants from Ethiopia, Ghana, the Ivory Coast, Liberia, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. By 2008, about 15,000 Liberians had immigrated to Philadelphia area, the Liberians left their native country due to two civil wars and the destruction of Liberian infrastructure. The African population is largely concentrated in West and Southwest sections of Philadelphia. However, the Cedar Park neighborhood is the only neighborhood predominantly made up of West Indian/Caribbean and Sub-Saharan African immigrants.
Around 2005, there had been instances of violence perpetrated by native-born African-Americans against African immigrants. The head of the Liberian Association of Pennsylvania, Samuel Slewion, said that as a result many African immigrants withdrew children from public schools. The head of African Congress USA, Cyprian Anyanwu, proposed a charter school to improve relations between native-born blacks and immigrants; his 2003 proposal was rejected by the city, and he issued a revised proposal in 2005.
Caribbean-Americans
Philadelphia also has a large West Indian community from the Caribbean islands. The West Indian population is largely concentrated in West Philadelphia, with smaller numbers in the Southwest and Northeast sections. As of 2010, there were 24,608 people of West Indian ancestry living in Philadelphia, representing about 1.6 percent of the city, the vast majority of which are Haitians and Jamaicans. Though, the number of West Indians balloons when including other areas in the Philadelphia metropolitan area and not just the city itself. The Philadelphia area has one of the largest Jamaican populations in the country. Jamaicans.com features Philadelphia and Jamaican culture in the city. Most West Indians live in West and Southwest Philadelphia. However, the Cedar Park neighborhood is the only neighborhood predominantly made up of West Indian/Caribbean and African immigrants.
Though, Haitians and Jamaicans are near even in population, Jamaicans represent the majority of West Indians in West Philadelphia, where most of the overall West Indian population lives. This is because Haitians are more evenly distributed throughout the city, outside of West Philadelphia, there are smaller numbers of Haitians in several neighborhoods in the Lower Northeast. Aside from Haitians and Jamaicans, there are also sizable numbers of Trinidadians and Bajans.
Hispanics and Latinos
As of the 2010 census, there were 187,611 Latinos and Hispanics in Philadelphia, constituting over 12 percent of the city's population, the vast majority of which are Puerto Ricans. Most Philadelphia Hispanics self-identify as either White, Black, Mixed, or other, for government purposes i.e. United States Census.
In the early 20th century, companies such as the Pennsylvania Railroad and Spanish-speaking immigrant networks attracted Spanish-speaking workers to Philadelphia. By 1910 several Latino and Hispanic groups had resided in Philadelphia. Cubans and Spaniards founded and initially lead the Latino and Hispanic community organizations. Due to the Immigration Act of 1924 Puerto Ricans, who were already U.S. citizens, became the predominant Hispanic group and had taken control of the organizations by the 1950s. Other Latino and Hispanic groups began establishing themselves by the 1960s. By 2005, most of the leadership was still Puerto Rican and some non-Puerto Ricans had taken some leadership positions
Puerto Ricans
As of 2010, there was a population of 121,643 Puerto Ricans living in Philadelphia. This meant that Puerto Ricans are the largest Latino group in the city and that Philadelphia has the second largest Puerto Rican population, after New York City. Though, smaller numbers of Puerto Ricans can be found throughout the city, overall, eastern North Philadelphia has one of the highest concentrations of Puerto Ricans in the country, largely the result of high levels of segregation and a very large Puerto Rican population.
Philadelphia has been a heavy Puerto Rican destination since the 1950s, though migration to the city has picked up and now Philadelphia has one of the fastest-growing Puerto Rican populations in the country. Puerto Ricans constitute over 75% of the Latino population in the city. Most Puerto Ricans live in the areas of North Philadelphia east of Germantown Avenue (eastern North Philadelphia), and to a lesser extent the Lower Northeast and Uptown sections of the city. In fact, the Fairhill section of Eastern North Philadelphia, particularly the blocks between 6th Street and B Street, north of York Street and south of Erie Avenue, have some of highest concentrations of Puerto Ricans in the country, with most blocks usually being around 85-90% Puerto Rican alone, with most of the remaining portion made up of Dominicans and African Americans. Increases in Latino immigration and migration have fueled the growth of El Centro de Oro in Fairhill.
Puerto Ricans make up the majority of Hispanics inside of the city of Philadelphia and in the Philadelphia metropolitan area as whole, numbering about 300,000 in far southeastern Pennsylvania (around Philadelphia), and neighboring areas in New Jersey and Delaware, making up 60% of Metro Philly's Hispanics and 4.5% of Philadelphia metro as a whole.
Dominicans
As of the 2010 census, there were 15,963 Dominicans in Philadelphia, up from 4,337 in 2000. Dominicans are now the second-largest Hispanic group in Philadelphia and the city has the 6th largest Dominican population in the US.
Dominicans began coming to Philadelphia after 1965. Prior to 1990, there was a very small population of Dominicans. Then a significant wave of Dominican immigration started in 1990 with a group of Dominicans moving from New York to gain jobs. Though, immigration from the Dominican Republic to the Philadelphia region is increasing, most Dominicans moving to Philadelphia actually come from New York City and other nearby areas. The vast majority of Dominicans live scattered in Lower Northeast and eastern North Philadelphia especially north of Erie Avenue, sharing neighborhoods with the city's larger Puerto Rican population. Smaller numbers of Dominicans live in West Philadelphia. Recent estimates have the current Dominican population according to the 2017 Census from 29,524 to as high as 65,000 people of Dominican descent, the latter estimate giving Philadelphia the second-largest Dominican population amongst American cities. Only New York, NY has more Dominican Americans. Dominicans are one of Philadelphia's fastest growing ethnic groups.
Mexicans
As of the 2010 U.S. Census there were an estimated 15,531 Mexicans in Philadelphia, up from 6,220 in 2000.
A small group of Mexicans arrived in the 19th Century. A small group of Mexicans remained throughout the city's history. A group of Mexicans arrived in the 1970s. Small Mexican communities in South Philadelphia opened as a result of a 1990s wave of Mexican immigration. Another wave of immigration started in 1998 with Mexicans arriving from Mexico and areas outside of Mexico such as New York.
Most of Philadelphia's Mexican community lives in the area of South Philadelphia east of Broad Street, adding to the area's melting pot like cultural mix, sharing neighborhoods with Italian Americans and Asian immigrants. As of 2011 most Mexicans in South Philadelphia originate from the state of Puebla. Mexican immigrants have drastically changed the Italian area in South Philadelphia and have set up a small community in and around the market.
The Carnaval de Puebla, one of the largest Poblano carnivals (a celebration of the Battle of Puebla) held in countries other than Mexico, began circa 2006. It is held every May.
Cubans
As of the 2010 census, there was an estimate of 3,930 Cubans. Cubans, along with Spaniards, had founded and initially controlled several Latino and Hispanic organizations in Philadelphia. In the early 1960s large numbers of Cuban refugees arrived in Philadelphia.
Other Latino and Hispanic groups
As of the 2010 census, Hispanics of all other Hispanic groups numbered nearly 30,000, including an estimate of 4,675 Colombians, 2,262 Guatemalans, 1,641 Hondurans, 1,542 Ecuadorians, 1,085 Peruvians, 1,049 Salvadorans, 1,006 Argentineans.
Asian Americans
The Asian American community has long been established in the city's bustling Chinatown district, but recent Vietnamese immigrants have also forged neighborhoods and bazaars alongside the venerable Italian market. Korean immigrants have notably added to the melting pot of Olney. In several decades before 2010, the cost of living in Chinatown increased due to an influx in settlement, so Asian Americans began moving to other neighborhoods in northwestern Philadelphia, northeastern Philadelphia, and South Philadelphia. As of January 22, 2010, according to David Elesh, a Temple University urban sociologist, there were almost 60,000 Philadelphia residents who stated that they were born in China and many of them lived in South Philadelphia.
There is an ethnic Pakistani congregation at St. William Church in Philadelphia.
In 1999 there were about 1,500 people who were Japanese citizens with non-immigrant visas or Japanese immigrants to the Philadelphia area. There is a weekend school for Japanese people, Japanese Language School of Philadelphia (JLSP, フィラデルフィア日本語補習授業校 Firaderufia Nihongo Hoshū Jugyō Kō) located in Wynnewood, Lower Merion Township.
Hmong
A group of Hmong refugees had settled in Philadelphia after the end of the 1970s Laotian Civil War. They were attacked in discriminatory acts, and the city's Commission on Human Relations held hearings on the incidents. Anne Fadiman, author of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, said that lower-class residents resented the Hmong receiving a $100,000 federal grant for employment assistance when they were also out of work; they believed that American citizens should be getting assistance. Bee Xiong, a Hmong leader in Philadelphia, stated that by the late 1970s there were up to 5,000 Hmong in Philadelphia but by in 1984 there were 650 Hmong. Between 1982 and 1984, three quarters of the Hmong people who had settled in Philadelphia left for other cities in the United States to join relatives who were already there. Reverend Edward V. Avery, a Roman Catholic priest quoted in The Philadelphia Inquirer, stated that unemployed black youths questioned why Hmong people instead of native-born U.S. citizens received the federal aid, and that contributed to violence against Hmong people. A U.S. Attorney, Edward S.G. Dennis, had begun an investigation by 1984. His office asked the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to determine if there was a hate crime. By the same year Xiong opened an employment assistance office to stabilize what was left of the Hmong population. He had used $100,000 in federal grants.
Native Americans
About 13,000 Philadelphians identified as Native American on the 2010 census. What is now the Philadelphia region is the ancestral territory of the Lenni Lenape, but by the mid-19th century violence and fraudulent land purchases had driven most of them out of Pennsylvania and the 21st century Native American community includes members of many other nations as well.
Religion
Christianity is the dominant religion in the city of Philadelphia. According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, 68% of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians. The majority of the population is Protestant, with the various Protestant and non-Catholic Christian denominations combined make up a majority of the Christian population at approximately 42% of the city's population; however, the largest single Christian denomination is Roman Catholic, at 26%. Metropolitan Philadelphia's Jewish population, the sixth largest in the United States, was estimated at 206,000 in 2001. There is also a significant Eastern Orthodox population. The greater Philadelphia area is home to one of the largest Lutheran communities in the United States (the largest on the East Coast).
Many other religions have arrived, including Islam and Hinduism. With immigration from the Middle East, the Horn of Africa, Pakistan, Bangladesh and India, these two religions have increased their presence. The largest concentrations of Muslims and Hindus live in the Northeast and North parts of the city, Center City, West Philadelphia, and sprawling into the nearby suburbs.
The Muslim African American community in Philadelphia has grown substantially over the last decade. According to several statistics, Philadelphia has surpassed Detroit and New York City to become the American metropolitan area with the highest proportion of Muslims.
Religions with less numerous adherents can also be found. There are pockets of Buddhists in Center City, Chinatown, Northeast Philly, and other neighborhoods with significant Asian American populations. There are Caribbean and African traditional religions in North and West Philadelphia. These numbers are also growing. Historically the city has strong connections to The Religious Society of Friends, Unitarian Universalism, and Ethical Culture, all of which continue to be represented in the city. The Friends General Conference is based in Philadelphia. African diasporic religions are popular in Hispanic and Caribbean communities in North and West Philadelphia.
Ethno-religious groups
Jews
References
Vázquez-Hernández, Víctor. "From Pan-Latino Enclaves to a Community:Puerto Ricans in Philadelphia, 1910-2000" (Chapter 4). In: Whalen, Carmen Teresa and Víctor Vázquez-Hernández (editors). The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical Perspectives. Temple University Press, 2005. , 9781592134144.
Notes
Sources and further reading
U.S. Census website, US Census.
Philadelphia in Focus: A Profile from Census 2000, Brookings Institution, November 2003.
. A discussion of how Philadelphia workers found jobs and how employers found workers, including how the process was affected by race, ethnicity, origin (immigrant versus native-born), industrial sector, unionization, and other demographic differences.
"A City Transformed: The Racial and Ethnic Changes in Philadelphia Over the Last 20 Years." Pew Charitable Trusts Philadelphia Research Initiative. June 1, 2011. (Archive)
"A study of Southeast Asian youth in Philadelphia: A final report." United States Office of Refugee Resettlement, 1988.
Philadelphia
Culture of Philadelphia
Geography of Philadelphia
Economy of Philadelphia
Philadelphia |
4542266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent%20application | Patent application | A patent application is a request pending at a patent office for the grant of a patent for an invention described in the patent specification and a set of one or more claims stated in a formal document, including necessary official forms and related correspondence. It is the combination of the document and its processing within the administrative and legal framework of the patent office.
To obtain the grant of a patent, a person, either legal or natural, must file an application at a patent office with the jurisdiction to grant a patent in the geographic area over which coverage is required. This is often a national patent office, but may be a regional body, such as the European Patent Office. Once the patent specification complies with the laws of the office concerned, a patent may be granted for the invention described and claimed by the specification.
The process of "negotiating" or "arguing" with a patent office for the grant of a patent, and interaction with a patent office with regard to a patent after its grant, is known as patent prosecution. Patent prosecution is distinct from patent litigation which relates to legal proceedings for infringement of a patent after it is granted.
Definition
The term patent application refers to the legal and administrative proceedings of requesting the issuance of a patent for an invention, as well as to the physical document and content of the description and claims of the invention, including its procedural paper work.
The first of those—the request for a legal privilege to which the applicant is entitled if the application is well founded—is temporal by its nature. It ceases to exist as soon as the application is withdrawn or refused, or a patent is granted. The informational content of the document as filed (or in other, prosaic words, the piece of paper), is a historical fact that persists and exists in perpetuity. The expression "application" is often employed without being conscious of its ambiguity. The expression is capable of misleading even experienced professionals.
Geographic scope
Depending upon the office at which a patent application is filed, that application could either be an application for a patent in a given country, or may be an application for a patent in a range of countries. The former are known as "national (patent) applications", and the latter as "regional (patent) applications".
National applications
National applications are generally filed at a national patent office, such as the United Kingdom Patent Office, to obtain a patent in the country of that office. The application may either be filed directly at that office, or may result from a regional application or from an international application under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), once it enters the national phase.
Regional applications
A regional patent application is one which may have effect in a range of countries. The European Patent Office (EPO) is an example of a Regional patent office. The EPO grants patents which can take effect in some or all countries contracting to the European Patent Convention (EPC), following a single application process.
Filing and prosecuting an application at a regional granting office is advantageous as it allows patents in a number of countries to be obtained without having to prosecute applications in all of those countries. The cost and complexity of obtaining protection is therefore reduced.
International applications
The Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) is operated by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and provides a centralised application process, but patents are not granted under the treaty.
The PCT system enables an applicant to file a single patent application in a single language. The application, called an international application, can, at a later date, lead to the grant of a patent in any of the states contracting to the PCT. WIPO, or more precisely the International Bureau of WIPO, performs many of the formalities of a patent application in a centralised manner, therefore avoiding the need to repeat the steps in all countries in which a patent may ultimately be granted. The WIPO coordinates searches performed by any one of the International Searching Authorities (ISA), publishes the international applications and coordinates preliminary examination performed by any one of the International Preliminary Examination Authorities (IPEA). Steps such as naming inventors and applicants, and filing certified copies of priority documents can also be done centrally, and need not be repeated.
The main advantage of proceeding via the PCT route is that the option of obtaining patents in a wide range of countries is retained, while the cost of a large number of applications is deferred. In most countries, if a national application succeeds, damages can be claimed from the date of the international application's publication.
Types
Patent offices may define a number of types of applications, each offering different benefits and being useful in different situations. Each office utilizes different names for the types of applications, but the general groups are detailed below. Within each group there are specific type of applications, such as patents for inventions (also called "utility patents" in the U.S.), plant patents, and design patents, each of which can have their own substantive and procedural rules.
Standard application
A standard patent application is a patent application containing all of the necessary parts (e.g. a written description of the invention and claims) that are required for the grant of a patent. A standard patent application may or may not result in the grant of a patent depending upon the outcome of an examination by the patent office it is filed in. In the U.S., a standard patent application is referred to as a "non-provisional" application.
Provisional application
Provisional patent applications can be filed with a small number of patent offices, particularly with the USPTO. In order for a US provisional application to establish a priority date for a future full (i.e. non-provisional) standard patent application, the disclosure in the provisional must be enabling. Claims are not required in a provisional application, although it is advised to have them, since claims may contribute to enabling disclosure.
The disclosure in a provisional application may, within a limited time (one year in the U.S.), be incorporated into a standard patent application, if a patent is to be pursued. Otherwise, the provisional application expires, does not get published, and does not become a prior art to other patent applications. No enforceable rights can be obtained solely through the filing of a provisional application. Full (non-provisional) application may have additional information added (i.e. experimental data), and for the purposed of prior art analysis (such as novelty and non-obviousness), the non-provisional application will have two priority dates.
Continuation application
In certain offices a patent application can be filed as a continuation of a previous application. Such an application is a convenient method of including material from a previous application in a new application when the priority year has expired and further refinement is needed. Various types of continuation application are possible, such as continuation and continuation-in-part.
Divisional application
A divisional patent application is one which has been "divided" from an existing application. A divisional application can only contain subject matter in the application from which it is divided (its parent), and retains the filing and priority date of the parent. Divisional applications are useful if a unity of invention objection is issued, in which case further inventions can be protected in divisional applications.
Preparation, filing, and prosecution
The process of obtaining the grant of a patent begins with the preparation of a specification describing the invention. That specification is filed at a patent office for examination and ultimately a patent for the invention described in the application is either granted or refused.
Patent specification
A patent specification is a document describing the invention for which a patent is sought and setting out the scope of the protection of the patent. As such, a specification generally contains a section detailing the background and overview of the invention, a description of the invention and embodiments of the invention and claims, which set out the scope of the protection. A specification may include figures to aid the description of the invention, gene sequences and references to biological deposits, or computer code, depending upon the subject matter of the application. Most patent offices also require that the application includes an abstract which provides a summary of the invention to aid searching. A title must also generally be provided for the application.
Each patent office has rules relating to the form of the specification, defining such things as paper size, font, layout, section ordering and headings. Such requirements vary between offices.
Since a description cannot generally be modified once it is filed (with narrow exceptions), it is important to have it done correctly the first time.
The patent application generally contains a description of the invention and at least one claim purporting to define it. A patent application may also include drawings to illustrate the invention. Furthermore, an abstract is generally required.
For example, an international (PCT) application "must contain the following elements: request, description, claim or claims, one or more drawings (where drawings are necessary for the understanding of the invention), and abstract." specifies what the description of an international application should contain in more details.
As another example, a European patent application consists of "a request for the grant of a European patent, a description of the invention, one or more claims, any drawings referred to in the description or claims, and an abstract." specifies what the description of a European patent application should contain in more details.
Claims
The claims of a patent specification define the scope of protection granted by the patent. The claims describe the invention in a specific legal style, setting out the essential features of the invention in a manner to clearly define what would infringe the patent. Claims are often amended during prosecution to narrow or expand their scope.
The claims may contain one or more hierarchical sets of claims, each having one or more main, independent claim setting out the broadest protection, and a number of dependent claims which narrow that protection by defining more specific features of the invention.
In the U.S., claims can be amended after a patent is granted, but their scope cannot be broadened beyond what was originally disclosed in the specification. No claim broadening is allowed more than two years after the patent issues.
Filing date
The filing date of an application sets a cutoff date after which any public disclosures cannot form prior art (but the priority date must also be considered), and also because, in most jurisdictions, the right to a patent for an invention lies with the first person to file an application for protection of that invention (See: first to file and first to invent). It is therefore generally beneficial to file an application as soon as possible.
To obtain a filing date, the documents filed must comply with the regulations of the patent office in which it was filed. A full specification complying with all rules may not be required to obtain a filing date. For example, in the U.K., claims and an abstract are not required to obtain a filing date, but can be added later. However, since no subject matter can be added to an application after the filing date, it is important that an application disclose all material relevant to the application at the time of filing. If the requirements for the award of a filing date are not met, the patent office notifies the applicant of the deficiencies. Depending upon the law of the patent office in question, correction may be possible without moving the filing date, or the application may be awarded a filing date adjusted to the date on which the requirements are completed. A filed application generally receives an application number.
Priority claim
A patent application may claim priority from one or more previously filed applications to take advantage of the filing date of these earlier applications (in respect of the information contained in these earlier applications). Claiming priority is desirable because the earlier effective filing date reduces the number of prior art disclosures, increasing the likelihood of obtaining a patent.
The priority system is useful in filing patent applications in many countries, as the cost of the filings can be delayed by up to a year, without any of the applications made earlier for the same invention counting against later applications.
The rules relating to priority claims are in accordance with the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, and countries which provide a priority system in conformity with the Paris Convention are said to be convention countries. These rules should not be confused with the rules under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), outlined above.
Security issues
Many national patent offices require that security clearance is given prior to the filing of a patent application in foreign countries. Such clearance is intended to protect national security by preventing the spread and publication of technologies related to (amongst others) warfare or nuclear arms.
The rules vary between patent offices, but in general all applications filed are reviewed and if they contain any relevant material, a secrecy order may be imposed. That order may prevent the publication of the application, and/or the foreign filing of patents relating to the invention.
Should it be desired to file an application in a country other than an inventor's country of residence, it may be necessary to obtain a foreign filing licence from the inventor's national patent office to permit filing abroad. Some offices, such as the USPTO, may grant an automatic license after a specified time (e.g., 6 months), if a secrecy order is not issued in that time.
Publication
Patent applications are generally published 18 months after the earliest priority date of the application. Prior to that publication the application is confidential to the patent office. After publication, depending upon local rules, certain parts of the application file may remain confidential, but it is common for all communications between an Applicant (or his agent) and the patent office to be publicly available.
The publication of a patent application marks the date at which it is publicly available and therefore at which it forms full prior art for other patent applications worldwide.
Patent pending
The expression patent pending is a warning that an alleged invention is the subject of a patent application. The term may be used to mark products containing the invention to alert a third party to the fact that the third party may be infringing a patent if the product is copied after the patent is granted. The rules on the use of the term to mark products vary among patent offices, as do the benefits of such marking. In general, it is permissible to apply the term patent pending to a product if there is, in fact, a patent pending for any invention implemented in the product.
Patentable subject matter
Patents are granted for the protection of an invention, but while an invention may occur in any field, patent laws have restrictions on the areas in which patents can be granted. Such restrictions are known as exclusions from patentability.
The scope of patentable subject is significantly larger in the U.S. than in Europe. For example, in Europe, things such as computer software or methods of performing mental acts are not patentable. The subject of what should be patentable is highly contentious, particularly as to software and business methods.
Search and examination
After filing, either systematically or, in some jurisdictions, upon request, a search is carried out for the patent application. The purpose of the search is to reveal prior art which may be relevant to the patentability of the alleged invention (that is, relevant to what is claimed, the "claimed subject-matter"). The search report is published, generally with the application 18 months after the priority date of the application, and as such is a public document. The search report is useful to the applicant to determine whether the application should be pursued or if there is prior art which prevents the grant of a useful patent, in which case the application may be abandoned before the applicant incurs further expense. The search report is also useful for the public and the competitors, so that they may have an idea of the scope of protection which may be granted to the pending patent application.
In some jurisdictions, including the U.S., a separate search is not conducted, but rather search and examination are combined. In such case, a separate search report is not issued, and it is not until the application is examined that the applicant is informed of prior art which the patent office examiner considers relevant.
Examination is the process of ensuring that an application complies with the requirements of the relevant patent laws. Examination is generally an iterative process, whereby the patent office notifies the applicant of its objection (see Office action). The applicant may respond with an argument or an amendment to overcome the objection. The amendment and the argument may then be accepted or rejected, triggering further response, and so forth, until a patent is issued or the application is abandoned or refused. Because patent application examination may be a lengthy process, many patent offices including United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and other national patent offices have introduced several programs of prioritized examination. These programs targeted specific domains or small firms. Post-program studies have found that small firms (less than 500 employees) are almost 4 times more likely than large firms to apply for accelerated examination the prioritized patenting, moreover patents examined through the Track One Program at USPTO were up to 44% more likely to be cited.
Issue or grant
Once the patent application complies with the requirements of the relevant patent office, a patent is granted further official fees, and in some regional patent systems, such as the European patent system, validating the patent requires that the applicant provide translations of the application in the official languages of states in which they desire protection.
The date of issue effectively terminates prosecution of a specific application, after which continuing applications cannot be filed, and establishes the date upon which infringement may be charged. Furthermore, an issue date for an application in the U.S. filed prior to 1995 also factors into the term of the patent, whereas the term of later filings is determined solely by the filing date.
Post-issue or grant
Many jurisdictions require periodic payment of maintenance fees to retain the validity of a patent after it is issued and during its term. Failure to timely pay the fees results in loss of the patent's protection.
The validity of an issued patent may also be subject to post-issue challenges of various types, some of which may cause the patent office to re-examine the application.
Patentees
The person to whom a patent is granted is known as the patentee, the owner of the patent, the patent proprietor, or the patent holder. Once a patent has been granted with respect to a particular country, anyone who wishes to exploit the invention commercially in that country must obtain the patentee's authorization. In principle, anyone who exploits a patented invention without the patentee's authorization commits an illegal act. Protection is granted for a limited period, generally 20 years. Once a patent expires, the protection ends, and the invention enters the public domain (also known as being "off patent"). The patentee no longer holds exclusive rights to the invention, which then becomes available for commercial exploitation by others.
Rights conferred by a patent
The rights conferred by a patent are described in the patent law of the country in which the patent is granted. The patent owner's exclusive rights generally consist of the following:
in the case of a product patent, the right to prevent third parties from making, using, offering for sale or selling the product, or importing it for these purposes, without the owner's consent; and
in the case of a process patent, the right to prevent third parties from using the process without the owner's consent; and to prevent third parties from using, offering for sale or selling the products obtained directly by that process, or importing them for these purposes, without the owner's consent.
The patentee is not given a statutory right to exploit the invention, but rather a statutory right to prevent others from commercially exploiting it. Patentees may give permission, or grant a license, to other parties to use their inventions on mutually agreed terms. They may also sell their patent rights to someone else, who then becomes the new patent owner. There are certain exceptions to the principle that a patented invention cannot legally be exploited without the authorization of the patent owner. These exceptions take into account the balance between the legitimate interests of the patent holder and those of competitors, consumers and others. For example, many patent laws allow a patented invention to be exploited without the patentee's authorization: private acts for non-commercial purposes; acts for experimental purposes or scientific research; and acts for obtaining regulatory approval for pharmaceuticals. In addition, many laws provide for various situations under which compulsory licenses may be granted and government's use of patented inventions without the authorization of the patent owner may be allowed in the wider public interest.
Trends in patents applications
In 2020, 3.3 million patent applications were filed worldwide. This represents an increase of 1.6% on 2019.
Note: World totals are WIPO estimates using data covering 161 patent offices. These totals include applications filed directly with national and regional offices and applications entering offices through the Patent Cooperation Treaty national phase (where applicable). China’s pre-2017 data are not comparable due to a change in methodology. Due to this break in the data series, and to the high number of filings in China, it is not possible to report an accurate 2017 growth rate at world level.
In 2020, women accounted for 16.5% of all inventors listed in Patent Cooperation Treaty applications and men the remaining 83.5%. The proportion of women inventors has increased from 11.3% in 2006 to 16.5% in 2020. Moreover, the proportion of women inventors has grown in every region of the world over the past decade. About 33.7% of PCT applications named at least one woman as inventor in 2020, and 95.9% named at least one man as inventor. The share of PCT applications with at least one woman as inventor has risen from 22% in 2006 to 33.7% in 2020, while the share for those with at least one man as inventor has decreased within the same period, from 97.3% down to 95.9%.
The gender gap among PCT inventors varies considerably across countries. Within the top 20 origins, Spain (27.2%), China (22.4%) and the Republic of Korea (20.5%) had the largest proportion of inventors who were women in 2020. Conversely, Germany (10.8%), Japan (10.4%) and Austria (8.1%) had the smallest.
Fields of technology related to the life sciences had comparatively high shares of PCT applications with women inventors in 2020. Women represented more than one-quarter of inventors listed in published PCT applications in the fields of biotechnology (29.5%), food chemistry (29.4%), pharmaceuticals (28.6%), analysis of biological materials (25.9%) and organic fine chemistry (25.2%).
See also
Backlog of unexamined patent applications
INID codes
Kokai
Glossary of patent law terms
List of patent offices
Patent caveat, a type of provisional application used by the USPTO until 1909
Patent model, a miniature model of an invention required by the USPTO until 1880
Proof of concept
United States Statutory Invention Registration
Notes
Sources
References
Further reading
Eugenio Archontopoulos, Dominique Guellec, Niels Stevnsborg, Bruno van Pottelsberghe de la Potterie, Nicolas van Zeebroeck, When small is beautiful: measuring the evolution and consequences of the voluminosity of patent applications at the EPO , 2006, No 06-019.RS, Working Papers CEB from Université Libre de Bruxelles, Solvay Business School, Centre Emile Bernheim (CEB) (pdf)
Application, patent |
4542381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey%20Stoner | Casey Stoner | Casey Joel Stoner (born 16 October 1985) is an Australian retired professional motorcycle racer, and a two-time MotoGP World Champion, in and . During his MotoGP career, Stoner raced for the factory teams of Ducati and Honda, winning a title for each team.
Born in Southport, Queensland, Stoner raced from a young age and moved to the United Kingdom to pursue a racing career. After first competing internationally in 2002, Stoner became MotoGP World Champion in 2007 for Ducati. One of Stoner's greatest talents was his ability to ride any motorcycle beyond its perceived limits, even winning races on the inferior Ducati after both Honda and Yamaha had forged ahead in development during his later racing years. Stoner's 2007 title remained Ducati's only rider's championship until Francesco Bagnaia’s win in the premier class in 2022. During 2008 and 2009 Stoner remained a strong contender, winning multiple races, but not being able to consistently challenge Valentino Rossi and Yamaha for the title during those seasons. Stoner had a strong start to the 2009 season but had to miss three races due to chronic fatigue. In 2010, Ducati failed to challenge Yamaha and Honda until very late in the season, when Stoner went out on a winning note, winning three races.
After his departure from Ducati to Honda following the 2010 season, Stoner won a second world championship title in 2011 for Repsol Honda. The championship was won in a dominant fashion with ten Grand Prix wins and sealed by winning his home race with two races remaining. Prior to the 2012 French Grand Prix, Stoner announced that he would retire from Grand Prix racing at the conclusion of the season. Stoner was also the winner of his home Grand Prix of Australia on six consecutive occasions between 2007 and 2012. Due to a crash during practice at Indianapolis, Stoner missed several races due to injury, curtailing his championship challenge for his last season. He rounded off his MotoGP career with a remarkable sixth consecutive win in his home Grand Prix at Phillip Island and with a podium in his final race.
On 27 March 2015, HRC announced that Stoner would return to competition in a one-off ride in the 2015 Suzuka 8 Hours. Stoner crashed out of the race due to a stuck throttle, and Honda apologized to Stoner over the technical failure that caused him to injure his ankle and shoulder. Stoner served as a test and development rider for former team Ducati from 2016 to 2018.
Career
Early career
From 2000 to 2002, Stoner contested the national 125cc GP championships in Britain and Spain, winning the English 125cc Aprilia Championship in 2000, before moving full-time to the 250cc GP World Championships in 2002. His season on an Aprilia under the guidance of Lucio Cecchinello was turbulent, with no podium places from 15 race starts.
250cc World Championship
In 2005, Stoner rejoined the 250cc world championship class, racing once again for Lucio Cecchinello's team on a works Aprilia. He emerged toward the season's end as a serious threat to championship leader Dani Pedrosa; a threat that only dissipated with a crash at Stoner's home Grand Prix of Phillip Island, allowing Pedrosa to establish an insurmountable points lead. Stoner went on to claim a solid second place in the overall championship standings, with an impressive five race victories for the season.
MotoGP World Championship
2006: Rookie season at LCR Honda
In October 2005, Stoner, along with Lucio Cecchinello's team, reportedly had an agreement to move to the MotoGP class in the upcoming season with support from Yamaha. After the season ended, he received an offer from the Honda Pons team and tested the Honda RC211V bike with them at Valencia. However, in December 2005, Stoner re-signed with Cecchinello's team after Honda Pons failed to secure sponsorship for the upcoming season. The team then made an agreement with LCR Honda to run the RC211V for Stoner in 2006.
As a rookie satellite rider, Stoner took the pole position in just his second MotoGP race, but crashed several times during the season. He finished in 8th position in the championship, with his best result being a second place at the Turkish Grand Prix. He was leading the race until he was overtaken on the final corner by Marco Melandri.
2007: Championship year with Factory Ducati
Stoner secured a ride with the Factory Ducati Team for the 2007 season, joining Loris Capirossi on the new 800cc Ducati Desmosedici GP7. Stoner started off his Ducati career on a high note with a first premier-class win in the Qatar opener, after a tense battle with Valentino Rossi. Stoner took ten race wins and six pole positions (including winning three of the first four), took him to his first GP title, by a margin of 125 points (equivalent to five victories) over Dani Pedrosa, which he built during the second half of the season. His worst finish was a 6th place at Motegi, which was all he needed to clinch the title that day, taking the first premier class title for an Italian or a non-Japanese manufacturer since Phil Read's title for MV Agusta in 1974. Stoner was named Young Australian of the Year for his 2007 performance.
2008: Six wins and runner-up season
In 2008, Stoner took the #1 decal on his bike. Stoner opened the 2008 season with a victory at Qatar, before a run of two races without a podium. He returned to the podium with a second place at Mugello, before starting a run of seven successive pole positions. He turned three of them into successive victories—a lights-to-flag win at Donington, leading every lap at Assen six days later, and recovering from a huge Friday crash at Sachsenring to win in the wet after Dani Pedrosa crashed, moving to within 20 points of the championship lead. However, successive crashes while fighting for the lead at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca (where he remounted to finish second to Valentino Rossi), Brno and Misano ensured that he could not defend the title successfully. Stoner finished the 2008 season with six wins and was runner-up to Rossi with 280 points, the highest number of points ever gained without taking the title at the time.
2009: Health issues and Ducati struggles
Stoner remained with Ducati for the 2009 season with new teammate Nicky Hayden, with a further option for a 4th season in 2010. A strong start to the season left Stoner in a three-way battle with the Fiat Yamaha duo of Rossi and Jorge Lorenzo, before he was struck by a mystery illness which caused him to feel tired long before the end of races, leaving him 16 points behind Rossi and 7 behind Lorenzo after the US Grand Prix at Laguna Seca on 5 July.
Stoner was initially diagnosed with anaemia and an inflammation of the stomach lining. Stoner later disputed the diagnosis, however, and, after continuing to struggle with the condition, he announced on 10 August 2009 that he would miss rounds 11, 12 and 13 in Brno, Indianapolis and Misano, respectively, in an attempt to recover from the illness, he was subsequently diagnosed as lactose intolerant. Mika Kallio was chosen as Stoner's replacement for the three races. Stoner returned to racing late in the 2009 season, placing second in the Portuguese Grand Prix and an emphatic first in the Australian Grand Prix, which he led throughout. At interview following the Australian Grand Prix, Stoner said that he experienced none of the premature tiredness that had dogged him earlier in the 2009 season. He followed this up with another first place in the wet at the Malaysian Grand Prix. At the last round of 2009 at Valencia, Stoner dominated all practice and qualifying sessions to take pole, only to crash on cold tyres on the warm-up lap and miss the race. Stoner ended the season with four victories, and eight podiums in total, leading to a fourth-place finish in the riders' championship.
2010: Last season riding the Ducati
At the test held immediately following the Valencia round, Stoner was once again fastest while testing the new 2010 version of the Desmosedici. However, Rossi was fastest in five of the six pre-season tests. Stoner qualified on pole for the season opener in Qatar, and was leading the race when he crashed out, later acknowledging that this was his own mistake. He also crashed out of round 3 at Le Mans, this time attributing the crash to the front of the bike unloading when not running at maximum pace. His first podium of the year came at Assen, despite struggling with arm pump late in the race.
It was not until the thirteenth race of the season, the inaugural Aragon Grand Prix, that Stoner achieved his first victory. His victory in Aragon started a run of three victories in four races, as he also won the delayed Japanese Grand Prix, and won for the fourth consecutive year at Phillip Island. He eventually finished fourth in the riders' championship once again. With Rossi having fallen out of favour with Yamaha following Lorenzo's championship-winning season and Honda no longer willing to play second fiddle to another Japanese manufacturer, an intense game of musical chairs ensued in the MotoGP paddock that saw several of the top riders switch teams, Stoner among them. For 2011, Stoner joined Honda Racing Corporation after four years at Ducati Corse, where he was replaced by Valentino Rossi.
2011: Return to Honda with the factory team and second championship
Stoner raced with the Repsol Honda Racing Team in , with teammates Dani Pedrosa and Andrea Dovizioso. In preseason testing in Malaysia, Stoner was quickest in all three sessions, closely followed by Pedrosa and reigning world champion Jorge Lorenzo. Stoner won the season-opening race in Qatar from pole position, and had been quickest in each of the free practice sessions held before qualifying. Stoner took pole position for the Spanish Grand Prix, but had been running second behind Marco Simoncelli in wet conditions. Valentino Rossi attempted an overtake on Stoner from a long way back and crashed, taking him down as well. After the race, when Rossi came to his garage to apologize for the incident, Stoner replied with the now-famous line, "Obviously your ambition outweighed your talent. Stoner won three out of the first five rounds of the season, with victories in Le Mans and Catalunya to add to his Qatar victory. Stoner added victories at Silverstone in damp conditions, and Laguna Seca, to hold a 20-point lead over Jorge Lorenzo with eight races to go in the season.
Stoner proposed boycotting the Japanese Grand Prix out of fears for his health from radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant even though all the independent scientific experts including the World Health Organization and Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency stated that it is safe to live permanently or more from the plant.
Stoner won the World Championship for the second time at his home round at Phillip Island, Australia. On his 26th birthday, Stoner won his ninth race of the season from his eleventh pole, and with his only challenger Jorge Lorenzo ruled out of the race due to a hand injury suffered in warm-up, Stoner finished the weekend with an unassailable 65-point lead. His victory in the Australian MotoGP was his fifth in succession in his home race dating back to 2007 which made him the only rider to have won at Phillip Island during the 800cc era of MotoGP. He also was the only rider other than Marc Márquez or Lorenzo in the premier class to have won the championship in the 2010s.
2012: Final season before retirement
Stoner started the season with wins at Jerez, and Estoril, both tracks he had not won a MotoGP race at before; his victory in Estoril allowed him to take the championship lead. By finishing fourth at the Catalan Grand Prix, Stoner finished off the podium for the first time in fourteen months. He won the Dutch TT at Assen to move back level on points with Lorenzo, who was taken out by Álvaro Bautista on the first lap. This put Stoner even in points with Lorenzo before a final-lap retirement at the Sachsenring, while battling teammate Dani Pedrosa. Stoner finished only eighth at the Italian Grand Prix after running off-circuit, later describing that he was "not comfortable" on the bike, but followed that up with a fourth win of the season at Laguna Seca.
At the next race, Stoner crashed heavily during the qualifying session for the Indianapolis Grand Prix, suffering torn ligaments in his ankle but was declared fit to race the following day. He finished fourth in the race, 2.5 seconds behind third-placed Andrea Dovizioso. Stoner then elected to have surgery on his ankle, ruling him out of action for three races which essentially put him out of contention for the championship. Stoner's priority then was to be fully recovered for his home race in Australia, and he was slated to return at the Japanese Grand Prix in October. Upon returning, he finished fifth in Japan and third in Malaysia, before winning his home race for the sixth successive season at Phillip Island. The win gave him an undefeated record on Bridgestone tyres at the circuit.
Retirement
On 17 May 2012, during the pre-event press conference at the French Grand Prix, Stoner announced that he would retire from MotoGP at the end of the season. Stoner stated that he no longer enjoyed competing in the series, which was one of the contributing factors to his retirement. Getting away from the political stress of MotoGP, as well as having a desire to spend more time leisurely with his family were further reasons for his retirement. In a June 2014 interview, Stoner said he was enjoying his life away from the sport with his family and had no regrets about his retirement, further dismissing any chances of a comeback.
Status and personality
Stoner showed signs of feeling under-appreciated by the general public. He was angered by consistent suggestions that the bike and tyres had a bigger role in his success than he did, and unhappy at being booed at Donington in 2007 and 2008.
In August 2008 he was criticised for his former Ducati team's association with tobacco company Philip Morris.
Stoner has stated that he would prefer to shun the limelight and let his riding style do the talking. In an interview with Australian Motorcycle News, he was quoted as saying he would prefer a return to purer form of racing from the 500cc days, stating that "Back in those days, it was just racing—Doohan, Rainey, Schwantz, Gardner, Lawson—not half as much bullshit as now. That was the life."
Before the 2012 Australian Grand Prix, the Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit named the third corner "Stoner Corner".
After retirement
V8 Supercars
After announcing his retirement from MotoGP, rumours persisted throughout the year that Stoner would debut in touring car racing in 2013; specifically the Australian V8 Supercars series. Such a switch is a rare but not unprecedented move; as fellow Australian world motorcycling champion Wayne Gardner retired from motorcycle racing in 1992 and made his touring car debut the following year.
The rumours intensified when V8 Supercars team Triple Eight Race Engineering announced that Red Bull; a long-term sponsor of Stoner, would be the major sponsor of the team from 2013 onwards, replacing Vodafone. After numerous denials, in January 2013, Stoner announced that he would indeed move to touring car racing on a one-year contract with Triple Eight Race Engineering. Stoner would race in the second tier Dunlop V8 Supercar Series for the 2013 season.
On 27 February 2013, two days before his debut at the Adelaide Street Circuit, Stoner unveiled his car, sponsored by Red Bull and Pirtek. His car would be a Holden VE Commodore, the same car that was driven to victory in the 2010 Supercheap Auto Bathurst 1000 by Mark Skaife and Craig Lowndes. His cameo season was unsuccessful, finishing in the mid-field most races with a highest finish of 5th at Queensland Raceway. He finished the season 18th in the standings with 704 points.
Testing for Repsol Honda
In 2013, Stoner signed with Honda as a test rider to aid in the development of new machinery on a limited basis through to the end of the 2014 season. He renewed his contract again in 2015 for another season of test riding through to January 1, 2016.
Return to motorcycle racing
Suzuka 8 Hours
After three years retired from MotoGP, on 27 March, HRC announced that Casey Stoner was to return to motorcycle racing in 2015. In July, Stoner competed at the Suzuka 8 Hours where he rode the Honda CBR1000RR. His teammates were World Superbike rider Michael van der Mark and MFJ All Japan Road Race JSB100 Championship and HRC test rider Takumi Takahashi. The team qualified for the race in fourth position. With his team leading the race, Stoner suffered a violent crash due to a throttle malfunction which forced him to dump his bike into a guard barrier. The crash saw their race come to an end.
Stoner suffered a broken right scapula and a fractured left tibia as a result of the accident. Stoner commented on the crash, "I didn't have enough time to engage the clutch [when the throttle stuck]. I picked the bike up to try to slow down but I was heading towards the wall so I decided to lay it over and hit the barrier. Unfortunately the barriers were a lot harder than they looked and we came out of it with broken bones." Honda investigated the bike and discovered that the throttle mechanism had been defective and was stuck open at 26 degrees before the crash. Honda officially apologised to Stoner for the mechanical failure.
Proposed MotoGP Fill-in
After Repsol Honda Team completed the 2015 Qatar Grand Prix, Dani Pedrosa, Honda's 2015 MotoGP rider had to have surgery to treat the compartment syndrome (arm pump) in his right forearm. This would mean that Pedrosa would miss the next two consecutive races, Austin and the Argentine. Stoner offered to fill in for Pedrosa for these two events. However, HRC Vice President Shuhei Nakamoto and Repsol Honda team manager Livio Suppo decided against using Stoner because they did not have a motorcycle specifically set up for Casey, they also said that Casey was unfamiliar with Circuit of the Americas and Autódromo Termas de Río Hondo and they wanted him to be as competitive as possible. Stoner was disappointed as he tweeted, "Sorry to everyone but I am not racing @circuitamericas next weekend it would have been an honour to ride for @26_DaniPedrosa #NotMeantToBe." And, "Bummer I'm not racing, no prep needed as I wasn't planning on winning, just replacing a good friend and having some fun in Texas!" Instead, Repsol Honda chose HRC test rider Hiroshi Aoyama to replace Dani Pedrosa.
Return to Ducati
In 2016 Casey Stoner returned to the Ducati Corse Team as a test rider for the 2016 MotoGP season, ending his five-year tenure with Honda. Stoner's main role with Ducati is being a test rider and it has been further proposed that he may appear in some races as a wild card entry. Stoner participated in the official pre-season tests at Malaysia and was the fastest Ducati rider on the grid. He finished the final day of testing with the 5th-best time overall.
Later on in April, Stoner considered racing at the Argentine Grand Prix to fill in for the injured Danilo Petrucci but decided not to. Ducati manager Luigi dall'Igna commented that Stoner's physical fitness was yet not at the level needed to compete and added that, "[Casey] has also had some physical problems, he still lacks strength. It wouldn't make any sense to enter him in a race [at this point]. Mid-way through the season, we'll see." Ultimately he did not compete that season.
Honours
Stoner was named the 2008 Young Australian of the Year for his 2007 MotoGP performance. In the 2013 Queen's Birthday Honours, Stoner was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for significant service to motorcycle racing.
The FIM named him a Legend in October 2013 prior to the 2013 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix.
In October 2015, he was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame.
The third turn at Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit is named after him.
Personal life
Stoner met Adriana Tuchyna from Adelaide when she approached him at Phillip Island in 2003 and asked him to sign her stomach. A relationship began in 2005 when she turned 16, and they were married in Adelaide on 6 January 2007. At the Czech Republic Grand Prix in August 2011, Stoner announced that his wife was pregnant with their first child. The baby, named Alessandra Maria, was born on 16 February 2012, the same birthday as Stoner's long-time rival Valentino Rossi. On 6 October 2017, their second daughter Caleya Maria's birth was announced by Stoner on social media.
Stoner wore sponsored protective gear from Spidi between 2002 and 2005, and Alpinestars between 2006 and 2012. After announcing his retirement from MotoGP, Stoner still wore sponsored gear from Alpinestars, between his debut of the Australian V8 Supercars in 2013 and associated with the HRC with the tests of development new machinery for Honda RC213V. Following his experience of tiredness and sickness during 2009, Stoner was ultimately diagnosed as lactose intolerant.
In 2019, Stoner revealed he was living with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME). In 2020, Stoner became an ambassador for Emerge Australia, an advocacy and support organisation for CFS/ME. In 2022, Stoner revealed that he suffered severe anxiety and mental distress during his MotoGP career. He described laying on the motorhome floor between sessions being massively depressed, "wanting to die", and being afraid he would let his team down if he did not win every race. The anxiety was worse "the better the weekend he had" on the bike. He also revealed that he got aware and better at 'managing' his condition as he got older. He also suspected a link between his mental health crises and the chronic fatigue that developed during his career, although a formal link had yet to be medically evidenced.
Career statistics
Stoner's most successful race was the Australian motorcycle Grand Prix, which he dominated with six straight wins until his retirement, having never lost at the event on a factory bike. His next best races were Qatar with four wins and then Great Britain and Laguna Seca with three wins apiece. In addition, Stoner won every different Grand Prix that was available to be won during his racing career, and he won 21 total different Grand Prix events with wins in Qatar, Turkey, China, Catalunya, Donington Park, Silverstone, Laguna Seca, Czech Republic, San Marino, Phillip Island, Malaysia, Netherlands, Germany, Valencia, Italy, Aragon, Japan, France, Indianapolis, Jerez, and Portugal.
Grand Prix motorcycle racing
By season
By class
Races by year
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Suzuka 8 Hours results
References
External links
Casey Stoner – Casey Stoner to return to racing at 2015 Suzuka 8 Hour
Casey Stoner – MotoGP Rider Bios at Motorcycle-USA
1985 births
Living people
Sportspeople from the Gold Coast, Queensland
Sportsmen from New South Wales
Australian motorcycle racers
250cc World Championship riders
Ducati Corse MotoGP riders
Repsol Honda MotoGP riders
Supercars Championship drivers
Australian expatriate sportspeople in Monaco
Australian expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland
Members of the Order of Australia
Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees
LCR Team MotoGP riders
MotoGP World Championship riders
People with chronic fatigue syndrome
MotoGP World Riders' Champions
Racing drivers from Queensland |
4542392 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic%20history%20of%20Australia | Diplomatic history of Australia | The diplomatic history of Australia refers to the historical events surrounding Australian foreign relations. Following the global change in the dynamics of international state of affairs in the 20th century, this saw a transition within Australia's diplomatic situation to broaden outside of exclusively commonwealth and western European nations. Its core relationship was with Great Britain until 1941, and with the United States and New Zealand since then as represented by ANZUS. In the 21st century trade has soared with China. However relations have cycled back and forth from friendly to strained. For recent relations see also Foreign relations of Australia.
1930s: Appeasement
During the 1930s, Australian foreign policy was centralised around the fear of war and an eagerness to appease Germany, Japan and Italy. The Australian government gave considerable support to the appeasement policies of the Chamberlain government in London regarding Germany. However, as a consequence of supporting Chamberlain, many Australians experienced fear due to Japan's strong military and aggressive foreign policy whereas Australia was still an evolving nation to wield any independent force in world affairs in the 1930s.
Shift in dependence from Britain to United States
At the beginning of World War II, Australia was part of the commonwealth of the British Empire, and depended on Britain for its security against Japan. On 3 September 1939, Prime Minister Robert Menzies announced, "Great Britain has declared war on Germany, and as a result, Australia is also at war... There can be no doubt that where Great Britain stands, there stand the people of the entire British world". Australia was the first nation to come to Great Britain's aid, sending its combat divisions to fight in the Middle East and North Africa.
The unprecedented Japanese attack on an American naval base at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, on 7 December 1941, led to the formal entry of the United States into the war. Japanese attacks continued through Burma, Borneo, the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) and Malaya. The island of Singapore was strategically crucial for the British defence plan, however it was poorly defended and surrendered to the Japanese on 15 February 1942, with thousands of Australians as prisoners of war. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had given priority to the European war and was unable to assist the Australians. Australia Prime Minister John Curtin appealed to the US instead, "Australia looks to America free of any pangs as to our traditional links of kinship with Great Britain." This speech announced the shift of reliance from Great Britain to the United States.
Relations with the United States
In March 1942 after the Japanese attacks on Darwin, U.S. President Roosevelt ordered General Douglas MacArthur to move the American base from the Philippines to Brisbane, Australia. By September 1943, more than 120,000 American soldiers were in Australia. The Americans were warmly welcomed at first but tensions grew evident. MacArthur worked very closely with the Australian government and took command of its combat operations. Fighting continued throughout Southeast Asia for the next two years. When the European war was declared over, Australia and the US still had a war to win against Japan. MacArthur promoted a policy of "island hopping" for his American troops while he suggested that the Australian troops should continue clearing and rounding up the Japanese from New Guinea, New Britain, Borneo and Bougainville.
Immigration
Australian society changed greatly between 1945 and 1972, undoing the monoracial immigration policies of White Australia whereby immigration of distinct ethnicities acted as a catalyst. After the war, the Immigration Minister, Arthur Calwell, introduced an assisted immigration scheme with the slogan "populate or perish". The government was still trying to increase Australia's population, especially with people who have skills in the secondary industry sector. As the world was transforming into a more industrial and technological world, Australia needed to keep up.
Australia looked first to Britain for migrants. In the beginning, the assisted immigration scheme was popular among young married couples and single people. It was inexpensive, an adventure and an opportunity. After only a year, there was a shortage of ships and immigrant numbers dropped. The immigration targets were not being met. For the first time in a revolutionary step for both Australian society and international relations, Australia reluctantly looked outside Britain for migrants. In 1947, Arthur Calwell agreed to bring 12,000 people every year from Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. Many of these people were refugees who were being cared for by the International Refugee Organisation (IRO). They were accepted on humanitarian grounds with the condition that they would remain in Australia for two years and work in government selected jobs.
Over the next twenty years, patterns of immigration continued to change. The government encouraged more people to come to Australia and many more assisted agreements were made with countries. In the late 1950s, more immigrants began to be accepted from the Middle East. In 1958, under the Migration Act, the dictation test was removed and a new scheme of entry permits was introduced. This allowed many non-Europeans to emigrate. Their entry was now based on what they could contribute to Australia and if it could be shown that they could integrate into Australian society. This attracted many highly qualified people who added to Australia's relatively small tertiary industry.
Changing global opinions in the late 20th century resulted in particular hostility to the White Australia policy, which was still in effect. This was eventually disbanded, and since then Australia has received a steady increase in migrants from Asia and around the world through its controversial policy of 'multiculturalism'.
Communism and the Cold War era
Although the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the United States co-operated during World War II, the tensions between the two superpowers over economics (Communism versus capitalism), political authority (totalitarianism versus liberalism) and the fate of Europe (East versus West) escalated into the Cold War by 1947. Australia unequivocally stood by the American side and the Cold War became the preponderant influence on Australian foreign policy.
As the international community polarised into opposing alliances led by the respective superpowers, Australia too moved to strengthen its alliance with the United States. Along with the United Kingdom and France, Australia was a main ally of the US in the Asia-Pacific region. China (after 1949), North Vietnam (after 1954) and the USSR were all in one camp. Australians were once again reminded that the initiation of this cold war was similar to that of WWII, thus reinforcing the fear and need for security, from Asia. After the Chinese Communist Revolution and the North Korean infiltration of South Korea in 1950, Australia's foreign policy was influenced by growing concern over communist aggression. Australia increasingly looked to the US, as its new "great and powerful friend" for help to contain and fight communism. The Menzies government made a great effort of linking Australia to US foreign policy in the Asia-Pacific region. Two major alliance agreements were made between members of the Western Bloc in the 1950s: ANZUS, an agreement for aid in the event of an attack between Australia, New Zealand and the US and SEATO, an agreement guaranteeing defensive action in the event of an attack against the US, Australia, Great Britain, France, New Zealand, Thailand, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Korea, and South Vietnam.
Vietnam War
When communist North Vietnam infiltrated South Vietnam, the Western Bloc viewed it as a fundamental step in what could result in the communist subjugation of the democratic world. In a country gripped by this fear, the government's defence policy was dominated by the idea of "forward defence", in which Australia would seek to prevent the Communist "thrust into South-East Asia". The committal of troops to the Vietnam War was viewed as an attempt by the Menzies Government to strengthen the alliance with the USA following Great Britain's withdrawal "east of Suez".
With his arrival in October 1966, Lyndon Baines Johnson became the first US President to visit Australia. The visit came in the light of increasing international criticism over the war in Vietnam. The majority of Australians seemed to support the war, obvious from the return of the Liberal/Country Party in late 1966. Many Australians were however protesting against the war. They wondered why we had followed the United States into a war that they thought had nothing to do with them and were concerned at our apt readiness to fall in line with American foreign policy. The slogan used by Harold Holt - "All the way with L.B.J." - directly demonstrates this partnership which perhaps could be considered rather inequitable and profitable for the US. They were tired of military solutions and "power politics", and as one Labor politician said, "tired of anti-communism as a substitute for common sense." By 1970, the anti-war sentiment in the society had exploded into huge rallies, church services and candlelight processions. The moratorium movement represented a great range of people's opinions, from young political radicals to people who would not normally challenge government decisions and from mothers of conscripted men to prominent politicians, writers, academics, artists and church leaders.
The intensity of conflict in Australia over this issue contributed to the 1972 election of the first Labor government in 23 years. The new Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam immediately abolished conscription and withdrew troops from Vietnam. The US Signed a peace treaty for Vietnam in 1973, after withdrawing all of its troops in 1972. South Vietnam, however, was invaded and overwhelmed by North Vietnam in 1975.
Détente with communism
The Whitlam government, a new type of Labor government, developed a general opposition to the US and especially President Nixon who they viewed as especially conservative and paranoid. Whitlam announced that Australia was not automatically going to follow US defence policy any more and this annoyed the United States Government. In late 1972, when Nixon bombed North Vietnam, the controversial Tom Uren and two other left-wing politicians publicly attacked Nixon, resulting in an immediate halt in Australian/American cooperation. Instead Whitlam reached out to our geographically nearer neighbours, Asia. He eliminated the last remaining remnants of the White Australia Policy and introduced a new quota/permit system. With race no longer a barrier, substantial immigration from Asia began, especially from Vietnam. This immigration provided impetuous for the swing in Australia's foreign policy from the US to Asia and increased Australia's trade relations with Asia. In 1973, the People's Republic of China was officially recognised as the "real" China and it was realised that the move towards a more open political and trading relationship with China was a priority. Dr Stephen Fitzgerald was appointed as the first Australian ambassador to the People's Republic of China and Australian understanding and appreciation of China's history and culture was encouraged. The Whitlam government was leaving behind the racist "yellow peril" past and was poised for the move towards a multicultural Australia.
Foreign Policy under Bob Hawke, 1983–1991
APEC
One of the most significant foreign policy achievement of the Government took place in 1989, after Hawke proposed a south-east Asian region-wide forum for leaders and economic ministers to discuss issues of common concern. After winning the support of key countries in the region, this led to the creation of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). The first APEC meeting duly took place in Canberra in November 1989; the economic ministers of Australia, Brunei, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and the United States all attended. APEC would subsequently grow to become one of the most pre-eminent high-level international forums in the world, particularly after the later inclusions of China and Russia, and the Keating government's later establishment of the APEC Leaders' Forum.
Cambodia
Elsewhere in Asia, the Hawke government played a significant role in the build-up to the United Nations peace process for Cambodia, culminating in the Transitional Authority; Hawke's Foreign Minister Gareth Evans was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in negotiations. Hawke also took a major public stand in the aftermath of the Tiananmen square massacre in 1989; despite having spent years trying to get closer relations with China, Hawke gave a tearful address on national television describing the massacre in graphic detail, and unilaterally offered asylum to over 42,000 Chinese students who were living in Australia at the time, many of whom had publicly supported the Tiananmen protesters. Hawke did so without even consulting his Cabinet, stating later that he felt he simply had to act.
United States
The Hawke government pursued a close relationship with the United States, assisted by Hawke's close friendship with US Secretary of State George Shultz; this led to a degree of controversy when the Government supported the US's plans to test ballistic missiles off the coast of Tasmania in 1985, as well as seeking to overturn Australia's long-standing ban on uranium exports. Although the US ultimately withdrew the plans to test the missiles, the furore led to a fall in Hawke's approval ratings. Shortly after the 1990 election, Hawke would lead Australia into its first overseas military campaign since the Vietnam War, forming a close alliance with US President George H. W. Bush to join the coalition in the Gulf War. The Australian Navy contributed several destroyers and frigates to the war effort, which successfully concluded in February 1991, with the expulsion of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. The success of the campaign, and the lack of any Australian casualties, led to a brief increase in the popularity of the Government.
Commonwealth boycott of South Africa
Through his role on the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, Hawke played a leading role in ensuring the Commonwealth initiated an international boycott on foreign investment into South Africa, building on work undertaken by his predecessor Malcolm Fraser, and in the process clashing publicly with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who initially favoured a more cautious approach. The resulting boycott, led by the Commonwealth, was widely credited with helping bring about the collapse of apartheid, and resulted in a high-profile visit by Nelson Mandela in October 1990, months after the latter's release from a 27-year stint in prison. During the visit, Mandela publicly thanked the Hawke government for the role it played in the boycott.
Foreign policy under Paul Keating, 1991 to 1996
Indonesia
Throughout his time as Prime Minister, Keating took a number of steps to strengthen and develop bilateral links with Australia's closest neighbours; he frequently said that there was no country in the world that was more important to Australia than Indonesia, and undertook his first overseas visit to the country, becoming the first Australian Prime Minister to do so. Keating made a conscious effort to develop a personal relationship with Indonesian President Suharto, and to include Indonesia in multilateral forums attended by Australia. Keating's friendship with Suharto was criticised by human rights activists supportive of East Timorese independence, and by Nobel Peace Prize winner José Ramos-Horta. The Keating government's cooperation with the Indonesian military, and the signing of the Timor Gap Treaty, were also strongly criticised by these same groups. It was alleged by some that Keating was overlooking alleged human rights abuses by the Indonesian government as part of his effort to dramatically increase Australia's cultural, diplomatic and economic ties with Asia.
APEC
Following the creation of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Economic Forum by Bob Hawke, Keating developed the idea further, winning the support in 1993 of recently-elected US President Bill Clinton and Chinese Premier Li Peng to expand APEC to a full Leaders' Meeting. This led to APEC becoming one of the most significant high-level international summits, and at the 1994 APEC Leaders' Meeting, hosted by Indonesia, members agreed to the Keating government's proposals for what became known as the Bogor Declaration, which set targets for a significant increase in free trade and investment between industrialised APEC countries by 2010 and between developing APEC countries by 2020. In December 1993, Keating became involved in a diplomatic incident with Malaysia when he described Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad as "recalcitrant". The incident occurred after Mahathir refused to attend the 1993 APEC summit. Keating said, "APEC is bigger than all of us – Australia, the U.S. and Malaysia, and Dr. Mahathir and any other recalcitrants." The translation of the word "recalcitrant" into Malaysian rendered the word a more egregious insult, and Mahathir demanded an apology from Keating, threatening to reduce diplomatic ties and trade drastically with Australia, which became an enormous concern to Australian exporters. Some Malaysian officials talked of launching a "Buy Australian Last" campaign; Keating subsequently apologised to Mahathir over the remark.
Foreign policy under John Howard, 1996 to 2007
East Timor
Although new Indonesian President B.J. Habibie had some months earlier agreed to grant special autonomy to Indonesian-occupied East Timor, his subsequent snap decision for a referendum on the territory's independence triggered a Howard and Downer orchestrated shift in Australian policy. In September 1999, Howard organised an Australian-led international peace-keeping force to East Timor (INTERFET), after pro-Indonesia militia launched a violent "scorched-earth" campaign in retaliation to the referendum's overwhelming vote in favour of independence. The successful mission was widely supported by Australian voters, but the government was criticised for "foreign policy failure" following the violence and collapse of diplomatic relations with Indonesia. By Howard's fourth term, relations with Indonesia had recovered to include counter-terrorism cooperation and Australia's $1bn Boxing Day Tsunami relief efforts, and were assisted by good relations between Howard and Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.
War in Afghanistan
Howard had first met US President George W. Bush in the days before the 11 September terrorist attacks and was in Washington the morning of the attacks. In response to the attacks, Howard invoked the ANZUS Treaty. In October 2001, he committed Australian military personnel to the War in Afghanistan despite widespread opposition. Howard developed a strong personal relationship with the President, and they shared often similar ideological positions – including on the role of the United States in world affairs and their approach to the "War on Terror". In May 2003, Howard made an overnight stay at Bush's Prairie Chapel Ranch in Texas, after which Bush said that Howard "...is not only a man of steel, he's showed the world he's a man of heart."
In April 2002, Howard was the first Australian prime minister to attend a royal funeral, that of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. In October Howard responded to the 2002 Bali bombing with calls for solidarity. Howard re-dedicated his government to the "War on Terror".
War in Iraq
In March 2003, Australia joined the US-led "Multinational force in Iraq" in sending 2,000 troops and naval units to support in the invasion of Iraq. In response to the Australian participation in the invasion, there were large protests in Australian cities during March 2003, and Prime Minister Howard was heckled from the public gallery of Parliament House. While opinion polls showed that opposition to the war without UN backing was between 48 and 92 per cent, Howard remained preferred prime-minister over the Leader of the Opposition, Simon Crean, although his approval ratings were lower compared to before the war.
Multiculturalism and the end of ‘white Australia’
This focus of multiculturalism and a focus on Asia in Australia foreign policy was not lost because of the dismissal of the Whitlam government in 1975; contact and understanding continued to grow during the following decade. Australia’s imports of major weapons increased 65 per cent between 2005–2009 and 2010–14, making it the sixth largest importer in the world according to SIPRI.
China
Relationships with China continued to improve until the Chinese government massacred thousands of students in the Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989. Along with many other nations, Australia ceased diplomatic and trade relations with China for the next two years.
Relations between the two countries began to deteriorate in 2018 due to growing Australian concerns regarding Chinese political influence in various sectors of Australian society including Chinese students and residents, the national and state governments, universities and the media. There is sharp criticism regarding China's human rights policies regarding the treatment of Hong Kong and the Uyghur minority. Furthermore Canberra has been troubled by China's aggressive stance on the South China Sea dispute. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated tensions after Australia called for an international, independent inquiry into the origins of the disease. The subsequent restrictions that China made to its trade policies have been attacked as political retaliation and economic coercion against Australia. In 2021 Canberra disallowed the effort by the state of Victoria to join China's vast Belt and Road Initiative as a potential threat to Australia's security.<ref>Mike Cherney, "Australia Cancels China Infrastructure Deal, Citing National Interest: Decision deepens diplomatic dispute; Beijing says Australian government has no sincerity to improve ties" Wall Street Journal]</ref>
Indonesia
Australia had a developing relationship was Indonesia. Whitlam did not object to the invasion of Portuguese Timor by Indonesian troops in 1975 because maintaining good diplomatic relations with Indonesia was considered the highest priority at the time. The government could only express regret for the Timorese people as they were not prepared to go to war. Hawke and especially Keating also supported Indonesia despite their continuing maltreatment of the East Timorese people. When John Howard was elected in 1996, he saw the opportunity to distinguish himself from the previous Labor approach to the East Timor conflict. Immediately he sent peacekeeping forces into East Timor and advocated Australia's support for their independence. The role of this support of an essentially Christian country against a Muslim nation was detrimental to Australia's reputation with other Muslim countries.
Vietnam
Since the 1970s (when Vietnamese boat people started coming), wave after wave of refugees from distressed countries in Asia and elsewhere have sought haven in Australia. Many have died making the hazardous journey. How to deal with them has been a highly contentious political issue.
Notes
Further reading
Australian War Memorial. Encyclopedia online with scores of topics
Bell, Coral. Dependent ally: a study in Australian foreign policy (1988), on ties to US and UK; online
Bolton, Geoffrey. The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942-1995. The Middle Way (2005) online
Bridge, Carl ed., Munich to Vietnam: Australia's Relations with Britain and the United States since the 1930s, (Melbourne University Press 1991).
Chieocharnpraphan, Thosaphon. Australian Foreign Policy under the Howard Government: Australia as a Middle Power? (2011)
Clark, Claire, Australian foreign policy: towards a reassessment (1973) online
Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. The Oxford Companion to Australian History (2001) online at many academic libraries; also excerpt and text search
Dennis, Peter, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, and Robin Prior. The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. 1996)
Edwards, P. G. Prime ministers and diplomats: the making of Australian foreign policy, 1901-1949 (1983) online
Firth, Stewart. Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy (2005)
Grant, Ian. A Dictionary of Australian Military History - from Colonial Times to the Gulf War (1992)
Gyngell; Allan, and Michael Wesley. Making Australian Foreign Policy (Cambridge University Press, 2003)
Lee, David. Search for Security: The Political Economy of Australia's Postwar Foreign and Defence Policy (1995)
Lowe, David. Menzies and the 'Great World Struggle': Australia's Cold War 1948-54 (1999)
Macintyre, Stuart. The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901-42, the Succeeding Age (1993) online
McLean, David. "From British Colony to American Satellite? Australia and the USA during the Cold War," Australian Journal of Politics & History (2006) 52 (1), 64–79. Rejects satellite model. online at Blackwell-Synergy
McLean, David. "Australia in the Cold War: a Historiographical Review." International History Review (2001) 23(2): 299–321.
Millar, T. B. Australia in peace and war : external relations 1788-1977 (1978) online, 612pp
Murphy, John. Harvest of Fear: A History of Australia's Vietnam War (1993)
Schreuder, Deryck, and Stuart Ward, eds. Australia's Empire (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008) excerpt and text search
Serle. Percival, ed. Dictionary of Australian Biography (1949) online edition
Suri, Navdeep. "Australia-China Relations: The Great Unravelling," (ORF Issue Brief No. 366, June 2020, , Observer Research Foundation.) online
Watt, Alan. The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy 1938–1965, (Cambridge UP, 1967) online
Primary sources
Cotton, James, ed. Documents on Australian Foreign Policy: Australia and the World 1920-1930 (Canberra, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2019), 960 pp.
Neale, R.G. Ed. Documents on Australian foreign policy, 1937-49: vol 1 1937-38'' (1975) [https://archive.org/details/documentsonaustr0001unse online
See also
Basic Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
Canberra Pact
Colombo Plan
Pacific class patrol boat
Petrov Affair
History of the foreign relations of Australia
Political history of Australia |
4542796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papuwa | Papuwa | Papuwa (stylized as PAPUWA) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Ami Shibata and adapted into a 26-episode anime television series. The series follows Kotaro who is stranded on an uncharted island inhabited by strange talking animals and has no memory of his past. Papuwa is the sequel to Shibata's 1991 series , serialized in Enix's manga magazine Monthly Shōnen Gangan from 1991 to 1995. That series was adapted into a 42-episode anime television series which aired on TV Asahi from October 1992 to June 1995.
Story
Once, on an unknown southern island, a battle was waged over two mysterious stones, one red and one blue. The blue stone controls desire, and its power created the blue clan. And the red clan that inherited the power of the red stone was filled with the light of hope. Finally, the battle came to an end, and the young one who possessed the power of the blue stone fell into a deep sleep. The one with the power of the red stone flew off far across the sky. Desire and hope... until the day these two powers meet each other again...
Characters
Main characters
Papuwa: (パプワ) Papuwa is a short boy in a grass skirt. He has unparalleled strength as well as an assortment of other extraordinary abilities such as being able to breathe underwater for three hours. He was found washed up on shore of the first Papuwa Island, along with a young Chappy, by Kamui the owl, and was adopted by him. Papuwa is also, so far, the only known heir to the red stone, the stone of hope. Voiced by: Mayumi Tanaka (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Chappy: (チャッピー) Chappy is Papuwa's dog/cat and they've been together all their lives. The blue stone around Chappy's neck is actually the stone of desire, given to him by Papuwa who stole it from Shintaro early on in the first series. For the most part he is the only animal on the island who doesn't speak, however he has on few occasions using the power of the stone of desire. Voiced by: Hiroshi Masuoka (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Kotaro/Rotaro: (コタロー/ロタロー) Kotaro is an effeminate young boy, even going so far as to refer to himself as "delicate", and is the strongest member of the blue clan. Because of this power he could not control, he spent most of his life locked away in his room, and for four years prior to the start of PAPUWA, was in a coma. He has the bearing of a spoiled, pampered child, and believes he is above everyone. Somewhere between waking from his coma and arriving on the island, he became amnesiac. Liquid, fearing that remembering his own name would bring back his memories and cause his power to go out of control, changed his name to Rotaro by adding a line to the kana changing "ko" to "ro". Voiced by: Ikue Ōtani (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Liquid: (リキッド) Liquid, who once (albeit unwillingly) served in the Genma army's elite battle unit, now lives on Papuwa Island as Papuwa's housemaid. Though he seems forced at times, and though the others don't seem to care for him much more than a maid, deep down they really do respect each other (even so far as promoting his status to "Papa" for Father's Day). Once the Shinsengumi are introduced, he is constantly hounded by Umako, the only woman on the island and quite possibly the most manliest looking character in the show. for Papuwa TV series.
The Guardians
Jan: (ジャン) Jan is Service's best friend. He was original believed to be dead, after he was mortally wounded by Service 25 years prior to the first series. He serves as one of the three guardians of the first Papuwa Island. During his battle with Service, he reveals that the one who killed him was not Service, but Luzar.
Long ago, the Red Hisenki created two guardians to protect the red clan from the blue clan. These guardians were Jan and Shintaro. Out of the two, Jan was the first to be created. As Jan lost sense of time, months and years passed by, as he remain on the first Papuwa Island. However, he one day decided to go against his orders and left the island to take the blue clan head on, which led him to join the Ganma Army. However, his cover was blown and he was killed. It took a long time for the red hisenki to repair the damages done to Jan's body. During that time, the red hisenki decided to create a stronger force to protect it, where the red hisenki would copy Jan's soul and safely keep it inside the body of Shintaro. However, it is revealed that the copy was erased by the Blue Hisenki a long time ago, and that the Shintaro Magichad raised was just a shadow.
Us: The guardian of the Blue Hisenki and the true antagonist of the first series. Both his name and Jan's are derived from the Roman god of gates and doorways, Janus.
Sone the Meta-Sequoia: One of the guardians of the first Papuwa Island. Sone is a plant-like man, who watches over the Eastern Shrine. While he appears to be soft and mild-mannered, he has enough power in his sharp roots to slice his opponent in half.
Irie: One of the guardians of the first Papuwa Island. He is a seal-like man who lives by the creek. Irie is known for his soft, voluptuous, yet powerful hips. He always make sure to set his homes up near the sea.
The Ganma Army (ガンマ団)
The Ganma Army is run by the Ganma family, who possess the power of the stone of desire. This power come in the form of what is called secret stone eyes (hisekigan, 秘石眼). The army itself works as a group of mercenaries, originally ruthless and seemingly taking control of the world, but since Shintaro's takeover the group now fights for "justice" (basically only assassinating people they believe are bad).
Shintaro: (シンタロー) The current commander-in-chief of the Ganma army and main character of the first series, Shintaro has an unhealthy fixation on his little brother Kotaro, which makes him the butt of a lot of "brother complex" jokes. He is also the only member of the Ganma family that does not have blond hair, and the only one to not possess hisekigan, despite his blue eyes. He shares a long and rich history with the first Papuwa Island, and considers Papuwa his best friend. Despite a rather convoluted family history that involves being switched at birth and taking someone else's body, Magic refuses to consider Shintaro as anything but his son. Voiced by: Hikaru Midorikawa (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series. He is 24 in the first series. (ホワイト シンタロー)
Magic: (マジック) Magic is Kotaro's father and former commander-in-chief of the Ganma army, and oldest of four brothers. In the four year lapse between the first and second series, he's since retired the position to his oldest son Shintaro. Out of all of the family, only he and Kotaro possess two hisekigan eyes, something which grants them immense power. Voiced by: Shō Hayami (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Luzar: (ルーザー) a.k.a. Looser: One of Magic's younger brothers, very close in age. He was killed in battle 25 years prior to Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun. Harlem held a personal grudge against him, since he killed his favorite bird. After Service lost is eye, Luzar was the only person he had support from. However, the soon-to-be father Luzar went to fight at Block E and died shortly. It is later revealed that Luzar was the one responsible for killing Jan.
Service: (サービス) The youngest Ganma brother and Harlem's twin. Unlike Magic and Harlem, Service was very fond of Luzar. Like Takamatsu, he blames Magic for Luzar's death due to the fact that they ignored him instead of stopping him from going to Block E. He was Shintaro's fighting master, and now trains Kotaro to control his hisekigan. He once lost control of the power of his hisekigan, and blamed that incident for the death of his close friend, Jan. In his anguish over this, he tore out his own right eye, which was his hisekigan. He is 43 in the first series. Voiced by: Kōsuke Meguro (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. Both he and Harlem are 43 in the first series.
Gunma: (グンマ) Gunma is a scientist raised by Dr. Takamatsu. He is childish and eccentric and a bit of an airhead, and has a slight obsession with designing his inventions to look like swans. He originally thought his father was Luzar but it turned out to be Magic. He is Kotaro's only biological brother. While technically Magic's eldest son, after it was revealed that he and Shintaro were switched at birth, the idea of Gunma being next in line for commandership of the Ganma Army has never been brought up, and likely never will be, given Gunma's complete lack of interest in the matter. He is 24 in the first series. for Papuwa TV series.
Kintaro: (キンタロー) Kintaro is the son of Luzar, and cousin to Shintaro, Gunma, and Kotaro. He is also Shintaro's "double" in an odd sense, something which dates back to the original series and involves a long and convoluted family history. While he was depicted at one point in the original series as possessing two hisekigan, at every point since, he has been shown to only have one, his left eye. Voiced by: Toshiyuki Morikawa (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Doctor Takamatsu: (ドクター高松) Takamatsu was Luzar's student, and the one who primarily raised Gunma. Takamatsu (along with Servis) blamed Magic for Luzar's death (since Magic was leader of the army then and sent Luzar out to battle), so as revenge he switched babies Shintaro and Gunma (Gunma being Magic's son and Shintaro being Luzar's son, who were born just a few days apart) so that Magic's "heir" would not be who he thought. Takamatsu specializes in the field of biotechnology, but is also a proficient medical doctor. for Papuwa TV series. He is 43 in the first series.
Gionkamen Arashiyama: (祗園仮面アラシヤマ) One of Ganma's elite forces (and second only to Shintaro, he claims), Arashiyama is a shy person whose greatest dream is just to make friends, which he fails to do because of his lack of confidence and bad "wisdom" from his former teacher Marker. Arashiyama especially wants to make friends with Shintaro, who was the first person to talk to him at the Ganma Academy, and the first person to offer to be his friend. However, Shintaro's offer to be his friend in the original series was born of desperation, when he needed the help of someone sufficiently strong to put up a fight against his uncle, Servis, and Shintaro typically prefers to ignore his existence entirely. Arashiyama is a highly proficient flame master, and ranks among the most powerful members of the Ganma army not related to the Blue Clan. Voiced by: Yoku Shioya (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Ninja Tottori: (忍者トットリ) Tottori, as his name states, is a ninja, but not a very good one. His special "attack" is kicking his sandal into the air and whatever side it lands on activates a cloud that will attack the enemy with whatever weather he predicts. Some episodes suggest he may have feelings for Miyagi, but this is probably just a running gag. Voiced by: Takayuki Ayanogi (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Tōhoku Miyagi: (東北ミヤギ) In the dub, Miyagi is portrayed as a stereotypical dumb blond. And when it comes to common sense, he is a little bit lacking. But he's also a good strategist and has mastered written Chinese. He has to, because his weapon of choice (Ikijibiki no Fude, 生き字引の筆, lit. "Walking Dictionary Writing Brush", "Brush of Literalization" in the dub) is an oversized calligraphy brush that turns anything into whatever is written on it, but only works using Chinese characters. He and Tottori are best friends. Voiced by: Bin Shimada (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Musha Kōji: (武者コージ) When Kōji was 3 years old he fell into a pond and was eaten by a koi fish named Kinugasa. Kinugasa was then caught and sold to a rich couple who found and adopted him. Kouji entered baseball during high school and was scouted that way for the Ganma's army. He is Umako's older brother. for Papuwa TV series.
Hakata "Donnie" Donta: for Papuwa TV series.
Nagoya Willow: (名古屋ウィロー) Voiced by: Katsumi Suzuki (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Tiramisu and Chocolate Romance: (ティラミス&チョコレートロマンス) Two member of the Ganma Army.
and both for Papuwa TV series.
Tsugaru Jocker: (津軽ジョッカー) for Papuwa TV series.
Special Battle Unit
Harlem (ハーレム): Another of Magic's brothers, and older twin brother of Service. He is the exact opposite of his twin. He leads the Special Battle Unit consisting of Marker, Rod, and G, which Shintaro disbanded when he gained control. He likes to steal money from his subordinates and waste it on gambling. Despite his outward appearance, Harlem is sensitive to the happenings around him, and still looks out for his ex-team member Liquid. He has one hisekigan eye. Voiced by: Hirotaka Suzuoki (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series. Both he and Service are 43 in the first series.
Marker: (マーカー) Marker is a Chinese warrior, very calm and composed. He is especially skilled with a sword, and manipulates fire. He was Arashiyama's former teacher, and instilled in him the impression that he is the best and that everyone else is worthless. This default he falls back on is why Arashiyama can never make friends. Marker is a member of Harlem's Special Battle Unit. His special attack is Flame Serpent. for Papuwa TV series.
Rod: (ロッド) Rod is an Italian with a habit for bad jokes. Always cheery, he has the power to manipulate wind. He is a member of Harlem's Special Battle Unit. for Papuwa TV series.
G: (ジー) G is of German descent with an odd fondness for bears, and Hokkaidou wood carvings. He is quiet and a bit shy, and often does without speaking. He is a member of Harlem's Special Battle Unit. His actual name is Gustav. for Papuwa TV series.
The Shinsengumi
(心戦組) The Shinsengumi is a mercenary group (based the real life historical group) that consists of multiple branches, two of which are known; the "Main" group and the "True" group.
Main Shinsengumi
(Shinsengumi Hontai, 心戦組本隊)
Isami Kondō (近藤イサミ) for Papuwa TV series.
Toshizō Hijikata (土方トシゾー) for Papuwa TV series. The straight-man of the team.
Sōji Okita (沖田ソージ) for Papuwa TV series. a smiling silver-haired man. He unfortunately has Kondo's affections, and returns them by repeatedly stabbing Kondo with his sword.
Umako Harada (原田ウマ子) for Papuwa TV series. The most masculine character and ironically, the only major female character. She is tall, muscular, battle-scarred, and eventually develops a beard due to a potion. She falls in love with Liquid to his Horror. She is Koji's younger sister.
True Shinsengumi
(Shin Shinsengumi, 真心戦組)
<Manga only>
Yamanami Keisuke (山南ケースケ)
Yamazaki Susumu (山崎ススム)
Itou Kashitaro (伊東カシタロー)
Saitou Hajime (斎藤ハジメ)
Nagakura Shinpachi (永倉シンパチ)
The Namamonos
A namamono (ナマモノ) is a strange talking animal-type creature that lives on Papuwa Island. There are countless namamonos that appear throughout the series.
Tanno and Itō: (タンノ＆イトウ) Tanno is a transvestite fish who wears fishnet stockings, and Itō is a hermaphroditic pink snail. In the dub they talk like stereotypical gay men. Usually seen together, they are both currently obsessed with Toshizou and pounce on him vehemently on sight. Itō also constantly spawns baby snails which the rest of the cast continuously eat. Tanno is voiced by Tomohiro Nishimura (Japanese) and Itō is voiced by Tesshō Genda (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. and for Papuwa TV series.
Komoro: (コモロ) Komoro is a poisonous mushroom who tries to pass himself off as a safely edible mushroom. He appears at random and can appear to be an annoyance to Papuwa and the others. When breathed in, his poisonous powder is hallucinogenic. for Papuwa TV series.
Oshōdani the Sea Otter: (オショウダニ) Oshodani is a sea otter who is searching for the "perfect drum". With an obsession for beating on anything he can find, he always carries with him a pair of drumsticks. He attacks by throwing his drum sticks. for Papuwa TV series.
Eguchi and Nakamura: (エグチ＆ナカムラ) A kangaroo mouse and a badger who are very close friends and always seen together. They give off the resemblance of a rabbit and a raccoon, and seem to enjoy scratching new things with a 10 yen coin. and for Papuwa TV series.
Hayashi: (ハヤシ) A pink Tyrannosaurus rex who became a transvestite by eating Itō's children. His tail is frequently used as food. for Papuwa TV series.
Yamagishi: (ヤマギシ) Yamagishi is a wombat who constantly dreams of "a sea of stars". He has a naturally gloomy disposition. for Papuwa TV series.
Hanaji Buusuke: (鼻血ブースケ) Buusuke are huge "leaf beetles", who look like purple dinosaur creatures with fairy wings wearing a bathing suit. Buusuke live in the Cocoa Forest, and have chronic nosebleeds due to the copious amounts of cocoa that they eat. This also causes them be to anemic.
Shimizu: (シミズ) A huge earthworm who's very affectionate. Despite being introduced early on, he has a very small role in the series. for Papuwa TV series.
Kubota: (クボタ) A large bird that is used as a means of transportation around the island. The cast commonly steals Kubota's eggs for food or other such useful purposes. for Papuwa TV series.
Tezuka: (テヅカ) A bat who practices magic to make medicine. He became close friends with Arashiyama on the first Papuwa Island, of which he has completely forgotten. Tezuka was also an apprentice to Nagoya Willow. for Papuwa TV series.
Takeuchi: (タケウチ) A chihuahua, and Tezuka's assistant. He acts nice to hide malicious intent and uses his cute appearance to swindle people. for Papuwa TV series.
Taco Taguchi and Takeda: (タグチ＆タケダ) A chupacabra and an alien, who often come to brainwash Liquid. and for Papuwa TV series.
Umigishi: (ウミギシ) Umigishi is a half man, half octopus/squid character. A long time ago he was engaged to Tanno, but later married Ifuku. He later returns during the Man's Festival in the second series. Voiced by: Yasunori Matsumoto (Japanese) in Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun TV series. for Papuwa TV series.
Ifuku: (イフク) A talking clam and Umigishi's wife. She has much faith in her bumbling husband and often gives him advice. for Papuwa TV series.
Kaori: The crabfish beautician of Papuwa island.
Miyamo:
Kamui the Owl: Papuwa's adoptive grandfather who is deceased prior to the first series. He is the one who first informs Shintaro of the sinking of the first Papuwa Island and Papuwa's past. He appears again in the second series during the second Obon Festival. for Papuwa TV series.
Yopparaida the Hanami Monster: (ヨッパライダー) Yopparaida is the ancient protector of the first Papuwa Island and the god of the sea. He appears once a year during the Hanami season to celebrate with the island residents.
Nagarakawa the Cormorant:
Katami-kun & Fukuda-kun:
Mokkun:
Okkun:
Osaka:
Tama-chan: Osaka's daughter.
Nakai:
Nakai Jr.: (ナカイJr) for Papuwa TV series.
Mosa the Mosasaurus: for Papuwa TV series.
Great Man-God: (男児主さま) for Papuwa TV series.
Man-Octopus: (蛸男児) for Papuwa TV series.
Hoshino: for Papuwa TV series.
Kimura: (キムラ)
Fuji: for Papuwa TV series.
Cocoa Queen: A giant cocoa plant. for Papuwa TV series.
Sekino the Giant Panda: (セキノ) for Papuwa TV series.
Hiroshi: (ヒロシ) Hiroshi is a member of the bat tribe on the "drifting island" (Tadayoijima). Due to a birth defect type mutation, he looks like a human while the rest of his people look like little balls with bat wings. He is thus referred to as a "Happy Child".
Hiroshi's Father: (ヒロシのパパ)
Nobuo: (ノブオ)
Soni (ソニ)
Maziro: (マジロ)Morishige (モリシゲ)Kagerouzoku (カゲロウ族)Kera: (ケラ) From the island of "Beginning's End" (Hajimari no Owari), Kera is a Happy Child of a race of dinosaurs. She's looking for her parents who she was separated from. She only appears in the manga.Kashio: (カシオ)Chataro: (チャタロー)Charmy: (チャーミー)Gama Sennin: (ガマ仙人)
Other Miscellaneous CharactersTonkotsumaru: Hakata Donta's pet pig. He is the one who makes the Tonkotsu Ramen to power him up.Kinugasa: for Papuwa TV series.Kuriko''': (クリ子) Kuriko is Santa's daughter and apprentice (literally a Santa Claus in training). A long time ago she and Papuwa made a promise that if she could grow to be 156 cm, they would get married.
Video Game-Exclusive Characters
Umbrella Boot
Daruma
Gunma Doll
Ashura
Pork Chop
Tamasaburo
Media
Manga
Anime Nangoku Shōnen Papuwa-kun'' was adapted into a 42-episode anime television series in 1992. Produced by Nippon Animation under the direction of Jun Takagi, the series began its broadcast run on TV Asahi from 10 October 1992 to 2 October 1993. Three pieces of theme music were used for the opening and closing of each episode. The opening theme is performed by Tome. The closing themes are performed by Daiji Man Brothers Band for the first 24 episodes and performed by Kouji Tsuno and Pythagoras for the remaining episodes.
The second manga series was also adapted into an anime television series by Nippon Animation. Directed by Kenichi Nishida, the second series began its broadcast run on TV Tokyo from 30 September 2003 to 30 March 2004. Two pieces of theme music are used, one opening and one closing. The opening theme is performed by Loosely, and the closing them is performed by .
Video games
Two video games entitled were released on March 25, 1994 by Enix for the Nintendo's Game Boy and Super Famicom.
Episode list
Nangoku Shonen Papuwa-kun
1. んばば!きょうからお前も友達だ
2. 働けシンタロー!食事は命がけだ
3. Brush of Literalization! Miyagi Touhoku Appears (生き字引きの筆! 東北ミヤギ登場)
4. お帰りじぃちゃ! パプワの秘密
5. 脳天気野郎 忍者トットリくん参上
6. パプワ島の ふしぎな仲間全員集合
7. Ton-kotsu Power! Hakata Donta Appears (トン骨パワー! 博多どん太君登場)
8. 大決戦だぞ!パプワの森の守り神
9. Merry Christmas! Christmas Eve Papuwa (メリークリスマス! パプワ島聖夜)
10. 爆裂!炎のアラシヤマ おたべ攻撃
11. Return! Miyagi & Tottori's Double Attack (復活! ミヤギ・トットリのW攻撃)
12. 危機一髪! 記憶をのぞく秘密兵器
13. 探検! パプワ島地底に謎のトビラ
14. Shintaro's Dad? Commander Magic (シンタローのパパ? マジック総帥)
15. 珍プレー対決! 刺客甲子園球児だ
16. Assassin Kouji Musha & Kinugasa-kun (刺客武者のコージ& キヌガサくん)
17. めざせ! 願いを叶えるイッポン竹
18. Strongest in History! Dr. Gunma & Robot (史上最強! グンマ博士&ロボット)
19. Squid Man's Fear! Raging Love's Storm (イカ男の恐怖! 吹き荒れる愛の嵐)
20. ハチャメチャ! パプワ島大運動会
21. 秘石争奪戦! 4人の戦士夢の対決
22. Mayhem! Spring Pic-Pic-Picnic (大騒動! 春のぴきぴきピクニック)
23. Hanami Monster Yopparaida's Appearance (お花見怪獣 ヨッパライダー出現!)
24. Parenting Chappy! Polar Bear-kun Story (子育てチャッピー! 白熊くん物語)
25. 再上陸! 天才グンマ博士の新ロボ
26. Invincible to Nice! Doctor Takamatsu's Appearance (ステキに無敵! ドクター高松登場)
27. 南国温泉の戦い! 地獄温泉別府丸
28. Shintaro's Birthday! Papa Returns (シンタローの誕生日!パパ再登場)
29. Farewell Papuwa Island! Shintaro's Escape (さらばパプワ島! シンタロー脱出)
30. Hypnotist! Meet Jocker Tsugaru! (催眠術師! 津軽ジョッカー見参!)
31. Willow Assassin! The Wizard of Nagoya (刺客ウイロー! 名古屋の魔法使い)
32. 超人パプワ! 移動遊園地で大暴れ
33. Squid Man Umigishi's Tears! Tanno's Secret (イカ男ウミギシ涙! タンノの秘密)
34. 狙われた秘石! 日光猿王とタロー
35. Mirror of the Past: The Mystery of the Magic Family (過去を映す鏡! マジック一族の謎)
36. 謎のサービス! 秘石眼を捨てた男
37. サービス上陸! シンタローの秘策
38. Showdown! Four Warriors vs Invincible Service (対決!四人の戦士VS 無敵サービス)
39. パプワ島大騒動!オバケが出たぞ
40. ヒグラシの夢! あの空を飛びたい
41. 大統領は誰だ! パプワ島の総選挙
42. さよならパプワ島! みんな友達だ
Papuwa
1. Welcome to Papuwa Island!
2. Caution: Extremely Poisonous? Here Comes Komoro the Destroying Angel Mushroom
3. My Personal Motto is the Power of Friendship. I am Arashimaya
4. Here Comes the Wandering Drummer, Oshōdani the Sea Otter
5. Fancy Yankee?! Liquid's Fabulous Past
6. Even the Zombies Dance?! The Obon Festival on Papuwa Island is Wild and Crazy
7. Deadly Technique! The Brush of Literalization Turns Even Hayashi Pale?!
8. Rotaro Awakens?! Massive Flood in Papuwa's House
9. Here Come the Samurai! Meet the Shinsengumi!!
10. Umako Vision Activated!! Magical Potion Taste Like Love
11. Save Rotaro! Chappy the Errand Boy!
12. Who's the Empress? Fierce! Papuwa Island Hina-King Cup
13. Skin Tight!? Men's Beach Volleyball Competition
14. Kotaro is Stunned!? Here Comes the Super Manly God of the Man Festival!
15. Watch Out for the Fake? Rotaro in the Test of Courageous Manhood
16. What's the Present? Papa Liquid's Longest Day
17. Melancholy Kōji Who Does Umako Belong To?
18. No Need for Liquid? Substitute Maid Championship
19. Catch My Heart!! Sizzling Valentine's Day
20. Arashiyama Reminisces! Unforgettable Ganma Army Military Academy
21. What's Your Wish? Star Festival on Papuwa Island
22. Climb, Liquid! Hang the Charms for Your Life?
23. He's Finally Here!! Shintaro Returns
24. Shintaro & Liquid: Their Own Decisions
25. Save Papuwa Island! Kotaro's Fateful Ganma Cannon
26. Goodbye, Kotaro! You Are My Friend from this Day Forth!
See also
List of Square Enix video game franchises
External links
Papuwa.com
Nippon Animation official site
GanGan Square-Enix official site
1991 manga
1992 anime television series debuts
1994 video games
2003 anime television series debuts
ADV Films
Comics characters with superhuman strength
Enix games
Game Boy games
Gangan Comics manga
Japan-exclusive video games
Nippon Animation
Platformers
Puzzle video games
Shōnen manga
Square Enix franchises
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Video games based on anime and manga
Video games developed in Japan
TV Asahi original programming
TV Tokyo original programming |
4542890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organoid | Organoid | An organoid is a miniaturized and simplified version of an organ produced in vitro in three dimensions that mimics the key functional, structural and biological complexity of that organ. They are derived from one or a few cells from a tissue, embryonic stem cells or induced pluripotent stem cells, which can self-organize in three-dimensional culture owing to their self-renewal and differentiation capacities. The technique for growing organoids has rapidly improved since the early 2010s, and The Scientist names it as one of the biggest scientific advancements of 2013. Scientists and engineers use organoids to study development and diseases in the laboratory and industry for drug discovery and development, personalized diagnostics and medicine, gene and cell therapies, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
History
Attempts to create organs in vitro started with one of the first dissociation-reaggregation experiments where Henry Van Peters Wilson demonstrated that mechanically dissociated sponge cells can reaggregate and self-organize to generate a whole organism. In the subsequent decades, multiple labs were able to generate different types of organs in vitro through the dissociation and reaggregation of organ tissues obtained from amphibians and embryonic chicks. The phenomena of mechanically dissociated cells aggregating and reorganizing to reform the tissue they were obtained from subsequently led to the development of the differential adhesion hypothesis by Malcolm Steinberg. With the advent of the field of stem cell biology, the potential of stem cells to form organs in vitro was realized early on with the observation that when stem cells form teratomas or embryoid bodies, the differentiated cells can organize into different structures resembling those found in multiple tissue types. The advent of the field of organoids, started with a shift from culturing and differentiating stem cells in 2D media, to 3D media to allow for the development of the complex 3-dimensional structures of organs. Since 1987, researchers have devised different methods for 3-D culturing, and were able to utilize different types of stem cells to generate organoids resembling a multitude of organs. In 2006, Yaakov Nahmias and David Odde showed the self-assembly of vascular liver organoid maintained for over 50 days in vitro. In 2008, Yoshiki Sasai and his team at RIKEN institute demonstrated that stem cells can be coaxed into balls of neural cells that self-organize into distinctive layers. In 2009 the Laboratory of Hans Clevers at Hubrecht Institute and University Medical Center Utrecht, Netherlands, showed that single LGR5-expressing intestinal stem cells self-organize to crypt-villus structures in vitro without necessity of a mesenchymal niche. In 2010, Mathieu Unbekandt & Jamie A. Davies demonstrated the production of renal organoids from murine fetus-derived renogenic stem cells. In 2014, Qun Wang and co-workers engineered collagen-I based gels and synthetic foam biomaterials for the culture and delivery of intestinal organoids and encapsulated DNA-functionalized gold nanoparticles into intestinal organoids to form an intestinal Trojan horse for drug delivery and gene therapy. Subsequent reports showed significant physiological function of these organoids in vitro and in vivo.
Other significant early advancements included in 2013, Madeline Lancaster at the Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences established a protocol starting from pluripotent stem cells to generate cerebral organoids that mimic the developing human brain's cellular organization. Meritxell Huch and Craig Dorrell at Hubrecht Institute and University Medical Center Utrecht demonstrated that single Lgr5+ cells from damaged mouse liver can be clonally expanded as liver organoids in Rspo1-based culture medium over several months. In 2014, Artem Shkumatov et al. at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign demonstrated that cardiovascular organoids can be formed from ES cells through modulation of the substrate stiffness, to which they adhere. Physiological stiffness promoted three-dimensionality of EBs and cardiomyogenic differentiation. In 2015, Takebe et al. demonstrated a generalized method for organ bud formation from diverse tissues by combining pluripotent stem cell-derived tissue-specific progenitors or relevant tissue samples with endothelial cells and mesenchymal stem cells. They suggested that the less mature tissues, or organ buds, generated through the self-organized condensation principle might be the most efficient approach toward the reconstitution of mature organ functions after transplantation, rather than condensates generated from cells of a more advanced stage.
Properties
Lancaster and Knoblich define an organoid as a collection of organ-specific cell types that develops from stem cells or organ progenitors, self-organizes through cell sorting and spatially restricted lineage commitment in a manner similar to in vivo, and exhibits the following properties:
it has multiple organ-specific cell types;
it is capable of recapitulating some specific function of the organ (e.g. contraction, neural activity, endocrine secretion, filtration, excretion);
its cells are grouped together and spatially organized, similar to an organ.
Process
Organoid formation generally requires culturing the stem cells or progenitor cells in a 3D medium. The 3D medium can be made using an extracellular matrix hydrogel such as Matrigel or Cultrex BME, which is a laminin-rich extracellular matrix that is secreted by the Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm tumor line. Organoid bodies can then be made through embedding stem cells in the 3D medium. When pluripotent stem cells are used for the creation of the organoid, the cells are usually, but not all the time, allowed to form embryoid bodies. Those embryoid bodies are then pharmacologically treated with patterning factors to drive the formation of the desired organoid identity. Organoids have also been created using adult stem cells extracted from the target organ, and cultured in 3D media.
Types
A multitude of organ structures have been recapitulated using organoids. This section aims to outline the state of the field as of now through providing an abridged list of the organoids that have been successfully created, along with a brief outline based on the most recent literature for each organoid, and examples of how it has been utilized in research.
Cerebral organoid
A cerebral organoid describes artificially grown, in vitro, miniature organs resembling the brain. Cerebral organoids are created by culturing human pluripotent stem cells in a three-dimensional structure using rotational bioreactor and develop over the course of months. The procedure has potential applications in the study of brain development, physiology and function. Cerebral organoids may experience "simple sensations" in response to external stimulation and neuroscientists are among those expressing concern that such organs could develop sentience. They propose that further evolution of the technique needs to be subject to a rigorous oversight procedure.
Gastrointestinal organoid
Gastrointestinal organoids refer to organoids that recapitulate structures of the gastrointestinal tract. The gastrointestinal tract arises from the endoderm, which during development forms a tube that can be divided in three distinct regions, which give rise to, along with other organs, the following sections of the gastrointestinal tract:
The foregut gives rise to the oral cavity and the stomach
The midgut gives rise to the small intestines and the ascending colon
The hindgut gives rise to the rectum and the rest of the colon
Organoids have been created for the following structures of the gastrointestinal tract:
Intestinal organoid
Intestinal organoids have thus far been among the gut organoids generated directly from intestinal tissues or pluripotent stem cells. One way human pluripotent stem cells can be driven to form intestinal organoids is through first the application of activin A to drive the cells into a mesoendodermal identity, followed by the pharmacological upregulation of Wnt3a and Fgf4 signaling pathways as they have been demonstrated to promote posterior gut fate. Intestinal organoids have also been generated from intestinal stem cells, extracted from adult tissue and cultured in 3D media. These adult stem cell-derived organoids are often referred to as enteroids or colonoids, depending on their segment of origin, and have been established from both the human and murine intestine. Intestinal organoids consist of a single layer of polarized intestinal epithelial cells surrounding a central lumen. As such, recapitulate the crypt-villus structure of the intestine, by recapitulating its function, physiology and organization, and maintaining all the cell types found normally in the structure including intestinal stem cells. Thus, intestinal organoids are a valuable model to study intestinal nutrient transport, drug absorption and delivery, nanomaterials and nanomedicine, incretin hormone secretion, and infection by various enteropathogens. Intestinal organoids recapitulate the crypt-Villus structure to such a high degree of fidelity that they have been successfully transplanted to mouse intestines, and are hence highly regarded as a valuable model for research. One of the fields of research that intestinal organoids have been utilized is that of stem cell niche. Intestinal organoids were used to study the nature of the intestinal stem cell niche, and research done with them demonstrated the positive role IL-22 has in maintaining in intestinal stem cells, along with demonstrating the roles of other cell types like neurons and fibroblasts in maintenance of intestinal stem cells. In the field of infection biology, different intestinal organoid-based model systems have been explored. On one hand, organoids can be infected in bulk by simply mixing them with the enteropathogen of interest. However, to model infection via a more natural route starting from the intestinal lumen, microinjection of the pathogen is required. In addition, the polarity of intestinal organoids can be inverted, and they can even be dissociated into single cells and cultured as 2D monolayers in order to make both the apical and basolateral sides of the epithelium more easily accessible. Intestinal organoids have also demonstrated therapeutic potential.
In order to more accurately recapitulate the intestine in vivo, co-cultures of intestinal organoids and immune cells have been developed. Furthermore, organ-on-a-chip models combine intestinal organoids with other cell types such as endothelial or immune cells as well as peristaltic flow.
Stomach or gastric organoid
Gastric organoids recapitulate at least partly the physiology of the stomach. Gastric organoids have been generated directly from pluripotent stem cells through the temporal manipulation of the FGF, WNT, BMP, retinoic acid and EGF signalling pathways in three-dimensional culture conditions. Gastric organoids have also been generated using LGR5 expressing stomach adult stem cells. Gastric organoids have been used as model for the study of cancer along with human disease and development. For example, one study investigated the underlying genetic alterations behind a patient's metastatic tumor population, and identified that unlike the patient's primary tumor, the metastasis had both alleles of the TGFBR2 gene mutated. To further assess the role of TGFBR2 in the metastasis, the investigators created organoids where TGFBR2 expression is knocked down, through which they were able to demonstrate that reduced TGFBR2 activity leads to invasion and metastasis of cancerous tumors both in vitro and in vivo.
Lingual organoid
Lingual organoids are organoids that recapitulate, at least partly, aspects of the tongue physiology. Epithelial lingual organoids have been generated using BMI1 expressing epithelial stem cells in three-dimensional culture conditions through the manipulation of EGF, WNT, and TGF-β. This organoid culture, however, lacks taste receptors, as these cells do not arise from Bmi1 expressing epithelial stem cells. Lingual taste bud organoids containing taste cells, however, have been created using the LGR5+ or CD44+ stem/progenitor cells of circumvallate (CV) papilla tissue. These taste bud organoids have been successfully created both directly from isolated Lgr5- or LGR6-expressing taste stem/progenitor cells. and indirectly, through the isolation, digestion, and subsequent culturing of CV tissue containing Lgr5+ or CD44+ stem/progenitor cells.
Other types of organoids
Thyroid organoid
Thymic organoid
Thymic organoids recapitulate at least partly the architecture and stem-cell niche functionality of the thymus, which is a lymphoid organ where T cells mature. Thymic organoids have been generated through the seeding of thymic stromal cells in 3-dimensional culture. Thymic organoids seem to successfully recapitulate the thymus’s function, as co-culturing human hematopoietic or bone marrow stem cells with mouse thymic organoids resulted in the production of T-cells.
Testicular organoid
Prostate organoid
Hepatic organoid. A recent study showed the usefulness of the technology for identifying novel medication for the treatment of Hepatitis E as it allows to allows to recapitulate the entire viral life cycle.
Pancreatic organoid
Recent advances in cell repellent microtiter plates has allowed rapid, cost-effective screening of large small molecule drug like libraries against 3D models of pancreas cancer. These models are consistent in phenotype and expression profiles with those found in the lab of Dr. David Tuveson.
Epithelial organoid
Lung organoid
Kidney organoid
Gastruloid (embryonic organoid) - Generates all embryonic axes and fully implements the collinear Hox gene expression patterns along the anteroposterior axis.
Blastoid (blastocyst-like organoid)
Endometrial organoid
Cardiac organoid - In 2018 hollow cardiac organoids were made to beat, and to respond to stimuli to beat faster or slower.
Retinal Organoid
Glioblastoma organoid
3D organoid models of brain cancer derived from either patient derived explants (PDX) or direct from cancer tissue is now easily achievable and affords high-throughput screening of these tumors against the current panel of approved drugs form around the world.
Myelinoid (Myelin organoid)
Blood-brain barrier (BBB) organoid
Self-assembled cell aggregates consisting of BMECs, astrocytes, and pericytes are emerging as a potential alternative to transwell and microfluidic models for certain applications. These organoides can generate many features of the BBB, such as the expression of tight junctions, molecular transporters, and drug efflux pumps, and can therefore be used to model drug transport across the BBB. Also, they can serve as a model for evaluating the interactions between the BBB and adjacent brain tissue and provide a platform for understanding the combined abilities of a new drug to overcome the BBB and its effect on brain tissue. In addition, such models are highly scalable and easier to manufacture and operate than microfluidic devices. However, they have limited ability to reconstruct the morphology and physiology of the BBB and are unable to simulate physiological flow and shear stress.
Basic research
Organoids enable to study how cells interact together in an organ, their interaction with their environment, how diseases affect them and the effect of drugs. In vitro culture makes this system easy to manipulate and facilitates their monitoring. While organs are difficult to culture because their size limits the penetration of nutrients, the small size of organoids limits this problem. On the other hand, they don't exhibit all organ features and interactions with other organs are not recapitulated in vitro. While research on stem cells and regulation of stemness was the first field of application of intestinal organoids, they are now also used to study e.g. uptake of nutrients, drug transport and secretion of incretin hormones. This is of great relevance in the context of malabsorption diseases as well as metabolic diseases such as obesity, insulin resistance, and diabetes.
Models of disease
Organoids provide an opportunity to create cellular models of human disease, which can be studied in the laboratory to better understand the causes of disease and identify possible treatments. The power of organoids in this regard was first shown for a genetic form of microcephaly, where patient cells were used to make cerebral organoids, which were smaller and showed abnormalities in early generation of neurons. In another example, the genome editing system called CRISPR was applied to human pluripotent stem cells to introduce targeted mutations in genes relevant to two different kidney diseases, polycystic kidney disease and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. These CRISPR-modified pluripotent stem cells were subsequently grown into human kidney organoids, which exhibited disease-specific phenotypes. Kidney organoids from stem cells with polycystic kidney disease mutations formed large, translucent cyst structures from kidney tubules. When cultured in the absence of adherent cues (in suspension), these cysts reached sizes of 1 cm in diameter over several months. Kidney organoids with mutations in a gene linked to focal segmental glomerulosclerosis developed junctional defects between podocytes, the filtering cells affected in that disease. Importantly, these disease phenotypes were absent in control organoids of identical genetic background, but lacking the CRISPR mutations. Comparison of these organoid phenotypes to diseased tissues from mice and humans suggested similarities to defects in early development.
As first developed by Takahashi and Yamanaka in 2007, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) can also be reprogrammed from patient skin fibroblasts. These stem cells carry the exact genetic background of the patient including any genetic mutations which might contribute to the development of human disease. Differentiation of these cells into kidney organoids has been performed from patients with Lowe Syndrome due to ORCL1 mutations. This report compared kidney organoids differentiated from patient iPSC to unrelated control iPSC and demonstrated an inability of patient kidney cells to mobilise transcription factor SIX2 from the golgi complex. Because SIX2 is a well characterised marker of nephron progenitor cells in the cap mesenchyme, the authors concluded that renal disease frequently seen in Lowe Syndrome (global failure of proximal tubule reabsorption or renal Fanconi syndrome) could be related to alteration in nephron patterning arising from nephron progenitor cells lacking this important SIX2 gene expression.
Other studies have used CRISPR gene editing to correct the patient's mutation in the patient iPSC cells to create an isogenic control, which can be performed simultaneously with iPSC reprogramming. Comparison of a patient iPSC derived organoid against an isogenic control is the current gold standard in the field as it permits isolation of the mutation of interest as the only variable within the experimental model. In one such report, kidney organoids derived from iPSC of a patient with Mainzer-Saldino Syndrome due to compound heterozygous mutations in IFT140 were compared to an isogenic control organoid in which an IFT140 variant giving rise to a non-viable mRNA transcript was corrected by CRISPR. Patient kidney organoids demonstrated abnormal ciliary morphology consistent with existing animal models which was rescued to wild type morphology in the gene corrected organoids. Comparative transcriptional profiling of epithelial cells purified from patient and control organoids highlighted pathways involved in cell polarity, cell-cell junctions and dynein motor assembly, some of which had been implicated for other genotypes within the phenotypic family of renal ciliopathies. Another report utilising an isogenic control demonstrated abnormal nephrin localisation in the glomeruli of kidney organoids generated from a patient with congenital nephrotic syndrome.
Things such as Epithelial Metabolism can also be modelled
Personalised medicine
Intestinal organoids grown from rectal biopsies using culture protocols established by the Clevers group have been used to model cystic fibrosis, and led to the first application of organoids for personalised treatment. Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease that is caused by gene mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene that encodes an epithelial ion channel necessary for healthy epithelial surface fluids. Studies by the laboratory of Jeffrey Beekman (Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands) described in 2013 that stimulation of colorectal organoids with cAMP-raising agonists such as forskolin or cholera toxin induced rapid swelling of organoids in a fully CFTR dependent manner. Whereas organoids from non-cystic fibrosis subjects swell in response to forskolin as a consequence of fluid transport into the organoids' lumens, this is severely reduced or absent in organoids derived from people with cystic fibrosis. Swelling could be restored by therapeutics that repair the CFTR protein (CFTR modulators), indicating that individual responses to CFTR modulating therapy could be quantitated in a preclinical laboratory setting. Schwank et al. also demonstrated that the intestinal cystic fibrosis organoid phenotype could be repaired by CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing in 2013.
Follow-up studies by Dekkers et al. in 2016 revealed that quantitative differences in forskolin-induced swelling between intestinal organoids derived from people with cystic fibrosis associate with known diagnostic and prognostic markers such as CFTR gene mutations or in vivo biomarkers of CFTR function. In addition, the authors demonstrated that CFTR modulator responses in intestinal organoids with specific CFTR mutations correlated with published clinical trial data of these treatments. This led to preclinical studies where organoids from patients with extremely rare CFTR mutations for who no treatment was registered were found to respond strongly to a clinically available CFTR modulator. The suggested clinical benefit of treatment for these subjects based on the preclinical organoid test was subsequently confirmed upon clinical introduction of treatment by members of the clinical CF center under supervision of Kors van der Ent (Department of Paediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands). These studies show for the first time that organoids can be used for the individual tailoring of therapy or personalised medicine.
Organoid transplants
The first successful transplantation of an organoid into a human, a patient with ulcerative colitis whose cells were used for the organoid, was carried out in 2022.
As a model for developmental biology
Organoids offer researchers an exceptional model to study developmental biology. Since the identification of pluripotent stem cells, there have been great advancements in directing pluripotent stem cells fate in vitro using 2D cultures. These advancements in PSC fate direction, coupled with the advancements in 3D culturing techniques allowed for the creation of organoids that recapitulate the properties of various specific subregions of a multitude of organs. The use of these organoids has thus greatly contributed to expanding our understanding of the processes of organogenesis, and the field of developmental biology. In central nervous system development, for example, organoids have contributed to our understanding of the physical forces that underlie retinal cup formation. More recent work has extended cortical organoid growth periods extensively and at nearly a year under specific differentiation conditions, the organoids persist and have some features of human fetal development stages.
See also
Artificial organ
Organ culture
References
Further reading
Kelly Rae Chi (2015). Orchestrating Organoids. A guide to crafting tissues in a dish that reprise in vivo organs. The Scientist.
Organoid-based regenerative medicine
Stem cells
Tissue engineering |
4543045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochene%20Rite | Antiochene Rite | Antiochene Rite or Antiochian Rite refers to the family of liturgies originally used by the Patriarch of Antioch.
Liturgies in the Antiochene Rite
The Antiochene Rite, or the Antiochian Rite family, consists of Apostolic Liturgies including the Liturgy of St. James in Greek, the Syriac Liturgy of St. James, and the other West Syriac Anaphoras. The line may be further continued to the Byzantine Rite (the older Liturgy of St. Basil and the later one of St. John Chrysostom), and through it to Armenian use. However, these no longer concern the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch.
Liturgy of the Apostolic Constitutions
The Apostolic Constitutions is an important source for the history of the liturgies in the Antiochene Rite. This text contains the two outlines of liturgies, one in book two and one in book seven, and the complete Liturgy of the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions, which is the oldest known form that can be described as a complete liturgy.
All the liturgies of the Antiochene class follow the same general arrangement as that of the Apostolic Constitutions. Gradually the preparation of the oblation (Prothesis, the word also used for the credence table), before the actual liturgy begins, develops into an elaborate service. The preparation for the lessons (the Little Entrance) and the carrying of the oblation from the Prothesis to the altar (the Great Entrance) become solemn processions, but the outline of the liturgy: the Mass of the Catechumens and their dismissal; the litany; the Anaphora beginning with the words "Right and just" and interrupted by the Sanctus; the words of Institution; Anamnesis, Epiklesis, and Supplication for all kinds of people at that place; the Elevation with the words "Holy things to the holy"; the Communion distributed by the bishop and deacon (the deacon having the chalice); and then the final prayer and dismissal–this order is characteristic of all the Syriac and Palestinian uses, and is followed in the derived Byzantine liturgies. Two points in that of the Apostolic Constitutions should be noticed. No saints are mentioned by name and there is no Our Father. The mention of saints' names, especially of the "All-holy Mother of God", spread considerably among Catholics after the Council of Ephesus (431), and prayers invoking her under that title were then added to all the Catholic liturgies. The Apostolic Constitutions have preserved an older form unchanged by the development that modifies forms in actual use. The omission of the Lord's Prayer is curious and unique. It has at any rate nothing to do with relative antiquity. In the "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles" (VIII, ii, 3) people are told to pray three times a day "as the Lord commanded in his Gospel: Our Father", etc.
Greek liturgy of St. James
Of the Antiochene liturgies drawn up for actual use, the oldest one and the original from which the others have been derived is the Greek Liturgy of St. James. The reference to it in Canon xxxii of the Quinisextum Council, which quotes it as being composed by St. James, the brother of Our Lord. The Council appeals to this liturgy in defending the mixed chalice against the Armenians. St. Jerome (died 420) seems to have known it. At any rate at Bethlehem he quotes as a liturgical form the words "who alone is sinless", which occur in this Liturgy (Adv. Pel., II, xxiii). The fact that the Syriac Orthodox Church uses the same liturgy in Syriac shows that it existed and was well established before the Chalcedonian schism. The oldest manuscript is one from the tenth century formerly belonging to the Greek monastery at Messina and is now kept in the University library of that city.
The Greek Liturgy of St. James follows in all its essential parts that of the Apostolic Constitutions. It has preparatory prayers to be said by the priest and deacon and a blessing of incense. Then begins the Mass of the Catechumens with the little Entrance. The deacon says a litany (’ekténeia), to each clause of which the people answer "Kyrie Eleison". The priest meanwhile silently recites a prayer, raising his voice only for the last words, when the litany has ended. The singers say the Trisagion, "Holy God, holy Strong One, holy Immortal One, have mercy on us." The practice of the priest saying one prayer silently while the people are occupied with something different is a later development. The Lessons follow, still in the older form, that is, long portions of both Testaments, then the prayers for the catechumens and their dismissal. Among the prayers for the catechumens occurs a reference to the cross (lift the horn of the Christians by the power of the venerable and life-giving cross) which must have been written after St. Helen found it (c. 326) and which is one of the many reasons for connecting this liturgy with Jerusalem. When the catechumens are dismissed, the deacon tells the faithful to "know each other", that is to observe whether any stranger is still present. The great Entrance which begins the Mass of the Faithful is already an imposing ceremony. The incense is blessed, and the oblation is brought from the Prothesis to the altar while the people sing the Cherubikon, ending with three Alleluias. (The text is different from the Byzantine Cherubikon.) Meanwhile, the priest says another prayer silently. The creed is then said; apparently, at first, it was a shorter form like the Apostles' Creed. The Offertory prayers and the litany are much longer than those in the Apostolic Constitutions. There is as yet no reference to an Iconostasis (screen dividing the choir or place of the clergy). The beginning of the "Anaphora" (Preface) is shorter. The words of Institution and Anamimnesis are followed immediately by the Epiklesis; then comes the Supplication for various people. The deacon reads the "Diptychs" of the names of the people for whom they pray; then follows a list of Saints beginning with "our all-holy, immaculate and highly praised Lady Mary, Mother of God and ever-virgin." Here are inserted two hymns to Our Lady directed against the Nestorian heresy. The Lord's Prayer follows with an introduction and Embolismos. The Host is shown to the people with the same words as in the Apostolic Constitutions, and then broken, and part of it is put into the chalice while the priest says: "The mixing of the all-holy Body and the precious Blood of Our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ." Before Communion Psalm xxxiii is said. The priest says a prayer before his Communion. The deacon communicates with the people. There is no such form as: "The Body of Christ"; he says only: "Approach in the fear of the Lord", and they answer, "Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord." What is left of the Blessed Sacrament is taken by the deacon to the Prothesis; the prayers of thanksgiving are longer than those of the Apostolic Constitutions.
The Liturgy of St. James as it now exists is a more developed form of the same use as that of the Apostolic Constitutions. The prayers are longer, the ceremonies have become more elaborate, incense is used continually, and the preparation is already on the way to becoming complicated service of the Byzantine Prothesis. There are continual invocations of saints, but the essential outline of the Rite is the same. Besides the references to the Holy Cross, one allusion makes it clear that it was originally drawn up for the Church of Jerusalem. The first supplication after the Epiklesis is: "We offer to thee, O Lord, for Thy holy places which Thou hast glorified by the divine appearance of Thy Christ and by the coming of Thy holy Spirit, especially for the holy and illustrious Sion, mother of all churches and for Thy holy Catholic and apostolic Church throughout the world." This liturgy was used throughout Syria and Palestine, that is throughout the Antiochene Patriarchate (Jerusalem was not made a patriarchal see till the Council of Ephesus, 431) before the Nestorian and Monophysite schisms. It is possible to reconstruct a great part of the use of the city of Antioch while St. John Chrysostom was preaching there (370-397) from the allusions and quotations in his homilies (Probst, Liturgie des IV. Jahrh., II, i, v, 156, 198). It is then seen to be practically that of St. James: indeed, whole passages are quoted word for word as they stand in St. James or in the Apostolic Constitutions.
The Catechisms of St. Cyril of Jerusalem were held in 348; the first eighteen are addressed to the Competentes (photizómenoi) during Lent, the last six to the neophytes in Easter week. In these he explains, besides Baptism and Confirmation, the holy liturgy. The allusions to the liturgy are carefully veiled in the earlier ones because of the disciplina arcani; they became much plainer when he speaks to people just baptized, although even then he avoids quoting the baptism form or the words of consecration. From these Catechisms, we learn the order of the liturgy in Jerusalem in the middle of the fourth century. Except for one or two unimportant variations, it is that of St. James (Probst, op. cit., II, i, ii, 77-106). This liturgy appears to have been used in either language, Greek in Antioch, Jerusalem, and in the chief cities where Greek was commonly spoken, Syriac in the country. The oldest form of it now extant is the Greek version. Is it possible to find a relationship between it and other parent uses. There are a number of very remarkable parallel passages between the Anaphora of this liturgy and the Canon of the Roman Mass. The order of the prayers is different, but when the Greek or Syriac is translated into Latin there appear many phrases and clauses that are identical to ours. It has been suggested that Rome and Syria originally used the same liturgy and that the much-disputed question of the order of our Canon may be solved by reconstructing it according to the Syriac use (Drews, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Kanons). Mgr. Duchesne and most authors, on the other hand, are disposed to connect the Gallican Liturgy with that of Syria and the Roman Mass with the Alexandrine use (Duchesne, Origines du culte chrétien, 54).
Syriac liturgies
After the Monophysite schism and the Council of Chalcedon (451), The Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch, the proto-Maronites and the Syriac Orthodox Church continued using the same rite. The Syriac Orthodox used only Syriac (their whole movement being a national revolt against the Emperor), originally, the Melkites used the Anaphora of St. James alongside their Jacobite counterpart, until the Crusades indirectly caused liturgical reform in the Antiochene Church due to Byzantine influence. From that point, the Greek Orthodox Church began to use the Byzantine Rite whereas the Syriac Orthodox Church continued using the Liturgy of St James.
The Syriac Liturgy of St. James now extant among Syriac Orthodox is not the original one used before the schism still used by the Maronites, but a modified form derived from it by the Syriac Orthodox for their use. The preparation of the oblation has become a still more elaborate rite. The kiss of peace comes at the beginning of the Anaphora and after it, this Syriac liturgy follows the Greek one almost word for word, including the reference to Sion, the mother of all churches. But the list of saints is modified; the deacon commemorates the saints "who have kept undefiled the faith of Nicæa, Constantinople, and Ephesus"; he names "James the brother of Our Lord" alone of the Apostles and "most chiefly Cyril who was a tower of the truth, who expounded the incarnation of the Word of God, and Mar James and Mar Ephraim, eloquent mouths and pillars of our holy Church." Mar James is Baradaï, who helped preserve the church during the sixth century, and from which the name "Jacobite" (considered offensive by the Syriac Orthodox community, although used for purposes of identification by their associated churches in India) is derived (543). The list of saints, however, varies considerably; sometimes they introduce a long list of their patrons (Renaudot, Lit. Orient. Col., II, 101–103). This liturgy still contains a famous clause. Just before the lessons, the Trisagion is sung. That of the Greek rite is: "Holy God, holy Strong one holy Immortal One, have mercy on us." The Syriac rite adds after "holy Immortal one" the words: "who wast crucified for us." This is the addition made by Peter the Dyer (gnapheús, fullos) Syriac Patriarch of Antioch (458-471), which addition was rejected by the Eastern Orthodox and which was adopted by the Non-Chalcedonians as a kind of proclamation of their faith. In the Syriac use a number of Greek words have remained. The deacon says stômen kalôs in Greek and the people continually cry out "Kurillison", just as they say "Amen" and "Alleluia" in Hebrew. Short liturgical forms constantly become fossilized in one language and count almost as inarticulate exclamations. The Greek ones in the Syriac liturgy show that the Greek language is the original.
Besides the Syriac Liturgy of St. James, the Syriac Orthodox have many other Anaphoras, which they join to the common Preparation and Catechumen's Liturgy. The names of sixty-four of these Anaphoras are known. They are attributed to various saints and Syriac Orthodox bishops; thus, there are the Anaphoras of St. Basil, St. Cyril of Alexandria, St. Peter, St. Clement, Dioscurus of Alexandrian, John Maro, James of Edessa (died 708), Severus of Antioch (died 518), and so on. There is also a shortened Anaphora of St. James of Jerusalem. Renaudot prints the texts of forty-two of these liturgies in a Latin translation. They consist of different prayers, but the order is practically always that of the Syriac St. James Liturgy, and they are local modifications of it. A letter written by James of Edessa (c. 624) to a certain priest named Timothy describes and explains the Syriac Orthodox Liturgy of his time (Assemani, Bibl. Orient., I, 479–486). It is the Syriac St. James. The Liturgy of the Presanctified of St. James (used on the weekdays of Lent except for Saturdays) follows the other one very closely. There is the Liturgy of the Catechumens with the little Entrance, the Lessons, Liturgy of the Faithful and great Entrance, litanies, Our Father, breaking of the Host, Communion, thanksgiving, and dismissal. Of course, the whole Eucharistic prayer is left out–the oblations are already consecrated as they lie on the Prothesis before the great Entrance (Brightman, op. cit., 494–501).
Recent times
The Oriental Orthodox in Syria and Palestine still use the Syriac Liturgy of St. James, as do also the Syriac Catholics. The Eastern Orthodox of the two Patriarchates, Antioch and Jerusalem, have used the Byzantine Rite for many centuries. Like most Christians in communion with Constantinople, they have adopted the Byzantine Rite (expect for the small number in canonical jurisdictions who use reconstructed Western liturgies). It is not possible to say exactly when the older uses were forsaken for that of Byzantium. Theodore Balsamon says that by the end of the twelfth century the Church of Jerusalem followed the Byzantine Rite. By that time Antioch had also doubtless followed suit. There are, however, two small exceptions. On the island of Zakynthos and in Jerusalem itself the Greek Liturgy of St. James was used on one day each year, 23 October, on the feast of St. James the "brother of God". It is still so used at Zakynthos, and in 1886 Dionysios Latas, Metropolitan of Zakynthos published an edition of it for practical purposes. At Jerusalem even this remnant of the old use had disappeared. But in 1900 Patriarch Damianos revived it for one day in the year, not 23 October but 31 December. It was first celebrated again in 1900 (on 30 December as an exception) in the church of the Theological College of the Holy Cross. Archbishop Epiphanios of the River Jordan, celebrated, assisted by a number of concelebrating priests. The edition of Latas was used, but the Archimandrite Chrysostomos Papadopoulos has been commissioned to prepare another and more correct edition (Échos d'Orient, IV, 247, 248).
Note finally that the Maronites use the Syriac St. James with significant modifications, and that the Byzantine Rite as well as the Armenian Orthodox liturgies, are derived from that of Antioch.
References
Sources
Catholic liturgical rites
Eastern Christian liturgies
Anaphoras (liturgy)
History of Antioch
Christian terminology |
4543158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Syriac%20Rite | East Syriac Rite | The East Syriac Rite or East Syrian Rite, also called the Edessan Rite, Assyrian Rite, Persian Rite, Chaldean Rite, Nestorian Rite, Babylonian Rite or Syro-Oriental Rite, is an Eastern Christian liturgical rite that employs the Divine Liturgy of Saints Addai and Mari and the East Syriac dialect as its liturgical language. It is one of two main liturgical rites of Syriac Christianity, the other being the West Syriac Rite (Syro-Antiochene Rite).
The East Syriac Rite originated in Edessa, Mesopotamia, and was historically used in the Church of the East, the largest branch of Christianity which operated primarily east of the Roman Empire, with pockets of adherents as far as South India, Central and Inner Asia and strongest in the Sasanian (Persian) Empire. The Church of the East traces its origins to the 1st century when Saint Thomas the Apostle and his disciples, Saint Addai and Saint Mari, brought the faith to ancient Mesopotamia, now modern Iraq, the eastern parts of Syria, southeastern Turkey, and regions along the Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders. According to traditional accounts, Thomas the Apostle is believed to have traveled as far as the Malabar coast, the south-western coast of India. This account is not yet confirmed, and the earliest recorded organised Christian presence in India dates to the 4th century, when Persian missionaries of the East Syriac Rite tradition, members of what later became the Church of the East, established themselves in modern-day Kerala.
The East Syriac rite remains in use in churches descended from the Church of the East, namely the Assyrian Church of the East of Iraq (including its archdiocese the Chaldean Syrian Church of India) and the Ancient Church of the East, as well as in two Eastern Catholic churches, the Chaldean Catholic Church of Iraq and the Syro-Malabar Church of India, which are both now in full communion with the See of Rome. The words of Institution are missing in the original version of the Liturgy of Saints Addai and Mari. However, the Eastern Catholic churches have added in the words of Institution in their version of the liturgy.
Although the ancient Church of the East and the Catholic Church split in 431 AD through the Council of Ephesus, in 1994 the Assyrian Church Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV and Pope John Paul II signed a common declaration in the Vatican. The Common Christological Declaration (1994) document asserted that the split that occurred due to the Council of Ephesus in 431 was "due in large part to misunderstandings," affirmed for both that "Christ is true God and true man," recognized "each other as sister Churches" and vowed to resolve remaining differences. In 2001, the committee established from the 1994 dialogue drew up guidelines for mutual admission to the Eucharist between the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, overcoming all other issues.
Usage
Versions of the East Syriac Rite are currently used by Churches descended from the erstwhile Church of the East:
Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East based in Iraq.
Chaldean Syrian Church of India based in India, an archbishopric of the Assyrian Church of the East.
Ancient Church of the East based in Iraq, an autocephalous Eastern church, that separated from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1964.
Eastern Catholic Churches, in full communion with Rome.
Chaldean Catholic Church based in Bagdad, Iraq and
Syro-Malabar Catholic Church based in India.
The variety of terms used as designations for the rite reflects its complex history and consequent denominational diversity. The common term East Syriac Rite is based on the liturgical use of East Syriac dialect, and other terms reflect particular historical and denominational characteristics.
The Syrian and Mesopotamian (Iraqi) Eastern Catholics are now commonly called Chaldeans (or Assyro-Chaldeans). The term Chaldean, which in Syriac generally meant magician or astrologer, denoted in Latin and other European languages (Greater) Syrian nationality, and the Syriac or Aramaic language. For Aramaic, it especially refers to the form that is found in certain chapters of Daniel. That usage continued until the Latin missionaries at Mosul in the 17th century adopted it to distinguish the Catholics of the East Syriac Rite from those of the West Syriac Rite, which they call "Syrians". It is also used to distinguish from the Assyrian Church of the East, some of whom call themselves Assyrians or Surayi or even only "Christians", but they do not repudiate the theological name "Nestorian". Modern members of the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East distinguish themselves from the rest of Christendom as the "Church of the East" or "Easterns" as opposed to "Westerns" by which they denote Greek Orthodox, Syriac Orthodox or Latin Catholics.
In recent times they have been called, chiefly by the Anglicans, the "Assyrian Church", a name which can be defended on archaeological grounds. Brightman, in his "Liturgies Eastern and Western", includes Chaldean and Malabar Catholics and Assyrians under "Persian Rite".
The catalogue of liturgies in the British Museum has adopted the usual Roman Catholic nomenclature:
Chaldean Rite : that of the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East
Malabar Rite (southern India) : Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
Syriac Rite : Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholic Church
Most printed liturgies of those rites are Eastern Rite Catholic.
The language of all three forms of the East Syriac Rite is the Eastern dialect of Syriac, a modern form of which is still spoken by the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East (which broke away from the Assyrian Church of the East in the 1960s due to a dispute involving changes to the liturgical calendar, but is now in the process of reunification), and the Chaldean Catholic Church.
History
The Chaldean rite originally grew out of the liturgy of the Church in Edessa. The tradition, resting on the legend of Abgar and of his correspondence with Christ, which has been shown to be apocryphal — is to the effect that St. Thomas the Apostle, on his way to India, established Christianity in Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Persia, and left Thaddeus of Edessa (or Addai), "one of the Seventy", and Saint Mari in charge there. The liturgy of the Church of the East is attributed to these two, but it is said to have been revised by the Patriarch Yeshuyab III in about 650. Some, however, consider this liturgy to be a development of the Antiochian.
After the First Council of Ephesus (431) -- the third Ecumenical Council—the Church of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, which had hitherto been governed by a catholicos, refused to condemn Nestorius. Therefore, as part of the Nestorian Schism, the Church of Seleucia-Ctesiphon cut itself off from Western Christianity. In 498 the Catholicos assumed the title of "Patriarch of the East", and up until the 1400s the Church of the East spread throughout Persia, Tartary, Mongolia, China, and India due to the efforts of Missionaries.
However, at the end of the fourteenth century due to the conquests of Tamerlane and his destruction of Christian settlements across Asia, in addition to other factors such as anti-Christian and Buddhist oppression during the Ming Dynasty, the large Church of the East structure was all but destroyed- reducing it to a few small communities in Persia, their homeland in Mesopotamia, Cyprus, the Malabar Coast of India, and the Island of Socotra. These remaining communities were later whittled away at in other events. The Church of the East in Cyprus united themselves to Rome in 1445, there was a Schism in 1552 between Mar Shimun and Mar Elia which weakened the Church, and the Christians of Socotra were Islamized in the 16th century. The Church in India was divided and cut off from their hierarchy due to the Portuguese support for Synod of Diamper in 1599. Due to these events, the diaspora of the Church of the East diminished. The Elia line eventually developed into the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East was turned into a small community of around 50,000 people in the Hakkari Mountains under the headship of the Shimun line. A small group of Indians eventually rejoined the Assyrian Church of the East, forming the Chaldean Syrian Church in the 1900s, although the main body of the Malabar Christians remained as the Syro-Malabar Church. A large group joined the Oriental Orthodox West Syriac rite churches in their own set of schisms. Additionally, the secession of a large number to the Russian Church due to the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Urmia, a Kurdish massacre in 1843, and an attempt to form an Independent Catholic Chaldean Church on the model of the Old Catholics all resulted in more Eastern rite Assyrians separating.
The Eucharistic service
There are three Anaphorae; those of the Holy Apostles (Saints Addai and Mari), Mar Nestorius, and Mar Theodore the Interpreter. The first is the most popularly and extensively used. The second was traditionally used on the Epiphany and the feasts of St. John the Baptist and of the Greek Doctors, both of which occur in Epiphany-tide on the Wednesday of the Rogation of the Ninevites, and on Maundy Thursday. The third is used (except when the second is ordered) from Advent to Palm Sunday. The same pro-anaphoral part serves for all three.
The Eucharistic Liturgy is preceded by a preparation, or "Office of the Prothesis", which includes the solemn kneading and baking of the loaves. These were traditionally leavened, the flour being mixed with a little oil and the holy leaven (malka), which, according to tradition, "was given and handed down to us by our holy fathers Mar Addai and Mar Mari and Mar Toma", and of which and of the holy oil a very strange story is told. The real leavening, however, is done by means of fermented dough (khmira) from the preparation of the last Eucharistic Liturgy. The Chaldean and Syro-Malabar Catholics now use unleavened bread.
The Liturgy itself is introduced by the first verse of the Gloria in Excelsis and the Lord's prayer, with "farcings" (giyura), consisting of a form of the Sanctus. Then follow:
The Introit Psalm (variable), called Marmitha, with a preliminary prayer, varying for Sundays and greater feasts and for "Memorials" and ferias. In the Malabar Rite, Pss. xiv, cl, and cxvi are said in alternate verses by priests and deacons.
The "Antiphon of the Sanctuary" (Unitha d' qanki), variable, with a similarly varying prayer.
The Lakhumara, an antiphon beginning "To Thee, Lord", which occurs in other services also preceded by a similarly varying prayer.
The Trisagion. Incense is used before this. In the Eastern Rite at low Mass the elements are put on the altar before the incensing.
There are four or five Lections: (a) the Law and (b) the Prophecy, from the Old Testament, (c) the Lection from the Acts, (d) the Epistle, always from St. Paul, (e) the Gospel.
Some days have all five lections, some four, some only three. All have an Epistle and a Gospel, but, generally, when there is a Lection from Law there is none from the Acts, and vice versa. Sometimes there is none from either Law or Acts. The first three are called Qiryani (Lections), the third Shlikha (Apostle). Before the Epistle and Gospel, hymns called Turgama (interpretation) are, or should be, said; that before the Epistle is invariable, that of the Gospel varies with the day. They answer to the Greek prokeimena. The Turgama of the Epistle is preceded by proper psalm verses called Shuraya (beginning), and that of the Gospel by other proper psalm verses called Zumara (song). The latter includes Alleluia between the verses.
The Deacon's Litany, or Eklene, called Karazutha (proclamation), resembles the "Great Synapte" of the Greeks. During it the proper "Antiphon [Unitha] of the Gospel" is sung by the people.
The Offertory
The deacons proclaim the expulsion of the unbaptized, and set the "hearers" to watch the doors. The priest places the bread and wine on the altar, with words (in the Church of the East, but not in the Chaldean Catholic Rite) which seem as if they were already consecrated. He sets aside a "memorial of the Virgin Mary, Mother of Christ" (Chaldean; usual Malabar Rite, "Mother of God"; but according to Raulin's Latin of the Malabar Rite, "Mother of God Himself and of the Lord Jesus Christ"), and of the patron of the Church (in the Malabar Rite, "of St.Thomas"). Then follows the proper "Antiphon of the Mysteries" (Unitha d' razi), answering to the offertory.
The Creed
This is a variant of the Nicene Creed. It is possible that the order or words "and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost and was made man, and was conceived and born of the Virgin Mary", may enshrine a Nestorian idea, but the Chaldean Catholics do not seem to have noticed it, their only alteration being the addition of the Filioque. The Malabar Book has an exact translation of Latin. In Neale's translation of the Malabar Rite the Karazutha, the Offertory, and the Expulsion of the Unbaptized come before the Lections and the Creed follows immediately on the Gospel, but in the Propaganda edition of 1774 the Offertory follows the Creed, which follows the Gospel.
The first Lavabo, followed by a Kushapa ("beseeching", i.e., prayer said in kneeling) and a form of the "Orate fratres", with its response. Then the variations of the three Anaphora begin.
The Kiss of Peace, preceded by a G'hantha, i.e., a prayer said with bowed head.
The prayer of Memorial (Dukhrana) of the Living and the Dead, and the Diptychs; the latter is now obsolete in the Church of the East.
The Anaphora
As in all liturgies this begins with a form of a Sursum corda, but the East Syriac form is more elaborate than any other, especially in the Anaphora of Theodore. Then follows the Preface of the usual type ending with the Sanctus.
The Post-Sanctus (to use the Hispanico-Gallican term) is an amplification—similar in idea and often in phraseology to those in all liturgies except the Roman—of the idea of the Sanctus into a recital of the work of Redemption, extending to some length and ending, in the Anaphorae of Nestorius and Theodore, with the recital of the Institution. In the Anaphora of the Apostles the recital of the Institution is wanting, though it has been supplied in the Anglican edition of the Church of the East book. Hammond (Liturgies Eastern and Western, p. lix) and most other writers hold that the Words of Institution belong to this Liturgy and should be supplied somewhere; Hammond (loc.cit) suggests many arguments for their former presence. The reason of their absence is uncertain. While some hold that this essential passage dropped out in times of ignorance, others say it never was there at all, being unnecessary, since the consecration was held to be effected by the subsequent Epiklesis alone. Another theory, evidently of Western origin and not quite consistent with the general Eastern theory of consecration by an Epiklesis following Christ's words, is that, being the formula of consecration, it was held too sacred to be written down. It does not seem to be quite certain whether Church of the East priests did or did not insert the Words of Institution in old times, but it seems that many of them do not do so now.
The Prayer of the Great Oblation with a second memorial of the Living and the Dead, a Kushapa.
The G'hantha of the Epiklesis, or Invocation of Holy Spirit. The Epiklesis itself is called Nithi Mar (May He come, O Lord) from its opening words. The Liturgy of the Apostles is so vague as to the purpose of the Invocation that, when the words of Institution are not said, it would be difficult to imagine this formula to be sufficient on any hypothesis, Eastern or Western. The Anaphorae of Nestorius and Theodore, besides having the Words of Institution, have definite Invocations, evidently copied from Antiochean or Byzantine forms. The older Chaldean and the Malabar Catholic books have inserted the Words of Institution with an Elevation, after the Epiklesis. But the 1901 Mosul edition puts the Words of Institution first.
Here follow a Prayer for Peace, a second Lavabo and a censing.
The Fraction, Consignation, Conjunction, and Commixture
The Host is broken in two, and the sign of the Cross is made in the Chalice with one half, after which the other with the half that has been dipped in the chalice. The two halves are then reunited on the Paten. Then a cleft is made in the Host "qua parte intincta est in Sanguine" (Renaudot's tr.), and a particle is put in the chalice, after some intricate arranging on the paten.
Communion
The veil is thrown open, the deacon exhorts the communicants to draw near, the priests breaks up the Host for distribution. Then follows the Lord's Prayer, with Introduction and Embolism, and the Sancta Sanctis, and then the "Antiphon of the Bema" (Communion) is sung. The Communion is in both species separately, the priest giving the Host and the deacon the Chalice. Then follows a variable antiphon of thanksgiving, a post-communion, and a dismissal. Afterwards the Mkaprana, an unconsecrated portion of the holy loaf, is distributed to the communicants, but not, as in the case of the Greek antidoron, and as the name of the latter implies, to non-communicants. The Chaldean Catholics are communicated with the Host dipped in the Chalice. They reserve what is left of the Holy Gifts, while the Church of the East priests consume all before leaving the church.
Properly, and according to their own canons, the Church of the East ought to say Mass on every Sunday and Friday, on every festival, and daily during the first, middle, and last week of Lent and the octave of Easter. In practice it is only said on Sundays and greater festivals, at the best, and in many churches not so often, a sort of "dry Mass" being used instead. The Chaldean Catholic priests say Mass daily, and where there are many priests there will be many Masses in the same Church in one day, which is contrary to the Church of the East canons. The Anglican editions of the liturgies omit the names of the authors and call the Anaphorae of Nestorius and Theodore the "Second Hallowing" and "Third Hallowing". Otherwise there are no alterations except the addition of Words of Institution to the first Anaphorae. The recent Catholic edition has made the same alterations and substituted "Mother of God" for "Mother of Christ". In each edition the added Words of Institution follow the form of the rite of the edition. The prayers of the Mass, like those of the Orthodox Eastern Church, are generally long and diffuse. Frequently they end with a sort of doxology called Qanuna which is said aloud, the rest being recited in a low tone. The Qanuna in form and usage resembles the Greek ekphonesis.
The vestments used by the priest at Mass are the Sudhra, a girded alb with three crosses in red or black on the shoulder, the Urara (orarion) or stole worn crossed by priests, but not by bishops (as in the West), and the Ma'apra, a sort of linen cope. The deacon wears the sudhra, with a urara over the left shoulder.
Divine Office
The nucleus of this is, as it is usual, the recitation of the Psalter. There are only three regular hours of service (Evening, Midnight, and Morning) with a rarely used compline. In practice only Morning and Evening are commonly used, but these are extremely well attended daily by laity as well as clergy. When the Church of the East had monasteries (which is no longer the case) seven hours of prayer were the custom in them, and three hulali of the Psalter were recited at each. This would mean a daily recitation of the whole Psalter. The present arrangement provides for seven hulali at each ferial night service, ten on Sundays, three on "Memorials", and the whole Psalter on feasts of Our Lord.
At the evening service there is a selection of from four to seven psalms, varying with the day of the week, and also a Shuraya, or short psalm, with generally a portion of Ps. cxviii, varying with the day of the fortnight.
At the morning service the invariable psalms are cix, xc, ciii (1–6), cxii, xcii, cxlviii, cl, cxvi. On ferias and "Memorials" Ps. cxlvi is said after Ps. cxlviii, and on ferias Ps. 1, 1–18, comes at the end of the psalms. The rest of the services consist of prayers, antiphons, litanies, and verses (giyura) inserted, like the Greek stichera, but more extensively, between verses of psalms. On Sundays the Gloria in Excelsis and Benedicte are said instead of Ps. cxlvi.
Both morning and evening services end with several prayers, a blessing, (Khuthama, "Sealing" ), the kiss of peace, and the Creed. The variables, besides the psalms, are those of the feast or day, which are very few, and those of the day of the fortnight. These fortnights consist of weeks called "Before" (Qdham) and "After" (Wathar), according to which of the two choirs begins the service. Hence the book of the Divine Office is called Qdham u wathar, or at full length Kthawa daqdham wadhwathar, the "Book of Before and After".
Liturgical calendars
The year is divided into periods of about seven weeks each, called Shawu'i; these are Advent (called Subara, "Annunciation"), Ephiphany, Lent, Easter, the Apostles, Summer, "Elias and the Cross", "Moses", and the "Dedication" (Qudash idta). "Moses" and the "Dedication" have only four weeks each. The Sundays are generally named after the Shawu'a in which they occur, "Fourth Sunday of Epiphany", "Second Sunday of the Annunciation ", etc., though sometimes the name changes in the middle of a Shawu'a. Most of the "Memorials" (dukhrani), or saints' days, which have special lections, occur on the Fridays between Christmas and Lent, and are therefore movable feasts, such as Christmas, Ephiphany, the Assumption, and about thirty smaller days without proper lections are on fixed days. There are four shorter fasting periods besides the Great Fast (Lent); these are:
the Fast of Mar Zaya, the three days after the second Sunday of the Nativity;
the Fast of the Virgins, after the first Sunday of the Epiphany;
the Rogation of the Ninevites, seventy days before Easter;
the Fast of Mart Mariam (Our Lady), from the first to the fourteenth of August.
The Fast of the Ninevites commemorates the repentance of Nineveh at the preaching of Jonas, and is carefully kept. Those of Mar Zaya and the Virgins are nearly obsolete. As compared with the Latin and Greek Calendars, that of the Chaldeans, whether Catholic or Assyrian, is very meagre. The Malabar Rite has largely adopted the Roman Calendar, and several Roman days have been added to that of the Chaldean Catholics. The Chaldean Easter coincides with that of the Roman Catholic Church.
Other sacraments and occasional services
The other Sacraments in use in the Church of the East are Baptism, with which is always associated an anointing, which as in other eastern rites answers to Confirmation, Holy Order and Matrimony, but not Penance or Unction of the sick. The Chaldean Catholics now have a form not unlike the Byzantine and West Syriac. The nearest approach to Penance among the Nestorians is a form, counted as a sacrament, for the reconciliation of apostates and excommunicated persons, prayers from which are occasionally used in cases of other penitents. Assemani's arguments (ibid., cclxxxvi–viii) for a belief in Penance as a Sacrament among the ancient Nestorians or for the practice of auricular confession among the Malabar Nestorians are not conclusive. The Chaldeans have a similar form to that of the Roman Rite. The Assyrian Church of the East omits Matrimony from the list, and make up the number of the mysteries to seven by including the Holy Leaven and the Sign of the Cross, but they are now rather vague about the definition or numeration.
The only other rite of any interest is the consecration of churches. Oil, but not chrism, plays a considerable part in these rites, being used in Baptism, possibly in Confirmation, in the reconciliation of apostates, etc., in the consecration of churches, and the making of bread for the Eucharist. It is not used in ordination or for the sick. There are two sorts of oil; the one is ordinary olive oil, blessed or not blessed for the occasion, the other is the oil of the Holy Horn. The last, which, though really only plain oil, represents the chrism (or myron) of other rites, is believed to have been handed down from the Apostles with the Holy Leaven. The legend is that the Baptist caught the water which fell from the body of Christ at His baptism and preserved it. He gave it to St. John the Evangelist, who added to it some of the water which fell from the pierced side. At the Last Supper Jesus gave two loaves to St. John, bidding him keep one for the Holy Leaven. With this St. John mingled some of the Blood from the side of Christ. After Pentecost the Apostles mixed oil with the sacred water, and each took a horn of it, and the loaf they ground to pieces and mixed it with flour and salt to be the Holy Leaven. The Holy Horn is constantly renewed by the addition of oil blessed by a bishop on Maundy Thursday.
The baptismal service is modeled on the Eucharistic. The Mass of the Catechumens is almost identical, with of course appropriate Collects, psalms, Litanies, and Lections. After the introductory Gloria, Lord's Prayer, Marmitha (in this case Psalm 88) and its Collect, follow the imposition of hands and the signing with oil, after which follow an Antiphon of the Sanctuary and Ps. xliv, cix, cxxxi, with giyuri, Litanies, and Collects, then the lakhumara, Trisagion, and Lections (Epistle and Gospel ), and the Karazutha, after which the priest says the prayer of the imposition of hands, and the unbaptized are dismissed. An antiphon answering to that "of the mysteries" follows, and then the Creed is said. The bringing forward of the Holy Horn and the blessing of the oil take the place of the Offertory. The Anaphora is paralleled by Sursum corda, Preface, and Sanctus, a Nithi Mar, or Epiklesis, upon the oil, a commixture of the new oil with that of the Holy Horn, and the Lord's Prayer. Then the font is blessed and signed with the holy oil, and in the place of the Communion comes the Baptism itself. The children are signed with the oil on the breast and then anointed all over, and are dipped thrice in the font. The formula is: "N., be thou baptized in the name of the Father, in the name of the Son, in the name of the Holy Ghost. Amen." Then follows the post-baptismal thanksgiving. Confirmation follows immediately. There are two prayers of Confirmation and a signing between the eyes with the formula: "N., is baptized and perfected in the name, etc." It is not quite clear whether oil should be used with this signing or not. Then any oil that remains over is poured into the Holy Horn, held over the font, and the water in the font is loosed from its former consecration with rather curious ceremonies. The Chaldean Catholics have added the renunciations, profession of faith, and answers of the sponsors from the Roman Ritual, and anoint with chrism.
The marriage service (Burakha, 'Blessing") is very similar to that of the Byzantine Rite, and to some extent the Jewish rite. The Mystery of Crowning, while not viewed as a sacrament in much of East Syriac Christianity, features several rituals, including the crowning of the couple and, within the Assyrian Church of the East, the consumption of hanānā–a mixture made with the dust of a martyr's tomb–by the betrothed.
The orders of the Church of the East are those of reader (Qaruya), subdeacon (Hiupathiaqna), deacon (Mshamshana), presbyter (Qashisha), archdeacon (Arkidhyaquna) and bishop (Apisqupa). The degree of archdeacon, though has an ordination service of its own, is only counted as a degree of the presbyterate, and is by some held to be the same as that of chorepiscopus (Kurapisqupa), which never involved episcopal ordination in the Church of the East. When a priest is engaged in sacerdotal functions, he is called Kahna (i.e., lereus; sacerdos) and a bishop is similarly Rab kahni (Chief of the Priests, archiereus, pontifex). Quashisha and Apisqupa only denote the degree. Kahnutha, priesthood, is used of the three degrees of deacon, priest, and bishop. The ordination formula is: "N. has been set apart, consecrated, and perfected to the work of the diaconate [or of the presbyterate] to the Levitical and stephanite Office [or for the office of the Aaronic priesthood], in the Name, etc., In the case of a bishop it is : "to the great work of the episcopate of the city of ..." A similar formula is used for archdeacons and metropolitans.
The Consecration of churches (Siamidha or Qudash Madhbkha) consists largely of unctions. The altar is anointed all over, and there are four consecration crosses on the four interior walls of the sanctuary, and these and the lintel of the door and various other places are anointed. The oil is not that of the Holy Horn, but fresh olive oil consecrated by the bishop.
Manuscripts and editions
Few of the manuscripts, except some lectionaries in the British Museum, were written before the 15th century, and most, whether Chaldean or Nestorian, are of the 17th and 18th. The books in use are:
Ṭakhsā, a priest's book, containing the Eucharistic service (Qūrbānā or Qūdāšā) in its three forms, with the administration of other sacraments, and various occasional prayers and blessings. It is nearly the Euchologion of the Greeks (see Rite of Constantinople).
Kṯāḇdā da-qḏam waḏ-wāṯar, "Book of the Before and After", contains the Ordinary of the Divine Office except the Psalter, arranged for two weeks.
Mazmorē d-Dāwīḏ (David), the Psalter, divided into Hūlālē, which answer more or less to the kathismata of the Greeks. It includes the collects of the Hūlālē.
Qiryānā, Šlīḥā w-Īwangālīyo, lections, epistles, and gospels, sometimes together, sometimes in separate books.
Tūrgāmā, explanatory hymns sung before the Epistle and Gospel.
Ḥūḏrā, containing the variables for Sundays, Lent and the Rogation of the Ninevites, and other holy days.
Kaškūl, a selection from the Ḥūḏrā for weekdays.
Gazzā, containing variables for festivals except Sundays.
Abukhalima, a collectary, so called from its compiler, Elias III, Abu Khalim ibn alKhaditha, Metropolitan of Nisibis, and patriarch (1175–99).
Bā'ūtha d-Nīnwāyē, rhythmical prayers attributed to Saint Ephraem, used during the Fast of the Ninevites.
Takhsa d'amadha, the office of baptism.
Burakha, the marriage service.
Kathnita, the burial service for priests.
Anidha, the burial service for lay people.
Takhsa d'siamidha, the ordination services.
Takhsa d'husaya, the "Office of Pardon", or reconciliation of penitents.
These last six are excerpts from the Takhsa.
Of the above the following have been printed in Syriac:
For the Church of the East:
The Takhsa, in two parts, by Archbishop of Canterbury's Assyrian Mission (Urmi, 1890–92) The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge has published an English translation of the first part of the Takhsa, both parts "unmodified except by the omission of the heretical names" (Brightman);
Dhaqdham wadhwathar, by the same (Urmi, 1894); Dawidha, by the same (Urmi, 1891).
Khudra, in three volumes, by Mar Narsai Press (Trichur, 1960; reprint 1993).
For the Chaldean Catholics:
Missale Chaldaicum, containing the Liturgy of the Apostles in Syriac and Epistles and Gospels in Syriac with an Arabic translation, in Garshuni (Propaganda Press fol., Rome, 1767). A new and revised edition, containing the three liturgies and the lections, epistles, and gospels was published by the Dominicans at Mosul in 1901. The Order of the Church Services of Common Days, etc., from Kthawa dhaqdham wadhwathar (octavo, Mosul, 1866). *"Breviarium Chaldaicum in usum Nationis Chaldaicae a Josepho Guriel secundo editum" (16mo, Propaganda Press, Rome, 1865).
"Breviarium Chaldaicum", etc., [8vo, Paris (printed at Leipzig, 1886].
For the Syro-Malabar Catholics:
"Ordo Chaldaicus Missae Beatorum Apostolorum, juxta ritum Ecclesiae Malabaricae" (fol., Propaganda Press, Rome, 1774).
"Ordo Chaldaicus Rituum et Lectionum", etc., (fol., Rome, 1775).
"Ordo Chaldaicus ministerii Sacramentorum Sanctorum", etc., (fol., Rome, 1775).
These three, which together form a Takhsa and Lectionary, are commonly found bound together. The Propaganda reprinted the third part in 1845.
"Ordo Baptismi adultorum juxta ritum Ecclesiae Malabaricae Chaldaeorum" (octavo, Propaganda Press, Rome, 1859), a Syriac translation of the Roman Order.
The Malabar Rite was revised in a Roman direction by Aleixo de Menezes, Archbishop of Goa, and the revision was authorized by the controversial Synod of Diamper in 1599. So effectively was the original Malabar Rite abolished by the Synod in favour of this revision, and by the schismatics (when in 1649, being cut off from their own patriarch by the Spaniards and Portuguese, they put themselves under the Syriac Orthodox patriarch of Antioch) in favour of the West Syriac Liturgy, that no copy is known to exist, but it is evident from the revised form that it could not have differed materially from the existing East Syriac Rite.
See also
Syriac Christianity
West Syriac Rite
References
Sources
External links
The Center for the Study of Christianity: A Comprehensive Bibliography on Syriac Christianity
Syriac
Catholic liturgical rites
Church of the East
Rite, East Syriac
History of Eastern Catholicism
Christian terminology |
4543171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac%20Arrest%20%28TV%20series%29 | Cardiac Arrest (TV series) | Cardiac Arrest was a British medical drama series made by World Productions for BBC One. It was first broadcast between April 1994 and June 1996. The series was controversial owing to its cynical depiction of doctors, nurses and the National Health Service (NHS), although it has often topped polls of the UK medical profession as the best medical drama of all time.
The series was created by Jed Mercurio (writing under the pseudonym John MacUre), a doctor who had worked at a hospital in Wolverhampton. Mercurio drew on his experience to provide a more visceral, albeit wryly humorous, look at the NHS in the 1990s. At the time of airing, Mercurio was still a doctor. Mercurio later went on to create another controversial medical drama for the BBC in 2004, Bodies.
Cast
Doctors
Andrew Lancel as Dr Andrew Collin
Helen Baxendale as Dr Claire Maitland
Ace Bhatti as Dr Rajesh Rajah
Jonathan Dow as Dr James Mortimer
Michael MacKenzie as Dr Graham Turner
Tom Watson as Mr Ernest Docherty
Andrew Clover as Dr Phil Kirkby (series 2–3)
Peter O'Brien as Mr Cyril 'Scissors' Smedley (series 2–3)
Jack Fortune as Mr Adrian DeVries (series 2–3)
Pooky Quesnel as Dr Monica Broome (series 1)
Danny Webb as Mr Simon Betancourt (series 1)
Fred Pearson as Dr Barry Yates (series 2)
Caroline Trowbridge as Dr Liz Reid (series 3)
Selina Cadell as Dr Sarah Hudson (series 3)
Admin staff
Gavin Mitchell as Mr Alex Legg (series 1–2)
Nicholas Palliser as Paul Tennant (series 2–3)
Angela Douglas as Mrs Isobel Trimble (series 2–3)
Sisters
Ellen Thomas as Sister Jackie Landers
Melanie Hill as Sister Pamela Lockley (series 1)
Michelle Fairley as Sister Karen Teller (series 1)
Jacquetta May as Sister Julie Novac (series 2–3)
Gabrielle Cowburn as Sister Debbie Pereira (series 2–3)
Nurses
Jayne Charlton McKensie as Staff Nurse Caroline Richards
Katy Hale as Staff Nurse Susan Betts
Mandy Matthews as Staff Nurse Pam Charnley
Caroline Paterson as Staff Nurse Annie Mills (series 1)
Ivan Heng as Staff Nurse Trevor Costello (series 1)
Kate Hollands as Intensive Care Nurse Janice Walford (series 1)
Annie Treadwell as Enrolled Nurse Becky Reece (series 1–2)
Angela Chadfield as Enrolled Nurse Joy Makin (series 1–2)
Joyce Falconer as Staff Nurse Tricia 'Whitecoat' Williams (series 1–2)
Sheila Whitfield as Staff Nurse Lisa Dalton (series 1–2)
Cassie Stuart as Staff Nurse Jayne Dugas (series 1–2)
Terry Sue-Patt as Student Nurse Luke Harris (series 1 and 3)
Peter Biddle as Charge Nurse Patrick Garden (series 2–3)
Lisa Harkus as Student Nurse Kirsty Reilly (series 3)
Others
Frank Mills as Alf Grocott (series 2)
Nisha Nayar as Nasreen (series 2)
Chris Woodger as Steven Pereira (series 2–3)
James Healey as Ken, hospital radiographer (series 3)
Characters and storylines
Series 1
Series 1 follows events in two separate wards of the same hospital, one medical and one surgical, largely through the eyes of junior doctors. Series 1 has six episodes and was originally broadcast between 21 April 1994 and 2 June 1994.
The protagonist is Dr. Andrew Collin (Andrew Lancel), an idealistic junior doctor, straight from medical school, and, initially, a devout Christian. The series opens on his first day at work as a house officer, and in his first scene he proudly admires himself in his white coat, before coming onto the ward, and meeting his new colleague, the frosty but competent SHO Dr. Claire Maitland (Helen Baxendale). Andrew is soon aware that he has almost no idea how to be a doctor, as medical school training has left him grossly ill-prepared. The series follows him in his first few months as a doctor, as he deals with one crisis after another and is increasingly disillusioned with the indifferent care given to patients and the expectations of junior doctors. At one point during the first series, he is required to work a three-day and three night shift on call. Claire, who is more cynical and detached, both explains the realities of medical work to Andrew and tries to shield him from the worst abuses, in order to preserve his sanity.
Claire has the second largest role in series 1. Although her defence mechanisms are generally better than Andrew's and the series seldom shows her as either exhausted or depressed, she claims to Andrew (after euthanising a patient with an overdose of painkillers) that the emotional demands of being a doctor are just as hard on her. Although Claire is normally frosty, the series reveals that this is her professional mask: she quickly becomes friends with Andrew and eventually takes his side in a conflict against her own lover, Simon Bettencourt. In one episode she plays warmly with the young daughter of a friend. In the final episode of the series this girl is brought into the hospital with a chest injury and dies due to the incompetence of another doctor. Afterwards Andrew finds Claire crying in the nurses' office.
Other characters feature prominently in the series, including Dr. Rajesh Rajah, (Ahsen Bhatti), a pleasant but initially incompetent house officer in a surgical ward, who indulges in as many sexual relationships as possible. By the end of series 3 he shows himself to be one of the best and most able doctors in the programme. He faces racism, a topical issue in the NHS in the 1990s. Dr. Monica Broome (Pooky Quesnel) is a surgical SHO and a new mother, who is desperately trying to hold down her demanding job and pass her fellowship exam, despite constant bullying and sexual harassment by her boss Mr. Simon Bettencourt (Danny Webb). At the end of the series, Monica fails her fellowship exam, and after her husband takes her children away from her to live with his mother in law, she takes her own life. While this has a major effect on Raj and on the consultant surgeon Mr. Ernest Docherty (Tom Watson), Bettencourt defends his behaviour unreservedly and shows no remorse.
Series 2
In series 2, the viewpoint of the series expands to the administrative level, with the demands for efficiency by the administration shown to directly and indirectly lead to a number of deaths. Series 2 has eight episodes and was originally broadcast between 19 April 1995 and 7 June 1995.
At the beginning of series 2, Andrew has just returned to the hospital and is now an SHO. To his chagrin, the consultant physician Dr. Graham Turner (Michael MacKenzie) has a far better relationship with the new house officer Dr. Phil Kirkby (Andrew Clover), whose father went to school with Graham, than he ever did with Andrew. The old boys' public school network and patronage was an effective way to speed career progression in medicine. Phil, despite his recent graduation, is a confident aggressive doctor whose faults contrast with Andrew's in the first series. Rather than being nervous and uncertain, in the first days he attempts diagnoses and treatments for which he is undertrained.
Claire remains an SHO, but her skills and academic performance mean that the hospital is shown to be careful not to drive her off to work elsewhere. She is also working under the far more committed and friendly consultant Dr. Barry Yates (Fred Pearson). She has a brief relationship with the new Australian surgical registrar Mr. Cyril "Scissors" Smedley (Peter O'Brien).
At the organisational level, a new hospital administrator, Paul Tennant (Nicholas Palliser), demands ever more efficiency from the medical staff, placing Andrew on ear nose and throat (ENT) duties even though he has no training in the required skills, and instructing Claire to abandon extended resuscitation of a hypothermia patient in order to fulfil her clinic duties. While Claire is covering for Andrew one night in casualty, a haemophiliac man is brought in with a nosebleed and bleeds to death because Claire is not trained in ENT, no trained staff are available and she cannot stop the bleeding. Claire exposes the systemic failures in the hospital to the media and although this is within her rights as a doctor, she is fired on an unrelated technicality. Claire returns to the hospital as a registrar at the end of the series, after resuscitating a heart attack victim in a pub and being reminded of why she chose to be a doctor.
The hospital soon attracts additional adverse publicity when the anaesthetist Dr. James Mortimer (Jo Dow) is diagnosed with AIDS following the discovery that he has HIV and a Kaposi's sarcoma. James is permitted to continue to work as his speciality does not put patients at risk. Some of the staff, particularly Raj, are sympathetic or actively supportive of James. However, the diagnosis is almost immediately leaked to the media by an unidentified party, another scandal ensues, and manager Tennant pressures James to take leave of absence. However, the payout over the death of the haemophilia patient means that the hospital cannot afford for Mr. Docherty to take his planned retirement, and Docherty demands that the pressure on James to take leave or resign be withdrawn in return for his remaining at the hospital.
The second major medical error in the series contrasts Turner's treatment of his junior staff with Docherty's protection of James. At the end of the second last episode of the series, Running on Vapours, Phil is attempting to draw up chemotherapy doses for a patient on the evening of Christmas Day despite being untrained. He cannot contact a pharmacist, consults with Andrew, who is also untrained in the matter, and finally rings a drunken Dr. Turner at home, who advises him to draw up the treatment. Phil gets the dose wrong and the patient dies of anaphylactic shock. Turner and Tennant both advise Phil to take full blame for the incident and to deny that he sought Turner's opinion, and assure him that in return he will not suffer damage to his career. Phil does so, but the inquest returns a finding of unlawful killing and refers it for a possible manslaughter prosecution.
Series 3
Series 3 has 13 episodes and was originally broadcast between 2 April 1996 and 25 June 1996. In the third series there is more focus on the patients and the doctors' extended interactions with them. Claire has a friendly relationship with a regular dialysis patient and as a result, pursues families of accident victims about organ donation. Raj becomes affected by the diagnosis of a baby severely injured by shaking and Scissors, whose own wife had been killed by a drunk driver, operates unsuccessfully on a woman injured by a drunk driver and attempts to kill the driver by neglect.
In series 3, the hospital has another new house officer, Dr. Liz Reid (Caroline Trowbridge). Liz is different from both Andrew and Phil: she is shown to be not answering pagers, leaving work in the middle of the day for errands, asking the nurses and orderlies to do procedures for her, blaming colleagues for her own constant mistakes, frequently sighing and rolling her eyes in response to Claire and Andrew's requests and charming her way out of trouble. Claire has little respect for Liz. Their new boss, medical consultant Dr. Sarah Hudson (Selina Cadell), reprimands Claire for frightening Liz with her open contempt: however, Hudson also later confronts Liz over the latter's habit of blaming mistakes on colleagues. Towards the end of the series Claire describes Liz as "mad". Liz eventually breaks down at the end of a very long shift and smashes her pager to pieces, and Andrew breaks into her room to find her crying and screaming at the broken device.
Turner's position becomes less secure. Dr. Hudson assures Claire that Turner's neglect of his duties at the hospital in favour of his private practice has not gone unnoticed. Soon an audit into consultants' attendance begins but the junior doctors quickly find that Turner, as head of the consultants committee, was forewarned. When Turner advises Andrew to attempt the insertion of a temporary pacemaker even though he has only seen it done once, Andrew has to call Claire in. Claire and Andrew make sure the hospital knows that Claire had to come in, off duty and slightly drunk, due to Turner's negligence. Tennant soon has to unofficially caution Turner about his approach to his duties. Phil, now a surgical house officer and facing continual taunting from his new boss Mr. Adrian DeVries (Jack Fortune) about his supposed incompetence, begins to aggressively suggest to Turner that he should be the one facing manslaughter charges over the Series 2 chemotherapy death. Docherty decides to stand against Turner as head of the consultants' committee. Phil confesses the story to Docherty and Docherty brokers a deal with the hospital in which records of the accident are lost and Phil cannot be charged, in return for Turner being removed as head of the committee.
There are continuing public scandals about patient care at the hospital. The hospital has written letters to all patients cared for by James warning them of their possible HIV exposure. The outrage of the patients places further pressure on James to resign. Sister Jackie Landers (Ellen Thomas) speaks on television about bad patient care and is severely reprimanded by Tennant. However, soon Casualty Sister Julie Novac (Jacquetta May) makes similar comments to reporters, and Tennant ends up suspended over her remarks: it is revealed that she is Tennant's estranged wife and that he has protected her to his own cost. After being reinstated following Phil's exoneration, Tennant attempts to have Julie's new partner, Scissors Smedley, fired over procedural errors he committed asking a student nurse to administer intravenous medication to a critically ill child when casualty was understaffed, and fails to protect James from false accusations of child abuse. When Julie finds out both that Scissors had not told her about Tennant's manipulations, and that he had failed to confide in her that his neglect of the drink driver was due to his own wife's death in a similar accident, she breaks up with him.
James's HIV infection also affects Andrew. Andrew has begun an affair with Staff Nurse Caroline Richards (Jayne MacKenzie), whom he dated briefly in Series 1. Caroline's ex-lover Luke (Terry Sue-Patt), was also a partner of James's and Luke has tested positive for HIV, leaving Caroline at risk and Andrew needing to explain to his wife why he might have an infection. After Caroline tests negative, Andrew repeatedly refuses to leave his wife, and Caroline eventually leaves him. At the end of series she reveals to him that she is pregnant.
Towards the end of the series, Adrian DeVries's son, Steven (Christopher Woodger), the result of a past relationship with Sister Debbie Pereira (Gabrielle Cowburn) with whom he had been forming a relationship following the break-up of his marriage, is brought in seriously injured after being hit by a car. DeVries and his team do their utmost to save Steven's life, but sadly to no avail. DeVries is left in tears.
In the last episode of the series, Liz is in a psychiatric ward following a breakdown. Another psychiatric patient is roaming the hospital pretending to be a locum and murdering patients with drug overdoses. He breaks into Liz's room while Andrew is visiting her, and stabs Andrew with a needle containing insulin . Raj rescues Andrew and the casualty team, assisted by the newly reunited Claire and Scissors, attempts to treat him. With Claire asking Andrew if he were to be in a vegetative state, would he want her to euthanise him. The series closes with the team carrying a convulsing Andrew towards a resuscitation room.
Throughout series 3, there is a touching subplot concerning the growing love interest between Mr Docherty and his personal secretary, Mrs Isobel Trimble (Angela Douglas), his attempts to ask her to marry him and their ultimate marriage in the series finale.
Themes
Although billed as a comedy, and darkly humorous in many respects, Cardiac Arrest explores several disturbing themes. It demolishes many cherished concepts of healthcare one after the other, and did not attempt to be politically correct. It attracted complaints from many quarters during its airing, although enjoyed huge support amongst junior doctors.
Racism
Andrew: "Mrs. Singh doesn't speak any English."
Claire: "Then screw her. I'm not a frigging vet." (smiles at Mrs. Singh and exits)
Cardiac Arrest is stark in its portrayal of racist attitudes, which are depicted as endemic throughout the health service. In one episode, an Indian locum who is clearly incompetent is assumed to be so, not because of his deeds, but because he is Indian. In Series 3, Raj is not chosen for a GP training scheme to Docherty's surprise: DeVries calmly reveals that doctors with "foreign" names are never chosen.
Raj is often shown arguing with his mother on the telephone about her desire for him to get married.
Sexism
Female patients and staff are portrayed as subject to continual sexual harassment. Raj and James – who is actually a bisexual man with many male partners – have a "babe alert" system whereby they page other male doctors to come and ogle attractive female patients admitted to casualty. When Claire suggests to a female nurse that she would support a sexual harassment case that the nurse could make against James, the nurse replies that she would lose her job over it.
Homophobia
When the media reveals that James has AIDS, Raj is sympathetic and unsurprised by the revelation of James' sexuality, saying merely that he assumes James acquired HIV via "unprotected sex with an infected woman... or man." He then goes on to explain that he has known for some time and knows that James had to be secretive given the pervasive homophobia of the medical system and community. James is later falsely accused of child abuse after a man who recognised him from media coverage of his infection sees him feeling for a pulse in his son's leg. The father is openly and aggressively homophobic.
Junior doctors
In an early scene, we see several junior doctors smoking in the doctors' office, and Claire commenting that soon someone will say it gives you cancer. This is just one scene where doctors are depicted as acting very far from their cherished public persona.
Andrew is rapidly seen as being the most put-upon person in the hospital. Nurses will not flush venous lines: Andrew must do it. Porters will not transport blood specimens: Andrew must do it. Every menial job seems to default to him, and he rapidly runs out of patience. After three days of continuous duty, Andrew is speaking to a patient's family, breaking bad news. One male relative stands up to Andrew in a threatening manner and says "What sort of doctor are you? You couldn't even be bothered to shave before you came to work today!"
Consultants
Consultants are mostly portrayed as callous and uncaring towards matters of patients and their own staff such as junior doctors, nurses and house officers.
Andrew's consultant, Dr. Turner, at first seems friendly and approachable. However, he never appears on the ward, leaving the treatment of patients to Claire. We see him chatting on the telephone about his golf fixtures. Later he attempts to persuade an exhausted and desperate Andrew to forgo his holiday, bribing him with a good reference for his next job. Finally, he attempts to have Phil take the blame for a medical error that kills a patient.
Both of the younger surgical consultants, Bettencourt and DeVries, are portrayed as aggressive bullies.
The more positive portrayals of consultants are with the portrayals of Dr. Yates, Dr. Hudson and Mr. Docherty, the last being the most notable example of all. Early in the first series Mr. Docherty is portrayed as pleasant and cheerful, but also bumbling and incompetent, frequently requiring to be rescued by Monica. He often loses his way in the middle of a sentence. His characterisation changes slowly as the series progresses. To the point of Mr. Docherty becoming the most notable senior doctor of the programme. Dr. Yates is portrayed as a sympathetic character who, in stark contrast to Turner, genuinely supports his juniors and stays behind to assist them, and more than once is vocal in his opposition to management's tendency to look for a scapegoat for patient deaths caused by systemic flaws. Dr. Hudson is portrayed as a no-nonsense yet scrupulously fair character.
Managers
Managers are portrayed with considerable venom. The Series 1 hospital manager is uncaring and dismissive, even of Andrew's most desperate complaints of abuse:
Manager: "Your contract states that in emergencies you are expected to come to work."
Andrew: "I fail to see how a holiday I booked six weeks ago can be called an emergency!"
Manager: "Hospital managers are accustomed to the disaffection of junior medical staff."
In Series 2 and 3, Tennant is primarily interested in protecting his own job, and that of his ally Dr. Turner, and in improving hospital metrics such as outpatient waiting times, rather than improving working conditions for staff, or care for patients.
Nurses
In Series 1, nurses attract perhaps the cruellest depiction of all. They are frequently shown as gossiping, conniving women, chatting at the nurses' station while ill patients languish without attention, or Andrew fumbles around, hopelessly busy and in great need of assistance.
In Series 2 and 3 senior nurses become participants in storylines and are treated with less caricature and portrayed more positively. One of these is Charge Nurse Patrick "Hanging" Garden (Peter Biddle), although he has his moments of being portrayed negatively, especially during the second series, where he is one of the most unsympathetic towards James and opines that the latter should be sacked.
Many nurses have suggestive nicknames, such as "Nurse White-Coat" (Joyce Falconer), so called because she would apparently sleep with "anyone in a white coat".
Medical ethos
In common with other medical dramas, (such as The House of God or even M*A*S*H), Cardiac Arrest portrays junior hospital medicine as an unending parade of sexual adventure for the staff, partly because longer-term relationships are placed under enormous stress by their working hours. Very few characters are in stable relationships. In the first series, among the junior doctors, only Monica is married. Later, even this relationship breaks down, and Monica eventually takes her own life. By the second series, Andrew is married but shortly begins an affair with his old girlfriend Caroline. Claire has relationships with several of the surgeons: Simon Bettencourt, Cyril Smedley, and Adrian DeVries.
Training
The series is extremely critical of medical training. Claire and Mr. Docherty, both sympathetic characters, repeatedly discuss in detail that medical training is unduly demanding of junior doctors and that both the knowledge and training needed are increasing without recognition or appropriate supervision. At the end of the first series Docherty directly addresses the question of hazing practices in medical training when Bettencourt tries to defend his treatment of Monica by saying that he went through a similar process.
Junior medicine is portrayed as a school of hard knocks, where junior doctors achieve success and skill over the corpses of their mistakes. They achieve promotions and status by underhand means. No-one is supportive to anyone else's problems.
Production
Cardiac Arrest was produced by Island World. It had envisaged creating a sitcom set in a hospital, but when Jed Mecurio responded to its advertisement for a writer the show became a portrait of the NHS from the perspective of junior doctors. Series 1 and 2 were filmed on location at both Ruchill Hospital and Stobhill Hospital in Glasgow.
Mercurio appears briefly in a cameo role in series 3 where he plays a friend of Raj's called Baz.
Episodes
Series 1 (1994)
Series 2 (1995)
Series 3 (1996)
Reception
The critical response to the series was generally positive; it was twice nominated for Best Original TV Drama Series/Serial by the Writers' Guild of Great Britain and twice in the same category by BAFTA Scotland.
Doctors were reported as finding the series to be representative of life in an NHS hospital. In a 1999 survey of British doctors' attitude to television depiction of their profession, 15% of doctors voted for Claire Maitland as the fictional doctor they would most like to be compared with. When the series had not yet been released on DVD, an online forum for doctors ran a campaign for its release. The Royal College of Nursing however complained that it portrayed nurses as witless and callous. Virginia Bottomley, the Health Secretary at the time of airing, described it as closer to a Carry On film than a drama. During the height of the controversy Jed Mercurio wrote a letter to the newsletter accompanying the British Medical Journal claiming that most of his criticism came from "retired old consultants", but says he has since decided that much of the controversy was a media creation.
Notably, the series originated the medical term "killing season" for the supposed association between newly qualified doctors starting hospital practice and an increase in medical errors and mortality, which data do not support. In 1994, the British Medical Journal concluded that, "newly qualified house officers have been falsely accused of increasing the number of deaths in hospital and that the idea of the killing season is very much fiction. A 2009 Imperial College London study of records for 300,000 patients at 170 hospitals in the years between 2000 and 2008 found that death rates were 6% higher on Black Wednesday than the previous Wednesday.
Media
The complete series was released as a five-disc DVD set, Cardiac Arrest: The Complete Collection, on 16 April 2007. The DVD contains all three series, but no extras such as commentary.
In September 2023, the complete series was made available on BBC iPlayer.
References
External links
British Film Institute Screen Online
BBC television dramas
1990s British medical television series
1990s British drama television series
1994 British television series debuts
1996 British television series endings
Television shows set in the West Midlands (county)
BBC controversies
English-language television shows |
4543231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Taranto | History of Taranto | The history of Taranto dates back to the 8th century BC when it was founded as a Greek colony, known as Taras.
Greek period
Foundation and splendour
Taranto was founded in 706 BC by Dorian immigrants hailing from Sparta. Its origins are peculiar: the founders were Partheniae, sons of unmarried Spartan women and perioeci (free men, but not citizens of Sparta); these unions were decreed by the Spartans to increase the number of soldiers (only the citizens of Sparta could become soldiers) during the bloody First Messenian War, but later they were nullified, and the sons were forced to leave. According to the legend Phalanthus, the Parthenian leader, went to Delphi to consult the oracle and received the puzzling answer that he should found a city where rain fell from a clear sky. After all attempts to capture a suitable place to found a colony failed, he became despondent, convinced that the oracle had told him something that was impossible, and was consoled by his wife. She laid his head in her lap and herself became disconsolate. When Phalanthus felt her tears splash onto his forehead he at last grasped the meaning of the oracle, for his wife's name meant clear sky. The harbour of Taranto in Apulia was nearby and he decided this must be the new home for the exiles. The Partheniae arrived and founded the city, naming it Taras after the son of the Greek sea god, Poseidon, and the local nymph Satyrion. A variation says Taras was founded in 707 BC by some Spartans, who, the sons of free women and enslaved fathers, were born during the Messenian War. According to other sources, Heracles founded the city. Another tradition indicates Taras himself as the founder of the city; the symbol of the Greek city (as well as of the modern city) is Taras riding a dolphin. Taranto increased its power, becoming a commercial power and a sovereign city of Magna Graecia, ruling over the Greek colonies in southern Italy.
In its beginning, Taranto was a monarchy, probably modelled on the one ruling over Sparta; according to Herodotus (iii 136), around 492 BC king Aristophilides ruled over the city. The expansion of Taranto was limited to the coast because of the resistance of the populations of inner Apulia. In 472 BC, Taranto signed an alliance with Rhegion, to counter the Iapygian tribes of the Messapians and Peucetians, and the Oscan-speaking Lucanians (see Iapygian-Tarentine Wars), but the joint armies of the Tarentines and Rhegines were defeated near Kailia, in what Herodotus claims to be the greatest slaughter of Greeks in his knowledge, with 3,000 Reggians and uncountable Tarentines killed. In 466 BC, Taranto was again defeated by the Iapygians; according to Aristotle, who praises its government, there were so many aristocrats killed that the democratic party was able to get the power, to remove the monarchy, inaugurate a democracy, and expel the Pythagoreans. Like Sparta, Tarentum was an aristocratic republic, but became democratic when the ancient nobility dwindled.
However, the rise of the democratic party did not weaken the bonds of Taranto and her mother-city Sparta. In fact, Taranto supported the Peloponnesian side against Athens in the Peloponnesian War, refused anchorage and water to Athens in 415 BC, and even sent ships to help the Peloponnesians, after the Athenian disaster in Sicily. On the other side, Athens supported the Messapians, in order to counter Taranto's power.
In 432 BC, after several years of war, Taranto signed a peace treaty with the Greek colony of Thurii; both cities contributed to the foundation of the colony of Heraclea, which rapidly fell under Taranto's control. In 367 BC Carthage and the Etruscans signed a pact to counter Taranto's power in southern Italy.
Under the rule of its greatest statesman, strategist and army commander-in-chief, the philosopher and mathematician Archytas, Taranto reached its peak power and wealth; it was the most important city of the Magna Graecia, the main commercial port of southern Italy, it produced and exported goods to and from motherland Greece and it had the biggest army and the largest fleet in southern Italy. However, with the death of Archytas in 347 BC, the city started a slow, but ineluctable decline. Though the city’s hoplite infantry and cavalry continued to enjoy a notable reputation, its restrictive policies of citizenship meant that Taras could not match the numbers of first the Apulian tribes, then the Samnites, and finally the Romans.
In 343 BC Taranto appealed for aid against the barbarians to its mother city Sparta, in the face of aggression by the Brutian League. In 342 BC, Archidamus III, king of Sparta, arrived in Italy with an army and a fleet to fight the Lucanians and their allies. In 338 BC, during the Battle of Manduria, the Spartan and Tarentine armies were defeated in front of the walls of Manduria (nowadays in province of Taranto), and Archidamus was killed.
In 333 BC, still troubled by their Italic neighbours, the Tarentines called the Epirotic king Alexander Molossus to fight the Bruttii, Samnites, and Lucanians, but he was later defeated and killed in the Battle of Pandosia (near Cosenza) in 331 BC. In 320 BC, a peace treaty was signed between Taranto and the Samnites. In 304 BC, Taranto was attacked by the Lucanians and asked for the help of Agathocles tyrant of Syracuse, king of Sicily. Agathocles arrived in southern Italy and took control of Bruttium (present-day Calabria), but was later recalled to Syracuse. In 303 BC-302 BC Cleonymus of Sparta established an alliance with Taranto against the Lucanians, and fought against them.
Arnold J. Toynbee, a classical scholar who taught at Oxford and other prestigious English universities and who did original and definitive work on Sparta (e.g. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xxxiii 1913 p. 246-275) seemed to have some doubts about Tarentum (Taranto) being of Spartan origin. In his book A Study of History vol. iii p. 52 he wrote:
"...Tarentum, which claimed a Spartan origin; but, even if this claim was in accordance with historical fact..."
The tentative phrasing seems to imply that the evidence is neither conclusive or even establishes a high degree of probability of the truth that Tarentum (Taranto) was a Spartan colony.
Wars against Rome
First confrontations
At the beginning of the 3rd century BC Rome's increasing power started to frighten Taranto, especially in terms of mastery of the sea and control over the Greek colonies in Magna Graecia. After the surrender of the Samnites in 290 BC, the Romans founded many colonies in Apulia and Lucania. Furthermore, some of the city-states in Magna Graecia, such as Rhegion, Croton and Locri, asked Rome for military help because of the wars that they were having with their neighbours. Also, Thurii, which was located on the Gulf of Taranto and under Tarentine rule, asked Rome for help in 282 BC, after being attacked by Lucanians. This situation inevitably led to a conflict between Taranto and Rome, since Taranto felt Rome was interfering in the affairs of the Greek colonies in southern Italy, which the Tarentines considered under their dominion.
Two political parties were present at the time within Taranto. The democrats, led by Philocharis or Ainesias, were dominant; they were against Rome, because they knew that if the Romans entered Taranto, the Greeks would have lost their independence. The second faction in Taranto were the aristocrats, led by Agis; they had lost their power when Taranto had become a democracy, and did not oppose surrendering to Rome as it would increase their own influence in the city, by reducing the power of the democrats. However, the aristocrats did not want to surrender openly to Rome and become unpopular with the population.
At that time, Taranto had the most powerful naval forces in Italy, and hastened to come to an agreement with Rome that stated that Roman ships could not enter into the Gulf of Taranto.
In 282 BC, Rome sent a fleet under Admiral Lucius Valerius, carrying troops to garrison Thurii, but ten ships were caught in a tempest and arrived in the sea off Taranto during a holy day (the festival of Dionysus). This angered the Tarentines, who considered it a hostile act openly in conflict with the pact, which forbade the Gulf of Taranto to Roman ships, and responded by attacking the Roman fleet: the Tarentine navy sunk four Roman ships, and captured a fifth. According to some historians, Tarentine aristocrats had been asked by the Roman commanders Publius Cornelius and Lucius Valerius to arrest and execute the democrats and their followers during the arrival of the Roman fleet, which would allow the aristocrats to lead the city and sign an alliance with Rome.
The army and fleet of Taranto moved to Thurii and helped the democrats there exile the aristocrats. The Roman garrison placed in Thurii withdrew.
Pyrrhic War
Rome sent diplomats to Taranto, but the talks were broken off by the Tarentines: the Roman ambassador, Postumius, was insulted and mocked by Philonides, a member of the popular party. The Senate declared war on Taranto, and the Tarentines decided to call for help from King Pyrrhus of Epirus. In 281 BC, Roman legions, under the command of Lucius Aemilius Barbula, entered Taranto and plundered it. Taranto, with Samnite and Salentine reinforcements, then lost a battle against the Romans. After the battle, the Greeks chose Agis to sign a truce and begin diplomatic talks. These talks were also broken off when 3000 soldiers from Epirus under the command of Cineas entered the town. The Roman consul withdrew and suffered losses from attacks by the Greek ships.
Pyrrhus decided to help Taranto because he was in debt to them - they had earlier helped him conquer the island of Corcyra. He also knew that he could count on help from the Samnites, Lucanians, Bruttii, and some Illyrian tribes. His ultimate goal was to conquer Macedon, but he did not have enough money to recruit soldiers. He planned to help Taranto, then go to Sicily and attack Carthage. After winning a war against Carthage and capturing southern Italy, he would have enough money to organise a strong army and capture Macedon.
Before he left Epirus, he borrowed some phalanxes from the Macedonian king, and demanded ships and money from the Syrian king Antiochus and from Antigonus II Gonatas . The Egyptian king also promised to send 9000 soldiers and 50 war elephants. These forces had to defend Epirus while Pyrrhus was gone. He recruited soldiers in Greece as well, as the Greek cities wanted to avoid a war with Epirus, even though they were unconcerned with the Greek colonies in Italy. In the spring of 280 BC, Pyrrhus landed without losses in Italy. He had 20,000 infantry (pikemen from Epirus and Macedonia, mercenary hoplites from around Greece, and peltasts), 500 slingers, 2,000 archers, 3,000 elite cavalry from Thessaly, and 20 war elephants.
After hearing of Pyrrhus' arrival in Italy, the Romans mobilized eight legions with auxiliaries, totalling about 80 000 soldiers, and divided into four armies. Valerius Levinus marched to Taranto, with an army of 30,000 legionnaires and auxiliaries. Pyrrhus moved from Taranto to meet its allies, but met with the Roman army, and decided to fight it next to Heraclea. The Battle of Heraclea was won by Pyrrhus, but the casualties were very high. Upon his arrival in Italy, Pyrrhus thought that the Roman army would be easily defeated by his Macedonian phalanx. However, Roman legions proved to be stronger than expected. Furthermore, Rome was able to raise a large number of legions, while Pyrrhus was far from home and had only a handful of veterans with him.
Pyrrhus moved towards Rome with the intention of rallying the peoples ruled by the Romans and conquering the city, but he had no success in this and was forced to return to Apulia.
In 279 BC, Pyrrhus defeated another Roman army in the Battle of Asculum (modern Ascoli Satriano, Foggia), again with many casualties. Most of the men Pyrrhus had brought over from Epirus were disabled or dead, including nearly all of his officers and friends. Recruiting would be impossible, and his allies were unreliable. The Romans, on the other hand, quickly replaced their losses with fresh men, and with every defeat, the Romans were becoming more determined to win. At the same time, Pyrrhus received a proposal from the Sicilian Greek colonies of Syracuse, Leontini, and Agrigentum, to lead them in a war against the Carthaginians, and left Italy for Sicily, suspending the war against Rome, and leaving a garrison in Taranto.
The Tarentines recalled Pyrrhus in 276 BC, and the king gladly returned from his Sicilian adventure. The war against Rome revamped, but this time Pyrrhus was matched by the Romans in the Battle of Beneventum (275 BC) and elected to give up his Italian campaign as Antigonus II of Macedon would not send him reinforcements. After six years, Pyrrhus returned to Epirus, with only 8,500 men: a garrison was left in Taranto, under the command of Pyrrhus' vice-commander Milon.
The Romans conquered the city in 272 BC, by treachery of the Greek soldiers, and demolished the defensive walls of the city. Thirty thousand of the Greek inhabitants were sold as slaves and many works of art were carried off to Rome.
Second Punic War
During the Second Punic War, the Romans heavily garrisoned the city for fear that it might go over to Hannibal. However, a group of Tarentine hostages held in Rome were caught trying to escape and thrown from the Tarpeian Rock as traitors; probably because of this, anti-Roman feeling in the city increased greatly. Two members of the pro-Carthage faction in the city enabled Hannibal to enter the city in 212 BC, although he was not able to capture the citadel of the city which was defended by Roman troops. Because of Hannibal's failure to capture the citadel, he was not able to use Tarentum as a major port and staging area for the invasion of Italy. The army was forced to portage boats across the city in order to sail from the bay. The city supported his war against Rome, but in 209 BC the commander of a Bruttian force betrayed the city to the Romans. Indiscriminate slaughter ensued and among the victims were the Bruttians who had betrayed the city. Afterwards thirty thousand of the Greek inhabitants were sold as slaves. Tarentum's art treasures, including the statue of Nikè (Victory) were carried off to Rome.
Roman Republic and Empire
Even in Antiquity it was renowned for its beautiful climate. In ancient times its poets Apollodorus and Clinias, its painter Zeuxis and its mathematician Archytas were renowned.
In 122 BC a Roman colony was founded next to Taranto, according to the law proposed by Gaius Sempronius Gracchus. The colony was named Neptunia, after the Roman sea god Neptune, worshipped by the Tarentines. The Roman colony was separate from the Greek city, and populated by Roman colonists, but it was later unified with the main centre when Taranto become a municipium, in 89 BC.
In 37 BC Marcus Antonius, Octavianus and Lepidus signed the Treaty of Tarentum, extending the second triumvirate until 33 BC.
Tarentum had a municipal law, Lex municipii Tarenti; a partial copy inscribed on bronze plates was discovered in 1894 by , and is now at the Museo Archeologico Nazionale of Naples.
During the late Republic and all the Roman Empire, Taranto was a simple provincial city (Prefecture of Italy, Diocese of Italia suburbicaria, Apulia et Calabria province). Emperor Trajanus tried to counter the reduction of the population giving the Tarentine lands to his veterans, but this initiative failed. Taranto followed the story of Italy during the late Empire, with Visigothic attacks and Ostrogothic domination.
Roman, Lombard, Arab, and Norman Middle era
Roman and Lombard dominations
In the wake of the Gothic wars, Taranto was reconquered by the Roman Empire in 540, and was ruled by them until the Lombards (or Longobards) of the Duchy of Benevento captured it in 662.
In spring 663, Basileus Constans II arrived at Taranto with a fleet and an army and defeated the Lombards: it was the first time a Byzantine Emperor from Constantinople had arrived in Italy with an army. Next, he conquered Apulia and went to Rome to meet Pope Vitalian.
After the Emperor got back to Constantinople, a new war between the Byzantines and the Duchy of Beneventum started, which lasted for years. Duke Grimoaldus conquered northern Apulia and his son Romoaldus, in 686, took Taranto and Brindisi from the imperial army.
In the 8th century, North African Muslim Berbers started to raid Taranto and southern Italy; the Saracen menace lasted up to the 11th century.
Arab domination
The first years of the 9th century were characterized by the internal fights that weakened the Lombard power. In 840, a Lombard prince, who was held prisoner in Taranto, was freed by his partisans, brought to Benevento, and made duke. At the same time, the Saracens took control of Taranto, exploiting the weak Lombard control. Taranto became an Arab stronghold and privileged harbour for forty years. It was from here that ships loaded with prisoners sailed to the Arab ports, where the prisoners were sold in the slave market. In the same 840, an Arab fleet left Taranto, defeated in the Gulf of Taranto a Venetian fleet of 60 ships, summoned by the emperor Theophilus, and entered the Adriatic sea, sacking the coastal cities.
In 850, four Saracen columns departed from Taranto and Bari to sack Campania, Apulia, Calabria and Abruzzi. In 854, Taranto was again the base for an Arab raid, led by Abbas-ibn-Faid, which sacked the Lombard Principality of Salerno. Two Arab fleets arrived to Taranto, in 871 and later in 875, carrying the troops which sacked Campania and Apulia. The situation of southern Italy worried Emperor Basil I, who decided to fight the Arabs and take the harbour of Taranto from themselves.
In 880, two Byzantine armies, led by generals Prokopios and Leo Apostyppes, and a fleet commanded by the admiral Nasar, took Taranto from the Arabs, ending a forty years dominion. Among the first actions taken by Apostyppes was the enslavement and deportation of the Latin-Longobard original inhabitants and the import of Greek colonists, in order to increase the population. Taranto became one of the most important cities in the theme of Longobardia, the Byzantine possession in southern Italy. In 882 the Saracens, having been invited by Duke Radelchis to assist him, captured it and held it for some time.
Return under Byzantine rule
In 928, a Fatimid fleet under Sabir al-Fata sacked the city, enslaving and deporting to North Africa all the survivors. Taranto had no inhabitants, until the Byzantine re-conquest in 967. The Byzantine emperor Nicephorus II Phocas understood the importance of a strong military presence and harbour in southern Italy, and rebuilt the city. He added several military fortifications, and made Taranto a stronghold of Roman resistance against the uprising Norman power in south Italy. However, the weakness of the Roman local government exposed Taranto to other Saracen raids. In 977, it was attacked by Saracens led by Abn'l-Kàsim, who took many prisoners and sacked the city, burning some parts of Taranto. In 982, Emperor Otto II started his war against Saracens from Taranto, but he was defeated by Abn'l-Kàsim in the Battle of Stilo (Calabria).
Norman conquest
The 11th century was characterized by a bloody struggle between Normans and Byzantines for the rule over the Tarentine and Bariot lands. In May 1060, Robert Guiscard conquered the city, but in October Taranto was re-occupied by the Byzantine army. After three years, in 1063, the Norman count Geoffrey, son of Petron I, entered in Taranto, but he was obliged to flee from it on the arrival of the Byzantine admiral Michael Maurikas. Taranto was finally conquered by the Normans: the sons of Petron elected the first Norman archbishop, Drogo, in 1071, and prepared a fleet to conquer Durazzo.
Feudal Principality of Taranto (1088-1465)
Taranto became the capital of a Norman principality, whose first ruler was Robert Guiscard's son, Bohemond of Taranto, who obtained it as result of succession dispute: his father repudiated his first wife, Bohemond's mother, and had Roger Borsa, his son by his second wife Sikelgaita, succeed him as Duke of Apulia. Bohemond was compensated with Taranto and lands that covered almost all of the heel of Apulia. The principality of Taranto, during its 377 years of history, was sometimes a powerful and almost independent feudal fief of the Kingdom of Sicily (and later of Naples), sometimes only a title, often given to the heir to the crown or to the husband of a reigning queen. When the House of Anjou was divided, Taranto fell to Durazzo (1394–1463).
Ferdinand I of Naples, also known as King Ferrante, united the Principality of Taranto to the Kingdom of Naples, at the death of his wife, Isabella of Taranto (Clermont). The principality ended, but the kings of Naples continued giving the title of Prince of Taranto to their sons, firstly to the future Alfonso II of Naples, Duke of Calabria, eldest son of Isabella.
From Renaissance to Napoleon
In March 1502, the Spanish fleet of king Ferdinand II of Aragon, allied to Louis XII of France, seized the port and conquered Taranto.
In 1504 King Ferdinand III valiantly defended this extremity of his kingdom, but had to cede it to the Spanish general Consalvo de Cordoba.
In 1570 Admiral Giovanni Andrea Doria set his fleet of 49 galleys in Mar Grande to repair and supply his ships. Among the people on the fleet was Miguel de Cervantes. The fleet later united with the other parts of the Christian League, and in 1571 defeated the Turkish fleet at Lepanto: also some Tarentine nobles took part in the battle.
In 1647 the insurrection of Masaniello in Naples reached also Taranto. The city joined also the Parthenopaean Republic of 1799, from 8 February to 8 March of that year, though again unluckily.
In 1746 Taranto had 11,526 inhabitants. All of them were packed in the small island, among a high number of religious institutes and churches. Francesco Antonio Calo', a Tarentine nobleman, started in 1765 with two statues the Mysteries of the Holy Week celebrations. They are today the most important and attended event of Taranto.
After the defeat of Ferdinand IV of Naples at Monteregio and the subsequent Peace of Florence, in 1801 the French general Jean-de-dieu Soult occupied with 13,000 soldiers the provinces of Bari, Lecce and the harbour of Taranto. Napoleon wanted to build a stronghold to keep under pression the British base of Malta. On 23 April 1801, 6,000 French soldiers of the Armée d'observation du midi entered in Taranto (20.000 inhabitants at the time) and fortified it in order to obtain "a sort of Gibitrair" (Napoleon). On 25 March 1802, France and Great Britain signed the Treaty of Amiens, which required France to leave South Italy, but after UK declaration of war against France, the Armée d'observation du midi returned to Taranto, under the command of general Laurent Gouvion de Saint Cyr, on 23 May 1803. Among the French officers in Taranto, there is also the novelist Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, artillery general and fortification expert, who died in Taranto on 5 September 1803. On 15 February, Joseph Bonaparte became King of Naples, and on 3 May visited the fortifications of Taranto. The presence of the French troops and defensive works benefited the Tarentine economy.
In 1805 the Russian fleet, allied with the British, remained there for several months.
On March 30, 1806, Bonaparte's decree created Tarente (the French name for the city) one of six hereditary duchés grand-fiefs in the satellite kingdom of Naples, awarded to maréchal MacDonald in 1809 (line extinguished 1912).
With the fall of Napoleon and the defeat of Joachim Murat at the battle of Tolentino, Southern Italy and Taranto returned under the Bourbon dynasty's rule, forming the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
Since Italian unification
On 9 September 1860, Taranto became part of the temporary government founded by Giuseppe Garibaldi after his conquest of the Two Sicilies kingdom. In the following year, all Southern Italy was annexed to the Savoy dynasty's Kingdom of Piemonte-Sardinia, which became the Kingdom of Italy. In those years Taranto had 27,000 inhabitants.
Between May and June 1866, the newly formed Regia Marina — the Kingdom of Italy navy resulted from the unification of Sardinian, Neapolitan-Sicilian, Tuscan and Pontificial navies — was collected in Taranto harbour, because of the imminent declaration of war against Austria (Third Independence War). On 21 June, one day too late to allow Admiral Carlo di Persano to receive Tarentine honorary citizenship, the fleet left for the Adriatic Sea. After the defeat of the Italian fleet at Lissa, Persano was put under trial for incompetence and cowardice, and his easy days in Taranto was indicated as part of his bad behaviour.
During World War I, Taranto was a base for Regia Marina warships. On 2 August 1916, , a , sank after alleged sabotage.
On the night of 11 November 1940, during World War II, the Italian ships, which were at anchor in Mar Grande and Mar Piccolo, were severely damaged by British naval forces in what became known as the Battle of Taranto.
British forces landed near the port on September 9, 1943 as part of the Allied invasion (Operation Slapstick).
See also
Greek coinage of Italy and Sicily
Archbishopric of Taranto
Timeline of Taranto
References
Sources
Giuliano Lapesa - "Taranto dall'Unità al 1940. Industria, demografia, politica" - LED Edizioni Universitarie - Milano, 2011 -
External links
Culture centre Filonide
Heraldica.org- Napoleonic heraldry |
4544450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz%20E-Class%20%28W212%29 | Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W212) | The W212 and S212 Mercedes-Benz E-Class series is the fourth-generation of the E-Class range of executive cars which was produced by Mercedes-Benz between 2009 and 2016 as the successor to the W211 E-Class. The body styles of the range are:
4-door sedan/saloon (W212)
5-door estate/wagon (S212)
Coupé and convertible models of the E-Class of the same vintage are W204 C-Class derived and known as the C207 and A207, replacing the CLK-Class coupé and cabriolet. A high-performance E 63 AMG version of the W212 and S212 were available as well since 2009. In 2013, a facelift was introduced for the E-Class range, featuring significant styling changes, fuel economy improvements and updated safety features.
After being unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show to invited members of the press and put on public display at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show, it was introduced in March 2009 for Europe and in July 2009 for North America in the saloon body style. In 2010, an estate body style became available to all markets, though the estate body style was available in Europe since August 2009. Global cumulative E-Class sales reached the milestone 550,000 vehicle mark in July 2011. Production achieved the milestone 500,000 saloon unit mark in March 2012.
The W212 E-Class was succeeded by the W213 E-Class in 2016 for the 2017 model year.
Development
Design work began in 2004 after the development programme commenced in 2003, with the exterior design by Winifredo Camacho and interior design by Thomas Stopka being selected in 2005. After refinements and engineering considerations were made, the final design specifications were frozen in 2006. Certain elements of the exterior styling are taken from the preceding W204 C-Class and W221 S-Class each designed in 2002 and 2003. The bulging rear wheel arches are meant to be reminiscent of the fender flares of historic "Ponton" Mercedes models of the 1950s. The design of the W212 and C207 E-Class was previewed by the ConceptFASCINATION design study in September 2008.
Body styles
Saloon
The W212 E-Class saloon was unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show. The saloon went on sale in Europe in March 2009 as a 2010 model year automobile. The W212 E-Class has 3 trim levels of equipment and equipment levels: Classic, Elegance and Avantgarde.
The E-Class features several new safety technologies including driver drowsiness detection, lane departure warning, and traffic sign recognition. It also includes features that improve performance, efficiency, and comfort, such as "Direct Control" adaptive suspension, active seats (which change shape to support the passengers in corners), and movable radiator louvers which improve the vehicle's aerodynamics. Standard Mercedes-Benz safety and convenience features, such as the Electronic Stability Program (ESP), airbags, and automatic climate control, are included as well.
Estate
The estate version (chassis code S212) was unveiled at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and was released for sale in Europe on 5 August. Early models include the four-cylinder-powered E 220 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY and E 250 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY, the V6-powered E 350 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY and E 350 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY, and the V8-powered E 500. US models began sales in June 2010 for the 2011 model year.
Coupé and convertible
The coupé (C207) was first shown at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show, while the convertible (A207) was unveiled at the 2010 North American International Auto Show. Both models replaced the previous C209/A209 CLK-Class models. The C207/A207 E-Class is based on the W204 C-Class platform, and are produced alongside each other in the Bremen plant.
Styling
The 2009 E-Class’ design was inspired by the new design language Mercedes adopted at that time for the C-Class, S-Class, and CLS-Class. The design was considerably more angular and aggressive than its predecessors and Mercedes gave the rear haunch a bulge that they named the "Ponton flare" inspired by that of the Ponton cars from the 1950s and early '60s. Many of the changes made to give the E-Class a sportier appearance took design cues from a number of existing models, including the CLS-Class and the S-Class. The rising character line of the 2009 E-Class was inspired by the S-Class, as were the wheel-arch extensions, the door handles, and the enlarged bumpers. Meanwhile, the CLS-Class inspiration came in the form of the re-shaped headlights, featuring an edgier squared teardrop design as opposed to the previous ovoid shape. Other changes made on the 2009 model included a wider-framed grille, new air intakes, and an overall wedge-shaped profile. The 2009 E-Class has a drag coefficient of 0.25 to improve aerodynamic efficiency.
Mercedes gave the interior a subtle facelift, one that features a more spacious cockpit with height adjustable bucket front seats, remote power door locks, power mirrors, heated mirrors, 4 one-touch power windows, and remote window operation. There are also wood trims on the doors, dashboard, and center console, front and rear reading lights, a leather steering wheel, an electrochromatic inside rearview mirror, and front and rear floor mats. The entertainment aspect comes from the plethora of electronically enhanced goodies like an AM/FM in-dash 6 CD/DVD, CD-controller with CD MP3 Playback stereo, Harman Kardon audio system a TeleAid telecommunications service, and Bluetooth wireless data link for hands-free phone capabilities.
W212 facelift (2013–2016)
Development and launch
The fourth generation E-Class (W212) facelift was unveiled to media in December 2012 ahead of its public debut at the 2013 North American International Auto Show, it was made available for sale in early/mid 2013 as the 2014 model year. Compared to typically subtle Mercedes-Benz minor model updates, the changes to the W212 were relatively extensive. With the sales the E-Class had lost to SUVs and crossovers in Europe and America more than compensated for by demand in emerging markets, it received the "most significant model revision" Mercedes-Benz had ever undertaken, reported close to €1 billion into the development of the mid-cycle refresh. The amount of new features on the facelifted model is about the same that's expected from the release of an entirely new model. The facelift brings significant styling changes, improved engines, more standard equipment and several extra hi-tech features.
Depending on the market, the 2014 E-Class is available in the following versions. The lineup starts with the E 200 that has a turbocharged 2.0-liter producing or in the E 250. The more frugal E 200 CDI has a 4-cylinder, 2.1-liter turbodiesel unit with . The same engine powers the E 220 CDI where it's tuned to output , while in the E 250 CDI it churns . There are also BlueTec versions of the E 250, E 300 Hybrid and E 350. The regular E 350 gets a V6 3.5-liter engine generating , while the E 400 Hybrid has the same V6 engine but with an electric motor developing an additional . The E 550 makes use of a 4.7-liter turbo charged V8 engine developing .
Styling
The front was completely restyled, giving it a more aggressive look compared to the pre-facelift model in response to the newer BMW 5 Series and Audi A6. The twin headlamp design was replaced with a singular front light (marking the end of Mercedes's dual headlamps use), while the light elements within the headlamps helped to retain the "four-eyed" appearance. Low beam and daytime running lamps both came with partial LED as standard, while full LED technology was available as an option for the first time. The hood, with new flowing lines, and the front bumper, which was made sharper with bigger air intakes, were also completely redesigned.
In the rear, the LED taillights were given horizontal design, while Sport models featured exposed dual exhaust pipes. The doors and front fenders were re-shaped, eliminating the wheel arch bulge and replacing it with a more traditional character line in the sheet metal. The lower side crease line (which replaced the pre-facelift model's side chrome trim) extends from the rear door all the way to the front fender, hence all the side panels except for the rear quarter panel was also restyled.
The facelift could be ordered with two distinct design variants: Sport and Luxury, which featured two different front-end designs for each line. The Luxury version came with the classic saloon grille with 3-louver look and star on the hood. The Sport version featured the sports grille with integrated star, also a first time option, forming a visual link to the high performance sports car models. Sport models receive a more confident front design, using the AMG styling package that features larger air intakes and a distinct aluminum trim line along the entire lower rim of the front bumper.
The car's interior cabin was subtly revised, with the new 3-tube instrument cluster, trapezoidal head-unit display, air vents design and a new analogue clock in the center console between the two central vents, like the CLS-Class (C218). A new feature was the two-part trim which stretched across the entire dashboard, available in a wood or aluminium look, irrespective of the equipment line. There was also a redesigned centre console without a selector lever (saloons had already done away with the selector lever as part of the launch of the W212), as well as a new multi-function steering wheel with DIRECT SELECT lever and shift paddles in conjunction with the automatic transmission. If the driver had shifted up or down manually, after a set period of time the transmission would independently switch back to automatic mode to save fuel.
Equipment
Three different suspension configurations could be ordered. The comfort-biased setup used the base DIRECT CONTROL suspension with selective damping system. The sporty DIRECT CONTROL suspension with selective damping system was lowered by 15mm. The AIRMATIC air suspension featured electronically controlled damping. The Estate model received an air suspension with self-leveling as standard on the rear axle. All E-Classes were be fitted with an electromechanical Direct-Steer system as standard.
For infotainment, the E-Class was equipped with the COMAND system featuring AM/FM/WB radio, indash DVD/CD player, in-dash memory card slot, and Bluetooth interface for hands-free calling. Standard equipment also included a central controller with a 7-inch, high-resolution display and a color display in the instrument cluster. Optional features included: Rearview camera, COMAND navigation, SiriusXM satellite radio, Harman/Kardon Logic 7 surround sound, power rear window sunshade, heated front seats, active ventilated front seats and garage-door opener and KEYLESS-GO.
The E-Class benefited from new safety features derived from the 2014 S-Class, including the stereo multi-purpose camera which enabled the car to detect oncoming or crossing traffic, pedestrians and traffic signs up to 50 metres away.
Mercedes' Intelligent Drive technology equipped the 2014 E-Class with up to eleven new or enhanced driving assistance features. Among these were Attention Assist (giving the driver greater control over sensitivity levels), standard Collision Prevention Assist, Distronic Plus adaptive cruise control with Steering Assist, Active Lane Keeping Assist, Brake Assist Plus, and Cross Traffic Assist.
The Intelligent Light System with Adaptive Highbeam Assist PLUS used radar and stereo cameras to detect oncoming cars and operated on high beam while blanking out a section of light around them. The same system also identified pedestrians and could flash light specifically on them.
Other optional safety technologies included PRE-SAFE Brake, PRE-SAFE PLUS, PRE-SAFE Impulse, Active Parking Assist, Active Blind Spot Assist, Traffic Sign Assist and a 360-degree camera.
Specifications
Engines
E 500 is sold as the E 550 in the US and Canada.
Badged as E 200 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY and E 250 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY before 2011.
Badged as E 300 BlueEFFICIENCY, E 300 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY, E 350 BlueEFFICIENCY, E 350 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY, E 500 BlueEFFICIENCY, E 500 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY, E 200 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY, E 220 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY, E 220 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY Edition, E 250 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY and E 250 CDI 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY before 2013.
The designation "BlueTEC" replaced the "CDI" from 2013 to 2017, as Euro 6 emissions standard effectively mandates SCR and AdBlue injection.
E 180 models were sold in Turkey and Greece and Tunisia with a 1.6L 156HP 250NM derived from the M270 petrol engine.
Transmission
Safety
Euro NCAP
The 2010 E-Class earned five stars out of five for occupant protection, pedestrian protection and assistance systems in the Euro NCAP test. It came standard with a number of safety systems like Collision Prevention Assist, Attention Assist, Adaptive braking technology, Daytime Running Lamps and Rain-sensing windshield wipers. The E-Class also received two "Euro NCAP Advanced" rewards for the optional PRE-SAFE and PRE-SAFE Brake safety system.
IIHS
The 2010 E-Class was the first E-Class to earn IIHS's reputable Top Safety Pick award. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety score the E-Class Good overall in the moderate overlap front crash test, but did not pass the small front overlap. It also received Good overall in side-impact collisions, the roof strength and seat/head restraint evaluations.
The redesigned 2014 E-Class received IIHS's Top Safety Pick+ award, which also passed the small front overlap crash test. Apart from the aforementioned test, the W212 facelift also scored the Good mark in the moderate overlap front, side, roof strength and seat/head restraint evaluations.
NHTSA
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) crash testing of the 2014 US model year E-Class yielded a four-star driver and four-star passenger rating in the frontal-collision test (out of five stars). Side crash results were five out of five stars for both front and rear seats. The car scored five stars in rollover testing.
Reception
The E-Class image suffered a downturn in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Things improved with the facelifted W211 but the introduction of the W212 series re-established the E-Class's original reputation for solid build quality and refined elegance. The W212 was also praised for having a differentiated design from the contemporary C-Class and S-Class models. Although the mid-cycle refresh was overwhelmingly praised, the design received mixed opinions as Mercedes decided to take a more streamlined direction with the redesign; replacing the twin headlamp design with a single lens design, which brought the E-Class design up to date with the ongoing F800 Style design language found on cars like the A-Class, B-Class, C-Class, S-Class, CLS-Class and M-Class.
Special models
E 63 AMG (2010–2017)
The E 63 AMG saloon was unveiled at the 2009 New York International Auto Show. The new performance version of the E-Class is fitted with the same powertrain as the SL63 AMG, including AMG's 6.2-liter V8 and the SPEEDSHIFT MCT 7-speed sports automatic transmission with four driver-selectable modes including a fully manual mode. Similar to the C63 AMG, the new E 63 is more extensively modified than before, with a new, wider front axle, heavily revised suspension, and more distinct body panels.
The optional AMG Performance Pack includes lightweight, forged 19-inch AMG light-alloy wheels with 255/35R19 front and 285/30R19 rear tires, stiffer suspension, a limited-slip differential, a special three-spoke sport steering wheel, and a reprogramming of the electronic top speed limiter to from . The 6.2 L V8 has and will accelerate from 0 to in approximately 4.5 seconds.
In 2011, the 6.2-litre V8 was replaced by a twin-turbo version of the 5.5-litre V8 available in the E 500/E 550; power remained the same as for the earlier, naturally aspirated 6.2-litre engine. There was also a Performance Pack version. In October 2013, the AMG S model of the E 63 was introduced; this version has and replaces the earlier Performance Pack model. In the United States, the E 63 station wagon is only available as an AMG S, and all E 63s sold in North America now receive the 4Matic system as standard. Meanwhile, power of the "regular" E 63 AMG increased to the same level as the previous Performance Pack model.
With a engine, the E 63 can achieve a top speed of around (electronic limiter off), and can accelerate from 0 to in 4.4 seconds.
The styling has been altered for both aesthetic and practical purposes: AMG side skirts and rear apron give the E 63 more aggressive styling, and the larger air apertures on the front of the car allow for more air intake to the naturally aspirated 6.2 litre V8. Another styling change on the E 63 is the wider, flared front wheel arches which accommodate the AMG front axle with a track.
For 2012, Mercedes-Benz started offering a bi-turbo V8 version. It is the M157, 5.5L twin-turbo V8, that is rated at , which is mated to a 7-speed AMG Speedshift MCT transmission.
In 2013, the facelifted E 63 AMG was launched almost immediately after the facelifted standard E-Class. It has a more sporty, singular front air intakes, sideskirts, rear diffuser and black detailings in the side mirrors, front grille, wheels, and rear apron. Also for the first time it can also be had in 4Matic four-wheel drive system. It has the same M157 engine, with increased power of up to 550 bhp to last-generation's 525 bhp. Mercedes still offered an optional AMG "S" Performance Package, which adds 27 bhp in power for a total of at 5500 rpm and at 1750-5000 rpm and delimits the car's top speed to . With the optional AMG "S" Performance Package, the car can do 0– in 3.5 seconds; vehicles without the package takes an additional 0.1 seconds.
E-Guard
The E-Guard armoured version, which features VR4 (formerly B4) level protection, went on sale in April 2009. The vehicles are equipped with steel and aramid fiber (Kevlar) armour and bullet-resistant windows, as well as run-flat tyres rated for a top speed of ( at when deflated), a special Level II version of the Airmatic air suspension system, emergency alarm system, intercom system, and underbody armour. As of 2011 it has an MSRP (in the Mexican market) of $1,954,900MXN Mexican Pesos, or approximately US$143,000 US Dollars.
E 250 BlueTEC concept (2009)
The E 250 BlueTEC is a concept vehicle based on the E 250 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY saloon, but with BlueTEC selective catalytic reduction and the 7G-Tronic Plus transmission. The vehicle was unveiled at the 2009 New York Auto Show. The E 250 BlueTEC is capable of 28 MPG city/39 MPG highway.
Edition 125 anniversary (2011)
A version commemorating Karl Benz inventing the first automobile powered by an internal combustion engine 125 years prior, for Hong Kong and Mexican markets. It is available for E 250, E 300 and E 350 models.
Motorsport
Erebus Motorsport competed in the Australian V8 Supercars Championship with E 63 AMGs between 2013 and 2015. These race cars had very little in common with the road going versions with only the exterior being shared with the race cars.
References
External links
Official website
LEAKED: 2010 Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W212) brochures with detailed specification sheets!
NTG3 Navigation
Executive cars
W212
W212
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Station wagons
Cars introduced in 2009
2010s cars
Limousines
Latin NCAP executive cars
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4544516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Medenine | Battle of Medenine | The Battle of Medenine ( [Operation Capri]) was an Axis spoiling attack at Medenine in Tunisia on 6 March 1943. The operation was intended to delay an attack by the British Eighth Army on the Mareth Line. The British had been forewarned by Ultra decrypts of German wireless communications and rushed reinforcements from Tripoli and Benghazi before the Axis attack, which was a costly failure. General Erwin Rommel, the commander of Army Group Africa , could not afford to lose forces needed for the defence of the Mareth Line and the effort was abandoned at dusk that day.
During the night, the Eighth Army remained alert for the possibility of another Axis attempt and sent forward patrols to carry out reconnaissance and to demolish knocked-out Axis tanks. During the day the and had made a maximum effort with little effect against the Allied anti-aircraft defence and the Desert Air Force (DAF). On 7 March the Axis forces began a withdrawal northwards towards the Mareth Line, the Eighth Army pursuit being slowed by rain. The Battle of Medenine was the last battle commanded by Rommel in the North African Campaign, who returned to Europe for good soon afterwards.
Background
Axis retreat from El Alamein
The retreat of took place from 1943 and on 8 November, Operation Torch began in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The evaded British outflanking moves but traffic jams, fuel shortage, poor weather and air attacks reduced the retreat to per day. in Rome and in Berlin took an optimistic view of the situation and chose the Mersa-el-Brega–El Agheila position as the terminus of the retreat, despite the position having a front long, strong points up to apart, too far for mutual support and being protected by only When the arrived, the had only and deliveries of only of the of supplies needed daily.
Rommel had wanted retreat to Wadi Akarit in the Gabès area, further west, where the non-motorised troops could defend the narrow gap between the Mediterranean and the Chott Djerid. The tanks and motorised infantry could join the 5th Panzer Army (Colonel-General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim) further north, drive back the First Army from Tunisia into Algeria, then swiftly return to force back the Eighth Army, preparatory to embarkation for Europe. At a meeting with Hitler on 28 November, Rommel discussed the proposal but only received a promise of more supplies. On the night of the British attacked and on the following evening the resumed its retreat and despite the chronic fuel shortage, evaded another outflanking move. The took up a defensive position at Buerat on 29 December but this was poorly fortified, wide open to an outflanking manoeuvre and vulnerable to being cut off by an attack on Gabès by the First Army from southern Tunisia. The supply situation was little better, with tons of the daily requirement being delivered and 95 per cent of the fuel being used to distribute supplies or for withdrawals.
The Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) attacked Axis supply lines and hundreds of lorries were stranded along roads for lack of fuel, while the Eighth Army massed petrol and ammunition for its next attack. On 13 January 1943, the infantry of the 21st Panzer Division were sent north to the 5th Panzer Army, to guard against the loss of Gabès and on 15 January, the Eighth Army attacked with against and tanks; in the evening Rommel ordered another withdrawal. Lack of fuel and apprehension about the threat to Gabès, led to the retreat passing beyond the Tarhuna–Homs line and Tripoli was occupied by the British on 23 January, the Axis retreat from El Alamein having covered . On 13 February, the last Axis soldiers left Libya and on 15 February, the rearguard reached the Mareth Line, inside Tunisia. intended the line to be held indefinitely but Rommel considered it too vulnerable to another flanking move, unlike the Wadi Akarit position, another back.
Operation Torch
On 7 November 1942, Anglo-American troops landed in Morocco and Algeria, the British First Army (Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson) either side of Algiers and the US II Corps (Major-General Lloyd Fredendall) at Casablanca and Oran, against the resistance of Vichy French forces until an armistice on 10 November. On 14 November, the Allied forces tried to reach Tunis, to the east through mountainous country by a coup de main assisted by parachute landings but poor weather, a rapid German build-up of aircraft and the airlift of troops from Sicily to Tunisia under Case Anton ended the advance on 30 November. The Axis troops were able to form a bridgehead around the ports of Tunis and Bizerta and by December, about troops, fifty Panzer IV and forty Tiger tanks had arrived. The 5th Panzer Army had been formed on 8 December and winter weather began in mid-month, which was further to the advantage of the Axis defenders, as continued its retreat from El Alamein, towards southern Tunisia. Having stabilised the Axis position in Tunisia, the 5th Panzer Army undertook several local offensives in the new year, at the Battle of Sidi Bou Zid (14–17 February), the Battle of Kasserine Pass (19–24 February) and Operation Ochsenkopf (26 February – 4 March 1943).
Mareth Line
Southern Tunisia is a region of broken terrain, with rocky ridge lines and desert, which obstruct manoeuvre; opposite a bight where the north–south coast opens to the east, a semi-arid, scrub covered coastal plain is met inland by the Matmata Hills which run south to north. North of Gabès, the road to Sfax passes between the sea and the Chotts, the only route north for the Eighth Army. Across the plain in a line roughly south-west to north-east, lay the Mareth Line, a fortification built by the French in the 1930s. In the north, the hills and line of forts terminated at the Tebaga Gap, a low pass between the Matmata Hills and the Djebel Tebaga, another line of high ground to the west of the gap running east–west. North and west of this feature is the Chott el Djerid; west of the Matmata Hills, lies dry Jebel Dahar country and then the impassable sand of the Grand Erg Oriental. Gabès is on the coast where the plain meets the route from the Tebaga Gap.
The Mareth Line followed the line of Wadi Zigzaou, a natural tank obstacle, with steep banks rising up to ; the north-west side had been fortified by the French and was reinforced by Axis engineers. The wadi crosses the coastal plain from Zarat to Toujane and into the Matmata Hills beyond. In 1938, the French judged Jebel Dahar to be impassable to motorised transport and had not extended the Mareth Line any further inland but 1943 motor vehicles had much better performance. The Italian 1st Army (General Giovanni Messe) occupied the Mareth Line with the 90th Light Division, 164th Light Afrika Division, and the 10th Panzer Division, 15th Panzer Division and the 21st Panzer Division of the with about and the 80th Infantry Division "La Spezia".
Prelude
Axis preparations
On 28 February, Rommel, Messe and the senior armoured unit commanders met to discuss an attack on Medenine, the junction of several roads and tracks. An attack from three directions was suggested, from Toujane to Metameur on the left, an attack in the centre and an attack on the right from the Hallouf Pass to Medenine. Rommel suggested an attack nearer the coast to create the possibility of attacking from an unexpected direction but the subordinates disagreed because of information from reconnaissance by the that the coastal approaches were difficult, mined and covered by many guns. There was no room for manoeuvre and the tanks would be easy targets for British artillery and aircraft. Rommel gave way and the plan was drawn up by Messe and Lieutenant-General Heinz Ziegler, the temporary commander of the .
The attack was set for 6 March to give time for the units involved in (the Battle of Sidi Bou Zid) to replace casualties and re-organise. Messe planned to encircle the British troops between the Mareth Line and Medenine with the DAK Group ( Hans Cramer) formed from the three panzer divisions, Reconnaissance units 3 and 33, a battalion of the 164th Light Division, a parachute battalion, seven field artillery batteries and two anti-aircraft battalions and Column Bari ( Theodor von Sponeck) a battlegroup with two battalions of Panzergrenadier Regiment 200, two battalions of Panzergrenadier Regiment 361, the and the battle groups with two battalions each, a battery of German field guns and several , seven Italian field batteries and part of three anti-aircraft batteries; both columns had attached anti-tank and engineer units.
Axis plan
The DAK was to capture a line from Hir en Nraa to Ksar Rebounten and then circle north or north-east, the 10th Panzer Division advancing from the Hallouf valley to capture Metameur. The 21st Panzer Division was to emerge from the south end of Djebel Tebaga and attack towards Hir Ksar Koutine. The 15th Panzer Division was to move from Djebel er Remtsia towards Hir en Nraa followed by its infantry and the Reconnaissance units were to cut the Foum Tatahouine–Medenine road to prevent the movement of British reinforcements. Column Bari was to make a frontal attack at Zemlet el Lebene with Battle Group on the right flank, Panzer Grenadier Regiment 200 in the centre and Battle Group on the left. On 5 March, the and were to bomb Allied airfields and cover the assembly of the ground force and on 6 March were to attack British artillery positions east of Zemlet el Lebene, close the forward Allied airfields, provide fighter escorts for the ground attack and reconnoitre from Tatahouine to Ben Gardane.
British preparations
Long before the Eighth Army reached the port of Tripoli, thought had been given to an attack on the Mareth Line and the LRDG had been sent to survey the land south of the Matmata Hills. Despite maps and reports indicating that the ground was impossible for tanks and lorries, the LRDG found a route inland southwards and around the hills to the Tebaga Gap, between the Chott el Fejaj salt marsh and the hills. The 7th Armoured Division (Major-General George Erskine) had probed forward from Tripoli, while the 51st (Highland) Division (Major-General Douglas Wimberley) and the 2nd New Zealand Division (Major-General Bernard Freyberg) rested at the port. Winter rains turned the ground into a swamp, until a short lull beginning on 15 February, when the 7th Armoured and 51st (Highland) divisions moved forward and captured airfields at Medenine on 17 February. The next day the Free French Flying Column and the 1st Infantry Battalion Marine and Pacific arrived with General Philippe Leclerc, after a march across the Sand Sea from Lake Chad, to join the Eighth Army. XXX Corps (Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese) brought the 2nd New Zealand Division forward from Tripoli, which had the 8th Armoured Brigade and the 201st Guards Brigade under command.
The Allied code breakers of the Government Code and Cipher School at Bletchley Park in England, read Axis Enigma codes and on 25 February, warned Montgomery that Rommel had ordered the termination of the Battle of Kasserine Pass (19–24 February). On 28 February, they decrypted orders from Rommel for a reconnaissance to be conducted by the 1st Italian Army, preparatory to an attack on the Eighth Army by 4 March and a fuel return on 1 March showed that the Axis forces had sufficient for a three-day operation. On 26 February, the Eighth Army had only about one division at Medenine, most of its tanks were with X Corps (Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks) at Benghazi, away and an attack on the Mareth Line could not be ready before 20 March. Montgomery thought that XXX Corps at Medenine would not be able to withstand an attack before 7 March but over three days and nights, reinforcements were rushed forward and by 4 March, guns and guns had been moved up. The DAF had also increased the number of aircraft in the area to double that of the Axis air forces. At on 6 March, Allied code breakers sent notice to Montgomery of the thrust line of the attack and that it was to begin at
Battle
6 March
It was foggy when the Axis bombardment of the British forward positions began at , and for ninety minutes tanks, guns and other vehicles emerged from the heights between Toujane and Kreddache. Tanks of the 15th Panzer Division moved along the Toujane–Medenine road and then turned north against the positions of the 7th Armoured Division and were engaged by the anti-tank guns of the 131st Infantry Brigade and the 2nd Battalion Scots Guards. On the 2nd New Zealand Division front, the 164th Light Division was engaged by Bren carriers of the 21st NZ Battalion, which met seven vehicles carrying infantry and anti-tank guns at close range in the fog. The New Zealanders inflicted many casualties, for the loss of two casualties and a carrier. Small parties of Axis infantry probed the front and as the fog dispersed, artillery was seen moving up. The British artillery did not reply, being under orders to wait until the attackers were in range of the maximum number of guns; the anti-tank guns were only to commence firing at short range. The 5th Field Regiment Royal Artillery (RA) did not begin to fire until Axis tanks were engaged by the forward six-pounders and then bombarded infantry and lorries following the tanks, isolating them.
At about tanks were reported to be converging on Tadjera Kbir (Point 270) and the 28th NZ Battalion reported ten tanks and thirty trucks moving up the wadi to its right. The tanks reached a dummy minefield and then diverted towards rising ground, as had been intended. Two 6-pounder anti-tank guns from the 73rd Anti-Tank Regiment RA opened fire and knocked out four Panzer III Specials at and the mortars of the 28th NZ Battalion knocked out a fifth tank. When the crews alighted, mortars, machine-guns and artillery joined in. The attackers were taken by surprise and disorganised but then spotted the anti-tank guns and returned fire. A 6-pounder was damaged and two men wounded but the rest kept firing until the other weapons commenced fire and the surviving tanks retired. Fifteen prisoners from the 10th Panzer Division, including the tank company commander, were taken.
Just after 21st Battalion mortar fire dispersed a group of infantry dismounting from vehicles and by about the remaining infantry withdrew and dug in to the rear. The British artillery fired everywhere, especially on areas registered beforehand, as soon as Axis troops or vehicles moved into them. The leading tanks of the 21st Panzer Division crossed a skyline and were engaged, observers of the 201st Guards Brigade reporting that they "wandered rather vaguely". The 2nd New Zealand Division was not attacked again during the morning but much disorganised movement of tanks and transport was seen. It was realised that the main Axis effort was against Tadjera Kbir and further north. On the left flank, Reconnaissance units 3 and 33 and the Headquarters with nine tanks, worked round to the Foum Tatahouine–Medenine road against the Free French Flying Column, which repulsed attacks along the road from a point south of Medenine, losing during the day.
In the afternoon, Axis infantry joined in the attacks and from about were dispersed by the 2nd New Zealand Division artillery. At about with tank support advanced west of Point 270 and were devastated by the 2nd New Zealand Division artillery, the 5th Army Group Royal Artillery field and medium regiments and the heavy anti-aircraft guns on a landing ground nearby. A troop of captured guns with Royal Artillery crews operated as anti-aircraft guns. On the 51st Highland Division and 7th Armoured Division fronts, the Axis attacks were more determined but had little success and Tadjera Kbir was never threatened. At tanks and infantry were engaged by the New Zealand field artillery, after which there were no more attacks on the New Zealand front. At about Rommel accepted a suggestion from Messe to end the attack, since it could not be continued without risking losses which would compromise the defence of the Mareth Line.
Sorties by and fighter-bombers and fighters were made during the day but had little effect as the DAF controlled the air above the battlefield. Two New Zealanders were killed and two wounded in a raid over the 4th Field Ambulance and Bf 109 was shot down by the 26th Battalion with a captured Breda machine-gun. As dusk fell, the attackers withdrew, a detachment of the King's Royal Rifle Corps and other units at Haddada having remained undisturbed, despite being isolated when the FFF Column on the right was forced back, during an Axis outflanking move. During the night of XXX Corps patrols went out to find out if the attack would resume on 7 March, despite the Axis tank casualties, which as dark fell on 6 March, were already known to be another attack unlikely. On the New Zealand Division front, vigilance was maintained in case of an outflanking move south of the defensive line and after dark the five tanks knocked out on the 28th Battalion front were demolished, along with the others disabled along the XXX Corps front. Some tanks of the Staffordshire Yeomanry were moved forward slightly in the New Zealand area but the night was quiet except for British artillery harassing fire until
Aftermath
Analysis
In 1966, Ian Playfair, the British official historian, wrote that during the attack, the XXX Corps artillery fired about and that the had made a maximum effort, attacking DAF airfields and attempting close support of the 1st Italian Army, which failed against British anti-aircraft fire and the DAF, only tactical reconnaissance sorties having much success. In 1978, Matthew Cooper wrote that had the Axis attacked the previous week, it might have found the Eighth Army unprepared, having attacked at short notice to divert attention from the British First Army during . The rapid preparations made to receive the Axis attack, enabled the Eighth Army easily to defeat the offensive and Rommel wrote that the failure to delay the British attack on the Mareth Line, caused "a great gloom" and that for the Axis to remain in Africa was suicide.
Casualties
In 1943, Montgomery made a diary note that the Eighth Army had lost and in 1957, G. F. Howe, the US official historian, recorded German losses of and and a minimum of tanks were lost. The Germans claimed tanks, cars, vehicles, and anti-aircraft guns and In 1966, Ian Playfair, the British official historian, called the Eighth Army losses trifling and recorded mostly German and tanks.
Subsequent operations
At dawn on 7 March, some groups of Axis transport were seen moving to the north and quickly drew out of range as they were engaged by artillery. There were rearguard actions from as the Germans withdrew to the Mareth Line and Gabès but British attempts at pursuit were frustrated by the weather and the speed of the Axis withdrawal. On 10 March, some heights were still occupied and there was sporadic long-range artillery fire; Rommel left Africa the same day for the last time, leaving Arnim in command. The defeat had been so comprehensive that it caused the Germans to question their security and Montgomery was rebuked for not taking greater steps to hide the source of his information.
On 6 March, Montgomery wrote to General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (the professional head of the British Army):
Allied plans for the attack on the Mareth Line continued virtually undisturbed. On 17 March, the II US Corps began Operation Wop (sic), an attack towards Gafsa, the Eighth Army began the preliminary Operation Walk and Operation Canter and then began Operation Pugilist, the Battle of the Mareth Line on 19 March.
See also
List of British military equipment of World War II
List of French military equipment of World War II
List of German military equipment of World War II
List of Italian Army equipment in World War II
North African campaign timeline
List of World War II battles
Notes
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
Queen's in the Middle East, Medenine
Conflicts in 1943
1943 in Tunisia
Tunisian campaign
Battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War II involving New Zealand
Battles of World War II involving France
Battles of World War II involving Italy
Battles of World War II involving Germany
March 1943 events |
4544545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20Union%20Line | City Union Line | The City of Glasgow Union Railway - City Union Line, also known as the Tron Line, was a railway company founded in Glasgow, Scotland, in 1864 to build a line connecting the railway systems north and south of the River Clyde, and to build a central passenger terminus and a general goods depot for the city. The through line, running from south-west to north-east across the city, opened in 1870–71, and the passenger terminal was St Enoch railway station, opened in 1876. The railway bridge across the Clyde was the first in the city.
The northern section of the line passed to the North British Railway company (NBR) and became part of its suburban network. St Enoch became the passenger terminus for the Glasgow and South Western Railway, but other companies made little use of it. However, the general goods terminal at College became important, and goods and mineral traffic were the dominant traffic of the through route. The south-western section of the line was quadrupled, and the platform accommodation was doubled, in the last years of the nineteenth century.
In the 1960s, rationalisation of railway facilities was the theme, and all the south-facing passenger services were concentrated at Glasgow Central station. St Enoch closed on 27 June 1966 and most of the site is now occupied by the St Enoch Centre shopping mall. College goods also succumbed and was closed.
The through route remained open for occasional freight services and for empty passenger stock movements across the city. The Bellgrove section that passed to the NBR remains in intensive passenger use, but the elevated section across the city is the iconic part of the line, with large span lattice bridges over Saltmarket, London Road and Gallowgate, which is currently only used for non-passenger movements of trains.
A railway development scheme being considered may lead to renewed use of the line as a cross-city passenger link.
History
Plans
The Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway (GPK&AR) and its rival, the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway, received their authorising Acts of Parliament on 15 July 1837. Although they hoped for separate lines, they were obliged to build their line as far as Paisley jointly; their lines diverged west of that point. Their Glasgow terminus was Bridge Street, on the south bank of the River Clyde. At first this was adequate but as traffic developed the arrangement became unsatisfactory. The GPK&AR absorbed another railway and was renamed the Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR), and was running trains to a range of destinations in its area of influence.
Suggestions had been made for some years to connect the lines south and north of the Clyde: in 1846 a Parliamentary Select Committee produced a report of 1,470 pages on the subject, but in the face of opposition from vested interests including those who received the tolls on the existing road bridges, nothing was done.
Other unsuccessful proposals followed, but in 1863 a prospectus for a City of Glasgow Union Railway was published: it would "unite the whole of the Railways now terminating North and South of the River Clyde", and provide a "general Central Station" (at St Enoch Square) for passengers and a separate "General Goods Station" on lands to be vacated by the University of Glasgow: "College Goods station". The promoters were contractors, hoping to generate construction work for themselves, and they wished to involve all the railways in the scheme, taking a substantial block of shares themselves. The G&SWR and the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway (E&GR) were favourable towards such a scheme as the trade in goods between their areas of influence was considerable, and the available through route was circuitous. The other major player was the Caledonian Railway (CR) which had terminals north and south of the Clyde; it was developing its Buchanan Street station and it had adequate goods facilities, but it was not opposed to the idea of a link and a common passenger terminal.
The line would be over long, from West Street to Sighthill, where the E&GR had a goods yard; it would cost £650,000 to build. The original "St Enoch's Square Central Station" was designed by John Fowler and J F Blair. It was a through station: a general plan shows an eight platform station on the site actually used; there are three short bay platforms, a "Northern Division" of two platform faces, and a southern division with four tracks extending westwards across Dixon Street. There is no indication where the tracks are destined; in earlier years there had been considerable interest in providing rail access to the Broomielaw quays on the north bank of the Clyde, and this may be the purpose. In 1869-1870 when the Queen's Dock was being planned at Stobcross, the G&SWR applied for running powers there, intending to build a line west from Dunlop Street, bridging St Enoch Square and running parallel and close to the north bank of the Clyde. The scheme would have been enormously disruptive and expensive, and the application was refused.
The capital requirement soon escalated to £900,000, and the G&SWR and the E&GR were supportive, but the CR was not greatly interested (and may have taken offence at the manner of the approach) and opposed the scheme. Nonetheless, it received the Royal Assent on 29 July 1864. In early 1865 it was agreed that the G&SWR and the E&GR would between them take the whole of the stock of the new company, releasing the prospective contractors from that obligation. On 1 August 1865 the E&GR was taken over by the larger, but more remote, North British Railway (NBR).
The scheme for the general passenger station was now modified, as it emerged that the NBR did not contemplate making much use of it, although hopes lingered that the Caledonian would have a change of heart and join in the project. For the time being a smaller station at Dunlop Street was considered to suffice. The NBR was experiencing financial difficulties. Access for mineral traffic to the General Terminus goods station on the south bank of the Clyde was a significant consideration in supporting the CGUR, but the huge expenditure on a grand terminal passenger station was too much for the NBR board.
Opening
Work progressed and in September 1870 the City of Glasgow Union line opened to goods traffic only. It opened for full passenger use between Shields Road and Dunlop Street on 12 December 1870; St Enoch station was not ready and the Dunlop Street station was a temporary terminus. The Dunlop Street station had cost £200,000.
At Shields Road there was a station on the Union line and also on the Glasgow and Paisley Joint line, where passengers could change for Paisley, Ayr and Greenock.
The construction had cost about £1 million, due chiefly to escalating land acquisition costs. The new line incorporated the first railway bridge over the Clyde in the city; but the St Enoch Square terminus had not been started yet.
On 1 June 1871 the service was extended to Bellgrove, with an intermediate station at Gallowgate. Trains towards Bellgrove worked into Dunlop Street terminus, and then were propelled back to Clyde Junction to resume their onward journey. At this time the NBR was extending westwards from Coatbridge via Shettleston and opened the line to College passenger station on 1 February 1871. This brought extra flows of Monklands coal to the CGUR, destined for the Clyde at General Terminus. By October 1872 the College Goods station was in operation, though with costs escalating, it was long before it was completed.
The line through to Sighthill Junction was opened to goods traffic on 18 August 1875, although it was not until 1 January 1881 that passenger services reached Alexandra Parade, and 1 January 1887 to Springburn, beyond Sighthill Junction.
Over 1300 houses had been demolished in the construction, and by 1874 £2,200,000 had been expended.
St Enoch station opened at last
Negotiations between the G&SWR and the English Midland Railway for mutual co-operation or merger had blown hot and cold. Finally on 1 May 1876 the first through trains ran from St Enoch to St Pancras station, London, over the two lines. Four trains ran daily, with Pullman drawing room cars, and sleeping cars on a night service. In fact the station was far from complete: it was not until the end of 1877 that the station was ready, with the southwards connection opening on 1 November.
There were six platforms beneath the arch iron and glass roof, which was in length, high and with a clear span of . The cost had risen to £1,275,000. There were 43 trains each way, six days a week. Through coaches from Edinburgh to Ayr were operated in association with the North British Railway; they were detached from trains to Queen Street at Bellgrove, and worked forward to Clyde Junction, where they were attached to trains starting from St Enoch.
The station was the first public area in Scotland to be lit by electricity, although 464 gas jet lamps were provided as an emergency standby. Nonetheless, Johnston calls it "by far the gloomiest of the Glasgow quartet [of main line terminals]".
As late as July 1876 the Caledonian Railway renewed an approach concerning use of St Enoch by their trains; they were rebuffed by the G&SWR, who said that a minimum payment of £500,000 would be necessary to permit the access.
On 3 July 1879 the St Enoch station hotel opened: it was the largest in Scotland.
St Enoch station had been built under a separate financial account; on 29 June 1883 that charge was incorporated into the G&SWR general account; it had cost £1,672,474. The station and the immediate approach lines were transferred to the G&SWR from that date.
From July 1883 there were through services from Greenock, Ayr and Ardrossan to Edinburgh; complicated movements were necessary at St Enoch to achieve a through service.
Quadrupling, and division
In 1894, discussions took place about capacity on the Union Line. The North British Railway had opened its Bridgeton terminus, on a branch from High Street, and a short spur was proposed to enable eastbound trains on the Union Line to run to Bridgeton.
Quadrupling of the section of the Union Line between Clyde Junction and Port Eglinton Junction was proposed, responding to the increasing density of traffic: the line was said to be carrying 9 million passengers a year, and a million tons of goods and minerals. The section east of College West Junction fell logically to the North British, and it was proposed to divide the company, the NBR taking 40% of the share capital. The G&SWR was to take over the whole of the railway south and west of the junction.
The Act authorising this split was passed on 7 August 1896, in the face of opposition from the City Council of Glasgow, who calculated that it would lose rates income from the split.
On 18 August 1898 an Act for the extension of St Enoch station was passed. This involved a second arch roof and six further platforms; they were brought into use progressively from 1901. The station was completed in 1904, at a cost of £2,500,000.
Subsequent history
With the separation of the north-eastern section, the part of the original Union Railway north-east of St Enoch became simply a part of the North British Railway system.
In the 1960s, consideration was being given to rationalisation of railway facilities in the city: at the time there were four major termini. It was decided to concentrate the services of the former G&SWR and the Caledonian Railway on Glasgow Central station, and St Enoch station was closed to passengers on 27 June 1966. Parcels trains continued to use the station until 5 June 1967. For some time the extensive site in the city centre lay almost abandoned to pigeons and car parking, but a commercial shopping development was built on the site: the St Enoch Centre. College Goods station closed with the decline of wagonload freight.
The through route from Shields Junction to Bellgrove remained in use for a light freight service, and to transfer empty coaching stock across the city. The large span lattice girder bridges over Saltmarket, London Road and Gallowgate, and the elevated viaduct sections there and near Cumberland Street are reminders of an ambitious scheme to connect the north and south railway networks in the city.
That connection may once again be resumed: a development scheme is being planned that may lead to use of the line as a cross-city passenger link.
Description of the route
Note: junction names and exact junction locations changed somewhat over time as new lines made connections and later, signalling was concentrated.
Main section south
The main section of the CGUR is still in existence; it runs from Shields Junction on the Paisley to Glasgow line, and runs to College East Junction (later High Street Junction) between High Street and Bellgrove on the former NBR Coatbridge line. From Shields Jn the line climbs on viaduct and swings north to cross the Clyde by the Union Railway Bridge, then crossing Bridgegate, London Road and Gallowgate by long-span lattice bridges.
This section remains open for freight and empty coaching stock movements.
In 1885 the Paisley Canal Line was opened, and the G&SWR built a westward extension of the CGUR to enable its own trains to run from the Canal Line to St Enoch without using the Glasgow and Paisley Joint Line. At this period the configuration at Shields Road was exceedingly complex. The thoroughfare ran north to south on a bridge; there were three surface routes, each having a passenger station. From north to south
the Joint Line; the station was Pollokshields;
the CGUR, (which has diverged, for eastbound trains, from the Joint Line at Pollok Junction); the station was Shields Road; and
the G&SWR Canal Line (which will join the CGUR at Eglinton Street Junction); the station was Shields.
The separate station designations persisted until 1925.
In addition there were three lower level lines, crossing north-west to south-east under the surface lines at the road bridge. These were
a single line from Scotland Street Junction (i.e. General Terminus goods) to the CGUR;
double track Caledonian Railway line from Scotland Street Junction to Larkhall Junction (towards Rutherglen);
a converging double junction, of routes from Scotland Street and from Kinning Park goods station, leading to General Terminus Junction, whence onward to Larkhall Junction or Strathbungo Junction (for the Barrhead line);
A double track from Maxwell Junction to General Terminus Junction, enabling through running from Paisley to either Rutherglen or Barrhead.
In 1893 the G&SWR opened a spur line from St Johns Junction, a short distance north of Gallowgate station, to Gallowgate Central Junction on the NBR Bridgeton line. This enabled a through service to be run from Greenock (Princes Pier) to Bridgeton via St Enoch.
St Enoch section
The St Enoch section formed a triangle of lines west of the main section, with Clyde Junction at the southern apex and Saltmarket Junction at the north-eastern apex. It was almost all on viaduct.
This section is closed.
Main section north
After a short section in which CGUR trains used the NBR line, the CGUR reappears, swinging northwards at the east end of Bellgrove and climbing in retaining-wall cutting to Alexandra Parade and then in more open country crossing the original Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway line to Barnhill and Sighthill Junction. Springburn station lies just beyond Sighthill Junction, but the CGUR never built that far; G&SWR trains however operated a service from St Enoch station to Springburn.
This section remains open for passenger services between Queen Street Low Level and Springburn.
Langside Junction section
The short Langside Junction section struck southwards from Gorbals Junction past the site of the former South Side station to Langside Junction, giving G&SWR trains access to the Glasgow Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint Line.
This section is closed.
Parkhead Branch
Enabling eastbound running from Cowlairs towards Shettleston, this branch ran from Haghill Junction (near Alexandra Parade) to Parkhead Junction.
This section is closed.
Stations and locations
Locations in italics are not passenger stations.
Main section south
Shields Junction;
Shields Road; combined with adjacent stations on 1 April 1925; closed 14 February 1966;
Eglinton Street; opened 1 October 1900; renamed Cumberland Street 2 June 1924; closed 14 February 1966;
Eglinton Street Junction;
Main Street, Gorbals; opened 19 December 1870; closed 30 September 1900;
Clyde Junction;
Saltmarket Junction;
Gallowgate; opened 19 December 1870; closed except for special purposes 1 October 1902; finally closed 1934;
St Johns Junction; divergence for Bridgeton;
College East Junction.
St Enoch section
Southern arm:
Clyde Junction;
Glasgow Dunlop Street; opened 12 December 1870; closed 17 October 1876;
Glasgow St Enoch; opened 17 October 1876; closed 27 June 1966.
Northern arm:
St Enoch station; see above;
Saltmarket Junction.
Main section north
Bellgrove Junction;
Duke Street;
Haghill Junction;
Alexandra Park; opened 1 July 1881; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 2 June 1919; renamed Alexandra Parade 9 July 1923;
Blochairn; opened 1883; renamed Garngad 1885; closed 1 March 1910.
Barnhill; opened 13 December 1886; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 1 February 1919; renamed Barnhill 8 June 1953;
Sighthill Junction.
Langside Junction section
Eglinton Street Junction;
Gorbals; opened 1 September 1877; closed 1 June 1928;
Langside Junction; junction with line to Kilmarnock.
Parkhead branch
Haghill Junction;
Parkhead Junction.
The Clyde Bridge
The CGUR built the first railway bridge over the River Clyde in the City of Glasgow, opened in 1870. It consisted of twin-lattice parallel iron girders in seven spans; the engineers were John Fowler and J F Blair, and the contractor was Thomas Brassey & co. Deep foundations to the piers required—up to —and cylinder caissons were lowered to firm rock by the use of a grab type excavator working within; the excavated face was kept under water.
In 1898 the bridge was reconstructed and widened for quadruple track; compressed air excavation for diameter steel piers were used. The structure consists of two variable depth continuous girders. The visible spandrel braced arches are not primary structural members. There is a decorative cast-iron cornice and parapet, and towers and half turrets in red sandstone. The work cost £67,970. It is a listed building, category B.
Connections to other lines
Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway at Sighthill Junction
Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway at Sighthill Junction
Coatbridge Branch of the North British Railway at Haghill Junction and Bellgrove
Glasgow City and District Railway at High Street West Junction
Glasgow, Barrhead and Neilston Direct Railway at Gorbals Junction
Paisley Canal Line, General Terminus and Glasgow Harbour Railway and Glasgow and Paisley Joint Railway at Shields Junction
References
Notes
Further reading
Railscot on City Union Line
Glasgow and South Western Railway
North British Railway
Pre-grouping British railway companies
Early Scottish railway companies
Transport in Glasgow
Railway companies established in 1864
Railway lines opened in 1870
Standard gauge railways in Scotland |
4544706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20of%20London%20Yeomanry%20%28Rough%20Riders%29 | City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders) | The City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders) was a yeomanry regiment of the British Territorial Army, formed in 1901 from veterans of the Second Boer War. In the First World War it served dismounted in the Gallipoli Campaign but reverted to the mounted role in the Senussi campaign, at Salonika and in Palestine. It ended the war as a machine gun unit on the Western Front. In the interwar years it was reduced to a battery in a composite Royal Horse Artillery unit in London, but in the period of rearmament before the Second World War it was expanded into a full regiment of light anti-aircraft artillery. It served in this role during The Blitz and later in the Tunisian and Italian campaigns. Postwar it became an armoured regiment. It amalgamated with the Inns of Court Regiment to form the Inns of Court & City Yeomanry in 1961. The lineage is maintained by 68 (Inns of Court & City Yeomanry) Signal Squadron, part of 71 (Yeomanry) Signal Regiment.
Imperial Yeomanry
Following a string of defeats during Black Week in early December 1899, the British government realised that it would need additional troops to help the Regular army fight the Second Boer War. On 13 December, the decision to allow volunteer forces to serve in the field was made, and a Royal Warrant was issued on 24 December. This officially created the Imperial Yeomanry (IY). The force was organised as county service companies of approximately 115 men signed up for one year, and volunteers from existing Yeomanry Cavalry regiments and civilians (usually middle and upper class) quickly filled the new force, which was equipped to operate as Mounted infantry.
The 20th (Rough Riders) Battalion, IY, was raised on 17 March 1900 in the City of London by the Earl of Lathom as a corps specially suited to combating the Boers' 'Rough Rider' irregular cavalry tactics (the title referenced Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders who served in the Spanish–American War of 1898). The battalion consisted of 72nd, 76th, 78th and 79th (Rough Rider) Companies, IY, under the command of Lt-Col Richard Colvin, of the Essex Troop, Loyal Suffolk Hussars, with Capt Viscount Maitland (formerly of the Scots Guards) as adjutant. It embarked in April after only one month's training.
The battalion landed in South Africa on 3 May, where the companies were posted to separate formations during the guerrilla war phase of the campaign. For example, at the end of July the 72nd and 79th Companies of 'The Roughs' joined Col Bryan Mahon's force at Pretoria alongside the 20th (Fife and Forfar Light Horse) Company and a composite squadron formed from the depleted 7th Battalion, IY (25th (West Somerset), 26th (Dorset), 27th (Devon), 48th (North Somerset) and 69th (Sussex) Companies) and saw action at Olifant's Nek in August during the pursuit of Christiaan de Wet. 'The Roughs' were popular among their fellow yeomen because of the large quantities of food and comforts they received from family and friends in the city. In September 1900 72nd Company was serving alongside the composite squadron in a column under Maj-Gen R.A.P. Clements pursuing Koos de la Rey. In October the company was ordered back to Pretoria.
During the campaign the 20th (Rough Riders) Battalion lost three officers and 27 other ranks killed or died, and 18 seriously wounded, and its members received a number of decorations, including Lt-Col Colvin who was Mentioned in dispatches and awarded a Companionship of the Bath (CB).
The First Contingent of the Imperial Yeomanry completed their year's term of service in 1901 but enough of the Rough Riders signed on for a second term for two companies (76th and 78th) of the battalion to continue in service. Meanwhile, the 22nd (Rough Riders) Battalion, IY, had been raised in London on 27 March 1901 for the Second Contingent of the IY, consisting of 84th, 85th, 86th and 87th (Rough Riders) Companies. The 2nd Rough Riders sailed from Southampton aboard the German on 31 March under the command of Lt-Col Stewart, with Maj Viscount Dungarvan (lieutenant-colonel of the North Somerset Yeomanry) as his second-in-command. On arrival in South Africa the battalion was joined by 76th and 78th Companies from the First Contingent. The battalion was disbanded at the end of the war in 1902.
The Imperial Yeomanry concept was considered a success: before the war ended the existing Yeomanry regiments at home were converted into Imperial Yeomanry, and some of the war-raised battalions were established as permanent regiments. The Rough Riders were established on 27 July 1901 as 1st County of London Imperial Yeomanry (Rough Riders) under the command of Viscount Maitland, promoted to lieutenant-colonel, while Lt-Col Colvin was invited to raise and command a separate new regiment of Essex Imperial Yeomanry. In 1902 the Lord Mayor of London and other influential City people successfully petitioned for the unit's name to be changed to City of London Imperial Yeomanry (Rough Riders). Regimental Headquarters (RHQ) was established at the London Guildhall, later transferring to Finsbury Square. The establishment of a regiment of the IY was four squadrons and a machine gun section, totalling 596 men. The new regiment was granted the Battle honour South Africa 1900–02 in view of the service of its predecessor units.
Territorial Force
Under the Haldane Reforms of 1908, the Imperial Yeomanry was subsumed into the new Territorial Force (TF) and the regiments dropped the 'Imperial' part of their titles.
The regiment formed part of the London Mounted Brigade of the TF. The regiment also provided the personnel for the London Mounted Brigade Signal Section.
First World War
Mobilisation
On the outbreak of war on 4 August 1914 the regiment mobilised at Finsbury Square under the command of Lt-Col O.E. Boulton, TD. In accordance with the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 (7 Edw. 7, c.9) which brought it into being, the TF was intended to be a home defence force for service during wartime and members could not be compelled to serve outside the country. However, the units were invited to volunteer for Imperial Service on 10 August and most did so. TF units were therefore split in August and September 1914 into 1st Line units for overseas service and 2nd Line reserve units composed of recruits under training and those unable or unwilling to serve overseas. In 1915 the 2nd Line were prepared for active service (though not all went overseas) and 3rd Line units were formed to provide trained replacements for the 1st and 2nd Line, while the home service-only men were transferred to provisional brigades for home defence.
1/1st City of London Yeomanry
The 1st Line regiment concentrated with the London Mounted Brigade at its war station of Cavalry Barracks, Hounslow. It joined 2nd Mounted Division on 2 September at Streatley, Berkshire, where the brigades dispersed for training and because of lack of water supplies. The division moved to East Anglia in November 1914, with the London Mtd Bde stationed round North Walsham. Early in March 1915 the division was warned to prepare for overseas service.
Gallipoli
On 11 April 1915, the regiment embarked on the Scotia and departed from Avonmouth Docks for the Mediterranean. It arrived off Cape Helles on 28 April, three days after the Allied landing had begun the Gallipoli Campaign, and it stood by to land, watching the naval bombardment and shrapnel bursting. However, on 1 May it departed again for Egypt, arriving at Alexandria on 6 May, where it rejoined the 2nd Mounted Division. It was posted to the Suez Canal Defences (near Ismaïlia) by the middle of May and its parent brigade was designated 4th (London) Mounted Brigade. The division was dismounted in August 1915 for service at Gallipoli. Each regiment left a squadron headquarters and two troops (about 100 officers and men) in Egypt to look after the horses.
The dismounted regiment embarked at Alexandria aboard the Caledonia on 14 August and sailed for Lemnos where it transshipped to HMS Doris and continued to Suvla Bay where a fresh landing on the Gallipoli peninsula was under way. The regiment landed on the morning of 18 August and went into reserve positions at Karakol Dagh. It moved to 'C' Beach, Lala Baba, on 20 August. On 21 August it advanced to Chocolate Hill under heavy fire and took part in the attack on the Turkish positions on Hill 112 (the Battle of Scimitar Hill). The Yeomanry brigades advancing in squadron columns 'presented such a target as artillerymen dream of' and suffered heavy casualties as they 'stumbled blindly forward into battle'. The 1/1st CoLY reached Green Hill and occupied the trenches there, finding them 'chock full of dead and dying' from the earlier attack by 86th Brigade. It was ordered to retire during the night and the survivors were back at Lala Baba by 04.30.
Due to the losses at Hill 112 and from battle wastage during August 1915, the 2nd Mounted Division had to be reorganised. On 4 September 1915, the regiments of 4th (London) Mtd Bde combined to form '4th London Regiment' in 2nd Composite Mounted Brigade. The combined regiment rotated between the firing line and the reserve trenches during September and October, but its strength continued to decline from battle casualties and sickness. By mid-October the 2nd Composite Mtd Bde was too weak to carry out its duties. The survivors of 1/1st CoLY embarked in the Ermine for Mudros on 2 November and returned to Egypt in December where it was reformed and remounted.
Egypt
The composite regiment was immediately engaged with the Western Frontier Force (WFF) in the minor Senussi campaign. The WFF made a surprise night attack on the Senussi force in the 'Affair of the Wadi Majid' on 25 December 1915, when two troops of Rough Riders were in the mounted Left Column that made a wide outflanking move. Although the Senussis broke and ran from the direct attack, communication difficulties meant that the mounted column was too late to cut them off.
The 2nd Mounted Division was broken up early in 1916 and 4th (London) Mtd Bde with 1/1st CoLY left on 18 January 1916 for Abbassia to serve once again in the Canal Defences. In March 1916, the brigade was redesignated as 8th Mounted Brigade. In October the regiment took part in a raid from the Canal defences upon a Turkish post at Bir el Maghara in the Sinai Desert. The force marched out on the evening of 13 October, and after two night marches it attacked on the morning of 15 October and drove the Turks from their advanced position. After a two-hour engagement, the British commander decided that taking the second position would incur unacceptable losses, and withdrew to the Canal.
Salonika
In November 1916 the regiment was shipped via Salonika to the Macedonian front where it served with 8th Mtd Bde as GHQ Troops in the British Salonika Army (BSA). During 1917 the BSA made one serious attack (the First Battle of Doiran in April–May), otherwise the Macedonian front was relatively quiet. The Allied commanders had been warned that if they made no progress they would have to release troops to other fronts. The failure of the Doiran attack was followed by the move of several British formations, including 8th Mtd Bde, from the BSA to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF), which was about to restart its own offensive into Palestine.
Palestine
The Rough Riders arrived back in Egypt from Salonika with 8th Mtd Bde on 8 June 1917. They moved up into Palestine and joined the newly formed Yeomanry Mounted Division on 21 July 1917 at El Fuqari. The EEF was preparing for an attack at Gaza (the Third Battle of Gaza) to be launched on 31 October. On the night of 26 October the 8th Mtd Bde took over a long outpost line with two regiments, while 1/1st CoLY was in reserve. At 04.10 the following morning the outposts came under heavy attack and a troop of the Middlesex Yeomanry was almost cut off. A squadron of the CoLY under Maj L.P. Stedall rode up in support, reaching a hummock from the outpost before it was itself pinned down, dismounted, behind this slight cover. However, its presence prevented the Middlesex from being completely surrounded, and the outpost held out all day until infantry arrived to drive off the enemy late in the afternoon. Another Middlesex outpost was less fortunate and was wiped out after seven hours' resistance. Major Stedall was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) for leading his men galloping over of open country under heavy rifle and machine gun fire despite being wounded twice.
The EEF began its advance to contact on 28/29 October, the columns moving mainly by night, and the concentration was complete on 30 October. During the early days of the fighting (the Battle of Beersheba) the Yeomanry Mtd Division remained in reserve holding an observation line until 5 November when it was moved to fill a gap on the flank of the formations attacking the Sheria position. On 7 November it held the captured positions in the hills north of Beersheba while the rest of the Desert Mounted Corps (DMC) was launched through the Turks' broken centre. On 8 November the fresh Yeomanry were ordered to rejoin the tiring DMC as quickly as possible and take up the pursuit. The division carried out a long march from water point to water point as it moved towards the coast, 8th Mtd Bde arriving at Majdal on the evening of 11 November. Here the division took up positions to support the Australian Mounted Division against a Turkish counter-attack.
On 13 November the Yeomanry Mtd Division attacked Yibna, followed through to El Maghar and then occupied Junction Station (the Battle of Mughar Ridge), though 8th Mtd Bde only played a minor part. The advance continued into the Judaean Hills towards Jerusalem, 8th Mtd Bde struggling through the tough terrain and the divisional transport blocking the roads. On 21 November, while the infantry advanced to capture Nebi Samwil, 6th Mtd Bde attempted to capture Beitunye and to assist them the 1/1st CoLY began a dismounted attack up a narrow valley on their right. Then the 1/1st Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry got into difficulties on Zeitun Ridge, and three squadrons of the 1/1st CoLY and 1/3rd County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters) were sent up in succession to help. The official historian comments that 'the horses of practically two brigades were now massed below the hill. The Turks strove continually to reach this tempting target, but the sides of the ravine were too steep and deep for their shrapnel to do any harm'. Turkish reinforcements eventually drove the Bucks Yeomanry off the Beitunye, and 8th Mtd Bde covered the withdrawal to Beit Ur al-Fauqa that night
The Battle of Nebi Samwil continued until 24 November. The Yeomanry Mtd Division was in no condition to play much part: 8th Mtd Bde held Beit Ur al-Fauqa, with a squadron of 1/1st CoLY on the western edge of the Zeitun Ridge. The division's wounded, without tents, suffered terribly from the winter weather. On 27 November the Turks began a counter-attack to defend Jerusalem. The Yeomanry Mtd Division only had about 800 rifles in the line, with a Troop of 1/1st CoLY holding 'City Hill' about (a two-hour climb) in front of Et Tire. It was attacked at 14.00 by about 300 Turks supported by artillery, and was forced to fall back after being heavily shelled and losing its commander. A second troop was sent forward and temporarily reoccupied the hill, but was soon forced to withdraw to 'Signal Hill', half a mile further back. This position was reinforced by two squadrons of the Middlesex Yeomanry, who built stone sangars for defence. Next day the Turks continued their attacks, the 8th Mtd Bde holding its ground stoutly until its flank was exposed. The troop of 1/1st CoLY at Et Tire was almost surrounded, but managed to withdraw to Beit Duqqu along with the Middlesex from Signal Hill. Although the attacks were continued on 29 November, the Yeomanry began to be relieved by infantry. The Yeomanry Mtd Division was out of the line when Jerusalem was captured on 9 December; indeed, it was unable to move for lack of artillery, ammunition, food and water, and took no further part in the winter fighting.
In early 1918 the EEF was required to send reinforcements to the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) fighting on the Western Front. Many of these units were found by 'Indianising' British formations in the EEF, which released British units for France. In March 1918, the 1st Indian Cavalry Division was broken up in France: while the British units remained with the BEF, the Indian elements were sent to Egypt. This allowed the EEF to 'Indianise' the Yeomanry Mtd Division when the Indian Army units arrived in theatre.
France
The Rough Riders and the Sharpshooters left 8th Mtd Bde on 7 April ahead of its 'Indianisation' and were merged to form E Battalion of the Machine Gun Corps (MGC).
E Battalion, MGC, was posted to France, arriving on 1 June 1918. On 17 August 1918 it was renumbered as 103rd (City & 3rd County of London Yeomanry) Battalion, MGC. The battalion remained on the Western Front for the rest of the war. At the Armistice, it was serving as Army Troops with First Army.
103rd Battalion MGC was disbanded in 1919.
2/1st City of London Yeomanry
The 2nd Line regiment was formed in London in August 1914. In March 1915 it joined 2/1st London Mounted Brigade in 2/2nd Mounted Division at East Dereham in Norfolk. On 31 March 1916, the remaining Mounted Brigades were ordered to be numbered in a single sequence; the brigade was numbered as 12th (2/1st London) Mtd Bde and the division as 3rd Mounted Division.
In July 1916, the regiment was converted to a cyclist unit in 4th Cyclist Brigade, 1st Cyclist Division (the former 1st Mtd Division) and was stationed at North Walsham. In November 1916, the division was broken up and the regiment was merged with the 2/1st West Somerset Yeomanry to form 5th (West Somerset and City of London) Yeomanry Cyclist Regiment in 2nd Cyclist Brigade at Coltishall. In February 1917 it was replaced in 5th Yeomanry Cyclist Regiment by 2/1st Hampshire Yeomanry, resuming its identity as 2/1st City of London Yeomanry, and moving to 5th Cyclist Brigade in the new 1st Mounted Division (the 3rd Mtd Division renamed) at Littlebourne near Canterbury in Kent. By July 1917 the regiment was at Bridge (also near Canterbury) and on 4 September 1917, the division was renamed as The Cyclist Division. In January 1918 the regiment moved to Wingham and remained there, still in 5th Cyclist Bde, until the end of the war.
3/1st City of London Yeomanry
The 3rd Line regiment was formed in 1915 and in the summer it was affiliated to a Reserve Cavalry Regiment in Eastern Command. In the summer of 1916 it joined 6th Reserve Cavalry Regiment in Dublin. Early in 1917 it was absorbed into 1st Reserve Cavalry Regiment (Lancers) at The Curragh.
Interwar
Following the experience of the war, it was decided that only the fourteen most senior yeomanry regiments would be retained as horsed cavalry, with the rest being transferred to other roles. The TF was reformed on 7 February 1920 and on 16 February the CoLY was transferred to the Royal Artillery (RA) and amalgamated with the Honourable Artillery Company (HAC) to form C Battery in 11th (Honourable Artillery Company and City of London Yeomanry) Brigade of the Royal Horse Artillery (RHA). The TF was reconstituted as the Territorial Army in 1921 and C Bty was redesignated 1st Bty on 29 October that year, the HAC batteries retaining their traditional A and B. At first the HQ of 11th RHA was at the old CoLY drill hall at 39 Finsbury Square, but by 1930 brigade HQ and the HAC batteries were at Finsbury Barracks (next to the HAC at Armoury House), with 1st (CoLY) Bty a short distance away at 130 Bunhill Road. In August 1937 1st Bty dropped its number and became simply City of London Battery (The Roughriders).
11th (HAC & CoLY) Brigade formed part of the TA's 2nd Cavalry Division.
By the mid-1930s the army's requirement for light anti-aircraft (LAA) defence was being addressed, and the first TA LAA units were formed in 1938. Initially they were armed with Light machine guns (AALMGs), but the new Bofors 40 mm gun was on order. The senior TA LAA unit was formed at Bunhill Row on 29 September 1938 by splitting the CoLY Battery from 11th HAC and expanding it to full strength as 11th (City of London Yeomanry) (Rough Riders) LAA Brigade, RA, with 31, 32 and 33 LAA Btys. On 1 January 1939 it was redesignated as a regiment rather than a brigade, in line with the RA's modernisation of its terminology, and an additional 43 LAA Bty was formed within the regiment on 17 January.
Second World War
Mobilisation
The TA's AA units were mobilised on 23 September 1938 during the Munich Crisis, with units manning their emergency positions within 24 hours, even though many did not yet have their full complement of men or equipment. The emergency lasted three weeks, and they were stood down on 13 October. In February 1939 the existing AA defences came under the control of a new Anti-Aircraft Command. In June, as the international situation worsened, a partial mobilisation of the TA was begun in a process known as 'couverture', whereby each AA unit did a month's tour of duty in rotation to man selected AA sites. On 24 August, ahead of the declaration of war, Anti-Aircraft Command was fully mobilised at its war stations, with LAA units distributed to defend Vulnerable Points (VPs) such as factories and airfields.
11th (CoLY) LAA Regiment mobilised under the command of Lt-Col M.B.P. Stedall and immediately moved to its war stations at a variety of VPs across Middlesex, Essex and Kent, including Bentley Priory, RAF Fighter Command's HQ in Stanmore, Enfield Power Station, Tilbury Docks, the Thames Haven and Coryton oil refineries, Sheerness Dockyard and Canewdon radar station. The regiment formed part of a new 56th Light Anti-Aircraft Brigade that was forming in 6th Anti-Aircraft Division, which was responsible for defending South East England.
Phoney War
Before the end of the day on 24 August, regimental headquarters (RHQ) had been established at the King's Head Hotel at Stanford-le-Hope in Essex, where embodiment of TA soldiers and recruits and the attached women of the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) continued. General mobilisation was announced on 1 September and war was declared on 3 September. RHQ moved to the Collegiate School at Stanford-le-Hope on 10 September, and the regiment formally came under command of 56th LAA Brigade on 30 September. On 10 October the 1st Bedford Company, ATS, was attached to the regiment. There had been a number of false air raid alarms soon after the declaration of war, but from late November occasional Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft began passing over Stanford-le-Hope too high for the LAA to engage them.
At this stage of the war AA Command was very short of equipment, particularly for its LAA units, and a variety of old and makeshift guns were in use. On 9 October, 43 LAA Bty, which had been manning Lewis guns as AALMGs at Tilbury Docks, handed them over to 285 Bty of 90th Heavy AA Rgt and took over the defences at Enfield Power Station from a detachment of 32 LAA Bty; this VP was equipped with three 3-inch naval guns and one Bofors gun, as well as a number of Lewis guns. In January 1940, naval 2-pounder multiple pom-pom guns were withdrawn from Canvey Island and Thameshaven for conversion to Mk VIII state and were replaced by Lewis guns until 3-inch guns arrived a month later.
In February 43 LAA Bty left (see below) and the regiment also had to take over additional commitments at Tilbury from 56th (East Lancashire) LAA Rgt, which was leaving to join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France. In addition 56th LAA Bde had to strip some Bofors guns from its VPs in order to equip 55th (Devon) LAA Rgt before it joined the BEF, while the Royal Navy was demanding the return of some of its 2-pounders.
43 (City of London Yeomanry) LAA Battery
While the rest of the regiment remained in AA Command during the Phoney War period, 43 (CoLY) LAA Bty, then at Chingford and Great Bromley, left on 15 February, and along with 44 LAA Bty from 12th (Finsbury Rifles) LAA Rgt it joined 60th (Royal Welch Fusiliers) Anti-Tank Rgt to form 101st LAA/AT Rgt. This composite unit, the first of its kind, was part of 1st Support Group (1st Sp Gp) in 1st Armoured Division, which was rushed to France to join the BEF after the German invasion of the Low Countries. Armed only with Lewis guns, its Bofors not having arrived, 43 (CoLY) LAA Bty fought in the Battle of Abbeville as 1st Armoured Division attempted to break through to the surrounded BEF. The division was evacuated from western France two weeks after the rest of the BEF had been evacuated from Dunkirk.
While it refitted in the UK, 101st LAA/AT Rgt was broken up on 1 November to form 76th (Royal Welch Fusiliers) A/T Rgt and a separate 61st LAA Rgt (including 43 (CoLY) Bty) in 1st Sp Gp. In the autumn of 1941 1st Armoured Division sailed for Egypt. It was committed to Eighth Army's Operation Crusader piecemeal before it had time to prepare for desert warfare, where LAA detachments were attached to mobile Jock columns for 'snap' actions against aircraft and ground targets. After Crusader, Eighth Army took up defensive positions in the Gazala Line, a series of fortified 'boxes' defended by a brigade group, usually including an LAA battery deployed in separate Troop positions.
When Rommel attacked on 27 May 1942 (the Battle of Gazala), D Trp of 43 (CoLY) LAA Bty under Lt Beachman distinguished itself in the defence of 1st Free French Brigade's box at Bir Hakeim in the extreme south of the line, which held out until ordered to withdraw on 10 June.
After the Battle of Gazala Eighth Army retreated to a fall-back position at El Alamein. Here 61st LAA Rgt and its batteries came under the command of 7th Armoured Division. However, the regiment had been withdrawn from the front line by the time the Second Battle of El Alamein was fought in October 1942. From January 1943, 43 (CoLY) LAA Bty was defending the army's bases in Egypt, which increasingly became a back area. 61st LAA Rgt was broken up in the Middle East on 1 August 1944 to provide infantry reinforcements for Eighth Army in Italy.
Battle of Britain
On 1 May 1940, shortly before the Phoney War ended with the German invasion of Holland, 31 LAA Bty with its towed Bofors guns was sent to Gillingham, Kent, and assigned to 'N' Mobile AA Bde operating south of the Thames under the commander of 49 AA Bde, while another CoLY Troop was assigned as a mobile reserve north of the river equipped with Lewis guns. These reserves were envisaged as having an anti-parachutist role in addition to AA defence. 'N' Mobile Bde was transferred to HQ 2 AA Bde after it returned from Dunkirk, and was broken up at the end of June.
In late May both RHQ at Stanford-le-Hope and 32 Bty HQ (BHQ) at Leigh-on-Sea moved to Weald Hall, at South Weald near Brentwood, Essex, where the regiment established a camp. The rest of the regiment, its batteries, and even individual troops were split up and widely dispersed across southern England, mainly to defend airfields of Fighter Command: on 20 May 33 LAA Bty was ordered to move its Bofors detachments from Canewdon to RAF Hornchurch and RAF Martlesham Heath; in June 31 LAA Bty received additional Bofors, bringing it up to its establishment of 12 guns, but the three troops were scattered between Gravesend Airport in Kent, RAF Kenley in Surrey and RAF Tangmere in Sussex; in July 32 LAA Bty sent a Troop to defend the Hawker Aircraft factory at Langley Airfield in Buckinghamshire.
However, there was a pause between the Dunkirk evacuation and the beginning of serious German air operations against Southern England, and during June and July several of the regiment's detachments were able to carry out gunnery training at Cark Practice Camp, before returning to Weald Park Camp and being assigned to airfields. On 29 July the regiment received its first draft of 238 Militiamen for training, but the medical officers considered only 43 of them to be of A1 medical category.
RAF Kenley was attacked on 3 July by a single Luftwaffe bomber flying too high for the regiment's Bofors to reply. However, these airfields were under constant attack once the Battle of Britain really got under way in August. Left Troop of 31 LAA Bty was in action on 16 August when Tangmere was attacked by Junkers Ju 87 Stukas; on 18 August another troop of the battery at Kenley shot down one bomber and claimed a second. On 23 August the battery handed over Tangmere, Kenley and Gravesend to 152 LAA Bty of 51st (Devon) LAA Rgt (re-equipped after Dunkirk) and concentrated at Weald Park as AA Command shuffled its resources to meet the threats. Hornchurch was badly bombed on 24 August, but the defending troop of 33 LAA Bty was unable to fire because the bombers were too high. On 26 August the troop at RAF Rochford fired on a German bomber that was already force-landing after being attacked by a Spitfire fighter. Rochford was bombed from high level two days later, narrowly missing some of the gun emplacements. There were also numerous night attacks over the area, to which the LAA guns could not reply. 32 LAA Battery took over defence of RAF North Weald on 10 September and three days later 31 LAA Bty deployed its troops to RAF Debden, RAF Coltishall and RAF Wittering (Left Trp). On 24 September the troop of 32 LAA Bty at Langley was redeployed to various sites around Woolwich.
Blitz
By now the daylight Battle of Britain had been won, and the Luftwaffe switched to night bombing of London and other cities (The Blitz), so the role of 56 LAA Bde's guns at the VPs was reduced. On 5 October 32 LAA Bty sent a detachment to man two Bofors guns guarding Windsor Castle, and the rest of the battery was redeployed during the month to Hawker's aircraft factories at Langley and Kingston-upon-Thames and briefly to ordnance factories at Woolwich and Plumstead, with BHQ at Staines. A second draft of 230 militiamen had been posted to the regiment in late September, but at the end of October it was ordered to adopt the official War Establishment, which meant that it could post out around 314 unwanted other ranks to 49th LAA Rgt. The following month 31 LAA Bty was redeployed with AALMGs to RAF Benson (two trps) and Walters Ash (one trp defending RAF Bomber Command HQ); 33 LAA Bty with Bofors to Stanmore (two trps defending RAF Fighter Command HQ) and Weybridge (one trp defending the Vickers aircraft factory at Brooklands). With the regiment's gunsites now all west of London, an advanced RHQ was established at Staines on 1 December, and the regiment was now part of 49 AA Bde in 1st AA Division defending London, with which it remained until after the end of the Blitz in May 1941.
AA Command continued to expand and Maj John Anderson Armstrong, commanding 33 LAA Bty, was promoted from the regiment to command a new 73 LAA Rgt formed on 27 February 1941. The new unit's RHQ began assembling at 32 LAA Bty's BHQ at Sunningdale before moving to Stanwell, Middlesex, on 14 March. As the new batteries arrived from the training regiments they took over several of 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt's VPs including Langley, (8 x Bofors) and Surbiton, Surrey (12 x Lewis). 49 AA Bde began training courses for the new regiment, with instructors provided by 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt, and Sir Charles Shuckburgh, Bt, was later transferred from the regiment as adjutant of 73rd LAA Rgt.
In January 1941 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt was warned of a new mobile role in Combined Operations, and Left Troop of 31 LAA Bty moved from Wittering to the Combined Operations Training Centre at Inverary in Scotland. The regiment adopted the organisation for a mobile unit in March. The batteries and troops continued to be shuffled around VPs in the Home counties and RHQ moved from South Weald and Staines to Bracknell, Berkshire. On 1 May 33 LAA Bty was ordered to mobilise, leaving the regiment and joining the War Office Reserve.
To replace 33 LAA Bty the regiment was joined in June by a new 283 Bty formed within 16th LAA Rgt. It quickly embraced the CoLY identity, even though it left again in September 1941. Later it was converted into 1 (City of London Yeomanry) Airlanding LAA Battery (see below). 11th (CoLY) LAA Regiment (less 283 Bty, joining 73rd LAA Rgt) received its mobilisation orders on 21 August 1941 and proceeded to the mobilisation centre at Leeds, then to 'A' Camp at Pollok, near Glasgow, where 33 LAA Bty rejoined and the regiment began intensive training. It moved to Ayr Racecourse in November.
Tunisia
A year later the regiment was still in the UK, finally about to embark for North Africa (Operation Torch) as part of First Army with the following organisation:
RHQ 11th LAA Rgt
31, 32, 33 LAA Btys
11 LAA Rgt Signal Section, Royal Corps of Signals (RCS)
11 LAA Workshop Section, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME)
11 LAA Rgt Platoon, Royal Army Service Corps (RASC)
The Torch landings began on 8 November and the build-up of forces continued over succeeding weeks as V Corps pushed eastwards towards Tunis. It was halted short of the city by Axis forces, and there was a pause while the build-up continued. By mid-January the 11th CoLY LAA Rgt had arrived and moved up to defend V Corps' assets in the forward area, where German and Italian divebombing and 'tank-busting' attacks were frequent. However the concentration of British LAA guns drove the enemy aircraft to bomb from higher altitude. AA ammunition expenditure was high, and supply was erratic over the poor roads of Tunisia. V Corps and the air forces continued their build-up, and by mid-March one of 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt's batteries had been detached under 22 AA Bde as part of the defences for Souk-el-Khemis Airfield where the first Spitfires had been deployed and begun to win air superiority. First Army renewed its offensive at the end of March with massive air support and by the time of the Fall of Tunis in May 1943, the whole regiment was assigned to airfield protection under 22 AA Bde.
Italy
11th (CoLY) LAA Regiment was not involved in the Allied landings in Sicily (Operation Husky) or mainland Italy (Operation Baytown), but joined 2 AA Bde as the Italian Campaign developed. By July 1944 the brigade had reached Ancona on the Adriatic coast with V Corps, mainly deployed to protect airfields and field gun areas.
After a short period of refitting and re-training at Anzio in August, 2 AA Bde's units returned to the line between Arezzo and Florence in September, a journey across mountains that was unusually carried out as a single road convoy. Between September and December, as the Allied armies closed up to the Gothic Line, its units were widely distributed, some supporting XIII Corps with Fifth US Army, others with X Corps and II Polish Corps under Eighth Army; 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt was mainly defending landing grounds. In late 1944 the Luftwaffe was suffering from such shortages of pilots, aircraft and fuel that serious air attacks were rare. At the same time the British Army was suffering a severe manpower shortage. The result was that a number of AA units were deemed surplus and were disbanded to provide reinforcements to other arms of service. 11th (CoLY) LAA Regiment remained in service, but now retrained as infantry for defence duties. Some of its Bofors batteries re-equipped with 3-inch or 4.2-inch mortars and heavy machine guns for infantry support, as 2 AA Bde held a section of the line as an independent formation. From November to January 11 (CoLY) LAA Rgt supported 1st Division with one battery deployed in AA defence of bridges, the rest in a variety of roles, including Provost duties, ammunition transport, and assisting the Royal Engineers and Pioneers in bridging and smoke making. In February 1945 the regiment was reduced from nine to six troops (54 to 36 guns).
When Eighth Army's spring offensive opened in March 1945, 2 AA Bde had been expanded with medium and mountain artillery under its command to form 'Macforce' (named after Brigadier Murray McIntyre of 2 AA Bde). Initially Macforce operated under 6th Army Group Royal Artillery (6 AGRA), then began to operate as an AGRA in its own right. In April Macforce drove down Route 9 in pursuit of the retreating Axis forces, supporting the Friuli and Folgore Combat Groups of the Italian Co-belligerent Army. One of its battle groups under the command of 85th Mountain Rgt, RA, supporting 10th Indian Infantry Division, included 57th (Home Counties) Field Rgt and 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt with five troops of 3-inch and 4.2-inch mortars; only one troop retained Bofors guns to defend the gun areas.
2 AA Brigade's last AA action was on 20 April 1945. It then went into reserve until hostilities ended on 2 May with the Surrender of Caserta. After the end of the campaign, 2 AA Bde including 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt was reorganised as a motor transport group based at Forlì and Faenza. At the conclusion of hostilities, 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt was commanded by Lt-Col H.S.O.P. Stedall, brother of the regiment's commander on the outbreak of war, and for long his second-in-command.
1 (City of London Yeomanry) Airlanding LAA Battery
283 LAA Battery was formed on 9 June 1941 at Gillingham, Kent, from the fourth troops of 45 46 and 83 LAA Btys of 16th LAA Rgt, with the BHQ supplied by 11th (CoLY) LA Rgt. It joined the latter and embraced the CoLY identity, even though it left and joined 17th LAA Rgt on 12 September 1941. This regiment was serving in the West of Scotland with 63 AA Bde in 12th AA Division. The battery transferred to 1st Airborne Division on 2 July 1942, being converted into 1st (City of London Yeomanry) Air Landing LAA Bty on 4 December.
1st Airborne Division's HQ and divisional troops left the UK on 13 April 1943 and went by sea to North Africa, where they arrived on 26 April at the end of the Tunisian Campaign (though one of its brigades had been engaged for some months). Its brigades were dropped to seize river crossings during the Allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky). However, none of 1st (CoLY) A/L LAA Bty seem to have flown in with the gliders of 1st Airlanding Bde in the disastrous attempt to seize the Ponte Grande (Operation Ladbroke) on 10 July. 1st Airborne Division was withdrawn from Sicily back to North Africa by 16 July.
After the landings on the Italian mainland began on 3 September, 1st Airborne Division was sent to make a subsidiary seaborne landing from warships at Taranto (Operation Slapstick) on 9 September. The division quickly took over the port and airfield at Taranto and brought in its heavier equipment as the leading echelons set off in pursuit of the retreating German 1st Parachute Division. Shortly afterwards the division took the Adriatic ports of Bari and Brindisi and the important Foggia Airfield Complex. It then settled to defend Foggia, where a large AA defence organisation was built up, initially by 2 AA Bde, which arrived by 30 September.
1st Airborne Division embarked from Italy on 22 November and on 10 December arrived back in the UK, where after refitting it spent the first part of 1944 training for the Allied invasion of Normandy (Operation Overlord). However, 1st (CoLY) A/L LAA Bty left the division on 21 February 1944 and reverted to its former title of 283 LAA Bty for the rest of the war. It was placed in suspended animation on 4 February 1946.
Postwar
35 LAA Regiment
When the TA was reconstituted on 1 January 1947, the personnel then serving in the regiment were transferred to a new war-formed 11th LAA Rgt with 31–33 Btys. On 1 April 1947 this was redesignated 35 LAA Regiment in the Regular Army with the following organisation:
31 LAA Bty – disbanded to resuscitate 13 Bty unlinked from 9/13 Medium Bty in 4th Medium Rgt as 90 LAA Bty
32 LAA Bty – disbanded to resuscitate 15 Bty unlinked from 15/17 Medium Bty in 5th Medium Rgt as 92 LAA Bty
33 LAA Bty – disbanded to resuscitate 7 Bty from 4/7 Medium Bty in 2nd Medium Rgt as 99 LAA Bty
35 LAA Regiment was equipped with the more powerful L/70 model Bofors gun and formed part of 8 AA Bde in AA Command's 5 AA Group. It was converted into 35 LAA/Searchlight Rgt on 16 March 1949, and by 1950 was serving in British Army of the Rhine (BAOR), stationed at Crerar Barracks, Oldenburg, and by June 1955 at St Barbara Barracks in Adelheide. The regiment was converted back to LAA on 1 November 1955. It was disbanded on 1 October 1958 and its batteries placed in permanent suspended animation.
City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders), RAC
The City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders) was reformed on 1 January 1947 as an armoured regiment of the Royal Armoured Corps (RAC), with three squadrons, affiliated to the Regular Army's Queen's Bays (2nd Dragoon Guards). The regiment served in 22 Armoured Bde in 56th (London) Armoured Division.
56th (London) Division was converted back into an infantry formation in 1956, and the City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders) became an infantry battalion of the Rifle Brigade on 1 October 1956 without changing its title.
When the TA was reduced on 1 May 1961, the Rough Riders amalgamated with the Inns of Court Regiment, given their geographical proximity, to form the Inns of Court & City Yeomanry. Following the 1967 defence cuts, the TA was reorganised as the Territorial and Army Volunteer Reserve (TAVR) and the unit converted to form 68 (Inns of Court & City Yeomanry) Signal Squadron, within 71 (Yeomanry) Signal Regiment, Royal Corps of Signals. In 2009, 68 Signals Squadron amalgamated with 36 (Essex Yeomanry) Signal Squadron to form 68 (Inns of Court & City and Essex Yeomanry) Signal Squadron and, following the Strategic Defence and Security Review, 68 Signal Squadron reverted to the name of 68 (Inns of Court & City Yeomanry) Signal Squadron in 2015.
Uniforms and insignia
The Imperial Yeomanry's service dress was Khaki with a Slouch hat, officially replaced by a Service cap in 1906. The Rough Riders adopted a review order uniform comprising a blue-grey ('French grey') tunic or 'frock' with patch pockets and purple facings. The blue slouch hat had a purple band and a bunch of light blue feathers on the left side. When the peaked service cap was introduced it was also blue with a purple band. Greatcoats were French grey with purple collars (and were still in use after mobilisation in 1914), and the service breeches also carried purple stripes. The cap badge was the Coat of arms of the City of London in a laurel wreath surmounted by a crown. The collar badge was a spur carrying the initials 'R.R.' When it joined the TF in 1908 the regiment adopted a Lancer style full dress and walking-out uniform in French grey, with the plastron front and overall stripes in purple. Officers (and all ranks from the Coronation of 1911) wore a lance cap (Chapka) in French grey with a light blue plume, the plate carrying the City of London arms with its dragon supporters.
On its formation 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt adopted as its cap badge the old Rough Riders' collar badge with the letters RR in brass on a white metal spur. In place of the usual RA shoulder title on the battledress blouse, the regiment used a purple title with the words ROUGH RIDERS embroidered in white (see photo above). Lieutenant-Colonel M.B.P. Stedall's CoLY battledress uniform ca 1943 is in the collection of the National Army Museum, London.
After the Second World War, the regiment was granted as a special distinction on its guidon the gun badge of the Royal Artillery inscribed '1942–45' upon two scrolls inscribed 'North Africa' and 'Italy' (see below).
Honorary colonels
The following served as Honorary Colonel of the regiment:
Lt-Col Viscount Maitland (later 14th Earl of Lauderdale), former commanding officer, appointed Hon Col on 23 July 1908, and continued in the role with 11th (HAC & CoLY) Bde, RHA.
Brevet Col the 5th Earl of Limerick, DSO, TD, former commanding officer of CoLY Bty, RHA, appointed 23 March 1932, continued with 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt, RA, and CoLY, RAC, until 1952.
Col Sir James Waterlow, 2nd Baronet, commissioned 1938, commanded CoLY, RAC, 1945–50, appointed 1952.
HM Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, appointed 4 July 1952.
Other prominent members
Cosmo Gordon Lang, Bishop of Stepney, later Archbishop of Canterbury, appointed Chaplain of the regiment on 7 May 1907.
William Sinclair, Archdeacon of London, appointed Chaplain of the regiment on 31 December 1910.
Several members of the Pemberton Stedall family, owners of the London ironmongers Stedall & Co, served in the CoLY, including Capt Cecil Pemberton Stedall, commissioned into the regiment in 1914, his brother Maj Leigh Pemberton Stedall, DSO, who led the squadron at Gaza, and their nephews Lt-Col Marcus Bertram Pemberton Stedall, OBE, TD, who commanded 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt from 24 April 1938 through the first part of the Second World War, and his brother and second-in-command Maj Henry Sydney Oliver Pemberton Stedall, OBE, who was later promoted to Lt-Col and commanded the regiment himself.
Second lieutenants commissioned into the new 11th (CoLY) LAA Rgt in 1938 included: the Hon Seymour Berry, later 2nd Viscount Camrose, and his brother the Hon Michael Berry, later Baron Hartwell, of the family of newspaper proprietors; the cricketers G.O.B. 'Gubby' Allen and Sir Charles Shuckburgh, 12th Baronet; Sir James Waterlow, 2nd Baronet, company director; the Hon Claud Phillimore, later 4th Lord Phillimore, architect; and Robert Grosvenor, later 5th Duke of Westminster
Capt Philip, 9th Earl of Hardwicke was posted to the regiment on 29 June 1940.
Patrick Buchan-Hepburn, MP, later Baron Hailes of Prestonkirk, was posted to 32 LAA Bty on 16 October 1940 and served in the regiment until 1943.
Memorials
A white marble tablet flanked by two grieving female figures, inscribed with the names of the 30 men of 20th (Rough Riders) Battalion, IY, who died in South Africa 1900–02, is in the Abbey Church of Holy Cross & St Lawrence, Waltham Abbey. The First World War memorial to the regiment is in St Bartholomew-the-Great Church, Smithfield, with 96 names; two side panels were added with eight names from the Second World War. The regiment is also listed on the London Troops War Memorial in front of the Royal Exchange.
Battle honours
The City of London Yeomanry was awarded the following battle honours:
Second Boer War
South Africa 1900–02
First World War
Pursuit to Mons, France and Flanders 1918, Macedonia 1916–17, Suvla, Scimitar Hill, Gallipoli 1915, Rumani, Egypt 1915–16, Gaza, El Mughar, Nebi Samwil, Palestine 1917–18
Second World War
The Royal Artillery does not carry battle honours; instead units that were temporarily converted to the RA were awarded an honorary distinction to be borne upon their colours or guidons (see above).
See also
Imperial Yeomanry
List of Yeomanry Regiments 1908
Yeomanry
Yeomanry order of precedence
British yeomanry during the First World War
Second line yeomanry regiments of the British Army
List of British Army Yeomanry Regiments converted to Royal Artillery
County of London Yeomanry
Notes
References
Bibliography
L.S. Amery (ed), The Times History of the War in South Africa 1899-1902, London: Sampson Low, Marston, 6 Vols 1900–09.
Army Council Instructions Issued During April 1916, London: HM Stationery Office, 1916.
Army Council Instructions Issued During February 1917, London: HM Stationery Office, 1917.
Brig C.F. Aspinall-Oglander, History of the Great War: Military Operations Gallipoli, Vol II, May 1915 to the Evacuation, London: Heinemann, 1932/Imperial War Museum & Battery Press, 1992, /Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2011, .
Maj R. Money Barnes, The Soldiers of London, London: Seeley Service, 1963.
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2a: The Territorial Force Mounted Divisions and the 1st-Line Territorial Force Divisions (42–56), London: HM Stationery Office, 1935/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Burke's Peerage, Baronetage and Knightage, 100th Edn, London, 1953.
Sir O'Moore Creagh and E.M. Humphris, The VC and DSO, Vol III, The DSO from January 1916, London: Standard Art Books.
Basil Collier, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Defence of the United Kingdom, London: HM Stationery Office, 1957/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, .
Col John K. Dunlop, The Development of the British Army 1899–1914, London: Methuen, 1938.
Maj L.F. Ellis, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The War in France and Flanders 1939–1940, London: HM Stationery Office, 1954/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, 978-1-85457-056-6.
Capt Cyril Falls, History of the Great War: Military Operations, Egypt and Palestine, Vol II, From June 1917 to the End of the War, Part I, London: HM Stationery Office, 1930/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2013, .
Capt Cyril Falls, History of the Great War: Military Operations, Egypt and Palestine, Vol II, From June 1917 to the End of the War, Part II, London: HM Stationery Office, 1930/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2013, .
Gen Sir Martin Farndale, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: The Years of Defeat: Europe and North Africa, 1939–1941, Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1988/London: Brasseys, 1996, .
Col S.P. Foakes & Maj M. McKenzie-Bell (eds), Essex Yeomanry: A Short History, Essex: Temperley Media/Essex Yeomanry Association, nd, .
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol I, Wakefield: Microform Academic, 1984, .
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol II, Wakefield: Microform Academic, 1984, .
Brig E.A. James, British Regiments 1914–18, London: Samson Books, 1978, /Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2001, .
Lt-Gen Sir George MacMunn & Capt Cyril Falls, History of the Great War: Military Operations, Egypt and Palestine, Vol I, From the Outbreak of War with Germany to June 1917, London: HM Stationery Office, 1928/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1992, /Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2011, .
Brig C.J.C. Molony,History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol V: The Campaign in Sicily 1943 and the Campaign in Italy 3rd September 1943 to 31st March 1944, London: HM Stationery Office, 1973/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
John North, Gallipoli: The Fading Vision, London: Faber & Faber, 1936.
Maj-Gen I.S.O. Playfair, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol III: (September 1941 to September 1942) British Fortunes reach their Lowest Ebb, London: HM Stationery Office, 1960 /Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004,
Col H.C.B. Rogers, The Mounted Troops of the British Army 1066–1945, London: Seeley Service, 1959.
P.T. Ross, A Yeoman's Letters, 3rd Edn, London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, 1901.
Brig N.W. Routledge, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Anti-Aircraft Artillery 1914–55, London: Royal Artillery Institution/Brassey's, 1994,
Lt-Col Ernest Ryan, 'The Post-South African War Yeomanry', Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, June 1960, Vol 38, pp. 57–62.
Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society 1815–1914, London: Longmans, 1980, .
Titles and Designations of Formations and Units of the Territorial Army, London: War Office, 7 November 1927.
Alan Wakefield and Simon Moody, Under the Devil's Eye: Britain's Forgotten Army at Salonika 1915–1918, Stroud: Sutton, 2004, .
External links
Anglo Boer War
BAOR Locations
Mark Conrad, The British Army 1914
British Army units from 1945 on
Grace's Guide to British Industrial History
London Gazette
The Long, Long Trail
Orders of Battle at Patriot Files
Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth – Regiments.org (archive site)
Roll of Honour
The Royal Artillery 1939–45
Stepping Forward: A Tribute to the Volunteer Military Reservists and Supporting Auxiliaries of Greater London
Graham Watson, The Territorial Army 1947
Official British Army site - 71st Signals Regiment
British Military History
Rough Riders at Inns of Court & City Yeomanry website
City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders)
London Yeomanry, City of
Yeomanry regiments of the British Army in World War I
Regiments of the Royal Artillery in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1901
1901 establishments in the United Kingdom
Yeomanry (Rough Riders)
Military units and formations in Islington
Military units and formations in Holborn
Military units and formations disestablished in 1961 |
4545005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeavering | Yeavering | Yeavering () is a hamlet in the north-east corner of the civil parish of Kirknewton in the English county of Northumberland. It is located on the River Glen at the northern edge of the Cheviot Hills. It is noteworthy as the site of a large Anglo-Saxon period settlement that archaeologists have interpreted as being one of the seats of royal power held by the kings of Bernicia in the 7th century AD.
Evidence for human activity in the vicinity has been found from the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, although it would be in the Iron Age that significant settlement first occurred at Yeavering. In this period, a heavily inhabited hillfort was constructed on Yeavering Bell which appears to have been a major settlement centre at the time.
According to Book 2 Chapter 14 of the Ecclesiastical History of the Venerable Bede (673–735), in the year 627 Bishop Paulinus of York accompanied the Northumbrian king Edwin and his queen Æthelburg to their royal vill (the Latin term is villa regia), Adgefrin, where Paulinus spent 36 days preaching and baptising converts in the river Glen. The placename Gefrin, which is a Brittonic name meaning 'hill of the goats', survives as the modern Yeavering.
Landscape
Yeavering is situated at the western end of a valley known as Glendale, where the Cheviot foothills give way to the Tweed Valley, an area of fertile plain. Yeavering's most prominent feature is the twin-peaked hill, Yeavering Bell ( above sea level), which was used as a hillfort in the Iron Age. To the north of the Bell, the land drops off to a terrace 72 metres above sea level (usually known as the 'whaleback'), which is where the Anglo-Saxon settlement was located. The River Glen cuts through the whaleback, creating a relatively wide but shallow channel that lies 50 metres above sea level. The Glen made large areas of neighbouring land around the whaleback waterlogged and boggy, and thereby difficult for human habitation, but modern drainage systems have largely removed this problem, simply leaving some marshy areas on the north and east sides of the Yeavering whaleback.
Strong winds persistently blow through the area from a west or south-westerly direction, often reaching level 8 (gale) and sometimes 12 (hurricane force) on the Beaufort Scale.
Prehistoric settlement
Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement
Archaeological discoveries have shown that humans were living in the Glen Valley during the Mesolithic period. Such Mesolithic Britons were hunter-gatherers, moving around the landscape in small family or tribal groups in search of food and other natural resources. They made use of stone tools such as microliths, some of which have been found in the Glen Valley, indicating their presence during this period.
In the later Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, humans living in Britain settled down in permanent communities and began farming to produce food. There is evidence of human activity in the valley dating from this period too, namely several 'ritual' pits and cremation burials.
Iron Age and Romano-British settlement
The Yeavering site had seen human settlement before the Early Mediaeval period. The area was settled during the British Iron Age, when a hill fort was constructed on the Yeavering Bell hill. This fort was the largest of its kind in Northumberland, and had dry stone walls constructed around both of the Bell's peaks. On the hill, over a hundred Iron Age roundhouses had been constructed, supporting a large local population. The tribal group in the area was, according to later written sources, a group known as the Votadini.
In the 1st century CE, southern and central Britain was invaded by the forces of the Roman Empire, who took this area under their dominion. The period of Roman occupation, known as Roman Britain or the Roman Iron Age, lasted until circa 410 CE, when the Roman armies and administration left Britain. Romano-British artefacts have also been found in relation to these roundhouses, including two late Roman minimi and several shards of Samian ware.
Archaeologist Brian Hope-Taylor believed it likely that by the 1st century CE, the settlement at Yeavering Bell had become "a major political (tribal or sub-tribal) centre, either of the immediately surrounding area or of the whole region between the rivers Tyne and Tweed (in which there is no other monument of comparable character and size.)"
Early Medieval settlement
In the Early Medieval period, the area was home to Gefrin (Yeavering), a Royal settlement in the Anglo-Saxon ruled kingdom of Bernicia. The site has been described as 'An Anglo-British centre of early Northumbria' due to having both native British and Anglo-Saxon influences
Foundation
Archaeologist Brian Hope-Taylor believed that the monarchs of Bernicia had to rule over a kingdom in which there were populations belonging to two separate cultural and ethnic groups: the native Britons who were the descendants of the Romano-British population, and the Anglo-Saxons who were migrant colonists from continental Europe. He speculated that the Anglo-Saxon communities were primarily settled around the coastal areas of Bernicia, where trade and other links would have been going on with other Anglo-Saxon populations elsewhere in Britain. He argued that this was evidenced by the heavily Anglicised place name evidence in that area. On the other hand, he thought that the British populations were larger in the central regions of Bernicia, where very few Anglo-Saxon artefacts have been discovered in Early Mediaeval burials. For this reason, he suspected that the Bernician rulers, in an attempt to administer both ethnic groups, decided to have two royal seats of government, one of which was at Bamburgh on the coast, and the other which was at Yeavering, which was in the British-dominated central area of their kingdom.
Hope-Taylor also theorised that the Anglo-Saxon settlement at Yeavering had been situated there because the site had been important in the preceding Iron Age and Romano-British periods, and that its construction was therefore "a direct and deliberate reference to the traditional native institutions of the area." Accompanying this symbolic reason for maintaining the seat of power in the vicinity, Hope-Taylor also noted that the area had some of the most easily cultivatable soil in the region, making it ideal for agriculture and the settlement of agricultural communities.
Buildings
There were a series of timber buildings constructed in Gefrin that were excavated by archaeologists in the mid 20th century.
Building A1 was initially a "plain, aisled hall, devoid of annexes" which had a doorway situated on every wall. It was a large building, with wall timbers that were 5.5 to 6 inches thick set in trenches that varied from between 36 and 42 inches deep. After burning down in a fire, it was rebuilt "more robustly and precisely", with additional eastern and western annexes being added. Excavators found that daub had apparently been used on the walls, being plastered on to the timber. This too burned down at some point, following which a third version of Building A1 was erected, containing only one annexe, on the eastern side. This final building would in time come to rot away where it stood.
Building A2 was a Great Hall with partitioning palisades that created ante-chambers at its two ends. Rather than being destroyed in a fire, it is apparent that the building was intentionally demolished most likely because "in a new phase of construction" at the site, "it had ceased to be useful." Archaeological excavators discovered that this building had been built on top of an earlier prehistoric burial pit. Building A3 was also a Great Hall, and resembled a "larger and more elaborate version" of the second construction of Building A1. It was apparently destroyed in a fire, before being rebuilt and although some repairs were made in subsequent years, it gradually decayed in situ. Building A4 was similar to A2 in most respects, but had only one partition, located on its eastern end. However, Building A5 differed from these Great Halls, being described as "a house or even a cottage" by Hope-Taylor, and it apparently had a door on each of its walls. Buildings A6 and A7 were identified as being older than A5, but were of a similar size. Building B was another hall, this time with a western annexe.
Building C1 was a rectangular pit, leading archaeologists to speculate that it was the site of a water tank or cistern, and the presence of a layer of white ash led them to surmise that it had burnt down. Building C2 was another rectangular building like most of those at Yeavering, and had four doors, although unlike many of the others showed no evidence of having been damaged or destroyed by fire. Building C3 was also a rectangular timber hall, although was larger than C2 and was of "unusual construction", having double rows of external post-holes. Building C4 was the largest hall in this group, having seen two structural phases, the former of which had apparently been heavily damaged or destroyed by fire.
Building D1 was described by Hope-Taylor as being an example of "strange incompetence" due to the various mistakes that apparently occurred during its construction. Although likely intended to be rectangular, from the post hole evidence it is apparent that the finished result was rhomboidal, and it appears that not long after construction, the building collapsed or was demolished, to be replaced by another hall, which also exhibited various structural problems such as wonky walls.
Building D2 was designed as "the exact counterpart of Building D1 in size, form and orientation", and the two were positioned in a precise alignment. It was however at some point demolished, and a new "massive and elaborate" version was built in its place. Building D2 has been widely interpreted as a temple or shrine room dedicated to one or more of the gods of Anglo-Saxon paganism, making it the only known example of such a site yet found by archaeologists in England. Archaeologists came to this conclusion due to the complete lack of any objects associated with normal domestic use, such as a scatter of animal bones of broken pot sherds. Accompanying this was a large pit filled with animal bones, the majority of which were oxen skulls.
Building E was situated in the centre of the township, and consisted of nine foundation trenches that were each concentric in shape. From the positioning, depth and width of the post holes, the excavators came to the conclusion that the building was a large tiered seating area facing a platform that may have carried a throne.
There is also a feature referred to as the Great Enclosure by Hope-Taylor, consisting of a circular earthwork with an entrance at the southern end. In the middle of this enclosure was a rectangular timber building, known as Building BC, which the excavators believed was contemporary with the rest of the enclosure.
Burials
An Anglo-Saxon burial dated to the early 7th century, known as Grave AX, was found located amidst the buildings at Yeavering. Hope-Taylor characterised it as "one of the strangest and most interesting minor features of the site" and it contained the diffuse outline of an adult body which had been interred in an east–west alignment. Various oxidised remnants of what were originally metal objects were found with the body, as was the remnants of a goat skull, which had been positioned to face eastward. Further examining the metal objects located in the grave, Hope-Taylor came to the conclusion that one of them, a seven-foot long bronze-bound wooden pole, was most likely a staff or perhaps standard used for ceremonial purposes.
Archaeologists have also identified a series of graves at the eastern end of the site, leading them to refer to this area as the Eastern Cemetery. Hope-Taylor's team identified these burials as having undergone five separate phases, indicating that it had been used for a relatively long time.
Bede's account
One of the best sources of information that contemporary historians have about the Anglo-Saxon period of English history are the records made by an Anglo-Saxon monk named Bede (672/673-735) who lived at the monastery in Jarrow. Considered to be "the Father of English History", Bede wrote a number of texts dealing with the Anglo-Saxon migration and conversion, most notable the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People), completed circa 731 and divided up into various books. It was in the second book of the Historia ecclesiastica that Bede mentioned a royal township, Ad Gefrin, which he located as being at a point along the River Glen. He described how King Edwin of Bernicia, shortly after converting to Christianity, brought a Christian preacher named Paulinas to his royal township at Ad Gefrin where the priest proceeded to convert the local people from their original pagan religion to Christianity. This passage goes thus:
So great was then the fervour of the faith [Christianity], as is reported and the desire of the washing of salvation among the nation of the Northumbrians, that Paulinas at a certain time coming with the king and queen to the royal country-seat, which is called Ad Gefrin, stayed with them thirty-six days, fully occupied in catechising and baptising; during which days, from morning till night, he did nothing else but instruct the people resorting from all villages and places, in Christ's saving word; and when instructed, he washed them with the water of absolution in the river Glen which is close. This town, under the following kings, was abandoned, and another was built instead of it, at the place called Melmin.
Archaeologist Brian Hope-Taylor believed that it was "beyond reasonable doubt" that Yeavering was indeed Bede's Ad Gefrin.
Excavations by Brian Hope-Taylor
The components of the site, as revealed by the cropmarks and Hope-Taylor's excavations, are:
A double-palisaded enclosure, the Great Enclosure, on the terrace edge at the east end of the complex. This was not a fortification in a military sense but acted as a meeting place or cattle corral.
A sequence of rectangular buildings west of the Great Enclosure (Area A) with massive foundation trenches (in some cases, more than two metres deep). Four buildings in the set (A2, A4, A3a, A3b) had floor areas of up to about 300 square metres. Hope-Taylor called these Great Halls.
A set of nine concentric foundation trenches west of the set of halls, whose outline forms a wedge shape. Hope-Taylor interpreted this as a tiered auditorium with a capacity to seat some three hundred people.
Other rectangular buildings, broadly similar to the first set of Great Halls though smaller, at the west end of the site (Area D) and to the north (Area C).
Inhumation burials at the east and west ends of the site including, among these, graves set into already-existing prehistoric burial monuments, the Eastern and Western Ring Ditches.
These, then, are the principal features of this royal palace; and it is the buildings which have attracted most attention in secondary literature, as royal halls of the sort which the poet of Beowulf had in mind when he wrote of Heorot, the hall of King Hrothgar. Typically the halls are rectangular buildings, massive in construction with (in A4, for example) square-section timbers of 140mm placed upright side-by-side along the wall lines; twice as long as their width, arranged as a single large room or, sometimes, with a small space partitioned off at one or both ends. In the later stages (A3a and A3b) annexes appear at the ends and the interior space becomes divided into rooms. Here then, at Yeavering, was demonstrated the reality of the poet's creation. The buildings were constructed to high standards, with timbers carefully measured and shaped to standard sizes. Hope-Taylor argued that a standard unit of measurement was employed in the buildings and also in the overall lay-out of the site. The 'Yeavering foot' (300 mm) was slightly shorter than the modern imperial unit.
Hope-Taylor understood Yeavering as a place of contact between an indigenous British population and an incoming Anglian elite, few in number: an Anglo-British centre, as he expressed it in his monograph title. He developed this view from the complex archaeological stratification which, he judged, could not be compressed into the seventh century but which implied a much longer period of use at the site. This led him to a wider thesis on the origins of the kingdom of Bernicia. The then current view (as expressed, for instance, in the final (1971) edition of Sir Frank Stenton's Anglo-Saxon England) was that the early Bernician kings were hemmed into their coastal stronghold at Bamburgh by aggressive British neighbours until Æthelfrith (592–616) succeeded in overcoming the Britons and expanding the kingdom. Yeavering convinced Hope-Taylor that the Bernician kings had developed interests inland from Bamburgh through peaceful collaboration with the Britons at an earlier date. The archaeological underpinning of this thesis has three elements:
The building sequence at Yeavering showed a progression from a British style of building with walls of post-and-panel construction, through to a hybrid style which drew on both continental Germanic traditions and those of Roman Britain. The solid, load-bearing walls of his Styles II, III, and IV, he termed ‘Yeavering Style’.
The burials show a continuity of ritual tradition from the Bronze Age through to the 7th century.
The Great Enclosure, which in its most developed state took the form of a double palisade, had evolved through a series of palisades constructed according to local traditions. Its first stage was the earliest feature of the site and, as such, it gave a link with the old tribal centre on Yeavering Bell.
No other structure comparable to the auditorium has been observed in post-Roman Britain and Hope-Taylor suggested that its affinities lay with the Roman world; it was a realisation in timber (the normal building material of Germanic Europe) of the architecture of the Roman theatre, with the wedge shape being one segment of the theatre's semi-circular form. Roman influence, or an evocation of Roman forms, was evident also in the render which was applied to the outer surfaces of the walls of the principal halls.
In Building D2a, one of the group of buildings at the west end of the site, cattle bones were piled up alongside one wall in a way which led the excavator to suggest that this was a temple, used in cult practice. Numerous inhumation burials occupied the site, and amongst them, the grave of a child, tightly trussed up in foetal position. The body occupied only half of the grave area, while in the other half was placed a cow's tooth, another hint of cult practice involving cattle. A grave on the threshold of the Great Hall A4 contained a goat's skull which might indicate another animal cult associated with the name of the place, the goat's hill. The two prehistoric burial monuments which were already on the site, the Western and Eastern Ring Ditches were brought back into use. The centre of each was marked with a post (a totem pole) and burials were set out around these. Some of the burials are undoubtedly of pagan tradition, but Yeavering runs into the Christian era: Bede's text is the narrative of a conversion episode in 627. It is suggested that the refurbishment of the ‘temple’ building D2a (re-built in the same position as D2b) was a Christianisation as recommended by Pope Gregory I (see Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Book 1 Chapter 30). Building B, associated with the cemetery, was initially interpreted as a church. However, this has since been criticised on the basis that burials did not become associated with churches until the 9th century, and building B is thought to be earlier than this. An alternative explanation since offered is that this was a building dedicated not to worship, but to mortuary preparations.
The chronology for the excavated features is not securely established. Hope-Taylor found few closely datable objects (a belt-buckle of 570/80 – 630/40 and a coin 630/40) and there are no radiocarbon dates. He constructed a relative sequence for the site from the stratigraphic connections for the Area A complex and the Great Enclosure and he drew other areas of the site into this scheme through a typology of building styles. He established a fixed chronology for the scheme by arguing that a fire which destroyed the Great Hall A4, the auditorium and other buildings was the result of an attack following the death of King Edwin in 633. A later fire is attributed to an attack by Penda, King of Mercia, in the 650s. The set of four Great Halls of Area A, which are shown by excavation to have succeeded one after another, are judged to be the halls of four successive kings, Æthelfrith (592–616), Edwin (616–633), Oswald (635–642) and Oswiu (642–670) (numbers A2, A4, A3a and A3b respectively). Critics have noted that there is no confirmation in written records that Yeavering was sacked in 633 or the 650s. It would be reasonable to say that Hope-Taylor's chronology is a working construct founded on secure stratigraphic sequences and extended beyond that.
Scholarly critique
Critical commentary on Yeavering since Hope-Taylor has challenged some of his ideas and developed his thoughts in other respects. Two elements of his culture contact thesis (the Anglo-British centre) have come under review.
First, the buildings. Roger Miket (1980) questioned the identity of the Style I post-and-panel buildings (A5, A6, A7, D6) as British and then Christopher Scull (1991) developed a more extensive critique of Phase I: the post-and-panel buildings are much like those from Anglo-Saxon settlements anywhere else in England. Hope-Taylor gives them a date around 550 but there is no reason why they should not be much nearer 600, and therefore in an Anglo-Saxon cultural context. Hope-Taylor pushes them back to 550 to accommodate the needs of the building typology which he has constructed, which calls for a Style II (D1a, D1b, D2a) to intervene before Style III which begins with D2b and Æthelfrith's Great Hall A2. This leads to what might be called a minimalist view, as articulated recently by Tim Gates (2005), which sees the site originating as an ordinary Anglian farming settlement of the sixth century, subsequently elaborated.
Second, the burials. Richard Bradley (1987) drew on ideas developed in social anthropology to argue that the claim for ritual continuity cannot be sustained, depending as it does on treating as equivalents the linear time of an historical era (the Early Medieval) and the ritual time of prehistory. In place of a literal, chronological continuity, he proposed the idea of a 'creation of continuity' (akin, perhaps, to Eric Hobsbawn's idea of the 'invention of tradition') to suggest that the burials in the Eastern and Western Ring Ditches are a deliberate re-use (long after the original use) of these features as a strategy by a new elite group to appropriate to themselves the ideological power held in the memory of the traditional burial places. This use of burial practice is comparable, Bradley suggests, with the way in which Anglo-Saxon royal houses developed for themselves genealogies which showed their descent from the god Woden.
The Great Enclosure, the third element supporting the culture contact idea, has been less closely studied, despite the fact that for Hope-Taylor this was the first feature on the site, beginning when a Romano-British field system went out of use. Tim Gates (2005) has shown that there was no field system but that Hope-Taylor misunderstood some periglacial features which he interpreted as field boundaries. Colm O'Brien (2005) has analysed the stratigraphic linkages of the Great Enclosure, showing, in the light of the arguments of Scull and Gates, how uncertain is the chronology of this feature. In one comment, Hope-Taylor compared the Great Enclosure to a Scandinavian Thing, or folk meeting place and behind this lies the idea that the Great Enclosure carries forward into the Early Medieval era functions of assembly which had once belonged at the hillfort on Yeavering Bell. Thanks to recent the field survey by Stuart Pearson (1998; and see also Oswald and Pearson 2005) the stages of development of this hillfort and its 105 house-foundations are accurately defined, but it remains unclear when it was occupied and what role, if any, it had during the Roman Iron Age.
Hope-Taylor's thesis on culture contact can no longer be held in the terms in which he expressed it but Leslie Alcock (1988) has shown how a number of sites associated with Northumbrian kings in the 7th and 8th centuries, Yeavering among them, developed from earlier defended centres in what is now northern England and southern Scotland (England and Scotland had not at that time come into being as separate states). Similarly, Sam Lucy (2005) looked to the tradition of long cist burials in Scotland for affinities with those at Yeavering, as Hope-Taylor had done. So, as archaeological studies have developed, the idea that some aspects of Yeavering can be placed within a northern tradition has gained support.
In the first detailed study of the Auditorium since Hope-Taylor's, Paul Barnwell (2005) was persuaded of Hope-Taylor's understanding of its structure and also of its reference to the Roman world; the theatres is an instrument of Roman provincial governance rather than imperial presence. Barnwell has considered how the structure might be used in formal administrative functions and suggests that for these it draws upon practice from the Frankish world.
Paul Barnwell's analysis moves beyond the study of structure, phasing and chronology which have been the concern of much of the scholarship around Yeavering to a consideration of how a structure was used. Carolyn Ware (2005) has proposed a similar sort of approach to study of the Great Halls through an examination of openness and seclusion and of sight lines within the buildings. Together, these studies begin to suggest how a king may present himself at this place and how the architectural structures allow for formal behaviour and ceremonial.
The question of how Yeavering functioned in relation to its hinterland has been considered by Colm O'Brien (2002). The Latin term villa regia, which Bede used of the site, suggests an estate centre as the functional heart of a territory held in the king's demesne. The territory is the land whose surplus production is taken into the centre as food render to support the king and his retinue on their periodic visits as part of a progress around the kingdom. Other estates in the territory, such as nearby Thirlings, whose central settlement has been excavated (O'Brien and Miket 1991), stand in a relationship of dependency to the central estate, bound by obligations of service. This territorial model, known as a multiple estate or shire has been developed in a range of studies and O'Brien, in applying this to Yeavering, has proposed a geographical definition of the wider shire of Yeavering and also a geographical definition of the principal estate whose structures Hope-Taylor excavated.
Summary – the present state of knowledge
While there are still some large questions to resolve on matters of chronology, Yeavering offers a number of insights into the nature of early Northumbrian kingship. It sits within the wider Germanic tradition of a life centred around the hall and its occupants drew upon forms, practices and ideas from the Roman and Frankish worlds. But at the same time it drew on local, regional traditions for structures and in burial rites. Its importance for the Northumbrian kings was, perhaps, as the traditional place of local assembly and as a cult centre at which deep-rooted, traditional ideologies could be appropriated. It is not clear why it was abandoned: Bede says that it was replaced by Maelmin. This site is known from cropmarks at Milfield a few kilometres north-east (Gates and O'Brien 1988). Perhaps, as Rosemary Cramp suggested (1983), as the Northumbrian kings gained in authority they had no need of the traditional assembly and cult site in the hills.
The Gefrin Trust
In April 2000 archaeologist Roger Miket returned to north Northumberland after sixteen years living on Skye. While in Sale and Partners, an estate agent in Wooler, the secretary, knowing Roger's interest in the history of the area, informed him of their recent instruction to handle the sale of 'a funny bit of land at Yeavering with a history!'
The 'funny bit of land' was, in fact, the site of Ad Gefrin.
Northumberland County Council, Northumberland National Park and a number of private bidders all showed an interest in the site but the final successful bidder was Roger.
Roger's initial aim was to place the management of the site on an even footing before transferring ownership to an independent charitable trust. When this was in place Roger began contacting interested experts for guidance on the best way to establish the Gefrin Trust. It was decided that the trust should be made up from representatives of local government, English Heritage and the academic world with the ability to co-opt other members to address specific needs and issues should they arise. Community involvement was considered very important.
From its initial meeting in the spring of 2004 the trust has met every four months to discuss progress, planning and the way forward for the site.
Trust members are:
Professor Rosemary Cramp (chairperson)
Roger Miket (Secretary)
Dr Christopher Burgess (Northumberland County Council)
Paul Frodsham (Archaeologist)
Tom Johnston (Glendale Gateway Trust)
Brian Cosgrove (Education and Media)
Co-opted:
Kate Wilson (English Heritage)
Chris Gerrard (Durham University)
Public access to the palace site has been granted. The site has been re-fenced and the stone walls have been repaired. New gates, kissing gates and paths have been installed to improve access, and information panels have been set up. The trust have entered a ten-year partnership agreement with DEFRA and now hold a 999-year lease for the site and all management decisions affecting it.
The magnificent goat-head gateposts and other carvings you will see today at the site are the work of local Northumbrian artist Eddie Robb. As well as the goat heads you can find a carving of the head of a Saxon warrior and representations of the 'Bamburgh Beast'. They are very much in the style and spirit of the illustrations done by Brian Hope-Taylor himself in the pages of his book Yeavering, An Anglo-British centre of early Northumbria.
The Trust has a website, www.gefrintrust.org, which gives news and information on the work it is currently undertaking in areas such as geophysical prospecting to identify additional structures at the site, new aerial photographs of the site (including some spectacular LIDAR imagery), and new work on the finds from Hope-Yaylor's excavation, thought lost but recently rediscovered following his death. The television programme made by Brian Hope-Taylor as part of The Lost Centuries series in which he describes the site in its wider context is available on the website for viewing, as well as access to a number of PDF downloads on publications about the site, including Brian Hope-Taylor's full excavation report, Yeavering; an Anglo-British Centre of Early Northumbria (1977; available through the kindness of English Heritage), a guide to a recent exhibition on new work undertaken by the Trust, as well as other specialist articles on aspects of the site. Also considerable information is to be found on Gefrin.com, maintained and developed voluntarily for the trust by Brian Cosgrove as the main information point for the project. This allows the Gefrin Trust website to concentrate on reporting news, comments and decisions relevant to the Trust.
The Trust organised the first Open Days at the site in June 2007. The main purpose, in the words of archaeologist Roger Miket, is simply to "create a presence for these two days and be on hand to meet and greet anyone who might wish to come to the site. We will also be there to demonstrate and explain how remote-sensing works, as well as carry out guided tours of the site. On the Sunday we are also offering a guided walk up Yeavering Bell."
Archaeological investigation
During the early 20th century, the University of Cambridge's Curator of Aerial Photography, Dr John Kenneth Sinclair St Joseph (then in the midst of photographing the Roman forts of northern England), flew over Yeavering and photographed a series of crop marks produced in local oat fields during a particularly severe drought.
In 1951, the archaeologist Brian Hope-Taylor examined these aerial photographs to determine whether they could show the 7th century royal township described by Bede as Ad Gefrin. He decided that they probably did, and set about planning to excavate at the site. Whilst he began to approach government bodies for funding, the site itself came under threat in 1952 from nearby quarrying on its south-western side, but was saved when Sir Walter de L. Aitchison informed St Joseph, who had risen to the position of Chief Inspector of Ancient Monuments at the Ministry of Works. St Joseph stepped in to protect the site, allowing Hope-Taylor to open up excavations in 1953. His first excavations came to an end in 1957, when the landowner found that he could no longer afford to let the site be left agriculturally unproductive. He returned to re-excavate at the site from 1960 to 1962.
Civil parish
The civil parish of Yeavering didn't include "Yeavering" but it did include "Old Yeavering".
Yeavering in popular culture
As an important centre of Anglo-Saxon royalty about which a lot is known, Yeavering occurs as a location in several works of fiction set in the Early Middle Ages.
In Ragnarok by Anne Thackery, set from the time of Ida of Bernicia to that of Aethelfrith of Northumbria, Yeavering is rarely mentioned save as the base of one of Ida's brothers. From the context the book would seem to refer to Yeavering Bell rather than the villa regis.
The Month of Swallows by C.P.R. Tisdale is set at the time of the conversion of Edwin of Northumbria. Gefrin is one of several settings visited regularly by the peripatetic court. It is held by Eanfrið, son of Æðelfrið, as a sworn vassal of Edwin and is also home to his sister Æbbe, later famous as the abbess of Coldingham.
Kathryn Tickell composed an instrumental piece called "Yeavering" inspired by Yeavering Bell, which appears on The Kathryn Tickell Band's 2007 album 'Yeavering'
See also
History of Northumberland
Northumbria
Battle of Humbleton Hill
Wooler
Edwin of Northumbria
Paulinus of York
Battle of Yeavering
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Historical texts
Excavation report
Pearson S (1998) Yeavering Bell Hillfort, Northumberland. English Heritage: Archaeological Investigation Report Series AI/3/2001.
Academic books
Alcock L (1988) Bede, Eddius and the Forts of the North Britons. Jarrow: Jarrow Lecture.
Barnwell P (2005) Anglian Yeavering: a continental perspective. 174–184 in Frodsham and O’Brien (eds).
Bradley R (1987) Time Regained: the creation of continuity. Journal of the British Archaeological Association 140, 1–17.
Cramp R (1983) Anglo-Saxon Settlement. 263–97 in J C Chapman and H Mytum (eds) Settlement in North Britain 1000BC – AD1000. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports
Frodsham P and O'Brien C (eds) (2005) Yeavering: people, power, place. Stroud: Tempus Publishing
Gates T (2005) Yeavering and Air Photography: discovery and interpretation. 65–83 in Frodsham and O’Brien (eds).
Gates T and O’Brien C (1988) Cropmarks at Milfield and New Bewick and the Recognition of Grubenhauser in Northumberland. Archaeologia Aeliana 5th Series, 16, 1–10.
Lucy S (2005) Early Medieval Burial at Yeavering: a retrospective. 127–144 in Frodsham and O’Brien (eds).
Miket R (1980) A Re-statement of Evidence from Bernician Burials. 289–305 in P. Rahtz, T. Dickinson and L. Watts (eds) Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries 1979. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
O’Brien C (2002) The Early Medieval Shires of Yeavering, Bamburgh and Breamish. Archaeologia Aeliana 5th Series, 30, 53–73.
O’Brien C (2005) The Great Enclosure. 145–152 in Frodsham and O’Brien (eds).
O’Brien C and Miket R (1991) The Early Medieval Settlement of Thirlings. Durham Archaeological Journal 7, 57–91.
Oswald A and Pearson S (2005) Yeavering Bell Hillfort. 98–126 in Frodsham and O’Brien.
Scull C (1991) Post-Roman Phase 1 at Yeavering: a reconsideration. Medieval Archaeology 35, 51–63.
Stenton F (1971) Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: Clarendon Press
Ware C (2005) The Social Use of Space at Gefrin. 153–160 in Frodsham and O’Brien (eds).
External links
Gefrin.com... Information, maps, diagrams, access routes and more about Yeavering, Gefrin and the hillforts in the north Cheviot hills
Northumberland National Park
360° model
Prehistoric web on Yeavering Bell
Keys to the Past
Villages in Northumberland
Anglo-Saxon sites in England
Archaeological sites in Northumberland
Anglo-Saxon royal vills
Kirknewton, Northumberland |
4545012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StubHub | StubHub | StubHub is an American ticket exchange and resale company. It provides services for buyers and sellers of tickets for sports, concerts, theater, and other live entertainment events. By 2015, it was the world's largest ticket marketplace. While the company does not currently disclose its financials, in 2015 it had over 16 million unique visitors and nearly 10 million live events per month.
StubHub was founded in 2000 by Eric Baker and Jeff Fluhr. The company was acquired by eBay for $310 million in 2007, and again acquired in 2020 by Viagogo.
History
2000–2007
StubHub was founded in March 2000 as a class project by Eric Baker and Jeff Fluhr, both former Stanford Business School students and investment bankers. One of its first major sports deals was with the Seattle Mariners in 2001. In 2002, eBay was in talks to acquire StubHub for US$20 million, although the agreement had later "fallen apart over price." While StubHub initially intended to "build a ticket transaction system that [Fluhr] could sell to other online portals and providers", in 2003, the company began placing Google ads for the actual StubHub website instead, directly facilitating ticket sales from sellers to buyers. After having a falling out with Fluhr in 2005, Baker left the company, retaining 10% ownership.
In 2005, the company raised between $10 million and $25 million from Pequot Ventures (now FirstMark Capital). That year, the company generated $50 million in revenue, was cash flow positive. and generated over $200 million in sales.
In 2006, StubHub became involved in several disputes over the resale of season sports tickets in New England, involving the New England Patriots and New York Yankees. In the U.S., 38 states had laws allowing the reselling of event tickets as long as the sale did not take place at the event site. The other 12 states had varying degrees of regulation, including registration requirements and maximum markups. StubHub, Ticketmaster, TicketNetwork, and others began to lobby state legislatures to repeal or modify the stricter anti-scalping laws. In Florida, StubHub made over $6,500 in campaign donations to members of the state legislature in support of a 2006 bill to amend Florida's 61-year-old anti-scalping laws. Many consumers, as well as lobbyists for the leisure and entertainment industries were opposed to the bill, and claimed it would drive up prices for consumers while hurting their share of the ticket market. The bill's sponsor argued its passage would modernize the state's ticketing industry. The bill passed in June 2006, resulting in 35 states having no restrictions on ticket resale.
In 2006, Inc. ranked StubHub as the eighth fastest growing private company in America on its annual "Inc. 500" list.
StubHub's acquisition by eBay was announced in January 2007 for a reported $310 million; the company went public under eBay. According to CNN Money, 2007 was a very successful year for the company, handling five million individual transactions, more than in the previous six years combined of its history. Staffing at StubHub had increased to 350 workers by the time of the sale. Following the acquisition, Fluhr left the company, and Chris Tsakalakis became the CEO.
2008–2013
By 2008, StubHub had become a $5 billion-a-year business. That same year, the company announced that music-related sales had seen the biggest growth and that music had become a "priority". By 2008 it had become a $5 billion a year business. It had 2.1 million visitors per month, generating over $100 million in sales annually. In 2009, Tsakalakis announced that transactions on StubHub had climbed 65% from the previous year, and revenue had increased by 40%. By 2009, StubHub was the largest secondary-market ticket reseller in the United States. However, in April 2009, StubHub reported that the price of second round Masters badges had declined by 43% from $1,073 in 2008 to $612 in 2009.
StubHub had 62 official partners by May 2011, including the Tostitos Fiesta Bowl, the Boston Red Sox, and Ultimate Fighting Championship. While StubHub marketed its partners' tickets and facilitated connections between buyer and seller, it did not acquire or mail the tickets directly. In July 2011, StubHub launched a new ticketing application, available on Microsoft Windows Phone, that makes it easier to buy tickets. StubHub applications for iPhone, iPad, BlackBerry 10, and Android also allow users to decide where they want to sit using interactive venue maps and the number of seats, and to plan the event by finding local restaurants, bars, and parking facilities. In 2012, StubHub integrated with Apple Passbook. Also in 2012, StubHub announced that Adele was the best-selling British act of 2011–2, with sales worth $35.18 million for her performances and merchandise alone. After StubHub opened a beta site in the UK in December 2011, it launched the full site in the UK in March 2012, also announcing plans to open stores in London and near major venues for last-minute ticket sales. At the time, StubHub said that 35% of tickets sold on its site came from professional brokers, and the rest came from part-time sellers or individuals.
In 2013, StubHub created an application especially for the South by Southwest events in Texas that gave users the opportunity to buy a range of tickets to all of the different shows. In January 2013, StubHub launched "The Rising Stars program", which offers grants of $25,000 - $100,000 for locally based, grassroots organizations to aid youth in sporting and artistic development. StubHub has also supported major benefit events, such as 121212, the Concert for Sandy Relief, including a $1 million donation to the Robin Hood Relief Fund for those impacted by Hurricane Sandy. StubHub and other reselling sites were criticized by concert producers of the 12-12-12 benefit concert in Madison Square Garden for allowing the resale of the tickets at above face value. In response StubHub stated it lacked the technology to require sellers donate their profits to charity, but noted it was donating all earnings on the concert's tickets to the organizing Robin Hood Foundation for Hurricane Sandy victims, ultimately donating US$1 million.
2014–2022
On November 4, 2014, Tsakalakis resigned from his position as president, and was replaced with Scott Cutler. In 2014, StubHub also announced the appointment of Jonah Freedman as its editor-in-chief, and has since announced plans to become a resource for finding and planning events. StubHub has also announced a plan to integrate with ESPN as part of the company's plans to offer more personalized content. As of May 2015, the site is visited by over 16 million unique visitors every month.
In September 2015, the company announced that it would no longer present inclusive ticket prices with fees and other charges included, switching to the practice where a user has the choice to have a lower price displayed at first and fees added at checkout, or fees displayed upfront. In 2013, StubHub started its own series of benefit concerts, and by 2015 had partnered with The Mr. Holland's Opus Foundation.
StubHub was active in the US, Canada, the UK, Mexico, and Germany by 2016, and was the world's largest ticket resale platform. In 2016 overall, StubHub had revenues of $940 million. In June 2016, the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) launched a compliance review of the four main secondary ticketing platform websites in the UK, including Viagogo, StubHub, GetMeIn, and Seatwave. At the conclusion of its investigation in 2018, the CMA demanded all four sites make "various changes" to comply with UK law.
In 2016, the United States Senate commerce committee introduced legislation called the Better Online Ticket Sales, or BOTS, Act which was later signed into law in December 2016 by President Obama. This law makes using bots to purchase tickets under certain circumstances illegal and holds bot owners liable for obtained tickets. StubHub expressed support for the legislation.
Sukhinder Singh Cassidy was made president of StubHub in 2018, replacing Cutler.
In late 2019, StubHub disclosed having sold $4.75 billion in tickets in 2018 with $1.1 billion in annual fees, and sold tickets in 44 countries, particularly the United States. On November 25, 2019, the competing service Viagogo—which was founded by Baker and has a major presence in Europe—announced that it would acquire StubHub for $4.05 billion. Viagogo was established by Baker after he left the company. Through the merger, StubHub and Viagogo would become owned by the new entity StubHub Holdings. In February 2020, Viagogo agreed to purchase StubHub for $4 billion. In September 2021, the UK Competition & Markets Authority gave Viagogo permission to complete the acquisition. As part of the deal, StubHub agreed to sell its business outside of North America, including its UK business, to Digital Fuel Capital LLC. In the process of the 2022 Viagogo purchase, StubHub again became a private company after being public for 13 years.
In January 2022, it was reported that StubHub Holdings was considering an IPO and had filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Bloomberg reported that the transaction could possibly value StubHub at US$13 billion. In July 2022, Nayaab Islam was appointed StubHub president.
Operations
The StubHub online platform facilitates ticket resale, as well as directly issuing tickets on behalf of event organizers for live entertainment, also offering features for finding and planning events.
August E. Grant and Jennifer H. Meadows describe StubHub as a "clearinghouse for ticket sales." It "serves as a middleman between buyers and sellers, deriving revenue from commissions on ticket sales." Local agencies may trade smaller profit margins from selling to a larger volume reseller rather than risk not finding a retail buyer for the same ticket. StubHub was described by The Wall Street Journal as "far and away the biggest player in the $6 billion market for reselling live-event tickets". The company allows for ticket sellers to gain a profit, but unlike eBay, without involving auctioning.
Many sell their extra tickets on StubHub at a profit, often tickets which are in high demand which are difficult to find. While concert tickets can get expensive when the demand is high, more than half of all tickets sold on StubHub go for at or below face value. Tsakalakis has stated that he believes the ticket market is not a level playing field for the average person, in that before a ticket goes on sale, promoters have already sold the vast majority of seats to everyone from fan club members, American Express card holders and ticket brokers. He has said, "There is this whole mentality within concerts that if it doesn't sell out right away it's not a hit. It just doesn't make sense. Nothing works that way. There isn't a supplier out there that says, 'The first day I put my product out there I want all of it to sell out and I don't want to have any more supply.' What business works that way?" Sellers choose what they want to charge for the ticket. A range of tickets are listed, mainly sporting, concert, theater, and other live entertainment events. Theatre and comedy is organized by Cirque du Soleil, Classical music and opera, dance/ballet, family, festivals and fairs, film festival, museum, musicals, play, and other/miscellaneous.
As of 2019, StubHub charged fees to both the buyer and the seller in a transaction, with fees only being shown in their entirety near the end of transactions. StubHub has defended this practice of "all-in" pricing from critics as the industry standard. In 2014, StubHub announced "all-in" pricing, presenting the total price of the ticket to the buyer including the fees, rather than adding the fees to the end. However, in 2015 StubHub reverted to the old system of adding fees at the final stage of the transaction. In a 2020 congressional hearing on ticketing companies, StubHub's general counsel said the company's all-in pricing failed because consumers found it confusing and competitors' prices appeared lower, but said StubHub would support a federal mandate to include fees upfront. StubHub has no price ceiling, but does inform buyers what similar tickets have sold for. The high resale prices for certain tickets have attracted criticism for being prohibitive to average concert-goers, such as the 2009 Super Bowl tickets that averaged $2,500 when resold on the platform. The company promised to refund the price of any ticket that fails to reach a buyer by FedEx, and sometimes sends staff to replace bad tickets. StubHub, as early as 2007, had implemented PayPal's API into its service, which began allowing sellers to be paid as soon as their ticket had been sold.
The company has offices in Los Angeles, Irvine, New York, Salt Lake City, Ireland, Switzerland. As of 2022, StubHub Holdings employed 650 full-time people, with a third of those employees at Viagogo. It faces competition from firms such as Ticketmaster, Vivid Seats, and SeatGeek.
Legal issues
New England Patriots lawsuit
In 2006, more than 100 New York Yankees season-ticket holders suspected of reselling their regular-season seats on StubHub received letters denying them the right to buy playoff tickets and barring them from buying season tickets for the 2007 season. StubHub criticized the policy as "a witch hunt against us and eBay for giving fans more access to these games". Also in 2006, the New England Patriots sued StubHub to bar it from reselling Patriots tickets in Massachusetts, arguing StubHub was illegally facilitating the sale of phony or voided season tickets. On July 6, 2007, a Suffolk Superior Court judge allowed StubHub to proceed with its lawsuit against the New England Patriots. StubHub accused the Patriots of attempted monopolization, conspiracy to restrain trade, and unfair trade practices. On October 19, 2007, a court upheld an order forcing StubHub to turn over a list of all New England Patriots season ticket holders since 2002 who had used the site. The Patriots stated that they may strip the season ticket holders of their seats. Purchasing StubHub during the dispute, eBay later settled.
New York Yankees lawsuit
In December 2012, it was reported that the New York Yankees, the Los Angeles Angels, and the Chicago Cubs had dropped StubHub and declined a new five-year deal, which MLB Advanced Media had signed. The Chicago Cubs later opted back into the partnership. In 2012, The Yankees sued StubHub for its storefront near Yankee Stadium, arguing that it violated New York law prohibiting ticket resale within 1,500 feet of a venue. StubHub argued that the location was not a ticket sales office but a printing station for tickets purchased online. The lawsuit was settled in 2013. eBay has announced that from May 2013 it will retire some of its ticket categories on its UK website and will redirect users to the StubHub website to purchase them. They began the merging process in January 2013 when listings on StubHub also appeared in search results on the eBay UK's tickets category. In April 2013, a new pricing structure was established, and the fee will be displayed upfront without going through an auction. In May 2013, cancellation of the Spice Girls' musical Viva Forever! saw a 220% increase in online ticket searches on StubHub UK, as fans rushed to buy tickets for the remaining shows.
Scalping
One of StubHub's top sellers (as of 2017) in the ticket reselling industry is a thirty-year-old man from Montreal, Canada, Julien Lavallée, According to a November 9, 2017 article published in The Toronto Star, Lavallée was able to expand his business using "exploitative tactics" that "gam[e] the ticket marketplace and put entertainment beyond the reach of millions of fans who can’t compete with large-scale scalping operations." The leaked documents included Lavallée's business records that showed that along with StubHub, he also used Vivid Seats and Ticketmaster as "'main channels' to scalp his tickets". Prior to October 2017, Lavallée used his company, I Want Ticket Inc, which was "registered on the British Isle of Man, to post on StubHub in the U.K."
A UK law was passed in 2017 that targeted sellers using software to purchase tickets. The Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) then sent out information requests to all four major UK platforms (Get Me In, Seatwave, Viagogo and StubHub) in August that year asking for information on sellers. When StubHub refused the request the CMA instead pursued a warrant, raiding StubHub's London office in August 2017 and confiscating records related to touts selling mass quantities of tickets. By November 2017, no charges had been laid against StubHub. According to the Toronto Star and the CBC News, Lavallée drew the attention of U.K.’s National Trading Standards (NTS) and CMA when he succeeded in controlling 310 seats for three of Adele's shows in London in 2016 for a total transaction of over $50,000 in less than a half an hour.
In late 2017, the Canadian press, using a "superscalper", Lavallée, exposed in the Paradise Papers as an example, reported that highly successful touts on StubHub were being openly incentivized for high sales volumes, arguing that StubHub was potentially incentivizing bot operators in the process.
Partnerships
StubHub has partnered with multiple companies and sports teams. The company has affiliated with Apple Inc, Spotify, BandPage, Amazon.com, and Uber.
Sports
StubHub has become a major sponsor in sports. In 2007, StubHub reached an exclusive agreement with Major League Baseball (MLB). They get a piece of the 25% in commissions StubHub earns on either end of a season ticket buy and sell transaction. Ticketmaster filed a lawsuit against StubHub and eBay in 2007, alleging "intentional interference" with Ticketmaster's contractual rights. In 2012, StubHub renewed deals with Major League Baseball Advanced Media. By December 2012, about half of the 30 MLB teams had separate partnership agreements with StubHub as well, with several teams such as the Los Angeles Angels not renewing.
StubHub is active in college sports, with 35 college sponsorship deals as of April 2013, including the Universities of Texas, Michigan, and USC. Partners also include ESPN,
Tickets.com, Paciolan, IMG, and some 30 multi-use venues and festivals including Staples Center and South by Southwest. In 2001, made a deal for secondary ticket sales with the Seattle Mariners. In April 2013, StubHub signed a three-year agreement with the Lawn Tennis Association which covers the Aegon events at Queens Club, London, Birmingham and Eastbourne. The agreement means that StubHub have become a brand presence on the websites of the tournaments and other forms of their marketing and communications. Also in April 2013, StubHub UK ran a competition in which if Everton F.C. fans bought their season tickets before April 19, they offered the chance to win a VIP experience for the final home game of the 2012/3 season against West Ham United F.C., which included champagne on arrival, a three-course meal, and a tour of the dressing room by Graeme Sharp. In May 2013, StubHub signed a three-year sponsorship deal with Jockey Club Racecourses to trade tickets on three of the racecourses in London; Sandown Park, Epsom Downs and Kempton Park.
On June 1, 2013, StubHub acquired naming rights to the home pitch of the Los Angeles Galaxy, which was renamed StubHub Center. On May 16, 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA announced that it had reached a three-year jersey sponsorship deal with StubHub to take effect beginning in the 2017–18 season—where the NBA will begin piloting jersey sponsorship. It marks the first time that a team belonging to any of the four major North American sports leagues has ever sold a jersey sponsorship.
Fans who wish to buy tickets with a team that has no relationship with StubHub may still do so - all teams, regardless of relationship (or lack thereof) may have their tickets sold there. However, if a team has no formal partnership with StubHub, electronic downloading and printing of e-tickets may not be available – such tickets can be shipped by UPS or picked up at StubHub's last-minute ticket windows. All tickets sold on StubHub are protected by the site's fan guarantee.
StubHub has attracted considerable criticism from sports executives. Tim Leiweke, former CEO of AEG has stated that "many sports executives hate StubHub because the company doesn't invest in the product on the court" but argues that this is misguided.
See also
Raji Arasu
List of companies founded by Stanford University alumni
List of acquisitions by eBay
List of NBA jersey sponsors
Notes
References
External links
Online marketplaces of the United States
American companies established in 2000
Retail companies established in 2000
Internet properties established in 2000
Companies based in Los Angeles
Ticket sales companies
IOS software
Android (operating system) software
2007 mergers and acquisitions
2020 mergers and acquisitions
People named in the Paradise Papers |
4546120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307%20NFL%20playoffs | 2006–07 NFL playoffs | The National Football League playoffs for the 2006 season began on January 6, 2007. The postseason tournament concluded with the Indianapolis Colts defeating the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI, 29–17, on February 4, at Dolphin Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida.
Participants
Bracket
Schedule
Under the new U.S. television broadcast contracts that took effect starting this season, NBC replaced ABC as the network televising the first two Wild Card playoff games. Fox then televised the rest of the NFC games. CBS broadcast the rest of the AFC playoff games and Super Bowl XLI.
Wild Card playoffs
Saturday, January 6, 2007
AFC: Indianapolis Colts 23, Kansas City Chiefs 8
Despite quarterback Peyton Manning's three interceptions, the Indianapolis Colts out-gained the Kansas City Chiefs in total yards, 435–126, and first downs, 23–8. Indianapolis's defense forced three turnovers, four sacks, and prevented Kansas City from gaining a single first down until late in the third quarter. The game was never in question despite Manning's turnovers as Indy dominated Kansas City from start to finish to earn a trip to Baltimore.
The Colts opened up the scoring on their first drive of the game with Adam Vinatieri's 48-yard field goal. The next time they had the ball, they drove 68 yards to the Kansas City 2-yard line, but had to settle for another Vinatieri field goal to give them a 6–0 lead. After another Kansas City punt, Chiefs cornerback Ty Law intercepted a pass from Manning and returned it 43 yards to the Colts 9-yard line. But Kansas City failed to get the ball into the end zone with three rushing attempts and came up empty when Lawrence Tynes' 23-yard field goal attempt hit the left upright. After another interception thrown by Manning and another Kansas City punt, the Colts increased their lead to 9–0 by driving 33 yards and scoring on Vinatieri's 50-yard field goal on the last play of the first half. The Chiefs ended the half with 16 total yards and no first downs. This was the first time in the modern era (post AFL–NFL merger) and the first time since 1960 that an NFL team had been held without an offensive first down in the first half of a playoff game.
On the Colts' opening possession of the second half, Manning threw his third interception of the game (and his second to Law), but the Chiefs could not take advantage of the turnover and had to punt. Indianapolis then drove 89 yards in 12 plays and scored with Joseph Addai's 6-yard touchdown run, giving them a 16–0 lead.
Kansas City got their first first down of the game on their ensuing possession, driving 60 yards in eight plays. Trent Green finished the drive with a 6-yard touchdown pass to tight end Tony Gonzalez, and then completed a pass to tight end Kris Wilson for a successful two-point conversion to cut their deficit to within one touchdown, 16–8. However, the Colts increased their lead to 23–8 on a 71-yard, 9-play drive ending with Reggie Wayne's 5-yard touchdown reception. Indianapolis's defense forced three turnovers on the Chiefs' last three drives to clinch the victory.
This was the third postseason meeting between the Chiefs and Colts, with Indianapolis winning both times in Kansas City, the most recent being 38–31 in the 2003 AFC Divisional playoffs.
NFC: Seattle Seahawks 21, Dallas Cowboys 20
Dallas Cowboys' quarterback Tony Romo, a four-year veteran who earned the starting job and made the Pro Bowl for the first time in his career during the regular season, botched the hold on a potential game-winning field goal with 1:19 left in the fourth quarter, allowing the Seattle Seahawks to escape with a victory.
Taking advantage of Dallas kicker Martín Gramática's opening kickoff, which went out-of-bounds and gave Seattle the ball at their own 40, the Seahawks marched down the field on their opening drive and scored with Josh Brown's 23-yard field goal. Dallas was forced to punt on their ensuing possession, but Cowboys cornerback Anthony Henry intercepted Seattle's next pass and returned it to the Seahawks 43-yard line, setting up Gramatica's 50-yard field goal to tie the game.
Early in the second quarter, Seattle drove 54 yards and retook the lead with Brown's second field goal of the game. After an exchange of punts, the Cowboys took the lead. Aided by Jason Witten's 32-yard reception, Dallas drove 76 yards in ten plays and scored on Romo's 12-yard touchdown pass to Patrick Crayton with only 11 seconds left in the half, giving the Cowboys a 10–6 lead. In the third quarter, Seattle drove 62 yards in 12 plays, featuring two fourth-down conversions by running back Shaun Alexander, and scored with Matt Hasselbeck's 15-yard touchdown pass to Jerramy Stevens, giving them a 13–10 lead. However, Dallas promptly took the lead right back after Miles Austin returned the ensuing kickoff 93 yards for a touchdown.
Early in the final quarter, Dallas safety Roy Williams intercepted a pass from Hasselbeck at the Cowboys 43-yard line. Eight plays later, Gramatica kicked a 29-yard field goal to increase his team's lead to 20–13. On Seattle's ensuing drive, a pass interference penalty on Dallas's Terence Newman gave them a first down on the 1-yard line. But Seattle failed to get into the end zone with their next four plays, turning the ball over on downs at the 2-yard line. On the first Dallas play after the turnover, Cowboys receiver Terry Glenn caught a short pass, but then lost a fumble. The ball was recovered by Seattle in the end zone for a touchdown, but after a Dallas challenge the referee ruled the play a safety, cutting the score to 20–15 and giving the ball back to the Seahawks at around the 50-yard line after the ensuing free kick and return. Four plays later, Hasselbeck's 37-yard touchdown pass to Stevens gave Seattle a 21–20 lead. The Seahawks attempted a two-point conversion to give themselves a three-point lead, but Hasselbeck's pass failed.
Dallas took the ensuing kickoff and marched down to the Seahawks' 8-yard line. On third down and 7 from there, Witten caught a pass that was initially ruled a first down on the 1-yard line, but after an instant-replay challenge, officials ruled Witten had been tackled at the 2-yard line, bringing up fourth down. With 1:19 left in the game, Gramatica lined up to attempt a 19-yard field goal, but Romo dropped the ball while setting it up for a hold. Romo picked up the fumble and ran with it, trying for either a touchdown or a first down, but he was tackled at the 2-yard line by safety Jordan Babineaux, turning the ball over on downs and allowing Seattle to run the clock down to eight seconds before punting back to Dallas. On the last play of the game, Romo's Hail Mary pass fell incomplete in the end zone.
"I know how hard everyone in that locker room worked to get themselves in position to win that game today and for it to end like that, and for me to be the cause is very tough to swallow right now", Romo said after the game. "I take responsibility for messing up at the end there. That's my fault. I cost the Dallas Cowboys a playoff win, and it's going to sit with me a long time. I don't know if I have ever felt this low."
This was the final game in the Hall of Fame coaching career of Bill Parcells, who resigned his position with the Cowboys two weeks later. Parcells would later take a front office position with the Miami Dolphins but never returned to the sidelines.
This was the first postseason meeting between the Cowboys and Seahawks.
Sunday, January 7, 2007
AFC: New England Patriots 37, New York Jets 16
Tom Brady completed 22 out of 34 passes for 212 yards and two touchdowns, while New England Patriots running backs Corey Dillon, Laurence Maroney, and Kevin Faulk combined for 145 rushing yards in a win over the New York Jets. Receiver Jabar Gaffney, who caught only 11 passes during the season, finished his first career playoff game with eight catches for 104 yards.
New England took the opening kickoff and drove down the field, with Gaffney catching three passes for 34 yards on a 65 yard-drive that ended with Dillon's 11-yard touchdown run. Later in the quarter, Hank Poteat recovered a fumble from Dillon on the Patriots 15-yard line, setting up Mike Nugent's 28-yard field goal to cut their deficit to 7–3. On their first possession of the second quarter, the Jets took a 10–7 lead after receiver Jerricho Cotchery (who finished with 100 receiving yards and 19 rushing yards) caught a pass from Chad Pennington and took it 77 yards for a touchdown. However, New England countered with Stephen Gostkowski's 20-yard field goal on their next drive to tie the game. Then, after forcing the Jets to punt, the Patriots marched to New York's 1-yard line. On third down with 11 seconds remaining in the half and no timeouts left, Brady took the snap, faked a handoff to Dillon, and then hit tight end Daniel Graham in the back of the end zone for a touchdown to give them a 17–10 halftime lead.
Nugent kicked a field goal on the Jets' opening drive of the second half, but New England responded with another field goal from Gostkowski to retake their 7-point lead. On the Jets' ensuing possession, linebacker Rosevelt Colvin deflected a lateral from Pennington behind the line of scrimmage. Most of the players on both teams (including Colvin) thought the lateral was an incomplete forward pass and the play was over, but New England's Vince Wilfork realized the play was still ongoing and recovered the fumble. After picking up the ball, Wilfork ran 31 yards to the Jets 15-yard line before being tackled by Cotchery, setting up Gostkowski's third field goal to make the score 23–13.
Early in the fourth quarter, Nugent kicked his third field goal to cut New York's deficit back to within a touchdown, 23–16. However, the Patriots responded with a 13-play, 63-yard drive that took 6:23 off the clock and ended with Brady's 7-yard touchdown pass to Faulk. Then on the first play of the Jets' ensuing drive, Asante Samuel put the game away by intercepting Pennington's pass and returning it 36 yards for a touchdown.
This remains the Patriots' most recent victory on Wildcard Weekend.
This was the second postseason meeting between the Jets and Patriots, with New England winning the prior meeting 26–14 in the 1985 AFC Wild Card playoffs.
NFC: Philadelphia Eagles 23, New York Giants 20
Philadelphia built up a 20–10 fourth quarter lead and thwarted a late Giants comeback attempt, winning on a 38-yard field goal by David Akers on the last play of the game.
New York took the opening kickoff and scored quickly, driving 67 yards in seven plays and scoring with Eli Manning's 17-yard touchdown pass to Plaxico Burress only 3:12 into the game. All of the remaining drives of the first quarter ended in punts, but early in the second quarter, Eagles running back Brian Westbrook's 49-yard touchdown run tied the game at seven. Two plays after the ensuing kickoff, Philadelphia cornerback Sheldon Brown intercepted a pass from Manning and returned it to the Giants 37-yard line, setting up a 19-yard field goal by Akers to take a 10–7 lead. On New York's ensuing possession, a 41-yard run by halfback Tiki Barber sparked a 78-yard drive capped by Jay Feely's 20-yard field goal to tie the game with 4:45 left in the half. Philadelphia responded, with quarterback Jeff Garcia leading the Eagles down the field 80 yards in ten plays and finishing it off with a 28-yard touchdown pass to Donté Stallworth, giving his team a 17–10 halftime lead.
Two penalties by the Eagles in the second half allowed the Giants to stay close. Late in the third quarter, an illegal block-in-the-back by rookie Tank Daniels nullified Westbrook's second touchdown of the game, which came on a 65-yard punt return. The Eagles still managed to score on their drive with a 48-yard field goal by Akers, increasing their lead to 20–10. The second penalty, a 47-yard pass interference call against Brown, came on the Giants' next possession giving the Giants offense the ball at the Philadelphia 14. The Eagles' defense dug in and forced the Giants to settle for Feely's second field goal of the game from 24 yards out, leaving the Giants down only one touchdown early in the fourth quarter.
Later in the quarter, the Giants drove to the Eagles 23-yard line. Two false starts and a holding penalty pushed them back to the 43, but Manning overcame the situation by completing three passes to Burress; the first went for 18 yards and the second for 14 and a first down, before the third, an 11-yard strike, found Burress in the end zone for his second touchdown of the game that tied the score with 5:04 to play. Philadelphia responded by driving 46 yards in ten plays, including a first down rush by Westbrook, allowing the Eagles to take the clock all the way down to three seconds before calling on Akers to kick a 38-yard field goal as time expired.
In the final game of his career, Barber rushed for a career postseason high 137 yards and caught two passes for 15 yards. Westbrook rushed for 141 yards and a touchdown and caught two passes for 12 yards.
This was the third postseason meeting between the Giants and Eagles. New York won both prior meetings, with the most recent coming in the 2000 NFC Divisional playoffs and ended with a 20–10 final.
Divisional playoffs
Saturday, January 13, 2007
AFC: Indianapolis Colts 15, Baltimore Ravens 6
Adam Vinatieri's five field goals boosted the Colts to victory over the Ravens in the first NFL playoff game without a touchdown since the 1979 NFC Championship Game.
Indianapolis forced the Ravens to punt on their opening possession, and Terrence Wilkins gave them good field position with a 21-yard return to their 46-yard line. The Colts subsequently drove to Baltimore's 5-yard line where Vinatieri kicked a field goal to give them a 3–0 lead. On the second play of the Ravens' next drive, Indianapolis linebacker Gary Brackett recovered a fumble from tight end Todd Heap at the Baltimore 31-yard line, setting up another Vinatieri field goal to make the score 6–0.
Later in the quarter, Cory Ross' 18-yard punt return gave the Ravens a first down on the Colts' 42-yard line. Six plays later, Matt Stover kicked a 40-yard field goal on the first play of the second quarter to cut their deficit to 6–3. Two plays after the ensuing kickoff, Baltimore safety Ed Reed intercepted a pass from Peyton Manning at the Ravens' 45-yard line. Baltimore subsequently moved to the ball to the Colts' 4-yard line, but then gave it back when Steve McNair's third-down pass was intercepted by Antoine Bethea. Following the turnover, the Colts marched 63 yards in 13 plays and scored with Vinatieri's third field goal, which hit the cross bar and bounced through the uprights, to give them a 9–3 halftime lead.
Indianapolis took the second half kickoff and drove 54 yards, featuring a 27-yard catch by tight end Dallas Clark. Vinatieri finished the drive with a 48-yard field goal to increase their lead to 12–3. After an exchange of punts, the Ravens cut the score to 12–6 by driving 62 yards and scoring on a 51-yard field goal from Stover. Then, on the third play of the Colts' ensuing possession, Reed recorded his second interception from Manning, giving his team a first down on their 39-yard line. However, just like his previous pick, the Ravens could not take advantage of the turnover. Five plays later, McNair's pass was intercepted by Nick Harper.
After each team punted once, the Colts put the game away with a 47-yard drive that took 7:16 off the clock and included three successful third down conversions. Vinatieri finished the drive with his fifth field goal, giving Indianapolis a 15–6 lead with only 23 seconds left in regulation. Colts defensive end Robert Mathis then sealed the victory by forcing and recovering a fumble from McNair on the Ravens' final play.
The game had added significance to many Baltimore fans, due to the circumstances of the Colts' departure from Baltimore 23 years earlier. The Indianapolis Colts advanced to their second AFC Championship Game in four years. It was the third consecutive playoff defeat for the Ravens.
This was the first postseason meeting between the Colts and Ravens.
NFC: New Orleans Saints 27, Philadelphia Eagles 24
The Saints gained 208 rushing yards and 435 total yards, both postseason franchise records, along with 158 return yards on special teams en route to a 27–24 victory over the Eagles, allowing them to advance to the conference championship game for the first time in the team's 40-year history.
In the first quarter, a 28-yard run from New Orleans' Deuce McAllister set up a 33-yard field goal from John Carney to open up the scoring. Later in the quarter, two big plays from the Saints, a 25-yard run by Reggie Bush and a 35-yard reception by Devery Henderson, set up Carney's second field goal 15 seconds into the second quarter, making the score 6–0.
Three plays after the kickoff, Eagles quarterback Jeff Garcia threw a 75-yard touchdown pass to Donté Stallworth to give his team a 7–6 lead. The Saints responded with a 78-yard drive, scoring on a 5-yard touchdown run by Bush to retake the lead at 13–7. However, the Eagles stormed right back, driving 80 yards in 11 plays. On third down and goal, running back Brian Westbrook took a handoff and jumped over top of the defensive line and fell into the end zone for a touchdown, giving them a 14–13 lead with 50 seconds left in the half. New Orleans returner Michael Lewis returned the kickoff 25 yards to their 35-yard line. With two seconds left, quarterback Drew Brees threw a Hail Mary pass to the end zone. Wide receiver Marques Colston initially caught the ball, but it squirted out of his arms as he fell to the ground, and was ruled an incompletion.
Philadelphia took the second-half kickoff and scored in just three plays with a 62-yard touchdown romp from Westbrook, increasing their lead to 21–13. However, Lewis returned their kickoff 36 yards to the 37-yard line, where the Saints drove 63 yards in 8 plays, the longest a 29-yard completion from Brees to tight end Billy Miller. McAllister finished the possession with a 5-yard touchdown run, making the score 21-20. Then after forcing a punt, New Orleans drove to the Eagles' 29-yard line. After two penalties (a holding call against the Saints and an illegal contact call against the Eagles), McAllister rushed for 25 yards and followed it up with an 11-yard touchdown reception, giving the Saints a 27–21 lead.
With less than a minute left in the third quarter, Philadelphia safety Reno Mahe's 25-yard punt return sparked a 9-play, 66-yard drive featuring a 24-yard completion from Garcia to Reggie Brown. David Akers completed the drive with a 24-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to three points with 11:07 left on the clock. After an exchange of punts, the Saints drove from their 29 to the Eagles 35-yard line with 3:24 left in the game. New Orleans was in great position to take more time off the clock and increase their lead, but Bush fumbled a high pitch from Brees and Philadelphia's Darren Howard recovered the ball, giving his team a chance to drive for a tying field goal. However, the Eagles were unable to get a first down. They appeared to convert a fourth and 10 to Hank Baskett, but the loud crowd noise had muted the whistles of a false start by guard Scott Young, originally a backup to injured starter Shawn Andrews. After that, they chose to punt the ball back with 1:57 left. The Saints then clinched the victory by keeping possession of the ball for the rest of the game.
This was the second postseason meeting between the Eagles and Saints. Philadelphia won the only prior meeting 36–20 in the 1992 NFC Wild Card playoffs.
Sunday, January 14, 2007
NFC: Chicago Bears 27, Seattle Seahawks 24 (OT)
Robbie Gould's 49-yard field goal in overtime propelled the Bears over the Seahawks and to their first NFC Championship Game since the 1988 season. This was also their first playoff win since 1994.
Chicago started the game with a 12-play, 70-yard possession, featuring a 37-yard completion from Rex Grossman to Rashied Davis. Running back Thomas Jones capped off the drive with a 9-yard touchdown run. Seahawks receiver Nate Burleson gave his team great field position with a 41-yard kickoff return to the 47-yard line, but the Bears forced Seattle to punt after three plays. Then, after forcing Chicago to punt, Seattle quarterback Matt Hasselbeck tied the score with a 16-yard touchdown pass to Burleson on the first play of the second quarter. However, Grossman threw a 68-yard touchdown pass to Bernard Berrian on the first play after the ensuing kickoff, giving his team a 14–7 lead.
Later in the quarter, Grossman lost a fumble while being sacked by Julian Peterson, and Seattle's Chuck Darby recovered the ball at the Bears' 26-yard line. Seahawks running back Shaun Alexander subsequently took the ball into the end zone with four running plays, the last one a 4-yard touchdown run to tie the game. Seattle decided to squib kick the ensuing kickoff to prevent a long return, but Bears tight end Gabe Reid gave Chicago good field position with a 20-yard return to the 43-yard line. After the two-minute warning, Grossman completed a 21-yard pass to Muhsin Muhammad and followed it up with an 18-yard completion to Rashied Davis, advancing the ball to the 7-yard line. Following a timeout, Jones scored his second rushing touchdown, giving the Bears a 21–14 halftime lead.
On the opening drive of the third quarter, Josh Brown's 54-yard field goal cut the Seahawks deficit to 21–17. Then, after the Bears were forced to punt, receiver Deion Branch caught two passes for 33 yards on a 7-play, 51-yard drive that ended with Alexander's second touchdown on a 13-yard run, making the score 24–21. Chicago responded by advancing the ball to the Seahawks 10-yard line, but cornerback Pete Hunter ended the drive by intercepting a pass intended for Muhammad. However, Ricky Manning intercepted Hasselbeck's next pass and returned it to the 32-yard line. Chicago ended up getting pushed back to the 36 and decided to punt rather than risk a 54-yard field goal attempt.
In the fourth quarter, Chicago lost a scoring opportunity when Devin Hester's 63-yard punt return touchdown was nullified by an illegal block penalty on Manning. Instead, they ended up driving 48 yards and scoring with Gould's 41-yard field goal to tie the game. Seattle responded with a drive to Chicago's 46-yard line, but turned the ball over on downs when Alexander was tackled for a 1-yard loss by Lance Briggs on fourth and 1 with under two minutes left in regulation. However, Chicago was unable to get a first down and had to punt. Seattle then drove to the Bears 45-yard line, but Tank Johnson sacked Hasselbeck for a 9-yard loss with less than 30 seconds left in regulation, and the game ended up going into overtime.
Seattle won the coin toss, but had to punt after three plays. On the punt, Chicago defender Israel Idonije broke through the offensive line and attempted to block the kick. He didn't quite make it there in time, but he forced Ryan Plackemeier to rush his punt, which ended up going just 18 yards to the Chicago 36-yard line. Two plays later, a 30-yard reception by Davis set up Gould's game-winning 49-yard field goal.
the Game was later featured NFL Greatest Games was call A Wild One In The Windy City
This was the first postseason meeting between the Seahawks and Bears.
AFC: New England Patriots 24, San Diego Chargers 21
In the final game of the divisional playoffs, the New England Patriots faced the San Diego Chargers, who were unbeaten at home in the regular season. The Chargers' roster included league MVP running back LaDainian Tomlinson, who broke several league records, nine Pro Bowlers, and five All-Pro players. However, four Chargers turnovers, three of which were converted into Patriots scoring drives, helped lead to a Chargers loss. San Diego lost despite outgaining the Patriots in rushing yards, 148–51 and total yards, 352–327, while also intercepting three passes from Tom Brady.
In the first quarter, after San Diego coach Marty Schottenheimer opted to go for it on fourth and 11 instead of attempting a 47-yard field goal, quarterback Philip Rivers lost a fumble while being sacked by Mike Vrabel, setting up Stephen Gostkowski's 51-yard field goal with 40 seconds left in the quarter. In the second quarter, Chargers receiver Eric Parker's 13-yard punt return set up a 48-yard scoring drive that ended with Tomlinson's 2-yard touchdown run, giving his team a 7–3 lead. Then, on the Patriots' next drive, linebacker Donnie Edwards intercepted a pass from Brady and returned it to the 41-yard line. But the Chargers ended up punting after Rivers was sacked on third down by Artrell Hawkins. Later in the quarter, Tomlinson rushed twice for 13 yards and took a screen pass 58 yards to the Patriots' 6-yard line, setting up a 6-yard touchdown run by Michael Turner with 2:04 left in the half. New England responded with a 72-yard scoring drive, with receiver Jabar Gaffney catching four passes for 46 yards, including a 7-yard touchdown reception with six seconds left in the half, cutting their deficit to 14–10.
In the second half, Brady threw his second interception of the game. But once again, the Chargers were forced to punt after Rivers was sacked on third down. Mike Scifres' 36-yard punt pinned New England back at their own 2-yard line, and San Diego subsequently forced a punt, but Parker muffed the kick and New England's David Thomas recovered the fumble at the Chargers' 31-yard line. New England's drive seemed to stall after Brady fumbled on third and 13. Patriots' offensive tackle Matt Light recovered it and Chargers safety Drayton Florence drew a 15-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty for taunting Patriots tight end Daniel Graham. The drive continued and Gostkowski eventually kicked a 34-yard field goal to cut their deficit to 14–13. Then, on San Diego's next drive, linebacker Rosevelt Colvin intercepted a pass from Rivers at the New England 36-yard line. The Patriots then drove to the Chargers 41-yard line, but were halted there and had to punt. After the punt, Rivers completed two passes to tight end Antonio Gates for 31 yards and a 31-yard pass to Vincent Jackson, setting up Tomlinson's second rushing touchdown to give the Chargers an 8-point lead, 21–13.
New England responded by driving to San Diego's 41-yard line. On a fourth-down conversion attempt, Brady's pass was intercepted by Marlon McCree, but Troy Brown stripped the ball, and receiver Reche Caldwell recovered it. Schottenheimer unsuccessfully challenged the play and lost a timeout. Four plays later, Brady threw a 4-yard touchdown pass to Caldwell. On the next play, running back Kevin Faulk took a direct snap and scored the two-point conversion, tying the game. Then, after forcing a punt, Brady completed a 19-yard pass to Graham. Two plays later, Caldwell caught a 49-yard strike down the right sideline to set up Gostkowski's third field goal to give them a 24–21 lead with only 1:10 left in the fourth quarter. With no timeouts left, San Diego drove to the Patriots 36-yard line on their final possession, but Nate Kaeding's 53-yard field goal attempt fell short with three seconds remaining in the game.
One month later, Schottenheimer was fired by San Diego, ending his 21-year coaching career. His 14–2 season with the Chargers was his best regular season record ever, and he is the only coach in NFL history to be fired after racking up 14 wins.
This was the Patriots last road playoff victory until the 2018 AFC Championship Game in Kansas City.
This was the second postseason meeting between the Patriots and Chargers, with San Diego winning the prior meeting 51–10 in the 1963 AFL Championship Game.
Conference Championships
Sunday, January 21, 2007
NFC: Chicago Bears 39, New Orleans Saints 14
Although the Saints outgained the Bears in total yards, 375–335, their four turnovers (three fumbles and one interception) contributed to a Bears victory.
On the opening drive of the game, Saints receiver Devery Henderson caught a 40-yard pass at the Bears' 32-yard line. But three plays later, Bears defensive end Israel Idonije sacked quarterback Drew Brees on the 36-yard line, and the Saints decided to punt rather than attempt a 54-yard field goal.
With 5:28 remaining in the first quarter, Bears cornerback Nathan Vasher recovered a fumble from Marques Colston and returned it 14 yards to the Saints' 36-yard line. Several plays later, Robbie Gould kicked a 19-yard field goal to give the Bears a 3–0 lead. Then, Chicago's Danieal Manning recovered a fumble from Michael Lewis on the ensuing kickoff, setting up Gould's second field goal to increase the lead to 6–0. New Orleans was forced to punt on their next possession, and Devin Hester gave his team good field position with a 10-yard return to the Saints' 49-yard line. Two plays later, tight end Desmond Clark's 30-yard reception moved the ball to the 19. Once again, New Orleans kept Chicago's offense out of the end zone, but Gould kicked his third field goal to give the Bears a 9–0 lead. Then, after forcing another punt, Chicago stormed down the field on a drive in which running back Thomas Jones carried the ball on eight consecutive plays, gaining 69 yards and finishing it off with a 2-yard touchdown run. This time, New Orleans managed to respond, with Brees completing five passes for 73 yards on their ensuing possession, the last one a 13-yard touchdown pass to Colston, to cut their deficit to 16–7 by halftime.
Two plays after forcing a punt from Chicago on the opening drive of the second half, running back Reggie Bush caught a pass from Brees and took it 88 yards for a touchdown to cut the deficit to two points. Then after forcing another punt, New Orleans drove to the Bears' 29-yard line. But this time, they failed to score, as Brees threw three incompletions and Billy Cundiff missed a 47-yard field goal attempt.
After the ensuing kickoff, Brad Maynard's 51-yard punt gave the Saints the ball at their own 5-yard line. Two plays later, Brees committed an intentional grounding penalty in the end zone, resulting in a safety. Two possessions later, Chicago stormed 85 yards in five plays, with quarterback Rex Grossman completing four consecutive passes for 73 yards, the last one a 33-yard touchdown pass to Bernard Berrian, increasing their lead to 25–14.
The next time the Bears had the ball, they scored another touchdown with a 12-yard run by Cedric Benson on a drive that was set up after Brees lost a fumble while being sacked by Adewale Ogunleye. Then, on New Orleans' next drive, Brees was intercepted by Vasher. After the ensuing possession, Maynard's 46-yard punt pinned the Saints at their own 8-yard line, and the Saints could only reach their own 30 before turning the ball over on downs. Five plays later, Jones closed out the scoring with a 15-yard touchdown run, making the final score 39–14.
In addition, Bush became the fifth Heisman Trophy winner to play in a conference championship game the year after winning the trophy. Mike Garrett, who also went to the University of Southern California, did so with the Chiefs in 1966 (technically it was the AFL title game since the league didn't merge until 1970), Tony Dorsett did with the Cowboys in 1977, Earl Campbell did with the Houston Oilers in 1978 and Ron Dayne did with the Giants in 2000. Campbell and Bush are the only two of those to not advance to the Super Bowl in that season. (Bush has since vacated the Heisman Trophy due to ineligibility during the 2005 NCAA football season.)
This was the second postseason meeting between the Saints and Bears. Chicago won the previous meeting 16–6 in the 1990 NFC Wild Card playoffs.
AFC: Indianapolis Colts 38, New England Patriots 34
The Colts gained 455 offensive yards, 32 first downs, and managed to overcome a 21–3 deficit to the Patriots to earn their first trip to the Super Bowl since the 1970 NFL season. Their 18-point comeback was the largest ever in an NFL conference championship game (since tied by the Cincinnati Bengals in the 2021 AFC Championship game), and tied the record for the fourth largest NFL postseason comeback. The Colts' win came after the Patriots had eliminated the Colts from the playoffs twice in the previous three seasons.
Midway through the first quarter, the Patriots drove 71 yards to the Colts' 4-yard line, featuring a 35-yard run by Corey Dillon. On third down, running back Laurence Maroney fumbled a handoff, but the ball rolled into the end zone where Patriots guard Logan Mankins recovered it for a touchdown. The Colts responded by driving 56 yards and scoring with Adam Vinatieri's 42-yard field goal to cut their deficit to 7–3. On their ensuing drive, the Patriots drove to a fourth down on the Colts' 34-yard line. Rather than attempt a 52-yard field goal, New England decided to go for it and Tom Brady completed a 27-yard pass to Troy Brown. On the next play, Dillon scored on a 7-yard touchdown run. Then, two plays after the ensuing kickoff, cornerback Asante Samuel intercepted a pass from Peyton Manning and returned it 39 yards for a touchdown, giving New England a 21–3 lead. Later in the quarter, Indianapolis drove 80 yards in 15 plays, with Vinatieri finishing the drive with a 26-yard field goal, cutting the score to 21–6 with 11 seconds left in the half.
On the opening drive of the second half, the Colts drove 79 yards in 15 plays and scored with a 1-yard run by Manning. Then, after forcing a punt, a 25-yard reception by Dallas Clark and a 19-yard run by Dominic Rhodes moved the ball to the Patriots' 32-yard line. Following a pass interference penalty on Ellis Hobbs in the end zone, Manning threw a 1-yard touchdown pass to defensive tackle Dan Klecko, who had lined up at the fullback position on the play. Then, receiver Marvin Harrison caught a 2-point conversion pass to tie the game at 21.
Hobbs returned the ensuing kickoff 80 yards to the Colts' 21-yard line. Four plays later, Brady threw a 6-yard touchdown pass to receiver Jabar Gaffney, who made a leaping catch in the back of the end zone. Although he landed out of bounds, officials ruled that he was pushed out while in the air, and the Patriots took a 28–21 lead. Rhodes started out the Colts' next drive with two receptions for 23 yards and a 9-yard run. Then, Clark caught a 23-yard pass at the 9-yard line. Three plays later, Rhodes fumbled the ball at the 1-yard line, but Colts center Jeff Saturday recovered it in the end zone for a touchdown to tie the game. Mankins and Saturday's touchdowns marked the first time in NFL playoff history in which more than one offensive lineman scored a touchdown in the same game.
After an exchange of punts, New England kicker Stephen Gostkowski made a 28-yard field goal to give them a three-point lead. The Colts responded with a 36-yard field goal by Vinatieri, set up by Clark's 52-yard reception, to tie the game at 31. Hobbs returned Vinatieri's kickoff 41 yards to the Patriots' 46-yard line. Then, Brady completed a 25-yard pass to tight end Daniel Graham. Indianapolis managed to halt the drive at their 25-yard line, but Gostkowski kicked a 43-yard field goal to give the Patriots a 34–31 lead with 3:49 left in the game. New England's defense subsequently forced a punt, but the Patriots ended up punting back to the Colts after running only a minute off the clock.
Manning started off the drive with three nonconsecutive completions for 58 yards, with a roughing-the-passer penalty on the third play adding another 12, moving the ball 70 yards in a span of 19 seconds and bringing up a first down at the Patriots' 11-yard line. Three plays later, Joseph Addai's 3-yard touchdown run gave the Colts their first lead of the game with only one minute remaining. Brady responded by leading his team to the Colts' 45-yard line. But cornerback Marlin Jackson intercepted Brady's next pass with 17 seconds left, ending the game, and sending the Colts to their third Super Bowl in team history (first as the Indianapolis Colts).
The Colts were the first #3 seed since the NFL expanded the playoffs in 1990 to host a conference championship game and the first overall since the Washington Redskins did so in 1987. It was also the first time since said season where a team hosted a championship game after playing a road game in the divisional round, and was also the first conference championship game in which neither team had the first round bye and had to play three rounds to get to the Super Bowl.
Hobbs set a Patriots franchise record with 220 kickoff return yards, the second highest total in NFL postseason history.
The game was featured as one of the NFL's Greatest Games as Peyton's Revenge. For the Patriots, it was their last road playoff loss until the 2013 AFC Championship Game at Denver (whom Manning had joined after leaving Indianapolis).
This was the third postseason meeting between the Patriots and Colts. New England won the previous two meetings in consecutive years, with New England's most recent victory by a score of 20–3 in the 2004 AFC Divisional playoffs.
Super Bowl XLI: Indianapolis Colts 29, Chicago Bears 17
This was the first Super Bowl meeting between the Colts and Bears.
References
Sources
National Football League playoffs
Playoffs |
4546304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendover%20Air%20Force%20Base | Wendover Air Force Base | Wendover Air Force Base is a former United States Air Force base in Utah now known as Wendover Airport. During World War II, it was a training base for B-17 and B-24 bomber crews. It was the training site of the 509th Composite Group, the B-29 unit that carried out the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
After the war, Wendover was used for training exercises, gunnery range and as a research facility. It was closed by the Air Force in 1969, and the base was given to Wendover City in 1977. Tooele County, Utah, assumed ownership of the airport and base buildings in 1998, and the County continues to operate the airfield as a public airport. A portion of the original bombing range is now the Utah Test and Training Range (UTTR) which is used extensively by the Air Force with live fire targets on the range.
Origins
Wendover Air Force Base's history began in 1940, when the United States Army began looking for additional bombing ranges. The area near the town of Wendover was well-suited to these needs; the land was virtually uninhabited, had generally excellent flying weather, and the nearest large city (Salt Lake City) was away (Wendover had around 100 citizens at the time). Though isolated, the area was served by the Western Pacific Railroad, and many of its citizens were employed by the railroad.
Construction of the base began on 20 September 1940 and on the range on 4 November 1940. Wendover Air Base became a subpost of Fort Douglas in Salt Lake City on 29 July 1941. By that time a total of had been acquired for the base and associated gunnery/bombing range long and wide. Ranchers protested the loss of their grazing land, which they claimed would wipe them out and cost the state of Utah $1.5 million annually. They took their complaints to Governor Henry Hooper Blood, but the War Department pressed on with the development of the bombing range. The first military contingent arrived on 12 August 1941, to construct targets on the bombing range. To provide water, a pipeline was run from a spring on Pilot Peak to the base.
World War II
With the entrance of the United States into World War II, Wendover Field took on greater importance. It was the Army Air Force's largest bombing and gunnery range. In March 1942 the Army Air Force activated Wendover Army Air Field and also assigned the research and development of guided missiles, pilotless aircraft, and remotely controlled bombs to the site. The new base was supplied and serviced by the Ogden Air Depot at Hill Field. In April 1942, the Wendover Sub-Depot was activated and assumed technical and administrative control of the field, under the Ogden Air Depot. The Wendover Sub-Depot was tasked to requisition, store, and issue all Army Air Forces property for organizations stationed at Wendover Field for training.
By late 1943 there were some 2,000 civilian employees and 17,500 military personnel at Wendover. Construction at the base continued for most of the war, including three paved runways, taxiways, a ramp, and seven hangars. By May 1945 the base consisted of 668 buildings, including a 300-bed hospital, gymnasium, swimming pool, library, chapel, cafeteria, bowling alley, two movie theatres, and 361 housing units for married officers and civilians.
Heavy Bombardment Group training
Wendover's mission was to train heavy bomb groups. The training of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator groups began in April 1942, with the arrival of the 306th Bomb Group flying B-17s. From March 1942 through April 1944, Wendover AAF hosted twenty newly formed B-17 and B-24 groups during one phase of their group training. The Second Air Force organized bombardment training into three phases. In the first, training focused on the individual crew members. In the second, training involved the whole crew, who would conduct training together. The third and final phase saw the group's crews training together, with formation flying and practice combat missions. Until the end of 1943, each phase of training was conducted at a different base.
Fighter training
In April 1944, the role of Wendover Army Air Base changed with the arrival from Louisiana of P-47 fighters of the 72nd Fighter Wing.
The program ended in September after three groups, totalling 180 men, had been trained.
509th Composite Group
In June 1943, preparations began for the operational use of atomic bombs. Although not as suitable for the atomic mission as the British Avro Lancaster with its cavernous bomb bay, Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., the director of the Manhattan Project, and General Henry H. Arnold, the Chief of United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), wanted to use an American plane, if this was at all possible, so the Boeing B-29 Superfortress was chosen, even though it required substantial modification. The modification project was codenamed Silverplate, but this codename eventually came to identify the training and operational aspects of the program as well.
Arnold selected Lieutenant Colonel Paul Tibbets, an officer with a distinguished combat record in Europe and North Africa, who had expert knowledge of the B-29 as one of its test pilots, to form and train a group to deliver atomic bombs. Tibbets chose the Wendover over Great Bend, Kansas, and Mountain Home, Idaho, as the location for his training program. It was remote, which was good for secrecy and security, but within reasonable distance by air from the Manhattan Project's Site Y, at Los Alamos, New Mexico, and the Naval Auxiliary Air Station Salton Sea, where bombing tables for the mission would be prepared. The base was given the code name "Kingman", and became the Manhattan Project's Site K. The activity to assemble, modify and flight test prototype bombs was named "Project W-47".
On 14 September 1944, the 393d Bomb Squadron arrived at Wendover from its former base at Fairmont Army Air Base, Nebraska, where it had been an operational training unit (OTU) with the 504th Bombardment Group since 12 March. When its parent group deployed to the Marianas in early November 1944, the squadron was assigned directly to the Second Air Force until creation of the 509th Composite Group on 17 December 1944. As part of the formation of the 509th, about 800 people stationed at the field, were transferred to the new group. To make the 509th Composite Group as self-contained as possible, other units were assigned, including the 390th Air Service Group, with the 603d Air Engineering and 1027th Materiel Squadrons; the 320th Troop Carrier Squadron, known as the "Green Hornet Airlines"; the 1395th Military Police Company, and later the 1st Ordnance Squadron. A Manhattan Project unit, the 1st Technical Detachment, was attached to the group.
The 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Special) constructed prototype atomic weapons (without nuclear material) and drop tested them. Little was known about the flight characteristics of the prototype atom bomb designs and how the fusing mechanism would work. In February 1945, a Flight Test Section was created within the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit to carry out testing with prototype bombs in the shape of the Little Boy and Fat Man bombs. It was originally equipped with five Silverplate B-29s, three flight crews and five maintenance crews. To help out with an increasingly demanding schedule, four crews from the 393d Bombardment Squadron were made available. The Flight Test Section carried out 24 drop tests in June and 30 in July. About two-thirds of the June tests were with Fat Man shapes and the rest with Little Boy ones. In July, all but four of the tests were with Fat Man shapes, some with explosive-filled Pumpkin bombs. Test drops were carried out at Wendover, at the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern, and at the Naval Auxiliary Air Station Salton Sea. Testing continued up to the last minute, with the Fat Man firing unit, known as the X-unit, only being successfully tested at Wendover on 4 August, and a final test of the X-unit was carried out six days later.
The aircrews trained continuously until May. Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert pumpkin bombs before Tibbets declared his group combat-ready. The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group received movement orders and moved by rail on 26 April 1945 to its port of embarkation at Seattle, Washington. On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner. An advance party of the air echelon flew by C-54 to North Field, Tinian, between 15 and 22 May. It was joined by the ground echelon on 29 May 1945, marking the group's official change of station. It was from Tinian that it carried out the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit moved to Oxnard Field in September 1945, where it was transferred to the Manhattan District's 9812th Technical Services Unit on 17 December 1945. Oxnard was later designated Sandia Base. The Special Ordnance Detachment took with it its special tools and equipment, and even some of its buildings. The test program resumed at Sandia in January 1946.
JB-2 Testing
In early September 1944, a detachment of the Special Weapons Branch, Wright Field, Ohio, arrived at Wendover with thirteen Republic-Ford JB-2 flying bombs. The JB-2 was a United States copy of the Nazi V-1 flying bomb, which was reverse-engineered from malfunctioning wrecks of V-1s recovered in England. The United States JB-2 was different from the German V-1 in only the smallest of dimensions. At Wendover, a launch ramp was constructed for the JB-2, engineered from plans developed from aerial photographs of ramps used by the Germans in the Low Countries. In addition to the ground launch ramp, a B-17 Flying Fortress was modified to be able to carry the jet bomb underneath a wing and air launch it. Numerous tests were conducted and an initial production order was 1,000 units was made by the Army, with subsequent planned production of 1,000 per month. The fortunes of war in Europe in the spring of 1945 led to the decision to use the JB-2 in the Pacific Theater, to be used as part of Operation Downfall, the planned invasion of Japan. The sudden end of the war in September 1945 led to the curtailment of the JB-2 program and the weapon was never used in combat.
Postwar use
The training of B-29 aircrews and the testing of prototype atom bombs was the last major contribution of Wendover Field during World War II. After war's end, some crew training continued, but at a reduced level. For a while, B-29s which had returned from the Marianas were flown to Wendover for storage. In the summer of 1946, the Ogden Air Technical Service Command at Hill Army Air Field north of Salt Lake City assumed jurisdiction over all operations at Wendover Field except engineering and technical projects.
A fast-moving fire on the night of 6 July 1946 destroyed a hangar and seven buildings, described as "mobile-type, wooden structures", as well as six training planes, before it was brought under control. Damage was estimated at US$1.5 million by Colonel Ray Harris, commanding officer, Ogden Air Technical Command.
Wendover played a key role in the postwar weapons development industry with three areas being developed. The first was further testing of the JB-2 Loon flying bomb. In the case of the second area, the B-17 Flying Fortress, obsolete as a combat aircraft, was being tested to fly remotely. Gliding bombs, based on captured technology from the wartime Henschel Hs 293 German radio-controlled glide bomb were being developed that could be controlled by radar or radio. The third consisted of bombs that could be controlled by the launching plane. The historic GAPA (ground to air pilotless aircraft) Boeing project resulted in the first supersonic flight of an American Air Force vehicle on 6 August 1946. In March 1947, the Air Proving Ground Command research programs were moved to Alamogordo Army Airfield, New Mexico. As a result, 1,200 personnel from Wendover Field were moved to New Mexico from Utah and were relocated to Alamogordo to conduct guided missile research projects. Three ongoing projects were transferred: Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft (GAPA), JB-2 Loon flight testing, and ASM-A-1 Tarzon gliding bomb.
Transferred to the Strategic Air Command' Fifteenth Air Force in March 1947. With the establishment of the U.S. Air Force as an independent service later that year, the installation was renamed Wendover Air Force Base in 1947, but while bombardment groups deploying on maneuvers used the bombing range, the rest of the base remained unused. It was inactivated in 1948 and declared surplus, although retained in a caretaker status. The Air Materiel Command assumed responsibility for the base in July 1950, placing it under the jurisdiction of the Ogden Air Material Area at Hill Air Force Base. Between 1950 and 1954, the base was staffed by a skeleton crew of thirteen. The buildings deteriorated. Some were removed, some demolished, and some burned down.
Tactical Air Command (TAC) reactivated the base under the Ninth Air Force on 1 October 1954, and tactical units deployed there for exercises, utilizing the base for the next four years. TAC invested several million dollars renovating the base facilities, and constructed new targets on the range. But only 331 personnel were assigned to the base in 1956. The base was deactivated again in December 1957. It transferred back to Ogden on 1 January 1958 and renamed Wendover Air Force Auxiliary Field, while the range was renamed Hill Air Force Range in 1960, and inactivated in August 1961.
The base was reactivated on 15 July 1961, but the only personnel based there were a fifteen-man firefighting detachment. By 1962, when the base was again deactivated, only 128 of the original 668 buildings remained. The General Services Administration (GSA) wanted to sell the base to the town of Wendover, leaving only the bombing ranges and radar site with the Air Force. The base was renamed Decker Field, and again declared surplus in 1972. The base continued to be used occasionally for training by Air National Guard units, and the firefighting detachment remained until 1977.
Wendover was officially listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 1 July 1975. The entire facility was declared surplus in 1976, and on 9 July 1976, the water system and its annexes were transferred to the city of Wendover, Utah. The GSA deeded most of the base, including runways, taxiways, hangars, hospital complex, and several warehouses to Wendover for a civil airport on 15 August 1977. The Air Force retained about of the cantonment area and of the radar site.
Beginning in 1980 the 4440th Tactical Fighter Training Group began holding regular exercises known as Red Flag from Nellis AFB, Nevada. These exercises used Wendover, with over 9,000 men and women deployed to Decker Field, Utah. About 5,200 sorties were flown, representing over 9,500 flying hours. Red Flag exercises at Wendover were discontinued after 1986. The U.S. Air Force relinquished the remainder of Decker Field to the town of Wendover in 1992.
Current uses
, Wendover Air Force Base is used as a civil airport.
The airfield is very isolated in northwest Utah, sitting in the middle of a vast wasteland miles away from any major population center. It is probably for this reason, and the dry hot climate, that much of the airfield remains today. Still-extant facilities include the vast runway system, numerous ramps, taxiways, dispersal pads, and most of the original hangars (including the Enola Gay B-29 hangar). Most of the hospital complex and many barracks remain, as does a chow hall, chapel, swimming pool and many other World War II-era buildings.
In 2009, a hangar at the base dubbed The Manhattan Project's Enola Gay Hangar was listed as one of the most endangered historic sites in the United States. A local group, "Historic Wendover Airfield", is attempting to preserve the former base.
Numerous films, television shows and documentaries have been filmed using Wendover Field, including The Philadelphia Experiment (1984), Con Air (1997), Mulholland Falls (1996), Independence Day (1996), Hulk (2003) and The Core (2003).
See also
Utah World War II Army Airfields
List of HABS documentation of Wendover Air Force Base
References
Sources
External links
Historic Wendover Airfield
Wendover AFB at Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields
Return to Wendover in 2005: An interview with Paul Tibbets Jr.
Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
, and many other records for subsidiary structures
Center for Land Use Interpretation Wendover Residency Unit
Airports in Utah
Buildings and structures in Tooele County, Utah
Formerly Used Defense Sites in Utah
Manhattan Project sites
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Utah
Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Utah
National Register of Historic Places in Tooele County, Utah
Historic American Buildings Survey in Utah
Transportation in Tooele County, Utah
Military installations closed in 1957 |
4546369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair%20skating | Pair skating | Pair skating is a figure skating discipline defined by the International Skating Union (ISU) as "the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating". The ISU also states that a pairs team consists of "one Woman and one Man". Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating in 1908.
Like the other disciplines, pair skating competitions consist of two segments, the short program and the free skating program. There are seven required elements in the short program, which lasts two minutes and 40 seconds for both junior and senior pair teams. Free skating for pairs "consists of a well balanced program composed and skated to music of the pair's own choice for a specified period of time". It also should contain "especially typical Pair Skating moves" such as pair spins, lifts, partner assisted jumps, spirals and other linking movements. Its duration, like the other disciplines, is four minutes for senior teams, and three and one-half minutes for junior teams. Pair skating required elements include lifts, twist lifts, throw jumps, jumps, spin combinations, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences. The elements performed by pairs teams must be "linked together by connecting steps of a different nature" and by other comparable movements and with a variety of holds and positions. Pair skaters must only execute the prescribed elements; if they do not, the extra or unprescribed elements will not be counted in their score. Violations in pair skating include falls, time, music, and clothing.
Pair skating is the most dangerous discipline in figure skating; it has been compared to playing in the National Football League. Pair skaters have more injuries than skaters in other disciplines, and women pair skaters have more injuries than male pair skaters.
History
Beginnings
The International Skating Union (ISU) defines pair skating as "the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating". The ISU also states that a pair team consists of "one Woman and one Man" and that "attention should be paid to the selection of an appropriate partner".
The roots of pairs skating, like ice dance, is in the "combined skating" developed in the 19th century by skating clubs and organizations and by recreational social skating between couples and friends, who would skate waltzes, marches, and other social dances together. According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, the rising popularity of skating during the 19th century led to the development of figure skating techniques, especially the "various forms of hand-in-hand skating that would become the basis of pair skating". Kestnbaum believes that there is no technical reason why pair skating moves could not be performed by opposite sexes because the moves emphasize the symmetry and similarity of the two bodies making them. Kestnbaum also states that men developed the original concepts of combined skating because most advanced skating was done by adult males. When women became more involved in the sport, they were allowed to compete in "similar pairs" competitions in the U.S.
Figure skating historian James R. Hines reports that factors, such as hand-in-hand skating and "the crazelike fascination with ice dancing" in the mid-1890s, contributed to the development of pair skating. Madge Syers, the first female figure skater to compete and win internationally, states that from the beginning of the introduction of pair skating in international competitions, it was a popular sport for audiences to watch, and that "if the pair are well matched and clever performers, it is undoubtedly the most attractive to watch". When women began to compete in figure skating in the early 1900s, married couples developed routines together and provided female partners with the opportunities to demonstrate parity with their male partners by executing the same moves. Syers states that Viennese skaters were responsible for pair skating's popularity at the beginning of the 20th century and credited the Austrians for adding dance moves to pair skating.
At first, pair skating consisted of executing basic figures and side-by-side free-skating moves, such as long, flowing spirals done backwards or forwards, and connected with dance steps while couples held one or two hands. Jumps and pirouettes were not required, and were done by only experienced pair skaters. German pair skater Heinrich Burger, in his article in Irving Brokaw's The Art of Skating (1915), states that he and his partner, Anna Hübler, inserted figures skated by single skaters into "our several dances according to the music" until the figures became more complicated and developed into a different appearance; as Burger puts it, "the fundamental character of the figure, however, has remained the same". Also in the 1890s, combined and hand-in-hand skating moved skating away from "the static confines of basic figures to continuous movement around a rink". Hines insists that the popularity of skating waltzes, which depended upon the speed and flow across the ice of couples in dance positions and not just on holding hands with a partner, "dealt a death knell to hand-in-hand skating".
Early years
Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating, along with women's singles, also in 1908. Hübler and Burger were the first Olympic gold medalists in pair skating in 1908; they also won the 1908 and 1910 World Championships. In 1936, Maxi Herber and Ernst Baier won the gold medal at the Olympics and went on to win the World Championships from 1936 to 1939. The first pair skating national competitions in Canada occurred in 1905 and the first time pair skating was included during a U.S. Championships was in 1914, but there are only a few descriptions of pair skating in North America before World War I. Side-by-side skating, also called shadow skating, in which partners executed the same movements and steps in unison, were emphasized in the early 1920s. Pair skating became more athletic in the 1930s; partners executed "a balanced blend of shadow skating coupled with increasingly spectacular pair moves, including spins, death-spirals, and lifts". Hines credits German pair skaters Maxi Herber and Ernst Baier and French team Andrée Brunet and Pierre Brunet with developing athletic elements and programs that included pair spins, side-by-side spins, lifts, throw jumps, side-by-side jumps, and side-by-side footwork sequences. By the 1930s, pair skating had advanced; Hines states, "It was not yet viewed equally with singles skating, at least from a technically standpoint, but it had grown to be a much-appreciated discipline". Hines also reports that many single skaters during the era also competed in pair skating.
Soviet and Russian domination in pair skating began in the 1950s and continued throughout the rest of the 1900s. Only five non-Soviet or Russian teams won the World Championships after 1965, until 2010. Soviet pair teams won gold medals in seven consecutive Olympics, from 1964 in Innsbruck to 1988 in Calgary. Kestnbaum credits the Soviets for emphasizing ballet, theater, and folk dance in all disciplines of figure skating, noting the influence of Soviet pair team and married couple Liudmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov. The Protopopovs, as they were called, won gold medals at the 1964 and 1968 Olympics, as well as the 1968 World Championships, "raised by several degrees the level of translating classical dance to the ice". Hines reports that the Protopopovs represented a new style of pair skating developed during the 1960s. He states, "A more flowing style presented by the Russians was replacing an older, more disconnected style". The Protopopovs, like single skaters Sonja Henie in the 1930s and Dick Button in the 1940s, while winning multiple Olympic medals, "altered dramatically the direction of figure skating", and marked the beginning of the Soviet domination of pair skating for the rest of the 20th century. Irina Rodnina, with her partner Alexei Ulanov and later Alexander Zaitsev, also from the Soviet Union, dominated pair skating throughout the 1970s and "led the trend of female pair skaters as risk-taking athletes". With Ulanov, Rodnina won World and European titles for four years in a row and an Olympic gold medal in 1972. Hines reports that Rodnina and her second partner, Zaitsev, won the 1973 European Championships and were "never seriously challenged" between 1974 and 1978, winning gold medals at the 1976 Olympics and at every World and European Championships during that period. They also won gold medals at the 1980 European Championships and at the Olympics that same year. Hines states, about Rodnina and her partners, that they "transformed pair skating through expanded and inspired athleticism".
Later years
Pair skating, which has never included a compulsory phase like the other figure skating disciplines, did not require a short program until the early 1960s, when the ISU "instituted a short program of required moves" as the first part of pair competitions. Hines reports that the change was due "to a few controversial decisions in the 1950s and the discipline's increasing technical complexities". In 1964, at the European Championships in Grenoble, France and the 1964 World Championships in Dortmund, West Germany, and during the Olympics in 1968, a two-and-a-half minute long technical program was added, later called the short program, which constituted one-third of a team's scores. The arrangement of the specific moves, also unlike compulsory figures for single skaters and the compulsory dance for ice dancers, were up to each pair team. The short programs introduced in single men and women competitions in 1973 were modeled after the pair skating short program, and the structure of competitions in both single and pair competitions have been identical since the elimination of compulsory figures in 1990.
A judging scandal at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah "ushered in sweeping reforms in the scoring system" of figure skating competitions. The scandal, which centered around Canadian pair team Jamie Sale and David Pelletier and Russian pair team Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze, brought about the end of the 6.0 scoring system and the implementation of the ISU Judging System, starting in 2004.
According to Caroline Silby, a consultant with U.S. Figure Skating, pair teams, as well as ice dance teams, have the added challenge of strengthening partnerships and ensuring that teams stay together for several years. Silby states, "Conflict between partners that is consistent and unresolved can often lead to the early demise or break-up of a team". Challenges for both pairs and dancers, which can make conflict resolution and communication difficult, include: the fewer number of available boys for girls to find partnerships; different priorities regarding commitment and scheduling; differences in partners' ages and developmental stages; differences in family situations; the common necessity of one or both partners moving to train at a new facility; and different skill levels when the partnership is formed. Silby estimates that due to the lack of effective communication among pair teams, there is a "six-fold increase in the risk of national-level figure skating teams splitting". Teams with strong skills in communication and conflict resolution, however, tend to produce "highest-placing finishers at national championship events".
Competition segments
Short program
The short program is the first segment of single skating, pair skating, and synchronized skating in international competitions, including all ISU championships, the Olympic Winter Games, the Winter Youth Games, qualifying competitions for the Olympic Winter Games, and ISU Grand Prix events for both junior and senior-level skaters (including the finals). The short program must be skated before the free skate, the second component in competitions. The short program lasts, for both senior and junior pair skaters, two minutes and 40 seconds. Vocal music with lyrics has been allowed in pair skating and in all disciplines since the 2014–2015 season.
Both junior and senior pair skaters have seven required elements: a lift, a twist lift, a throw jump, a jump; a solo spin combination, a death spiral, and a step sequence. The sequence of the elements is optional. Like single skaters, the short programs of pair teams must be skated in harmony with the music, which they choose. The short program for pair skating was introduced at the 1963 European Championships, the 1964 World Championships, and the Olympics in 1968; previously, pair skaters only had to perform the free skating program in competitions.
Wenjing Sui and Cong Han from China hold the highest pair skating short program score of 84.41 points, which they earned at the 2022 Olympic Winter Games.
Free skating
According to the ISU, free skating for pairs "consists of a well balanced program composed and skated to music of the pair's own choice for a specified period of time". The ISU also considers a well-done free skate one that contains both single skating moves performed either in parallel (called "shadow skating") or symmetrically (called "mirror skating"). It also should contain "especially typical Pair Skating moves" such as pair spins, lifts, partner assisted jumps, spirals linked harmoniously by steps and other movements.
A well-balanced free skate for senior pairs must consist of the following: up to three pair lifts, not all from the same group, with the lifting arm or arms fully extended; exactly one twist lift, exactly one solo jump; exactly one jump sequence or combination; exactly one pair spin combination; exactly one death spiral of a different type than what the skaters performed during their short program; and exactly one choreographic sequence. A well-balanced free skate for junior pairs must consist of the same elements required for senior teams, but with a maximum of two jumps and their death spiral does not have to be different to what they performed in their short program. Its duration, like the other disciplines, is four minutes for senior teams, and three-and-one-half minutes for junior teams.
Anastasia Mishina and Aleksandr Galliamov hold the highest pair free skating program score of 157.46 points, which they earned at the 2022 European Championships.
Competition requirements
Pair skating required elements include pair lifts, twist lifts, throw jumps, jumps, spin combinations, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences. The elements performed by pair teams must be "linked together by connecting steps of a different nature" and by other comparable movements and with a variety of holds and positions. The team does not have to always execute the same movements and can separate from time to time, but they have to "give an impression of unison and harmony of composition of program and of execution of the skating". They must limit movements executed on two feet, and must fully use the entire ice surface. The ISU also states, about how programs are performed by pair skating teams, "Harmonious steps and connecting movements, in time to the music, should be maintained throughout the program". The ISU published a judges' handbook describing what judges needed to look for during pair skating competitions in 1966.
Pair lifts
There are five groups of pair skating lifts, categorized in order of increasing level of difficulty, and determined by the hold at the moment the woman passes the man's shoulder.
Group One: Armpit hold position
Group Two: Waist hold position
Group Three: Hand to hip or upper part of the leg (above the knee) position
Group Four: Hand to hand position (Press Lift type)
Group Five: Hand to hand position (Lasso Lift type)
Judges look for the following when evaluating pair lifts: speed of entry and exit; control of the woman's free leg when she is exiting out of the lift, with the goal of keeping the leg high and sweeping; the position of the woman in the air; the man's footwork; quick and easy changes of position; and the maintenance of flow throughout the lift. Judges begin counting how many revolutions pair teams execute from the moment when the woman leaves the ice until when the man's arm (or arms) begin to bend after he has made a full extension and the woman begins to descend.
A complete pair skating lift must include full extension of the lifting arm or arms, if required for the type of lift being performed. Small lifts, or ones in which the man does not raise his hands higher than his shoulders, or lifts that include movements in which the man holds the woman by the legs, are also allowed. The man must complete at least one revolution. The woman can perform both a simple take-off and a difficult take-off. A difficult take-off can include, but is not limited to, the following: a somersault take-off; a one-hand take-off; an Ina Bauer; a spread-eagle; spirals as the entry curve executed by one or both partners; or a dance lift followed immediately by a pair lift take-off. Difficult landings include, but are not limited to, the following: somersaults; one-hand landings; variations in holds; and spread-eagle positions of the man during dismounting. Carry lifts are defined as "the simple carrying of a partner without rotation" are allowed; they do not count as overhead lifts, but are considered as transition elements. A lift is judged illegal if it is accomplished with a wrong hold.
The only times pair skating partners can give each other assistance in executing lifts are "through hand-to-hand, hand-to-arm, hand-to-body and hand to upper part of the leg (above the knee) grips". They are allowed changes of hold, or going from one of the grips to another or from one hand to another in a one-hand hold, during lifts. Teams earn fewer points if the woman's position and a change of hold is executed at the same time. They earn more points if the execution of the woman's position and the change in hold are "significantly different from lift to lift". Teams can increase the difficulty of lifts in any group by using a one-hand hold.
There are three types of positions performed by the woman: upright, or when her upper body is vertical; the star, or when she faces sideways with her upper body parallel to the ice; and the platter, or when her position is flat and facing up or down with her upper body parallel to the ice. The lifts ends when the man's arm or arms begins to bend after he completes a full extension and when the woman begins to descend.
Twist lifts
Skate Canada calls twist lifts "sometimes the most thrilling and exciting component in pair skating". They can also be most difficult movement to perform correctly. Judges look for the following when evaluating twist lifts: speed at entry and exit; whether or not the woman performs a split position while on her way to the top of the twist lift; her height once she gets there; clean rotations; a clean catch by the male (accomplished by placing both hands at the woman's waist and without any part of her upper body touching him); and a one-foot exit executed by both partners. A pair team can make twist lifts more complicated when the woman executes a split position (each leg is at least 45° from her body axis and her legs are straight or almost straight) before rotating. They also can earn more points when the man's arms are sideways and straight or almost straight after he releases the woman. Difficult take-offs include turns, steps, movements, and small lifts executed preceding the take-off and with continuous flow. Pair teams lose points for not having enough rotations, one-half a rotation or more.
The first quadruple twist lift performed in international competition was by Russian pair team Marina Cherkasova and Sergei Shakhrai at the European Championship in 1977.
Solo jumps and throw jumps
Solo jumps
Pair teams, both juniors and seniors, must perform one solo jump during their short programs; it can include a double flip or double Axel for juniors, or any kind of double or triple jump for seniors. In the free skate, both juniors and seniors must perform only one solo jump and only one jump combination or sequence. A jump sequence consists of two jumps, with no limitations on the number of revolutions per jump. It starts with any type of jump, immediately followed by an Axel-type jump. Skaters must, during a jump combination, make sure that they land on the same foot they took off on, and that they execute a full rotation on the ice between the jumps. They can, however, execute an Euler between the two jumps. When the Euler is performed separately, it is considered a non-listed jump. Junior pairs, during their short programs, earn no points for the solo jump if they perform a different jump than what is required. Both junior and senior pairs earn no points if, during their free skating programs, they repeat a jump with over two revolutions.
All jumps are considered in the order in which they were performed. If the partners do not execute the same number of revolutions during a solo jump or part of a jump sequence or combination (which can consist of two or three jumps), only the jump with the fewer revolutions will be counted in their score. The double Axel and all triple and quadruple jumps, which have more than two revolutions, must be different from one another, although jump sequences and combinations can include the same two jumps. Extra jumps that do not fulfill the requirements are not counted in the team's score. Teams are allowed, however, to execute the same two jumps during a jump combination or sequence. If they perform any or both jump or jumps incorrectly, only the incorrectly done jump is not counted and it is not considered a jump sequence or combination. Both partners can execute two solo jumps during their short programs, but the second jump is worth less points than the first.
A jump attempt, in which one or both partners execute a clear preparation for a take-off but step to the entry edge or place their skate's toe pick into the ice and leave the ice with or without a turn, counts as one jump element. If the partners execute an unequal number of rotations during a solo jump or as part of a jump combination or sequence, the jump with the lesser number of revolutions will be counted. They receive no points if they perform different types of jumps. A small hop or a jump with up to one-half revolution (considered "decoration") is not marked as a jump and called a "transition" instead. Non-listed jumps do not count as jumps, either, but can also be called a transition and can be used as "a special entrance to the jump". If the partners execute a spin and a jump back to back, or vice versa, they are considered separate elements and the team is awarded more points for executing a difficult take-off or entry. They lose points if the partners fall or step out of a jump during a jump sequence or combination.
Throw jumps
Throw jumps are "partner assisted jumps in which the Lady is thrown into the air by the Man on the take-off and lands without assistance from her partner on a backward outside edge". Skate Canada says, "the male partner assists the female into flight". Many pair skaters consider the throw jump "a jump rather than a throw". The throw jump is also considered an assisted jump, performed by the woman. The man supports the woman, initiates her rotations, and assists her with her height, timing, and direction.
The types of throw jumps include: the throw Axel, the throw salchow, the throw toe loop, the throw loop, the throw flip, and the throw Lutz. The speed of the team's entry into the throw jump and the number of rotations performed increases its difficulty, as well as the height and/or distance they create. Pair teams must perform one throw jump during their short programs; senior teams can perform any double or triple throw jump, and junior teams must perform a double or triple Salchow. If the throw jump does not satisfy the requirements as described by the ISU, including if it has the wrong number of revolutions, it receives no value.
The first throw triple Axel jump performed in competition was by American pair team Rena Inoue and John Baldwin Jr. at the 2006 U.S. Championships. They also performed it at the Four Continents Championships in 2006 and the 2006 Winter Olympics. The throw triple Axel is a difficult throw to accomplish because the woman must perform three-and-one-half revolutions after being thrown by the man, a half-revolution more than other triple jumps, and because it requires a forward take-off.
Spins
Solo spin combinations
The solo spin combination must be performed once during the short program of pair skating competitions, with at least two revolutions in two basic positions. Both partners must include all three basic positions in order to earn the full points possible. There must be a minimum of five revolutions made on each foot. Spins can be commenced with jumps and must have at least two different basic positions, and both partners must include two revolutions in each position. A solo spin combination must have all three basic positions (the camel spin, the sit spin, and upright positions) performed by both partners, at any time during the spin to receive the full value of points, and must have all three basic positions performed by both partners to receive full value for the element. A spin with less than three revolutions is not counted as a spin; rather, it is considered a skating movement. If a skater changes to a non-basic position, it is not considered a change of position. The number of revolutions in non-basic positions, which may be considered difficult variations, are counted towards the team's total number of revolutions. Only positions, whether basic or non-basic, must be performed by the partners at the same time.
If a skater falls while entering into the spin, he or she can perform another spin or spinning movement immediately after the fall, to fill the time lost from the fall, but it is not counted as a solo spin combination. A change of foot, in the form of a jump or step over, is allowed, and the change of position and change of foot can be performed separately or at the same time. Pair teams require "significant strength, skill and control" to perform a change from a basic position to a different basic position without performing a nonbasic position first. They also have to execute a continuous movement throughout the change, without jumps to execute it, and they must hold the basic position for two revolutions both before and after the change. They lose points if they take a long time to reach the necessary basic position.
Pair teams earn more points for performing difficult entrances and exits. An entrance is defined as "the preparation immediately preceding a spin", including a flying entrance by one or both partners; it can include the spin's beginning phase. All entrances must have a "significant impact" on the spin's execution, balance, and control, and must be completed on the first spinning foot. The intended spin position must be achieved within the team's first two revolutions, and can be non-basic in spin combinations only. An exit is defined as "the last phase of the spin"; it can include the phase immediately following the spin. Like the entrance, an exit must have a "significant impact" on the spin's execution, balance, and control. There are 11 categories of difficult solo spin variations.
Spin combinations
Both junior and senior pair teams must perform one pair spin combination, which may begin with a fly spin, during their free skating programs. Pair spin combinations must have at least eight revolutions, which must be counted from "the entry of the spin until its exit". If spins are done with less than two revolutions, pairs receive zero points; if they have less than three revolutions, they are considered a skating movement, not a spin. Pair teams cannot, except for a short step when changing directions, stop while performing a rotation. Spins must have at least two different basic positions, with two revolutions in each position performed by both partners anywhere within the spin; full value for pair spin combinations are awarded only when both partners perform all three basic positions. A spin executed in both clockwise and counter-clockwise directions is considered one spin. When a team simultaneously performs spins in both directions that immediately follow each other, they earn more points, but they must execute a minimum of three revolutions in each direction without any changes in position.
Both partners must execute at least one change of position and one change of foot (although not necessarily done simultaneously); if not, the element will have no value. Like the solo spin combination, the spin combination has three basic positions: the camel spin, the sit spin, and the upright spin. Also like the solo spin combination, changes to a non-basic position is counted towards the team's total number of revolutions and are not considered a change of position. A change of foot must have at least three revolutions, before and after the change, and can be any basic or non-basic position, in order for the element to be counted. The woman is allowed to be lifted from the ice during the spin, but her partner must stay on one foot, and the revolutions they execute while in the air counts towards the total number of revolutions. The ISU states that this does not increase the difficulty of a combination spin, but it does allow for creativity.
Fluctuations of speed and variations of positions of the head, arms, or free leg are allowed. Difficult variations of a combined pair spin must have at least two revolutions. They receive more points if the spin contains three difficult variations, two of which can be non-basic positions, although each partner must have at least one difficult variation. The same rules apply for difficult entrances into pair spin combinations as they do for solo spin combinations, except that they must be executed by both partners for the element to count towards their final score. A difficult exit, in which the skaters exit the spin in a lift or spinning movement, is defined as "an innovative move that makes the exit significantly more difficult"; Also like the solo spin combination, the exit must have "significant impact on the balance, control and execution of the spin". If one or both partners fall while entering a spin, they can execute a spin or a spinning movement to fill up time lost during the fall.
Death spirals
The death spiral is "a circular move in which the male lowers his partner to the ice while she is arched backwards gliding on one foot". There are four types of death spirals: the forward inside death spiral, the backward inside death spiral, the backward outside death spiral, and the forward outside death spiral. According to Skate Canada, the forward inside death spiral is the easiest one to execute, and the forward outside death spiral is the most difficult.
The death spiral performed in the short program at the senior level must be different from the death spiral during the free skating program. In the 2022–2023 season, both junior and senior pair teams must perform the backward inside death spiral. In 2023–2024, both juniors and seniors had to perform the forward inside death spiral. If a different death spiral other than what has been prescribed is executed, it receives no points. One death spiral is required for juniors and seniors during their free skate.
Step sequences
Step sequences in pair skating should be performed "together or close together". Step sequences must be a part of the short program, but they are not required in the free skating program. There is no required pattern, but pair teams must fully use the ice surface. The step sequence must be "visible and identifiable", and teams must use the full ice surface (oval, circle, straight line, serpentine, or similar shape). The team must skate three meters or less near each other while executing the crossing feature of the sequence. They must not separate, with no breaks, for at least half of the sequence. Changes of holds, which can include "a brief moment" when the partners do not touch, are permitted during the step sequence.
The workload between the partners must be even to help them earn more points. More points are rewarded to teams when they change places or holds, or when they perform difficult skating moves together. Both partners must execute the combinations of difficult turns at the same time and with a clear rhythm and continuous flow. Partners can perform rockers, counters, brackets, loops, and twizzles during combinations of difficult turns. Three turns, changes of edges, jumps and/or hops, and changes of feet are not allowed, and "at least one turn in the combination must be of a different type than the others". Two combinations of difficult turns are the same if they consist of the same turns performed in the same order, on the same foot and on the same edges.
Choreographic sequences
Pair teams must perform one choreographic sequence during their free skating programs. According to the ISU, a choreographic sequence "consists of at least two different movements like steps, turns, spirals, arabesques, spread eagles, Ina Bauers, hydroblading, any jumps with maximum of 2 revolutions, spins, etc.". Pair skating teams can use steps and turns to connect the two or more movements together. It begins at the first skating movement and ends when the team begins to prepare to execute the next element, unless the sequence is the last element performed during the program. Judges do not evaluate individual elements in a choreographic segment; rather, they note that it was accomplished. There are no restrictions limiting the sequence of the movements, but the sequence must be "clearly visible". Pair skaters, in order to earn the most points possible, must include the following in their choreographic sequences: they must have originality and creativity; the sequence must match the music and reflect the program's concept and character; and they must demonstrate effortlessness of the element as a sequence. They must also do the following: "have good ice coverage" or perform an interesting pattern; demonstrate good unison between the partners; and demonstrate "excellent commitment" and control of the whole body.
Rules and regulations
Skaters must only execute the prescribed elements; if they do not, the extra or unprescribed elements will not be counted in their score. Only the first attempt of an element will be included. Violations in pair skating include falls, time, music, and clothing.
Falls
According to the ISU, a fall is defined as the "loss of control by a Skater with the result that the majority of his/her own body weight is on the ice supported by any other part of the body other than the blades; e.g. hand(s), knee(s), back, buttock(s) or any part of the arm". For pair skaters, one point is deducted for every fall by one partner, and two points are deducted for every fall by both partners. According to former American figure skater Katrina Hacker, falls associated with jumps occur for the following reasons: the skater makes an error during their takeoff; their jump is under-rotated, or not fully rotated while they are in the air; they execute a tilted jump and is unable to land upright on their feet; and they make an error during the first jump of a combination jump, resulting in not having enough smoothness, speed, and flow to complete the second jump.
Time
As for all skating disciplines, judges penalize pair skaters one point up to every five seconds for ending their programs too early or too late. If they start their programs between one and 30 seconds late, they can lose one point. Restrictions for finishing the short program and the free skating program are similar to the requirements of the other disciplines in figure skating. Pair teams can complete these programs within plus or minus 10 seconds of the required times; if they cannot, judges can deduct points if they finish up to five seconds too early or too late. If they begin skating any element after their required time (plus the required 10 seconds they have to begin), they earn no points for those elements. The pair team receive no points if the duration of their program is completed less than 30 seconds or more seconds early.
Music
The ISU defines the interpretation of the music in all figure skating disciplines as "the personal, creative, and genuine translation of the rhythm, character and content of music to movement on ice". Judges take the following things into account when scoring the short program and the free skating program: the steps and movement in time to the music; the expression of the character of the music; and the use of finesse.
The use of vocals was expanded to pair skating, as well as to single skating, starting in 2014; the first Olympics affected by this change was in 2018 in PyeongChang, South Korea. The ISU's decision, done to increase the sport's audience, to encourage more participation, and to give skaters and choreographers more choice in constructing their programs, had divided support among skaters, coaches, and choreographers.
If the quality or tempo of the music the team uses in their program is deficient, or if there is a stop or interruption in their music, no matter the reason, they must stop skating when they become aware of the problem or when signaled to stop by a skating official, whichever occurs first. If any problems with the music happens within 20 seconds after they have begun their program, the team can choose to either restart their program or to continue from the point where they have stopped performing. If they decide to continue from the point where they stopped, they are continued to be judged at that point onward, as well as their performance up to that point. If they decide to restart their program, they are judged from the beginning of their restart and what they had done previously must be disregarded. If the music interruption occurs more than 20 seconds after they have begun their program, or if it occurred during an element or at the entrance of an element, they must resume their program from the point of the interruption. If the element was identified before the interruption, the element must be deleted from the list of performed elements, and the team is allowed to repeat the element when they resume their program. No deductions are counted for interruptions due to music deficiencies.
Clothing
As for the other disciplines of figure skating, the clothing worn by pair skaters at ISU Championships, the Olympics, and international competitions must be "modest, dignified and appropriate for athletic competition—not garish or theatrical in design". Props and accessories are not allowed. Clothing can reflect the character of the skaters' chosen music and must not "give the effect of excessive nudity inappropriate for the discipline". All men must wear full-length trousers, a rule that has been in effect since the 1994–1995 season. Since 2003, women skaters have been able to wear skirts, trousers, tights, and unitards. Decorations on costumes must be "non-detachable"; judges can deduct one point per program if part of the competitors' costumes or decorations fall on the ice. If there is a costume or prop violation, the judges can deduct one point per program.
Clothing that does not adhere to these guidelines will be penalized by
a deduction
If competitors do not adhere to these guidelines, the judges can deduct points from their total score. However, costume deductions are rare. Juliet Newcomer from U.S. Figure Skating states that by the time skaters get to a national or world championship, they have received enough feedback about their costumes and are no longer willing to take any more risks of losing points. As former competitive skater and designer Braden Overett told the New York Post, there is "an informal review process before major competitions such as the Olympics, during which judges communicate their preferences".
Also according to the New York Post, one of the goals of skaters and designers is to ensure that a costume's design, which can "make or break a performance", does not affect the skaters' scores. Former competitive skater and fashion writer Shalayne Pulia states that figure skating costume designers are part of a skater's "support team". Designers collaborate with skaters and their coaches to help them design costumes that fit the themes and requirements of their programs for months before the start of each season. There have been calls to require figure skaters to wear uniforms like other competitive sports, in order to make the sport less expensive and more inclusive, and to emphasize its athletic side.
Injuries
Australian single skater and coach Belinda Noonan states that "Pairs skating is literally physically more dangerous than the other three disciplines". American pair skater Nathan Bartholomay agrees, comparing the danger in pair skating to playing in the National Football League. Sportswriter Sandra Loosemore, in her discussion of the accidents in all figure skating disciplines, states that the "very nature" of pair skating "adds an extra dimension of danger and risk of injury" because of the high speed and close proximity pair teams skate to each other, and the lifts and other elements in pair skating. Both members of a pair skating team can receive broken noses and other injuries from performing twist lifts incorrectly, and although male partners are taught to protect their partners in case of a fall from an overhead lift, concussions and serious head injuries are common. The ISU has banned and restricted dangerous tricks and moves from pair skating, but both skating audiences and skaters have demanded them. Skaters have resisted using protective gear, even during practice, because it interferes with developing self-confidence and is seen as incompatible with "the aesthetic aspects of the sport".
A study conducted during a U.S. national competition including 60 pair skaters recorded an average of 1.83 injuries per athlete, the most of any figure skating discipline. Single skaters and ice dancers have more lower body injuries, but pair skaters suffer more upper body injuries, "with 50% occurring to the head (e.g., facial lacerations, concussions)". According to figure skating researchers Jason Vescovi and Jaci VanHeest, these injuries are "an obvious consequence of the throws and side-by-side jumps performed in this discipline". A study conducted in 1989 found that ice dancers and pair skaters, during a nine-month period of time, can experience serious injuries (defined as the athletes missing seven or more consecutive days of training after their injuries), and that women pair skaters have more injuries than men, which Vescovi and VanHeest attributed to the demands of pair skating.
Doping
In a 1991 interview, Olympic champion Irina Rodnina admitted that Soviet male pair skaters used doping substances in preparation for the competitive season, stating: "Boys in pairs and singles used drugs, but this was only in August or September. This was done just in training, and everyone was tested (in the Soviet Union) before competitions."
Footnotes
References
Works cited
"Communication No. 2403: Summary of Results of Mail Voting on Proposals in Replacement of the 58th Ordinary Congress 2021". Lausanne, Switzerland: International Skating Union. 30 June 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021 (ISU No. 2403).
"Special Regulations & Technical Rules Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance 2021". International Skating Union. June 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2022 (S&P/ID 2021).
"ISU Judging System: Technical Panel Handbook: Pair Skating 2021/2022" (PDF). International Skating Union. 8 July 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2022 (Tech Panel).
Figure skating disciplines
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4547004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beckley%20Foundation | Beckley Foundation | The Beckley Foundation is a UK-based think tank and UN-accredited NGO, dedicated to activating global drug policy reform and initiating scientific research into psychoactive substances. The foundation is a charitable trust which collaborates with leading scientific and political institutions worldwide to design and develop research and global policy initiatives. It also investigates consciousness and its modulation from a multidisciplinary perspective, working in collaboration with scientists. The foundation is based at Beckley Park near Oxford, United Kingdom. It was founded in 1998, and is directed by Amanda Feilding, Countess of Wemyss.
Background
Since its creation by Amanda Feilding in 1998, the Beckley Foundation has been at the forefront of global drug policy reform and scientific research into psychoactive substances.
The Beckley Foundation Scientific Programme initiates, designs and conducts research into the effects of psychoactive substances on the brain, in order to minimise their potential harms, learn more about consciousness and brain function, and discover and explore their therapeutic potential. Recent research includes collaborations with Dr Jordi Riba at Sant Pau Hospital on ayahuasca, Professor David Nutt at Imperial College on the effects of psychedelics on cerebral blood flow, Professor Valerie Curran at University College London on the effects of cannabis on the brain with a view to possible therapeutic applications and with Professor Roland R. Griffiths at Johns Hopkins University studying the effects of psilocybin in
combating addiction.
The Beckley Foundation Policy Programme is dedicated to improving national and global drug policies, through research that increases understanding of the health, social and fiscal implications of drug policy, and the development of new evidence-based and rational approaches. It brings together country representatives, science and policy experts at international seminars in order to discuss alternative drug policy, and commissions and disseminates reports to open up and facilitate debate among policy-makers and the public.
Policy
Roadmaps to Regulation: Coca/Cocaine
Following the election of Gustavo Petro in August 2022, and in advance of the publication of their full “Cocaine Papers” in late 2022, the Foundation published an in-depth review of Colombia’s 2020 regulation bill, written by David Restrepo of Centro de Estudios sobre Seguridad y Drogas (CESED).
The report provided a qualitative analysis of coca and cocaine regulation, its effects on the supply system, and the associated benefit and cost outcomes for Colombia.
PAREA
In 2022, the Beckley Foundation joined the Psychedelic Access and Research European Alliance – a collective of charities, patient groups, non-profits, and psychedelic industry partners aiming to provide evidence-based policy recommendations to the European Union.
The Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme
The Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme was created to promote rational discussion on delicate global arrangement issues. It intended to provide drug strategy advice to academics, substance misuse specialists, strategy developers, and the general public. Senior officials, top researchers, and practitioners evaluated the most recent data on the success of drug policies.
International Therapeutic Psilocybin Rescheduling Initiative (ITPRI)
In 2022, the Beckley Foundation joined in the launch of the International Therapeutic Psilocybin Rescheduling Initiative, a global coalition working to promote and secure a rescheduling of psilocybin under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The ITPRI is seeking a worldwide policy change in order to facilitate research into the therapeutic potential of the substance. Partners of the coalition include the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), Mind Medicine Australia, Drug Science and Open Foundation.
Roadmaps to Regulation: MDMA 2019
This policy proposal published by Amanda Feilding examines the acute, sub-acute, and chronic harms related to MDMA use in detail. The authors examine the production, distribution, purchase, and consumption of the drug; related risks and harms; and the impact prohibition has on these, as well as the potential impact of alternative policies. Crucially, our evidence shows that most harms associated with MDMA use arise from its unregulated status as an illegal drug, and that any risks inherent to MDMA could be more effectively mitigated within a legally regulated market.
Roadmaps to Regulation: New Psychoactive Substances 2016
To coincide with the introduction of the UK’s Psychoactive Substances Act 2016 on 26 May 2016, Amanda Feilding released the report, "Roadmaps to Regulation: New Psychoactive Substances". The document surveys the complex and unique world of NPS production and distribution and suggests a harm reductive model for the legal regulation of this vast array of substances. The NPS report is part of wider family of forthcoming reports, "Roadmaps to Regulation: Cannabis, Psychedelics, MDMA and NPS“.
Public Letter 2016
Recognizing the clear need for the nations and countries of the United Nations to design their own drug policies, tailored to mitigating their individual experiences of the 'War on Drugs', Amanda Feilding attended the 2016 UN General Assembly Special Session on drugs and hosted an official side event at the UN Headquarters in New York. The event marked the launch of the Beckley Foundation’s 2016 Public Letter, "Out of UNGASS: A New Approach" which calls for the abandonment of the 1961 Drug Convention, and for every country to be allowed to implement drug policies that are cost-effective, harm-reductive and respect human rights.
Jamaica's Regulated Cannabis Industry: First Steps 2015
In Spring 2015, Amanda Feilding and the Beckley Foundation were invited by Mark Golding, then the Jamaican Minister of Justice, to advise the government on the formation of a balanced policy in the regulation of the cannabis industry in Jamaica, and to provide feedback on global drug policy issues as Jamaica moved towards the creation of a successfully-regulated cannabis industry. The two-day conference brought together academics, government officials, growers, Rastafari and healthcare professionals. The outcome of these discussions was fed into the process for the 2016 UN General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) on global drug policy.
Beckley Foundation Guatemala 2012–13
On 3 July 2012 Beckley Foundation Guatemala was launched after the organisation had been asked to convene an international Board of Experts to write reports which would:
analyse the impact of the current drug prohibitionist policies;
propose a sophisticated range of alternative policy solutions for Guatemala.
The alternative drug policy solutions were presented to President Otto Pérez Molina by Amanda Feilding in January 2013 in this 'Paths for Reform' report. The suggestions include a proposal to investigate legalising the illicit opium poppy crop in order to produce pain-relieving medications for the Guatemalan people, an initiative that has been mentioned by President Pérez Molina during Davos 2013 and other official appearances
Public Letter 2011
In 2011 an open letter from the Foundation was published in The Times and The Guardian calling for a new approach to drug policy. The letter opened by emphatically stating that the war on drugs has failed and calling for a new approach. Signatories of the letter now include the current Presidents of Colombia (Juan Manuel Santos) and Guatemala (Otto Pérez Molina), and former Presidents of the United States (Jimmy Carter), Mexico, Colombia and Switzerland, as well as Nobel Prize winners and numerous other world figures.
Global Initiative for Drug Policy Reform 2011–12
The Global Initiative for Drug Policy Reform is a collaboration between the All Party Parliamentary Group on Drug Policy, the Global Commission on Drug Policy and the Beckley Foundation. It was held at the House of Lords in November 2011, bringing together representatives from countries interested in reform, and countries that have successfully implemented alternative drug policies, along with the Global Commission on Drug Policy.
Science
The Beckley Foundation is one of the few organisations in the world initiating, supporting, and directing scientific research investigating the effects of currently-controlled psychoactive substances. This ground-breaking research explores how substances such as cannabis, psychedelics, and MDMA act upon the human brain, using the latest developments in neuroscience and brain imaging technology. The purpose of the research is to increase our scientific understanding of consciousness itself, and to explore new avenues for the treatment of illnesses and the betterment of humankind. Over the last 18 years, the Programme has produced dozens of scientific articles published in influential peer-reviewed journals, and Amanda Feilding has spearheaded numerous collaborations. Collaborating partners include leading institutions such as Imperial College London, Sant Pau Hospital, University College London, King’s College London, and Johns Hopkins University, and topics have covered:
changes in brain structure, function, and blood supply in response to cannabis, LSD, psilocybin, ayahuasca/DMT, and MDMA;
LSD, psilocybin, and MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for conditions such as depression, anxiety, addiction, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD);
cannabis and cannabinoids in the treatment of brain cancer;
LSD in the treatment of cluster headaches; and
cerebral circulation, cranial compliance, and their relationship to age-related cognitive decline.
Latest findings from the Beckley Foundation scientific programme
Ayahuasca and Neurogenesis 2016
A preliminary study conducted within the framework of the Beckley-Sant Pau Research Programme and in collaboration with the Spanish National Research Council found that harmine and tetrahydroharmine, the alkaloids present in highest amounts in ayahuasca, have potent neurogenic properties (the ability to create new brain cells). The addition of harmine and tetrahydroharmine to cultures containing neural stem cells dramatically increased their differentiation and maturation into neurons.
Psilocybin for Depression 2016
Based on the Beckley/Imperial Research Programme's psilocybin study brain imaging results, in 2012, the Medical Research Council awarded funding to the programme for a clinical study investigating psilocybin in the treatment of depression. Results from the study, published in the Lancet Psychiatry Journal, showed that two doses of psilocybin lifted depression in all 12 volunteers for three weeks, and kept five of them depression free for three months. The size of the study and the absence of a placebo make the research proof of principle only, but the remarkably positive results highlight the need for continued research in this promising area of psychiatry – psychedelic-assisted therapy. Amanda Feilding and the Beckley Foundation are currently trying to secure funding to expand this research and further evaluate the potential of psilocybin as a treatment for depression.
LSD Revealed 2016
On 13 April 2016, the Beckley/Imperial Research Programme released the world’s first images of the human brain on LSD, collected as part of the first ever brain imaging study to examine the effects of LSD on the human brain. Programme co-directors Amanda Feilding and David Nutt, together with lead-investigator Robin Carhart-Harris, held a press conference at the Royal Society on 11 April 2016 to herald the publication of the paper.
Microdosing
Two separate Beckley Foundation collaborative projects, at Imperial College London and Maastricht University, are carrying out research into the effects of low doses of LSD, also known as microdoses, in humans, in order to investigate its pharmacology and potential benefits for health and wellbeing. The Maastricht project focuses in particular on mood, cognitive functions, and pain management, and has produced evidence for some benefits to microdosing on cognitive function and pain tolerance. At Imperial College, researchers collaborated with the Beckley Foundation on the development of an innovative, naturalistic study design in order to investigate the practice of microdosing in ‘real life’, with a sizeable number of subjects, and for a fraction of the cost of a lab-based study. It represented the first ever psychedelic study to use placebo control outside of the lab, and was completed by 191 participants, making it by far the largest placebo-controlled psychedelic study to date.
Beckley Canopy Therapeutics
News reports in 2018-2019 indicated that the Foundation had been retained by the Canadian cannabis producer Canopy Growth Corporation to conduct research as to the benefits of various strains of its products, particularly in treating pain, anxiety and drug addiction. One goal is to reduce dependence on opioids in treating cancer-related pain. The two formed Beckley Canopy Therapeutics in Oxford, to raise funds from investors for cannabinoid research and drug development.
Canopy Growth has been planning to export its products to the UK. The long-term intent of the partnership is to confirm the value of cannabis in specific conditions and to convince insurers to pay for medical cannabis when used accordingly. Mark Ware, Canopy’s chief medical officer, said in an interview that Feilding's "ability to take a scientific look at what would otherwise be considered as controversial therapeutics makes her a very good partner".
Feilding's son, Cosmo Feilding Mellen, is the managing director of the partnership.
Ongoing projects and collaborations
The Beckley/Maastricht Microdosing Research Programme at Maastricht University in the Netherlands, carrying out research into the effects of LSD microdosing on humans, with a particular focus on mood, cognitive functions, and pain management. The first study, exploring the dose-response relationship in LSD-induced physiological and psychological effects, saw twenty-four healthy volunteers each receive single doses of 5, 10 and 20 micrograms of LSD, or a placebo.
Past projects and collaborations
The Beckley Foundation/Imperial College London Psychedelic Research Programme, investigating the effects of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs on cerebral blood flow, and linking this with cognitive effects (for example, improved episodic memory recall and increased vividness of subjective experience under the influence of psilocybin).
The Beckley Foundation Ethnobotanical Research Programme, investigating the effects and potential benefits of Ayahuasca and DMT, including a study involving ketanserin on evaluating the effects of glutamate release by DMT, a study investigating the association between brain plasticity and Ayahuasca, and a long-term study investigating the effect of Ayahuasca on personal development and health.
A Beckley Foundation/Johns Hopkins University collaboration investigating the potential use of psychedelic drugs to treat addiction. A pilot study using psilocybin to treat nicotine addiction produced promising results, leading to a multi-site clinical trial in the USA, funded by NIH, in which the Foundation is not involved.
A Beckley Foundation/King's College London collaboration with Dr Paul Morrison at the Institute of Psychiatry investigating the differing effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), two of the main cannabinoids found in cannabis that determine its subjective and cognitive effects. Cannabidiol is showing promise in inhibiting the psychosis-like effects of THC, and indicating great therapeutic potential.
A Beckley Foundation/University College London collaboration with Professor Valerie Curran investigating medicinal uses of cannabis.
A Beckley/Imperial Psychedelic Research Programme collaborative study on psychedelic microdosing.
Recent Scientific Journal Publications
Beckley Foundation Press Publications
The Beckley Foundation Press was created to allow the publication of Drug Policy and Scientific material that was not being picked up by mainstream publishing houses due to the controversial nature of the material.
LSD My Problem Child and Insights/Outlooks
Authors: Albert Hofmann. Translated by Jonathan Ott and Edited by Amanda Feilding - Publisher: The Beckley Foundation Press and Oxford University Press (2013). , 248 pages
Cannabis Policy: Moving Beyond Stalemate
Authors: Robin Room, Benedikt Fischer, Wayne Hall, Simon Lenton and Peter Reuter, Convened by Amanda Feilding -
Publisher: The Beckley Foundation Press and Oxford University Press (2010).
The Pharmacology of LSD
Authors: Annelie Hintzen M.D. and Torsten Passie M.D., M.A. Paperback: App 200 pages -
Publisher: The Beckley Foundation Press and Oxford University Press (June 2010)
Hoffmann’s Elixir: LSD and the new Eleusis - Talks & Essays by Albert Hofmann and others
Edited by Amanda Feilding -
Publisher: Beckley Foundation Press (2010)
Non-Invasive Evaluation of Human Brain Fluid Dynamics and Skull Biomechanics in Relation to Cognitive Functioning
Authors: Yuri Moskalenko, Amanda Feilding and Peter Halvorson -
Publisher: Beckley Foundation Press (2010)
Major Seminars
"Drugs and the Brain", Magdalen College, Oxford, (2002).
"The Role of Drugs in Society", Royal Society, (2003).
"An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Alcohol and other Recreational Drugs", Cabinet Office, Admiralty Arch, (2003).
"Global Drug Policy - Future Directions", Westminster Palace, (2004)
"International Drug Policy Seminar 2005"), House of Lords, Westminster Palace, (2005). A three-day seminar including the Beckley/Foresight Seminar, reviewing the Foresight Report; the meeting of the International Consortium of NGOs, and the meeting of the International Network of Drug Policy Analysis, renamed International Society for the Study of Drug Policy (ISSDP). House of Lords, Westminster Palace
"UNGASS and the Contribution of Civil Society" House of Lords, Westminster Palace, (2006)
"The Global Cannabis Commission Report Launch & Assessing International Drug Control- Preparations for UNGASS" House of Lords, Westminster Palace, (2008)
The Launch of the Global Initiative for Drug Policy Reform. Convened by the Beckley Foundation and launched with the All Party Parliamentary Group - Westminster Palace, (2011)
External links
The Beckley Foundation
Breaking the Taboo
Psychedelic Science.org.uk
International Drug Policy Consortium
International Society for the Study of Drug Policy
See also
Heffter Research Institute
Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies
References
1998 establishments in the United Kingdom
Charities based in Oxfordshire
Drug policy organizations
Drug policy reform
Foundations based in England
Health charities in the United Kingdom |
4547227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonic%20bodies | Masonic bodies | There are many organisations and orders which form part of the widespread fraternity of Freemasonry, each having its own structure and terminology. Collectively these may be referred to as Masonic bodies, Masonic orders, Concordant bodies or appendant bodies of Freemasonry.
Differences between Rites or concordant bodies and appendant bodies
The terms “Appendant body” and “Rite or Concordant body” in Freemasonry can sometimes be confusing, even for those familiar with Masonic traditions.
A “Rite” or "concordant body" in Freemasonry is a system that includes various degrees for initiating a newcomer. Although not all Rites practice the conferral of all these blue Lodge degrees, they are included within its structure. Essentially, a Rite is at the heart of the Masonic journey.
In contrast, an “Appendant body” is an organization that is affiliated with Freemasonry and recognized by the Grand Lodge. However, it does not include a system of Blue Lodge degrees or upper/side degrees.
Understanding these distinctions helps to deepen our comprehension of the complex world of Freemasonry. It’s also worth noting that a Rite is sometimes referred to as a “Concordant Body”, which means that its ritual is in harmony with the Grand Lodge.
Overview of relationships between masonic organizations
The basic unit of Freemasonry is the Masonic Lodge, which alone can "make" (initiate) a Freemason. Such lodges are controlled by a Grand Lodge with national or regional authority for all lodges within its territory. A masonic lodge confers the three masonic degrees of Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft (or Fellow Craft), and Master Mason.
Whilst there is no degree in Freemasonry higher than that of Master Mason, there are additional degrees that are offered only to those who are Master Masons. Most of these are supervised by their own "Grand" bodies (independent from the Grand Lodge).
The United Grand Lodge of England (which has no direct authority over other Grand Lodges, but as the world's oldest Grand Lodge, has a historical influence in terms of regularity and practice) defines "pure, ancient Freemasonry" as consisting of the three degrees of Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master Mason, including the supreme Order of the Holy Royal Arch.
The degree of the Holy Royal Arch is of great antiquity, and has a special importance in many masonic systems, including those of all three of the oldest 'Constitutions' (masonic authorities), namely the Grand Lodges of England, Scotland, and Ireland, in all of which it is considered (by varying constitutional definitions) to be the completion of the mainstream masonic structure.
A number of other organisations, most of which are known as 'masonic' or have a title identifying themselves as masonic, require candidates for membership to be a Master Mason in "good standing" (subscriptions paid, and not under any form of discipline). In some countries, notably the United States of America, the Scottish Rite and the York Rite are the two principal routes available. In other countries, notably England, Scotland, Ireland, and many of the countries of the Commonwealth, a large number of 'stand-alone' Orders and Degrees exist, without the umbrella organisation of a "rite". Some of these masonic bodies use numbers as an informal way of referring to or identifying the degrees they confer, but the most important and therefore "highest" degree is always the third, or Degree of Master Mason. These other masonic bodies (sometimes known as 'additional degrees' or 'side degrees') are optional pursuits for those who wish to take their masonic membership and activity beyond the three degrees of Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft and Master Mason.
History
Sometime before 1730, a trigradal system (that is, a system of three grades or degrees) started to emerge in Freemasonry, which quickly became the standard system in the lodges of England, Ireland and Scotland. This seems to have been accomplished by the rearrangement and expansion of the original bigradal system, particularly by the elaboration of the Hiramic legend, and its full exposition in the third degree, that of a Master Mason. The emergence, in the 1740s, of "chivalric" degrees on the continent may be linked to the deliberate "gentrification" of Freemasonry in Chevalier Ramsay's Oration of 1737.
The formation of the Royal Arch occurred in the same period, developing the Hiramic theme with the rediscovery of the secrets lost with the death of the master builder. The Premier Grand Lodge of England (the "Moderns") remained ambivalent about the new rite, perhaps because a secret password was taken from their own third degree. The Moderns' supporters of the new rite formed their own Grand Chapter, probably in 1765. There is evidence that the official date of 1767 is the result of the alteration of the foundation document, to save Lord Blayney the embarrassment of founding a controversial organisation while he was still the Moderns' Grand Master. The prime mover in the formation of the Grand Chapter was Caledonian Lodge, a lodge of Scottish Masons which had just joined the Moderns from the Ancients, and whose members included William Preston.
In 1751, as the Moderns increasingly alienated unaffiliated lodges, a few (mainly Irish) lodges in London formed the Antient Grand Lodge of England (the "Antients"), which rapidly became an umbrella organisation for unaffiliated lodges in England. Their second secretary, Laurence Dermott, believed the Royal Arch to be the fourth degree. When the two Grand Lodges merged in 1813, Article Two of the Articles of Union agreed that "pure Antient Masonry consists of three Degrees and no more, viz., those of the Entered Apprentice, the Fellow Craft and the Master Mason, including the Supreme Order of the Holy Royal Arch". Grand Chapter remained, but other degrees from this time has to be administered by separate Masonic Bodies.
The period from 1740 to 1813 saw a host of Masonic rites, orders and degrees emerge. These new rituals enlarged the scope of Masonry and encompassed many elaborations, some of which included elements which had previously been practiced within the craft. Many rites proved to be transient and died out (some being no more than a written record without evidence of having been practiced), but some proved more resilient and survived.
Rites, orders, and degrees
England & Wales
In England and Wales, after the degrees of craft freemasonry, there are a large number of separately administered degrees and orders open only to craft freemasons. Under the English Constitution, the Holy Royal Arch is the only degree formally recognised by the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) beyond the three degrees of craft freemasonry. Other orders and degrees are however referred to and acknowledged by the Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of England, and all their members are necessarily masons subject to the English Constitution. Of Masonic appendant bodies, the following are among the most popular:
The Holy Royal Arch in England and Wales is practiced as a stand-alone degree, separate from Craft Freemasonry. Members meet in Royal Arch Chapters, which are each attached to a Craft Lodge and also bear the same number. The Order is administrated by the Supreme Grand Chapter, which is based at the headquarters of the United Grand Lodge of England in Freemasons' Hall, London, and also has many officers in common with it. Craft lodges in England and Wales normally have a Royal Arch Representative, and newly raised Master Masons are actively encouraged to seek exaltation into the Holy Royal Arch before considering membership of any further Masonic organisation.
The Order of Mark Master Masons. Under the English Constitution this degree is only conferred in Mark Masons' Lodges, which are independent from the United Grand Lodge of England and administrated from Mark Masons' Hall, London. Within the Order, members may also join the Royal Ark Mariners.
The Order of the Secret Monitor. Under the English Constitution, the Order meets in Conclaves, each with a Supreme Ruler at its head. The Order is administrated from Mark Masons' Hall, London. Within the Order, members may also join the Order of the Scarlet Cord.
The Ancient and Accepted Rite for England and Wales, colloquially known as "Rose Croix". Under the English Constitution, the Rite meets in Rose Croix Chapters and is open only to Master Masons who believe in the Christian Holy Trinity. Candidates are 'perfected' in the 18th degree, with the preceding degrees awarded in name only. Continuing to the 30th degree and beyond is restricted to those who have served in the chair of the Chapter. The Order is administrated by the 'Supreme Council 33° for England and Wales' in London.
The Knights Templar. Membership is by invitation only. Candidates are required to be Master Masons, Royal Arch Masons, and to believe in the Christian Holy Trinity. Knights Templar meet in Preceptories. The Order is administrated from Mark Masons' Hall, London; members may also join the Knights of Malta or the Knight Templar Priests.
The Order of Royal and Select Masters is administrated from Mark Masons' Hall, London. It works the degrees of Select Master, Royal Master, Most Excellent Master and Super-Excellent Master which show the link between the degrees of Master Mason, Mark Master Mason and the Holy Royal Arch.
The Order of the Red Cross of Constantine, the Holy Sepulchre and of St John the Evangelist, colloquially known as the "Red Cross of Constantine". Candidates are required to be Master Masons, Royal Arch Masons, and to believe in the Christian Holy Trinity. Members meet as a Conclave. The Order works three degrees, and also administrates two distinct appendant orders which are both Christian in character. The Order is administrated from Mark Masons' Hall, London.
The Allied Masonic Degrees, a group of five formerly independent degrees, are conferred by invitation only. Candidates are required to be Master Masons, Royal Arch Masons and Mark Masons. Members may also be invited to join the Order of Knight Masons. The Order meets in Councils and is administrated from Mark Masons' Hall, London.
Scotland
The governing bodies are the Grand Lodge of Scotland and the Supreme Grand Royal Arch Chapter of Scotland.
Under the Scottish Masonic Constitution, the Mark master's degree can be taken either within a Craft Lodge after having attained the degree of Master Mason, or within a Royal Arch Chapter, before taking the degree of Excellent Master. No one under the Scottish Masonic Constitution can be exalted as a Royal Arch Mason without previously having been advanced as a Mark Master Mason.
A number of other orders are open to craft freemasons, of which the following are notable in Scotland:
The Royal Order of Scotland
The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite
The Masonic Knights Templar
The Red Cross of Constantine, which works five degrees.
United States
In the United States there are two main sets of side degrees:
The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry.
The York Rite (sometimes called the American Rite), which, together with the craft lodge, comprises three separate and distinct bodies: the Royal Arch Chapter (Capitular Masonry), the Council of Royal & Select Masters (Cryptic Masonry) and the Commandery of the Knights Templar.
Other Appendant bodies
The York Rite Sovereign College of North America – An invitational body dedicated to the assistance and promotion of York Rite Bodies and degree work. The presiding body is a college, and the presiding officer is a Governor, titled Preeminent. The body works one main degree, that of Order of Knight of York, and one honorary degree, that of Order of the Purple Cross of York.
Canada
In Canada there are two main Masonic appendant bodies:
The York Rite, being the older of the two, which, aside from the craft lodge, comprises four separate and distinct bodies: the Royal Arch Chapter (Capitular Masonry), the Council of Royal & Select Masters (Cryptic Masonry), the Commandery of the Knights Templar, and the York Rite College. The York Rite also includes Priories of Knights of the York Cross of Honor, Tabernacles of the Holy Royal Arch Knight Templar Priests and Order of Holy Wisdom, and Councils of the Allied Masonic Degrees of Canada.
The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry.
Ireland
In Ireland, after the Craft degrees conferred under the authority of the Grand Lodge of Ireland there are a number of degrees and orders that are administered separately and are open to Master Masons either by petition or by invitation.
The Royal Arch in Ireland is unique, and regarded widely as being the oldest Royal Arch working in the world. Members of Royal Arch in England, Scotland or America would notice a great many differences in the theme of the degree from what they are used to. Royal Arch Chapters in Ireland can meet as Lodges of Mark Master Masons to confer the Mark Degree on a candidate. This must be done before a candidate is given the Royal Arch Degree. Irish Royal Arch chapters operate under the Supreme Grand Royal Arch Chapter of Ireland and both the Mark Master Masons and Royal Arch degrees are recognised by Grand Lodge as being part of "pure, ancient Freemasonry."
The Knight Mason degrees make up the last part of "Universal" Irish Freemasonry. They are open to any member of the Craft and Royal Arch. They are frequently known in other constitutions as the Red Cross Degrees, namely, Knight of the Sword (formally Red Cross of Babylon or Red Cross of Daniel), Knight of the East (formally Jordan Pass), and Knight of the East and West (formally Royal Order). These degrees had previously been administered by Knights Templar Preceptories and some Royal Arch Chapters. In 1923 the Grand Council of Knight Masons was established to support and preserve the Degrees and the Councils that confer them. Irish Knight Masonry is now a worldwide masonic body and is continuing to grow. The Degrees practiced under the Grand Council of Knight Masons are conferred in the correct chronological order and are given in far greater detail than any similar body anywhere else in the world. In other jurisdictions, it is invitational.
Invitational Degrees
The Military Order of the Temple, often known as the Masonic Knights Templar, confers Knight Templar and Knight of Malta degrees. Membership of the Order of the Temple is strictly invitational.
The Ancient and Accepted Rite of Ireland has strict requirements for membership. It is by invitation only and membership of Knight Templar is required. The degree structure is extremely close to the more famous Scottish Rite in America; however, as in the Ancient and Accepted Rite in England, progression through each individual degree is by invitation only.
Nordic Europe
In Scandinavia and the Nordic states, including Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Denmark, and Finland, Freemasonry exists mostly in the form of the Swedish Rite.
France
The French Rite is strong in France, Luxembourg, Greece, Brazil, and formerly Louisiana.
Other orders and degrees
The following affiliated and appendant bodies confer Masonic degrees. Those who petition or are invited to membership must be at least Master Masons, although each body may have additional qualifications for membership:
Allied Masonic Degrees. In the U.S., councils of the A.M.D. exemplify twelve Masonic degrees. In Canada, councils exemplify nine degrees in addition to the installation ceremony. In England, councils confer only five degrees.
Ye Antient Order of Noble Corks. A humorous side degree. In Scotland it is associated with Royal Arch Masonry. In England and Europe it is a stand-alone order. In the US it is part of the Allied Masonic Degrees.
The Knight Masons. Councils of Knight Masons across most of the globe operate under the Grand Council of Knight Masons, based in Ireland. In Scotland the degrees are worked in the combined order (along with the Royal Ark Mariner degree) titled the Lodge and Council, and are controlled by the Supreme Grand Royal Arch Chapter of Scotland. In the US, the degrees are, with some exceptions, governed by the Grand Council of Knight Masons of the U.S.A. which broke away from the first Grand Council during the 1950s.
Royal Order of Scotland. The Grand Lodge of the Royal Order at Edinburgh, Scotland, controls approximately 85 Provincial Grand Lodges around the world, and confers two degrees.
The Rectified Scottish Rite, known as CBCS from its highest exoteric rank, Chevaliers Bienfaisants de la Cite Sainte, or Knights Beneficent of the Holy City.
Societas Rosicruciana. Colleges confer nine degrees, or "grades."
Order of St. Thomas of Acon. A commemorative chivalric order. Organized in "chapels."
Appendant bodies
In Freemasonry, an Appendant body is any organization that does not contain a system of initiatory degrees (Rite or concordant body), these organizations are appendant to freemasonry, every Grand Lodge has its own list of approved Appendant bodies thus this list may vary depending on the Grand Lodge jurisdiction.
These affiliated bodies and youth organisations are commonly found in North and Central America, and to a lesser degree in South America. They are not generally present in Europe, except in localised areas of American influence, particularly areas of long term American military presence.
The Ancient Egyptian Order of Sciots
The Ancient Egyptian Order of Sciots is a fraternal organization that was founded in the United States in 1911. The order is dedicated to spreading fun and good cheer among its members, which it refers to as "Pyramids". The organization is known for its distinctive Egyptian-themed rituals and symbolism. It's structured into local units, also known as "Pyramids", and members work together to organize social and charitable activities. The order's motto is "Boost One Another".
The Society of Blue Friars
The Society of Blue Friars, also known as S.B.F., is a unique Masonic organization established in 1932 with the explicit purpose of recognizing Masonic authors. It is widely regarded as one of the smallest and most distinctive appendant bodies within Freemasonry.
Shriners
Shriners International, historically known as the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (A.A.O.N.M.S.). Shriners meet in Shrine "centers" or "temples," and are well known for their maroon fezzes, lavish parades, and sponsorship of children's hospitals.
Attached to Shriners
Royal Order of Jesters (R.O.J.) Colloquially known as "Jesters," local "courts" are limited to thirteen initiates yearly. Initiation, by invitation and unanimous ballot, is limited to members in good standing of the Shrine.
Order of Quetzalcoatl. The “Q”, or the Order of Quetzalcoatl, is an invitational only body within the Masonic fraternity. This organization, which was established by Arthur J. in Mexico City on March 14, 1945, is renowned for its philanthropic endeavors. Its primary charitable contribution is providing transportation funds for Shriners hospitals.
Shriner Clubs
The Shriner contains many clubs withing its structure such as the Hillbillies, Gorilla, Veterans, Cigar Club etc...
High Twelve
High Twelve is a masonic appendant body primarily focused on youth support and patriotic events.
Tall Cedars of Lebanon
Tall Cedars of Lebanon or Tall Cedar, are organized into "Forests" and meet at Masonic Temples or banquets halls. Some refer to themselves as the "poor man's Shriners", their motto is "Fun, Frolic & Fellowship", and members wear a pyramid shaped hat.
The Widow's Sons
The Widow's Sons motorcycle rider association has chapters in the UK, USA, and Canada. Its support by regional grand lodges ranges from none to full support, and some may even confer a Widow's Son degree.
Grotto
Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm. Often referred as "Grotto" The organization is an exclusive social club, open only to Master Masons. While it welcomes all Master Masons, it aims to rekindle interest in the Blue Lodges and dive in its teachings in a relaxed manner. However, it does not assert any affiliation with Symbolic Craft Masonry. Members of this group are sometime seen or criticized as being an elite group within freemasonry, they can be identified by their distinctive black fez adorned with a red tassel and a Mokanna head at the center. Their gatherings often take place in opulent venues or upscale dining establishments.
Order of the Eastern Star
Order of the Eastern Star. Membership is limited to Master Masons and their female relatives, or majortiy members of Job's Daughters and The Rainbow for Girls. Each chapter is led by the Worthy Matron and assisted by the Worthy Patron. Female relatives must be related by birth, marriage, or adoption to a Master Mason.
Order of the Amaranth
Order of the Amaranth. An American fraternal order for Master Masons and their female relatives. Governed by a Supreme Council, with Grand Courts in most US states. Direct relation to a Master Mason is no longer a requirement for membership.
Youth organizations
A number of Masonic-affiliated youth organizations exist, mainly in North America, which are collectively referred to as Masonic youth organizations.
Order of the Knights of Pythagoras, for boys aged 8 to 18; sponsored by the Prince Hall Freemasons.
DeMolay International. Young men from 12 to 21 are eligible for membership. There are DeMolay chapters located in Argentina, Aruba, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Ecuador, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Romania, Serbia, South Africa, the United States, and Uruguay.
A.J.E.F., Asociacion de Jovenes Esperanza de la Fraternidad, for boys aged 14 to 21, active in México, the United States, and Latin America.
Job's Daughters. Young ladies from 10 to 20, who are daughters of Master Masons or daughters of a majority Job's Daughter, or sponsored by a Master Mason or Majority Member, are eligible. The "Jobies" have Bethels in Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Philippines, and the United States. Mostly due to American military presence there have also been bethels in Germany and Japan.
International Order of the Rainbow for Girls. Young ladies from 10 to 20 are eligible. The "Rainbow Girls" have Assemblies in Aruba, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Italy, Paraguay, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Romania. Rainbow has had assemblies, mostly due to American military presence, in the following countries: Cuba, France, Germany, Japan, Mexico, Panama, the Republic of China, and Vietnam.
Organization of Triangles Inc. was founded in 1925 by Rose E. Scherer. Triangle is located only in New York. This organization is for young ladies between the ages of 10 and 21.
References
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4547460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special%20Court%20for%20Sierra%20Leone | Special Court for Sierra Leone | The Special Court for Sierra Leone, or the "Special Court" (SCSL), also called the Sierra Leone Tribunal, was a judicial body set up by the government of Sierra Leone and the United Nations to "prosecute persons who bear the greatest responsibility for serious violations of international humanitarian law and Sierra Leonean law" committed in Sierra Leone after 30 November 1996 and during the Sierra Leone Civil War. The court's working language was English. The court listed offices in Freetown, The Hague, and New York City.
Following its dissolution in 2013, it was replaced by the Residual Special Court for Sierra Leone in order to complete its mandate and manage a variety of ongoing and ad-hoc functions, including witness protection and support, supervision of prison sentences and claims for compensation.
On 26 April 2012, former Liberian President Charles Taylor became the first African head of state to be convicted for his part in war crimes.
Origin
On 12 June 2000, Sierra Leone's President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah wrote a letter to United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan asking the international community to try those responsible for crimes during the conflict. On 10 August 2000, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1315 requesting the Secretary-General to start negotiations with the Sierra Leonean government to create a Special Court.
On 16 January 2002, the UN and the government of Sierra Leone signed an agreement establishing the court. A contract was awarded to Sierra Construction Systems, the largest construction company in Sierra Leone, to construct the building that would house the court. The first staff members arrived in Freetown in July 2002.
On 10 March 2004, the new courthouse building of the Special Court for Sierra Leone was officially opened, before an audience of national and international dignitaries.
As of April 2012, over 40 states had contributed funds for the court's work, with the most notable African contributor being Nigeria. In 2004, 2011 and 2012, the SCSL received funding from subventions from the United Nations.
Jurisdiction
The SCSL had the jurisdiction to try any persons who committed crimes against humanity against civilians that included: murder; extermination; enslavement; deportation; imprisonment; torture; rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution or any other form of sexual violence; persecution on the basis of politics, race, ethnicity or religion; and other "inhumane acts." In addition, the court would have jurisdiction to prosecute those who violated the Geneva Convention of 1949, as well as Sierra Leone's Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1926 for the abuse of girls and Malicious Damage Act 1861. However, the court does not have jurisdiction over those under the age of 15. Further, it was superior to any court of Sierra Leone and could take precedence in cases of possible conflicting jurisdiction. Previous amnesties contrary to the remit of the court would be invalid.
Punishment
All sentences should be carried out within Sierra Leone, unless there was no capacity to deal with the accused, at which point any states pursuant to the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda or the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia who have acceded a willingness to host the accused for the tenure of their sentence can hold the prisoner. Enforcement would be carried out by the court. For a detailed discuss of the sentencing practice and punishments imposed by the Special Court for Sierra Leone read Shahram Dana, The Sentencing Legacy of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 42 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 615 (2014).
Commuting sentences would be up to the state in consultation with the court.
Structure
The Special Court consisted of three institutions: the Registry, the Office of the Prosecutor, and the Chambers (for trials and appeals).
Registry
The Registry was responsible for the overall management of the court.
Registrars:
Office of the Prosecutor
The current prosecutor, Brenda Hollis, previously the principal trial attorney in the Charles Taylor case, was appointed by the UNSG and took up her office in February 2010. The prosecutor and her team investigate crimes, gather evidence and submit indictments to the judges. The Deputy Prosecutor is Joseph Kamara, a Sierra Leonean, nominated by that government and appointed by the Secretary General. Kamara took up his post on 15 August 2008.
Chambers
The statute of the court indicated eight to eleven judges. Three would serve in the trial chamber (of which one would be appointed by the Sierra Leonean government and two by the UN Secretary-General) and five would serve in the appeals chamber (of which two would be appointed by the Sierra Leonean government and three by the UN secretary-general).
At closure there were twelve judges, of which seven were Trial Judges (five UN appointed—including one alternate—and two nominated by the Sierra Leone government). The remaining five were Appeals Judges, three of whom were appointed by the UN and two nominated by the Sierra Leone government. Judges were appointed for a term of three years, with an option for re-appointment.
Appeals Chamber:
Trial Chamber I judges:
Trial Chamber II judges:
Former judges
Geoffrey Robertson United Kingdom (2002–2007), appeals chamber, quit under allegations of bias over publication of a book vilifying the RUF.
Raja N. Fernando Sri Lanka (2004–2008), appeals chamber, died.
Indictees
The Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone outlines four different types of crimes with which the Court can charge individuals. They are crimes against humanity, violations of Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions and of Additional Protocol II (war crimes), other serious violations of international humanitarian law, and crimes under Sierra Leonean law. If found guilty, sentencing could include prison terms or have their property confiscated. The SCSL, as with all other tribunals established by the United Nations, does not have the power to impose the death penalty. Thus far, 13 individuals have been indicted on charges of committing crimes against humanity, war crimes, and other violations of international humanitarian law. No individuals have been charged with crimes under Sierra Leonean law.
A total of 23 people have been indicted in the SCSL. Proceedings against 22 people have been completed: six are serving their sentences, one died while serving his sentence, nine have finished their sentences, three have been acquitted, and three have died prior to the conclusion of the proceedings against them. Proceedings against one person, Johnny Paul Koroma, are ongoing; he is a fugitive, although he is believed to be deceased.
Overview
The list below details the counts against each individual indicted in the Court and his or her current status. The column titled H lists the number of counts (if any) of crimes against humanity with which an individual has been charged. W the number of counts of war crimes and violations of international humanitarian law, CSL the number of counts of crimes under Sierra Leonean law, and C the number of counts of contempt of the Court. Note that these are the counts with which an individual was indicted, not convicted.
{|class="wikitable sortable" border="1" style="text-align:left"
|- style="font-size:85%"
! Name
! Indicted
!
!
!
!
! Transferredto the SCSL
! Current status
! class="unsortable" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 7
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 10
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| Died on ; charges withdrawn on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 7
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 8
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Died on while serving sentence of 50 years' imprisonment
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 8
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 10
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Serving sentence of 40 years' imprisonment in Rwanda
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 7
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 10
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| Fugitive; reported to have died in 2003
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 2
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 6
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Died on ; proceedings terminated on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 7
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 10
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Died on ; proceedings terminated on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 8
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 10
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Serving sentence of 52 years' imprisonment in Rwanda
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 5
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 6
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Serving sentence of 50 years' imprisonment in
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 8
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 10
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Paroled on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 7
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 8
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 3
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Serving sentence of 46 years and 50 weeks' imprisonment in Rwanda
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
| {{Efn|group=upper-alpha|Moinina Fofana served 11 years and 298 days of his sentence of 15 years' imprisonment in detention.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rscsl.org/Documents/Decisions/CDF/839/RSCSL-04-14-ES-839.pdf |title=RSCSL-04-14-ES: The Prosecutor v. Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa Order for Detention and Transfer and for Hearing Pursuant to Article 12(F) of the Practice Direction on Conditional Early Release of Persons Convicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone |publisher=RSCSL |date=9 March 2016 |access-date=15 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315105030/http://www.rscsl.org/Documents/Decisions/CDF/839/RSCSL-04-14-ES-839.pdf |archive-date=15 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 2
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 6
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Completed sentence of 15 years' imprisonment on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 2
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 6
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Completed sentence of 20 years' imprisonment on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 7
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 8
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 2
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Serving sentence of 51 years and 50 weeks' imprisonment in Rwanda
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 1
| style="background:#90EE90" | Summoned
| Acquitted on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 1
| style="background:#90EE90" | Summoned
| Completed sentence of year's probation on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 1
| style="background:#90EE90" | Summoned
| Completed sentence of year's probation on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 1
| style="background:#90EE90" | Summoned
| Completed sentence of year's probation on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 1
| style="background:#90EE90" | Summoned
| Completed sentence of year's probation on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 2
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Completed sentence of imprisonment on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 2
| style="background:#90EE90" | Summoned
| Completed commuted sentence on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 9
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Completed sentence of years' imprisonment on
| align="center" |
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 1
| style="background:#90EE90" |
| Acquitted on
| align="center" | —
|- style="font-size:85%"
|
|
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0" |
| align="center" style="background:#FFCCCC" | 9
| style="background:#00FF00" |
| Acquitted on
| align="center" |
|-class="sortbottom"
| colspan="9" style="font-size:94.44%; background:#F2F2F2" | Notes
|}
Civil Defence Forces (CDF)
Three of the indictees were leaders of the Civil Defence Forces (CDF), i.e. Allieu Kondewa, Moinina Fofana, and former Interior Minister Samuel Hinga Norman. Their trial started on 3 June 2004 and concluded with closing arguments in September 2006. Norman died in custody on 22 February 2007 before judgement after having undergone a surgical procedure in Dakar, Senegal. The trial proceedings against him were accordingly terminated.
Revolutionary United Front (RUF)
Five leaders of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) were indicted: Foday Sankoh, Sam Bockarie, Issa Hassan Sesay, Morris Kallon and Augustine Gbao. The charges against Sankoh and Bockarie were dropped after their deaths were officially ascertained. The trial for Kallon, Gbao and Sesay began on 5 July 2004. It concluded on 24 June 2008. Final oral arguments were conducted on 4 and 5 August 2008.
Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC)
Three of the detained indictees belonged to the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC): Alex Tamba Brima (also known as Gullit), Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (also known as Five-Five). Their trial began on 7 March 2005.
The only indicted person who is not detained, and whose whereabouts remain uncertain, is the former dictator and AFRC chairman Johnny Paul Koroma, who seized power in a military coup on 25 May 1997. He was widely reported to have been killed in June 2003, but as definitive evidence of his death has never been provided his indictment has not been dropped.
Charles Taylor
The former President of Liberia, Charles Taylor, was accused of involvement in the civil war. Taylor was originally indicted in 2003, but he was given asylum in Nigeria after fleeing Liberia. In March 2006, Taylor fled from his house in Nigeria and was arrested at the Cameroon border. Taylor was extradited to the SCSL following a request to this effect by the Liberian government. He was then immediately turned over to the SCSL.
Because Taylor still enjoyed considerable support in Liberia, President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf requested the trial to be moved to The Hague. The Dutch government called for United Nations Security Council Resolution 1688 to take him but also requested a third country to hold him if convicted, to which the United Kingdom agreed. His trial in Freetown was deemed undesirable for security reasons with UNAMSIL having considerably reduced its presence. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1688 of 17 June 2006 allowed the Special Court to transfer Taylor's case to The Hague, Netherlands, where the physical infrastructure of the International Criminal Court would be used with the trial still being conducted under the SCSL's auspices. Taylor's trial started on 4 June 2007, with the first witness appearing 7 January 2008.
The prosecution rested its case on 27 February 2009, and the defense began their case on 13 July and rested on 12 November 2010. The Trial Chamber II scheduled the announcement of its verdict on 26 April 2012 The verdict was read starting at 11:00 by the presiding judge Richard Lussick, who said that "the trial chamber unanimously finds you guilty of aiding and abetting [all of these] crimes:" acts of terrorism; murder; violence to life, health or physical well being of persons; rape; sexual slavery; outrages upon personal dignity; violence to life, health and physical or mental well being of persons; other inhumane acts, a crime against humanity; conscripting or enlisting children under the age of 15 years into the armed forces; enslavement; and pillage in accordance with article 6.1 of the SCSL's statute. His sentence would be announced on 30 May after a hearing in which Taylor would be given the opportunity to speak on 16 May. An appeal could also be filed within 14 days of the decision.
Though Taylor had rejected complicity on any of the charges, the court said that he ordered and supported the RUF, while the prosecution said that RUF's undermining of a 1999 ceasefire prolonged the war and was financed by Taylor through the proceeds of illegally mined "blood diamonds." In reaction to the verdict, Richard Dekker, the head of the international justice programme at Human Rights Watch said: "The Taylor verdict is a watershed moment, however it turns out. As president, Taylor is believed to have been responsible for so much murder and mayhem which unfolded in Sierra Leone. His was a shadow that loomed across the region". Christine Cheng of Exeter College, Oxford pointed to the politicisation of the trial and the degree to which the trial has been funded by Western states, though she added that the conclusion of Taylor's trial represented a "milestone for the pursuit of international justice." The prosecutor Brenda J. Hollis reacted to the verdict in saying:
Today is for the people of Sierra Leone who suffered horribly because of Charles Taylor. This judgment brings some measure of justice to the many thousands of victims who paid a terrible price for Mr. Taylor's crimes. Today's historic judgment reinforces the new reality, that Heads of State will be held to account for war crimes and other international crimes. This judgment affirms that with leadership comes not just power and authority, but also responsibility and accountability. No person, no matter how powerful, is above the law. The judges found that Mr. Taylor aided and abetted the crimes charged in counts 1 through 11, and that he planned with Sam Bockarie the attacks on Kono, Makeni and Freetown in late 1998 and January 1999 during which the charged crimes were committed. The Trial Chamber's findings made clear the central role Charles Taylor played in the horrific crimes against the people of Sierra Leone. Mr. Taylor's conviction for murder acknowledges the thousands who were brutally killed. These men, women and children were violently taken from their family and friends, and many were killed in remote locations known only to their killers. Victims' families were left destitute, with emotional wounds that will never heal.
Richard Falk criticised the trial, arguing that Western powers selectively prosecuted only war criminals who were opposed to Western interests. He also noted that the U.S. has refused the International Criminal Court jurisdiction over its citizens.
Contempt cases
The Court has opened two contempt cases. The first was opened in 2005 involved the alleged intimidation of a witness by Brima Samura, an investigator for the defense team in the AFRC case and wives of the defendants: Margaret Brima, Neneh Jalloh, Esther Kamara, and Anifa Kamara. Samura was acquitted, but all the other defendants were sentenced to one year of probation.
The second case was opened in 2011 and involved witness tampering, interference with the administration of justice, and other allegations against Brima Kamara and Santigie Kanu, who at the time had already been sentenced for the previous case against them, and Hassan Bangura, Samuel Kargbo, and Eric Senessie. At a July 2011 preliminary hearing, Kargbo entered a guilty plea; the other four defendants pleaded not guilty. In June 2012, Eric Senessie was tried and convicted of eight counts of contempt of court. He was sentenced the following month to two years' incarceration per count, with each sentence to run concurrently.
Kamara, Kanu, and Bangura were also tried in June 2012. In September 2012, they were convicted of contempt of court. Kanu and Bangura were convicted of two counts of "interfering with the administration of justice by offering a bribe to a witness" and for attempting to induce a witness who had given testimony before the special court to recant. Kamara was convicted for attempting to induce a witness to recant testimony he had previously given as well. In October 2012, Kargbo, Kamara, Kanu, and Bangura were sentenced to prison terms ranging from 18 months (suspended for Kargbo) to 2 years on contempt charges stemming from allegations of witness tampering.
In 2012, Charles Taylor's lead defense counsel, Courtenay Griffiths, was accused of disclosing the identities of protected witness. The Court ultimately found him not guilty.
In October 2012, a seventh defendant, Prince Taylor, was charged with nine counts of contempt of court for witness tampering and interference with the administration of justice. In October 2013, an Appeals Chamber panel overturned his initial conviction in a 2–1 ruling.
Judgments
AFRC
On 20 June 2007, the three suspects in the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council trial, Brima, Kanu, and Kamara, were each convicted of eleven of 14 counts. These were acts of terrorism; collective punishments; extermination; murder—a crime against humanity; murder—a war crime; rape; outrages upon personal dignity; physical violence—a war crime; conscripting or enlisting children under the age of 15 years into armed forces or groups, or using them to participate actively in hostilities; enslavement; and pillage. They were found not guilty of three counts: sexual slavery and any other form of sexual violence; other inhumane act—forced marriage; and other inhumane acts—a crime against humanity.
These were the first judgments from the SCSL, as well as the first time ever that an international court ruled on charges related to child soldiers or forced marriage, and the first time an international court delivered a guilty verdict for the military conscription of children.
On 19 July 2007, Alex Tamba Brima and Santigie Borbor Kanu were sentenced to 50 years in jail, while Brima Kamara was sentenced to 45 years' imprisonment.
On 22 February 2008, the Appeals Chamber denied their appeal and reaffirmed the verdicts.
CDF
On 2 August 2007, the two surviving CDF defendants, Kondewa and Fofana, were convicted of murder, cruel treatment, pillage and collective punishments. Kondewa was further found guilty of use of child soldiers. The CDF trial was perhaps the most controversial as many Sierra Leoneans considered the CDF to be protecting them from the depredations of the RUF.
On 9 October 2007, the Court decided on the punishment. Kondewa was sentenced to eight years' imprisonment, Fofana got six years. These sentences were considered a success for the defence as the prosecutors had asked for 30 years' imprisonment for both. The Court imposed a lesser sentence because it saw some mitigating factors. These included the CDF's efforts to restore Sierra Leone's democratically elected government which, the Trial Chamber noted, "contributed immensely to re-establishing the rule of law in this Country where criminality, anarchy and lawlessness (...) had become the order of the day".
On appellate judgements announced on 28 May 2008, the Appeals Chamber overturned convictions of both defendants on the collective punishments charge as well as Kondewa's conviction for the use of child soldiers. However, the Appeals Chamber also entered new convictions against both for murder and inhumane acts as crimes against humanity. The Appeals Chamber also enhanced the sentences against the two, with the result that Fofana will serve 15 years and Kondewa will serve 20 years.
RUF
On 25 February 2009, convictions of each of the three RUF defendants were handed down. Issa Sesay and Morris Kallon were each found guilty on 16 of the 18 counts on which they had been charged. Augustine Gbao was found guilty of 14 of the 18 charges. Convictions were entered on charges including murder, enlistment of child soldiers, amputation, sexual slavery and forced marriage. The three were all convicted on charges of forced marriage, the first such convictions ever handed down in an international criminal court. All three had pleaded not guilty and shook their heads as the judgment was read.
Sentences were handed down on 8 April 2009. Sesay received 52 years, Kallon 40 years and Gbao 25 years. The convictions and sentences were appealed and, on 26 October 2009, the Appeals Chamber handed down an opinion denying that appeal.
Charles Taylor
On 26 April 2012, Charles Taylor was convicted on all 11 counts with which he remained charged. He was previously acquitted of ordering war crimes and of joint conspiracy. On 30 May 2012, he was sentenced to a term of 50 years in prison.
Monitoring Reports
The Special Court for Sierra Leone Monitoring Reports is a collection of reports of court proceedings written and researched by trial monitors from the University of California, Berkeley's War Crimes Studies Center stationed at the special court. The reports have available on-line through the Center's website. The monitors issued weekly reports on the trials, as well as special reports on various aspects of the justice process, including the treatment of charges of sexual violence, child witnesses, and the Defense Office.
See also
Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC)
References
Further reading
Albert Jean (dir.).: ''L'Avenir de la Justice Pénale Internationale'', Bruxelles, Bruylant, 2018, 383 p. ().
External links
Justice in Motion: The Trial Phase of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, Human Rights Watch, November 2005
Independent Interim Monitoring Reports of the Trials from 9/2004 to 11/2006, UC Berkeley War Crimes Study Center, November 2006
Punishment and forgiveness in Sierra Leone, The Observer'', 3 November 2002
Sierra Leone Civil War
War crimes trials
International courts and tribunals |
4547854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans | 1980 24 Hours of Le Mans | The 1980 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 48th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 14 and 15 June 1980. It was the seventh round of both the World Championship for Makes and World Challenge for Endurance Drivers. With neither the Porsche nor Renault works teams contesting the big Group 6 sports-cars for outright victory, it left the prospects open for a privateer victory from Joest, Rondeau or De Cadenet, or from Group 5 again, if they were to fail. The wet weather throughout the race further added to the uncertainty, reducing the advantage of the more powerful cars.
The race started in a downpour and the rain continued off and on throughout the race. The first half of the race saw a number of the favoured teams hold the lead for extended periods, until one by one they suffered delays or mechanical issues. By dawn it was the Joest Porsche special (driven by Jacky Ickx with Reinhold Joest) that held a 2-lap lead over Jean Rondeau in his own car, and John Fitzpatrick in the Dick Barbour 935. But when Joest pitted at 10am having lost top gear, the half-hour stop cost four laps and put the Frenchmen into the lead. Hard driving by Ickx got him back onto the lead lap again. A sudden squall at 1pm sent both cars aquaplaning off at the fast Dunlop Curve, fortunately without doing any major damage to either. When another rain shower appeared in the last hour, Ickx dived for the pits to put on wet tyres, while Jaussaud bravely stayed out on his slicks. This time Ickx could not make up the lost time and the French took a significant victory: Jean Rondeau gained the unique achievement of winning Le Mans driving a car of his own manufacture, with his other team car coming in third.
Regulations
The introduction of the new Group 5 and Group 6 categories in 1976 had not helped sports-car racing – it forced most manufacturers to choose between one or the other. The World Championship for Makes was stuttering and the small fields left the spectators disinterested which, in turn, dissuaded sponsors to invest. The strongest competition was found in the IMSA series in North America. After five years of going alone, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) returned to the World Championship, becoming the series' premier race, and easily with its biggest field.
True to its founding objective to stage a test of endurance and technical innovation, this year the ACO introduced a number of new regulations designed to encourage greater reliability and efficiency over raw speed. However, there were a few unforeseen repercussions that caused controversy.
All cars were now limited to a maximum fuel tank volume of 120 litres, and refuelling would run at a fixed rate of 50 litres per minute. This meant that pitstops that used to take around 30–40 seconds would now take over 2 minutes. Alternative fuel-types were also now permitted. A minimum distance of 25 laps had to be done between fuel and oil stops (effectively a fuel economy of 280 litres per 100 km, or 8mpg). A maximum of four pitcrew would be allowed to work on a car at a time.
This year, entries had to have either two or three drivers. Qualifying would be done by the average time of each car's drivers. The FIA qualifying rules were that each car had to be within 130% of the pole time and also within 110% of their class leader – although, the ACO allowed a team to drop their third driver for the race if they wanted a better grid position or, more importantly, were at risk of not qualifying. Formerly this was done on the Wednesday and Thursday however this year only a single, 5-hour session on Thursday would count toward qualification. The idea was to flush out amateur drivers who may be a liability to other drivers from being too slow. However, it did not take into account the vagaries of the weather and with constant rain on Thursday, it left only a very short window in the twilight for teams to get all their drivers qualified.
The other significant change was the ban on replacing the major components after the start of Qualifying until the end of the race. This applied to engines and gearboxes, while allowing a single turbo replacement. This was put in to stop the use of fragile, high-powered "qualifying engines" to get a high grid spot then swapped out before the race. But again, this compromised the race for cars that might have unforeseen issues with their race-engine during practice.
Drivers were only allowed to drive for four hours at a time, with a minimum one-hour break between stints, and a 14-hour maximum drive overall. To be classified as a finisher, a car had to complete their final lap before 4.15pm and to have covered at least 70% of the winner's distance. Also, the ACO's hors course rules were now discarded, where cars were disqualified if they had fallen over 30% behind the leader at the 12-hour mark.
The Index of Energy Efficiency returned. This was the ratio of total fuel used versus a calculated target. It was designed to encourage development of more efficient engine technology and was measured as at the final pit-stop. The winner would receive 5000FF. Finally, this would be the last Le Mans overseen by Charles Deutsch as race director, retiring from the position he had held since 1969 after a career as a car-builder. Sadly, he died only six months later.
Entries
Despite now being a part of the World Championship again, the ACO still needed to open its entry list to the IMSA series to guarantee something approaching a reasonable line-up. As it was, this was one of the weakest entry lists for a decade with no manufacturer works cars in the main Group 6 class. Only Porsche, Lancia and BMW entered works teams, and none went head-to-head in the same class.
From 87 applications, this year the ACO now accepted 70 to qualify for 50 starting spots. However, they later changed that to just accept 65 cars for scrutineering but kept the regular 55 starting spots. The largest category this year, by a clear margin, was the IMSA class with 22 applications, bolstered with a number of North American cars.
Note: The first number is the number of arrivals, the second the number who started.
Group 6 and GTP
Porsche had announced the end of its Group 6 program, and Mirage was not entered. This left the Group 6 class wide open to the gentleman-constructors. Le Mans local Jean Rondeau bought three cars. Using the same chassis as the previous year, they were fitted with longer bodyshells and new wings in sleek black livery. Swiss engine-specialist Heini Mader detuned the Ford-Cosworth DFV engines down to 460 bhp. One had ballast to make it up to the minimum weight required for the GTP class. As always, Rondeau would drive one of his cars, this year paired with 1978 winner (with Renault-Alpine) Jean-Pierre Jaussaud. The second car had another Le Mans hero, Henri Pescarolo with rally specialist Jean Ragnotti. The GTP car was driven Belgian endurance racers, brothers Jean-Michel and Philippe Martin who had won the 1979 Spa 24 Hours in a Ford Capri. With no sports-car experience they approached Englishman Gordon Spice as a co-driver (who had done the same things the year earlier). He bought the experienced Keith Greene (latterly of De Cadenet and Dome) as team manager.
Alain de Cadenet had been bringing his own Lola-derived cars to Le Mans since 1973 and this year was a genuine contender after victories in the World Championship rounds at Monza and Silverstone. With a Cosworth DFV tuned by New Zealander John Nicholson it could reach 335 kp/h (210 mph). His co-drivers were François Migault and South African Desiré Wilson. Nick Faure entered the older De Cadenet he had recently bought off Peter Lovett. Ian Bracey returned after a one-year hiatus with his IBEC project. Originally based around a Hesketh Formula 1 chassis, it had been considerably reworked by ADA Engineering and using a Cosworth prepared by John Dunn at his Swindon workshop. The drivers would be Tony Trimmer and Tiff Needell.
The Japanese company Dome returned after an underwhelming debut the previous year. The new RL80 still had the distinctive low, wedge-shaped design of Masao Ono but was now 18" shorter and 3" wider. Improved suspension and aerodynamics made it one of the fastest Group 6 cars, getting up to 345 kp/h (215 mph). Regular team drivers Chris Craft and Bob Evans did an 18-hour trouble-free test at the Suzuka racetrack.
André Chevalley had adapted the Lola T286 he had brought last year. Fitted with an aerodynamic shell designed by Swiss engineering students, it had another Cosworth engine tuned by Heini Mader that had qualified it on the front row at Silverstone. At Le Mans, it would be driven by Chevalley with Patrick Gaillard and François Trisconi.
With Porsche officially pulling out of Group 6, it was Reinhold Joest who would take on the Cosworths. In 1972 he had asked the company to loan an old Porsche 908, and then had finished 3rd at Le Mans. At the end of 1979 he again approached the company to use a Porsche 936 for Le Mans. He was already running a turbo-charged 908/3 in the World Championship. Porsche declined but allowed him to make a replica. Fitted with panels of a 936/77 from Porsche, it had a 2.1-litre twin-turbo as used on the 1977 car, that could generate 550 bhp on race boost. Porsche also would not allow him to call it a '936' so it was entered as the "908/J80". With sponsorship from Martini & Rossi Joest was able to entice Jacky Ickx out of his retirement after winning the 1979 Can-Am championship. Their third driver was Michel Leclère.
Instead Porsche arrived with three cars in the GTP category. The 924 Carrera was not meant for contesting outright victory but as a preamble for Group 4 and customer sales. Until homologation came through, it had to compete in GTP – as a true GT prototype. This was a significant step for Porsche, as these were their first front-engined cars to compete at Le Mans. The 2-litre turbo engine produced 320 bhp but the heavier weight of the car only got it to 280 kp/h (175 mph). This could be compensated for, to an extent, by its excellent handling and good fuel economy (22 laps on a tank of fuel compared to just 12 laps for a 935). Unusual for the time, the cars were equipped with onboard pneumatic air-jacks. For the three markets, they were given German, British and American crews respectively: test driver Günther Steckkönig joined Jürgen Barth and Manfred Schurti in one; Andy Rouse/Tony Dron had the second while American endurance experts Peter Gregg/Al Holbert had the third.
The small Parisian concern of WM did further refinement on their P79 design. With no full-time staff, Gérard Welter (Peugeot's head of design), Michel Meunier (Peugeot engineer) and their volunteer crew produced three cars with improved suspension, and a new tail-end tested at the Paris wind-tunnel. The 2.7-litre Peugeot V6 engines with twin KKK (Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch) turbos now had 4-valves per cylinder and put out 500 bhp getting the cars up to 350 kp/h (218 mph), the fastest cars on the straight by a clear margin. They entered the three cars with their characteristic all-French crews. A new race novelty was the live broadcast from a camera mounted in the Dorchy/Fréquelin WM. Sent via a helicopter link to the big screen in the Village, it gave the spectators the driver's-eye view racing around the track.
Group 6 (2-litre)
Eleven cars were entered for this class, its usual mix of small teams running Lolas, Chevrons or their own specialist cars. The French engine-builder team, Société ROC, was again the team to beat, this time broadening its entry with two Lolas alongside the Chevron. Their ROC engine now put out 285 bhp and the faster Lolas could get up to 280 kp/h (175 mph). Jean-Marie Lemerle also ran a Lola-ROC with a long-tail, while an ex-ROC team car, now fitted with a BMW engine, was entered by Jean-Philippe Grand, who had Yves Courage as a co-driver.
Dorset Racing were back with their Lola-Ford, driven by Martin Birrane, Peter Clark and Pink Floyd drummer Nick Mason. There were also two French Lola-BMWs entered by Michel Elkoubi and Patrice Gaulupeau, the latter fitted with Kevlar panels making it 30 kg lighter.
This year, the Osella Squadra Corse had taken the big move up from Formula 2 to Formula 1, while still developing very fast, nimble sports cars. The new PA8 model again used the BMW 2-litre motor, tuned for endurance racing at the BMW factory. Producing 290 bhp, it could get up to 320 kp/h (200 mph) (although 280 kp/h was its top speed at the circuit.) Managed by the F1 team-manager, Luis Peano, top female driver Lella Lombardi was paired with newcomer Mark Thatcher, son of the British Prime Minister.
After a disappointing run the previous year with the ToJ, Frenchman Hubert Striebig had set about rebuilding it from the floor up. Although keeping the BMW engine, it had new suspension and a longer, lower bodyshell. Canadian Walter Wolf had recently pulled out of Formula One after a short, spectacular tenure. This year he entered a Swiss Cheetah G-601 with a Cosworth prepared by Marc Frischknecht and driven by regular Cheetah drivers Sandro Plastina and Mario Luini, along with Frischknecht.
Group 5 (over 2-litre)
With the knowledge of a new sports car formula coming up in 1982 there was little incentive for new car development.
The Porsche 935 was easily the dominant Group 5 car and there were 15 of them entered this year across the Group 5 and IMSA classes.
The success of the Kremer brothers the previous year had put their modification workshop in high demand – selling 13 of their 935 K3 models. They entered three of their latest variants for their own teams: Rolf Stommelen, Axel Plankenhorn and Japanese Tetsu Ikuzawa; Americans Ted Field and Danny Ongais would race with Jean-Louis Lafosse while Anne-Charlotte Verney moved up from Group 4 to race with Xavier Lapeyre and acclaimed French actor-comedian Jean-Louis Trintignant. The new version had improved rear suspension, Kugelfischer fuel-injection and larger induction inlets, which all helped to lift the power output up to 660 bhp.
Perennial rival, Georg Loos, had used his money to secure a final, one-off, Porsche 935 from the factory. His 935/80 was modelled on the unique 935/78 "Moby Dick" from 1978, and was fitted with a 3160cc twin-turbo engine. The spaceframe chassis utilised the latest Porsche concepts in suspension and a shell using composite panels. This 'special edition' was given to Bob Wollek and Helmut Kelleners. Other teams in the World Championship arrived with their 935s: Dieter Schornstein's Vegla Racing from Germany, Claude Haldi's Swiss Meccarillos Racing, Britain's Charles Ivey Racing with its K3.
The only opposition to the Porsche 935s in Group 5 was from a modified Triumph TR8 entered by the British Janspeed team. The 3.56-litre Rover V8 was boosted by twin Rotomaster turbos and a dry-sump system while the suspension was completely revised and fitted with 12" disc brakes. Enthusiastically supported by the British TR-owners club, its drivers would be Ian Harrower, John Sheldon and John Brindley.
Group 5 (2-litre)
The World Championship was being run in two divisions – over and under 2-litres with the champion being whichever team scored the most points in either of the categories. Lancia therefore saw an opportunity to steal Porsche's thunder in the under-represented 2-litre class. The Montecarlo was the model chosen to contest in sportscar races and rallying. Cesare Fiorio's works team did extensive development over the close season. The mid-mounted 1425cc four-cylinder had a KKK-turbo and Bosch fuel-injection, putting out 410 bhp. Built at Dallara, with aerodynamics by Pininfarina, the 1980 version had been lightened and with tailor-made Pirelli tyres, could now get up to 280 kp/h (175 mph). Confidence was high with six from six wins in the championship, including commendable outright wins at Mugello and Brands Hatch. With championship points the prime objective, the turbo-boost would be wound down from 1.4 to 1.2bar to protect the engines. Two works cars arrived, driven by Hans Heyer/Teo Fabi and Piercarlo Ghinzani/Gianfranco Brancatelli. Rally drivers Bernard Darniche and Markku Alén were also added to the team. As in the WCM, they were also supported by the Italian Jolly Club customer team running a car for their current ETCC champions Martino Finotto and Carlo Facetti.
IMSA and GTX
With Porsche no longer building the 935 model (aside from the one-off Gelo car), there was a market space for racing specialists to upgrade the current fleet. IMSA-GTX rules were a variant of the Group 5 specifications, and after the car's dominance the previous year, had added 40 kg minimum weight to the twin-turbo version as a Balance of Performance.
Dick Barbour was back at Le Mans, and using the maxim "if you can't beat them, join them", had bought three of the Kremer brothers' modified Porsche 935/K3s. One was a brand new K3/80 version with its uprated 3.2-litre engine, and Bosch injectors. Barbour would drive it with John Fitzpatrick and Brian Redman. The chassis that came second the year before was refitted and given to Bobby Rahal, Bob Garretson and Australian Allan Moffat.
After winning at their first attempt last year, the Whittington brothers had also updated their 935 with a Kremer K3/80 kit. With Bill still injured from the Indianapolis 500, 20-year old brother Dale Whittington took his place, and they brought endurance expert Hurley Haywood on-board as the third driver. Similarly the Racing Associates team of Charles Mendez entered two cars fitted with K3/80 body kits, while still sporting twin-turbos. John Paul's JLP Racing was competing on both sides of the Atlantic for the Endurance Drivers' Challenge. Using the JLP-2, their own development of the 935 with a hefty NASCAR roll-cage, Paul had finished third at Silverstone with Redman. For Le Mans, he partnered up with his son and Englishman Guy Edwards.
But Porsche was not going to have a walkover in the class, with six different marques represented. Against the nine Porsches, there were six Ferrari 512 BBs. Parisian Charles Pozzi had three cars entered by JMS Racing. Now 100 kg lighter, the cars could get up to 310 kp/h (195 mph) on the Hunaudières Straight. They had three experienced crews, with Claude Ballot-Léna/Jean-Claude Andruet in one, Belgian ETCC team-mates Pierre Dieudonné/Jean Xhenceval in the second and Lucien Guitteny leading the third. Pozzi's cars were all equipped with onboard radios. The other Ferraris were an international collection – the American North American Racing Team, Steve O'Rourke's EMKA team and the Italian Scuderia Bellancauto.
BMW had secured its one-make Procar series as support races to Formula 1 Grands Prix. Six of the mid-engined BMW M1s were entered this year (although Hervé Poulain did not, in the end, arrive with another Art Car). The anachronistic March silhouette version had been heavily reworked since its failure to qualify the previous year. Now shorter, narrower and with aluminium panels, it was about 15% lighter than the production versions but with a top speed of 310 kp/h (195 mph) it was no quicker. Of the others, BMW works driver Manfred Winkelhock was loaned to accompany Patrick Nève and Michael Korten. Although entered by BMW-France and privateer Dominique Lacaud, their cars were prepared by the factory. Both had works co-drivers with Hans-Joachim Stuck/Hans-Georg Bürger co-driving with Lacaud, and Didier Pironi/Pierre Dieudonné/Marcel Mignot for BMW-France. In lieu of an art-car, the BMW-France car featured a map spotlighting its dealers across the country. Two other French M1 privateers were entered in the Le Mans-GTX category, however scrutineers ruled against the set-up of their rear wings. François Servanin therefore chose to enter the broader IMSA class, while the Garage du Bac crew moved their car's wing to comply, staying as the only entry in the GTX class.
Mazda was gaining confidence in endurance racing with their rotary engines, competing successfully in the IMSA GTU category with the RX-7. This year, an entry was placed by New Jersey Mazda dealer Pierre Honegger, with the car prepared by NASCAR specialists Holman-Moody. With the FIA's 2:1 equivalence factor for rotaries, the small 1146cc 12A engine was rated as 2.3-litres and produced 260 bhp. Another Japanese manufacturer being drawn into endurance racing was Toyota. Tachi Oiwa Motor Sports (TOM'S) was racing the Toyota Celica against Nissans in the Fuji Silhouette Series. Toyota Deutschland had worked with Schnitzer Motorsport to race another Celica by Rolf Stommelen in the German Group 5 series. This year, TOMS coordinated with Dome to develop an IMSA-GTX spec car with a modified body. The 2.1-litre turbo engine of the German series was replaced with a 2.8-litre, 600 bhp, turbo instead. Team principal Nobuhide Tachi would drive, alongside Fumiyaso Sato.
The last IMSA competitors were two Canadian Chevrolets: Mo Carter's Camaro had finished fourth at Daytona, while Doug Rowe had a brand new Corvette. Both were prepared at Brad Francis' Descon workshop and both had the 640 bhp, 7-litre Chevrolet engines. Unfortunately, they would be so thirsty as to require refuelling every 30 minutes or so.
Group 4 GT
Once again the meagre GT class was the sole preserve of Porsche. There were three French 934 turbos, from the ASA Cachia and Alméras teams and privateer Georges Bourdillat, as well as one from Puerto Rican Diego Febles. The fifth car was a 911 SC turbo entered by Thierry Perrier. Choosing to run on a fuel mixture of 50:50 ethanol/gasoline meant he could take advantage of an ACO guaranteed entry for alternative technology.
Practice and Qualifying
The new ACO limitations of a single qualifying session and an embargo on replacing engines proved extremely problematic. John Fitzpatrick put in the fastest lap in his Dick Barbour Porsche of 3:40.0 and although his veteran teammate Redman was almost as quick, the team average was pulled down by owner-driver Barbour to 3:48.4. Therefore it was the Rondeau of Pescarolo/Ragnotti that took the pole position with a qualifying average of 3:47.9. Third fastest was the soft-pink Gozzy-Kremer Group 5 935 of Ikuzawa/Stommelen/Plankenhorn doing 3:49.8 while the Ickx/Joest Porsche set a 3:50.0 flat, in fourth just ahead of Rondeau/Jaussaud (3:50.2).
De Cadenet's crew had replaced the engine and gearbox on Wednesday night. Then on Thursday, Desiré Wilson had a major crash in practice when she hit the barrier by the Ford chicane and rolled the De Cadenet several times. The ACO also managed to "lose" the time for her single dry lap. Although the team worked overnight to repair the car, because Wilson had apparently not set a qualifying time, she had to be dropped from the driver-team.
The Porsche works team also had a bad week. Their regular test driver Günther Steckkonig was rushed to hospital with kidney failure. Then Peter Gregg had a serious road accident on the way to the circuit for practice. Avoiding a local driver who turned right in front of him, the car rolled giving Gregg a whiplash and concussion. With blurred vision, he was not able to race. His replacement, to race with Al Holbert, would be their other very experienced works driver, Derek Bell. Not surprisingly, as essentially GT cars, they were well off the pace of the other GTP and Group 6 cars and all had issues with their fuelling systems. The Bell/Holbert car was the fastest, starting 34th (4:10.8), eleven seconds behind the Spice/Martin/Martin Rondeau in 19th. The 'British' car was 44th (4:16.5) and German one 46th (4:17.1).
Elsewhere, in Group 5 and IMSA, Stuck's BMW was the fastest of its type, with an average of 4:02.5 (23rd), well behind Fitzpatrick's Porsche. The fastest Ferrari fared better: the Pozzi-JMS car of Ballot-Léna/Andruet started 17th with a 3:58.4. The Lancias all qualified close together in the midfield, quickest being 26th (4:03.2). The Osella was the fastest in 2-litre Group 6, starting 32nd (4:08.6), with Thatcher only six seconds slower than his experienced co-driver. Next in class, two seconds back, was the Sourd/Verdier ROC Lola (35th). After Wednesday practice, the Dorset Racing team had swapped out their Swindon BDX engine for a tried-and-tested Ford BDA. They qualified fifth in class, starting 45th on the grid. The final place on the grid was the Porsche running the ethanol-blend fuel.
There was also considerable controversy with the timekeeping and several errors, deliberate and accidental, were made ascribing times to drivers, leaving several teams greatly aggrieved. The organisation officials had great difficulty in tracking the times and the drivers setting them. Faure's De Cadenet lost its fourth gear in the last hour so the average time was too low to qualify. However, the team had evidence that previous times had been posted but missed by the ACO officials. It was stranger for the IBEC – Trimmer's times were attributed to Bracey who did not drive (and when the team pointed that out to the ACO, they docked those times too) and Needell's rain times were too slow to improve the average. A devastated Bracey raged about the ACO cheating, while a furious Faure called in French lawyers on the ACO.
In the IMSA class, neither of the two Canadian Chevs qualified (Carter's car had been mistakenly shipped to Amsterdam), nor did the Celica Turbo. The Group 5 Triumph had serious vibration issues that were just getting resolved but practice ended before enough fast laps could be done. Jean-Louis Trintignant had been well off the pace, but the ACO found a way for the French film-star to qualify in the Kremer Porsche.
A number of teams had a degree of nervousness about their prospects for the race: the Rondeau/Jaussaud car developed a bad engine-vibration half an hour before the end of practice, which fortunately turned out to only be the ignition out of synch. On the Wednesday Chris Craft had a tyre come off his Dome at full speed approaching Mulsanne, and it happened again in the Thursday rain. The crew glued the tyres to the rims and both drivers got qualifying times later in the evening.
The number of Group 6 cars not qualifying opened up spaces on the grid for the third ROC team car, the #25 Chevron, and the Mazda RX-7 to come in as first Reserve of the IMSA class, in 54th place. Not being allowed to change engines, the NART Ferrari of Preston Henn did not take the start after experiencing issues in practice. This allowed the British EMKA Ferrari in off the IMSA reserve list as a late replacement.
Race
Start
Although the middle of the day was sunny, a thunderstorm with lightning swept the circuit as the teams lined up on the grid. It had only eased a bit as the cars started their formation lap. The crowd was equally divided with sentimental hope for Jacky Ickx to achieve his milestone fifth victory and partisan support for Jean Rondeau. Honorary starter this year was Joachim Springer, head of the ADAC (German motor-racing organisation). Amidst a mass of spray, Fitzpatrick swept past the Rondeau into the Dunlop Curve. Left behind on the grid was Striebig's Toj with sodden electrics. Ballot-Léna pitted after one lap, also with wet ignition. His two teammates also suffered the same during the first hour. An inauspicious start for the reserve Chevron-ROC, when it lost 40 minutes after only 3 laps repairing broken rear suspension.
Visibility was terrible and at one point John Paul put the wheels of his 935 on the grass at 290 kp/h (180 mph) thinking he was astride the road's centre- line and not the edge. 'Fitz' pitted from the lead after fifty minutes (11 laps), starting the pit-cycle. At the end of the first hour, as the rain finally started easing off, it was Bob Wollek in the Gelo Porsche now leading. In a surprising second was another recognised wet-weather master, Hans-Joachim Stuck, in the IMSA BMW M1 that had started 23rd on the grid, benefiting from its superior fuel-economy. Wollek's excellent car control in the atrocious conditions allowed the team to keep the lead for over three hours.
An early casualty was Alain De Cadenet. The engine had been running rough and a number of pitstops left him in 37th after an hour. He ground to a halt at Mulsanne corner with electrical issues, but was able to ring his crew from the signalling pits there to get help to make repairs. De Cadenet's erstwhile team-mate, Chris Craft, had lost second and third gear early on, with the Dome losing several hours in gearbox repairs and leaving them running a distant last on track. The works Lancia team had a miserable race and both had been retired in less than two hours with engine problems, putting all the pressure on the Jolly Club car to be able to get them points in the World Championship. In such atrocious weather, the number of accidents was surprisingly low. The worst incident was on the seventh lap, when Mike Sherwin crashed the third Barbour 935 into Yves Courage's spinning Chevron at Tertre Rouge and was launched over it before thudding on its nose into the guardrail. Spartaco Dini slid the Scuderia Bellancauto Ferrari off at Maison Blanche after 90 minutes. Soon after, Charles Mendez spun off at Arnage hitting the barriers and damaging the rear suspension. Limping back, track marshals stopped him at the Ford Chicanes, but he could not restart the car to complete the last hundred metres to the pits.
By 7pm, after 3 hours, the track was drying and the sun was out. After Fitzpatrick pitted from the lead to hand over to Redman, Wollek's Gelo Porsche was leading from Stuck and Redman, all having done 39 laps. Jacky Ickx had been driving within himself, keeping out of trouble with the hybrid Porsche but still on the lead lap in fourth. The next four were a lap back: Ikuzawa (Kremer 935), Pescarolo (Rondeau), Fréquelin (WM) and Ongais (Kremer 935) while Quester (BMW) and Rondeau rounded out the top-10 completing 37 laps. Stuck's challenge came to an end at 7.15pm when he collided with an intransigent Harald Grohs, who refused to have his Vegla 935, several laps down, be lapped again. Blocking Stuck several times from passing, the two collided and it was the BMW that came off worse: with 20 minutes lost replacing the nose, radiator and windscreen, they came out in 23rd. The BMW-France M1, running ninth, also lost a lot of time when Le Mans Racing School lead-driver Marcel Mignot spun at Tertre Rouge, damaging the front end and needing the car's steering rack changed. Joest relieved Ickx, and now able to speed up, he picked off those in front to take the lead at 7.50pm.
At the four-hour mark, the leaders were an intriguing mix of classes – with Joest (G6) just ahead of the Barbour (IMSA) and Gelo (G5) 935s and Rondeau (G6) all having done 59 laps. After its terrible start, the Toj had been leading the 2-litre class at the 2-hour mark. Delayed by spark-plug problems, the ignition failed on the Toj soon after midnight. Meanwhile the lead had been picked up by the Primagaz Lola. The Osella had been stymied by wet electrics early on, but strong driving by Lombardi and Thatcher had them back up to third-in-class by the third hour.
Soon after 9pm Stommelen, running sixth, pitted the Kremer Porsche with fuel pressure issues. Fitting new fuel pumps dropped them well down to 28th. They never recovered, retiring before dawn with a blown engine. Ted Field's Kremer did not last much longer – having got up to fifth, they also retired (around 10pm) with engine failure. Then at 9.30pm, history repeated itself with Ickx coming to a stop between Indianapolis and Arnage with a snapped drivebelt. This time however, he had a spare on-board and was able to fit it, to get back to the pits in a quarter of an hour. Not long after that, a similar issue befell Wollek, now back in the Gelo Porsche in fourth place, losing the fuel-injection belt as he passed the pits. Parked at the Dunlop curve, he fitted the spare taking fourteen minutes for almost a full lap to get back to the mechanics for repairs, resuming down in 17th.
This had moved the pole-sitting Rondeau into the lead for the first time. As night was setting in after six hours, they had a small margin over Fitzpatrick's Barbour 935 in second (both 84 laps). The Rondeau/Jaussaud car was now in third and the Gelo Porsche in fourth (83 laps). Two laps further back was Danny Ongais in the Kremer 935. Ickx had come back into the race in sixth and driving hard back through the field, including setting the fastest lap of the race.
Night
By 11pm the WM of Dorchy/Fréquelin was running fourth, overtaking the 935s ahead of it. But then, after providing exhilarating coverage to the spectators, they lost time to have the cameras removed for the night-time running. All three WMs were running well, on or about the top-10 until they all stopped for brake changes over the next hour. In the 2-litre classes, the remaining Lancia of the Jolly Club team (that had been 10th after the first hour) had drifted back and then spent an hour having a gearbox rebuild. The Primagaz Lola now had a 5-lap cushion over the Dorset Racing Lola and the Osella. The good run of the Field/Ongais/Lafosse 935 came to an end with a burnt piston, a common failing of the Porsche turbo-powered engines.
Just before midnight, the leading Rondeau started having engine problems and lost the lead to the Barbour Porsche. Soon after, Pescarolo parked up on the Mulsanne Straight, retiring with a blown head gasket. After 9 hours Barbour, Rondeau and Ickx were all on the same lap (126). The stationery Pescarolo was still classified fourth. After their tribulations at the start of the race, the car of De Cadenet and Migault had run perfectly and charged through the field from 39th to now be fifth (123), a lap ahead of the Barbour Porsche of Rahal/Garretson/Moffat and the third Rondeau. Eighth (121) was the BMW of Stuck/Bürger/Lacaud having recovered from the earlier collision, two windscreen replacements and a crankshaft repair. The Whittington brothers, ninth, had been as high as sixth but were now in the pits with differential issues. Rounding out the top-10 was the first of the works Porsche 924s (the "German" one of Barth/Schurti). However, within the hour, Garretson had to park the Barbour 935 with piston failure and Schurti was in the pits for a new radiator after hitting an over-adventurous hare. With the Primagaz Lola having engine issues, the pursuing DRA car was able to make up the laps and took the class-lead around 2am. However, in the next hour, Nick Mason spun the car at the Ford Chicane when a hydraulic line split. Unable to restart the car he was finally able to creep back to the pits on the starter motor, taking 45 minutes to cover 200 metres.
When the Barbour 935 then suffered a puncture, this allowed Ickx to resume the lead before 3am with the Rondeau a lap behind. By half-time, very fast driving by Ickx (170) had built a solid lead over the Rondeau (169) with the Barbour Porsche now a further two laps behind (167). The field was starting to string out, with other Rondeau now fourth (165) ahead of the De Cadenet (164) and the Gelo Porsche (163). Seventh was the French BMW in a tight race with the other Kremer 935, Bell/Holbert in the Porsche 924 and the first of the WMs (all 160). As the night-driving drew to a close, more 935s were starting to fall victim to gasket and piston issues, including the second Barbour car and the pink Kremer car. The Charles Ivey team lost a row of cylinders, and soon after 6am the Gelo Porsche of Wollek/Kelleners fell out of sixth when it was put out of the race with a broken head gasket.
Morning
The order at the top remained the same as dawn arrived, although the Rondeau had made up time on the Joest Porsche. On the same lap now, the lead changed several times according to pit stops. An errant stone getting wedged in the engine undertray delayed the third-placed Barbour Porsche, bringing it into the clutches of the second Rondeau and the De Cadenet. The three works Porsche 924s were now in the top-10, mixing it with the Saulnier/Bousquet/Morin WM. An overcast dawn led to a drizzly morning. At 8.30am Migault brought in the De Cadenet with the rear end loose. The cross-member supporting the engine had broken. All the night's hard work was undone with repairs taking 55 minutes. The last Kremer car, of Lapeyre/Verney/Trintignant, was retired at 9am with a broken gearbox while running in ninth. Also delayed were two of the works Porsches, suffering fuel issues, needing to have their engines adjusted to only run on three cylinders and running around forty seconds off their regular lap times.
Jaussaud stopped to change their brakes at 9am as well, costing two laps. Then just before 10am, Joest brought the leading car into the pits without its fifth gear. The stop cost 25 minutes. Jaussaud now had a five-lap lead and eased off to conserve the car.
At 11.20am, Jean-Louis Bousquet, running fifth in the leading WM, crashed at the Ford chicane after suffering suspension failure. The sister car of Dorchy/Fréquelin inherited their place while the healthy works Porsche was sixth. After noon the fourth-placed Barbour Porsche was in the pits with a faulty head gasket and burnt out piston. The crew isolated the piston and sent it back out on five.
Finish and post-race
At 1.10pm a sudden squall swept across part of the track. The first to arrive at the saturated Dunlop Curve was the leading Rondeau, which aquaplaned off the track, kissing the fences and spinning. They were soon followed by the Joest Porsche, having made back one lap they were about to retrieve a second when Joest also skated off the track, thumping the barriers and just missing the Rondeau. Fortunately, both were able to get going again. Another victim was the Primagaz Lola leading the 2-litres. Yver pirouetted twice without hitting anything and was also able to continue. But he had damaged the engine and took twelve minutes to complete the lap. After a pit stop, he only got as far as Mulsanne before stopping again after leading the class for the last eleven hours. John Paul in the JLP Porsche clouted the barrier on his off-track excursion, that cost half an hour to repair, while the WMs, in the confusion, stopped three times each to change tyres.
Jaussaud got back in the Rondeau with ninety minutes to go, with a 2-lap lead over Ickx in the chasing Porsche.
As the race approached its finale Ickx had got back onto the same lap as the leader with 40 minutes to go. Then five minutes later, another heavy shower arrived and Ickx immediately dived for the pits to change to wet tyres, hoping to catch a march on the leader. Jaussaud was also told to pit, but coming out of the chicanes changed his mind and pulled out of the pit entrance, deciding to risk staying on his slick tyres. He made the right decision – the rain was brief, he stayed out of trouble and was able to pull away as the wind dried the track in the last half-hour. Ickx on the other hand had to drive conservatively to save his tyres and ended up finishing two laps behind the Rondeau.
So it was a historic victory for the French team - Jaussaud's second victory in a French car but Jean Rondeau became the first driver/constructor to win Le Mans. Completing a great weekend for Rondeau, the sister-car of Spice and the Martin frères had a very reliable race coming in third, nine laps behind their team-mates and winning the GTP class from the Dorchy/Fréquelin WM eleven laps further back. In the closing laps they had managed to overtake the crippled Barbour Porsche that was running on five cylinders. Despite its ailing engine, Dick Barbour won back-to-back class victories in the IMSA class. Five laps back, the JLP Porsche had been fighting for second-in-class with the Pozzi Ferrari of Dieudonné/Xhenceval/Regout for virtually the entire second half of the race, and in the end beat it home by less than a kilometre.
The new Porsches had a satisfactory race and all three finished. Aside from repairs to the front after hitting an errant rabbit, the German-crewed car had a trouble-free run to finish sixth. After running in the top-10 in the early morning, the other two cars made it home with their engine issues, eventually finishing 12th and 13th. Despite their hour-long stop earlier in the morning, the persistence of the De Cadenet team paid off with a well-deserved seventh, holding off the challenge of the Vegla Porsche.
The 2-litre Group 6 class was a great result for the ROC-Yakko team with a 1-2 victory. Class winner was their Chevron that had come in as a reserve entry, and that after losing 40 minutes at the very start and resuming at the back of the field, had got to the front of the class with three hours to go as all others fell over. The unexpected winner in the Group 4 GT class was Thierry Perrier's ethanol-Porsche which, although not fast, had run like clockwork. They inherited the lead when the Alméras brothers' Porsche crashed at the Dunlop curve with less than three hours to go.
Last car home was the Dome, the long-suffering team having spent over four hours working on the car in the pits. This included three hours at the start of the race getting the gearbox rebuilt. Thereafter it ran at the back of the field, but kept going and finished 92 laps (over 650 km) behind the winners.
As always, reliability and time in the pits had decided the race, with the Porsche's hour-long delay for another broken belt and gearbox proving the difference. The GTP-winning Rondeau, with its trouble-free run, spent less than 45 minutes in the pits – the best of any of the cars and a reflection of the new fuelling regulations.
Despite his immense pride, Rondeau's triumph had been costly. Aside from having a scheduled kidney operation four days after the race, he stated that preparing the three cars had cost FF1.8 million for his workforce of eight. Likewise, Gérard Welter said the WM sponsorship from Esso was less than the cost of a new Porsche 935.
At the end of the race, Ickx announced that it would be his last Le Mans. A month later the Martin brothers took their Ford Capri to repeat their victory at Spa. John Paul had won the inaugural World Endurance Driver Challenge in 1978, and won the title again this year after 2nd places at Daytona, Mosport and a victory at Riverside. In a sad postscript to the season after his pre-race accident, Peter Gregg, a 4-time Daytona winner, fell into depression and committed suicide in December.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class winners are in Bold text.
Did not finish
Did not start
Class winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Energy Efficiency
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest lap in practice –J. Fitzpatrick, #70 Porsche 935-K3– 3:40.0secs;
Pole Position –H. Pescarolo, #15 Rondeau M379B– averaged lap-time 3:47.9secs
Fastest lap –J. Ickx, #9 Porsche 908/J80 – 3:40.6secs;
Winning distance –
Winner's average speed –
Attendance – ?
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Porsche Years 1975-1982' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Armstrong, Doug – editor (1980) Automobile Year #28 1980/81 Edita SA
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Spurring, Quentin (2012) Le Mans 1980-89 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wimpffen, János (2007) Spyders and Silhouettes Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1980 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 17 Sep 2021
Le Mans History – Le Mans entry-list and hour-by-hour placings (incl. pictures, quotes, highest speeds per car, YouTube links). Retrieved 17 Sep 2021
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 17 Sep 2021
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 17 Sep 2021
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 17 Sep 2021
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 17 Sep 2021
Classic Cars – Results table for the World Challenge for Endurance Drivers. Retrieved 25 Sep 2021
YouTube – '24hrs at Le Mans: The test of a Man' colour documentary with race footage, focussing around Alan Moffat & the #71 Barbour Porsche (48mins). Retrieved 16 Nov 2021
YouTube – colour race footage, in French (24mins). Retrieved 16 Nov 2021
YouTube – short summary of the Rondeau-Joest duel for the race lead (4mins). Retrieved 16 Nov 2021
YouTube – promotion of the restored Porsche 935 JLP-2 (2mins). Retrieved 16 Nov 2021
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1980 in French motorsport |
4548379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Mars | Atmosphere of Mars | The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars. It is primarily composed of carbon dioxide (95%), molecular nitrogen (2.8%), and argon (2%). It also contains trace levels of water vapor, oxygen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and noble gases. The atmosphere of Mars is much thinner than Earth's. The average surface pressure is only about which is less than 1% of the Earth's value. The currently thin Martian atmosphere prohibits the existence of liquid water on the surface of Mars, but many studies suggest that the Martian atmosphere was much thicker in the past. The higher density during spring and fall is reduced by 25% during the winter when carbon dioxide partly freezes at the pole caps. The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to the density found above the Earth's surface and is ≈0.020 kg/m3. The atmosphere of Mars has been losing mass to space since the planet's core slowed down, and the leakage of gases still continues today.
The atmosphere of Mars is colder than Earth's. Owing to the larger distance from the Sun, Mars receives less solar energy and has a lower effective temperature, which is about . The average surface emission temperature of Mars is just , which is comparable to inland Antarctica. Although Mars' atmosphere consists primarily of carbon dioxide, the greenhouse effect in the Martian atmosphere is much weaker than Earth's: on Mars, versus on Earth. This is because the total atmosphere is so thin that the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is very weak, leading to less warming. The daily range of temperature in the lower atmosphere is huge due to the low thermal inertia; it can range from to near near the surface in some regions. The temperature of the upper part of the Martian atmosphere is also significantly lower than Earth's because of the absence of stratospheric ozone and the radiative cooling effect of carbon dioxide at higher altitudes.
Dust devils and dust storms are prevalent on Mars, which are sometimes observable by telescopes from Earth, and in 2018 even with the naked eye as a change in colour and brightness of the planet. Planet-encircling dust storms (global dust storms) occur on average every 5.5 Earth years (every 3 Martian years) on Mars and can threaten the operation of Mars rovers. However, the mechanism responsible for the development of large dust storms is still not well understood. It has been suggested to be loosely related to gravitational influence of both moons, somewhat similar to the creation of tides on Earth.
The Martian atmosphere is an oxidizing atmosphere. The photochemical reactions in the atmosphere tend to oxidize the organic species and turn them into carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide. Although the most sensitive methane probe on the recently launched ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter failed to find methane in the atmosphere over the whole of Mars, several previous missions and ground-based telescopes detected unexpected levels of methane in the Martian atmosphere, which may even be a biosignature for life on Mars. However, the interpretation of the measurements is still highly controversial and lacks a scientific consensus.
Atmospheric evolution
The mass and composition of the Martian atmosphere are thought to have changed over the course of the planet's lifetime. A thicker, warmer and wetter atmosphere is required to explain several apparent features in the earlier history of Mars, such as the existence of liquid water bodies. Observations of the Martian upper atmosphere, measurements of isotopic composition and analyses of Martian meteorites, provide evidence of the long-term changes of the atmosphere and constraints for the relative importance of different processes.
Atmosphere in the early history
In general, the gases found on modern Mars are depleted in lighter stable isotopes, indicating the Martian atmosphere has changed by some mass-selected processes over its history. Scientists often rely on these measurements of isotope composition to reconstruct conditions of the Martian atmosphere in the past.
While Mars and Earth have similar 12C / 13C and 16O / 18O ratios, 14N is much more depleted in the Martian atmosphere. It is thought that the photochemical escape processes are responsible for the isotopic fractionation and has caused a significant loss of nitrogen on geological timescales. Estimates suggest that the initial partial pressure of N2 may have been up to 30 hPa.
Hydrodynamic escape in the early history of Mars may explain the isotopic fractionation of argon and xenon. On modern Mars, the atmosphere is not leaking these two noble gases to outer space owing to their heavier mass. However, the higher abundance of hydrogen in the Martian atmosphere and the high fluxes of extreme UV from the young Sun, together could have driven a hydrodynamic outflow and dragged away these heavy gases. Hydrodynamic escape also contributed to the loss of carbon, and models suggest that it is possible to lose of CO2 by hydrodynamic escape in one to ten million years under much stronger solar extreme UV on Mars. Meanwhile, more recent observations made by the MAVEN orbiter suggested that sputtering escape is very important for the escape of heavy gases on the nightside of Mars and could have contributed to 65% loss of argon in the history of Mars.
The Martian atmosphere is particularly prone to impact erosion owing to the low escape velocity of Mars. An early computer model suggested that Mars could have lost 99% of its initial atmosphere by the end of late heavy bombardment period based on a hypothetical bombardment flux estimated from lunar crater density. In terms of relative abundance of carbon, the ratio on Mars is only 10% of that on Earth and Venus. Assuming the three rocky planets have the same initial volatile inventory, then this low ratio implies the mass of CO2 in the early Martian atmosphere should have been ten times higher than the present value. The huge enrichment of radiogenic 40Ar over primordial 36Ar is also consistent with the impact erosion theory.
One of the ways to estimate the amount of water lost by hydrogen escape in the upper atmosphere is to examine the enrichment of deuterium over hydrogen. Isotope-based studies estimate that 12 m to over 30 m global equivalent layer of water has been lost to space via hydrogen escape in Mars' history. It is noted that atmospheric-escape-based approach only provides the lower limit for the estimated early water inventory.
To explain the coexistence of liquid water and faint young Sun during early Mars' history, a much stronger greenhouse effect must have occurred in the Martian atmosphere to warm the surface up above freezing point of water. Carl Sagan first proposed that a 1 bar H2 atmosphere can produce enough warming for Mars. The hydrogen can be produced by the vigorous outgassing from a highly reduced early Martian mantle and the presence of CO2 and water vapor can lower the required abundance of H to generate such a greenhouse effect. Nevertheless, photochemical modeling showed that maintaining an atmosphere with this high level of H2 is difficult. SO2 has also been one of the proposed effective greenhouse gases in the early history of Mars. However, other studies suggested that high solubility of SO2, efficient formation of H2SO4 aerosol and surface deposition prohibit the long-term build-up of SO2 in the Martian atmosphere, and hence reduce the potential warming effect of SO2.
Atmospheric escape on modern Mars
Despite the lower gravity, Jeans escape is not efficient in the modern Martian atmosphere due to the relatively low temperature at the exobase (≈200 K at 200 km altitude). It can only explain the escape of hydrogen from Mars. Other non-thermal processes are needed to explain the observed escape of oxygen, carbon and nitrogen.
Hydrogen escape
Molecular hydrogen (H2) is produced from the dissociation of H2O or other hydrogen-containing compounds in the lower atmosphere and diffuses to the exosphere. The exospheric H2 then decomposes into hydrogen atoms, and the atoms that have sufficient thermal energy can escape from the gravitation of Mars (Jeans escape). The escape of atomic hydrogen is evident from the UV spectrometers on different orbiters. While most studies suggested that the escape of hydrogen is close to diffusion-limited on Mars, more recent studies suggest that the escape rate is modulated by dust storms and has a large seasonality. The estimated escape flux of hydrogen range from 107 cm−2 s−1 to 109 cm−2 s−1.
Carbon escape
Photochemistry of CO2 and CO in ionosphere can produce CO2+ and CO+ ions, respectively:
+ ⟶
+ ⟶
An ion and an electron can recombine and produce electronic-neutral products. The products gain extra kinetic energy due to the Coulomb attraction between ions and electrons. This process is called dissociative recombination. Dissociative recombination can produce carbon atoms that travel faster than the escape velocity of Mars, and those moving upward can then escape the Martian atmosphere:
UV photolysis of carbon monoxide is another crucial mechanism for the carbon escape on Mars:
+ ( < 116 nm) ⟶ .
Other potentially important mechanisms include the sputtering escape of CO2 and collision of carbon with fast oxygen atoms. The estimated overall escape flux is about 0.6 × 107 cm−2 s−1 to 2.2 × 107 cm−2 s−1 and depends heavily on solar activity.
Nitrogen escape
Like carbon, dissociative recombination of N2+ is important for the nitrogen escape on Mars. In addition, other photochemical escape mechanism also play an important role:
+ ⟶
Nitrogen escape rate is very sensitive to the mass of the atom and solar activity. The overall estimated escape rate of 14N is 4.8 × 105 cm−2 s−1.
Oxygen escape
Dissociative recombination of CO2+ and O2+ (produced from CO2+ reaction as well) can generate the oxygen atoms that travel fast enough to escape:
However, the observations showed that there are not enough fast oxygen atoms the Martian exosphere as predicted by the dissociative recombination mechanism. Model estimations of oxygen escape rate suggested it can be over 10 times lower than the hydrogen escape rate. Ion pick and sputtering have been suggested as the alternative mechanisms for the oxygen escape, but this model suggests that they are less important than dissociative recombination at present.
Current chemical composition
Carbon dioxide
CO2 is the main component of the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume ratio of 94.9%. In winter polar regions, the surface temperature can be lower than the frost point of CO2. CO2 gas in the atmosphere can condense on the surface to form 1–2 m thick solid dry ice. In summer, the polar dry ice cap can undergo sublimation and release the CO2 back to the atmosphere. As a result, significant annual variability in atmospheric pressure (≈25%) and atmospheric composition can be observed on Mars. The condensation process can be approximated by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation for CO2.
There also exists the potential for adsorption of CO2 into and out of the regolith to contribute to the annual atmospheric variability. Although the sublimation and deposition of CO2 ice in the polar caps is the driving force behind seasonal cycles, other processes such as dust storms, atmospheric tides, and transient eddies also play a role. Understanding each of these more minor processes and how they contribute to the overall atmospheric cycle will give a clearer picture as to how the Martian atmosphere works as a whole. It has been suggested that the regolith on Mars has high internal surface area, implying that it might have a relatively high capacity for the storage of adsorbed gas. Since adsorption works through the adhesion of a film of molecules onto a surface, the amount of surface area for any given volume of material is the main contributor for how much adsorption can occur. A solid block of material, for example, would have no internal surface area, but a porous material, like a sponge, would have high internal surface area. Given the loose, finely grained nature of the Martian regolith, there is the possibility of significant levels of CO2 adsorption into it from the atmosphere. Adsorption from the atmosphere into the regolith has previously been proposed as an explanation for the observed cycles in the methane and water mixing ratios. More research is needed to help determine if CO2 adsorption is occurring, and if so, the extent of its impact on the overall atmospheric cycle.
Despite the high concentration of CO2 in the Martian atmosphere, the greenhouse effect is relatively weak on Mars (about 5 °C) because of the low concentration of water vapor and low atmospheric pressure. While water vapor in Earth's atmosphere has the largest contribution to greenhouse effect on modern Earth, it is present in only very low concentration in the Martian atmosphere. Moreover, under low atmospheric pressure, greenhouse gases cannot absorb infrared radiation effectively because the pressure-broadening effect is weak.
In the presence of solar UV radiation (hν, photons with wavelength shorter than 225 nm), CO2 in the Martian atmosphere can be photolyzed via the following reaction:
+ ( < 225 nm) ⟶ .
If there is no chemical production of CO2, all the CO2 in the current Martian atmosphere would be removed by photolysis in about 3,500 years. The hydroxyl radicals (OH) produced from the photolysis of water vapor, together with the other odd hydrogen species (e.g. H, HO2), can convert carbon monoxide (CO) back to CO2. The reaction cycle can be described as:
Mixing also plays a role in regenerating CO2 by bringing the O, CO, and O2 in the upper atmosphere downward. The balance between photolysis and redox production keeps the average concentration of CO2 stable in the modern Martian atmosphere.
CO2 ice clouds can form in winter polar regions and at very high altitudes (>50 km) in tropical regions, where the air temperature is lower than the frost point of CO2.
Nitrogen
N2 is the second most abundant gas in the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume ratio of 2.6%. Various measurements showed that the Martian atmosphere is enriched in 15N. The enrichment of heavy isotopes of nitrogen is possibly caused by mass-selective escape processes.
Argon
Argon is the third most abundant gas in the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume ratio of 1.9%. In terms of stable isotopes, Mars is enriched in 38Ar relative to 36Ar, which can be attributed to hydrodynamic escape.
One of Argon's isotopes, 40Ar, is produced from the radioactive decay of 40K. In contrast, 36Ar is primordial: It was present in the atmosphere after the formation of Mars. Observations indicate that Mars is enriched in 40Ar relative to 36Ar, which cannot be attributed to mass-selective loss processes. A possible explanation for the enrichment is that a significant amount of primordial atmosphere, including 36Ar, was lost by impact erosion in the early history of Mars, while 40Ar was emitted to the atmosphere after the impact.
Oxygen and ozone
The estimated mean volume ratio of molecular oxygen (O2) in the Martian atmosphere is 0.174%. It is one of the products of the photolysis of CO2, water vapor, and ozone (O). It can react with atomic oxygen (O) to re-form ozone (O). In 2010, the Herschel Space Observatory detected molecular oxygen in the Martian atmosphere.
Atomic oxygen is produced by photolysis of CO2 in the upper atmosphere and can escape the atmosphere via dissociative recombination or ion pickup. In early 2016, Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) detected atomic oxygen in the atmosphere of Mars, which has not been found since the Viking and Mariner mission in the 1970s.
In 2019, NASA scientists working on the Curiosity rover mission, who have been taking measurements of the gas, discovered that the amount of oxygen in the Martian atmosphere rose by 30% in spring and summer.
Similar to stratospheric ozone in Earth's atmosphere, the ozone present in the Martian atmosphere can be destroyed by catalytic cycles involving odd hydrogen species:
Net:
Since water is an important source of these odd hydrogen species, higher abundance of ozone is usually observed in the regions with lower water vapor content. Measurements showed that the total column of ozone can reach 2–30 μm-atm around the poles in winter and spring, where the air is cold and has low water saturation ratio. The actual reactions between ozone and odd hydrogen species may be further complicated by the heterogeneous reactions that take place in water-ice clouds.
It is thought that the vertical distribution and seasonality of ozone in the Martian atmosphere is driven by the complex interactions between chemistry and transport of oxygen-rich air from sunlit latitudes to the poles. The UV/IR spectrometer on Mars Express (SPICAM) has shown the presence of two distinct ozone layers at low-to-mid latitudes. These comprise a persistent, near-surface layer below an altitude of , a separate layer that is only present in northern spring and summer with an altitude varying from 30 to 60 km, and another separate layer that exists 40–60 km above the southern pole in winter, with no counterpart above the Mars's north pole. This third ozone layer shows an abrupt decrease in elevation between 75 and 50 degrees south. SPICAM detected a gradual increase in ozone concentration at until midwinter, after which it slowly decreased to very low concentrations, with no layer detectable above .
Water vapor
Water vapor is a trace gas in the Martian atmosphere and has huge spatial, diurnal and seasonal variability. Measurements made by Viking orbiter in the late 1970s suggested that the entire global total mass of water vapor is equivalent to about 1 to 2 km3 of ice. More recent measurements by Mars Express orbiter showed that the globally annually-averaged column abundance of water vapor is about 10-20 precipitable microns (pr. μm). Maximum abundance of water vapor (50-70 pr. μm) is found in the northern polar regions in early summer due to the sublimation of water ice in the polar cap.
Unlike in Earth's atmosphere, liquid-water clouds cannot exist in the Martian atmosphere; this is because of the low atmospheric pressure. Cirrus-like water-ice clouds have been observed by the cameras on Opportunity rover and Phoenix lander. Measurements made by the Phoenix lander showed that water-ice clouds can form at the top of the planetary boundary layer at night and precipitate back to the surface as ice crystals in the northern polar region.
Methane
As a volcanic and biogenic species, methane is of interest to geologists and astrobiologists. However, methane is chemically unstable in an oxidizing atmosphere with UV radiation. The lifetime of methane in the Martian atmosphere is about 400 years. The detection of methane in a planetary atmosphere may indicate the presence of recent geological activities or living organisms. Since 2004, trace amounts of methane (range from 60 ppb to under detection limit (< 0.05 ppb)) have been reported in various missions and observational studies. The source of methane on Mars and the explanation for the enormous discrepancy in the observed methane concentrations are still under active debate.
See also the section "detection of methane in the atmosphere" for more details.
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere would be an indicator of current volcanic activity. It has become especially interesting due to the long-standing controversy of methane on Mars. If volcanoes have been active in recent Martian history, it would be expected to find SO2 together with methane in the current Martian atmosphere. No SO2 has been detected in the atmosphere, with a sensitivity upper limit set at 0.2 ppb. However, a team led by scientists at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center reported detection of SO2 in Rocknest soil samples analyzed by the Curiosity rover in March 2013.
Other trace gases
Carbon monoxide (CO) is produced by the photolysis of CO2 and quickly reacts with the oxidants in the Martian atmosphere to re-form CO2. The estimated mean volume ratio of CO in the Martian atmosphere is 0.0747%.
Noble gases, other than helium and argon, are present at trace levels (neon at 2.5 ppmv, krypton at 0.3 ppmv and xenon at 0.08 ppmv) in the Martian atmosphere. The concentration of helium, neon, krypton and xenon in the Martian atmosphere has been measured by different missions. The isotopic ratios of noble gases reveal information about the early geological activities on Mars and the evolution of its atmosphere.
Molecular hydrogen (H2) is produced by the reaction between odd hydrogen species in the middle atmosphere. It can be delivered to the upper atmosphere by mixing or diffusion, decompose to atomic hydrogen (H) by solar radiation and escape the Martian atmosphere. Photochemical modeling estimated that the mixing ratio of H2 in the lower atmosphere is about 15 ±5 ppmv.
Vertical structure
The vertical temperature structure of the Martian atmosphere differs from Earth's atmosphere in many ways. Information about the vertical structure is usually inferred by using the observations from thermal infrared soundings, radio occultation, aerobraking, landers' entry profiles. Mars's atmosphere can be classified into three layers according to the average temperature profile:
Troposphere (≈0–40 km): The layer where most of the weather phenomena (e.g. convection and dust storms) take place. Its dynamics is heavily driven by the daytime surface heating and the amount of suspended dust. Mars has a higher scale height of 11.1 km than Earth (8.5 km) because of its weaker gravity. The theoretical dry adiabatic lapse rate of Mars is 4.3 °C km−1, but the measured average lapse rate is about 2.5 °C km−1 because the suspended dust particles absorb solar radiation and heat the air. The planetary boundary layer can extend to over 10 km thick during the daytime. The near-surface diurnal temperature range is huge (60 °C) due to the low thermal inertia. Under dusty conditions, the suspended dust particles can reduce the surface diurnal temperature range to only 5 °C. The temperature above 15 km is controlled by radiative processes instead of convection. Mars is also a rare exception to the "0.1-bar tropopause" rule found in the other atmospheres in our solar system.
Mesosphere (≈40–100 km): The layer that has the lowest temperature. CO2 in the mesosphere acts as a cooling agent by efficiently radiating heat into space. Stellar occultation observations show that the mesopause of Mars locates at about 100 km (around 0.01 to 0.001 Pa level) and has a temperature of 100-120 K. The temperature can sometimes be lower than the frost point of CO2, and detections of CO2 ice clouds in the Martian mesosphere have been reported.
Thermosphere (≈100–230 km): The layer is mainly controlled by extreme UV heating. The temperature of the Martian thermosphere increases with altitude and varies by season. The daytime temperature of the upper thermosphere ranges from 175 K (at aphelion) to 240 K (at perihelion) and can reach up to 390 K, but it is still significantly lower than the temperature of Earth's thermosphere. The higher concentration of CO2 in the Martian thermosphere may explain part of the discrepancy because of the cooling effects of CO2 in high altitude. It is thought that auroral heating processes is not important in the Martian thermosphere because of the absence of a strong magnetic field in Mars, but the MAVEN orbiter has detected several aurora events.
Mars does not have a persistent stratosphere due to the lack of shortwave-absorbing species in its middle atmosphere (e.g. stratospheric ozone in Earth's atmosphere and organic haze in Jupiter's atmosphere) for creating a temperature inversion. However, a seasonal ozone layer and a strong temperature inversion in the middle atmosphere have been observed over the Martian south pole. The altitude of the turbopause of Mars varies greatly from 60 to 140 km, and the variability is driven by the CO2 density in the lower thermosphere. Mars also has a complicated ionosphere that interacts with the solar wind particles, extreme UV radiation and X-rays from Sun, and the magnetic field of its crust. The exosphere of Mars starts at about 230 km and gradually merges with interplanetary space.
Atmospheric dust and other dynamic features
Atmospheric dust
Under sufficiently strong wind (> 30 ms−1), dust particles can be mobilized and lifted from the surface to the atmosphere. Some of the dust particles can be suspended in the atmosphere and travel by circulation before falling back to the ground. Dust particles can attenuate solar radiation and interact with infrared radiation, which can lead to a significant radiative effect on Mars. Orbiter measurements suggest that the globally-averaged dust optical depth has a background level of 0.15 and peaks in the perihelion season (southern spring and summer). The local abundance of dust varies greatly by seasons and years. During global dust events, Mars surface assets can observe optical depth that is over 4. Surface measurements also showed the effective radius of dust particles ranges from 0.6 μm to 2 μm and has considerable seasonality.
Dust has an uneven vertical distribution on Mars. Apart from the planetary boundary layer, sounding data showed that there are other peaks of dust mixing ratio at the higher altitude (e.g. 15–30 km above the surface).
Dust storms
Local and regional dust storms are not rare on Mars. Local storms have a size of about 103 km2 and occurrence of about 2000 events per Martian year, while regional storms of 106 km2 large are observed frequently in southern spring and summer. Near the polar cap, dust storms sometimes can be generated by frontal activities and extratropical cyclones.
Global dust storms (area > 106 km2 ) occur on average once every 3 Martian years. Observations showed that larger dust storms are usually the result of merging smaller dust storms, but the growth mechanism of the storm and the role of atmospheric feedbacks are still not well understood. Although it is thought that Martian dust can be entrained into the atmosphere by processes similar to Earth's (e.g. saltation), the actual mechanisms are yet to be verified, and electrostatic or magnetic forces may also play in modulating dust emission. Researchers reported that the largest single source of dust on Mars comes from the Medusae Fossae Formation.
On 1 June 2018, NASA scientists detected signs of a dust storm (see image) on Mars which resulted in the end of the solar-powered Opportunity rover's mission since the dust blocked the sunlight (see image) needed to operate. By 12 June, the storm was the most extensive recorded at the surface of the planet, and spanned an area about the size of North America and Russia combined (about a quarter of the planet). By 13 June, Opportunity rover began experiencing serious communication problems due to the dust storm.
Dust devils
Dust devils are common on Mars. Like their counterparts on Earth, dust devils form when the convective vortices driven by strong surface heating are loaded with dust particles. Dust devils on Mars usually have a diameter of tens of meter and height of several kilometers, which are much taller than the ones observed on Earth. Study of dust devils' tracks showed that most of Martian dust devils occur at around 60°N and 60°S in spring and summer. They lift about 2.3 × 1011 kg of dust from land surface to atmosphere annually, which is comparable to the contribution from local and regional dust storms.
Wind modification of the surface
On Mars, the near-surface wind is not only emitting dust but also modifying the geomorphology of Mars over long time scales. Although it was thought that the atmosphere of Mars is too thin for mobilizing the sandy features, observations made by HiRSE showed that the migration of dunes is not rare on Mars. The global average migration rate of dunes (2 – 120 m tall) is about 0.5 meter per year. Atmospheric circulation models suggested repeated cycles of wind erosion and dust deposition can lead, possibly, to a net transport of soil materials from the lowlands to the uplands on geological timescales.
Thermal tides
Solar heating on the day side and radiative cooling on the night side of a planet can induce pressure difference. Thermal tides, which are the wind circulation and waves driven by such a daily-varying pressure field, can explain a lot of variability of the Martian atmosphere. Compared to Earth's atmosphere, thermal tides have a larger influence on the Martian atmosphere because of the stronger diurnal temperature contrast. The surface pressure measured by Mars rovers showed clear signals of thermal tides, although the variation also depends on the shape of the planet's surface and the amount of suspended dust in the atmosphere. The atmospheric waves can also travel vertically and affect the temperature and water-ice content in the middle atmosphere of Mars.
Orographic clouds
On Earth, mountain ranges sometimes force an air mass to rise and cool down. As a result, water vapor becomes saturated and clouds are formed during the lifting process. On Mars, orbiters have observed a seasonally recurrent formation of huge water-ice clouds around the downwind side of the 20 km-high volcanoes Arsia Mons, which is likely caused by the same mechanism.
Acoustic environment
In April 2022, scientists reported, for the first time, studies of sound waves on Mars. These studies were based on measurements by instruments on the Perseverance rover. The scientists found that the speed of sound is slower in the thin Martian atmosphere than on Earth. The speed of sound on Mars, within the audible bandwidth between 20 Hz - 20 kHz, varies depending on pitch, seemingly due to the low pressure and thermal turbulence of Martian surface air; and, as a result of these conditions, sound is much quieter, and live music would be more variable, than on Earth.
Unexplained phenomena
Detection of methane
Methane (CH4) is chemically unstable in the current oxidizing atmosphere of Mars. It would quickly break down due to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and chemical reactions with other gases. Therefore, a persistent presence of methane in the atmosphere may imply the existence of a source to continually replenish the gas.
The ESA-Roscomos Trace Gas Orbiter, which has made the most sensitive measurements of methane in Mars' atmosphere with over 100 global soundings, has found no methane to a detection limit of 0.05 parts per billion (ppb). However, there have been other reports of detection of methane by ground-based telescopes and Curiosity rover. Trace amounts of methane, at the level of several ppb, were first reported in Mars's atmosphere by a team at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 2003. Large differences in the abundances were measured between observations taken in 2003 and 2006, which suggested that the methane was locally concentrated and probably seasonal.
In 2014, NASA reported that the Curiosity rover detected a tenfold increase ('spike') in methane in the atmosphere around it in late 2013 and early 2014. Four measurements taken over two months in this period averaged 7.2 ppb, implying that Mars is episodically producing or releasing methane from an unknown source. Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. On 7 June 2018, NASA announced a cyclical seasonal variation in the background level of atmospheric methane.
The principal candidates for the origin of Mars' methane include non-biological processes such as water-rock reactions, radiolysis of water, and pyrite formation, all of which produce H2 that could then generate methane and other hydrocarbons via Fischer–Tropsch synthesis with CO and CO2. It has also been shown that methane could be produced by a process involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars. Living microorganisms, such as methanogens, are another possible source, but no evidence for the presence of such organisms has been found on Mars. There are some suspicions about the detection of methane, which suggests that it may instead be caused by the undocumented terrestrial contamination from the rovers or a misinterpretation of measurement raw data.
Lightning events
In 2009, an Earth-based observational study reported detection of large-scale electric discharge events on Mars and proposed that they are related to lightning discharge in Martian dust storms. However, later observation studies showed that the result is not reproducible using the radar receiver on Mars Express and the Earth-based Allen Telescope Array. A laboratory study showed that the air pressure on Mars is not favorable for charging the dust grains, and thus it is difficult to generate lightning in Martian atmosphere.
Super-rotating jet over the equator
Super-rotation refers to the phenomenon that atmospheric mass has a higher angular velocity than the surface of the planet at the equator, which in principle cannot be driven by inviscid axisymmetric circulations. Assimilated data and general circulation model (GCM) simulation suggest that super-rotating jet can be found in Martian atmosphere during global dust storms, but it is much weaker than the ones observed on slow-rotating planets like Venus and Titan. GCM experiments showed that the thermal tides can play a role in inducing the super-rotating jet. Nevertheless, modeling super-rotation still remains as a challenging topic for planetary scientists.
History of atmospheric observations
In 1784, German-born British astronomer William Herschel published an article about his observations of the Martian atmosphere in Philosophical Transactions and noted the occasional movement of a brighter region on Mars, which he attributed to clouds and vapors. In 1809, French astronomer Honoré Flaugergues wrote about his observation of "yellow clouds" on Mars, which are likely to be dust storm events. In 1864, William Rutter Dawes observed that "the ruddy tint of the planet does not arise from any peculiarity of its atmosphere; it seems to be fully proved by the fact that the redness is always deepest near the centre, where the atmosphere is thinnest." Spectroscopic observations in the 1860s and 1870s led many to think the atmosphere of Mars is similar to Earth's. In 1894, though, spectral analysis and other qualitative observations by William Wallace Campbell suggested Mars resembles the Moon, which has no appreciable atmosphere, in many respects. In 1926, photographic observations by William Hammond Wright at the Lick Observatory allowed Donald Howard Menzel to discover quantitative evidence of Mars's atmosphere.
With an enhanced understanding of optical properties of atmospheric gases and advancement in spectrometer technology, scientists started to measure the composition of the Martian atmosphere in the mid-20th century. Lewis David Kaplan and his team detected the signals of water vapor and carbon dioxide in the spectrogram of Mars in 1964, as well as carbon monoxide in 1969. In 1965, the measurements made during Mariner 4's flyby confirmed that the Martian atmosphere is constituted mostly of carbon dioxide, and the surface pressure is about 400 to 700 Pa. After the composition of the Martian atmosphere was known, astrobiological research began on Earth to determine the viability of life on Mars. Containers that simulated environmental conditions on Mars, called "Mars jars", were developed for this purpose.
In 1976, two landers of the Viking program provided the first ever in-situ measurements of the composition of the Martian atmosphere. Another objective of the mission included investigations for evidence of past or present life on Mars (see Viking lander biological experiments). Since then, many orbiters and landers have been sent to Mars to measure different properties of the Martian atmosphere, such as concentration of trace gases and isotopic ratios. In addition, telescopic observations and analysis of Martian meteorites provide independent sources of information to verify the findings. The imageries and measurements made by these spacecraft greatly improve our understanding of the atmospheric processes outside Earth. The rover Curiosity and the lander InSight are still operating on the surface of Mars to carry out experiments and report the local daily weather. The rover Perseverance and helicopter Ingenuity, which formed the Mars 2020 program, landed in February 2021. The rover Rosalind Franklin is scheduled to launch in 2022.
Potential for use by humans
The atmosphere of Mars is a resource of known composition available at any landing site on Mars. It has been proposed that human exploration of Mars could use carbon dioxide (CO2) from the Martian atmosphere to make methane (CH4) and use it as rocket fuel for the return mission. Mission studies that propose using the atmosphere in this way include the Mars Direct proposal of Robert Zubrin and the NASA Design Reference Mission study. Two major chemical pathways for use of the carbon dioxide are the Sabatier reaction, converting atmospheric carbon dioxide along with additional hydrogen (H2) to produce methane (CH4) and oxygen (O2), and electrolysis, using a zirconia solid oxide electrolyte to split the carbon dioxide into oxygen (O2) and carbon monoxide (CO).
In 2021, however, the NASA rover Perseverance was able to make oxygen on Mars. The process is complex and takes a lot of time to produce a small amount of oxygen.
Image gallery
See also
References
Further reading
External links
NASA Mars Exploration Program
Mars Weather: Perseverance*Curiosity*InSight
Summary of weekly weather on Mars prepared by Malin Space Science systems
Mars
Mars
Articles containing video clips |
4548642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nescopeck%20Creek | Nescopeck Creek | Nescopeck Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. The creek is in the Coal Region of Pennsylvania. The meaning of the creek's name is "deep black waters". The waters of Nescopeck Creek have difficulty ratings between Class I and Class III. However, during parts of the year, Nescopeck Creek is impossible to navigate due to rapids, flooding, and tight bends. Nescopeck Creek is home to a number of species of trout, although the waters are not always optimal for them. Nescopeck Creek's water is acidic, with a pH as low as 3.6 in some studies.
Much of the land in the Nescopeck Creek's watershed is forest. Farmland is common in the lower portions of the Nescopeck Creek watershed and the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed, while coal mines are more common on Nescopeck Creek's tributaries Black Creek, Stony Creek, and Cranberry Creek. A portion of Nescopeck Creek is considered a cold-water fishery of high quality. There are also seven natural areas in the creek's watershed, some of which contain rare species of plants and animals. On the Hilsenhoff Biotic Index, the streams in the watershed range from 0 to 18. There are 51 genera of macroinvertebrates in the creek's watershed. The habitats in the watershed primarily include mixed forest.
Nescopeck Creek's watershed is in area and lies in parts of three counties. Slightly over half of the land in the watershed is deciduous forest. The rest is perennial herbaceous vegetation, mixed vegetation and annual herbaceous vegetation, and barren land. Some sub-watersheds contain as much as 80 percent forest. Almost all of the streams in the watershed are within of a road. Most of the land in the watershed has a slope of 0 to 3 percent, although there are areas with a slope of 8 percent or more.
There are five main soil series in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. These are the Hazleton-Dekalb-Buchanan series, the Wellsboro-Oquaga-Morris series, the Leck Kill-Meckesville-Calvin series, the Udorthents-Urban Land-Volusia series, and the Lackawanna-Arnot-Morris series. There are also coal veins in the watershed. The creek discharges aluminum, iron, and manganese, nitrogen, and phosphorus. The pH of the streams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed range from 4.2 to 7.2. The main stem's discharge ranged from between 1919 and 1926. There are 10 dams in the watershed.
Course
Nescopeck Creek begins in Dennison Township, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, at the confluence of an outlet of Olympus Pond and Creasy Creek. The creek's source is also on the eastern edge of Mount Yeager. It flows northwest for a short distance before passing through Olympus Pond and turning west. For the next several miles the creek continues in this direction, running through Pennsylvania State Game Lands #18 and receiving tributaries such as Reilly Creek and Little Nescopeck Creek A. Eventually, the creek passes the northwestern edge of Mount Yeager and continues into Butler Township. Here, the creek heads southwest at a more southerly angle, crossing Interstate 80, receiving Oley Creek, and passing an area of strip mines. A few miles later, the creek turns west-southwest and crosses Pennsylvania Route 309. Continuing onwards, it passes the communities of Rumbels and St. Johns and then crosses Interstate 81. Several miles later, the creek leaves Butler Township and enters Sugarloaf Township. It continues west in this township, receiving the tributary Little Nescopeck Creek B, crossing Pennsylvania Route 93, and making several meanders. After a number of miles, the creek meanders into Black Creek Township, where it turns north and picks up the tributary Black Creek right before crossing Interstate 80 and flowing through a gap in Nescopeck Mountain. In the gap, the creek crosses from Black Creek Township into Nescopeck Township, where it meanders northwest, passing the borough of Nescopeck and entering the Susquehanna River on the border between Nescopeck Township and Columbia County.
Tributaries
Nescopeck Creek has more than of tributaries. This consists of of named streams and of unnamed ones. Major streams include Black Creek, two tributaries named Little Nescopeck Creek, Oley Creek, Creasy Creek, and Long Run. There are 13 named streams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed.
The portion of Nescopeck Creek from its mouth upstream to the mouth of Black Creek has a Strahler number of 5. This makes up of the streams in the watershed. Most of Black Creek and almost all of Nescopeck Creek upstream of Black Creek has a Strahler number of 4. These make up of streams in the creek's watershed. Eight smaller tributaries in the watershed have Strahler number of three. These make up of the creek's watershed. A total of 25 streams in the creek's watershed have a Strahler number of 2. They make up of the creek's watershed. One hundred thirteen very small streams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed have a Strahler number of 1. Such streams make up of the creek's watershed.
Little Nescopeck Creek A is one tributary of Nescopeck Creek. Its source is at the very northwestern edge of the creek's watershed, and it joins the main stem of Nescopeck Creek slightly downstream of Olympus Pond. Little Nescopeck Creek B is in the south of the watershed and is slightly longer than Little Nescopeck Creek A. Little Nescopeck Creek B joins Nescopeck Creek at Sybertsville. Black Creek is the longest tributary of Nescopeck Creek, with a length of . Reilly Creek is a tributary of Nescopeck Creek in the extreme east of the creek's watershed. Only long, it is the shortest named tributary of Nescopeck Creek.
Hydrology
Discharge
From 1919 to 1926, the discharge of Nescopeck Creek at St. Johns was . The month with the highest average discharge during this time was March, when there was a discharge of . The month with the lowest average discharge during this time was September, when there was an average discharge of . The highest discharge in a single month was in March 1920. The lowest discharge in a single month was in September 1922. The average discharge of Nescopeck Creek from 1995 to 2002 is . From 1996 to 1998, the Jeddo Tunnel discharged an average of of water into Little Nescopeck Creek.
Dams
There are ten dams on Nescopeck Creek's watershed. The impoundments behind these dams have surface areas of . Nine of the dams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed are made from earthen-fill. The tenth is an unnamed dam constructed of masonry. The dams range from in height and in length. Their drainage areas are between .
pH and contaminants
In 2005, a study was done on the pH of the waters of Nescopeck Creek and its tributaries. At three sites, its pH averaged 5.06, 4.85, and 4.49. However, the pH at Nescopeck Creek's headwaters is between 6.5 and 7. The lowest pH level in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is 4.2, which is on some parts of Black Creek. Creasy Creek is the most alkaline tributary of Nescopeck Creek, with a pH ranging from 6.9 to 7.2. Other relatively alkaline streams in the creek's watershed include Long Run (6.6), Reilly Creek (6.4), Long Hollow (6.4), Oley Creek (6.4), Conety Run (6.2), and Little Nescopeck Creek A (5.8 to 7). Brook trout are able to tolerate pHs down to 4.8 and the ideal pH range for freshwater fish is 6.5 to 9.0.
At these sites, the study also found averages of 1.7, 2.23, and 5.56 parts per million of aluminum, respectively. Concentrations of aluminium higher than 100 to 200 parts per million can cause suffocation of fish by accumulating in their gills. The toxicity of aluminum to fish is increased by a water pH of below 4.5 to 6.5. There were also 0.65, 0.81, and 1.84 parts per million of iron in these sites, and 0.96, 1.15, 0.03, and 2.65 parts per million of manganese. There were 91.37, 114.27, and 274.1 milligrams per liter of sulfates in the waters of Nescopeck at these sites.
A total of of nitrogen per year are discharged from Nescopeck Creek. Thirty-three percent of this came from land, 60 percent from groundwater, and 6 percent from leaking septic tanks. Its Black Creek tributary adds toxic amounts of copper, lead, and zinc to Nescopeck Creek's watershed. In most parts of Nescopeck Creek and its tributaries, the concentration of phosphorus is slightly lower than the concentration of nitrogen. However, at St. Johns and Conyngham, the phosphorus level is considerably higher than the nitrogen level. Most phosphorus contributed to Nescopeck Creek comes from sub-watersheds instead of the main stem of the creek. The total amount of phosphorus in Nescopeck Creek is . Cropland and quarries are the largest land sources of phosphorus in the watershed, each contributing (43.6 percent of land sources) and . The smallest sources of phosphorus in the watershed are unpaved roads, contributing (0.1 percent) and mixed forest, contributing (0.2 percent). Groundwater contributes and septic systems contribute . Point source pollution in the watershed does not release any phosphorus.
Stony Creek's water is the hardest water in the Nescopeck Creek watershed, with a concentration of over 100 milligrams per liter of dissolved minerals. Other streams in the watershed with hard water are Reilly Creek (28 milligrams per liter) and Long Run (21 milligrams per liter). Some of the least hard waters in the Nescopeck Creek watershed are those of Little Nescopeck Creek A (3 to 8 milligrams per liter), Conety Run (5 milligrams per liter), and Oley Creek (7 milligrams per liter). However, the largest source of pollution in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is acid mine drainage (AMD).
Above Little Nescopeck Creek B, Nescopeck Creek's iron concentration is 110 micrograms per liter and the creek's aluminum concentration is 40 micrograms per liter. Below Little Nescopeck Creek B, however, these values increase to 1260 micrograms per liter for iron and 7450 micrograms per liter for aluminum.
The vulnerability of groundwater to pollution in the Nescopeck Creek watershed has been measured using the DRASTIC system. It is lowest in the headwaters, as well as patches near the creek's mouth, with a value of 69 to 90. Values of 91 to 104 occur in the northern part of the watershed, as well as in scattered patches in the western part. Values of 105 to 115 occur in the southern, southwestern, and part of the central part of the watershed. Some areas with values 116 and higher are scattered throughout the watershed except near the headwaters.
Geology
Nescopeck Creek has coal veins near its source. These coal veins first appeared 300 million years ago. The thickness of these coal seams ranges from in the Tracy Bed up to in the Mammoth Bed. Nearly all of the Eastern Middle coal field is in the watershed of Nescopeck Creek. Sugarloaf Mountain is near Nescopeck Creek. Nescopeck Creek has a number of rapids. At its mouth, Nescopeck Creek carries of aluminum, of iron, and of manganese per day.
Nescopeck Creek is in the geological region known as the Ridge and Valley region. This region is characterized by fertile valleys and steep ridges. However, the eastern reaches of the Nescopeck Creek watershed are near the border of the Appalachian Plateau region.
Nescopeck Creek's watershed contains several major rock formations. These are the Mauch Chunk Formation, the Llewellyn Formation, the Pocono Formation, and the Pottsville Formation. The Mauch Chunk Formation is associated with large amounts of high-quality groundwater. This formation consists of a layer of shale, sandstone, and silt. It is situated under the Hazleton valley. The Mauch Chunk Formation contains outcrops of reddish rock. This formation is softer than many of the nearby rock formations. This formation makes up Sugarloaf Mountain and most of the Nescopeck Creek watershed. The Llewellyn Formation contains more coal than any other formation in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. This formation is thick and is composed of brownish-gray sandstone, siltstone, and shale. Buck Mountain, Mammoth Mountain, and Gamma Mountain are all carved out of the Llewellyn Formation and contain coal seams. The formation was once extensive but has been worn down by erosion over millions of years. The Pottsville Formation also contains a large number of aquifers. This formation is thick, and is composed of gray conglomerate and sandstone. While there is no anthracite in the Pottsville Formation, it does contain three-foot seams of other varieties of coal. Groundwater from this formation is acidic and high in manganese and iron. The Pottsville Formation makes up the valleys directly surrounding Nescopeck Creek. The Pocono Formation consists of conglomerate and sandstone and surrounds the Pottsville Formation. The rock formations are typically more varied in the northern and western part of the watershed than the southern part.
There are also several less significant rock formations in Nescopeck Creek's watershed. These include the Spechty Kopf Formation, the Hamilton Formation, and the Catskill Formation. Little is understood about the Spechty Kopf Formation, but it occurs between the Catskill and Pocono Formations. The Catskill Formation is grayish-red shale, siltstone, and sandstone.
A total of of material have eroded into Nescopeck Creek. Black Creek has the most erosion for an individual stream in the Nescopeck Creek watershed, with of erosion. The main stem of Nescopeck Creek and Little Nescopeck Creek B also have high amounts of erosion, with and , respectively.
Soils
The most common soil series in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is the Hazleton-Dekalb-Buchanan series. Twenty-six percent of Nescopeck Creek's watershed contains this soil series. Much soil and bedrock in this series has been removed during mining operations. This soil series occurs in the southern part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed, near tributaries such as Black Creek and Stony Creek. The soils in this soil series are highly permeable.
Approximately 24 percent of the creek's watershed contains the Wellsboro-Oquaga-Morris series. The series is made of Wellsboro soils, Oquaga soils, and some Morris soils. This type of soil series is most common near the creek's source. Another twenty-four percent of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is made up of the Leck Kill-Meckesville-Calvin series. This soil series tends to occur on hillsides near streams. The Leck Kill-Meckesville-Calvin series occurs quite near the mouth of Nescopeck Creek, with a large patch further upstream, and a small patch in the southwestern part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed.
Eleven percent of Nescopeck Creek's watershed is made up of the Udorthents-Urban Land-Volusia series. There is some urban development over lands containing the soil series. Other areas where this soil series occurs have been surface-mined. The limiting factor for plant growth in this series is the rocky surface and the depth of the bedrock below. The Udorthents-Urban Land-Volusia soil series occurs in the southeastern and parts of the southwestern parts of the Nescopeck Creek watershed. The Lackawanna-Arnot-Morris series is present in nine percent of Nescopeck Creek's watershed. The Lackawanna-Arnot-Morris soil series mostly is near Nescopeck Creek's source, but there is some of it in the central Nescopeck Creek watershed.
Watershed
Nescopeck Creek's watershed is in area. Most of the watershed is in Luzerne County, but part of it also extends into Schuylkill and Columbia Counties. Nescopeck Creek's watershed area includes one city, five boroughs, and thirteen townships. Most of the land in the Nescopeck Creek watershed, except for area near its source, is publicly owned. Thirteen percent of the land in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is owned by the state of Pennsylvania.
Fifty-seven percent of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is composed of deciduous forest. Areas of perennial herbaceous vegetation make up 11 to 12 percent of the creek's watershed. Additionally, there are scattered patches of mixed vegetation and annual herbaceous vegetation in the northwestern part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed. Four to seven percent of the Nescopeck Creek watershed consists of mines, quarries, and gravel pits.
A total of 95 percent of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is rural. The remaining 5 percent is suburban or urban. Twenty-seven percent of the streams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed are near surface-mining operations and 73 percent are not. Most developed land tends to be located in the southern part of the watershed, while most undeveloped land is in the northern part of the watershed.
All sub-watersheds of the Nescopeck Creek watershed contain at least 50 percent forest. A number of streams in the upper Nescopeck Creek watershed, in fact, have more than 80 percent forest coverage. Only 55 percent of the Black Creek watershed is covered by forest. Most sub-watersheds of Nescopeck Creek have only a small amount of barren land. However, the Cranberry Creek watershed contains 6.5 percent barren land, the Black Creek watershed contains 14 percent, and the Stony Creek watershed contains 30 percent. The Little Nescopeck Creek watershed contains 30 percent farmland and the Nescopeck Creek watershed contains 24 percent. Other sub-watersheds of Nescopeck Creek range from 2 to 13 percent farmland.
There are of roads in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. Forty percent of the creek's length is within of a road. Eighty-seven percent of Nescopeck Creek's length is within of a road. There are of roads in Nescopeck Creek's main stem sub-watershed. There are of roads in the Black Creek sub-watershed. The Long Run and Little Nescopeck Creek sub-watersheds also contain close to of roads, respectively.
Terrain
Most of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is flat, with a slope of 0 to 3 percent. There are two major lines of hills in the watershed, one of which is in the northern part and the other of which is in the central part of the watershed. These lines of hills have a slope of 3 to 8 percent. In both of the lines of hills, there are patches where the slope is 8 to 15 percent and in the northern line of hills, there is an area with a slope of over 15 percent.
The elevation at Nescopeck Creek's mouth and along Nescopeck Creek for a few miles upstream is in the range of above sea level. The elevation of the creek's watershed north of the northernmost line of hills is in the range of . The central part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed, south of the northernmost line of hills, including the mouth of Black Creek, is also in this range. The area close to the main stem of the creek upstream to several miles from the source is in the range of . In the central part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed, several tributaries also lie in this elevation range. Near the creek's source, its elevation is in the range of . The central part of the Black Creek watershed is also in this range, as is much of the Nescopeck Creek watershed's northernmost line of hills. Nescopeck Creek's elevation within of its source is in the range of . The upper portion of the Black Creek watershed and the southeastern part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is also in this range. Scattered parts of the creek's watershed, such as its southwestern corner and the creek's source, are in the elevation range of .
The Long Hollow sub-watershed is Nescopeck Creek is Nescopeck Creek's smallest sub-watershed, with an area of . The main stem of Nescopeck Creek has the largest sub-watershed, with an area of . The Black Creek sub-watershed is Nescopeck Creek's second-largest sub-watershed. The Little Nescopeck Creek A at , Little Nescopeck Creek B at , Cranberry Creek at , and Oley Creek at are also among the largest Nescopeck Creek sub-watersheds.
History
Native American inhabitation
Nescopeck Creek's name comes from a Lenape word meaning "deep black waters". Historically, two tribes of Native Americans known as the Fork Indians and the Delaware Indians lived near the mouth of Nescopeck Creek. Other parts of the Nescopeck Creek watershed were settled by Lenni Lenape Indians. The Lenni Lenape inhabited the Nescopeck Creek watershed a thousand years before European settlers. There is no definitive record of permanent settlements in the interior of Nescopeck Creek's watershed, but temporary Native American settlements existed in what is now Nescopeck State Park. By the 1700s, the Lenni Lenape had left the Nescopeck Creek watershed due to encroaching Iroquois and European settlers.
There were two major Native American trails in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. These were the Lehigh Path, which is also known as the Warrior Trail, and the Trade Trail. Parts of these trails would become Vine Street and Broad Street in Hazleton, respectively.
European inhabitation
In the early 1700s, some European settlers, who were granted warrants by William Penn, explored Native American trails in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. On these paths, skirmishes occasionally occurred between settlers and Native Americans. One example is the Sugarloaf Massacre, when a group of Native Americans ambushed some soldiers on the Lehigh Path near Nescopeck Creek in 1780. The first mill was built in the Nescopeck Creek watershed in 1788. By 1791, there were four settlers along Nescopeck Creek. In 1795, Samuel Mifflin built a sawmill at the mouth of Nescopeck Creek. A gristmill was built on Nescopeck Creek the same year. A flood of Nescopeck Creek in 1786, known as the Pumpkin Flood, was noted for sweeping large numbers of pumpkins downstream on the creek.
Light industries, such as lumbering and tanning, gradually developed in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. This led to the creation of numerous communities in the Nescopeck Creek watershed, such as White Haven, Freeland, and Hazleton. Additionally, anthracite coal was discovered in 1813. Coal became an important industry for the Nescopeck Creek region by 1836 with the formation of the Hazleton Coal Company. In the 1830s and 1840s, a number of "patch towns" designed to attend mines were built in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. The population in the Nescopeck Creek watershed began to increase rapidly around this time. By the 1880s, the patch towns attended over thirty mines in the watershed. However, the coal mining industry in the watershed began to lose value around this time, coal mining was no longer a significant source of industry in the Nescopeck Creek watershed by 1936.
In 1830, a forge which made bar iron was built on Nescopeck Creek. The most destructive flood on Nescopeck Creek occurred in 1850, when a dam on the creek was breached, killing 22 people. From 1858 to 1870 there was a tannery on Nescopeck Creek. In 1828, plans for a canal in Nescopeck Creek were made. In 1885, a number of French Indian artifacts, which were Plaster of Paris casts for making sculptures, were discovered along Nescopeck Creek in Dennison Township.
In 1891 the first part of the Jeddo Tunnel, a tunnel in the Nescopeck Creek watershed, was built. The last tunnel in this system was built in 1932. These tunnels drain more than , of which contain coal basins.
A dam on Nescopeck Creek was destroyed during Hurricane Agnes in 1972. In the early 1900s, there was a steam-electric power station at the mouth of Nescopeck Creek. The Wilkes-Barre and Hazleton Railway passed over Nescopeck Creek in the beginning of the 1900s. The Jeddo Tunnel, which drained a colliery in the 20th century, emptied into Nescopeck Creek. After World War II, there was a large increase in unemployment rates in the Nescopeck Creek watershed due to the failing coal mining industry. From 1919 to 1926, the United States Geological Survey had a station on Nescopeck Creek near the community of St. Johns. Two other stream gauging stations have been built on Nescopeck Creek. One of these stations, which was in use from 1949 to 1950 was in Nescopeck. The other, which was in use from 1963 to 1970, was 0.6 miles upstream of Nescopeck Creek's mouth. In the 1990s, some people were caught stealing Native American artifacts at the Nescopeck Creek headwaters.
Biology
Nescopeck Creek is home to brown trout and brook trout near its source, but does not have much life further downstream because coal mine waste in Little Nescopeck Creek pollutes the lower reaches of Nesocpeck Creek. In 1999, a study discovered 20 species of fish living in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. Of these, 15 had been observed before in the watershed, and five had not. Nesopeck Creek and its various tributaries are rated Class A to Class D for wild trout. There are a number of riparian buffers on Nescopeck Creek, of which 80 percent consist of forest. Along parts of Nescopeck Creek, there are a large number of shrub-like oak trees. In the Nescopeck Creek watershed, there are prolific forests of oak, chestnut, and hemlock trees.
The entire Nescopeck Creek watershed has a high level of biodiversity, with the most diverse areas being Arbutus Peak, the Edgewood vernal pools, and the Nescopeck Creek valley. The creek's southeastern corner contains the highest density of amphibian species in its watershed. The highest density of snake species in the watershed is in the same area. The lowest density of snake species in the watershed is along the central part of Nescopeck Creek. The highest density of bird species in the watershed is in the southern and central part of the watershed. The highest density of mammal species in the watershed is at Nescopeck Creek's headwaters.
In the Nescopeck Creek watershed, there are seven natural areas. These are Arbutus Peak, Valmont Industrial Park, the Black Creek flats, the Humboldt barrens, the Nescopeck Creek valley, and the Edgewood vernal pools. Arbutus Peak is a area at Nescopeck Creek's headwaters. Also, the Nescopeck Barrens are home to 15 rare species of plants and animals. The Nescopeck Creek valley also contains a number of rare species. The Edgewood vernal pools provide a breeding ground for wood frogs and Jefferson salamanders.
The Bird Community Index, a measure of the quality of a habitat based on the presence of songbirds, has been tested for most of the watershed of Nescopeck Creek. The Bird Community Index was high in one area near the source of Nescopeck Creek. In all other areas of the watershed, the index was low to medium. One of the lowest values is near Nescopeck Creek's mouth. The Hilsenhoff Biotic Index (HBI) has been measured for a number of sites along Nescopeck Creek and its tributaries. Upstream of the Jeddo Tunnel, Little Nescopeck Creek B has a high HBI. However, just downstream of the Jeddo Tunnel, the HBI drops off by a large amount. Black Creek has an HBI of 0 to 6.6, and this tributary's biodiversity is lower at its headwaters than at its confluence with Nescopeck Creek. Nescopeck Creek's HBI is from 1.7 to 5.4, depending on the site. In Nescopeck Creek, the total number of macroinvertebrate taxa at several sites ranges from 5 to 26. In Little Nescopeck Creek, the values range from 1 to 18. In Black Creek, the number ranges from 0 to 11.
In 1999, the only Class-A fishery waters in the Nescopeck Creek watershed were those of Little Nescopeck Creek A, the headwaters of Nescopeck Creek, and several minor tributaries of Nescopeck Creek. Only one small stream near Nescopeck Creek's mouth had Class-C fishery waters. The central part of Nescopeck Creek, as well as most of Black Creek had Class-D fishery waters. There were twenty species of fish in Nescopeck Creek in 1999. Of these, seventeen had been seen in the watershed before. However, since between a 1999 study of the watershed and the study before that, the brown bullhead and the bluegill fish had vanished from the Nescopeck Creek watershed.
A large number of genera of macroinvertebrates have been discovered in and around Nescopeck Creek. These consist of one genus of segmented worm, one genus of sowbugs, 11 genera of mayflies, 8 genera of stone flies, 11 genera of caddisflies, 6 genera of dragonflies, 2 genera of helgrammites, 10 genera of beetles, and one genus of fly.
There are a total of 14 species of amphibians in the Nescopeck Creek watershed, of which 11 breed in the watershed. These species consist of 6 salamanders, 6 frogs, one newt, and one toad. There are seven species of reptiles in the watershed, of which five breed there. Five of these species are snakes and two are turtles. The biodiversity of birds in the watershed is much greater than that of amphibians or reptiles; there are approximately one hundred different species of birds in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. A total of 29 mammals have been observed in the creek's watershed, including three species of bats, two species of mice, and two species of foxes.
Habitats
The most common habitat in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is the dry-oak mixed forest. Common trees in this habitat include northern red oak, white oak, and chestnut oak. This habitat also contains gray and black birch trees. Pine, hemlock, and some types of oak trees are found on the higher parts of this habitat. Lower to the ground are huckleberry, teaberry, blueberry, and hawthorn and other plants. The wildflowers in this habitat include wild onion and wild strawberries.
In the Nescopeck Creek watershed, pitch pine – scrub oak forests occur on Arbutus Peak and several barren areas in the southern part of watershed. In this type of forest, pitch pine, scrub oak, black oak and chestnut oak are the main trees. Bracken fern, teaberry, black chokeberry, blueberry, and huckleberry are the most common shrubs in this habitat.
All of the streams in the Nescopeck Creek are considered sub-optimal habitats and rated on a scale of 1 to 240. The most optimal water habitat in the watershed is a site along Nescopeck Creek, with a rating of 184. The least optimal water habitats in the watershed are two sites along Black Creek. These sites are considered poor to marginal habitats, with ratings of 56 and 96 respectively.
Recreation
Nescopeck State Park is one source of recreation in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. Nescopeck Creek flows through this state park and on it there are opportunities for trout fishing. Nescopeck Creek takes up of the northwestern part in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. Additionally, there are four golf courses, two community parks, and two Pennsylvania State Game Lands, and ten sites for water-based recreation, including Lake Francis in Nescopeck State Park. A tourist attraction, Eckley Miner's Village, is within the Nescopeck Creek watershed. A resort known as the Eagle Rock Resort is in the Nescopeck Creek watershed. Since the late 1990s, there have been plans to convert old railroad lines in the Nescopeck Creek watershed to rail trails. One such plan is to link the Hazleton area to the Delaware and Lehigh National Heritage Corridor.
See also
Briar Creek (Susquehanna River), next tributary of the Susquehanna River going downriver
Salem Creek, next tributary of the Susquehanna River going upriver
List of rivers of Pennsylvania
Nescopeck State Park
References
Works cited
Nescopeck Creek Watershed Stewardship Report (Spring 2002). Center for Watershed Stewardship Keystone Project. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved July 5, 2013.
External links
Rivers of Pennsylvania
Tributaries of the Susquehanna River
Rivers of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania |
4548676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FK%20Vele%C5%BE%20Mostar | FK Velež Mostar | Fudbalski klub Velež Mostar (; English: Football club Velež Mostar) is a professional football club based in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The club has a history of being one of the most successful clubs from Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was founded on 26 June 1922. The club currently plays at Rođeni Stadium (7,000 capacity), but its historic stadium is the Bijeli Brijeg (9,000 capacity). Due to the divisions between Bosniak and Croat territories, Velež lost its previous home ground of Bijeli Brijeg. That stadium was largely used by Velež during the glory days of the club, when they triumphed in the 1981 and 1986 Yugoslav Cups. The club also reached the quarter-final stage of the 1974–75 UEFA Cup.
The club is named after a nearby mountain Velež, which in itself is named after one of the old Slavic gods, Veles.
During the time of former Yugoslavia, Velež was always in the Yugoslav First League and the team often ended the season in the top ten. Velež was the most popular and most successful team from Herzegovina to play in the top Yugoslav League. The team was very popular in Herzegovina, but also had fans all over Yugoslavia, and had a mixture of fans from all three main ethnic groups.
Today, Velež is in the Football Association of Bosnia and Herzegovina and is active in the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina and regardless of the difficult and divisive political situation, still has a mixture of fans from all three main ethnic groups. The team was relegated to the First League of the Federation from the Premier League. However, Velež was promoted to the top league of the country in 2019.
In the summer of 2005, the club's assembly returned the five-pointed red star, also known as the petokraka, to their logo. The red star has been the symbol of the club since its founding in 1922.
History
Before World War II (1922–1941)
On 26 June 1922, in a suburb of Mostar called Sjeverni logor, Velež Mostar were founded with the prefix RŠD (Radnički Športski Klub) or Workers' Sports Club. There were many suggestions for the name, however according to an urban legend the name Velež was picked due to the nearby mountain, as there was nothing higher. Velež's first kits were black and white due to destitution and poverty. Velež only started playing in red after a board member named Vaso Pucarić brought them from Zagreb. Velež's first derby with another club from Mostar, Zrinjski was canceled after Zrinjski's players wanted Velež's players to take off the red stars from their kits and Velež refused to do so. The club was sympathetic to worker's rights and socialism, which made it a big target from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, who frequently harassed players and supporters. Before the war there existed a league for clubs within the city: Velež, Zrinjski, SK Vardar and the JSK (Jugoslovenski sportski klub). Velež had won this competition twice in the 1929 and 1930 seasons. At one point during this time 3,500 people were members of Velež. On 1 September 1940 Velež played a friendly versus a team from Podgorica called Crna Gora. After the game players and those in attendance started a protest against the Yugoslav government on the streets of Mostar. Police shot at demonstrators and in 2 days the club was banned. During the Second World War many members of Velež joined the Yugoslav Partisans and 77 footballers from Velež were said to have lost their lives during the war. 9 players were awarded the Order of the People's Hero award by the new socialist government, 8 of which posthumously. The only living player given the medal was former captain Mehmed Trbonja.
Velež in SFR Yugoslavia (1945–1992)
Early days in the top flight (1945–1968)
After the war ended, the new socialist government banned clubs that participated in football tournaments organized by the Independent State of Croatia, including Zrinjski. Vardar and JSK also disbanded, which left Velež as the only active football club in Mostar, a city of 48,000 people by 1948. Before the war, all teams in Mostar played in Sjeverni logor, which was technically owned by JSK. The stadium was in bad shape, there was no boundary between the pitch and the stands and one newspaper outlet said it should be banned to play games in Mostar. In response the city council decided to build a modern stadium for the time in the Bijeli Brijeg suburb; equipped with a training ground, locker rooms and offices for club officials. Between 1947 and 1956 construction was made possible by youth work actions, with some involvement from unions and independent firms. Work stopped at various intervals due to lack of mechanization, but from June 1956 onwards resources that were necessary for completion were given and development of the stadium finished much faster. On 7 September 1958 Velež played their first ever game at the Bijeli Brijeg stadium: a 2–1 victory versus FK Željezničar.
In the 1952–53 season for the first time ever, Velež appeared in the top flight of any league but were relegated. Velež's top scorers were Vladimir Zelenika with 9 goals in 11 games and captain Haldun Hrvić with 7 goals in 22 games. After 2 seasons in the second tier Velež were promoted and competed in the 1955–56 Yugoslav First League where they finished seventh out of 14 teams. For the duration of the entire Yugoslav First League Velež were never relegated again. During the early days of Velež in the top flight, one of the most well respected players was Muhamed Mujić, who played over 400 games and was joint top scorer for the 1955–56 season. Because of this he became Velež's first player to receive a call up to the SFR Yugoslavia national football team versus Hungary in 1956. He scored 17 goals in 32 appearances, played in Melbourne for the 1956 Olympics and in Chile for the 1962 World Cup but his career with the national team ended abruptly after a bad foul on Soviet player Eduard Dubinski, which indirectly caused Dubinski's death 7 years later. The Yugoslav Football Association sent Mujić back home and he never played another international game again.
In the 1957–58 Yugoslav Cup, Velež became the first Bosnian team to reach the final, after beating Radnički Beograd, RNK Split and Hajduk Split in previous rounds. In front of a crowd of 30,000 at the Stadion JNA, Velež lost 4–0 after a lacklustre performance that served more as Rajko Mitić's farewell game than a cup final.
Sulejman Sula Rebac becomes manager (1968–1976)
In 1968, former player Sulejman "Sula" Rebac who had played over 500 games for Velež became manager. At this point, Velež were a steady midtable-team in the first division however under the guidance of Rebac Velež would experience a meteoric rise that culminated in reaching the UEFA cup quarterfinals. His first full season in 1968–69 saw an 8th-place finish in which the main focus was Rebac successfully utilizing Velež's youth team, a tradition Velež held right up until the Bosnian War. The first players to come through the academy were goalkeeper Enver Marić and striker Dušan Bajević. They and midfielder Franjo Vladić would make up the famous BMV trio (named after the German car manufacturer) which was one of the most prolific partnerships in the history of Bosnian football. The 1969–70 saw Velež finish third and Bajević joint top scorer alongside Slobodan Santrač with 20 goals each. 1970 also saw Bajević's first call-up to the national team, a 1–1 draw versus Austria in which he scored on his debut. Bajević would go on to make 37 appearances and score 29 goals, including a hat-trick against Zaire in a 9–0 demolition during the 1974 World Cup. In the 1972–73 Velež placed 2nd in the league, their best position yet and qualified for the UEFA cup, their first ever European competition. They were knocked out in the first round to Tatran Prešov.
The 1973–74 season was one of Velež's best. In the league, Velež were in a neck and neck race with Hajduk Split. After the 32nd and 33rd round, Hajduk and Velež had the same number of points; with Hajduk having the better goal difference. On the final day of the season, both won their games and Hajduk won the league on account of goal difference. In Europe the following season, Velež won on away goals against Spartak Moscow in the first round and against Rapid Wien in the second round. In the third round they were faced with Derby County, who would go on to win the First Division that season. They lost 3–1 in the first leg at the Baseball Ground. Franjo Vladić scored Velež's only goal that day. The second leg at the Bijeli Brijeg stadium featured a remarkable upset. Boro Primorac, another prodigy of Rebac, scored in the 14th minute with a follow-up goal from Vladimir Pecelj in the 29th minute. Vladić scored in the 51st minute and Velež had a 4–3 lead. Kevin Hector scored for Derby in the 75th minute and the aggregate was tied at 4–4. In the 85th minute Velež were awarded a penalty which Dušan Bajević scored. The game ended 5–4 on aggregate and Velež went on to the quarterfinals. There they faced FC Twente, and lost 2–1 on aggregate. After the UEFA Cup run, Rebac resigned, while the core of the team was also leaving. Marić left for Schalke 04 in 1976, Bajević left to join AEK Athens in 1977, with Vladić following him in 1979.
Rebuilding and first trophies (1976–1992)
With the trio that Velež had depended upon now missing, the rest of Velež's squad now had a chance to shine: Džemal Hadžiabdić, his younger brother Mili, Marko Čolić, Vladimir Pecelj, Jadranko Topić, Blaž Slišković but none were an integral part of post-BMV Velež more than Vahid Halilhodžić. He scored 253 goals in 376 matches and solidified himself as one of Velež's best ever players. During the 1976 transfer window he was a keen transfer target for many important Yugoslav clubs including Partizan, Dinamo Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade because of his performances for the national team, but ultimately stayed at Velež. The act did not pay off as Velež finished 11th, miles off pace compared to the clubs trying to buy Halilhodžić. The next 2 seasons saw some improvement, finishing 7th and 5th, respectively. In the 1979–80 season, Velež finished 8th and the manager at the time, Vukašin Višnjevac was sacked and replaced with Miloš Milutinović, famously known as Plava čigra.
In the league Velež finished a lowly 9th place, but their real shining moment came in the cup that season. Velež had beaten Borac Banja Luka in the first round 3–2, and after a walkover from Sutjeska Nikšić in the second round, advanced to the quarterfinals where they faced FK Bregalnica Štip, a lower league side from North Macedonia, and beat them 2–0. Velež beat Budućnost Podgorica 2–1 in the semi-final and ensured that they would be in the cup final for the first time in 23 years. Their opponents were Željezničar Sarajevo, who had finished 14th the same season. This tie resulted in the first and only ever all-Bosnian final in the Yugoslav Cup. Halilhodžić had signed a contract with French side FC Nantes and would leave Velež after the final, no matter the result, but the game was praised for being one of his finest hours for Velež. After joining Nantes he became one of their most iconic and legendary players and would go on to manage them in 2018. In the cup final, the first goal came in the 36th minute after a penalty was given to Željezničar. Mehmed Baždarević scored and by the end of the first half the score remained 1–0 to Željezničar. Halilhodžić scored a brace in the space of 3 minutes and Velež were in the lead. In the 62nd minute another penalty was called for Željezničar, which Baždarević converted again. Dragan Okuka scored the winning goal with a header in the 80th minute, and Velež won their first ever major trophy.
As a result of winning they were admitted into the Cup Winners' Cup, and played their first game in Europe in 6 years. They also took part in the 1980–81 Balkans Cup, which they won 12–7 on aggregate against Trakia Plovdiv, later Botev Plovdiv. In the 1981–82 Cup Winners' Cup beat Jeunesse Esch 7–2 on aggregate in the first round and faced Lokomotiv Leipzig in the second, which they lost on penalties. The 1981–82 league season saw Velež finish 7th and Milutinović left for FK Partizan. Without him, Velež struggled and finished 13th, even with the efforts of Vladimir Skočajić (14 goals) and Dušan Bajević (11 goals). Bajević eventually became manager in 1984. In the 1984–85 season Velež finished 11th but the next season saw a huge improvement, with Velež finishing 3rd, their best season since 1973–74. This was largely due to the efforts of a new golden generation including goalkeeper Vukašin Petranović, defenders Nenad Bijedić and Vladimir Matijević, midfielder Vladimir Skočajić and forwards Predrag Jurić, Sead Kajtaz and Semir Tuce.
Velež had another good cup run in the 1985-86 Yugoslav Cup, first beating lower league Željezničar Doboj 1–5 away from home. Rad from Belgrade were beaten 2–0 but in the quarterfinals faced tough opponents Partizan. Velež fielded an upset winning 5–3 on penalties after the game ended 1–1 in normal time. In the semi-finals Velež faced yet another team from Belgrade, this time OFK Belgrade, which Velež beat 3–0 at home. In the final they were faced with Dinamo Zagreb, one of the big 4 teams in Yugoslavia led by famous coach Miroslav "Ćiro" Blažević. Nenad Bijedić scored a penalty in the sixth minute with an additional goal in the 51st minute. Marko Mlinarić of Dinamo quickly scored in the 58th minute, but the final score was settled after Predrag Jurić scored in the 87th minute. The performance of Velež was so good it caught the eye of the new Yugoslavia national team coach, Ivica Osim who was the manager of Željezničar during the 1981 cup final. Predrag Jurić was capped twice following the final and Semir Tuce was capped 7 times and scored 2 goals. Them and Meho Kodro, who was a youth prospect in 1986 would be the last players to play for the Yugoslavia national team while playing for Velež.
Velež had a fantastic performance in the league that season as well, but it was marred by the final matchday. Velež lost 2–3 to OFK Belgrade at home and it was suspected that Velež, along with 13 other teams that day was suspected of match fixing. The claim for Velež's game was that Velež had confirmed themselves a place in the UEFA Cup next season (but played in the Cup Winners' Cup instead) but OFK needed a win to stay up. They were deducted 6 points the following season but come the end of the season the deduction would be overturned.
Velež got to participate in the Cup Winners' Cup again and beat Vasas SC in the first round with a 5–4 aggregate victory but lost versus Vitosha Sofia (later Levski Sofia) with the same aggregate. In the league Velež originally finished 3rd again however courts rejected that any matchfixing took place on the final day of the season. As charges were dropped Velež's 6-point deduction would be overturned and finished 2nd instead. This would be the last time Velež finished 2nd in the top flight. They beat FC Sion of Switzerland in the first round 5–3 on aggregate in the UEFA cup first round. Their next opponent would be West German powerhouse Borussia Dortmund. Reinhard Saftig, Dortmund's coach at the time decided to watch Velež play live before the game. The game was a 5–0 victory over Red Star Belgrade which is still regarded as a memorable victory by many Velež fans. Velež ended up losing 2–0 away in the first leg however the second leg would be one of Velež's most famous victories. Meho Kodro and Predrag Jurić both scored goals, Semir Tuce missed a penalty, but Frank Mill scored for Dortmund and ended any chance of Velež going through with 3–2 on aggregate for Dortmund and 2–1 only counting the game played at the Bijeli Brijeg Stadium. For the 1988–89 season Velež played their ever last season in a European competition (namely the UEFA Cup). They beat APOEL 6–2 on aggregate in the first round and Belenenses 4–3 on penalties after 0–0 on aggregate in the second round. In the third round they were faced with Hearts of Midlothian. They lost 3–0 in the first leg away and couldn't overturn the deficit with a 2–1 win at home, ending 15 years and 6 seasons in European competitions. In the league Velež finished 11th, their worst position in 5 years. The 1988-89 Yugoslav Cup was also the last time Velež would appear in a cup final. Velež go on to beat lower league opposition in the early rounds including Sileks Kratovo, HNK Šibenik, Liria Prizren, and Rudar Ljubija (later Rudar Prijedor). In the final Velež were thoroughly beaten by the First League opposition FK Partizan 6–1 with goals from Nebojša Vučićević, Goran Milojević, Fadil Vokrri, Vladimir Vermezović and Zoran Batrović. Velež's sole goal came from Zijad Repak in the 65th minute.
In 1989, Velež's youth team reached the final of the Yugoslav Youth Football Cup for the fourth time (after losing the final in 1969, 1977 and 1987) and won 4–1 versus FK Vardar with a team featuring Franjo Džidić, Slaven Musa and Sergej Barbarez. This would be the only piece of silverware ever won by Velež's youth team.
Velež in an independent Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–present)
Rebuilding and instability (1992–2006)
On 15 March 1992, Velež would play their last ever game at the Bijeli Brijeg stadium; a 2–0 win versus FK Zemun. Shortly after the game the Siege of Mostar started, rendering football a dangerous and logistically impossible task. Velež were already on the way out of the Yugoslav First League due to Bosnia voting to leave Yugoslavia in an independence referendum at the beginning of the month, and to make matters worse due to Bosnia being independent, the ban on fascist clubs was lifted, which led to Zrinjski being refounded in 1992. After the war, a new municipality within Mostar called Jugozapad (eng. Southwest) awarded the Bijeli Brijeg stadium to Zrinjski, which would lead to controversy for the next few years. Zrinjski had positioned themselves as a club specifically for Croats, which led to a large number of Velež's supporters abandoning them (Velež were a multiethnic club for all of their history, including players of Bosniak, Serb and Croat origin). Velež didn't play another game until 1994, when they were placed in the "Zenica Group" of the 1994–95 First League of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a wartime cuplike competition. Velež lost their first game 3–0 to Slaven Živinice and things didn't improve, they lost their next 2 games and exited the competition along with NK Đerzelez as the only 2 teams who lost all of their games.
For the 1995–96 season which transitioned football in Bosnia to a proper league system (albeit with three leagues competing on ethnic lines) all teams needed to compete on their own stadium. After friendlies in Sjeverni logor and Jablanica Velež chose Vrapčići, on the very outskirts of Mostar. The next few seasons would be rough as Velež finished 14th in 1995–96 and 10th in 1996–97 and 1997–98. For the last season mentioned a playoff system was introduced between the Bosniak and Croat clubs where the best of each league played against each other to determine a true champion in Bosnian football. In 1998–99 Velež pulled off a shock result by qualifying to the playoffs. To mark the occasion Velež demanded to play at the Bijeli Brijeg stadium, however after the Office of the High Representative (OHR) rejected the appeal, Velež and other teams boycotted the playoff for that season. Velež later qualified for the inaugural season of the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the first post-war competition not based on ethnic lines where they finished 5th in their first season. The next season saw an 8th-place finish but the 2002–03 season saw a relegation into the second tier for the first time since 1952.
In the second tier Velež were a strong contender for promotion, first in the 2003–04 season, however a goal in injury time for Budućnost Banovići ensured that they would be promoted instead of Velež. In 2004–05 another title challenge was mounted but a 2–1 loss versus Rudar Kakanj made sure Jedinstvo Bihać would get promoted. In 2005–06 Velež were finally promoted, 14 points clear of second placed Rudar Kakanj.
Comeback and collapse (2006–2017)
For the next few seasons Velež would be a consistent midtable team in the Premier League with no major cup runs until the 2011–12 season, when Velež defeated Travnik 3–2 away in the first round and faced local rivals Zrinjski in the next round. The game originally ended 1–0 to Velež when Riad Demić scored in the 93rd minute which resulted in a pitch invasion from Zrinjski fans. This meant the game ended 3–0 to Velež and the Bijeli Brijeg stadium was suspended for 5 games. The second leg ended 2–0 to Velež and they would book themselves a place in the quarterfinals versus HNK Branitelj, which they won 3–1 on aggregate. As a result, Velež appeared in the cup semi-finals for the first time since 1998. They ended up losing 2–0 on aggregate to Široki Brijeg and Velež's best cup run in 15 years was over. In the 2013–14 season Velež finished in 5th place, 3 points away from European football, the highest since the leagues in Bosnia were reunified.
In June 2015, Velež were bought out by president of the Bosnian Social Democratic Party, Nermin Nikšić. Things quickly turned worse as the club failed to organize friendlies, pay player's wages, repeatedly fired coaches and fans got involved in brawls with opposing players. Velež ended the 2015–16 season in last place with only 9 points out of 30 games, which is one of the worst records in any top-flight league. The Nikšić board and subsequent emergency board was eventually replaced by a board led by Šemsudin Hasić, director of local pharmaceutical company Hercegovinalijek. That didn't mean the 2016–17 season started off easy. After 8 games Velež had not won a single game and were in 15th place out of 16 teams. The previous coach Avdo Kalajdžić was sacked and replaced with Ibrahim Rahimić, who had previously played for and coached Velež. Velež miraculously stayed up on the final day of the season and FK Goražde were relegated instead of them. Between seasons the stadium "Vrapčići" changed their name to "Stadion Rođeni" named after fans of Velež.
New comeback (2017–present)
For the 2017–18 season, thanks to new signings such as Elmir Kuduzović, Hamza Mešanović and Minel Doljančić, Velež wrapped up a 3rd place spot.
For the 2018–19 season, Velež signed many attackers like attacking midfielder Edo Vehabović, right winger Obren Cvijanović and striker Nusmir Fajić. The push to more attacking football worked as Velež went the whole first part of the season (15 games) unbeaten and Fajić himself scored 18 goals. Things turned sour after a controversial away game versus Goražde, where multiple refereeing errors lead to Goražde scoring the only goal of the game and Velež losing the unbeaten run record. Multiple former players including Velibor Pudar, Vahid Halilhodžić and Džemal Hadžiabdić expressed support for overturning the result but the FA adopted the original scoreline and 8.0 rating for the referees (7 or lower would mean suspension). Velež overcame this and won the First League 7 points ahead of their nearest rivals Olimpik, who were at one point only 1 point behind Velež. Velež also finished with a record 76 points and Nusmir Fajić scored a record 28 goals in one season. Another record broken that season was the final game played between Velež and Igman Konjic, a match that had an attendance of 7,000, one of the highest in the new stadium.
Velež's return to the top flight was not as glamorous as anticipated as they lost their first three games to Mladost Doboj Kakanj, Zrinjski and Čelik Zenica. Rahimić resigned and Feđa Dudić was chosen as the next manager. His first game featured the debut of Macedonian centre-back Kosta Manev, who was cited as one of Velež's best players that season. Dudić's first game as manager was a 0–0 draw against Sloboda Tuzla and Velež picked up its first point in the season. Velež picked up several wins against teams like Široki Brijeg, Željezničar, Borac Banja Luka and Zrinjski in the rematch later that season. The season would ultimately be abandoned after 22 of the planned 33 games had been played due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, the following season saw Velež's fortune turn with a return to European competition, finishing 3rd in the league and qualifying for the first iteration of the UEFA Europa Conference League. In the Conference League qualifying rounds, Velež eliminated semi-professional Northern Irish club Coleraine and Greek giants AEK Athens, before themselves getting eliminated by Swedish side IF Elfsborg in the third qualifying round. In the 2021–22 season, Velež won the first Bosnian Cup title in their history, after a penalty shoot-out, following a 0–0 draw against Sarajevo.
Following Feđa Dudić leaving Velež at the end of the 2021–22 season, the club appointed Amar Osim, one of the most successful Bosnian football managers, as its new manager on 11 June 2022.
Rivalry
FK Velež's main rival is HŠK Zrinjski Mostar, the other team from Mostar. The match between the two Mostar teams is called the Mostar derby. The first match between Velež Mostar and Zrinjski was played during the 1920s, but when Zrinjski was banned (from 1945 to 1992) for playing in the fascist league during World War II, the rivalry stopped. During Velež's glory days in the Yugoslav First League, they were the only major club from Mostar and were supported by all people from the city of Mostar. After the war Zrinjski was reformed, and they became a symbol of the Croatian side of Mostar (west side) and Velež become a symbol of the Bosniak side (east side). On 1 March 2000, Zrinjski and Velež played a friendly game, for the first time after Zrinjski was reformed. The game was played in Sarajevo and the result was a 2–2 draw. The first official league game was played on 18 August 2000 at the Bijeli Brijeg Stadium. Zrinjski won 2–0.
The rivalry is both local and ethnic. FK Velež and their fans, called Red Army are predominantly Bosniaks, while Zrinjski and their fans called Ultras are Croats. Making the rivalry bigger is the fact that Zrinjski stadium was Velež's stadium during their glory days in Yugoslavia, but because of the war, Velež was forced to move from their stadium, which was located in the western part of Mostar, and build a new stadium on the other side of the city.
Supporters
Velež supporters are famous for their loyalty and passion, and they follow their club wherever it plays. There are few groups of Velež supporters. The most famous are Red Army Mostar and Mostarski Rođeni.
Honours
Domestic
League
First League of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina:
Winners (2): 2005–06, 2018–19
Runners-up (2): 2003–04, 2004–05
Yugoslav First League:
Runners-up (3): 1972–73, 1973–74, 1986–87
Third place (4): 1965–66, 1969–70, 1985–86, 1987–88
Yugoslav Second League:
Winners (2): 1952, 1954–55
Cups
Yugoslav Cup:
Winners (2): 1980–81, 1985–86
Runners-up (2): 1957–58, 1988–89
Bosnia and Herzegovina Cup:
Winners (1): 2021–22
Runners-up (1): 2022–23
European
Mitropa Cup:
Runners-up (1): 1975–76
Balkans Cup:
Winners (1): 1980–81
UEFA Cup:
Quarter-finals (1): 1974–75
Recent seasons
European record
Since the late 1970s up until the Bosnian War of 1992–1995, Velež has been consistently ranked on the UEFA Team Rankings. While the club has often reached ranks of top 100–200 teams, on some occasions the UEFA has ranked Velež among the top 100 teams. In 1989 Velež was ranked at the 43rd place on the UEFA Team Ranking List which also marks the highest UEFA ranking achieved by any football club from Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In 1988, Velež was ranked 88th on the UEFA's Team Ranking List, ahead of clubs like Everton (ranked 100), Olympique Marseille (ranked 115), Espanyol (ranked 121), Napoli (ranked 125), Young Boys (ranked 126), Dinamo Zagreb and Borussia Dortmund (ranked 158), Aston Villa (ranked 200) and many others, as cited in the UEFA Team Ranking database for 1988.
In 1989, Velež was ranked 43rd on the UEFA's Team Ranking List, ahead of clubs like Hamburger SV (ranked 45), AC Milan (ranked 51), CSKA Sofia (ranked 57), Napoli (ranked 62), Dinamo Moscow (ranked 67), AS Roma (ranked 74), Real Sociedad (ranked 80), AEK Athens (ranked 105), FC Nantes (ranked 121), Manchester United (ranked 126), Tottenham Hotspur (ranked 141), Paris Saint-Germain (143), Dinamo Zagreb (195) and many others, as cited in the UEFA Team Ranking database for 1989.
The above record is the highest UEFA ranking achieved by any football club from Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In 1990, Velež was ranked 51st on the UEFA's Team Ranking List, ahead of clubs like VfB Stuttgart (ranked 55), Hamburger SV (ranked 56), AS Monaco (ranked 60), AEK Athens (ranked 73), Real Sociedad (ranked 79), Levski Sofia (ranked 92), Borussia Dortmund (ranked 94), Lech Poznan (ranked 100), Paris Saint Germain (ranked 139), Dinamo Zagreb (192) and many others, as cited in the UEFA Team Ranking database for 1990.
In 1991, Velež was ranked 53rd on the UEFA's Team Ranking List, ahead of clubs like AS Roma (ranked 55), AS Monaco (ranked 57), Fiorentina (ranked 80), Valencia (ranked 86), Manchester United (ranked 92), Young Boys (ranked 103), Dinamo Zagreb (105), Espanyol (ranked 111), Sevilla (ranked 147), Sturm Graz (ranked 206) and many others, as cited in the UEFA Team Ranking database for 1991.
In 1992, when the war started and when Mostar was being bombed and under siege, Velež was even then still ranked 81st club on the UEFA's Team Ranking List, still ahead of clubs like Dinamo Moscow (ranked 85), Torino (ranked 99), Espanyol (ranked 107), Aston Villa (ranked 111), Sevilla (ranked 147) and many others, as cited in the UEFA Team Ranking database for 1992.
Summary
(This summary does not include matches played in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, which was not endorsed by UEFA and is not counted in UEFA's official European statistics.)
Pld = Matches played; W = Matches won; D = Matches drawn; L = Matches lost; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against
By season
(Velež score always listed first. Source:)
European campaigns – Finals achievements
Player records
Most appearances in UEFA club competitions: 14 appearances:
Vukašin Petranović
Mili Hadžiabdić
Vladimir Gudelj
Top scorer in UEFA club competitions: 10 goals – Semir Tuce
Players
Current squad
Players with multiple nationalities
Saša Domić
Osman Hadžikić
Elvir Muminović
Asmir Suljić
Out on loan
Club officials
Coaching staff
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Other information
Managerial history
Bernard Hügl (1953–55)
Ratomir Čabrić (1955–59)
Gustav Lechner (1959–60)
Ratomir Čabrić (1960–61)
Haldun Hrvić (1961–64)
Dragoslav Filipović (1964–65)
Domagoj Kapetanović (1965–66)
Mirko Kokotović (1966–67)
Haldun Hrvić (1967–68)
Sulejman Rebac (1968–76)
Muhamed Mujić (1976–77)
Vukašin Višnjevac (1977–80)
Miloš Milutinović (1980–82)
Muhamed Mujić (1982–83)
Dušan Bajević (1983–87)
Enver Marić (1987–90)
Franjo Džidić (1990–92)
Zejnil Selimotić (1994–95)
Zijad Tojaga (1995–96)
Sedin Tanović (1996–98)
Avdo Kalajdžić (1998–00)
Kemal Hafizović (2002–03)
Avdo Kalajdžić (2003)
Husnija Arapović (2003–05)
Kemal Hafizović (2005)
Milomir Šešlija (2005–07)
Anel Karabeg (2007–08)
Emir Tufek (2008)
Abdulah Ibraković (2008–10)
Veselin Đurasović (interim) (2010)
Demir Hotić (2010)
Enes Spahić (interim) (2010)
Milomir Odović (2011)
Mirza Varešanović (2011–12)
Adnan Dizdarević (interim) (2012)
Asmir Džafić (2012)
Ibrahim Rahimić (2012–13)
Nedim Jusufbegović (2013–15)
Dželaludin Muharemović (2015)
Adis Obad (interim) (2015)
Dženan Zaimović (interim) (2015)
Dragi Kanatlarovski (2015)
Dženan Zaimović (interim) (2015)
Zijad Tojaga (2015–16)
Avdo Kalajdžić (2016)
Ibrahim Rahimić (2016–19)
Feđa Dudić (2019–22)
Amar Osim (2022)
Nedim Jusufbegović (2022–2023)
Dean Klafurić (2023–present)
Songs
The official anthem of FK Velež Mostar is Rođeni, Rođeni by Željko Samardžić. The text was written by Milenko Mišo Marić. The music was composed by Kemal Monteno. The first demo recording was done after the Marshall Tito Yugoslav Cup final in 1981 against FK Željezničar Sarajevo. For the first time, the official club anthem was played before the final of the Marshall Tito Yugoslav Cup in 1986 against GNK Dinamo Zagreb. It was also played live at the Bijeli Brijeg Stadium by Željko Samardžić in 1987 before the Uefa cup game against Borussia Dortmund. The official anthem of the club's ultras group Red Army Mostar is Ili grmi il' se zemlja trese by MO Selection Band. Later, a band called Red Army Band recorded seven songs that quickly became popular among Velež fans. Other artists did the same too, so today there are a lot of recorded songs about the red club from Mostar.
February Tournament
In 1965, to commemorate 20 years of the liberation of Mostar by Yugoslav partisans, a football tournament was organized by Velež and the city's government at the Bijeli Brijeg stadium. It was held every year from 1965 and 1992, ending due to the outbreak of the Bosnian War and Velež no longer being able to play on the Bijeli Brijeg stadium. The tournament was revived in 2023 with U-19 youth teams, but the organizers said they hope to return to senior teams as soon as possible.
The tournament featured many notable club and national teams, the latter of which included Poland and the Soviet Union. Velež has won 16 editions of the February Tournament, 15 of which with their senior team. That is more than all other winning teams combined. In addition to this, Velež's own Dušan Bajević holds the record for most appearances, as well as most goals in the tournament.
References
External links
FK Velež Mostar at UEFA.com
FK Velež Mostar at N/FSBiH
UG Mostarski Rođeni
KN Red Army Mostar
Rođeni.com
Association football clubs established in 1922
Football clubs in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Football clubs in Yugoslavia
Sport in Mostar
1922 establishments in Bosnia and Herzegovina |
4548723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20A.%20Armstrong | Frank A. Armstrong | Frank Alton Armstrong Jr. (May 24, 1902 – August 20, 1969) was a lieutenant general of the United States Air Force. As a brigadier general in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II, he was the inspiration for the main character in the novel and subsequent film, Twelve O'Clock High. After the war, he held a variety of senior leadership positions prior to and following the establishment of the USAF as an independent service in 1947. Promoted to major general in 1950, he advanced to lieutenant general in 1956 and retired at that rank in 1961.
Armstrong commanded two B-17 Flying Fortress groups and a wing each of B-17 and B-29 Superfortresses in combat operations against both Germany and Japan. He personally led the first USAAF strategic bombing attack from England in August 1942, and the last strategic raid on Japan three years later. He also led the first attack by the USAAF against a target in Germany.
Early life
Armstrong was born in Hamilton, North Carolina. He played minor league professional baseball from 1925 to 1928, after he graduated from Wake Forest College with a law degree in 1923 and a Bachelor of Science degree in 1925.
Military career
Air Corps
He enlisted as a flying cadet in the Army Air Corps on February 24, 1928, and received his flight training at Brooks Field and Kelly Field, San Antonio, Texas. He received his wings and reserve officer's commission on February 28, 1929, and his commission in the Regular Army on May 2, 1929. His first assignment was to the 2nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field, Virginia, where he married Vernelle Lloyd Hudson on March 15, 1929. His son, Frank Alton Armstrong III, was born March 7, 1930. Armstrong was made a flight instructor at March Field, Riverside, California, in 1930, and at Randolph Field, San Antonio, Texas, in 1931.
In March 1934, he was one of a group of Army pilots placed under the command of Captain Ira Eaker. On October 1, 1934, he was promoted to 1st lieutenant. Armstrong was assigned in December 1934 as a pursuit pilot at Albrook Field, Panama Canal Zone. In 1937, Armstrong earned the Distinguished Flying Cross in peacetime by skillfully landing an amphibian airplane whose engine had exploded. He was promoted to the temporary rank of captain on March 15, 1936, returned to his permanent pay grade on June 16, and was made a permanent captain on May 2, 1939.
In March 1937, Armstrong transferred to the 13th Attack Squadron, Barksdale Field, Louisiana, part of the 3rd Attack Group, flying Northrop A-17 attack planes. He became its commander on May 7, 1939, and continued in command of the squadron on July 1, 1939, when it became the 13th Bombardment Squadron (Light), converting to B-18 Bolo bombers. Armstrong commanded the 13th BS until October 5, 1940. Between September 6, 1939, and October 2, 1940, he temporarily relinquished command to attend the second "short course" at the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field, Alabama.
From November 1940 to February 1941, Armstrong was a combat observer with the Royal Air Force in England, then returned to command the 90th Bombardment Squadron, Savannah AAF, Georgia, promoted to major on March 15 and lieutenant colonel on January 5, 1942. Armstrong was the Assistant Chief of Air Staff, A-3 (Operations) at Army Air Forces headquarters in Washington, D.C., when he was selected on January 24, 1942, to accompany Eaker, now a general, to England with five other officers to establish the VIII Bomber Command, Eighth Air Force, where he became its operations officer (A-3) and was promoted to colonel on March 1, 1942.
Combat group commander
As a "trouble-shooter" for Eaker, on July 31, 1942, Armstrong relieved Colonel Cornelius W. "Connie" Cousland of command of the inadequately-trained 97th Bomb Group, the first group of B-17 Flying Fortress bombers sent to England, and put it through an intensive training period at RAF Polebrook. He then led it in combat on six of its first 10 missions from August 17 to September 2, 1942. Armstrong led the first daylight heavy bomber raid made by the USAAF over Occupied Europe, receiving the Silver Star and an oak leaf cluster to the Distinguished Flying Cross. He was also awarded the British Distinguished Flying Cross for the initial mission, the first U.S. officer to be so honored. Because he had not yet been checked out as a combat pilot in the B-17, Armstrong flew the first mission as the co-pilot of a Fortress piloted by Major Paul W. Tibbets, one of his squadron commanders.
Armstrong returned to the staff of Bomber Command until January, 1943, when Eaker again used him to rebuild another bomb group performing below standards. From January 4 to February 17, 1943, Armstrong commanded the 306th Bomb Group at RAF Thurleigh, England, and led the first mission by the Eighth Air Force to bomb Nazi Germany. His experiences with the 97th and 306th groups became the basis of Sy Bartlett and Beirne Lay Jr.'s novel and film Twelve O'Clock High. While in command of the 306th, Armstrong led the Eighth Air Force on its first mission to attack a target in Germany on January 27, 1943.
Biographers have noted that Armstrong was superstitious about flying. He always entered the B-17 by its rear fuselage door rather than through the nose hatch as most pilots did, and he always carried a pair of his son's baby shoes on all flights, for good luck in combat.
Wing commands
On February 8, 1943, Armstrong was promoted to brigadier general, and then assigned command of the newly formed 101st Provisional Combat Wing on February 17, continuing to fly combat missions over Germany. On June 16, 1943, Armstrong was advanced to command of the 1st Bombardment Wing, replacing daylight precision bombardment theorist Haywood S. Hansell, and was himself replaced at the end of July 1943 after being injured in a fire in his quarters.
During his final combat mission in the European Theater of Operations on April 5, 1943, 104 B-17s and B-24s attacked the Erla Works, used by the Luftwaffe for manufacturing and reconditioning Me-109 fighters, near the Antwerp suburb of Mortsel. The attack caused widespread casualties in the town when the force was subjected to severe air attack during its bombing run and only four bombs hit their intended target. In just eight minutes 936 people were killed, including 209 children under the age of 15 when four schools received direct hits. It was Belgium's worst loss of life in a single incident during the entire war.
Armstrong returned to the United States where he commanded the 46th Bombardment Operational Training Wing (B-17) at Ardmore Army Airfield, Oklahoma (September 10, 1943, to April 6, 1944); and the 17th Bombardment Operational Training Wing (B-29) at Peterson Field, Colorado, and Grand Island Army Airfield, Nebraska (April 7, 1944, to November 7, 1944). When the Manhattan Project was still in its development stage, Armstrong was the leading candidate (along with Colonel Roscoe C. Wilson, the Army Air Force officer providing liaison support to the project) to command the unit designated to drop the atomic bomb. Armstrong's age and his injury in England militated against his selection, however, which went to Tibbets instead.
On November 18, 1944, Armstrong was given command of the 315th Bomb Wing at Peterson Field, Colorado, a B-29 Superfortress wing then in training. Between March 7, 1945, and April 5, 1945, the wing deployed to Northwest Field, Guam on to fly missions against the Home Islands of Japan. On August 15, 1945, Armstrong led the longest and final heavy bombing raid in the war, with the distinction of having led both the first and last USAAF strategic bombing missions of World War II, as well as the first USAAF mission to attack Germany. In November 1945, he flew the first non-stop flight from Japan to Washington, D.C., in a B-29. He received an oak leaf cluster to the Distinguished Flying Cross for each of the above achievements.
USAF service
Armstrong continued his Air Force career following World War II, first becoming chief of staff for operations of the Pacific Air Command on January 18, 1946, and then senior air advisor at the Armed Forces Staff College, Norfolk, Virginia, on September 9, 1946. After creation of the United States Air Force, Armstrong served as deputy commanding general of the Alaskan Air Command at Fort Richardson, Alaska (March 31, 1948), and its commanding general (February 26, 1949, to December 26, 1950). While commander, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Aero Club of Norway, the highest civil award of Norway, for helping develop a non-stop polar air route from Alaska to Norway to New York.
On January 13, 1950, Armstrong was promoted to major general and named base commander of Sampson Air Force Base, New York, in January 1951. On May 13, 1951, he became commanding general of the Sixth Air Division, training the first B-47 Stratojet Wing at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida, and in 1952, commander of the Second Air Force of the Strategic Air Command at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, a post he held for four years. His final posting was in July 1956, again as head of the Alaskan Air Command, and upon his promotion to lieutenant general, as commander of the joint Alaskan Command. He retired July 31, 1961.
Armstrong's son, Major Frank A. Armstrong III, USAF, followed him into the Air Force as a pilot and was killed in action in Laos on October 6, 1967. At the time, he was flying a combat mission in an A-1E Skyraider as a member of the 1st Air Commando Squadron.
Awards and decorations
Source: USAF Historical Study 91: Biographical Data on Air Force General Officers, 1917-1952, Vol. I, "A-K"
Command pilot
Distinguished Service Cross
Headquarters, European Theater of Operations, U.S. Army, General Orders No. 53 (1943)
CITATION:
The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to Brigadier General Frank Alton Armstrong, Jr. (ASN: 0-17459/427A), United States Army Air Forces, for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy while serving as Commander, 97th Bombardment Group (H), TWELFTH Air Force, while personally leading his B-17 Bomber Group in a bombing mission on Antwerp, on 5 April 1943. Approximately 150 enemy fighters attacked the formation, directing their principal and continuous attacks head-on against the lead airplane flown by General Armstrong. The airplane was repeatedly hit by machine gun fire and cannon shells, and badly damaged. Fire broke out in the pilot compartment. The co-pilot, navigator, and other crew members were wounded. The oxygen system was destroyed. With great courage and personal disregard for his own safety General Armstrong relinquished his own emergency oxygen bottle to the co-pilot, divested himself of his parachute, and extinguished the flames. Then, with high resolution and dauntless perseverance he continued to lead his formation forward in the attack, thereby inspiring the entire unit with his personal courage. Upon being informed that his navigator was seriously wounded he relinquished the controls, crawled on his hands and knees, without benefit of oxygen, to his navigator and administered first aid, thereby saving his life. The audacity and courage under fire, and the coolness and skill thus displayed by this officer on this occasion, reflect the highest credit upon him and upon the armed forces of the United States.
Distinguished Service Medal
War Department, General Orders No. 104 (November 15, 1945)
CITATION:
The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Frank Alton Armstrong, Jr. (ASN: 0-17459/427A), United States Army Air Forces, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility as Commander, 315th Bomb Wing at Peterson Field, Colorado from November 1944 to August 945. The singularly distinctive accomplishments of General Armstrong and his dedicated contributions reflect the highest credit upon himself and the United States Army Air Forces.
PUBLIC INFORMASTION DIVISION JULY 13TH 1956
HEADQUARTERS STRATEGIC AIR COMMAND #6-37EP
OFFUTT AIR FORCE BASE NEBRASKA
Hq SAC OMAH NEBR—Major General Frank A Armstrong Jr USAF was awarded an oak leaf cluster to the Distinguished Service Medal Tuesday at Strategic Air Command Headquarters Offutt Air Force Base Nebraska by SAC commander in chief General Curtis E Lemay for outstanding service in a position of exceedingly great responsibility.
The citation accompanying the award said that from May 1951 to July 1956 the superior leadership operational imagination and foresight displayed by General Armstrong as Commander of the 6th Air Division and Second Air Force were vitally significant contributions to the security of the United States Air Force reflecting great credit upon himself his country and the United States Air Force.
Silver Star citation August 1942
For extraordinary achievement in action while leading his group in an attack during daylight August 17th 1942 on the marshalling yard at Rouen-Sotteville France. This was the first daylight heavy bombardment mission against enemy opposition to be flown by the United States Army Air Force in the European Theater of operations. In spite of heavy anti-aircraft fire and fighter plane resistance the bombing of the objective was of the highest order of accuracy. The successful accomplishment of this mission without loss of life or plane reflects the highest degree of credit upon Colonel Armstrong and his military service.
British Distinguished Flying Cross citation July 17th 1943
For service on August 17th 1942 when he led an attack on Rouen France the first daylight raid attack by US forces from the United kingdom which was completed successfully without loss of life or Aircraft.
Oak leaf cluster to Distinguished Flying Cross October 1942
For extraordinary heroism and Superior leadership in action over enemy occupied territory in Continental Europe during the period of August 17 1942 to September 6 1942. As commanding officer of the 97th Bombardment group colonel Armstrong personally led a total of six bombardment missions against the enemy with a loss of but one aircraft from his group. During these missions his group destroyed six enemy planes. Colonel Armstrong by the specific act of personally leading his group in the air on repeated missions during the above period of his own volition by his courage and coolness under fire by his display of superb tactical skill in controlling his formation so that heavy losses were avoided in spite of concentrated attacks by enemy fighters and by his resourcefulness and flying leadership in the face of great danger and overwhelming odds upheld the highest traditions of the armed forces of the United States and was largely responsible for the success of six missions of vital importance
Second Oak leaf cluster to the Distinguished Flying Cross April 1943
For extraordinary achievement. With untiring effort General Armstrong reorganized a Heavy Bombardment group preparing his crews and equipment in record time and pioneered in high altitude daylight precision bombing of targets deep in enemy territory. Displaying great courage skill and superlative leadership he personally led his group on five separate bomb missions against some of the most strongly fortified objectives in Europe with the loss of only one airplane. The courage leadership and devotion to duty displayed by general Armstrong on all his missions have been a lasting inspiration to his men and reflect highest credit upon himself and the armed forces of the United States.
Air Medal January 1943
For extraordinary meritorious achievement while serving as a pilot of a B17 airplane on five Aerial combat missions over enemy occupied Continental Europe 17 August 19 August 20 August 21 August and 24 August 1942. The Courage and skill displayed by colonel Armstrong upon these occasions reflect highest credit upon himself and the armed forces of the United States.
Legacy
His papers (including correspondence, memoirs, reports, flight records, flight log, and speeches) were donated to the East Carolina Manuscript Collection in Joyner Library at East Carolina University.
References
Bibliography
Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth (1993 edition), (pp. 67–69).
Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth War Diary (1990), (pp. 89–95).
External links
USAF official biography
Arlington National Cemetery bio Note that official biography has error in date of death; grave marker with correct date pictured.
1902 births
1969 deaths
Wake Forest University alumni
United States Air Force generals
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)
People from Martin County, North Carolina
Recipients of the Air Medal
Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
Kinston Eagles players
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Baseball players from North Carolina
Military personnel from North Carolina |
4548948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-supported%20collaborative%20learning | Computer-supported collaborative learning | Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is a pedagogical approach wherein learning takes place via social interaction using a computer or through the Internet. This kind of learning is characterized by the sharing and construction of knowledge among participants using technology as their primary means of communication or as a common resource. CSCL can be implemented in online and classroom learning environments and can take place synchronously or asynchronously.
The study of computer-supported collaborative learning draws on a number of academic disciplines, including instructional technology, educational psychology, sociology, cognitive psychology, and social psychology. It is related to collaborative learning and computer supported cooperative work (CSCW).
History
Interactive computing technology was primarily conceived by academics, but the use of technology in education has historically been defined by contemporary research trends. The earliest instances of software in instruction drilled students using the behaviorist method that was popular throughout the mid-twentieth century. In the 1970s as cognitivism gained traction with educators, designers began to envision learning technology that employed artificial intelligence models that could adapt to individual learners. Computer-supported collaborative learning emerged as a strategy rich with research implications for the growing philosophies of constructivism and social cognitivism.
Though studies in collaborative learning and technology took place throughout the 1980s and 90s, the earliest public workshop directly addressing CSCL was "Joint Problem Solving and Microcomputers" which took place in San Diego in 1983. Six years later in 1989, the term "computer-supported collaborative learning" was used in a NATO-sponsored workshop in Maratea, Italy. A biannual CSCL conference series began in 1995. At the 2002 and 2003 CSCL conferences, the International Society of the Learning Sciences (ISLS) was established to run the CSCL and ICLS conference series and the International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (ijCSCL) and JLS journals.
The ijCSCL was established by the CSCL research community and ISLS. It began quarterly publication by Springer in 2006. It is peer reviewed and published both online and in print. Since 2009, it has been rated by ISI as being in the top 10% of educational research journals based on its impact factor.
The rapid development of social media technologies and the increasing need of individuals to understand and use those technologies has brought researchers from many disciplines to the field of CSCL. CSCL is used today in traditional and online schools and knowledge-building communities such as Wikipedia.
Theories
The field of CSCL draws heavily from a number of learning theories that emphasize that knowledge is the result of learners interacting with each other, sharing knowledge, and building knowledge as a group. Since the field focuses on collaborative activity and collaborative learning, it inherently takes much from constructivist and social cognitivist learning theories.
Precursor theories
The roots of collaborative epistemology as related to CSCL can be found in Vygotsky's social learning theory. Of particular importance to CSCL is the theory's notion of internalization, or the idea that knowledge is developed by one's interaction with one's surrounding culture and society. The second key element is what Vygotsky called the Zone of proximal development. This refers to a range of tasks that can be too difficult for a learner to master by themselves but is made possible with the assistance of a more skilled individual or teacher. These ideas feed into a notion central to CSCL: knowledge building is achieved through interaction with others.
Cooperative learning, though different in some ways from collaborative learning, also contributes to the success of teams in CSCL environments. The distinction can be stated as: cooperative learning focuses on the effects of group interaction on individual learning whereas collaborative learning is more concerned with the cognitive processes at the group unit of analysis such as shared meaning making and the joint problem space. The five elements for effective cooperative groups identified by the work of Johnson and Johnson are positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing. Because of the inherent relationship between cooperation and collaboration, understanding what encourages successful cooperation is essential to CSCL research.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Marlene Scardamalia and Carl Bereiter wrote seminal articles leading to the development of key CSCL concepts: knowledge-building communities and knowledge-building discourse, intentional learning, and expert processes. Their work led to an early collaboration-enabling technology known as the Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environment (CSILE). Characteristically for CSCL, their theories were integrated with the design, deployment, and study of the CSCL technology. CSILE later became Knowledge Forum, which is the most widely used CSCL technology worldwide to date.
Other learning theories that provide a foundation for CSCL include distributed cognition, problem-based learning, group cognition, cognitive apprenticeship, and situated learning. Each of these learning theories focuses on the social aspect of learning and knowledge building, and recognizes that learning and knowledge building involve inter-personal activities including conversation, argument, and negotiation.
Collaboration theory and group cognition
Only in the last 15 to 20 years have researchers begun to explore the extent to which computer technology could enhance the collaborative learning process. While researchers, in general, have relied on learning theories developed without consideration of computer-support, some have suggested that the field needs to have a theory tailored and refined for the unique challenges that confront those trying to understand the complex interplay of technology and collaborative learning.
Collaboration theory, suggested as a system of analysis for CSCL by Gerry Stahl in 2002–2006, postulates that knowledge is constructed in social interactions such as discourse. The theory suggests that learning is not a matter of accepting fixed facts, but is the dynamic, on-going, and evolving result of complex interactions primarily taking place within communities of people. It also emphasizes that collaborative learning is a process of constructing meaning and that meaning creation most often takes place and can be observed at the group unit of analysis. The goal of collaboration theory is to develop an understanding of how meaning is collaboratively constructed, preserved, and re-learned through the media of language and artifacts in group interaction. There are four crucial themes in collaboration theory: collaborative knowledge building (which is seen as a more concrete term than "learning"); group and personal perspectives intertwining to create group understanding; mediation by artifacts (or the use of resources which learners can share or imprint meaning on); and interaction analysis using captured examples that can be analyzed as proof that the knowledge building occurred.
Collaboration theory proposes that technology in support of CSCL should provide new types of media that foster the building of collaborative knowing; facilitate the comparison of knowledge built by different types and sizes of groups; and help collaborative groups with the act of negotiating the knowledge they are building. Further, these technologies and designs should strive to remove the teacher as the bottleneck in the communication process to the facilitator of student collaboration. In other words, the teacher should not have to act as the conduit for communication between students or as the avenue by which information is dispensed, but should structure the problem-solving tasks. Finally, collaboration theory-influenced technologies will strive to increase the quantity and quality of learning moments via computer-simulated situations.
Stahl extended his proposals about collaboration theory during the next decade with his research on group cognition . In his book on "Group Cognition", he provided a number of case studies of prototypes of collaboration technology, as well as a sample in-depth interaction analysis and several essays on theoretical issues related to re-conceptualizing cognition at the small-group unit of analysis. He then launched the Virtual Math Teams project at the Math Forum, which conducted more than 10 years of studies of students exploring mathematical topics collaboratively online. "Studying VMT" documented many issues of design, analysis and theory related to this project. The VMT later focused on supporting dynamic geometry by integrating a multi-user version of GeoGebra. All aspects of this phase of the VMT project were described in "Translating Euclid." Then, "Constructing Dynamic Triangles Together" provided a detailed analysis of how a group of four girls learned about dynamic geometry by enacting a series of group practices during an eight-session longitudinal case study. Finally, "Theoretical Investigations: Philosophical Foundations of Group Cognition" collected important articles on the theory of collaborative learning from the CSCL journal and from Stahl's publications. The VMT project generated and analyzed data at the small-group unit of analysis, to substantiate and refine the theory of group cognition and to offer a model of design-based CSCL research.
Strategies
Currently, CSCL is used in instructional plans in classrooms both traditional and online from primary school to post-graduate institutions. Like any other instructional activity, it has its own prescribed practices and strategies which educators are encouraged to employ in order to use it effectively. Because its use is so widespread, there are innumerable scenarios in the use of CSCL, but there are several common strategies that provide a foundation for group cognition.
One of the most common approaches to CSCL is collaborative writing. Though the final product can be anything from a research paper, a Wikipedia entry, or a short story, the process of planning and writing together encourages students to express their ideas and develop a group understanding of the subject matter. Tools like blogs, interactive whiteboards, and custom spaces that combine free writing with communication tools can be used to share work, form ideas, and write synchronously.
Technology-mediated discourse refers to debates, discussions, and other social learning techniques involving the examination of a theme using technology. For example, wikis are a way to encourage discussion among learners, but other common tools include mind maps, survey systems, and simple message boards. Like collaborative writing, technology-mediated discourse allows participants that may be separated by time and distance to engage in conversations and build knowledge together.
Group exploration refers to the shared discovery of a place, activity, environment or topic among two or more people. Students do their exploring in an online environment, use technology to better understand a physical area, or reflect on their experiences together through the Internet. Virtual worlds like Second Life and Whyville as well as synchronous communication tools like Skype may be used for this kind of learning. Educators may use Orchestration Graphs to define activities and roles that students must adopt during learning, and analyzing afterwards the learning process.
Problem-based learning is a popular instructional activity that lends itself well to CSCL because of the social implications of problem solving. Complex problems call for rich group interplay that encourages collaboration and creates movement toward a clear goal.
Project-based learning is similar to problem-based learning in that it creates impetus to establish team roles and set goals. The need for collaboration is also essential for any project and encourages team members to build experience and knowledge together. Although there are many advantages to using software that has been specifically developed to support collaborative learning or project-based learning in a particular domain, any file sharing or communication tools can be used to facilitate CSCL in problem- or project-based environments.
When Web 2.0 applications (wikies, blogs, RSS feed, collaborative writing, video sharing, social networks, etc.) are used for computer-supported collaborative learning specific strategies should be used for their implementation, especially regarding (1) adoption by teachers and students; (2) usability and quality in use issues; (3) technology maintenance; (4) pedagogy and instructional design; (5) social interaction between students; (6) privacy issues; and (7) information/system security.
Teacher roles
Though the focus in CSCL is on individuals collaborating with their peers, teachers still have a vital role in facilitating learning. Most obviously, the instructor must introduce the CSCL activity in a thoughtful way that contributes to an overarching design plan for the course. The design should clearly define the learning outcomes and assessments for the activity. In order to assure that learners are aware of these objectives and that they are eventually met, proper administration of both resources and expectations is necessary to avoid learner overload. Once the activity has begun, the teacher is charged with kick-starting and monitoring discussion to facilitate learning. He or she must also be able to mitigate technical issues for the class. Lastly, the instructor must engage in assessment, in whatever form the design calls for, in order to ensure objectives have been met for all students.
Without the proper structure, any CSCL strategy can lose its effectiveness. It is the responsibility of the teacher to make students aware of what their goals are, how they should be interacting, potential technological concerns, and the time-frame for the exercise. This framework should enhance the experience for learners by supporting collaboration and creating opportunities for the construction of knowledge. Another important consideration of educators who implement online learning environments is affordance. Students who are already comfortable with online communication often choose to interact casually. Mediators should pay special attention to make students aware of their expectations for formality online. While students sometime have frames of reference for online communication, they often do not have all of the skills necessary to solve problems by themselves. Ideally, teachers provide what is called "scaffolding", a platform of knowledge that they can build on. A unique benefit of CSCL is that, given proper teacher facilitation, students can use technology to build learning foundations with their peers. This allows instructors to gauge the difficulty of the tasks presented and make informed decisions about the extent of the scaffolding needed.
Effects
According to Salomon (1995), the possibility of intellectual partnerships with both peers and advanced information technology has changed the criteria for what is counted to be the effects of technology. Instead of only concentrating on the amount and quality of learning outcomes, we need to distinguish between two kinds of effects: that is, "effects with a tool and/or collaborating peers, and effects of these." He used the term called "effects with" which is to describe the changes that take place while one is engaged in intellectual partnership with peers or with a computer tool. For example, the changed quality of problem solving in a team. And he means the word "effects of" more lasting changes that take place when computer-enhanced collaboration teaches students to ask more exact and explicit questions even when not using that system.
Applications
It has a number of implications for instructional designers, developers, and teachers.
First, it revealed what technological features or functions were particularly important and useful to students in the context of writing, and how a CSCL system could be adapted for use for different subject areas, which have specific implications for instructional designers or developers to consider when designing CSCL tools.
Second, this study also suggested the important role of a teacher in designing the scaffolds, scaffolding the collaborative learning process, and making CSCL a success. Third, it is important that a meaningful, real-world task is designed for CSCL in order to engage students in authentic learning activities of knowledge construction.
Third, cooperative work in the classroom, using as a tool based technology devices "one to one " where the teacher has a program of classroom management, allows not only the enhancement of teamwork where each member takes responsibilities involving the group, but also a personalized and individualized instruction, adapting to the rhythms of the students, and allowing to achieve the targets set in which has been proposed for them individualized Work Plan.
Criticism and concerns
Though CSCL holds promise for enhancing education, it is not without barriers or challenges to successful implementation. Obviously, students or participants need sufficient access to computer technology. Though access to computers has improved in the last 15 to 20 years, teacher attitudes about technology and sufficient access to Internet-connected computers continue to be barriers to more widespread usage of CSCL pedagogy.
Furthermore, instructors find that the time needed to monitor student discourse and review, comment on, and grade student products can be more demanding than what is necessary for traditional face-to-face classrooms. The teacher or professor also has an instructional decision to make regarding the complexity of the problem presented. To warrant collaborative work, the problem must be of sufficient complexity, otherwise teamwork is unnecessary. Also, there is risk in assuming that students instinctively know how to work collaboratively. Though the task may be collaborative by nature, students may still need training on how to work in a truly cooperative process.
Others have noted a concern with the concept of scripting as it pertains to CSCL. There is an issue with possibly over-scripting the CSCL experience and in so doing, creating "fake collaboration". Such over-scripted collaboration may fail to trigger the social, cognitive, and emotional mechanisms that are necessary to true collaborative learning.
There is also the concern that the mere availability of the technology tools can create problems. Instructors may be tempted to apply technology to a learning activity that can very adequately be handled without the intervention or support of computers. In the process of students and teachers learning how to use the "user-friendly" technology, they never get to the act of collaboration. As a result, computers become an obstacle to collaboration rather than a supporter of it.
For second language acquisition
History
The advent of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) as an instructional strategy for second language acquisition can be traced back to the 1990s. During that time, the internet was growing rapidly, which was one of the key factors that facilitated the process. At the time, the first wikis (such as WikiWikiWeb) were still undergoing early development, but the use of other tools such as electronic discussion groups allowed for equal participation amongst peers, particularly benefiting those who would normally not participate otherwise during face-to-face interactions.
During the establishment of wikis in the 2000s, global research began to emerge regarding their effectiveness in promoting second language acquisition. Some of this research focused on more specific areas such as systemic-functional linguistics, humanistic education, experiental learning, and psycholinguistics. For example, in 2009 Yu-Ching Chen performed a study to determine the overall effectiveness of wikis in an English as a second language class in Taiwan. Another example is a 2009 study by Greg Kessler in which pre-service, non-native English speaker teachers in a Mexican university were given the task to collaborate on a wiki, which served as the final product for one of their courses. In this study, emphasis was placed on the level of grammatical accuracy achieved by the students throughout the course of the task.
Due to the continual development of technology, other educational tools aside from wikis are being implemented and studied to determine their potential in scaffolding second language acquisition. According to Mark Warschauer (2010), among these are blogs, automated writing evaluation systems, and open-source netbooks. Ex situ of the classroom, the development of other recent online tools such as Livemocha (2007) have facilitated language acquisition via member-to-member interactions, demonstrating firsthand the impact the advancement of technology has made towards meeting the varying needs of language learners.
Effectiveness and perception
Studies in the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) have shown that computers provide material and valuable feedback for language learners and that computers can be a positive tool for both individual and collaborative language learning. CALL programs offer the potential for interactions between the language learners and the computer. Additionally, students' autonomous language learning and self-assessment can be made widely available through the web. In CSCL, the computer is not only seen as a potential language tutor by providing assessment for students' responses, but also as a tool to give language learners the opportunity to learn from the computer and also via collaboration with other language learners. Juan focuses on new models and systems that perform efficient evaluation of student activity in online-based education. Their findings indicate that CSCL environments organized by teachers are useful for students to develop their language skills. Additionally, CSCL increases students' confidence and encourages them to maintain active learning, reducing the passive reliance on teachers' feedback. Using CSCL as a tool in the second language learning classroom has also shown to reduce learner anxiety.
Various case studies and projects had been conducted in order to measure the effectiveness and perception of CSCL in a language learning classroom. After a collaborative internet-based project, language learners indicated that their confidence in using the language had increased and that they felt more motivated to learn and use the target language. After analyzing student questionnaires, discussion board entries, final project reports, and student journals, Dooly suggests that during computer supported collaborative language learning, students have an increased awareness of different aspects of the target language and pay increased attention to their own language learning process. Since the participants of her project were language teacher trainees, she adds that they felt prepared and willing to incorporate online interaction in their own teaching in the future.
Cultural considerations
Culture may be thought of as composed of "beliefs, norms, assumptions, knowledge, values, or sets of practice that are shared and form a system". Learning communities focused in whole or part on second language acquisition may often be distinctly multicultural in composition, and as the cultural background of individual learners affects their collaborative norms and practices, this can significantly impact their ability to learn in a CSCL environment.
CSCL environments are generally valued for the potential to promote collaboration in cross-cultural learning communities. Based on social constructivist views of learning, many CSCL environments fundamentally emphasize learning as the co-construction of knowledge through the computer-mediated interaction of multivoiced community members. Computer-mediation of the learning process has been found to afford consideration of alternative viewpoints in multicultural/multilingual learning communities. When compared to traditional face-to-face environments, computer-mediated learning environments have been shown to result in more equal levels of participation for ESL students in courses with native English speakers. Language barriers for non-native speakers tend to detract from equal participation in general, and this can be alleviated to some extent through the use of technologies which support asynchronous modes of written communication.
Online learning environments however tend to reflect the cultural, epistemological, and pedagogical goals and assumptions of their designers. In computer-supported collaborative learning environments, there is evidence that cultural background may impact learner motivation, attitude towards learning and e-learning, learning preference (style), computer usage, learning behavior and strategies, academic achievement, communication, participation, knowledge transfer, sharing and collaborative learning. Studies variously comparing Asian, American and Danish and Finnish learners have suggested that learners from different cultures exhibit different interaction patterns with their peers and teachers in online. A number of studies have shown that difference in Eastern and Western educational cultures, for instance, which are found in traditional environments are also present in online environments. Zhang has described Eastern education as more group-based, teacher-dominated, centrally organized, and examination-oriented than Western approaches. Students who have learned to learn in an Eastern context emphasizing teacher authority and standardized examinations may perform differently in a CSCL environment characterized by peer critique and co-construction of educational artifacts as the primary mode of assessment.
Design implications
A "multiple cultural model" of instructional design emphasizes variability and flexibility in the process of designing for multicultural inclusiveness, focusing on the development of learning environments reflecting the multicultural realities of society, include multiple ways of teaching and learning, and promote equity of outcomes. McLoughlin, C. & Oliver propose a social, constructivist approach to the design of culturally-sensitive CSCL environments which emphasizes flexibility with regard to specific learning tasks, tools, roles, responsibilities, communication strategies, social interactions, learning goals and modes of assessment [B5]. Constructivist instructional design approaches such as R2D2 which emphasize reflexive, recursive, participatory design of learning experiences may be employed in developing CSCL which authentically engages learners from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
Dyslexia in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
History
Dyslexia primarily involves difficulties with reading, spelling and sentence structure, transposition, memory, organization and time management, and lack of confidence. Dyslexia has in the past two decades become increasingly present in research and legislation. The United Kingdom passed the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 in which institutions were required to "reasonably adjust" instruction for students with disabilities, particularly physical and sensory disabilities; in 2002, the Special Education Needs and Disabilities Act adjusted the legislation to include learning disabilities.
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) established that all students with disabilities must be included in all state and districtwide assessments of student progress. The ADA also guarantees equal accommodation for disabled people in, "employment, public accommodations, state and local government services, transportation, and telecommunications."
In recent years, tools such as WebHelpDyslexia and other capabilities of web applications have increased the availability of tools to provide coping skills for students with dyslexia.
Research on Dyslexia in E-Learning Environments
In 2006, Woodfine argued that dyslexia can impact the ability of a student to participate in synchronous e-learning environments, especially if activities being completed are text-based. During experimental qualitative research, Woodfine found that data suggested "learners with dyslexia might suffer from embarrassment, shame and even guilt about their ability to interact with other learners when in a synchronous environment."
In a study by Fichten et al., it was found that assistive technology can be beneficial in aiding students with the progression of their reading and writing skills. Tools such as spell check or text-to-speech can be helpful to learners with dyslexia by allowing them to focus more on self-expression and less on errors.
Design implications
Alsobhi, et al., examined assistive technologies for dyslexic students and concluded that the most fundamental considerations to be had when serving students of this population are: "the learning styles that people with dyslexia exhibit, and how assistive technology can be adapted to align with these learning behaviors."
The Dyslexia Adaptive E-Learning (DAEL) is a suggested a framework that proposes four dimensions that cover 26 attributes. The proposed framework asks educators to make decisions based on perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and system adaptability:
perceived ease of use: This refers to the degree to which a student believes that using the technology is free of effort. One technique to increase the perceived ease of use includes utilizing technology in which self-descriptiveness is present. This, coupled with clarity and logical flow of functions, makes the learning process easier and the interaction between the user and machine more convenient.
perceived usefulness: Defined as how a student's performance, or learning performance, can be enhanced by a system. Studies show the impact of perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness and their role in a users' decision on whether to use a system again. Scaffolding as well as accommodations to the student's learning style will help overcome limitations of system operations, as will feedback geared toward system improvements.
system adaptability: Refers to the user experiences and the way in which students are given control over a system to increase confidence and comfort in their learning. In addition to implications for the system, the flow of content should be logical and the tone (attitude) of content should be encouraging.
508 Compliance & the implications for Educators
Educators that choose to use the CSCL environment must be aware of 508 compliance and its legal implications. "In the U.S., the criteria for designing Web pages accessibly are provided by two major sets: the W3C's Web Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and the design standards issued under U.S. federal law, Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act, as amended in 1998.1 Features of accessible design include, among others, the provision of ALT tags for nontextual elements, such as images, animations and image map hot spots; meaningful link text; logical and persistent page organization, and the inclusion of skip navigation links."
Unfortunately, not all educators are exposed to these guidelines, especially if their collegiate programs do not provide exposure to the use of computers, aspects of web design or technology in education. In some cases, it may be advantageous for the educator to collaborate with an instructional technologist or web designer to ensure 508 guidelines are addressed in the desired learning environment for the CSCL.
Web 3.0 and Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)
The World Wide Web began as information sharing on static webpages accessible on a computer through the use of a web browser. As more interactive capabilities were added, it evolved into Web 2.0, which allowed for user-generated content and participation (e.g. social networking). This opened up many new possibilities for computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) using the Internet. The internet is now entering a new phase, Web 3.0 or the Semantic Web, which is characterized by the greater interconnectivity of machine-readable data from many different sources. New intelligent technology applications will be able to manage, organize and create meaning from this data, which will have a significant impact on CSCL.
The interconnectivity of machine-readable data with semantic tags means that searches will be greatly enhanced. Search results will be more relevant, recommendations of resources will be made based on search terms and results will include multimedia content.
New Web 3.0 capabilities for learners include enhanced tools for managing learning, allowing them to self-regulate and co-regulate learning without the assistance of an instructor. Through the use of Web 3.0, groups and communities can be formed according to specific criteria without human input. These communities and groups can provide support to new learners and give experts an opportunity to share their knowledge.
Teachers can benefit from these same capabilities to manage their teaching. In addition, the software for Web 3.0 collaboration will include using data from group communications, which then generates how much each individual has collaborated based on how often they communicate and how long their messages are.
Examples of new Web 3.0 tools to enhance CSCL
Virtual Assistants and Intelligent Agents
Making data machine-readable is leading to the development of virtual assistants and intelligent agents. These are tools which can access data on a user's behalf and will be able to assist learners and collaborators in several ways. They can provide personalized and customized search results by accessing data on a variety of platforms, recommend resources based on user information and preferences, manage administrative tasks, communicate with other agents and databases, and help organize information and interactions with collaborators.
Virtual Learning Communities
Virtual learning communities are cyberspaces that allow for individual and collaborative learning to take place. While they exist today, with Web 3.0 they will gain enhanced features enabling more collaborative learning to take place. Some describe them as evolving out of existing learning management systems (LMSs), adding intelligent agents and virtual assistants that can enhance content searches and deal with administrative and communication tasks, or enabling different LMSs around the world to communicate with each other, creating an even larger community to share resources and locate potential collaborators. Virtual learning communities will also enable different types of peer-to-peer interaction and resource sharing to support co-construction of knowledge. These communities may also include some aspects of 3D gaming and VR.
Non-immersive and Immersive 3D Virtual Environments
Through the use of 3D gaming, users can simulate lives of others while providing their knowledge throughout the 3D environment as an avatar. These 3D environments also foster simulation and scenario building for places where users would otherwise not have access. The 3D environments facilitate online knowledge building communities. Non-immersive environments are environments in which not all five senses are used but still allows users to interact in virtual worlds. Virtual Reality (VR) headsets are sometimes used to give users a full immersion experience, into these 3D virtual worlds. This allows users to interact with each other in real time and simulate different learning situations with other users. These learning experiences and environments vary between fields and learning goals. Certain virtual reality headsets allow users to communicate with each other while being in different physical locations.
Multimodal literacy development in CSCL
The concept of Multimodal literacy
Multimodal literacy is the way processes of literacy - reading, writing, talking, listening and viewing - are occurring within and around new communication media. (Kress & Jewitt, 2003; Pahl & Rowsell, 2005; Walsh, 2008) It refers to meaning-making that occurs through the reading, viewing, understanding, responding to and producing and interacting with multimedia and digital texts. (Walsh, 2010)
Literature review on multi-modal literacy in CSCL
* Online forum
Online forums offer numerous advantages for both teacher and students for collaborative learning online. Discussion forums provide a wider platform to exchange information and ideas, to develop writing and reading skills, critical thinking skills. (Jill Margerison, 2013) A collaborative online forum can also help students learn about the unique challenges of online communication, especially the need for clarity and the dangers of sarcasm. (Susan Martens-Baker, 2009) For the teacher, they offer a flexible platform from which to educate in a participatory culture, where teachers and students can interact with each other and create new knowledge. (Jill Margerison, 2013)
* Video games
Video games were designed as a learning tool engaged learners who advance through experimentation, critical thinking and practice in the virtual world. (Abrams, 2009) Video games in CSCL can promote positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing abilities in the ELA classroom. Through interactions in the virtual world, learners have the opportunities to establish their presence, identity and create meanings for their lives.
* Multimodal composition in digital storytelling: podcast, video/ audio crafts
Digital storytelling refers to integrating a variety of means, such as images, audio, video, graphics and diagram to personal narratives and crafts. Four skill competencies: reading, writing, speaking, and listening would be enhanced by producing digital products. (Brenner, 2014) Students have a greater sense of autonomy, agency through the digital storytelling in CSCL.
The implication for classroom teaching
* Online-forum
Online forums provide opportunities for young people to engage in the self-exposition as they practice digital literacies and hone the skill of movement across multiple literacies, languages and subject positions. Meanwhile, identity is a constellation of the multiple communities. It is also important to emphasize the potentially harmful cultural discourses that occur within young people's consumption. (Kim, 2015)
* Videogame
Through capitalizing on students' gaming experiences by recognizing how they apply to the subject at hand, teachers can highlight the benefits of virtual learning environments and draw upon students' gaming experiences to understand their application of virtual learning across curricula. Educators need to choose the appropriate game for the particular subject to endorse their instruction and promote collaboration among students.
Multimodal composition: podcast, audio, video crafts in digital storytelling
Students who engage in collaborative learning for creating digital production show the characteristics of leadership. Moreover, students would gain the experience of collaboration and expand their skill of the multimodal literacy. In addition, digital composition provides a meaningful tool for teachers to assess. (Brenner, 2014)
Applications for ELLs
Multimodal literacy can facilitate English learners' literacy learning. It has provided opportunities for English learners to expand the interpretation of texts. (Ajayi, 2009) Specifically, English language learners can increase their language ability through computer-collaborative learning.
The multimodality platforms provide students, especially ELLs with an anxiety-free zone to collaborate with their peers in a virtual world in order to make meanings together. Technology self-efficacy increases ELLs' level of independence and reduces their level of anxiety. (Mellati, Zangoei & Khademi, 2015) ELLs will have more motivation and self-confident while participating in online group projects to make contributions and share knowledge with their peers. As a result of collaborative learning, ELLs would expand their vocabulary, gain advanced and more academic grammars.
CSCL in Post-Secondary Education
Overview of CSCL in Post-Secondary Education
Research on CSCL in post-secondary education settings
The applications of CSCL in post-secondary education demonstrate positive impacts on students' learning such as promoting learner interaction, motivation and understanding. As collaborative learning is grounded in social constructivism, the interaction and collaboration during learning is valued.
Developing Professional Skills
There's research findings that shows online students had higher scores than face-to-face students in professional competence acquisition test, showing the effectiveness of CSCL in promoting the development of professional skills
Knowledge Building
Knowledge co-construction among geographically dispersed students in an online postgraduate program was explained in a study as students relied heavily on each other for their on-going participation in the online discussions and joint refinement of ideas introduced.
Design Principles & Instructional Strategies for CSCL in Post-Secondary Education
The design principles for using CSCL can be considered from different perspectives. For technical use, instructors need to provide tutorials and online training modules to students. For collaboration, students need time to plan and coordinate group work as well as instructors' support and guidance on the discussions. Also, group size and composition should be taken into consideration for better quality of interaction. More instructional strategies are presented below.
Project-Based Settings Using Wikis
Wikis is a tool for learners to co-construct knowledge online with the access to create and edit contents. There are three phases of using wikis for collaborative writing:
Phase 1. Crisis of Authority
Users experience challenges due to unfamiliarity with the use of wiki and the unknown of other teammates' boundaries of being commented or revised on their writings.
Phase 2. Crisis of Relationship
Collaborative learning emerges and group communication is improved.
Phase 3. Resolution of Crisis
More frequent communication occurs and increased co-writing among team members.
To better design wiki-based project, the design principles design include:
1. Provide learners with a practice article to edit at the beginning of a course for getting familiar with using wikis
2. Informs learners of different communication tools to work collaboratively.
3. Engage learners with repeated wiki article assignments.
4. Provide timely feedback on students' discussion, participation and interaction.
Online Learning Management Systems
The characteristic of social interaction in CSCL can be demonstrated on the online learning community where learners can communicate with each other. One of the medium facilitating the online community to work is online learning management system that provides all people including learners, professors, and administrative staff to communicate.
When using an online learning management system for collaborative learning, the instructor should provide technical training by presenting video tutorials, online training modules or online workshops
Mobile Computer Supported Collaborative Learning
Mobile CSCL (mCSCL) is beneficial to students' learning achievements, attitude and interactions. The suggested design principles from CSCL include:
1. An idea group size is around 3 to 4 people.
2. A duration between 1 and 4 weeks demonstrate better effects. The criticisms version indicate in the case of short term course the interactions networks not consolidate.
Professional Teaching Community
Professional teacher communities are positively related to student learning, teacher learning, teacher practice and school culture. Teacher collaboration is a significant element of these communities. Reflection‐oriented tasks (such as reflection on teaching performance in individual writing, peer feedback, and collective writing) stimulated participation, and in combination with task structure also interaction in these communities. Furthermore, structured tasks(such as crossword puzzles, the path to come to a solution is unambiguous and answers can be immediately checked) which required critical reflection on personal experiences and perspectives triggered task‐related communication and a deep level of information exchange.
Distance Learning
The European Union Comenius fund sponsored FISTE project which is concerned with the educational use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), specifically with the development and dissemination of a new pedagogical strategy for distance learning through in-service teacher education in schools across Europe. This project uses the online Virtual Learning Environment platform BSCW as a Computer Supportive Communication Learning tool to facilitate the way the participants work together. This work has involved schools and teacher training providers, building culturally different work in in-service teacher education in the participating countries. The value of using CSCL supported technology for in-service teacher education in Europe lies in the concept of hinterland. Cross-national courses like the FISTE would be difficult to run without this technological approach.
See also
Collaborative information seeking
Educational technology
Intercultural communicative competence in computer-supported collaborative learning
Mobile Computer Supported Collaborative Learning
Online community of practice
Virtual Collaborative Learning
References
Educational technology |
4548966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPMG%20tax%20shelter%20fraud | KPMG tax shelter fraud | The KPMG tax shelter fraud scandal involves illegal U.S. tax shelters by KPMG that were exposed beginning in 2003. In early 2005, the United States member firm of KPMG International, KPMG LLP, was accused by the United States Department of Justice of fraud in marketing abusive tax shelters.
Deferred prosecution agreement
Under a deferred prosecution agreement, KPMG LLP admitted criminal wrongdoing in creating fraudulent tax shelters to help wealthy clients dodge $2.5 billion in taxes and agreed to pay $456 million in penalties. KPMG LLP will not face criminal prosecution as long as it complies with the terms of its agreement with the government. On January 3, 2007, the criminal conspiracy charges against KPMG were dropped. However, Federal Attorney Michael J. Garcia stated that the charges could be reinstated if KPMG does not continue to submit to continued monitorship through September 2008.
On 29 August 2005, nine individuals, including six former KPMG partners and the former deputy chairman of the firm, were criminally indicted in relation to the multibillion-dollar criminal tax fraud conspiracy. The nine individuals named in the indictment were:
Jeffrey Stein, former Deputy Chairman of KPMG, former Vice Chairman of Tax Services, and former KPMG tax partner, a lawyer with a Master's in tax law.
John Lanning, former Vice Chairman of Tax Services, and former KPMG tax partner, a CPA (Certified Public Accountant).
Richard Smith, former Vice Chairman of KPMG in charge of Tax, a former leader of KPMG's Washington National Tax, and former KPMG tax partner, a lawyer.
Philip Wiesner, former Partner-In-Charge of KPMG's Washington National Tax and former KPMG tax partner, a lawyer with a Master's in tax law and a CPA.
John Larson, a lawyer, CPA and former KPMG Senior Tax Manager who left KPMG to form a series of entities with defendant Robert Pfaff, which entities participated in certain tax shelter transactions as the purported investment advisor.
Robert Pfaff, a lawyer, CPA and former KPMG tax partner, who left KPMG to form a series of entities with defendant John Larson.
Raymond J. Ruble, also known as R.J. Ruble, a lawyer and former tax partner in the New York, New York, office of Sidley Austin, a prominent national law firm.
Mark Watson, former Partner-in-Charge of the Personal Financial Planning division in KPMG'S Washington National Tax, and former KPMG tax partner, a CPA.
On 17 October 2005, another ten individuals were indicted on criminal conspiracy and tax evasion charges:
The four tax shelters at issue were known as BLIPS, or bond linked issue premium structure; Flips, or foreign leveraged investment program; OPIS, or offshore portfolio investment strategy and a variant of Flips; and SOS, or short option strategies.
Chronology
In August 2005, former official of the German bank Bayerische Hypo-Und Vereinsbank AG (HVB) Domenick DeGiorgio, who worked with KPMG to sell the shelters, pleaded guilty to tax evasion and fraud charges. On 15 February 2006, HVB admitted to criminal wrongdoing for its participation in the KPMG tax shelter fraud. The prosecution against the company was deferred by agreement with the U.S. Attorney. Under its deferred prosecution agreement, the company will pay $29.6 million in fines, restitution and penalties.
On 10 March 2006, U.S. District Judge Lewis A. Kaplan released former KPMG accounting executive David Greenberg on $25 million bail. Kaplan's ruling reversed his previous denial of bail to Greenberg. Judge Kaplan ordered Greenberg to live in Manhattan under electronic monitoring until his trial for tax fraud begins, and warned his family that they would be financially ruined if Greenberg attempted to flee the country. Kaplan also said that Greenberg's finances were in such disarray that it was impossible to figure out where his assets were and how much he was worth. Called a flight risk by federal prosecutors, Greenberg was the only defendant to be arrested by authorities when the indictments were handed down in October 2005.
On 28 March 2006, David Rivkin pleaded guilty to charges of conspiracy and tax evasion in U.S. District Court in Manhattan. "I knew that the losses should not have been claimed on the tax forms," Rivkin told Judge Kaplan. Rivkin admitted that he conspired with others between January 1999 and May 2004 to prepare and execute false documents so that clients could file false tax returns. He also admitted that he took steps to conceal the existence of fraudulent tax shelters from the Internal Revenue Service and avoided registering the shelters with the IRS by claiming attorney-client privileges. Rivkin signed an agreement to cooperate with prosecutors, who could then ask the judge to consider giving Rivkin a more lenient sentence rather than the years he might face in prison. Sentencing was set for February 9, 2007.
On 27 June 2006, Judge Kaplan ruled that by threatening KPMG with indictment unless the firm reneged on its policy of paying the defense costs of partners who were indicted for work performed in the course of the firm's tax shelter business, the Department of Justice violated the constitutional rights of employees. In his opinion, Judge Kaplan agreed with the defendants' contention that KPMG was improperly pressured not to pay their legal expenses, "because the government held the proverbial gun to its head."
In the meantime, related rulings were handed down in a civil case that had been brought against the Internal Revenue Service in late 2004 by two Texas lawyers, Harold W. Nix, and C. Cary Patterson. Nix and Patterson sued the IRS for refunds after the tax agency denied each of their claims for nearly $67 million in deductions stemming from their use of the BLIPS tax shelter in 2000. Their lawsuit was thought to be relevant to the KPMG tax shelter fraud case because BLIPS is one of the tax shelters alleged to be abusive by the prosecution in that matter. On 20 July 2006, Judge T. John Ward of United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas ruled that the use of BLIPS by Nix and Patterson was essentially legitimate, because the IRS's application of tougher Treasury Department rules in 2003 to liabilities that occurred in BLIPS was "ineffective" and "not enforceable" because it was retroactive. The Internal Revenue Code generally prohibits retroactive regulations. In response to this ruling, prosecutors in the KPMG case have indicated that they will argue that the BLIPS shelter itself was technically valid, but that the way the defendants carried it out was fraudulent. In turn, lawyers for the defendants argue that no court of law has ever ruled that the tax shelters in question were illegal. And in February 2007, Judge Ward essentially reversed himself and ruled the tax shelter consisted of fake bank loans and therefore illegitimate, despite his previous ruling identified in the link above.
On 8 February 2007, Deutsche Bank reached a settlement with hundreds of investors to whom it sold aggressive U.S. tax shelters similar to those attacked by the prosecution in the KPMG tax fraud case. This settlement came a year after US DOJ prosecutors in Manhattan announced their investigation of Deutsche Bank's role in questionable tax shelters.
On 23 May 2007, the Second Circuit dismissed a complaint against accounting firm KPMG to recover fees and expenses arising from criminal tax fraud charges involving former KPMG partners and employees. The court held that the district court, which presides over the criminal case, erred in extending "ancillary" jurisdiction to the civil dispute between the defendants and non-party KPMG. Treating KPMG's appeal as a petition for writ of mandamus, the court issued the writ, vacated the district court's orders, and dismissed the civil complaint.
On 17 July 2007, Judge Kaplan dismissed charges against 13 former KPMG employees, ruling that he had no alternative because the government had strong-armed KPMG into not paying the legal fees of defendants and had violated their rights. "This indictment charges serious crimes. They should have been decided on the merits as to every defendant," Kaplan wrote. "But there are limits on the permissible actions of even the best prosecutors." Barring KPMG from paying its former employees' legal bills "foreclosed these defendants from presenting the defenses they wished to present, and, in some cases, even deprived them of the counsel of their choice. This is intolerable in a society that holds itself out to the world as a paragon of justice," Kaplan wrote in his ruling. Kaplan's decision did not affect the prosecution of R.J. Ruble, a former law partner at Sidley Austin LLP, and three former KPMG partners, including David Greenberg, who worked in the firm's Orange County office and released KPMG from any obligation to him when he left its employ. John Larson and Robert Pfaff, the other two former partners still facing charges, left KPMG eight years before the criminal action was filed and did not initially seek to have the accounting firm pay their legal bills.
On 20 August 2007, the prosecutors announced that one of the aiders and abettors of tax fraud, David Amir Makov, agreed to plead guilty and cooperate with prosecution of his former colleagues. In the preceding week, the federal court in Manhattan received $150,000 from Mr. Makov as part of a bail modification agreement that allows him to travel to Israel. Because Makov never worked for KPMG, he was unaffected by Judge Kaplan's dismissal of charges against 13 of his codefendants.
On 10 September 2007, Makov entered a guilty plea to one information count of conspiracy. He agreed to pay a $10 million penalty and provided new details on those involved. Makov gave a brief explanation on the workings of BLIPS, or Bond Linked Issue Premium Structure, which he said he helped create. In previous hearings, Judge Kaplan had chastised prosecutors for failing to explain clearly how BLIPS worked. According to Makov's testimony, the BLIPS shelters were created to generate artificial losses that were then used by wealthy investors to offset gains in legitimate income. The shelter involved a purported investment component as well as banks, extending purported loans to investors. According to prosecutors, BLIPS were marketed and sold around 1999 and 2000 to at least 186 wealthy investors and generated at least $5.1 billion in phony tax losses. The Presidio entities that Makov formed, owned and operated with co-defendants Robert Pfaff and John Larson, both former KPMG employees, made at least $134 million selling BLIPS. The IRS regards a tax shelter as abusive if it has no legitimate business purpose or genuine economic substance, in contrast to real loans, with money at risk, or real investments. According to Makov, although BLIPS were created on paper to look like seven-year investments, they involved neither real loans nor real investment components. "There was no economic substance," Makov testified. "Instead, we created the appearance of economic substance, rather than the reality." Makov claimed that although he initially thought that BLIPS were legitimate, "as part of the deception" he was eventually "asked by representatives of Bank A," among others, "to come up with an investment rationale." He added that he was "clearly told by Bank A, KPMG" and others "that the loan was not at risk." According to The New York Times, people close to the case have identified "Bank A" as Deutsche Bank AG. The bank has not been charged but is expected to reach a settlement with the government. A graduate of the Harvard Business School and a one-time employee of Long-Term Capital Management, prior to founding Presidio around 1999, Makov worked at Deutsche Morgan Grenfell, an investment banking arm of Deutsche Bank AG. Makov was originally charged with dozens of counts of fraud, tax evasion, and conspiracy, with each count carrying five years in jail. Prosecutors are expected to drop all of the other charges if he cooperates throughout the trial.
Jury selection for the KPMG tax shelter fraud trial began on 9 October 2007. However, on 18 October 2007, Judge Kaplan postponed indefinitely the trial set to begin in five days, discharging jurors he had already selected to hear the case, and removing Steven Bauer of Latham & Watkins, a lawyer for former KPMG executive John Larson. The government had previously asked the judge to decide whether Bauer should be removed because he worked as a lawyer for Makov and may have a conflict of interest. Larson had declined to waive his right to have an attorney free of conflicting interests. Kaplan ruled to disqualify Bauer as trial counsel for Larson and pledged to address the issue of whether Latham & Watkins should also be disqualified if Larson seeks to be represented by another lawyer at that firm.
On 28 August 2008, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit upheld the dismissal of criminal charges against 13 former executives at KPMG. The Court held that the government prosecutors "unjustifiably interfered with defendants' relationship with counsel and their ability to mount a defense, in violation of the Sixth Amendment...." by pressuring KPMG to refrain from paying their legal fees. Separately on the same day, Deputy U.S. Attorney General Mark Filip announced new prosecution rules aimed at not penalizing companies as noncooperative for protecting attorney-client material or paying for their employees' attorneys in probes. "No corporation is obligated to cooperate or to seek cooperation credit by disclosing information to the government," Filip said at a press conference at the New York Stock Exchange. "Refusal by a corporation to cooperate, just like refusal by an individual to cooperate, is not evidence of guilt."
On 15 October 2008, opening arguments began in the trial of David Greenberg and Robert Pfaff, former KPMG tax partners; John Larson, former KPMG senior tax manager; and Raymond Ruble, a former partner at law firm Sidley Austin. The four defendants are charged with conspiring to evade taxes for more than 600 clients in a case that was touted as the largest criminal tax prosecution when it started in 2005 with 19 defendants but is being tried on a much smaller scale. Assistant U.S. attorney John Hillebrecht told the jury in Manhattan federal court that the four men lied and cheated "by making the tax bills of some of our nation's richest citizens disappear." In turn, Larson's defense lawyer, Thomas Hagemann, stated that his client believed in good faith that what he did was allowed under the law, openly conducted his dealings, and acted with "good faith disclosure". Hagemann called David Makov, a former colleague of Larson, turned one of the government's main witnesses, "a liar and perjurer". The trial is expected to last three to four months.
On 24 November 2008, two of the remaining four defendants, former KPMG tax partner Robert Pfaff and former senior tax manager John Larson, filed a motion to dismiss the charges against them or declare a mistrial. The motion said that during the trial prosecutors elicited testimony from a witness accusing Pfaff and Larson of concealing information from KPMG and its tax department to obtain KPMG approval for BLIPS, thus transforming a tax fraud conspiracy with KPMG against the IRS into an honest services fraud conspiracy against KPMG. The motion said the defense had received no notice of such a change in the prosecution's theory and could not prepare a defense and so sought to have the judge to dismiss the indictment or grant a mistrial. The motion claimed that the government's alleged deceitful procurement of KPMG's confidential tax returns through a parallel civil tax fraud investigation by the DOJ was a violation of due process. The defendants relied on three cases where district courts dismissed indictments or suppressed evidence "where the Government has brought a civil action solely to obtain evidence for its criminal prosecution or has failed to advise the defendant in its civil proceeding that it contemplates his criminal prosecution." (Two of these cases were later reversed on appeal.) The prosecution responded that the government has always alleged, and still contends, that KPMG as an entity was a conspirator, not a victim of any kind of fraud. "That for a period of time there was an effort to keep certain facts from certain individual KPMG employees is of no moment whatever," the government said. Judge Kaplan rejected the motion, finding that neither of the circumstances invoked by the defendants applied to their case: "Defendants do not deny that there was a bona fide civil investigation, they complain merely that there was a criminal investigation as well. And defendants, who were not the targets of the civil investigation, do not claim to have been deceived by the government." In a footnote, the court notes that the defendants relied in part on the fact that four of the now-dismissed defendants had given deposition testimony while unaware of the criminal investigation. Judge Kaplan added that they "do not suggest that the government deceived these individuals," suggesting perhaps that if the government had engaged in some deceptive conduct, the defendants' motion might have had more traction.
1 December 2008 marked the expiration of the deadline for the federal prosecutors to seek certiorari by asking the United States Supreme Court to reconsider the 28 August 2008 2nd Circuit appeals court's decision that upheld the 17 July 2007 ruling by Judge Kaplan in the Southern District Court of New York, dismissing criminal charges against 13 of the 19 original defendants.
From 8 to 10 December 2008, the jury heard closing arguments in the KPMG tax shelter case. Raymond Ruble's lawyer Jack S. Hoffinger told jurors that it was impossible to conclude that the defendants purposefully tried to break the law in helping at least 600 wealthy people trim their taxes since they did not try to hide what they were doing from the Internal Revenue Service or others. "What do we have, a massive suicide pact?" he asked. He said that the defendants would not have designed something criminal and then "put it out there so that the IRS will see it, the government will see it and we will end up in court charged with a crime." Assistant U.S. Attorney Margaret Garnett retorted that the defendants created tax shelters that were actually shams meant to appear to be legitimate investments: "These defendants sold these so-called investments for years and years and not a single one of these defendants' clients ever made a dime of profit." She said that the only purpose of the fraudulent tax shelters marketed from 1997 until 2000 was to "generate artificial tax losses to evade millions and millions of taxes." She speculated that the defendants may have had a false sense of safety from the law, and claimed that "their greed and ambition overcame their sense of right and wrong."
On 18 December 2008, lawyer Raymond Ruble, who once was a partner at Brown & Wood, was convicted on 10 counts of tax evasion while investment consultants Robert Pfaff and John Larson were convicted on 12 counts. They were acquitted of conspiracy. David Greenberg, deemed by the prosecution an "ongoing danger to the community" and a flight risk, was acquitted of all charges. Greenberg was jailed for five months and required to wear electronic monitoring for two and a half years afterward. His acquittal came as a result of Steve Acosta, a key government witness, being "utterly incapable of giving a straight answer on cross-examination", as conceded by Assistant U.S. Attorney John Hillebrecht in closing arguments. Acosta had pleaded guilty to conspiracy and tax evasion in a cooperation deal aimed at leniency at sentencing. He was released from federal prison on November 22, 2010. Judge Kaplan ordered that electronic monitoring begin for Pfaff at his Golden, Colo., home and for Larson at his New York City home, though the judge said he would reassess the need at a bail hearing next month, especially after what happened with Greenberg. Six people, including former KPMG tax partner David Rivkin; David Amir Makov, a one-time currency and fixed-income derivatives trader at Presidio; and Domenick DeGiorgio, a former managing director at German bank HVB, or Bayerische Hypo & Vereinsbank, have pleaded guilty to criminal charges in the matter.
Some of KPMG's tax shelter clients are now suing KPMG for liability exposure.
In 2004, a PBS Frontline documentary episode scrutinized the use of tax shelters by corporations and wealthy individuals, as well as the role of accounting firms in facilitating these arrangements. The episode, which focused on the consequences for ordinary taxpayers, highlighted KPMG's involvement in tax shelter fraud. Journalist Hedrick Smith investigated the firm's practices, uncovering how their conduct contributed to the wider issue.
References
Specific
General
Media coverage:
Written testimony of Michael Hamersley before US Senate Finance Committee
PBS: KPMG response to Hamersley Testimony
The New York Times: Wide Range of Tax Shelters Draws Senate Inquiry, 22 October 2003
The New York Times: U.S. Tactic on KPMG Questioned, 28 June 2006
Forbes: Former KPMG Tax Partner Pleads Guilty, 27 March 2006
The New York Times: Judge Rules a Tax Shelter in KPMG Case Is Legitimate, 21 July 2006
The New York Times: Court Rejects Tax Shelter Once Sold By KPMG, 2 February 2007
The Wall Street Journal: Big Time Tobacco Lawyers Beat IRS in Tax Shelter Ruling, 21 July 2006
Business Week: Inside the KPMG Mess, 1 September 2005
WebCPA.com: KPMG Exec Free on $25M Bail, 10 March 2006
The New York Times: Guilty Plea Seen Aiding Tax Shelter Prosecution, 11 September 2007
The Wall Street Journal: KPMG Trial, Pared in Scope, Nears After Stormy Prologue, 12 October 2007
The Washington Post: Judge Delays KPMG Trial, Removes Lawyer, 19 October 2007
Forbes: U.S. court upholds dismissal of charges in KPMG case, 28 August 2008
Forbes: Opening arguments begin in KPMG tax shelter case, 15 October 2008
Reuters: KPMG tax shelter defendants seek dismissal or mistrial, 24 November 2008
The New York Times: Prosecutors Pass on Chance to Revive Tax Shelter Case, 1 December 2008
Newsday: Closings wrap up in KPMG tax-shelter trial in NYC, 10 December 2008
International Herald Tribune: 3 convicted, 1 exonerated in KPMG tax trial, 18 December 2008
U.S. Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations Tax Shelter Hearing:
Hearing Day 1
Hearing Day 2
PSI Minority Report, November 2003
PSI Full Report 109-54, April 2005
Tax Shelter Legislation
US Department of Justice Information on KPMG Partner Tax Shelter Indictments and KPMG Deferred Prosecution:
August 2005 DOJ Court Filings: Tax Shelter Fraud Indictment - Stein et al.
August 2005 DOJ Court Filings: KPMG - Deferred Prosecution Agreement
August 2005 DOJ Court Filings: KPMG - Charging Document
August 2005 DOJ Court Filings: KPMG - Statement of Facts
August 2005 DOJ Court Filings: KPMG -Proposed Order
DOJ Press Release: KPMG to Pay $456 Million for Criminal Violations in Relation to Largest-Ever Tax Shelter Fraud Case, 29 August 2005
DOJ Press Release: Superseding Indictment of 19 Individuals, 17 October 2005
DOJ Press Release: David DeGiorgio plea, 11 August 2005
DOJ Press Release: HVB Deferred Prosecution Agreement, 6 February 2006
Corporate taxation in the United States
August 2005 crimes in the United States
Corporate crime
Tax evasion in the United States
KPMG |
4549010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20Butler%20%28artist%29 | Ross Butler (artist) | Ross Butler (1907–1995) was a farmer, photographer, songwriter, livestock judge, cattle and poultry breeder, pioneer of cattle artificial insemination, painter and sculptor of farm animals, as well as a writer.
Early life
Butler was born in 1907 in Norwich, Ontario, Canada. He was a descendant of United Empire Loyalist Colonel John Butler.
Career
Butler began his career as an artist in earnest in the 1920s with a few commissioned portraits and paintings of animals. Notability came in 1939 when Butler was commissioned by the education and agriculture ministries to create a series of pictures of farm animals to be placed in schools across Canada.
The contract called for more than 500 "Standard Type" paintings of each breed of cattle, swine, horses, sheep, poultry and other Canadian livestock. Butler's unusual commission was big news. The story ran in newspapers around the world, including the National Enquirer.
Ross Butler, was known as "the world's leading livestock artist"1. He created more than 500 works in his lifetime. His painting of the Springbank Snow Countess was the model for the Springbank Snow Countess monument located on Dundas Street East in Woodstock, Ontario. Another of his sculptures was at the Canadian National Exhibition in 1952. It was a life-size butter sculpture of Queen Elizabeth II and her horse, Winston, to commemorate her coronation.
Butler was a founding father of the Oxford Jersey Club, the first president and manager of the Oxford Museum, the founder of the Oxford Historical and Museum Society and the "Central Unit" – the first independent, all-breed artificial insemination facility for cattle in Canada.
He authored his autobiography, My Father's Farm.
Awards
Butler's achievements as an agricultural artist were recognized posthumously in June 1997, when he was inducted into the Ontario Agricultural Hall of Fame at the Agricultural Museum in Milton, Ontario and into the Canadian Agricultural Hall of Fame in November, 1997, at the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair in Toronto.
Exhibition History
February 17 to June 30, 2018, the Woodstock Art Gallery (Ontario) housed a retrospective exhibition of his life's work. The exhibition was called Ross Butler: Branding, Butter, and Bulls, and was curated by the Curatorial and Collections Assistant Samantha Purvis-Johnston. The exhibition was accompanied by a publication and its contents are found below:
Ross Butler: Branding, Butter, and Bulls
A Jersey Man
Ross Butler (1907–1997), born into a farming family in Norwich, Ontario, would begin to brand his legacy not in the art historical context but instead in the agricultural community of Oxford County. While he painted an impressive variety of livestock portraits and landscapes, his true inspiration was the Jersey cow. His fascination ignited at an early age when, after witnessing a groundbreaking sale of a Holstein cow, he convinced his father to purchase registered purebred pedigreed Jerseys for the potential of a similar windfall. The sale captured his attention and wonder about what exactly had made this cow special. Ross Butler would become the primary caretaker for his father's newly acquired livestock, and at the age of twelve he recorded their daily habits and illustrated their pedigrees.
Butler's connection with and enthusiasm for the Jersey breed would last throughout his artistic career. The artist's works were adopted in various commercial branding enterprises, including the logo for the Canadian Jersey Cattle Breeders Association (now Jersey Canada), and the trademark emblem for the Canadian Jersey Cattle Club. The designs naturally encompassed his best-known work, developing the True Type breed standards.
Pursuing Perfection
"Breed standards" designate a set of physical and functional qualities that speak to an animal's production and pedigree. Standards can vary provincially and nationally, and are defined by the incorporated association for that breed. Ross Butler was a progressive advocate for the development of Canadian breed standards in the mid-twentieth century, deviating from the use of American breed standards. The artist discovered a pattern of correlated body measurements that led to his theory of perfect animal proportions. He eventually gained eager support from various cattle, poultry, and equestrian breed associations for the adoption of these standards, though not without initial difficulty and dismissal.
Butler's True Types serve as a guide to his theory of animal proportions. Within his creative practice, animal portraiture continues to represent the greater body of his work. The True Types are evidence of his idealist and emotive affinities. Beyond perfection, Butler's paintings of animals share a unique lifelike quality and individual personality. The True Type paintings represent not one particular animal, but rather the ideal for that breed. The detail with which he built distinct characteristics is both impressive and sympathetic. This attention to detail, combined with his apparent adoration for animals, is exceptional and an important facet of Butler's life's work.
Branding Butler
Ross Butler's commissioned designs exemplify his determination and the journey of forming a legacy within the canon of agricultural art. He leveraged his strongest creation, the True Type. Following much opposition, he eventually secured a contract with the Department of Education that dispersed hundreds of thousands of his photolithographs to decorate the walls of schools across Canada. This contract would transform his cows and bulls into icons of Canada's agrarian past.
Some of Butler's earliest initiatives included painted glass slides that were displayed on the Capitol Theatre's screen before the showing of each movie. This venture may not have carried fiscal gains, but that did not deter an inspired artist. He found inventive ways to continually express his creativity, like the darling "rain shoe" – a stylish art deco design that protects a walker's calf from splattered mud. The design was successfully patented by Butler and then purchased by the Dominion Rubber Company. Butler was also known to have expressed his affections through poetry and song. His tender ode from 1929, "You're My One Rose," claimed popularity but rarely involved monetary profits. He also went on to develop a number of branding assignments for various associations and businesses, including the Township of Norwich, Dawes Brewery in Quebec, and the aforementioned Jersey Canada.
The First Settler at Woodstock is a brilliant example of Ross Butler's devotion and immense pride in branding his legacy within the canon of Woodstock's agricultural past. From the beginning, Butler persisted with absolute determination to build a name for himself within the context of Woodstock and Oxford County. To celebrate his inventiveness, this exhibition includes commercial enterprises that sought to reconcile the need for both self-sufficiency and artistic expression.
Exhibiting Percheron
Motivated by his painting of a black Percheron horse, Ross Butler decided to travel to Columbus, Ohio to attend the National Dairy and Percheron Show. While many of his efforts in Canada thus far seemed undervalued, this trip was certainly encouraging from its start. It began with a serendipitous connection made with the National Director of the Percheron Association. During introductions, Butler proposed that his painting be considered in the competition for the ideal type. His artwork landed at the show's entrance – visible to an audience composed of judges, professors, and breeders alike. The immediate support was unlike any typical proposals and became particularly rewarding.
Presenting his theory of animal proportions at the National Percheron Show resulted in a commission to paint the True Types of the breed. Butler returned home from the Columbus show in confident triumph. The commission also included quarter-scale Percheron statues – a medium not yet investigated by Butler. From clay dug from the banks of the Otter Creek swimming hole on his father's farm in Norwich, Butler's model would gain eager approval from the True Type Percheron committee. Gaining approval from the Canadian committee, however, was much more strenuous. Nevertheless, this new medium and the artist's theory of proportions were naturally leading him to new and exciting opportunities. Ross Butler's agricultural art has seeped into all corners of the rural community; however, his creative initiatives exhibited at the fair were widely recognized during his lifetime.
At the Fair
Over 250 years ago, in 1765, Canada held its first fair in Windsor, Nova Scotia. Since then, Canadian fairs have become a conventional community feature in many cities, reaching to the west coast. For Ross Butler, the fairgrounds were exciting, rewarding, and undoubtedly the cultural hub for agricultural communities. His involvement at the fairs started at a young age when he was employed to watch over the cattle for his neighbour, Beryl Hanmer, at the Guelph Winter Fair in 1922. To his amazement, the fair showed thousands of breeds of animals, rewarding an educational experience that surely inspired his calling. His childhood delight for the fair never waned. Among many others, Ross Butler participated at both the Canadian National Exhibition (CNE) and the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair (RAWF). His contribution respectfully illustrated his dual attendance in the agricultural community: through his livestock rearing and his artistic makings.
The CNE was first hosted in 1879 and continues to exhibit current technologies, consumer innovations, and creative ingenuities from the nation's leading industrialists and artists. Livestock fairs showcase thousands of animal breeds, highlighting the most desired traits associated with the purpose of breed reproduction. Inaugurated in 1922, the RAWF is the largest indoor combined agricultural fair and competition in the world. It is held annually in the Coliseum at Exhibition Place in Toronto, excluding the nine years of Canada's participation in WWII. Cancelling the CNE and the RAWF during WWII resulted in the founding of the All Canadian Holstein contest in 1942, sponsored by the Holstein Journal. Inspired by the All-American awards, the All Canadian celebrates the best animals in each class and shows cattle exclusively bred in Canada.
Ross Butler's All Canadian Holsteins – The Cattle upon the Thousand Hills (1976), shows the best of the breed in each class from 1975. Like many of his works, it serves as a guide for breeders to consult when mastering their herd standards. The painting captures the impressive parade of living Holsteins and represents the artist's fortitude and passion for celebrating the animals' excellence through equally excellent representations. Like many of his imagined animals, the All Canadian Holsteins, each uniquely patterned, have separate personalities and a character of their own, since they are portraits of living animals.
Only one year prior, Ross Butler painted the captivating Royal Review (1974) for the RAWF. Departing from his typical portraiture, Butler assembled a vision of champions heading to the fair. The group portrait assumes a wonderfully imaginative scenario with multiple vanishing points that suggest a journey, but one with no distinct start or finish. Since the painting proved favourable to the thousands of fair attendees, Butler found an excited audience to purchase his reproductions. The popularity of the Royal Review drew hundreds of visitors to Woodstock, and the reproductions continue to enjoy similar success.
Building with Butter
Butler's arguably most recognized involvement at the fairs were his butter sculptures at the Canadian National Exhibition (CNE) and the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair (RAWF). The artist was amused by the concept of a cow made from butter – a reversal of nature. Over his lifetime, Ross impressively formed more than ten life-size sculptures featuring both Canadian and agricultural icons. The most renowned of them, Queen Elizabeth on her Horse Winston, sculpted in 1952 for the CNE, garnered international fame and awarded Ross the trip of a lifetime to England to take part as a media presence at the Queen's coronation.
Evidence of these works existing in archives are rare, yet photographs remain in the holdings at the Ross Butler Gallery in Woodstock, and news footage was recently discovered in the Sherman Grinberg Film Library in Los Angeles. The Pathe Warner News footage charms its viewer by capturing a rare and intimate movement of Ross shaping the Queen's nose. A moment so precious lasts to provide a thrilling example of Butler's success in the agricultural community.
Collection Legacy
Ross Butler's agricultural art can be found in archives, classrooms, museums, galleries, and the homes of Woodstock and Oxford County residents. The scope of Butler's career is complex and multifaceted – a journey comparable to the ups and downs of many creative individuals. Butler strove to build a legacy by creating his own opportunities, and his perseverance is inspiring. When faced with challenges, he shaped his achievements and forged a path to success. His practice of collecting and holding the rights to his own images was intentional in building the prominence of his collection. The collection is now maintained and cared for by his only son, David Butler.
This exhibition assembles a collection of varied images and mediums that confirm the artist's character in the making of his success. No matter how diverse his multitude of practices and efforts, Ross Butler's initiatives always involved the form of animal perfection: a science that will forever hold a significant place in the history of agricultural art.
Whatever the challenge, Butler humbly yet enthusiastically persisted. The artist married his artistic talent with his adoration for animals by producing his standard types, achieving status and eventual support from the global agricultural community. He built his reputation by working hard as an independent artist, collaborating with businesses and associations, refining his moulding abilities, and avidly collecting his life's work. Both his commercial initiatives and artistic pursuits offer evidence of Ross Butler as an idealist inventor and a visionary artist.
At the Woodstock Art Gallery
Branding, Butter, and Bulls surveys the journey of an artist navigating the ebbs and flows of an artist's career. It is a story of ideas, a marathon of dreams tempered by the realizations of the pressures of life, family, location, and financial limitations. By bringing together a multitude of works, the exhibition reveals the life of an artist whose ideals were not eclipsed by the struggles of balancing profitability and nourishing creativity.
For a multitude of reasons, this self-taught artist, who demonstrated a particular talent, was not included in the traditional artistic canon of historical Canadian art production. As an active member in the agricultural community, Ross Butler painted what he knew – livestock. Departing from the dominant abstract expressionism of his time, he was instead drawn towards hyperrealism, idealism, and perfect proportions. His artistic motivations were driven by perceptions of truth and beauty and a genuine admiration for his animals, fostered since his childhood on the farm. In an early journal entry, he recalls a memory that defines the genesis of his creative muse: "...it was my habit to be up early and my father would send me into the pasture to fetch Daisy, the Jersey family cow."
Samantha Purvis-Johnston
Curatorial and Collections Assistant
449 Dundas Street
Woodstock ON N4S 1C2
519.539.6761
woodstockartgallery.ca
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Simpson, Pamela H. "Butter Cows and Butter Ladies." In Corn Palaces and Butter Queens: A History of Crop Art and Dairy Sculpture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.
The Royal Agricultural Winter Fair. Accessed Oct. & Nov. 2017. http://www.royalfair.org/.
Holstein Canada. 2018. Accessed Nov. & Dec. 2017. https://www.holstein.ca/en/Public.
Butler, David. Ross Butler Gallery. Accessed Nov. & Dec. 2017. http://www.rossbutler.gallery/.
Cooper, Bonnie E., ed. "Shows and All-Canadians." Compiled by Bruce N. Murchison. Holstein Canada: Century of Achievement, 132–38.
Crawford-Siano, Irene. Journey to perfection: the agricultural art of Ross Butler. Kingston, Ont.: Quarry Press, 1997.
"Dawes Black Horse Collection." Black Horse. August 7, 2013. Accessed Oct. & Nov. 2017. http://villedemtl.ca/pourboireilfautvendre/en/3_0/dawes_black_horse_collection.
"History." Canadian National Exhibition. 2018. Accessed Nov. & Dec. 2017. https://theex.com/footer/about-the-cne/history/.
"Inductee Details: Ross Butler." Canadian Agricultural Hall of Fame. Accessed Nov. & Dec. 2017. http://www.cahfa.com/en-us/inductees/ross-butler.
Lewington, Peter. Canada's Holsteins. Edited by Frank English. Markham, ON: Fitzhenry & Whiteside Limited, 1983.
World News: The Queen is sculpted in butter. Performed by Ross Butler. Warner Pathe News, 1952. Accessed from the Sherman Grinberg Film Library, 2018.
ILLUSTRATED WORKS
All works: Ross Butler. Dimensions in cm height x width x length.
Cover Image
All Canadian Holsteins, c. 1976. Oil on Masonite, 122 x 244.
1 Jersey Cow, c. 1934. Pastel on Paper, 61 x 91.5.
2 Jersey Bull, c. 1934. Pastel on Paper, 61 x 91.5.
3 Jersey Canada Logo, 1981. Oil on two-tiered Masonite, 66 dia.
4 Black Horse (Dawes Brewery Commission), c. 1940. Hand-painted plaster, 48 x 28 x 48.
5 Percheron Stallion, 1938. Oil on Canvas, 76 x 91.5.
6 Percheron Mare, 1938. Oil on Canvas, 76 x 91.5.
7 Royal Review, c. 1974. Oil on Masonite, 122 x 244
Death
He died in 1995 at his studio-art gallery-farm in Oxford County, south of Woodstock, on Highway #59. Today, the Butler studio-art gallery-farm is operated by his son, David Butler.
References
Newsmaker Update: Artist's career started on the farm by Julie Carl, The London Free Press, Friday, November 13, 1992, page B-7.
1"Journey to Perfection : The Agricultural Art of Ross Butler" by Irene Crawford-Siano, Publisher: Quarry Press, Kingston, Ont., ©1998 ,
External links
Bio of Ross Butler
Opening of the Oxford Museum in Woodstock, Ontario, 1948, by David Butler
1907 births
1995 deaths
20th-century Canadian farmers
People from Oxford County, Ontario |
4549356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Oregon%20elections | 2006 Oregon elections | Oregon's 2006 statewide election included a May 16 primary election and a November 7 general election.
Ten statewide ballot measures were on the November ballot.
The following offices were up for election: Governor, Supreme Court Position 6 (to succeed Wallace P. Carson, Jr.), and numerous seats in the state legislature (House of Representatives and Senate), the state Circuit Courts, and the District Attorney's offices.
Offices that were uncontested, or local to various towns, counties, or regions, were also on Oregon ballots. Such races are not listed on this page.
Election process
Both partisan and non-partisan offices were at stake in the 2006 election cycle. Oregon conducts partisan and non-partisan elections differently:
For partisan offices (such as the state legislature and governor's races), major parties (Democratic and Republican) run candidates in the Primary to select their nominee for the General Election. (The state takes on the administrative and financial burden of primaries for the two major parties, while other parties determine their candidate according to whatever nominating process they choose.) A plurality (that is, more votes than any opponent) is sufficient for a major party candidate to win nomination; candidates need not get more than 50% of the vote to advance to the General Election.
Non-partisan offices (such as judges, district attorneys, and superintendent) may be filled in the Primary, if any candidate wins a majority of the vote. If no candidate wins over 50% of the vote, however, the top two vote-winners will face each other in a runoff in the November General Election.
County governments conduct the elections. Immediately after an election, their web sites
are the best place to find accurate election results. The Secretary of State's office posts official results 30 days after an election.
Voter statistics and turnout
According to the Annual Oregon Population Report for 2005, the total estimated population of Oregon as of July 1, 2005 was 3,631,440, of which 2,765,827 were of voting age. Of these, 69,146 were ineligible to vote due to legal impediments, leaving an estimated 2,696,681 Oregonians eligible to vote. 1,976,669 voters were in fact registered for the 2006 election, 73.3% of those estimated eligible, and 70.8% of these registered voters or 1,399,650 voters actually did cast their ballots.
Key: abbreviations of Oregon political parties
(I) Independent Party of Oregon
(C) Constitution Party of Oregon
(D) Democratic Party of Oregon
(G) Pacific Green Party of Oregon
(L) Libertarian Party of Oregon
(R) Republican Party of Oregon
(N) non-affiliated (no party affiliation)
Candidates (Legislative)
U.S. Congress
All five of Oregon's federal congressional districts in the U.S. House of Representatives were up for election in 2006. All incumbents (four Democrats, one Republican) won re-election.
Neither of Oregon's US Senate seats was up for election in 2006.
Current US Senators for Oregon:
Gordon Smith (R)
Ron Wyden (D)
State Legislature
In the bicameral Oregon Legislative Assembly, each of the 30 Senate districts is composed of exactly two House districts.
Detailed district boundaries may be found at the Secretary of State's web site.
Oregon's state house in its entirety comes up for election in even-numbered years. All 60 biennially elected seats in the House were up for election. Each seat has a 2-year term with no term limits. The Democrats won in 31 of 60 districts, gaining four seats and control of Oregon's state house for the first time since 1990.
Oregon State Senators serve four-year terms without term limits. Their terms are staggered so that only half of the Senators are up for re-election every two even-numbered years.
The Republicans lost one seat in the state senate, because Senator Westlund, although not up for election, switched first to non-partisan Independent to challenge for the governor's seat, then withdrew from that race and re-registered as a Democrat, gaining the Democrats one seat. The Democrats, however, also lost Senator Gordly, who was not up for election either, but she re-registered as a non-partisan Independent. Outside the party changes by these two individual Senators, no other seats in the Senate shifted party as a result of the election, although three incumbents declined to run for various reasons and another lost his primary.
Most races were not strongly contested in the general election. In 60% of the legislative races, the "underdog" candidate raised less than 25% of the funds his or her opponent raised. Also, in 85% of the 75 legislative races, the winner was the candidate who raised more money.
Candidates for the Oregon Senate and House are listed in the chart below. House districts are listed next to the Senate district to which they belong (rather than listing the Senate and House in separate charts.) The counties covered by each Senate district are listed in italics, with (parentheses) if the county extends into other districts. Box colors indicate party affiliation for both incumbents and General Election winners (light blue for Democrats, light red for Republicans). Names and statistics of general election winners are also boldfaced.
For primary candidates, see Oregon primary election, 2006.
Results
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="color:darkgreen"
! width=100 | Senate District, incumbent, county(s)
! width=100 | House District, incumbent
! width=100 | Notes
! width=175 | Candidates
! width=30 | Votes Garnered
! width=20 | Margin
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 1 Jeff Kruse (R)
Curry (Coos) (Douglas)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |1 Wayne Krieger (R)
|
| Wayne Krieger (R) Robert Taylor (L) Write-ins
| | 16,736 5,861 182
| | 73.47% 25.73% .80%
|-
| |2 Susan Morgan (R)
| Morgan ran unopposed
| Susan Morgan (R) Write-ins
| | 16,962 453
| | 97.40% 2.60%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 2 Jason Atkinson (R)
Josephine
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|-
| |3 Gordon Anderson (R)
| Anderson announced resignation after Primary filing deadline
| Ron Maurer (R) Howard Owens (D) Write-ins
| | 14,394 8,645 47
| | 62.35% 37.45% .20%
|-
| |4 Dennis Richardson (R)
| * editorial by Richardson
| Dennis Richardson (R) Richard Koopmans (D) Write-ins
| | 16,604 7,214 71
| | 69.50% 30.20% .30%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 3 Alan C. Bates (D)
Jackson
|
|
| Alan C. Bates (D) Lynn Aiello(R) Write-ins
| | 30,552 17,321 92
| | 63.7% 36.11% .19%
|-
| | 5 Peter Buckley (D)
| Buckley ran unopposed
| Peter Buckley (D) Write-ins
| | 19,310 496
| | 97.50% 2.50%
|-
| |6 Sal Esquivel (R)
|
| Sal Esquivel(R) Mike Moran (D) Write-ins
| | 11,423 10,541 43
| | 51.91% 47.90% .20%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 4 Floyd Prozanski (D)
(Douglas) (Lane)
|
|
| Floyd Prozanski (D) Bill Eddie (R) Write-ins
| | 30,402 17,327 96
| | 63.57% 36.23% .20%
|-
| | 7 Bruce Hanna (R)
| Laura Aviani-Skinner (I) filed but did not qualify, for the third time.
| Bruce Hanna (R) Write-ins
| | 15,505 664
| | 95.89% 4.11%
|-
| | 8 Paul Holvey (D)
|
| Paul R. Holvey (D) Andrew Hill (R) Write-ins
| | 18,481 5,460 63
| | 76.99% 22.75% .26%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 5 Joanne Verger (D)
Lincoln (Lane) (Douglas) (Coos) (Yamhill) (Tillamook)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |9 Arnie Roblan (D)
|
| Arnie Roblan (D) Al Pearn (R) Write-ins
| | 13,340 9,793 32
| | 57.59% 42.27% .14%
|-
| | 10 Alan Brown (R)
|
| Jean Cowan (D) Alan Brown (R) Write-ins
| | 12,904 12,112 68
| | 51.44% 48.29% 0.14%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 6 Bill Morrisette (D)
(Lane) (Linn)
|
|
|Bill Morrisette (D) Renee Lindsey (R) Write-ins
| |14,753 30,161 99
| |32.77% 67.01% 0.22%
|-
| |11 Phil Barnhart (D)
|
| Phil Barnhart (D) J. Oakley (R) Write-ins
| | 16,206 10,009 57
| | 61.69% 38.10% 0.22%
|-
| | 12 Elizabeth Terry Beyer (D)
|
| Terry Beyer (D) Bill Lioio (R) Write-ins
| | 11,015 6,093 36
| | 64.25% 35.54% 0.21%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3|7 Vicki Walker (D)
(Lane)
|
|
| Vicki Walker (D) Jim Torrey (R) Write-ins
| | 25,667 23,962 134
| | 51.58% 48.15% 0.27%
|-
| | 13 Robert Ackerman (D)
|Thomas Ray Albright, Republican nominee, withdrew August 1; replaced by Monica Johnson, loser of Republican primary to challenge for Oregon's 4th District U.S. House. That challenge was also lost.
| Nancy Nathanson (D) Monica Johnson (R) Write-ins
| | 17,505 6,622 73
| | 72.33% 27.36% 0.30%
|-
| |14 Debi Farr (R)
|
| Chris Edwards (D) Debi Farr (R) Write-ins
| |12,320 11,257 56
| |52.13% 47.63% 0.24%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 8 Frank Morse (R)
(Benton) (Linn)
|
|
| Frank Morse (R) Mario E. Magana Write-ins
| |27,127 18,767 134
| |58.94% 40.77% 0.29%
|-
| |15 Andy Olson (R)
|
| Andy Olson (R) Sam H.W Sappington (D) Write-ins
| | 16,317 7,634 47
| | 67.99% 31.81% 0.20%
|-
| | 16 Sara Gelser (D)
|
| Sara Gelser (D) Robin M. Brown (R) Write-ins
| | 15,058 7,252 40
| | 67.37% 32.45% 0.18%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 9 Roger Beyer (R)
(Clackamas) (Linn)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |17 Jeff Kropf (R)
| Kropf dropped out of the race in July. Girod was chosen 8/13 as the new nominee. (another article in Albany Democrat-Herald)
| Fred Girod (R) Dan Thackaberry (D) Write-ins
| |12,658 8,682 91
| |59.06% 40.51% 0.42%
|-
| |18 Mac Sumner (R)
| Sumner announced his resignation shortly after winning the election.
| Mac Sumner (R) Jim Gilbert (D) Roger Shipman (C) Write-ins
| | 11,526 9,840 504 34
| | 52.62% 44.92% 2.30% 0.16%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 10 Jackie Winters (R)
(Marion)
|
|
|Jackie Winters (R) Paul Evans (D) Write-ins
| |24,641 21,232 99
| |53.60% 46.18% 0.22%
|-
| | 19 Kevin Cameron (R)
| Jerry DeFoe was chosen 6/3 as the Libertarian nominee, filed 6/5, then withdrew 6/23 and instead challenged for Oregon's 5th District U.S. House seat and lost.
|Kevin Cameron (R) Brian Grisham (D) Write-ins
| | 12,506 9,529 54
| | 56.62% 43.14% 0.24%
|-
| |20 Vicki Berger (R)
|
|Vicki Berger (R) Connie Garcia (D) Write-ins
| | 13,382 9,040 79
| | 59.47% 40.18% 0.35%
|- style="color:darkgreen"
! Senate District, incumbent, county(s)
! House District, incumbent
! Notes
! Candidates
! Votes Garnered
! Margin
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 11 Peter Courtney (D)
(Marion)
|
|
| Peter Courtney(D) Jared Thatcher (R) Keith Humphrey (C) Write-ins
| |15,593 10,814 767 49
| |57.28% 39.72% 2.82% 0.18%
|-
| | 21 Billy Dalto (R)
| August article in Statesman-Journal
| Brian Clem (D) Billy Dalto (R) Write-ins
| | 9,598 6,025 101
| | 61.04% 38.32% 0.64%
|-
| |22 Betty Komp (D)
|
| Betty Komp (D) Carl Wieneke (R) Michael Marsh (C) Write-ins
| | 5,830 5,090 381 22
| | 51.49% 44.95% 3.36% 0.19%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 12 Gary George (R)
(Polk) (Yamhill)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| | 23 Brian Boquist (R)
|
| Brian Boquist (R) Jason Brown (D) Paul Delaney (L) Write-ins
| | 13,422 8,760 942 27
| | 57.98% 37.84% 4.07% 0.12%
|-
| | 24 Donna G. Nelson (R)
| Statesman Journal Endorses Peralta, News Register Endorses Peralta
| Donna G. Nelson (R) Sal Peralta (D) David Terry (L) Write-ins
| | 11,206 10,847 85 160
| | 48.58% 47.03% 3.69% 0.69%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 13 Charles Starr (R)
(Washington) (Yamhill) (Polk)
|
| Incumbent Senator Starr lost his party's primary to Larry George.
| Larry George (R) Rick Ross (D) Write-ins
| |26,504 18,318 117
| |58.98% 40.76% 0.26%
|-
| |25 Kim Thatcher (R)
|
| Kim Thatcher (R) Charles E. Lee (D) Write-ins
| |11,956 8,977 38
| |57.01% 42.81% 0.18%
|-
| |26 Jerry Krummel (R)
|
| Jerry Krummel (R) Lee Coleman (D) Charles F. Radley (L) Write-ins
| | 14,424 9,313 617 33
| |59.15% 38.19% 2.53% 0.14%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 14 Ryan Deckert (D)
(Washington)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |27 Mark Hass (D)
| Incumbent Representative Hass declined to run for a fourth term.
| Tobias Read (D) Dominic Biggi (R) Write-ins
| | 14,325 9,706 43
| | 59.50% 40.32% 0.18%
|-
| |28 Jeff Barker (D)
|
| Jeff Barker (D) Eldon Derville-Teer (R) Write-ins
| |10,924 5,912 86
| |64.56% 34.94% 0.51%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 15 Bruce Starr (R)
(Washington)
|
| Oregonian profile of Napolitano
| Bruce Starr (R) John Napolitano (D) Write-ins
| |19,973 16,308 71
| |54.94% 44.86% 0.20%
|-
| |29 Chuck Riley (D)
|
| Chuck Riley (D) Terry Rilling (R) Scott Harwood (L) Write-ins
| | 7,987 6,659 769 34
| | 51.70% 43.10% 4.98% 0.22%
|-
| |30 Derrick Kitts (R)
| Kitts challenged incumbent David Wu for Oregon's 1st US Congress District and lost.
| David Edwards (D) Everett Curry (R) Ken Cunningham (C) Write-ins
| | 12,253 8,965 442 38
| | 56.47% 41.32% 2.04% 0.18%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 16 Betsy Johnson (politician) (D)
Clatsop Columbia (Tillamook) (Washington)
|
|
| Betsy Johnson (politician) (D) Don Fell (R) Robert J. Simmering (C) Write-ins
| | 30,645 16,040 1,429 85
| |63.58% 33.28% 2.96% 0.18%
|-
| |31 Brad Witt (D)
|
| Brad Witt (D) Mike Kocher (R) Bob Ekström (C) Write-ins
| |13,975 6,955 2,802 62
| |58.73% 29.23% 11.78% 0.26%
|-
| |32 Deborah Boone (D)
|
| Deborah Boone (D) Norm Myers (R) Write-ins
| | 14,876 9,112 61
| |61.86% 37.89% 0.25%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 17 Charlie Ringo (D)
(Multnomah)
|
| Incumbent Senator Ringo declined to run January 12, 2006
| Brad Avakian (D) Piotr Kuklinski (R) Richard Whitehead (L) John R. Pivarnik (C) Write-ins
| | 31,612 13,497 1,445 371 89
| |67.24% 28.71% 3.07% 0.79% 0.19%
|-
| |33 Mitch Greenlick (D)
|
| Mitch Greenlick (D) Mark Eggleston (R) David E. Long (L) Write-ins
| |19,481 7,378 1,080 62
| |69.57% 26.35% 3.86% 0.22%
|-
| |34 Brad Avakian (D)
| Incumbent Representative Avakian ran in Oregon's 17th Senate district race and won, after Incumbent Senator Ringo declined to run.
| Suzanne Bonamici (D) Joan Draper (R) Gregory F. Rohde (L) Write-ins
| |11,780 6,902 439 27
| |61.52% 36.05% 2.29% 0.14%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 18 Ginny Burdick (D)
(Multnomah) (Washington)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |35 Larry Galizio (D)
|
| Larry Galizio (D) Shirley Parsons (R) Write-ins
| |12,628 10,000 47
| |55.69% 44.10% 0.21%
|-
| |36 Mary Nolan (D)
|
|Mary Nolan (D) Frank Dane (L) Write-ins
| |20,344 3,520 137
| |84.76% 14.67% 0.57%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 19 Richard Devlin (D)
(Clackamas)
|
| Independent candidate Christie M. Schaefer was listed at one point but failed to qualify enough signatures.
| Richard Devlin (D) David Newell (R) Marc Delphine (L) Write-ins
| |30,963 18,299 1,218 65
| |61.26% 36.20% 2.41% 0.13%
|-
| |37 Scott Bruun (R)
| Oregonian article about two of the candidates
| Scott Bruun (R) Bev Backa (D) David M. Akin (L) Write-ins
| |12,531 10,461 507 20
| |53.28% 44.48% 2.16% 0.09%
|-
| |38 Greg Macpherson (D)
|
| Greg Macpherson (D) Fred Bremner (R) Write-ins
| |18,361 8,335 45
| |68.66% 31.17% 0.17%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 20 Kurt Schrader (D)
(Clackamas)
|
| Schrader ran unopposed. Thomas F. Lemons (R) won his Republican primary for the district, but withdrew July 20.
| Kurt Schrader (D) Write-ins
| |28,530 1,154
| |96.11% 3.89%
|-
| |39 Wayne Scott (R)
|
| Wayne Scott (R) Mike Caudle (D) Wes Wagner (L) Write-ins
| |12,247 9,214 819 51
| |54.84% 41.26% 3.67% 0.23%
|-
| |40 Dave Hunt (D)
| Hunt ran unopposed.
| Dave Hunt (D) Write-ins
| |13,606 418
| |97.02% 2.98%
|- style="color:darkgreen"
! Senate District, incumbent, county(s)
! House District, incumbent
! Notes
! Candidates
! Votes Garnered
! Margin
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 21 Kate Brown (D)
(Multnomah)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |41 Carolyn Tomei (D)
| Incumbent Representative Tomei ran unopposed.
| Carolyn Tomei (D) Write-ins
| |15,998 510
| |96.91% 3.09%
|-
| |42 Diane Rosenbaum (D)
|
| Diane Rosenbaum (D) Jeff Cropp (G) Write-ins
| |20,325 3,870 155
| |83.47% 15.89% 0.64%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 22 Margaret Carter (D)
(Multnomah)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |43 Chip Shields
| Incumbent Representative Shields ran unopposed.
|Chip Shields (D) Write-ins
| |18,340 378
| |97.98% 2.02%
|-
| |44 Gary Hansen (D)
| Incumbent Representative Hansen ran for Multnomah County Commissioner in District 2, and won.
| Tina Kotek (D) Jay Kushner (R) Write-ins
| |13,931 3,645 97
| |78.83% 20.62% 0.55%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 23 Avel Gordly (I)
(Multnomah)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006. Senator Gordly dropped her Democratic Party affiliation to register as a non-partisan Independent in June 2006.
|-
| |45 Jackie Dingfelder (D)
|
| Jackie Dingfelder (D) Dick Osborne (R) Write-ins
| |18,460 4,603 73
| |79.79% 19.90% 0.32%
|-
| |46 Steve March (D)
| Incumbent Representative March ran for Multnomah County Auditor, and lost.
| Ben Cannon (D) William Cornett (R) Paul Loney (G) Write-ins
| |16,348 3,493 1,318 75
| |76.99% 16.45% 6.21% 0.35%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 24 Frank Shields (D)
(Multnomah)
|
| Incumbent Senator Shields withdrew from the race 3/9/2006.
| Rod Monroe (D) T.J. Reilly (R) Ron McCarty (I) Write-ins
| |17,304 15,483 2,653 85
| |48.71% 43.58% 7.47% 0.24%
|-
| |47 Jeff Merkley (D)
|
| Jeff Merkley (D) Bruce McCain (R) Write-ins
| |11,106 6,192 65
| |63.96% 35.66% 0.37%
|-
| |48 Mike Schaufler (D)
| Republican nominee Dave Mowry withdrew on July 21.
| Mike Schaufler (D) N. W. (Bill) Stallings (C) Write-ins
| |11,262 3,672 232
| |74.26% 24.21% 1.53%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 25 Laurie Monnes Anderson
(Multnomah) (D)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |49 Karen Minnis (R)
| Brad Fudge (L) filed for the ballot, but was disqualified on Sept. 1. Oregonian coverage of Brading's complaint about campaign tactics
| Karen Minnis (R) Rob Brading (D) Write-ins
| |8,601 7,911 92
| |51.80% 47.65% 0.55%
|-
| |50 John Lim (R)
| Statesman-Journal story about ethics investigation into Lim's travel
| John Lim (R) Jill Selman-Ringer (D) Brian D. Lowery (L) Write-ins
| |11,362 6,107 557 48
| |62.86% 33.79% 3.08% 0.27%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 26 Rick Metsger (D)
(Multnomah) (Clackamas) Hood River
|
|
| Rick Metsger (D) Carol York (R) Write-ins
| |25,183 18,964 81
| |56.94% 42.88% 0.18%
|-
| |51 Linda Flores (R)
|
| Linda Flores (R) Ryan Olds (D) Write-ins
| |11,926 8,755 30
| |57.58% 42.27% 0.14%
|-
| |52 Patti Smith (R)
|
| Patti Smith (R) Suzanne VanOrman (D) Write-ins
| |12,588 9,994 34
| |55.66% 44.19% 0.15%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 27 Ben Westlund (D)
(Deschutes)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006. Westlund dropped (R) party affil to run for governor as an indep. Withdrew from gov. race 8/10/06.
|
|-
| |53 Gene Whisnant (R)
|
| Gene Whisnant (R) Bill A. Smith (D) Write-ins
| |16,527 11,406 31
| |59.10% 40.79% 0.11%
|-
| |54 Chuck Burley (R)
|
| Chuck Burley (R) Phil Philiben (D) Write-ins
| |14,780 11,873 67
| |55.31% 44.43% 0.25%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 28 Doug Whitsett (R)
Lake Crook Klamath (Deschutes) (Jackson)
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |55 George Gilman (R)
| Incumbent Representative Gilman ran unopposed.
| George Gilman (R) Write-ins
| |16,491 417
| |97.53% 2.47%
|-
| |56 Bill Garrard (R)
|
| Bill Garrard (R) James Calvert (D) Write-ins
| |13,759 6,855 46
| |66.60% 33.18% 0.22%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 29 David Nelson (R)
Morrow Umatilla Union Wallowa
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |57 Greg Smith (R)
| Nancy Wolfe won the Democratic party primary, but withdrew. St. Germain was nominated to take her place 8/7/06.
| Greg Smith (R) Tonia St. Germain (D) Write-ins
| |14,119 6,058 45
| |69.82% 29.96% 0.22%
|-
| |58 Bob Jenson (R)
|
| Bob Jenson (R) Ben Talley (D) Write-ins
| |10,194 4,629 31
| |68.63% 31.16% 0.21%
|- valign="top"
| rowspan=3| 30 Ted Ferrioli (R)
Wasco Sherman Gilliam Jefferson Wheeler (Deschutes) Grant Baker Harney Malheur
| colspan=3| This senate seat not up for election in 2006
|
|-
| |59 John H. Dallum (R)
|
| John H. Dallum (R) Jim Gilbertson (D) Write-ins
| |10,733 10,453 32
| |50.58% 49.26% 0.15%
|-
| |60 R. Tom Butler (R)
|
| R. Tom Butler (R) Peter Hall (D) Write-ins
| |13,362 4,575 46
| |74.30% 25.44% 0.26%
|- style="color:darkgreen"
! Senate District, incumbent, county(s)
! House District, incumbent
! Notes
! Candidates
! Votes Garnered
! Margin
|}
Candidates (Executive)
Oregon Blue Book list of elected executive officials
Governor
Incumbent Governor Ted Kulongoski (D) won the election.
Democratic Party
winner in primary:
Ted Kulongoski (incumbent)
losers in primary:
Jim Hill, Pete Sorenson
Republican Party
winner in primary:
Ron Saxton
losers in primary:
Jason A. Atkinson, Kevin Mannix, W. Ames Curtright, David W. Beem, William E. Spidal, Gordon Leitch, Bob Leonard Forthan
Pacific Green Party
Joe Keating
Constitution Party
Libertarian Party
Richard Morley
Independent
Ben Westlund gathered enough signatures to appear on the ballot, but withdrew from the race August 10.
Labor Commissioner Commissioner of the Bureau of Labor and Industrieswinner in primary:
Dan Gardner
Superintendent of Schools Superintendent of Public Instructionwinner in primary:
Susan Castillo
loser in primary:
Deborah L. Andrews
Candidates (Judicial)
Many judicial positions are not contested. Incumbents are rarely opposed, and when they resign, it is often timed such that the Governor chooses their replacement.
If a judicial position becomes vacant and the governor declines to make an appointment, it must be filled at the next general election. If it is not too late to file for a primary election, candidates will appear on that ballot in the first round of a runoff election. If there is no primary before the next general election, all candidates appear on the general election ballot, and a plurality vote may determine the winner.
Oregon Supreme Court
Position 2
Incumbent Judge Paul De Muniz sought reelection and was the only candidate to file. He won easily in the primary election against only write-in candidate opposition.
Position 3
Incumbent Judge Robert D. (Skip) Durham sought reelection and was the only candidate to file. He won easily in the primary election against only write-in candidate opposition.
Position 6
Incumbent Judge Wallace P. Carson, Jr. of Oregon Supreme Court, Position 6, decided to retire after 34 years on the bench. Three candidates entered the race to succeed him:
Virginia Linder, who had since 1997 been an Oregon Court of Appeals judge (winner)
Jack Roberts, former Oregon Commissioner of Labor and Industries
W. Eugene (Gene) Hallman, Pendleton attorney
No candidate received a majority in the primary election, and Linder and Roberts advanced to the general election. Linder won by 51.75 percent of the vote.
Oregon Court of Appeals
Circuit Court Judge of the Circuit Court, 1st District, Position 5 (Jackson County)
Raymond B. White - 21,070
Other - 240Judge of the Circuit Court, 1st District, Position 9 (Jackson County)
Primary:
Ron Grensky - 15,197
Lisa C. Greif - 11,651
Joe Charter - 4,762
Paul L. Henderson III - 1,602
Other - 49
Runoff:
Ron Grensky - 39,954
Lisa C. Greif - 29,291
Other - 130Judge of the Circuit Court, 2nd District, Position 1 (Lane County)
Karsten H. Rasmussen - 39,897
Other - 307Judge of the Circuit Court, 2nd District, Position 3 (Lane County)
Lyle C. Velure - 38,112
Other - 594Judge of the Circuit Court, 2nd District, Position 9 (Lane County)
Gregory G. Foote - 40,765
Other - 367Judge of the Circuit Court, 2nd District, Position 14 (Lane County)
Debra Vogt - 64,209
Alan Leiman - 49,156
Other - 470Judge of the Circuit Court, 4th District, Position 4 (Multnomah County)
Adrienne C. Nelson - 134,269
Other - 3,464Judge of the Circuit Court, 4th District, Position 28 (Multnomah County)
Judith Hudson Matarazzo - 39,782
Mary Overgaard - 38,323
James J. McIntyre - 31,408
Mark K. Kramer - 25,046
Ulanda L. Watkins - 18,368
Christopher D. Wright - 11,641
Charles L. Best - 8,961
Theodore E. Sims - 7,652
James E. Leuenberger - 2,506
Other - 1,580Judge of the Circuit Court, 4th District, Position 31 (Multnomah County)
Cheryl Albrecht - 93,528
Kathleen Payne - 78,778
Other - 1,836Judge of the Circuit Court, 4th District, Position 37 (Multnomah County)
Leslie Roberts - 116,321
Other - 34,227Judge of the Circuit Court, 6th District, Position 5 (Morrow and Umatilla counties)
Christopher R. Brauer - 11,003
Annetta L. Spicer - 8,631
Other - 45Judge of the Circuit Court, 14th District, Position 2 (Josephine County)
Pat Wolke - 19,204
Other - 367Judge of the Circuit Court, 15th District, Position 3 (Coos and Cutty counties)
Jesse Margolis - 7,569
Other - 7,449Judge of the Circuit Court, 16th District, Position 5 (Douglas County)
George Ambrosini - 20,741
William (Bill) Marshal - 11,810
Nancy Cook - 5,620
Other - 52Judge of the Circuit Court, 18th District, Position 3 (Clatsop County)
Cindee S. Matyahs - 7,392
Don H. Haller, III - 5,829
Other - 23Judge of the Circuit Court, 20th District, Position 6 (Washington County)
Charlie Bailey''' - 71,811
Vincent A. Deguc - 41,813
Other - 578
District Attorneys
See also
Oregon primary election, 2006
Oregon gubernatorial election, 2006
Portland, Oregon area elections, 2006
Seventy-third Oregon Legislative Assembly
Seventy-fourth Oregon Legislative Assembly
References
Oregon Secretary of State:
Secretary of State's Statistical Summary for the 2006 General Election
List of candidates for May 16 Primary Election
List of candidates for Nov 7 General Election
2006 Primary Election Voters' Pamphlet, with official results
2006 General Election Voters' Pamphlet, with official results
Election websites from The Oregonian:
Oregonian newspaper Elections site
Election results
Endorsements:
Endorsements by the Willamette Week Endorsements by the Portland Mercury''
Specific references:
2006 elections in the United States by state
Oregon elections by year |
4549489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1884%20in%20baseball | 1884 in baseball |
Champions
First World's Championship Series: Providence Grays over New York Metropolitans (3–0)
National League: Providence Grays
American Association: New York Metropolitans
Union Association: St. Louis Maroons
Major league baseball final standings
National League final standings
American Association final standings
Union Association final standings
Statistical leaders
National League statistical leaders
American Association statistical leaders
Union Association statistical leaders
All-Time Statistical Leaders (Strikeouts)
The 1884 season was memorable in that six of the top 10 all-time Major League Baseball single season strikeout totals were set that season:
Notable seasons
Old Hoss Radbourn won a record 59 or 60 games (depending on the sources), a record that will almost certainly never be broken. In addition to wins, Radbourn led the National League in games (75), games started (73), complete games (73), ERA (1.38), saves (2), strikeouts (441), and innings pitched (678.2).
The season record for pitching strikeouts (369, by Tim Keefe 1883) is broken by seven players, with Hugh Daily beating Keefe's record by 114. To this day (as of 2020), six of the top ten strikeout seasons were accomplished in 1884 (including five of the top seven). 1884 was the first season in which pitchers were allowed to throw overhand.
Events
January–March
February 18 – Terry Larkin, recently released from prison after shooting his wife and a police officer in 1883, is arrested again for threatening to shoot his father. Larkin will be released and play this season for the Richmond Virginians. Larkin was later institutionalized after challenging his former employer to a duel, and committed suicide by slitting his throat with a razor in 1894.
February 20 – The Altoona Mountain City club is admitted to the new Union Association as its seventh club, leaving Lancaster as the only franchise in the Inter-State League.
March 4 – The National League reduces the number of balls needed for a walk to six. Team owners also agree to provide two separate benches for the teams in order to cut down on player fraternizing during games.
March 15 – Henry Chadwick writes in a newspaper column that a ground-keeper in St. Louis has started placing tarpaulins over the bases when it rains in order to keep them dry. Other clubs will follow suit and cover the pitching area and batter areas as well.
March 17 – The Union Association admits the Boston Reds, run by George Wright, as a new team to the league.
March 28 – Umpire William McLean throws a bat into the stands, striking a spectator, in reaction to taunts from the crowd. McLean is arrested but not charged as the fan is not injured.
April–June
April 17 – The Union Association opens its inaugural season with 3 games.
May 1 – Moses Fleetwood Walker becomes the first black player to play in the major leagues. Walker will play in 42 games for the Toledo Blue Stockings, have 152 at-bats and get 40 hits in his only season in major league baseball. Facing racism constantly, even his own teammates refuse to play with him. An injury in mid-July effectively ends Walker's season and he is later released. No other African-American will play in the major leagues until Jackie Robinson in 1947.
May 1 – The Cincinnati Red Stockings of the American Association has a section of their stands collapse as fans are leaving the park following their opening day game. There are numerous injuries including a broken arm. Reds' ownership covered all medical expenses for those injured.
May 5 – After pitching in St. Louis the previous day, Tony Mullane of the Toledo Blue Stockings is barred by a court from pitching in the state of Missouri until his case involving his contract jumping is settled.
May 6 – Larry McKeon of the Indianapolis Hoosiers pitches a 6 inning no-hitter. The game is called due to rain with the score tied 0–0. McKeon will go on to lose 41 games in 1884.
May 16 – A foul tip off the bat of a Detroit Wolverines player sticks in the face mask of Boston Beaneaters catcher Mike Hines. Umpire Van Court rules it a catch and calls the batter out. National League secretary Nicholas Young will instruct all NL umpires to not call an out in that scenario again.
May 22 – The Indianapolis Hoosiers release catcher George Mundinger and pitcher Pete Fries.
May 24 – Al Atkinson of the Philadelphia Athletics retires the final 27 batters in pitching a no-hitter over the Pittsburgh Alleghenys. Atkinson hit the lead off batter, Ed Swartwood, who stole second, moved to third on a ground out and scored on a wild pitch, then did not allow another base runner in the 10–1 victory.
May 24 – The St. Louis Maroons of the Union Association, after starting the season with 20 consecutive wins, lose their first game of the year.
May 29 – Ed Morris of the Columbus Buckeyes pitches a no-hitter against the Pittsburgh Alleghenys in an American Association game.
May 29 – The Chicago White Stockings hit 5 over-the-fence home runs in their home opener against the Detroit Wolverines. The White Stockings new ground rule allows a home run instead of a double for any ball hit in the air over the 180' left field fence or the 215' right field fence. After Chicago increases their home run output from 13 in 1883 to 142 this season, the National League will mandate a minimum fence distance of 210 feet beginning in 1885.
May 30 – Ned Williamson of the Chicago White Stockings becomes the first player to hit 3 home runs in one game in Chicago's 12–2 win over the Detroit Wolverines.
May 31 – Altoona Mountain City drops out of the Union Association and folds, being replaced by the Kansas City Cowboys. Teams leaving and entering will become a recurring theme during the UA's one and only season.
June 5 – Frank Mountain of the Columbus Buckeyes pitches a no-hitter and hits a home run in a 12–0 victory.
June 7 – Charlie Sweeney of the Providence Grays strikes out 19 batters in a game to set a record that will last for over 100 years.
June 10 – Larry Corcoran of the Chicago White Stockings switch-pitches in a 2–0 win over the Cleveland Blues.
June 13 – The Baltimore Orioles place a barbed-wire fence around the field after the crowd swarmed the field and threatened the umpire in the previous day's game.
June 16 – Buffalo Bisons outfielder Jim O'Rourke hits for the cycle as the Bisons crush the Chicago White Stockings, 20–9.
June 20 – The Toledo Blue Stockings sign catcher Deacon McGuire.
June 27 – Larry Corcoran of the Chicago White Stockings throws a no-hitter against the Providence Grays. It is the 3rd no-hitter of Corcoran's career and the first in the National League this season.
June 28 – While playing a Sunday game in Toledo, the players are arrested in the 6th inning for violating the city ordinance banning Sunday baseball. Due to the unruly crowd, the police allow the players to complete the game. The Brooklyn Atlantics defeat Toledo 5–3 before players from both teams are taken into custody.
July–September
1884 – In American Association action, Guy Hecker of the Louisville Eclipse pitches complete games to win both ends of a doubleheader. Hecker does not walk a single batter in this day as he beats the Brooklyn Atlantics, 5–4 and 8–2.
July 5 – Al Atkinson jumps from the American Association Philadelphia Athletics to the Union Association Chicago Browns, the first player to jump mid-season to the new league.
July 7 – Hugh Daily strikes out 19, tying the record set a month earlier while throwing a one-hitter in the process.
July 10 – Hugh Daily of the Chicago Browns pitches his second consecutive one-hitter. Daily will pitch four one-hitters by season's end, setting a major league record.
July 11 – Billy Taylor, who had a 25–4 record for the St. Louis Maroons in the Union Association, jumps to the Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association and wins the first of 17 games for Philadelphia, ending with a combined 43–16 record.
July 28 – Charles Radbourn gains a victory in relief for the Providence Grays in the game that provides the point of contention as to whether Radbourn won 59 games or 60 in 1884. The Grays were trailing 4–3 when starting pitcher Cyclone Miller finished pitching in the bottom of the 5th inning. Providence scored 4 runs in the top of the 6th to take the lead, then Radbourn came in to pitch starting in the bottom of the 6th. Under the scoring rules of the day, Radbourn was credited with the win. Miller would have gotten the victory under today's scoring rules, hence the discrepancy in total wins for Radbourn.
August 4 – Pud Galvin of the Buffalo Bisons pitches a no-hitter against the Detroit Wolverines.
August 5 – Thomas Lynch, a deaf-mute, makes his major league debut for the Chicago White Stockings in the pitcher's box and is winning until he tires in the eighth inning. Cap Anson, who had hit two homers in the game, relieves him and promptly loses 8–5. Lynch will never appear in another major league game.
August 6 – Cap Anson hits three home runs in a 13–4 win, giving him five homers in his last two games.
August 21 – Charlie Geggus pitches a no-hitter for the Washington Nationals of the Union Association. The game is halted after eight innings as the Nationals defeat the Wilmington Quicksteps 12–1.
August 25 – The Chicago Browns of the Union Association, after losing $15,000 in Chicago, move to Pittsburgh and become the Pittsburgh Stogies. They defeated the first-place St. Louis Maroons in their first official game in Pittsburgh on this day.
August 26 – Dick Burns of the Cincinnati Outlaw Reds pitches a no-hitter against the Kansas City Cowboys.
August 28 – Mickey Welch strikes out the first 9 batters of the game to set a record that would not be broken until 1970 by Tom Seaver.
August 29 – The St. Louis Maroons win the only Union Association pennant with a 7–2 win over the Pittsburgh Stogies.
September 11 – When no umpire shows up for the American Association game between the Philadelphia Athletics and the Toledo Blue Stockings, rookie pitcher Hank O'Day of Toledo fills in as a substitute. After his playing career, O'Day would later be recognized as the best umpire of the first quarter of the 20th century and would be the umpire to make the famous call involving Fred Merkle in 1908.
September 15 – Manager Joe Simmons of the Wilmington Quicksteps pulls his team off the field before a home game against the Kansas City Cowboys when he realizes he will be unable to pay the required $60 gate fee to the visiting Cowboys as the attendance is zero. The visiting Cowboys are 7–55–2 (.112) while the Quicksteps are 2–16 (.111) and occupy the cellar in the Union Association standings; following this, the Quicksteps drop out of the Association and disband.
September 15 – The Providence Grays win the National League pennant with a 10–2 win over the Cleveland Blues.
September 19 – The Union Association replaces the Wilmington Quicksteps and Pittsburgh Stogies and with the Milwaukee Brewers and a team from Omaha sponsored by the Union Pacific Railroad.
September 27 – Before playing a single game in the Union Association, Omaha is replaced by the St. Paul Saints.
September 28 – Ed Cushman of the Milwaukee Brewers pitches a no-hitter in the Brewer's 2nd game in the Union Association.
September 29 – Moses Fleetwood Walker, the first African-American to play in the major leagues, is released by the Toledo Blue Stockings. Walker never again played in the major leagues and the color barrier would not be broken for over sixty years.
October–December
October 1 – Charlie Getzien of the Detroit Wolverines pitches a no-hitter in a game called after 6 innings as Detroit wins 1–0.
October 1 – The New York Metropolitans clinch the American Association pennant with a 4–1 victory over the Columbus Buckeyes.
October 3 – Henry Porter playing for the Milwaukee Brewers of the Union Association strikes out 18 batters in one game against the Boston Reds, a record that stood until broken by Steve Carlton in 1969.
October 4 – In his first start since his no-hitter on September 28, Ed Cushman takes another no-hitter into the 9th inning only to give up a bloop single and finish with a 1-hitter.
October 4 – Sam Kimber of the Brooklyn Atlantics pitches a 10 inning no-hitter that ends in a 0–0 tie after the game is called because of darkness.
October 5 – Charlie Sweeney and Henry Boyle of the St. Louis Maroons combine on a 5 inning no-hitter when the game is called on account of rain. Despite the no-hitter, the Maroons lose 1–0 when 2 errors allow the only run of the game.
October 9 – Jack Manning only hits 14 career home runs in a career that spans 12 seasons and over 800 games, but he hits 3 out on this day at the Chicago White Stockings cozy Lake Front Park.
October 23 – The Providence Grays, champions of the National League, behind the pitching of Charley Radbourn, defeat the American Association champion New York Metropolitans 6–0 at the Polo Grounds in New York City.
October 24 – The Providence Grays take the 2nd game of the best of 3 series against the New York Metropolitans by a score of 3–1. The game at the Polo Grounds is called after 7 innings because of darkness.
October 25 – The Providence Grays complete the sweep of the New York Metropolitans with a 12–2 win in a game called after 6 innings because of extreme cold and an attendance of only 300 at the Polo Grounds. Charley Radbourn, after winning 59 games during the regular season, wins all 3 games for Providence while allowing no earned runs.
October 30 – The Columbus Buckeyes of the American Association sell their players to the Pittsburgh Alleghenys for $6,000 and disband the team.
November 4 – Tony Mullane signs a contract with the Cincinnati Red Stockings for the 1885 season, in direct conflict with his prior oral agreement to play for the St. Louis Browns. The American Association will suspend Mullane for the entire 1885 season because of this and previous contract troubles, but allow him to remain the property of Cincinnati.
November 19 – National League president A. G. Mills resigns and league secretary Nick Young replaces him.
November 20 – The National League votes to allow overhand pitching for the 1885 season, although there are restrictions placed on the delivery in order to keep velocity down. In addition, teams are now required to supply a separate bench for each club at their park to limit inter-team fraternization.
December 11 – The American Association votes to continue their ban on overhand pitching.
December 18 – The Union Association has only four teams in attendance at their winter meetings. The UA will officially fold in early 1885.
Births
January–April
January 1 – Tom Downey
January 4 – Al Bridwell
January 26 – Tubby Spencer
February 1 – Joe Connolly
February 1 – Rosey Rowswell
February 1 – Candy Jim Taylor
February 10 – Billy Evans
February 14 – Jack Lewis
February 25 – Bob Bescher
March 4 – Red Murray
March 7 – Sam Bennett
March 7 – Ed Willett
March 19 – Clyde Engle
March 21 – Mysterious Walker
March 31 – Frank Truesdale
April 6 – Rudy Schwenck
April 7 – Jake Daubert
April 20 – Mike Mowrey
April 25 – John Henry "Pop" Lloyd
May–August
May 5 – Chief Bender
May 13 – Bert Niehoff
May 16 – Peter McLaughlin
May 20 – Paul Howard
May 26 – Jimmy Lavender
May 30 – Rube Oldring
June 7 – George Moriarty
June 12 – Otto Knabe
June 16 – Bob Peterson
June 19 – Eddie Cicotte
June 23 – Dick Egan
July 4 – Jack Warhop
August 6 – Sherry Magee
August 6 – Joe Birmingham
September–December
September 7 – Earl Moseley *
September 14 – Willie Hogan
September 22 – Grover Land
September 30 – Nap Rucker
October 18 – Burt Shotton
October 28 – Chet Chadbourne
November 3 – Charley Stis
November 15 – Red Kelly
November 24 – Tullie McAdoo
December 1 – Charley Moore
December 4 – Biff Schlitzer
December 5 – Ed Summers
December 10 – Art Griggs
December 15 – Jim Nealon
December 31 – Bobby Byrne
* Some sources show 1887
Deaths
March 16 – Art Croft, 29, first baseman and left fielder for 1877 St. Lous and 1878 Indianapolis teams.
April 29 – John Morrissey, 27, played in for the Buffalo Bisons.
July 11 – Bill Smiley, 28?, utility player who played mainly in 1882.
September 26 – Jim Egan, 26?, pitcher for the 1882 Troy Trojans.
November 13 – Bill Sullivan, 31, played in 2 games for the 1878 Chicago White Stockings.
References
External links
1884 National League season at Baseball-Reference.com
1884 American Association season at Baseball-Reference.com
1884 Union Association season at Baseball-Reference.com
Charlton's Baseball Chronology at BaseballLibrary.com
Year by Year History at Baseball-Almanac.com
Retrosheet.org
Delaware's Baseball History on Russ Pickett.com
SABR biography on Ted Kennedy |
4550231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu%20Darvish | Yu Darvish | , more commonly known as Yu Darvish (ダルビッシュ 有), is a Japanese professional baseball pitcher for the San Diego Padres of Major League Baseball (MLB). Darvish has also played in MLB for the Texas Rangers, Los Angeles Dodgers, and Chicago Cubs and in Nippon Professional Baseball for the Hokkaido Nippon-Ham Fighters. In international play, Darvish pitched in the 2008 Beijing Olympics and the 2009 World Baseball Classic as a member of the Japanese national team.
He was considered by many to be the best pitcher in Japanese professional baseball prior to his arrival in Major League Baseball in 2012. In his first MLB season, Darvish finished third in the American League (AL) Rookie of the Year balloting. The next season, he finished second in the AL Cy Young Award vote as he led the Major Leagues in strikeouts with 277 and finished fourth in the AL in earned run average (ERA) at 2.83. On 6 April 2014, Darvish reached the 500-strikeout mark in fewer innings pitched than any starting pitcher in MLB history.
Early life
Darvish was born in Habikino, Osaka, to a Japanese mother, Ikuyo, and Iranian father, Farsad Darvishsefat. His father played for the Florida State University soccer team. His paternal grandfather owned a travel agency in Iran and sent Farsad to the United States in 1977 to attend Berkshire School in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, where he played soccer and raced competitively in motocross.
Darvish began playing baseball in second grade and led his team to the quarterfinals of the national tournament as well as a third-place finish in the international tournament as a member of the Habikino Boys. He was scouted by over 50 high schools while in junior high. He opted to attend in Northern Sendai, a baseball powerhouse that produced players such as former Seattle Mariners and Yokohama BayStars closer Kazuhiro Sasaki and former BayStars and Los Angeles Dodgers reliever Takashi Saito.
High school career
Darvish became Tohoku High's ace pitcher by the fall of his first year (the equivalent of tenth grade in the United States) and led his team to four straight appearances in national tournaments held at Koshien Stadium in his junior and senior years, twice in the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament held in the spring and twice in the National High School Baseball Championship in the summer.
Darvish led his team to the finals of the 85th National High School Baseball Championship in the summer of 2003, but gave up four runs to Joso Gakuin High School, the Ibaraki champions, in a complete game loss.
Darvish attracted national attention when he pitched a no-hitter against Kumamoto Technical High School in the first round of the 76th National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament as a senior on 26 March 2004. The team lost in the quarter-finals despite stellar outings by Darvish and sidearmer Kenji Makabe (currently with Honda Motor Company's industrial league team). He pitched 12 games and put up a 7–3 record with 87 strikeouts in 92 innings pitched and a 1.47 ERA in his four national tournament appearances, and posted a 1.10 ERA for his high school career, striking out 375 in innings (67 appearances).
2004 draft
Darvish was scouted by Major League teams, such as the Anaheim Angels and Atlanta Braves, even while in junior high. As he entered his senior year of high school, the Los Angeles Angels, Los Angeles Dodgers, and New York Mets had expressed interest in signing him but Darvish's intent remained to play for a Japanese professional team instead.
Darvish was considered one of the best high school pitchers in the 2004 NPB amateur draft along with Yokohama Senior High School right-hander Hideaki Wakui (later picked by the Seibu Lions) and Akita Municipal Akita Commercial High School right-hander Tsuyoshi Sato (Hiroshima Toyo Carp). While the Fighters, Carp, Chunichi Dragons, Fukuoka Daiei Hawks, and Orix BlueWave all considered selecting Darvish with their first-round pick in the final months, the Fighters were one of the few teams that chose not to forgo the first round in exchange for signing a college or industrial league player prior to the draft. This enabled them to land Darvish with their first-round pick in 17 November draft, signing him to a base salary of , a signing bonus of , and additional performance-based incentives (the equivalent of what a first-round college or industrial league player would normally receive) on 17 December.
Professional career
Hokkaido Nippon-Ham Fighters (2005–2011)
2005 season
Darvish received further publicity when he was caught smoking in a pachinko parlor on an off-day during his first Spring training in , despite not being old enough to legally smoke nor to gamble at the time. The incident prompted his high school to suspend him, and the Fighters to place him under probation for an indefinite period and order him to participate in community service.
Despite his suspension, Darvish made his professional debut later that season, taking the mound in an interleague game against the Carp on 15 June. Though he gave up back-to-back solo home runs in the ninth, he pitched 8+ innings on those two runs alone and earned the win, becoming the 12th pitcher in NPB history to earn a win in one's professional debut as a rookie straight out of high school. He recorded his first complete game win on 6 August against the Lions and his first complete game shutout on 18 September, holding the Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles to just two hits and becoming the 14th pitcher in NPB history to throw a complete-game shutout as a rookie out of high school. He finished the season with a 5–5 record in 14 starts, throwing innings with an ERA of 3.53.
2006 season
Darvish had a breakout year in , compiling a 12–5 record with 115 strikeouts and a 2.89 ERA. In particular, he went 10–0 after 30 May, playing a leading role in the Fighters' first Pacific League title since (his win streak lasted until 14 April of the following season, when it reached 12–0) and contributing to their first championship since in the Japan Series over the Dragons. Darvish was chosen to take the hill for the first game of each of the Pacific League playoffs, Japan Series, and the 2006 Asia Series (played between the champions of Japan, China, Taiwan, and South Korea at the end of the season). Darvish, then 20 years old, became the first pitcher to start a Japan Series game since 1987 while under the age of 21, and the fifth pitcher in NPB history to win a Japan Series game at that age with his win in game 5 of the series. He also won the Asia Series Most Valuable Player award.
2007 season
Darvish was named the Fighters' starter for their season opener, becoming the fourth pitcher in franchise history (including the Fighters' years as the Senators and Flyers) to start a season opener within three years of graduating high school (the other three pitchers all started season openers as rookies). He struck out 14 over nine innings in a no-decision in his second start against the Lions on 30 March (the game ended a 2–2 tie in extra innings) and 14 again in a complete game win in his next start against the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks on 7 April, becoming the second pitcher in Japanese professional baseball history to strike out 14 or more batters in two consecutive starts.
Darvish went on to post a 15–5 record with a 1.82 ERA (falling just 0.003 points short of the league lead, which went to Chiba Lotte Marines left-hander Yoshihisa Naruse) for the year, limiting hitters to a .174 batting average against and leading the league with 210 strikeouts. He led the Fighters to their second consecutive league title, winning both of his starts in the second round of the Climax Series (playoffs) against the Marines.
Darvish took the mound in game 1 of the Japan Series that followed on 27 October against the Dragons for the second straight year, pitching a 13-strikeout, complete game win in an intense pitchers' duel with then-Dragons ace Kenshin Kawakami and becoming the third pitcher in Japan Series history to strike out 13 or more batters in a single game. With the Fighters down 3–1 and facing elimination, Darvish started game 5 on 1 November and held the Dragons to one run over seven innings while striking out 11. However, the Fighters had no answer for opposing right-hander Daisuke Yamai and closer Hitoki Iwase, failing to get a single man on base and allowing the first perfect game in Japan Series history. (However, the game was not an official perfect game according to NPB regulations, which state that a perfect game must be thrown by a single pitcher.) The Dragons won the game 1–0, charging Darvish with the loss and becoming Japan Series champions. The 24 strikeouts that Darvish totaled in his two starts were the second-highest by any single pitcher in series history (and the highest in a series that went only five games).
Darvish was presented with both his first career Eiji Sawamura Award (being the first to meet or exceed guidelines for the award in all seven categories in 14 years) and his first Most Valuable Player award following the season. He also won the Golden Glove and Best Nine awards that year.
Darvish made his national team debut in the 2007 Asian Baseball Championship (which also functioned as the Asian qualifying tournament for the 2008 Beijing Olympics) against Chinese Taipei on 3 December 2007. Because Japanese law requires that a person holding dual citizenship choose a single nationality before their twenty-second birthday, Darvish had chosen to retain his Japanese citizenship so that he could play for the national team in the Olympics.
On 22 December, Darvish re-signed with the Nippon Ham Fighters for plus payment at piece rates, up from 2006. At 21 years old, Darvish became the youngest player in Japanese baseball history to reach the mark.
2008 season
In , Darvish was named the Fighters' starter in the season opener for the second consecutive year, pitching a complete game shutout in that very game (the Fighters won 1–0). Even as his team struggled in the opening months of the season, Darvish continued to rack up wins at a pace that exceeded his own in the previous season. As the year went on, he and Eagles ace Hisashi Iwakuma emerged as the league leaders in both wins and ERA. On 10 April, in their only match-up of the season, neither gave up a single hit through the first five innings. Iwakuma went the distance, throwing just 100 pitches and giving up just one run on three hits; yet Darvish topped this, throwing another complete-game shutout on three hits and just 95 pitches in one of the best pitchers' duels of the season.
While he did not pitch the way he had hoped in the Olympics, Darvish promptly put up a perfect 5–0 record with a 1.29 ERA and two complete games in the five starts upon returning to the Fighters, leading them to a playoff berth in a heated race against the Marines. While the Fighters failed to make the Japan Series, Darvish took the mound in two playoff games, giving up one run in a complete game win in one and pitching a complete-game shutout in another. Although he lost out to Iwakuma (who put up an astonishing 21–4 record) in wins, he finished second in all three Triple Crown categories, finishing the season with a 16–4 record, 1.88 ERA and 208 strikeouts. (It was his second straight year putting up an ERA under 2.00, throwing more than 200 innings, and striking out over 200 hitters despite missing time due to the Olympics.) Regardless, the Sawamura Award was presented to Iwakuma, and Darvish became just the second pitcher to clear the guidelines in all seven categories to not win the award (Suguru Egawa was the first in 1982).
Darvish took the mound in game 1 of the first round of the Climax Series against the Orix Buffaloes on 11 October, allowing nine hits but holding the team to one run while striking out 14 in a 4–1 complete game win. He started game 2 of the second round against the Saitama Seibu Lions on 18 October and pitched a complete-game shutout in a 5–0 win, but the Fighters lost the series 4–2 and fell short of their third straight appearance in the Japan Series.
On 1 December, Darvish re-signed with the Nippon Ham Fighters for plus payment at piece rates, up from 2007.
2009 season
Darvish started the Fighters' season opener for the third straight year in , taking the mound against the Eagles on 3 April in a matchup with the reigning Sawamura Award winner and World Baseball Classic teammate Hisashi Iwakuma. Darvish gave up three runs in the first inning but went the distance, allowing no runs from the second inning onward in a 121-pitch, complete-game loss (Iwakuma held the Fighters to one run over six innings and was credited with the win). On 24 April, he struck out six straight and 11 overall en route to a four-hit, complete-game shutout (his first of the season) over the Buffaloes, following it up by holding the Lions to one run and striking out 11 over nine innings in a no-decision in a match-up with fellow 22-year-old ace Hideaki Wakui on 1 May (the Fighters lost 2–1 in extra innings).
On 22 August, Darvish was taken off the active roster for the first time in his career due to injury. The Fighters classified it as "shoulder fatigue", and the deactivation came after a career-worst start against the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks, in which he went eight innings, but gave up six earned runs in a losing effort. He was reactivated on 13 September, but in his second start back a week later against the Orix Buffaloes, Darvish gave up a career-high seven walks in five innings, and two runs. Three days later he was deactivated again due to discomfort in his shoulder and a sore back.
Darvish was activated again just in time for the 2009 Japan Series against the Central League champion Yomiuri Giants, and he pitched game 2 on 1 November. He went six innings, giving up two runs on seven hits, and also striking out 7 Giants. He became the winning pitcher, and the team won 4–2. The Yomiuri Giants would go on and win the championship series 4 games to 1. After the Japan Series, It was revealed that Yu had a stress fracture of the right-hand forefinger. Darvish said he first experienced pain after practice on 28 October but kept it to himself. Also, he was unable to fully use the lower part of his body due to hip pains.
Darvish was presented with his second Most Valuable Player and Best Nine awards at the end of the season. He became the third player to have won 2 MVP awards in their first five years in the NPB, joining Kazuhisa Inao and Ichiro Suzuki. However, he lost out on his second Sawamura Award to Saitama Seibu Lions ace Hideaki Wakui.
On 9 December, Darvish re-signed with the Nippon Ham Fighters for , up from 2009. At 23, Darvish became the youngest player in Japanese baseball history to reach the mark, along with being the highest-paid pitcher in the Pacific League presently.
2010 season
Darvish's 2010 season was another strong individual performance, but he struggled to win as many games due to the Fighters troubles. The Fighters finished 74–67, but in fourth place. His opening-day loss was reflective of his 2010 season; he pitched well but the team struggled. He began the 2010 season losing to the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks on 20 March. Darvish allowed two early unearned runs on his way to a complete game loss (5 runs allowed, 3 earned runs) striking out 13. The Fighters began the season with a 5–14–1 stretch that put them with their worst winning percentage in five years. They struggled in all phases of play, but Darvish continued to pitch well. Even at this low point, he was leading the league in strikeouts even as the rest of the rotation was 3–9. Darvish struck out at least 10 hitters in each of his first five starts.
Darvish's 2010 season also was noticeable because speculation increased about his potential move (or posting) to Major League Baseball. Darvish was interviewed by The Associated Press where he announced his plans to review his options at the end of the season. He noted, "Right now, I'm just focused on helping my team win this season ... Once the season is over, I'll consider my future." The Associated Press noted that both his exposure to international play during the 2009 World Baseball Classic and recurring injuries both led him to consider leaving Japan. In addition to back problems he also missed a start in June with a sore right knee.
Despite the injuries and potential distractions, Darvish pitched well down the stretch. His last three starts were all complete games and he struck out 35 hitters in those 27 innings. Darvish finished the season with only a 12–8 record, but with a 1.78 ERA. He led the league with 10 complete games, 222 strikeouts, a 1.01 WHIP. This was Darvish's fourth consecutive sub 2.00 ERA.
On 18 October 2010, Darvish posted on his blog that he would be returning to the Fighters for the 2011 season.
2011 season
On 6 January 2011, Darvish agreed to a contract for the 2011 season that would make him the highest-paid player in Japan. His salary was (which on 6 January converted to ).
The 2011 Nippon Professional Baseball season was delayed by the Tohoku earthquake. Controversy emerged over when baseball should resume. Commissioner Ryozo Kato was criticized for comparing the resumption to the return of Major League Baseball ten days after the September 11 attacks. Darvish was among the players who felt that it was not appropriate to quickly return to baseball, saying, "I am a baseball player and a human being as well. I cannot think about baseball alone as I normally do." Darvish took part in efforts to raise funds for the relief efforts and personally donated (about ) to the Japanese Red Cross.
Eventually, the teams agreed to play the full 144-game schedule, but the start of the season would be pushed back several weeks. The season began on 12 April 2011 and Darvish started against the Saitama Seibu Lions. He struggled, allowing seven runs in seven innings and taking the loss.
This poor start would not reflect on his overall performance. After that opening game, he would not allow more than three runs in any of his starts. Darvish would win his next eight starts and thirteen of his next fourteen decisions. Darvish would finish with his strongest all-around season, winning 18 games and featuring a career-low 1.44 ERA. He also led the league with 28 starts, 232 innings, 276 strikeouts and a 0.82 WHIP. He also featured remarkable control, walking only 36 batters.
Despite his accomplishments, Darvish was not recognized with the best pitcher in Japan's honor, the Sawamura Award. Three of the five-member committee voted to recognize Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles right-hander Masahiro Tanaka. Selection committee chief Masayuki Dobashi explained, "ERA is the best stat to evaluate pitchers ... Tanaka's ERA was a little better than that of Darvish. Tanaka also had more complete games than Darvish." Pitchers must qualify for the award by meeting seven criteria: 15 wins, a 2.50 ERA, 200 innings pitched, 10 complete games, 150 strikeouts, 25 appearances and a .600 winning percentage. Both Tanaka and Darvish met all the criteria. Tanaka noted, "I only had better numbers than him (Darvish) ... As a pitcher, I'm nowhere near his caliber."
The Nippon Ham Fighters were eliminated in the first round of the Pacific League playoffs, losing both games to the Saitama Seibu Lions. Darvish started game one of the series, going seven innings and allowing only one run on four hits, while striking out nine. After Darvish departed, Seibu scored one run in the 9th inning to send the game to extra innings and added three more to win the game in the 11th inning.
After being eliminated, speculation again increased about Darvish being posted to Major League Baseball. His pending divorce allegedly complicated this situation. Speculation centered on his wife's potential claims to a share of a new contract with an American team.
Texas Rangers (2012–2017)
2012 season
Darvish was posted to Major League Baseball prior to the 2012 season, and is currently represented by agents Don Nomura and Arn Tellem. He added confirmation of this posting on his blog. MLB teams had until 14 December 2011 to submit a blind posting bid, and the Hokkaido Nippon Ham Fighters had until 20 December 2011 to announce whether the highest bid would be accepted or rejected. Their announcement of acceptance of the highest bid, from the Texas Rangers, was made on 19 December 2011 EST, at a reported $51.7 million. The Rangers then had 30 days to negotiate with Darvish, or he would return to Japan. On 18 January 2012, the Texas Rangers signed Darvish to a contract for six years with a player option to void the last year, fifteen minutes prior to a 4:00pm CST deadline. Rangers CEO Nolan Ryan commented that Darvish had shown more control than he did at Darvish's age.
Darvish's first start in the Majors came on 9 April against the Seattle Mariners in Texas. His first MLB strikeout was of Dustin Ackley on a 2–2 80 mph curveball; the first MLB hit that he allowed was a single into left field by Ichiro Suzuki on a 2–2 96 mph fastball. He threw for 5 innings, giving up 8 hits, 5 runs, and 4 walks, and striking out five, gaining his first MLB win in the process. When Alexi Ogando came to relieve him in the 6th, Darvish got a standing ovation from the crowd at Rangers Ballpark in Arlington.
Darvish's first start away from Rangers Ballpark in Arlington came on 14 April against the Minnesota Twins at Target Field. He pitched for 5 innings, allowing 9 hits, 4 walks, and 2 runs (one of which was unearned), while collecting 4 strikeouts. Despite the Rangers winning the game, it was a no-decision for Darvish. Instead, teammate Robbie Ross picked up the win.
On 24 April, in a game against the New York Yankees, Darvish pitched for 8 shutout innings, collecting 10 strikeouts, while allowing seven hits and two walks. He gave up a hit to Nick Swisher with one out in the 9th. Joe Nathan, the Rangers' closer, relieved him and induced a ground ball double play to get the save and secure the third win for Darvish. As Nathan came in, Darvish received a deafening ovation from the crowd. This game also marked the seventh time in MLB history that the two starting pitchers were both Japanese, with Hiroki Kuroda on the mound for the Yankees. The game was also televised in Japan.
On 30 April, Darvish gave up his first MLB home run to Edwin Encarnación of the Toronto Blue Jays, in a game that Texas won 4–1. Darvish improved to 4–0, striking out nine and giving up only one run.
For his performances in April, Darvish was named the AL Rookie of the Month. Darvish went 4–0 with a 2.18 ERA and 33 strikeouts. His first loss didn't come until 6 May, against the Cleveland Indians.
On 20 June, in an interleague game against the San Diego Padres at Petco Park, Darvish got his first career MLB hit. In his first at-bat, he hit a bat-shattering single into shallow right field. He did not get to run the bases however, as Ian Kinsler hit a line shot to the second baseman, and Darvish was tagged off of the bag to complete the double play. He went 1-for-3 for the game.
On 5 July 2012, the MLB announced that Yu Darvish for the American League and David Freese for the National League were the final two players to make the 2012 MLB All-Star Game rosters. Darvish had 10 wins and five losses with a 3.59 ERA when MLB announced him as an All-Star. However, Darvish didn't get a chance to pitch in the game, watching from the dugout as his team lost 8–0.
2013 season
On 2 April 2013, Darvish pitched a perfect game through eight 2/3 innings against the Houston Astros, before throwing a slider and giving up a single to Marwin González. He threw 111 pitches, striking out 14 and walking none. On 27 May, Darvish became the first player since Randy Johnson and Curt Schilling in 2002 to have 100 strikeouts by Memorial Day. On 10 July 2013, Darvish was placed on the 15-day DL due to a strained trapezius and was replaced on the All-Star roster by Matt Moore. On 12 August 2013, he pitched a no-hitter through innings against the Houston Astros until giving up a home run to Carlos Corporán. Darvish struck out a career-high of 15 in that game and Texas won 2–1. By season's end, he compiled 277 strikeouts in just innings. Additionally, was fourth in the American League in with a 2.83 ERA, behind Aníbal Sánchez, Hisashi Iwakuma, and Bartolo Colón. Despite a pedestrian 13–9 won-lost record, Darvish placed second in the Cy Young voting to the Detroit Tigers' Max Scherzer.
2014 season
In his first start of the 2014 season, Darvish faced the Tampa Bay Rays on 6 April. He struck out David DeJesus and Wil Myers to start the game, notching his 500th career strikeout. The two strikeouts gave Darvish career IP in the Major Leagues, making him the fastest to reach 500 strikeouts in terms of innings pitched. It topped Kerry Wood's previous record by three innings. The Rangers won the game 3–0 as Darvish pitched seven shutout innings and struck out six overall. On 9 May, Darvish took a no-hitter in the seventh inning against the Boston Red Sox before giving up a single to David Ortiz. The hit was initially ruled an error, thus allowing Darvish to take a no-hitter into the ninth before Ortiz recorded a single in that inning, however Major League Baseball subsequently overruled the scoring decision, ending the no-hitter in the seventh. On 11 June 2014, Darvish threw his first complete-game shutout against the Miami Marlins. Darvish allowed 6 hits, and 3 walks and struck out 10.
On 6 July 2014, Yu Darvish was elected to play the 2014 MLB All-Star Game. Darvish entered the All-Star Game in the third inning to retire all three batters.
2015 season
During spring training, Darvish began to experience soreness in his right triceps. He underwent an MRI the following day, which eventually revealed that his right elbow had a torn UCL, preventing Darvish from participating for the entire 2015 baseball season. He underwent Tommy John surgery on 17 March 2015, performed by Dr. James Andrews.
2016 season
Darvish began the 2016 season on the 15-day disabled list in an effort to continue recovery from the Tommy John surgery he underwent in 2015. He returned on 28 May against the Pittsburgh Pirates, pitching five innings with seven strikeouts and one run allowed on three hits as the Rangers went on to win 5–2. On 13 June 2016, he was placed on the 15-day disabled list due to neck and shoulder strains. On 24 August 2016, he hit his first career MLB home run in an away game against the Cincinnati Reds, the first home run by a Rangers pitcher since Bobby Witt in 1997.
2017 season
Throughout the entire 2017 season, Darvish was enshrouded in trade rumors as he only had one year left of team control and the Rangers fell further from playoff contention. On 23 July, the Rangers stated that Darvish would not be available for trade. However, two days later, the Rangers said that the team would be open to trading Darvish for the "right deal". On 26 July, Darvish pitched innings, giving up a career-high ten earned runs, the most ever by a Japanese pitcher in MLB history.
Los Angeles Dodgers (2017)
On 31 July 2017, the Rangers traded Darvish to the Los Angeles Dodgers for prospects Willie Calhoun, A. J. Alexy, and Brendon Davis. He was 4–3 with a 3.44 ERA in nine starts for the Dodgers. Overall in 2017, combined with both teams, Darvish made 31 starts with a 10–12 record, 209 strikeouts, 12 wild pitches (7th in the major leagues), and a 3.86 ERA.
In the postseason, he won his one start in the 2017 NLDS, allowing one run in five innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks while striking out seven. He also pitched well in the 2017 NLCS against the Chicago Cubs, with one run in 6 innings with also seven strikeouts.
2017 World Series
In the 2017 World Series he failed to get out of the second inning in either of his two starts against the Houston Astros. He lost both games, including game seven, and allowed nine runs (eight earned) in 3 innings while failing to strike out a single batter. They were the shortest two starts of his career, and Darvish became the first starting pitcher since Art Ditmar in 1960 to have two starts of less than two innings in the World Series. Shortly after the World Series, an unnamed Astros player suggested that Darvish had been tipping his pitches. Dodgers teammate Chase Utley had evaluated Darvish's game three start and concluded that this was not the case, though Darvish changed his approach for game seven. More than a month later, a Sports Illustrated article revealed that the Astros had figured out how Darvish was tipping his pitches: "Darvish holds the ball at his side when he gets the sign from the catcher. Whether he re-grips or not as he brings the ball into his glove was the tip-off whether he was going to throw a slider/cutter or a fastball." This unnamed Astros player said the Astros had known about this going into game 3 which they also won, but that they had an even better game plan for game 7.
After the season, Darvish became a free agent for the first time in his career, and he chose not to re-sign with the Dodgers as there was much fan ire against him for his disappointing World Series outings that many felt had cost the Dodgers the title.
With the Astros being disciplined on 13 January 2020 for using cameras to steal catcher-to-pitcher signals during the 2017 MLB postseason, Darvish refused to blame sign stealing for his poor starts and instead suggested that the 2017 Astros batters were talented, and he humorously posted on Twitter that he would wear a "Yu Garbage" jersey if the Dodgers held a championship parade.
Chicago Cubs (2018–2020)
On February 13, 2018, Darvish signed a six-year, $126 million contract with the Chicago Cubs. He played his first game with the Cubs on 31 March 2018, against the Miami Marlins. He allowed 5 runs in innings as the Cubs won 10–6 in 10 innings. On 7 May, Darvish was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to the flu. On 26 May, Darvish was again placed on the 10-day disabled list due to right triceps tendinitis. On 19 August 2018, Darvish began a rehab stint. While warming up before the second inning, Darvish summoned trainers and was removed from the game. An MRI revealed Darvish had a stress reaction on his right elbow as well as a triceps strain, ending his 2018 season, after only 8 games and 40 innings pitched, in which he was 1–3 with a 4.95 ERA.
Darvish in 2019 for the Cubs was 6–8 with a 3.98 ERA and 225 strikeouts in 31 starts. He gave up 33 home runs, the most in the National League, threw 11 wild pitches, the second-most in the NL, and hit 11 batsmen, third-most in the league.
In the pandemic-shortened 2020 season, Darvish placed 2nd in the National League Cy Young vote after a season going 8–3 with a 2.01 ERA. He led the National League in wins, was second in ERA, walks per nine innings pitched (1.658), and home runs per nine innings pitched (0.592), fourth in WHIP (0.961), fifth in won-loss percentage (.727), seventh in hits per nine innings pitched (6.987), and eighth in strikeouts per nine innings pitched (11.013).
San Diego Padres (2021–present)
On 29 December 2020, Darvish along with personal catcher Víctor Caratini were traded to the San Diego Padres in exchange for pitcher Zach Davies and prospects Owen Caissie, Reginald Preciado, Yeison Santana, and Ismael Mena ahead of the 2021 season. In his first year with the Padres, Darvish posted an 8–11 record with a 4.22 ERA and 199 strikeouts in innings. He was also named to his fifth All-Star team.
The following season, Darvish threw his 3,000th career strikeout on 2 September 2022, becoming only the second Japanese pitcher after Hideo Nomo to reach the milestone. In 30 starts for San Diego in 2022, Darvish recorded a 16–8 record and 3.10 ERA with 197 strikeouts in 194.2 innings pitched.
On February 9, 2023, Darvish signed a six-year, $108 million contract extension with the Padres ahead of the 2023 season. On August 14, 2023, Darvish surpassed Hideo Nomo to become MLB's Japanese-born leader in strikeouts. On August 31, Darvish was diagnosed with a bone spur in his right elbow, causing him to be shut down for the rest of the season.
International career
2008 Beijing Olympics
Named the ace of the Japanese national team by manager Senichi Hoshino in the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Darvish took the hill in Japan's first game of the preliminary round against Cuba on 13 August, but was charged with the loss after giving up four runs in four innings. The subpar outing caused Hoshino to lose faith in him and scratch Darvish from the semi-finals that he had penciled him in for, sending Darvish to the mound only in situations that would have no bearing on Japan's fate in the tournament. Darvish started the last game of the preliminary round against the United States on 20 August and was brought in to mop up after the U.S. had taken a decisive lead in the bronze medal match, finishing the tournament 0–1 with a 5.14 ERA (albeit with 10 strikeouts in seven innings pitched).
2009 World Baseball Classic
Darvish pitched in the 2009 World Baseball Classic as the de facto ace of the Japanese national team, starting the opening game against China on 5 March. He pitched four innings, allowing one walk and no hits and striking out three as Japan beat China, 4–0. However, pitching in a Major League stadium for the first time in his career, he struggled in his second outing of the tournament against South Korea on 17 March, throwing five innings and giving up three runs (two earned) on four hits and a walk and ultimately being charged with the loss. His first career save would follow six days later, when he pitched the final inning of the semi-finals against the United States, yielding no runs and a single and striking out two as Japan won 9–4.
Darvish came on in relief in the bottom of the ninth inning of the championship game against South Korea with Japan leading 3–2. He struck out his first batter, walked the next two, struck out his next, and then gave up a tying two-out single before finishing the inning with another strikeout. However, Japan scored two runs in the top of the tenth inning to regain a 5–3 lead, and after giving up a leadoff walk in the bottom of the inning, Darvish retired the next three batters (striking out two of them) to clinch Japan's second consecutive tournament title. In the WBC he finished at 2–1 with a 2.08 ERA and 20 strikeouts in 13 innings. He recorded a career-high 99 mph when he worked in relief at the WBC.
2023 World Baseball Classic
Darvish was named in Japan's roster for the 2023 World Baseball Classic.
Pitching style
Darvish is a right-handed pitcher who throws from a three-quarter arm slot in a drop-and-drive motion. He has a large frame for a pitcher, listed at 6 ft 5 in and 220 lb. Darvish throws a four-seam fastball which averages 93–95 mph (tops out at 99 mph), as well as a hard slurve (slider) in the low 80s with a sharp break. He complements these two with a wide repertoire of secondary pitches, including a two-seam fastball (also described as a shuuto), a cutter, two curveballs, a splitter, and an occasional changeup. Darvish has a "fast curve" and a "slow curve", the former averaging about 80 mph and the latter about 71. The slow curve is almost exclusively used in no-strike and 1-strike counts, while the fast curve is mostly used in 2-strike counts. Some professional scouts consider Darvish to have the best repertoire of quality pitches, including the best slider, in all of Major League Baseball. In August 2019, Darvish learned a knuckle curve from Cubs teammate Craig Kimbrel and began using the pitch.
Advance scouting on Darvish is made difficult by his tendency to change his most frequent pitch sequences over time.
While Darvish uses both the set, or "stretch" position and the windup, he has been noted for pitching exclusively from the stretch at times, even when there is no one on base. While pitching from the windup is generally thought to add velocity to pitches, the set position allows pitchers more control over baserunners. In Darvish's case the set position often is used as a way of keeping his delivery in sync and consistent.
Prior to the 2006 season, Darvish's "go-to" pitch was a screwball, and he tends to rely more on his off-speed pitches than his fastball. After injuring his shoulder in an exhibition game start against the 2006 World Baseball Classic Japanese national team in February 2006, because of the strain the screwball had gradually been putting on his shoulder, he took the pitch out of his in-game repertoire and worked to develop his splitter until it became an equally effective pitch that would replace the screwball. He also has succeeded in increasing his fastball velocity from year to year.
In 2019 season alone, he used 10 different pitches: Cutter with two different movements, four seam and two seam fastballs, slider, splitter, normal and slow curveballs, knuckle curve, and a changeup. In 2020, he revealed on Twitter that he learned a 'supreme pitch', which is a hybrid between a splitter and a two-seam fastball. This pitch can reach 93 mph. In order to add new pitches to his arsenal, Darvish will often use a new pitch in game with little knowledge beforehand, forcing him to adapt to it quickly.
Personal life
In August 2007, Darvish acknowledged a relationship with Japanese model and actress Saeko. He announced later that Saeko was pregnant with their son. They married on 11 November 2007, and their son was born in March 2008. Their second child, a boy, was born in February 2010. The couple's divorce was finalized in January 2012, on the same day that Darvish officially signed with the Rangers.
Darvish established a humanitarian fund dedicated to the construction, installation, and maintenance of wells, well pumps, and rainwater storage facilities in developing countries called the "Yu Darvish Water Fund" in February 2007. He announced plans to contribute to the fund by donating each time he notches a regular season win. The fund is managed by the Japan Water Forum.
An entertainment company, Avex Group Holdings Inc. manages Darvish's non-baseball rights worldwide and Darvish has appeared in ads for many companies, including Seiko, Asahi Dry Black Beer and Pocari Sweat. Also, Darvish has appeared on the covers of Japanese men's fashion magazines, such as GQ, Men's Non-No, and Gainer. Darvish was selected as the "GQ Man of the Year" in the February 2012 Japan issue.
On 30 July 2015, Darvish announced that his girlfriend, former world-champion wrestler Seiko Yamamoto, gave birth to their son on 29 July.
In 2018, Darvish purchased a $4.55 million home in Evanston, Illinois. He requested permission to construct a six-foot high fence around the property and to acquire adjacent land owned by the city, which caused some controversy among his neighbors, as the fence would require a zoning variance and would obstruct neighborhood views of Lake Michigan. After the fence was constructed, Darvish's neighbors filed a lawsuit in Cook County Circuit Court on 29 March 2019, asking a judge to rule that the Darvishes' fence obstructed their view of the lake, violating an easement and a verbal agreement.
See also
List of Major League Baseball players from Japan
List of World Series starting pitchers
References
External links
Yu Darvish at JapaneseBallPlayers.com
1986 births
2009 World Baseball Classic players
2023 World Baseball Classic players
American League All-Stars
American League strikeout champions
Baseball people from Osaka Prefecture
Baseball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Chicago Cubs players
Frisco RoughRiders players
Hokkaido Nippon-Ham Fighters players
Japanese expatriate baseball players in the United States
Japanese YouTubers
Japanese people of Iranian descent
Living people
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball players from Japan
National League wins champions
Nippon Professional Baseball pitchers
Nippon Professional Baseball MVP Award winners
Olympic baseball players for Japan
People from Habikino
Round Rock Express players
San Diego Padres players
Sportspeople of Iranian descent
Texas Rangers players |
4550726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%20World%20Championships%20in%20Athletics | 2013 World Championships in Athletics | The 14th IAAF World Championships in Athletics (Moscow 2013) () was an international athletics competition held in Moscow, Russia, from 10 to 18 August 2013. Initially, Russia won the most gold medals to top the table for the first time since 2001. It was also the first time ever the host nation took the top of the medal table. However, following the disqualification of Russian sprinter Antonina Krivoshapka for doping and after the redistribution of medals in the Women's 4 × 400 metres relay (as well as after series of other disqualifications of Russian athletes for doping offences), the United States moved to the top of the medal table with eight golds. In the overall medal count, the United States won 26 medals in total, followed by Kenya with 12. With 1,784 athletes from 203 countries it was the biggest single sports event of the year. The number of spectators for the evening sessions was 268,548 surpassing Daegu 2011.
Jamaica's Usain Bolt and Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce both won three gold medals in the men's and women's 100 metres, 200 metres and 4 × 100 metres relay respectively to become the most successful athletes at the event. This achievement also earned Bolt the title of being the most successful athlete in the history of the World Championships with eight gold and two silver medals. Prior to the competition, four sprinters were banned on doping charges.
Bidding process
When the seeking deadline passed on 1 December 2006, four candidate cities had confirmed their candidatures. These were: Barcelona (Spain), Brisbane (Australia), Moscow (Russia) and Gothenburg (Sweden). The IAAF announced Moscow the winning candidate at the IAAF Council Meeting in Mombasa on 27 March 2007.
Gothenburg backed out already in December, citing lack of financial support from the Swedish government. Barcelona had a record of hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics and the 1995 IAAF World Indoor Championships. It was chosen over Madrid and Valencia, which were at one point outlined as possible candidates. (Barcelona was later selected as the host for the 2010 European Athletics Championships).
Brisbane simultaneously bid for 2011 and 2013 World Championships with the primary focus being on the 2011 event. Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre (ANZ Stadium) was the proposed venue. The venue had hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games and 2001 Goodwill Games. It was also a failed bidder for the 2009 World Championships in Athletics, which was eventually won by Berlin.
In the case of Moscow, Deputy Mayor Valery Vinogradov announced on 13 March 2006 that the city would bid for the 2011 Championships and suggested Luzhniki Stadium as venue. When the IAAF elected to decide the 2011 and 2013 events at the same meeting, Moscow added its name to the 2013 list. The city had hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics (also at the Luzhniki Stadium) and the 2006 IAAF World Indoor Championships.
Venue
Main venue was Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow with a capacity of 78,360 spectators.
Event schedule
Day by day event schedule of the 2013 championships
All dates are MSK (UTC+3)
Reference:
Event summary
The championships featured 3 championship records, 22 world leadings, 2 area records, 48 national records but no world records. In addition to gold medals, individual winners received prize money of $60,000 where as members of winning relay teams received $20,000.
Men
Usain Bolt of Jamaica moved to the top of the all-time World Championships medal table by winning three gold medals. He won the 100 metres, the 200 metres, and Jamaica won the 4 × 100 metre relay behind a strong anchor leg from Bolt who passed the United States' Justin Gatlin down the stretch. It was Bolt's second three gold performance at the World Championships. After the meet, his career total stood at 8 golds and 2 silvers, narrowly surpassing Carl Lewis' 8 golds, 1 silver, and 1 bronze. Trinidad and Tobago's Jehue Gordon edged America's Michael Tinsley by a hundredth of a second to win the 400-metre hurdles. It was the first gold for Trinidad and Tobago since 1997. Serbia's Emir Bekrić took bronze in national record time. Félix Sánchez, competing for the Dominican Republic, also made the final of the event, marking his seventh consecutive World Championship 400-metre hurdles final.
Great Britain's Mo Farah won the 5,000 metres and 10,000 metres to become the second man in history to win both events at both the World Champions and the Olympics. The only man to do it before had been Kenenisa Bekele of Ethiopia. Stephen Kiprotich of Uganda became the first non-Kenyan to win the marathon at the World Championships since 2005. It was also Uganda's first men's title in the history of the event. Kiprotich became only the second man, after Gezahegne Abera, to follow an Olympic marathon gold medal with a world championship marathon gold medal. Ethiopians Lelisa Desisa and Tadese Tola took second and third respectively.
In the high jump, Bohdan Bondarenko set a Championship record of 2.41 (7'10.75") en route to a gold medal in a highly competitive final. Mutaz Essa Barshim of Qatar took second and Derek Drouin set a Canadian national record while winning bronze.
Track
Field
Women
Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce became the first woman in World Championships history to sweep the sprint events when anchored Jamaica to gold in the 4×100-metre relay. Jamaica's time of 41.29 set a Championships record. Earlier in the meet, Fraser-Pryce won the 100 metres and the 200 metres. In the final of the 200 metres, Allyson Felix tore her right hamstring. A photo-finish gave Murielle Ahouré of the Ivory Coast the silver over Nigeria's Blessing Okagbare after both finished in the same time.
Great Britain's Christine Ohuruogu won the 400 metres in a national record time of 49.41. She came from behind to edge out defending champion Amantle Montsho of Botswana by 4 thousands of a second in a photo finish. Zuzana Hejnová won gold and set a Czech national record in the 400-metre hurdles. Eunice Sum of Kenya won her first major title, besting Olympic champion Mariya Savinova of Russia in the 800 metres.
In the 4×400 m relay, although the United States suffered a time-wasting exchange on the final leg, the Americans won by more than two seconds over Great Britain and France. The medal ceremony for the event took place at the 2017 IAAF World Championships in London upon the certification of results by the IAAF following the retroactive disqualification of first-place Russia when Antonina Krivoshapka was retroactively disqualified on a positive drug test in a 2017 retest of samples.
Russia's Tatyana Lysenko set a World Championships record in the hammer throw en route to the gold. Caterine Ibargüen won Colombia's first ever World Championship gold by finishing first in the triple jump. Christina Obergföll of Germany won her first World Championships title in javelin.
Track
Field
Reference:
Statistics
Medal table
A total of 47 sets of medals were distributed between 39 countries. Initially, host nation Russia topped the medal table with seven gold medals. However, after numerous disqualifications of Russians athletes for doping, the United States topped the medal table with eight golds. In the overall medal count, the United States won 26 medals in total, followed by Kenya with 12.
Points
The IAAF placing table assigns eight points to the first place and so on to the eight finalists (except teams that do not start or are disqualified). 59 IAAF members received points.
Host.
Participating nations
206 countries (or more accurately, IAAF members) participated with a total of 1974 athletes. The biggest delegation was the one of USA with 137 athletes. The number of athletes sent per nation is show in parentheses.
Reference:
Broadcasting
Argentina: TyC Sports
Austria: ORF Sport +
Belgium: Canvas, La Deux
Bosnia and Herzegovina: BHT 1
Brazil: SporTV
Bulgaria: BNT 1
Colombia: Caracol TV
Costa Rica: Teletica
Croatia: HRT 2
Cuba Tele Rebelde
Czech Republic: ČT Sport
Denmark: DR3
El Salvador: Canal 4
Estonia: ETV
European Union: Eurosport, EBU
Finland: Yle
Iceland: RÚV
France: France 2
Germany: ARD,: ZDF
Greece: HBC
Hong Kong: STAR Sports (only in Score Tonight)
India: TEN Sports
Israel: IBA 1
Italy: Rai Sport 1
Jamaica: TVJ
Japan: TBS
Latvia: LTV 7
Lithuania: LRT
Macedonia: ALFA TV
Netherlands: NOS
Norway: NRK1, NRK2
Pakistan: TEN Sports
Peru: ATV
Poland: TVP
Portugal: RTP2
Russia: Russia 2, Sport 1
Serbia: RTS 2
Slovakia: Dvojka
Slovenia: RTV Slo 2
South Africa: SuperSport
Spain: Teledeporte
Sweden: TV4
Switzerland: SRG SSR
Turkey: TRT 3
United Kingdom: BBC Sport
Ukraine: NTU
United States: Universal Sports, NBC Sports
American coverage
In the United States the IAAF sold exclusive rights to Universal Sports, a network associated with NBC Sports. Universal Sports can only be seen in about ten percent of the households in the American market. While NBC provided an hour and a half of coverage on weekend days, Universal Sports limited other distribution of the content, even online content requiring login with cable subscription user names. For those viewers without access to Universal Sports, nationwide coverage of the entire meet was generally limited to six hours of weekend coverage. The IAAF provided short YouTube highlight clips, a fraction of the online coverage they provided from Daegu two years earlier, instead promoting an internet radio feed and Twitter updates.
Controversies
The introduction of a Russia federal law in June banning "homosexual propaganda" affected the championships hosted in Moscow. Western and international bodies had already condemned the move prior to the event, which was scheduled several months prior to the more prominent 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. The IAAF deputy secretary general, Nick Davies, stated that the international nature of the competition might alter the country's perspective, but that the matter of gay rights would not be addressed by the championships, as long as its athletes were unaffected. Russian politician Vitaly Milonov had stated that the law would apply to athletes and tourists in the same way as Russian citizens. He also said those suggesting a boycott of the championships in protest of the laws were merely avoiding their competitors, saying "sports competitions are a place where there can't be any politics".
Several athletes voiced their concerns over the issue of gay rights in Russia, but none boycotted the event. American runner Nick Symmonds, a supporter of the NOH8 Campaign for equal rights, said he would respect the host nation and its laws and would focus on sporting competition only in Moscow. However, he maintained his position as an advocate of gay rights and would silently dedicate his performance "to my gay and lesbian friends back home".
Two Swedish athletes, high jumper Emma Green Tregaro and sprinter Moa Hjelmer, attracted attention when they painted their nails in a rainbow pattern in support of gay rights and displayed the colours during the qualifying rounds. The IAAF notified the Swedish Athletics Federation that this gesture was in breach of rules on athlete conduct. The Swedish officials stood by Green Tregaro, but she relented under the pressure – in the high jump finals, she sported all red nails as a symbol of love. While watching the high jump finals, Paavo Arhinmäki, the Finnish Minister for Culture and Sport, waved a rainbow flag at the arena. Hjelmer had been eliminated in the first round of the 200 metres and did not compete again at the championships.
Russia's Yelena Isinbayeva was a popular winner in the women's pole vault, but later drew controversy for her remarks criticizing Green Tregaro's nails. She said the protests were disrespectful towards the host nation and commented in English: "We consider ourselves like normal, standard people, we just live boys with women, girls with boys...We have our law which everyone has to respect. When we go to different countries, we try to follow their rules." Following the negative reactions from other athletes and Western media she said that she had been misunderstood due to her grasp of English: "What I wanted to say was that people should respect the laws of other countries particularly when they are guests. But let me make it clear I respect the views of my fellow athletes, and let me state in the strongest terms that I am opposed to any discrimination against gay people on the grounds of their sexuality (which is against the Olympic Charter)."
During the medal ceremony for the women's 4 × 400 metres relay images of Kseniya Ryzhova and Yuliya Gushchina sharing a kiss on the lips spread through social media and were interpreted as a protest against the anti-gay laws. Both Ryzhova and Gushchina denied any intention to make such a protest, rather they were simply happy with their athletic success, and stated that they were married to men. Although reports were principally focused on the pair, all four of the Russia relay runners briefly kissed each other on the podium. Ryzhova described her assumed connection to LGBT as insulting. The Russian Minister for Sport, Vitaly Mutko, said that Western media had overemphasised the issue, noting that same-sex relations are not illegal in Russia and sparser coverage of the issue in domestic media.
Anti-doping
At the championships the IAAF collected blood samples from all participating athletes, following the procedure introduced at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics, in line with supporting its Athlete Biological Passport programme. This assisted the federation in detecting athlete's potential usage of banned substances, including steroids, human growth hormone, EPO and blood doping. In addition to the mandatory blood tests, the IAAF also conducted around 500 urine tests at the championships in three groups: all medallists were subjected to urine tests, those showing biological passport anomalies were targeted, and random urine tests were also applied. Continuing with procedures initiated at the 2005 edition, all urine tests were scheduled for long-term storage to allow retrospective testing in future. All athlete samples were processed at the Moscow Anti-Doping Laboratory accredited by the World Anti-Doping Agency.
In the months preceding the event around 40 Russian athletes received doping bans. The most prominent of these were Darya Pishchalnikova (discus runner-up at the 2012 Summer Olympics) and Olga Kuzenkova (former Olympic and world champion in the hammer throw). The Russian Athletics Federation president Valentin Balakhnichev defended the bans as proof of the increasing effectiveness of RUSADA (the Russian Anti-Doping Agency) which had been formed three years before. According to The New York Times, Pishchalnikova was a whistleblower who sent the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) a December 2012 email detailing state-run doping programs in which Russian athletes had to participate; her ban by the Russian Athletics Federation was likely in retaliation.
A month before the competition it was reported that the head of the Moscow Anti-Doping Laboratory, Grigory Rodchenkov, had been arrested on charges of drug distribution, but the case against him had been dropped. His sister was convicted of purchasing banned drugs with the intention to supply them to athletes. Former Russian coach Oleg Popov and 400 metres runner Valentin Kruglyakov stated that athletes were ordered to dope and paid officials to conceal their positive tests. The coach of the national athletics team, Valentin Maslakov, noted that Kruglyakov had tested positive for drugs and that Popov coached Lada Chernova, who had twice tested positive. He also stated that RUSADA and its labs were independent from the national sports federations. On 18 November 2015, WADA suspended laboratory of RUSADA – Moscow Anti-Doping Laboratory, however the organization was not dissolved and tests are to be done by other independent labs.
In February 2016, two high-ranking directors of the organisation – Vyacheslav Sinyev and Nikita Kamayev – died. According to Sunday Times, Kamayev approached the news agency shortly before his death planning to publish a book on "the true story of sport pharmacology and doping in Russia since 1987".
Outside of Russia, three of the world's top sprinters had positive tests during the buildup: Asafa Powell, Tyson Gay and Veronica Campbell Brown.
The drug testing results from the competition revealed several athletes had been using performance-enhancing drugs. The fifth-place finisher in the men's javelin, Roman Avramenko of Ukraine, tested positive for 4-Chlorodehydromethyltestosterone (a steroid), as did Turkmenistan's Yelena Ryabova (a competitor in the women's 200 m). Another 200 m runner, Yelyzaveta Bryzgina, also of Ukraine, was banned for the steroid drostanolone. Afghan 100 m runner Masoud Azizi had nandrolone in his sample. Two athletes in the walking events, Ayman Kozhakhmetova and Ebrahim Rahimian, failed their tests for EPO, as did Guatemala's marathon runner Jeremias Saloj.
Russian doping scandal
Media attention began growing in December 2014 when German broadcaster ARD reported on state-sponsored doping in Russia, comparing it to doping in East Germany. In November 2015, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) published a report and the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) suspended Russia indefinitely from world track and field events. The 335-page report, compiled following a nearly yearlong investigation by a commission led by former anti-doping agency President Dick Pound, urged the International Association of Athletics Federations to suspend Russia from competition, including the Olympics in Brazil. The report said Russia "sabotaged" the 2012 Olympics by allowing athletes who should have been banned for doping violations to compete in the London Games. It recommended the anti-doping agency impose lifetime suspensions for 10 Russian coaches and athletes, including women's 800-meters gold medalist Mariya Savinova. The United Kingdom Anti-Doping agency later assisted WADA with testing in Russia. In June 2016, they reported that they were unable to fully carry out their work and noted intimidation by armed Federal Security Service (FSB) agents.
After a Russian former lab director made allegations about the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, WADA commissioned an independent investigation led by Richard McLaren. McLaren's investigation found corroborating evidence, concluding in a report published in July 2016 that the Ministry of Sport and the FSB had operated a "state-directed failsafe system" using a "disappearing positive [test] methodology" (DPM) from "at least late 2011 to August 2015".
Athlete desertion
Orlando Ortega, a Cuban athlete who competes in the 110 metres hurdles deserted his national delegation during the championships and did not return to Cuba at its conclusion. Ortega had received a six-month ban from the Cuban Athletics Federation earlier in the season for unspecified disciplinary reasons. Valentin Balakhnichev, the president of the Russian Athletics Federation, stated that he had had no contact from the athlete and in any case the federation was not looking to recruit him.
Notes
See also
Athletics at the 2012 Summer Olympics
2013 World Championships in Athletics qualification standards
References
External links
Official IAAF website for the 2013 World Championships in Athletics.
IAAF Entry Standards (PDF)
Full results from IAAF
World Athletics Championships
World Championships in Athletics
World Championships in Athletics
World Championships in Athletics 2013
2013 in Moscow
International athletics competitions hosted by Russia
August 2013 sports events in Europe
Athletics in Moscow |
4550798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangs%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom | Gangs in the United Kingdom | Gang-related organised crime in the United Kingdom is concentrated around the cities of London, Manchester and Liverpool and regionally across the West Midlands region, south coast and northern England, according to the Serious Organised Crime Agency. With regard to street gangs the cities identified as having the most serious gang problems, which also accounted for 65% of firearm homicides in England and Wales, were London, Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool. Glasgow in Scotland also has a historical gang culture with the city having as many teenage gangs as London, which had six times the population, in 2008.
In the early part of the 20th century, the cities of Leeds, Bristol, Bradford (and more prominently Keighley) and Nottingham all commanded headlines pertaining to street gangs and suffered their share of high-profile firearms murders. Sheffield, which has a long history of gangs traced back to the 1920s in the book "The Sheffield Gang Wars", along with Leicester is one of numerous urban centres seen to have an emerging or re-emerging gang problem.
On 28 November 2007, a major offensive against gun crime by gangs in Birmingham, Liverpool, London and Manchester led to 118 arrests. More than 1,000 police officers were involved in the raids. Not all of the 118 arrests were gun related; others were linked to drugs, prostitution and other crimes. Home Secretary Jacqui Smith said it showed the police could "fight back against gangs".
In the 2000s, Britain's street gangs in certain inner city areas such as London and Manchester became influenced by America's Crips and Bloods. This was evidenced by identification with colours, hand signs, graffiti tags and in some cases gang names, for example Old Trafford Cripz and Moss Side Bloods or 031 (O-Tray-One) Bloods gang and ABM (All Bout Money) Crips. However this phenomenon has since declined during the 2010s.
Debate persists over the extent and nature of gang activity in the UK, with some academics and policy-makers arguing that the current focus of enforcement efforts on gang membership is inadvisable, given a lack of consensus over the relationship between gangs and crime.
Due to austerity there are fewer youth clubs and there is less provision for youngsters, this creates a vacuum. Youngsters, some children as young as 10 turn to gangs for friendship and protection. Later youngsters get forced into illegal activities, notably selling and trafficking illegal drugs.
"Scuttlers" and rise of gang culture
Child labour was regulated for the first time in the UK in 1833, and therefore young children could no longer financially contribute to the family through jobs in factories. Children were now spending more time on the streets while the rest of their families went to work all day. The lack of an extra stable source of income for families led to an increase in petty crimes among working-class youths in the late 19th century. As children spent more time with siblings and neighbours on the street, pranks became commonplace and were viewed as devious attempts to outsmart authority. Along with pranking, petty crime among older teenagers was also on the rise. Because older teenagers could not earn enough money to support their families, especially in the absence of one parent, which was common, many resorted to stealing. Food and cigarettes were the most common forms of property that were stolen in the late 19th century. These small crimes and this culture of pranks added to the underlying resistance to authority that existed among working-class youths who had no other outlets to control their environment.
The early groups in the 1840s were family oriented and were typically composed of brothers, sisters, and neighbours. While petty crime rose everywhere during the 19th century in England, individual crimes differed from city-to-city and even persisted in rural areas. But gangs were not unique to deprived areas, and many arose in many working-class towns that were flourishing from trade. Early forms of gangs were based upon territory and locality rather than certain ethnic or religious affiliations, which tended to be the defining characteristics of gangs in the early 20th century. Many of the names of early British gangs included titles of local areas and streets, such as the Bengal Tigers who originated from Bengal Street in Manchester. The idea of “hooliganism” was used to describe these type of crimes committed by working-class youth, and drew great concern from the press and middle class during this time. "Scuttlers" was the specific term given to the perpetuators of these early, petty crimes. These factions were not highly organised, and most people drifted in and out of membership. However, the early development of petty crime with groups forming an identity for themselves through names and clothes helped create the framework for more organised crime groups that gained great notoriety throughout the early 20th century.
Gangs in major urban centres
Belfast
According to one report, Northern Ireland has over 150 active criminal gangs as of 2014. In Belfast in particular, a report in 2003 estimated there to be approximately 80 gangs, most nominally sectarian, engaged in racketeering across the city.
An investigation in 2014 found that some gangs in Belfast were particularly hostile towards non-white residents of the city, with numerous cases of racially motivated violence, intimidation and extortion having been reported.
Gangs in Belfast have been involved in people smuggling and human trafficking. Although the vice industry was previously mostly on the street, in recent years it has moved indoors to residential homes and hotels and formed closer links to organised crime networks. Trafficking gangs in Belfast, as in the rest of Northern Ireland, tend to be of Chinese or Eastern European origin, utilising local people as facilitators in their network.
In 2014, three nights of violence in East Belfast led to the Police Federation for Northern Ireland stating: "The gang culture has to be broken up so that people can go about their business without fear of being struck by a missile or intimidated."
(See below for information about sectarian gangs in Northern Ireland associated with The Troubles)
Birmingham
The Peaky Blinders were a criminal gang based in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century and, to a lesser extent, in the early 20th century. Philip Gooderson, author of The Gangs of Birmingham, states that the Peaky Blinders originated as a specific gang, but the term later became a generic label. An earlier gang known as the Cheapside Sloggers had evolved in the 1870s, and the term "Sloggers" (meaning fighters) had already become a generic local label for street gangs when the Peaky Blinders emerged at the end of the century in Adderley Street, in the Bordesley and Small Heath areas, which was an extremely deprived slum section of Birmingham at the time. The Peaky Blinders were distinguished by their sartorial style, unlike earlier gangs. Notable members included David Taylor (imprisoned for carrying a gun at 13 years old), "baby-faced" Harry Fowles, Ernest Haynes and Stephen McNickle.
Early in the 20th century, one of the Birmingham gangs known as the Brummagem Boys (Brummagem being slang for Birmingham) began to spread their criminal network from the streets of Birmingham to around the country. Helped by greatly improved transport, for the first time, regional gangs were able to expand beyond the streets that bred them. The new connecting railway between Birmingham and London meant they could target the racecourse riches of the country's capital.
Following the Handsworth riots in 1985, young people banded together in groups which soon turned to petty crime and robbery. By the late 1980s, the Johnson Crew, named after their Johnsons Café hang-out, controlled the drugs market and nightclub security across a large area of Birmingham.
After a fall-out between members of the Johnson Crew, the Burger Bar Boys formed, taking their name from a Soho Road fast-food joint. This began a violent feud between the Johnsons and the Burger Bar Boys, which was resolved in a truce instigated by Matthias "Shabba" Thompson in 2010, with assistance from documentary maker Penny Woolcock. The process of forming the truce was captured in the Channel 4 documentary, One Mile Away. Following the truce, violent crime fell by 50% in the B6 postcode area and 30% in B21.
The increasingly collaborative relationship between the two gangs has led to some in the media describing them as more akin to a "super gang", seeking to establish a greater national network of organised crime rather than controlling their post-code areas. Other reports suggest both gangs are effectively inactive, and there is no "super gang".
However, 20 shootings in mid 2015 onwards were linked to the feud between the Burger Bar Boys and the Johnson Crew, suggesting any truce is no longer active and the gang rivalry has been renewed.
See also:
Peaky Blinders
Birmingham Boys
Murder of Letisha Shakespeare and Charlene Ellis
Glasgow
The history of Glasgow gangs can be traced back to the 18th century, although the first media reference to Glasgow gangs was not until the 1870s, with the acknowledgement of the Penny Mobs. It has been suggested that the rise in Glasgow gangs from the 1850s was a result of an influx in Irish immigration which included those from traditional Irish fighting gangs such as the Caravats and Shanavests. By the 1920s many Glasgow gangs were widely viewed as fighting gangs rather than criminal gangs, although there were widespread reports of extortion and protection rackets, particularly in the city's East End and South Side. By the 1930s, Glasgow had acquired a reputation throughout Britain as a hotbed of gang violence and was regarded at the time as Britain's answer to Chicago, home to some of America's most feared gangsters. The gangs at this time were also referred to as Glasgow razor gangs, named after their weapon of choice.
One of Glasgow's most notorious gangs were the Billy Boys, a sectarian anti-Catholic gang, who were formed in 1924 by William Fullerton after he was attacked by a group of Catholic youths. Many gangs in the East End of Glasgow (such as the Billy Boys' rivals, the Norman Conks) were both sectarian and territorial, whereas in other districts they were primarily territorial.
The gang culture prevalent in the older, central areas of the city such as the Gorbals which became overcrowded and substandard in living conditions, did not disappear when these areas were cleared and redeveloped following World War II with many of the inhabitants rehoused either in clusters of tower blocks or in large peripheral overspill estates like Easterhouse; instead, as the job opportunities became limited in the post-industrial age, the structural flaws, planning mistakes and related social issues became apparent in the schemes as the years passed, and heroin addiction spread throughout the city, new gangs (in addition to some which remained in the original areas) formed in the modern environments and remained prominent for decades, particularly in Glasgow's many areas of deprivation and poor health where generations of young people suffered in childhood and found themselves with little to occupy their lives as teenagers other than a cycle of thrilling but pointless collective recreational violence (usually fuelled by alcohol) against similar groups from neighbouring districts. This lifestyle was depicted years later in movies such as Small Faces and Neds. Some of these young men moved into other criminal enterprises, including the operation of lucrative van routes in the city's East End "schemes" during the 1980s trading in stolen property and drugs, which were controlled by gangsters such as Tam McGraw, with the resulting "ice cream" turf war eventually culminating in the deaths of a family.
An Evening Times report in 2008 stated that there were 170 gangs in Glasgow whilst an earlier report in 2006 included a map showing the location and a list of Glasgow gangs. Along with incidents from other origins including domestic violence and organised crime, the street gangs' behaviour contributed to Glasgow being declared the "murder capital of Europe" in the mid-2000s. Gangs in Glasgow – some involved in the supply of drugs, housebreakings and other illegal activity but most simply a mob with minimal leadership structure, focused on enhancing their local reputation for notoriety and defending their "bit" (territory) – marked their territory with tags or graffiti, and adopted a particular style of dress and speech in each era, being defined as 'ned culture'. The majority of large-scale fights were organised in advance by phone calls, text messages and later by online contact, but at all times of the day rival neighbourhoods became "no-go areas" for gang members as well those young people who were not involved in the violence but could be identified as residing in another area.
The habitual carrying of knives and other weapons was common wherever the fear of attack was present, with serious and tragic consequences often resulting from confrontations when they did occur. Several campaigns were launched by law enforcement and government agencies to discourage the possession of weapons, including a 2009 programme of checks on buses heading to the city centre, where the gangs would meet to fight when they left their own territory. An earlier campaign of the 1990s, "Operation Blade", had initially appeared to produce results before the levels of weapon use and violence soon returned to previous levels and thereafter increased. Not all murders were gang-related, but the prevailing culture in the city caused weapons to be carried as a matter of course and, in combination with the abuse of alcohol, serious incidents to result from often trivial disputes.
The latter years of the 20th century saw an increase in Pakistani gangs, particularity in the South of Glasgow (e.g. Pollokshields). Pakistani gangs came to wider attention following the racially motivated murder of Kriss Donald by local men of Pakistani origin in 2004. During that period, in the wake of the Donald murder, as well as a perception that asylum seekers who had been housed in empty properties in some of Glasgow's most run-down areas were being given priority over locals, some of the teenage gangs in those areas styled themselves as "nazis".
In the decade following the publication of the Evening Times reports, the number of young people involved in "young teams" in Glasgow and the number of serious violent incidents recorded as a result of their activities reduced substantially;
in 2016, contributors to an article in the same newspaper suggested the links to gang identity were deeply embedded in local communities and unlikely to entirely disappear for many years, but that measures to combat the problems such as the police-led Violence Reduction Unit (which engaged with existing gang members, encouraging them to examine the negative consequences of their behaviour, to seek positive connections with their "enemies" such as Friday evening football games and outdoor pursuits, and to provide opportunities for training and employment as an alternative to the lifestyle they had known) had been effective to a noticeable extent. Other external factors such as an increased availability of advanced internet-enabled gaming technology and the widespread use of social media among youngsters – which were acknowledged as having their own associated problems such as social isolation and online bullying, as well as allowing the "young teams" a platform to boast of their exploits and taunt rivals – also contributed to a general reduction in the number of local teenagers regularly out roaming the streets bored and seeking companionship or confrontation, with those who did openly express an affiliation to a violent gang more likely to face a negative reaction from the majority of their peers than in the past. In the wake of a rise in knife crime in England and Wales, particularly in London, in the 2010s, it was reported that those areas were studying the approaches taken by Scotland in tackling the issue.
However, it was recognised by the VRU that only around half of all violent incidents which occurred were reported to the police (as compared with figures from hospital admissions and other research), while violence related to organised crime in parts of the city (many of those involved having "graduated" from the local street gangs) remained a significant issue. A 2020 novel by Graeme Armstrong, The Young Team, narrated by a gang member in the local dialect, focuses on the "ned culture" of the region in the early 21st century (albeit set in Airdrie, North Lanarkshire a few miles east of Glasgow rather than in the city itself). In October 2023, Armstrong wrote and presented a three-part BBC Scotland documentary series, Street Gangs exploring current Scottish gang culture including the recent impact of social media and drill music / roadman culture, and his own lived experience as a gang member 15 years earlier.
Liverpool
Street gangs in Liverpool have been in existence since the mid-19th century. There were also various sectarian "political" gangs based in and around Liverpool during this period. Dr Michael Macilwee of Liverpool John Moores University and author of The Gangs of Liverpool states, "You can learn lessons from the past and it's fascinating to compare the newspaper headlines of today with those from the late 1800s. The issues are exactly the same. People were worried about rising youth crime and the influence of 'penny dreadfuls' on people's behaviour. Like today, some commentators demanded longer prison sentences and even flogging while others called for better education and more youth clubs."
In the early 1980s Liverpool was tagged by the media as "Smack City" or "Skag City" after it experienced an explosion in organised gang crime and heroin abuse, especially within the city's more deprived areas. At the same time several criminal gangs began developing into drug dealing cartels in the city, including the Liverpool Mafia, which was the first such cartel to develop in the UK. As drugs became increasingly valuable, large distribution networks were developed with cocaine producers in South America, including the Cali cartel. Over time, several Liverpool gangsters became increasingly wealthy, including Colin 'Smigger' Smith, who had an estimated fortune of £200m and Curtis 'Cocky' Warren, whose estimated wealth once saw him listed on the Sunday Times Rich List.
It has also been suggested that distribution networks for illicit drugs within Ireland and the UK, and even allegedly some Mediterranean holiday resorts, are today controlled by various Liverpool gangs.
A report in the Observer newspaper written by journalist Peter Beaumont entitled Gangsters put Liverpool top of gun league (28 May 1995), observed that turf wars had erupted within Liverpool. The high levels of violence in the city came to a head in 1996 when, following the shooting of gangster David Ungi, six shootings occurred in seven days, prompting Merseyside Police to become one of the first police forces in the country to openly carry weapons in the fight against gun crime. Official Home Office statistics revealed a total of 3,387 offences involving firearms had occurred in the Merseyside region during a four-year period between 1997 and 2001. It was revealed that Liverpool was the main centre for organised crime in the North of England.
In August 2007 the ongoing war between two rival gangs caused nationwide outrage, when innocent 11-year-old Rhys Jones was shot in the neck and died in his mother's arms in the car park of the Fir Tree pub in Croxteth Liverpool. On 16 December 2008, Sean Mercer was convicted of the murder and ordered to serve a minimum tariff of 22 years by trial judge Mr Justice Irwin.
London
London was the first city noted to have a major problem with criminal gangs, followed thereafter by US cities such as New York City, Chicago and Los Angeles. A number of street gangs were present in London during the 20th century, many in the East End, often referred to as Mobs, including The Yiddishers, Hoxton Mob, Watney Streeters, Aldgate Mob, Whitechapel Mob, Bethnal Green Mob and the organised Italian Mob headed by Charles Sabini. The history of these gangs is well documented in "London's Underworld: Three centuries of vice and crime".
The Pall Mall Gazette released a research report on gangs and crime in England in 1888, they discuss the downfall and dissolution of a gang called the Skeleton Army a few years before hand, and include a collection of 9 gangs and their respective territories, gathered from contemporary police reports, which are as follows:
On 21 February 2007, the BBC reported on an unpublished Metropolitan Police report on London's gang culture, identifying 169 separate groups (see Ghetto Boys, Tottenham Mandem and Peckham Boys), with more than a quarter said to have been involved in murders. The report's accuracy has been questioned by some London Boroughs for being inaccurate in places and the existence of certain gangs on the list could not be substantiated. The Centre for Social Justice identifies the Gangs in London website as a useful tool in creating an overall picture of London gangs, as highlighted in the report "Dying to Belong: An in depth review of street gangs in Britain", which was led by Conservative leader Iain Duncan Smith in 2009.
In February 2007, criminologist Dr John Pitts, from the University of Bedfordshire, said: "There are probably no more than 1,500 to 2,000 young people in gangs in all of London, but their impact is enormous". There is no methodology to suggest where this number came from and how it was obtained. Furthermore, in December 2007 in a report written by Pitts on Lambeth gangs, he claims that the dominant gang (PDC from Angell Town) "boasts 2,500 members". Probably a more accurate estimation for gang membership, although dated, can be found in the 2004 Home Office document "Delinquent Youth Groups and Offending Behaviour". The report, using a methodology developed by American gang experts and practitioners, estimated that 6% of young people aged 10–19 were classified as belonging to a delinquent youth group, although based on the most stringent criteria this was 4%.
There is a modern history of London gangs dating from the 1970s although many of them emerged from sub-cultures such as punks, Rastas and football hooligans. Two well known subcultures involved in violent clashes during the Notting Hill riots in the 1950s, Teddy Boys and Rudeboys, could well be labelled gangs by today's media. Amongst the current London gangs whose history does go back to the 1970s are the Peckham Boys and Tottenham Mandem, both predominantly or entirely black. Native British gangs remain active while there are several Asian gangs in London, such as the Brick Lane Massive whom are of predominantly Bangladeshi descent, initially formed to protect their local communities from racist attacks from the native white population. Since 2000, Tamil gangs in Croydon and Wembley have been active such as the "Wembley Boys" and the "Tamil Snake Gang. Tamil Hindu gangs in London are also featured as one of the many major ethnic gangs in Ross Kemp's documentary on London Gangs. A gang database for London estimated that 78.2% of members were Black, 12.8% were white, 6.5% were Asian (Pakistani, Indian and Bangladeshis), 2.2% were Middle Eastern/Arabs and under 1% were East Asian or of unknown-ethnicity.
London gangs are increasingly marking their territory with gang graffiti, usually a gang name and the Post Code area or housing estate they identify with. In some cases they may tag the street road signs in their area with an identified gang colour, as can be seen in Edmonton. This is not a new phenomenon and has been practised by many London gangs in the past although today it is a more integral part of the gang culture. Many gangs have a strong sense of belonging to their local areas and often take their names from the housing estates, districts and postal code areas where they are located. In some areas the post codes act as rival gang boundaries, although this is not a general rule as there can be rival gangs present within the same postal area as well as gangs that occupy multiple postal areas.
In 2018, researchers from London South Bank University found that gangs in the London borough of Waltham Forest that used to be organised around post code rivalries had moved beyond territorial disputes to focus on profit-making activities like drug dealing. They cite James Densley's gang evolution model, which details how gangs progress from recreational goals and activities like defending post codes to financial goals and activities like drug dealing. Densley concludes that fully evolved gangs "resemble not just crime that is organized, but organized crime". Densley also found that gangs in London also used handsigns and gang tattoos to denote gang membership. Some gangs in London are motivated by religion, as is the case with Muslim Patrol. However, profits arising from drugs and other criminal activity is a significant motivator for many gangs.
Manchester
The first recorded gangs in Manchester were "Scuttlers", which were youth gangs that recruited boys and girls between 14 and 21 years of age. They became prominent amongst the slums during the second half of the 19th century, but had mostly disappeared by the beginning of the 20th century. In the mid-1980s, a growth in violence amongst Black British youths from the west side of the Alexandra Park Estate in South Manchester and their rivals, West Indians living to the north of the city, in Cheetham Hill began to gain media attention. The city has sometimes been dubbed in the media as "Gangchester" and "Gunchester".
The gang culture spread into many deprived areas in South Manchester. A gang-related crime occurred on 9 September 2006, in Moss Side, where Jessie James, a 15-year-old schoolboy was shot dead in the early hours of the morning. His shooting is said to have been the result of a mistaken identity for a rival gang member. To this day his murderer(s) have not been found.
In April 2009, eleven members of the Gooch Gang were found guilty of a number of charges ranging from murder to drugs offences. The Gooch Gang had a long-standing rivalry with the equally well known Doddington gang. The Gooch gang operated with a tiered structure. On the top were the gang's leaders, Colin Joyce and Lee Amos, and below them were members controlling the supply and distribution of drugs to the street dealers at the bottom. The gang was earning an estimated £2,000 a day, with street dealers allowed to keep £100 a day for themselves. After 2001 when Joyce and Amos were sent to prison on firearms charges, there followed a 92% drop in gun crime in central Manchester. Official gun enabled crime figures show a 17% reduction in Manchester when comparing 2005/06 (1,200 offences) and 2006/07 (993 offences). However, this was followed by an increase of 17% in 2007/08 (1,160 offences) compared to 2006/07. In 2009 shootings were reported as falling by 82% compared with the previous year.
In addition to this, many ethnic gangs can be found within Manchester as well, Black and Pakistani gangs being the most prominent, founded in areas such as Rochdale and Oldham where criminal charges range from carrying firearms to murder. Manchester is also home to the Inter City Jibbers, an element within the city's main hooligan gang that uses football hooliganism as a cover for acquisitive forms of crime. According to former Manchester United hooligan Colin Blaney in his autobiography Undesirables, members of the gang have been involved in serious forms of crime, such as drug smuggling from Latin America and the Caribbean, carrying out armed robberies and committing robberies on drug dealers. In an interview with Vice, members of the gang spoke of connections with Liberian drug smuggling cartels and convictions for offences including armed robbery, credit card fraud and sale of class A drugs.
Drug gangs
A number of the criminal gangs in the United Kingdom specialise in the importation, production and sale of illicit drugs. Of the 2,800 gangs identified within the United Kingdom it is estimated that 60% are involved in drugs. Amongst them are the Yardies, also known as Posses in America, who are generally associated with crack cocaine. In 2003, it was reported that Yardie drug gangs were present in 36 of the 43 police force areas in England and Wales. One of the more prominent were the Aggi Crew in Bristol.
In 1998, six members of the Aggi Crew were imprisoned after being found in possession of over £1 million worth of crack-cocaine.
There were raids across the city which was the latest phase of Operation Atrium, launched in 2001 to clamp down on drug-related crime in Bristol by disrupting organised gangs. More than 960 people have been arrested in the past 18 months. In 2009 Olympian and judo expert James Waithe was convicted of drugs offences, having been an enforcer for drug ring that made £50 million annually.
Asian drug gangs, usually of Pakistani and Tamil descent are also present in the United Kingdom. Notable Tamil gangs include Harrow Tamils and Wembley Tamils. Pakistani gangs have been recorded to be associated with the importation and distribution of heroin and can be found in Luton, Bradford, Birmingham, Manchester, Huddersfield, Slough, Bedford, and Middlesbrough. Drug squad officers in 2003 claimed that Asian gangs were actively seeking to corner the heroin market.
In other reports it has been suggested that Turkey replaced Pakistan and Afghanistan as the most important transit point for heroin, and it is estimated that 80% of heroin intercepted by British authorities belongs to Turkish gangs, which previously belonged to Pakistani and Afghan gangs A recent spate of murders in London in 2009 have been linked to a heroin drugs war involving rival Turkish and Kurdish gangs in north London. It is believed that the feud is between two organised drug gangs, the Turkish "Tottenham Boys" and the "Bombarcilar" or "Bombers" from Hackney. The Bombers were led by Abdullah Babysin who was said to be Britain's largest importer of heroin, he was convicted in 2006.
Women and gangs
Although most assumptions surrounding gang culture in the UK surround male-dominated narratives, females also played a role in gangs in Britain in the late 19th to early 20th centuries. Society saw women as conspirators, supporters, and even perpetuators of gang crime in the late nineteenth century. In 1898, the Manchester Guardian wrote an article that said, “Girls incited conflicts between the gangs and were thus responsible for the majority of scuttling affrays.” This article reflects how women were viewed as sexual objects, causing a lot of the fights and violence that occurred between gangs. While historians such as Stephen Humphries support this claim that women played a supporting role in gangs, Andrew Davies argues that women played a much more active one. One of the most famous gangs of the early 20th century was an all-female gang in London called the Forty Elephants. By 1890, the Forty Elephants chose their first "queen" and established themselves as free from male control. Led by Alice Diamond during its height in 1915, the gang was notorious for stealing expensive clothing, partying among the wealthy, engaging in violent robberies, and for being romantically involved with other gang leaders around London.
When it came to court, magistrates treated women's involvement in gangs differently to that of men. The concern over female crime related to the deviation from typical notions of femininity and morality, thus women typically received lesser sentences than men. Due to the conventional idea of femininity that saw women as weaker than men, many courts would have believed it impossible to view women as orchestrators of such crime. Most women were assumed to have played a supporting role.
Organised crime groups
Britain has a number of traditional organised crime firms or local British crime families. Some of the most well known include the Kray twins, The Richardson Gang and Terry Adams Clerkenwell crime syndicate in London. Outside the capital there are the Noonans in Manchester, Thomas McGraw from Glasgow and Curtis Warren from Liverpool who are amongst some of the most infamous..
By the 1980s the Irish Republican Army had capitalised on long established Irish Organised Crime in the UK to effectively gain control of organised crime, the drug trade and even copyright piracy to fund its terrorism. With the Belfast/Good Friday Agreement many former IRA and other Northern Irish paramilitaries moved into organised crime. However, they would come to largely displaced even in Northern Ireland by organised criminal gangs from Eastern Europe and the Balkans in the 2000s. The more established British and Irish organised criminal gangs were no longer able to compete in the intense rival for the drug trade in the UK major cities, moved to smaller towns establishing the so called county lines. In 2018 there were 4,629 criminal gangs and syndicates in Britain, employing 33,598 professional gangsters. The figure of 4,629 means there are more gangs in Britain than staff members of the NCA; 33,598 career criminals translates to more gangsters in Britain than belong to all three big Italian mafias. Organised crime in the UK generates annual revenues of £37bn, or 1.8% of GDP.
Sectarian gangs
Sectarian, or "political" gangs have featured in British cities such as Liverpool in England, Glasgow in Scotland and Belfast in Northern Ireland. Belfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Since its emergence as a major city, it had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Roman Catholic and Protestant populations. The Ulster Protestant Association is said to have provided many members of the murder gangs active in Belfast during 1921–22. Other Protestant gangs active at that time were: the Imperial Guards, Crawford's Tigers and the Cromwell Clubs. These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also referred to as "nationalist" and "unionist".
The most recent example of this is known as the Troubles - a civil conflict that raged from c.1969 to the late 1990s. Belfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups forming on both sides. Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles. The Provisional IRA detonated twenty-two bombs, all in a confined area in the city centre in 1972, on what is known as "Bloody Friday", killing nine people.
The IRA also killed hundreds of other civilians and members of the security forces. Loyalist paramilitaries the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed that the killings they carried out were in retaliation to the PIRA campaign. Most of their victims were Roman Catholic civilians unconnected to the Provisional IRA. A particularly notorious group, based on the Shankill Road in the mid-1970s became known as the Shankill Butchers. In all, over one thousand five hundred people were killed in political violence in the city from 1969 until 2001. Part of the legacy of the Troubles is that both republican and loyalist paramilitary groups in Belfast have become involved in organised crime and racketeering.
Debate surrounding the impact of gangs
Historically, societal fears of gangs have centered around frameworks which argue that effects like increased mass production, consumption, democracy, and communication lead to the rise of organised crime groups. There was a general consensus among the middle classes that there was increasing violence among working-class men due to these forces during the late 19th century. Newspapers used inflammatory language to convey a sense of lawlessness and excessive violence among working-class towns which added to these growing assumptions. The widely held belief of British intellectuals in the 20th century was that gangs reflected the working-class rejection of middle-class traditional values and norms. This view contributed to the way experts studied gangs throughout the 20th century and served as proof of innate immorality around working-class citizens.
Two historians have done extensive research in this field and represent two different views of the underlying causes of the rise in gang culture between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Stephen Humphries argues that these early groups can be seen as results of “social crime”. For the working class, they viewed these crimes as righteous and justified against a society that had left them to struggle. It was therefore fair for them to steal what they had been deprived of. According to Humphries, gangs were a way for the working-class youth to respond to feelings of insignificance that came with living in a large, uniform industrial town with no way of escape. Petty crimes were thus a way to respond to all of the top-down authority they were receiving from factory managers, teachers, the police, and the government. His analysis of interviews with former gang members led him to the idea that gangs allowed working-class youths to feel rebellious and also express a need to resist the monotonous nature of industrial towns. Building on this idea, Andrew Davies argues that the concept of masculinity among working-class men prompted this behaviour, and was a way for members to prove themselves to their peers. He connects acts of violence committed in the household to idealised criminals in popular culture at the time that would have contributed to the working-class idea of masculinity. However, in other works he notes how many women took part in organised crimes, thus proving that this idea was not the only motive of gang crime.
In 2014, the Runnymede Trust suggested that despite the well-rehearsed public discourse around modern youth gangs and "gang culture":
We actually know very little about 'gangs' in the UK: about how 'a gang' might be defined or understood, about what being in 'a gang' means... We know still less about how 'the gang' links to levels of youth violence.
Professor Simon Hallsworth argues that where they exist, gangs in the UK are "far more fluid, volatile and amorphous than the myth of the organised group with a corporate structure". This assertion is supported by a field study conducted by Manchester University, which found that, "most within- and between-gang disputes... emanated from interpersonal disputes regarding friends, family and romantic relationships", as opposed to territorial rivalries, and that criminal enterprises were "rarely gang-coordinated... most involved gang members operating as individuals or in small groups".
Cottrell-Boyce, writing in the Youth Justice journal, argues that gangs have been constructed as a "suitable enemy" by politicians and the media, obscuring the wider, structural roots of youth violence. At the level of enforcement, a focus on gang membership may be counterproductive; creating confusion and resulting in a drag-net approach which can criminalise innocent young people rather than focusing resources on serious violent crime.
See also
British firms (organised crime)
Triads in the United Kingdom
Turkish organised crime in Great Britain
Crime in the United Kingdom
References |
4550852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Pittsburgh | Roman Catholic Diocese of Pittsburgh | The Diocese of Pittsburgh () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical jurisdiction, or diocese, of the Catholic Church in Western Pennsylvania in the United States. It was established on August 11, 1843. The diocese is a suffragan diocese of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia.
The cathedral church of the diocese is Saint Paul Cathedral in Pittsburgh. As of 2023, the bishop of Pittsburgh is David Zubik.
Territory
The Diocese of Pittsburgh includes 61 parish-groupings (107 churches) in the counties of Allegheny, Beaver, Butler, Greene, Lawrence, and Washington, an area of . The diocese had a Catholic population of 625,490 as of 2022. As of July 2021, the diocese had 194 active priests.
History
1750 to 1800
In 1754, the first mass within the present day diocese was celebrated at Fort Duquesne by a French Franciscan chaplain. A chapel was built at the fort, dedicated to the Virgin Mary under the title of "The Assumption of Our Lady of the Beautiful River". When the French destroyed the fort in 1758, the mission became a ruin.The region them passed into British rule.
Unlike the other British colonies in America, the Province of Pennsylvania did not ban Catholics from the colony or threaten priests with imprisonment. However, the colony did require any Catholics seeing public office to take an oath to Protestantism. In 1784, a year after the end of the American Revolution, Pope Pius VI erected the Apostolic Prefecture of United States of America, including all of the new United States.
In 1789, Pius VI converted the prefecture to the Diocese of Baltimore, covering all of the United States. With the passage of the US Bill of Rights in 1791, Catholics received full freedom of worship.
1800 to 1850
In 1808, Pope Pius VII erected the Diocese of Philadelphia, covering all of Pennsylvania. In 1843, the four American bishops and one archbishop met in the Fifth Provincial Council of Baltimore. They recommended that the Vatican erect a Diocese of Pittsburgh and nominated Monsignor Michael O'Connor, vicar general of Western Pennsylvania and pastor of St. Paul's Church in Pittsburgh, to be appointed the first bishop.
The Vatican erected the Diocese of Pittsburgh on August 11, 1843, taking its territory from the Diocese of Philadelphia. The new diocese covered all of Western Pennsylvania. The pope appointed O'Connor as bishop. After his consecration in Rome, O'Connor traveled to Ireland to recruit clergy for his new diocese. He found eight seminarians from Maynooth College in Maynooth and seven Sisters of Mercy from Dublin. O'Connor arrived in Pittsburgh in December 1843.
In 1844, O'Connor founded a girls' academy and St. Paul's orphan asylum, a chapel for African Americans, the Pittsburgh Catholic and St. Michael's Seminary. To serve the German immigrants in his diocese, he welcomed the Benedictine monks, who founded Saint Vincent Archabbey in Latrobe, the first Benedictine monastery in the United States. To further education he invited the Franciscan Brothers of Mountbellew in Ireland, who established the first community of religious brothers in the United States in Loretto.
1850 to 1900
In 1853, the Vatican erected the Diocese of Erie, taking the northern counties from the Diocese of Pittsburgh. After O'Connor resigned in 1860, Pope Pius IX named Reverend Michael Domenec from Philadelphia as the second bishop of Pittsburgh. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, the diocese went heavily in debt to finance expansion projects. When the panic of 1873 happened, diocesan revenues fell dramatically, creating a debt crisis for the diocese.
In 1876, Pius IX erected the Diocese of Allegheny, taking several counties from the Diocese of Pittsburgh, and named Domenec as its first bishop. He was succeeded in Pittsburgh by Monsignor John Tuigg of Pittsburgh.
During his tenure as bishop, Tuigg succeeded in stabilizing the diocesan finances. The Pittsburgh Catholic College of the Holy Ghost, the predecessor of Duquesne University, was founded in 1878 in Pittsburgh by a group of Holy Ghost priests from Germany. After Tuigg suffered his first stroke, Pope Leo XIII appointed Reverend Richard Phelan of Pittsburgh as coadjutor bishop in 1885 to assist Tuigg.
In July 1889, the Vatican reversed course, suppressed the Diocese of Allegheny and reintegrated all of its territory back into the Diocese of Pittsburgh. After Tuigg died in December 1889, Phelan automatically succeeded him as bishop. During this period, Catholic immigrants of many nationalities flooded into Western Pennsylvania to work the mines and steel mills. Phelan set up new parishes with pastors who could speak the immigrants' native languages.
1900 to 1980
In 1901, the Vatican erected the Diocese of Altoona, taking its territory from the Diocese of Pittsburgh. In 1903, Pope Pius X named Monsignor Regis Canevin of Pittsburgh as coadjutor bishop in that diocese. Canevin succeeded Phelan after his death in 1904. Canevin died in 1921.
Pope Benedict XVI named Reverend Hugh Charles Boyle of Pittsburgh as the sixth bishop of that diocese in 1921. During his 29-year tenure, Boyle sponsored a comprehensive school-building program in the diocese. The Brothers of the Christian Schools opened Central Catholic High School in Pittsburgh in 1927. The Sisters of Mercy opened Carlow College, a women's college, in Pittsburgh in 1929.
In 1948, Monsignor John Dearden of Pittsburgh was appointed coadjutor bishop of the diocese by Pope Pius XII to assist Boyle. When Boyle died in 1950, Dearden automatically succeeded him as bishop. The Vatican in 1951 erected the Diocese of Greensburg, taking its territory from the Diocese of Pittsburgh. Dearden was appointed archbishop of the Archdiocese of Detroit in 1958
To replace Dearden, Pius XII named Bishop John Wright from the Diocese of Worcester. Wright attended the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), during which he was a decisive force behind several of its documents. Following the Council's advancements in ecumenism, he believed that an "immediate unity in good works and charity" would arise between Catholics and Protestants. In 1961, Wright opened the Bishop's Latin School in Pittsburgh as the pre-seminary high school of the diocese. La Roche College was founded in McCandless, Pennsylvania, in 1963 by the Sisters of Divine Providence as a private college for religious sisters.
Wright promoted music and culture during his time in Pittsburgh. He commissioned the composer Mary Lou Williams, to perform a jazz mass at a local Catholic school, and helped her to establish the Pittsburgh Jazz Festival. In 1969, Pope Paul VI appointed Wright as the prefect of the Congregation for the Clergy in Rome.
The next bishop of Pittsburgh was Auxiliary Bishop Vincent Leonard of Pittsburgh, appointed by Paul VI in 1969. During his tenure, Leonard became one of the first American bishops to release his diocesan financial reports to the public. He also established a due-process system to allow Catholics to appeal any administrative decision they believed was a violation of canon law.
1980 to 2000
Leonard resigned as bishop of Pittsburgh in 1983, due to arthritis. Pope John Paul II then named Auxiliary Bishop Anthony Bevilacqua of the Diocese of Brooklyn as the tenth bishop of Pittsburgh that same year. In 1986, Bevilacqua banned women from participating in the Holy Thursday foot-washing service. He said that the service was a re-enactment of the Last Supper, in which Jesus only washed men's feet. After pushback from Catholic women and from the National Conference of Catholic Bishops, Bevilacqua relented, allowing individual pastors to decide. However, he refused to attend services that washed women's feet. In 1987, John Paul II appointed Bevilacqua as archbishop of Philadelphia.
The next bishop of Pittsburgh was Auxiliary Bishop Donald Wuerl from the Archdiocese of Seattle, appointed by John Paul II in 1988. Despite the financial condition of the diocese, Wuerl decided to expand health services. Wuerl worked with hospitals and community groups to create a group home for people suffering from HIV/AIDS. In 2003, Wuerl conducted a successful $2.5 million fundraising campaign to create the Catholic Charities Free Health Care Center. The clinic served the uninsured working poor. Wuerl reorganized the diocese in response to demographic changes, the decline of the steel industry, and the church's weak financial position. He closed 73 church buildings, including 37 churches, and reduced 331 parishes to 214 parishes through mergers. Wuerl was named archbishop of the Archdiocese of Washington in 2006.
2000 to present
Pope Benedict XVI appointed bishop David Zubik from the Diocese of Green Bay as the twelfth bishop of Pittsburgh in 2007. In 2012, the diocese joined other parties in suing the Obama administration regarding the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA). The diocese objected to a regulation that would force Catholic hospitals and other such institutions to provide health insurance coverage of contraceptives to their employees. Zubik said, "The mandate would require the Catholic Church as an employer to violate its fundamental beliefs concerning human life and human dignity ..." These cases were consolidated and made it to the Supreme Court as Zubik v. Burwell. The court vacated a lower court ruling and forced the cases back to the lower courts.
In 2015, Zubik announced On Mission for the Church ALIVE!, an initiative to start reorganizing parishes in 2018. The plan was to merge 188 parishes to 57 parish groupings served by clergy teams, with the goal of maximizing parish resources to achieve "vibrant parishes and effective ministries." Zubik formulated the plan in response to decreasing mass attendance, a significant drop in offertory collections and a declining number of priests; by 2025 the diocese was projected to have a 50% drop in the number of priest from 2018. Many parishioners were angry at the closing of churches they had attended since childhood. Others supported the plan, saying sweeping changes were necessary to keep the diocese healthy. Zubik in 2015 acknowledged that: "...transformation is rarely easy, especially in the heartfelt matters of faith and parish life. I know that this change will require us – the faithful, the clergy, and myself – to let go of some things that are precious and familiar. I also am convinced that our clergy and faithful have what it takes to form deep and lasting relationships within their groupings and to create welcoming communities." Pope Francis in 2021 issued the motu proprio Traditionis custodes, an apostolic letter that increased restrictions on the celebration of the Tridentine Mass. The diocese announced that it would continue the daily celebration of the Tridentine Mass at Most Precious Blood of Jesus Parish in Pittsburgh. Zubik had established this personal parish in July 2019 for daily celebration of the Tridentine Mass.
Bishops
See also: Diocese of Allegheny
Bishops of Pittsburgh
Michael O'Connor (1843-7/1853), appointed Bishop of Erie
Michael O'Connor (12/1853-1860)
Michael Domenec (1860–1876), appointed Bishop of Allegheny
John Tuigg (1876–1889)
Richard Phelan (1889–1904; coadjutor bishop 1885–1889)
Regis Canevin (1904–1921; coadjutor bishop 1903–1904), retired and appointed Archbishop ad personam
Hugh Boyle (1921–1950)
John Dearden (1950–1958; coadjutor bishop 1948–1950), appointed Archbishop of Detroit (elevated to Cardinal in 1969)
John Wright (1959–1969), appointed Prefect of the Congregation for the Clergy (elevated to Cardinal in 1969)
Vincent Leonard (1969–1983)
Anthony Bevilacqua (1983–1987), appointed Archbishop of Philadelphia (elevated to Cardinal in 1991)
Donald Wuerl (1988–2006), appointed Archbishop of Washington (elevated to Cardinal in 2010)
David Zubik (2007–present)
Current auxiliary bishops
William J. Waltersheid (2011–present)
Mark Eckman (2022–present)
Former auxiliary bishops
Coleman F. Carroll (1953–1958), appointed Bishop of Miami and subsequently elevated to archbishop of the same see
Vincent Martin Leonard (1964–1969), appointed Bishop of Pittsburgh
John Bernard McDowell (1966–1996)
Anthony G. Bosco (1970–1987), appointed Bishop of Greensburg
William J. Winter (1989–2005)
Thomas J. Tobin (1992–1996), appointed Bishop of Youngstown and later Bishop of Providence
David Zubik (1997–2003), appointed Bishop of Green Bay and later Bishop of Pittsburgh
Paul J. Bradley (2004–2009), appointed Bishop of Kalamazoo
Other diocesan priests who became bishops
Tobias Mullen, appointed Bishop of Erie in 1868
James O'Connor, appointed Vicar Apostolic of Nebraska in 1876 and later Bishop of Omaha
Ralph Leo Hayes, appointed Bishop of Helena in 1933 and later Rector of the Pontifical North American College and Bishop of Davenport
Jerome Daniel Hannan, appointed Bishop of Scranton in 1954
Howard Joseph Carroll, appointed Bishop of Altoona in 1957
William G. Connare, appointed Bishop of Greensburg in 1960
Cyril John Vogel (priest here, 1931–1951), appointed Bishop of Salina in 1965
Norbert Felix Gaughan (priest here, 1945–1951), appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Greensburg in 1975 and later Bishop of Gary
Nicholas C. Dattilo, appointed Bishop of Harrisburg in 1989
Adam J. Maida, appointed Bishop of Green Bay in 1983 and later Archbishop of Detroit (elevated to Cardinal in 1994)
Daniel DiNardo, appointed Coadjutor Bishop (in 1997) and Bishop of Sioux City and later Coadjutor Bishop, Coadjutor Archbishop, and Archbishop of Galveston-Houston (elevated to Cardinal in 2007)
Edward J. Burns, appointed Bishop of Juneau in 2009 and later Bishop of Dallas
Bernard A. Hebda, appointed Bishop of Gaylord in 2009 and later Coadjutor Archbishop of Newark and Archbishop of Saint Paul and Minneapolis
David Bonnar, appointed Bishop of Youngstown in 2021
Churches
Education
As of 2018, the Diocese of Pittsburgh schools had an enrollment of approximately 17,000 students and employed nearly 1,500 teachers, making it the fourth largest school system in Pennsylvania. The system operated 69 elementary, pre-K and special schools. The diocese in 2018 stated that enrollment in its school system had fallen by 50 percent since 2000.
Elementary schools
Between 2005 and 2010, the diocese closed 16 elementary schools. In 2018, the diocese closed Saint Rosalia Academy in Greenfield. It also merged North American Martyrs School and Saint Bernadette School in Monroeville into the new Divine Mercy Academy.
In 2020, the Pittsburgh-East Regional Catholic Elementary Schools (PERCES) closed East Catholic School in Forest Hills and Saint Maria Goretti in Bloomfield. PERCES also merged Saint Anne School in Castle Shannon, Saint Bernard School in Mount Lebanon, Our Lady of Grace School in Scott Township, and Saint Thomas More School in Bethel Park into one school program. The program would have two preschool through eighth grade sites at Saint Thomas More and Saint Bernard.
High schools
Diocesan
Bishop Canevin High School – Pittsburgh
Central Catholic High School – Pittsburgh (All boys)
North Catholic High School – Cranberry Township
Oakland Catholic High School – Pittsburgh (All girls)
Serra Catholic High School – McKeesport
Seton-La Salle Catholic High School – Mt. Lebanon
Parochial
St. Joseph High School – Harrison Township
Private or independent
Aquinas Academy – Hampton Township
Nazareth Prep – Emsworth
Our Lady of the Sacred Heart High School – Moon Township
Closed schools
Quigley Catholic High School – Baden
Vincentian Academy – McCandless Township
Higher education
Three Catholic colleges and universities operate within the diocese. While affiliated with the Catholic Church, these institutions only receive indirect support from the diocese, such as tuition support for students from diocesan schools.
Duquesne University – Pittsburgh
Carlow University – Pittsburgh
La Roche College – McCandless
Seminarians in the diocese complete their pre-theological studies at Saint Paul Seminary in Pittsburgh.
Ministries
The Diocese of Pittsburgh sponsors a yearly Medallion Ball. It is a debutante ball that honors young women who perform at least 100 hours of eligible volunteer work. The proceeds from the event benefit St. Lucy's Auxiliary to the Blind. In 2002, a Joan of Arc Medallion was awarded to a young woman with Down syndrome who had volunteered as a teacher's assistant. In 2013, a medallion winner was legally blind and had volunteered with a therapeutic horseback-riding program. It is common for attendees to perform more than 800 hours of volunteer work.
The diocese holds a biannual "The Light is On For You" campaign to help Catholics reconnect to the church. The campaign makes it more convenient for Catholics to make confession. During the campaign, confession is available at all diocesan churches for extended hours.
Sexual abuse cases
1978 to 1990
In July 1978, a woman called the Pittsburgh Police to complain that Reverend Anthony Cipolla had sexually abused her two sons, ages nine and 12. The abuse allegedly took place at a hotel room in Dearborn, Michigan and at Cipolla's rectory, with Cipolla giving the boys fake physical examinations. During the preliminary hearing, Bishop Leonard called the mother, urging her to drop the charges. Leonard said that the diocese would take case of Cipolla. The mother eventually followed his advice and the diocese transferred Cipolla to another diocese.
In 1988, Tim Bendig told the diocese that Cipolla had sexually abused him from around 1981 to 1986. Like the earlier two victims, Cipolla administered physical exams to Bendig and rubbed baby powder on his body. The diocese removed Cipolla from ministry and sent him to St. Michael's Institute n New York City. When Cipolla finished there, St. Michael's gave him a positive recommendation to return to ministry. However, Bishop Wuerl refused to return him to ministry until he was evaluated at a different center; Cipolla refused the order. Wuerl suspended Cipolla from priesthood in 1990. In 1992, Bendig sued the diocese. Cipolla appealed his suspension to the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, which in March 1993 ordered Wuerl to return him to ministry. The diocese in 1993 made a financial settlement with Bendig. The Vatican in 1995 reversed its 1993 ruling and permanently suspended Cipolla from public ministry. In 2002, Cipolla was laicized by the Vatican.
In 1985, Reverend John O'Connor from the Diocese of Camden was charged with inappropriately touching a 14-year-old boy in Cape May, New Jersey, during a sleepover. O'Connor was arrested, then released to a pretrial intervention program in Toronto, followed by a period of court supervision. After O'Connor completed the program, Camden Bishop George Henry Guilfoyle asked Bishop Bevilacqua to accept O'Connor in the Diocese of Pittsburgh. Bevilacqua agreed and assigned O'Connor as a hospital chaplain. O'Connor was moved back to Camden in 1993 because his 1985 victim had sued that diocese and received a settlement.
In September 1987, the diocese received an accusation of sexual abuse against three priests: Reverend Richard Zula, Reverend Francis Pucci and Reverend Robert Wolk. The three men were accused of sexually abusing two young brothers between 1984 and 1986. The two brothers filed suit against the diocese in May 1988.
Zula was arrested in September 1988 and charged with over 130 counts of child sexual abuse against the two brothers. He pleaded guilty and was sentenced in 1990 to two to five years in prison.
Pucci was never charged with any crimes due to the passage of the statute of limitations. Prosecutors accused the diocese of a lack of cooperation in the investigation. More allegations against Pucci would arise during the 1990s.
Wolk was arrested in October 1988 and charged with oral sodomy and attempted anal sex. He pleaded guilty in January 1990 and was sentenced to five to ten years in prison. He was convicted of similar offenses in another Pennsylvania county in June 1988.
Wuerl met with the family of the brothers in early 1989, despite the warnings of his advisors. Wuerl said, "The lawyers could talk to one another, but I wasn't ordained to oversee a legal structure. As their bishop I was responsible for the Church's care of that family, and the only way I could do that was to go see them. In March 1989, the diocese settled the brothers' lawsuit for $900,000. Wuerl then implemented a "zero tolerance" policy against sexual abuse.
Wuerl informed all diocesan priests that sexual contact with a minor was not merely a sin, but a crime that would result in permanent removal from the ministry and maybe prison. Priests were instructed to report any allegation of sexual abuse committed by a priest or church employee to the chancery. The diocese created the Diocesan Review Board in 1989 to offer evaluations and recommendations to the bishop on the handling of all sexual abuse cases.
1990 to present
The Diocese of Pittsburgh removed Reverend David Dzermejko from Mary, Mother of the Church Parish in Charleroi in 2009 after the diocese received accusations from two men of sexual abuse in the late 1970s and early 1980s.In May 2013, he was indicted on charges of possessing child pornography. Police had found over 100 pornographic images on his computer. Dzermejko pleaded guilty in April 2014 and was sentenced to three years in prison.
In December 2011, a woman entering the office of Reverend Bartley A. Sorensen observed him looking at child pornography on his computer. She immediately reported him to the diocese, which suspended him and notified authorities. Police found over 5,000 pornographic images on his computer along with printed materials. He pleaded guilty in May 2021 and was sentenced to 93 months in prison.
Deacon Rosendo Dacal was arrested in April 2018 on charges of unlawful contact with a minor and criminal use of communications. Dacal in December 2017 started communicating in a chat room with a teenage boy, sending the boy sexually explicit messages and pornographic images. However, the boy was actually a North Strabane police officer.Dacal pleaded guilty and was sentenced to two years of probation and 100 hours of community service.
In August 2018, a man from Southeast Asia accused Reverend Hugh Lang, the retired pastor of Saint Therese of Lisieux Parish in Munhall, of sexual abuse. The plaintiff said that Lang of sexually assaulted him in 2001 when he was a boy during a training session for altar servers. Lang was arrested in January 2019 on assault charges. Lang denied the charges. He was convicted of six sexual abuse charges and sentenced in February 2020 to nine to 23 months in jail. However, a judge overturned Lang's conviction in March 2020, due to an error by the presiding judge. Prosecutors later decided to drop the charges.
Pennsylvania grand jury investigation
In early 2016, a grand jury investigation, led by Pennsylvania Attorney General Josh Shapiro, began an inquiry into sexual abuse by Catholic clergy in six Pennsylvania dioceses, including the Diocese of Pittsburgh. The six dioceses in August 2018 sued the attorney general in the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, opposing the release of the grand jury report. They raised issues about the rights of priests named in the report, including the lack of due process and fairness, the deprivation of the right to personal reputation and the inability of clergy to defend themselves. The court allowed the state to publish the grand jury report.
In 2018, Zubik confirmed that the diocese would release the list of clergy accused of sex abuse when the grand jury report was made public. In his letter, Zubik noted that the diocese had implemented policies to deal with sexual abuse 30 years ago. Clergy, church employees, and volunteers were all required to go through sexual abuse training programs and criminal background checks. Zubik also noted that 90% of all the allegations in the report occurred before 1990.
The Pennsylvania grand jury report was released on August 2018. It listed 99 priests who had served in the Diocese of Pittsburgh. The report stated that some priests in the diocese ran a child porn ring in the 1970s and 1980s, saying they "used whips, violence and sadism in raping their victims." These abusive priests gave their victims gold crosses so that other pedophile priests would recognize them.
Sexual abuse lawsuits
In January 2020, a lawsuit against the Diocese of Pittsburgh which was filed by sex abuse survivors, as well as their parents, in September 2018 was allowed to move forward. In February 2020, it was reported that the lawsuit did not involve requests for monetary awards, but rather greater disclosure of sex abuse records. On April 15, 2020, a man filed a lawsuit against the Diocese of Pittsburgh for allegedly shielding priests who sexually abused him as a boy. On August 7, 2020, a new lawsuit was filed against the Diocese of Pittsburgh from a man alleging that Father Leo Burchianti attacked and raped him twice when he was an altar boy. Burchianti, who died in 2013, is also accused of having inappropriate sexual relationships with at least eight boys and was previously mentioned in the state grand report. Wuerl and Zubik have been named as defendants in numerous lawsuits as well.
On August 13, 2020, 25 new sex abuse lawsuits were filed against the Diocese of Pittsburgh. On August 14, 2020, it was revealed that the Diocese of Pittsburgh, along with Archdiocese of Philadelphia, Diocese of Allentown and Diocese of Scranton, was enduring the bulk of 150 new lawsuits filed against all eight Pennsylvania Catholic dioceses. On November 20, 2020, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court denied a petition filed by the Diocese of Pittsburgh to grant a stay which would've delayed three ongoing lawsuits against the Diocese.
See also
Catholic Church in the United States
Ecclesiastical Province of Philadelphia
Global organisation of the Catholic Church
List of Catholic archdioceses (by country and continent)
List of Catholic dioceses (alphabetical) (including archdioceses)
List of Catholic dioceses (structured view) (including archdioceses)
List of the Catholic dioceses of the United States
References
Sources
External links
Catholic Diocese of Pittsburgh Official Site
Christianity in Pittsburgh
Religious organizations established in 1843
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
1843 establishments in Pennsylvania |
4550992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%20Greiman | April Greiman | April Greiman (born March 22, 1948) is an American designer widely recognized as one of the first designers to embrace computer technology as a design tool. Greiman is also credited, along with early collaborator Jayme Odgers, with helping to import the European New Wave design style to the US during the late 70s and early 80s." According to design historian Steven Heller, “April Greiman was a bridge between the modern and postmodern, the analog and the digital.” “She is a pivotal proponent of the ‘new typography’ and new wave that defined late twentieth-century graphic design.” Her art combines her Swiss design training with West Coast postmodernism.
Greiman finds the title graphic designer too limiting and prefers to call herself a "transmedia artist". Her work has inspired designers to develop the computer as a tool of design and to be curious and searching in their design approach. Her style includes typelayering, where groups of letterforms are sandwiched and layered, but also made to float in space along with other 'objects in space' such as shapes, photos, illustrations and color swatches. She creates a sense of depth and dynamic, in particular by combining graphic elements through making extensive use of Apple Macintosh technology. Los Angeles Times called her graphic style "an experiment in creating 'hybrid imagery'".
Early life and education
Born on March 22, 1948, April Greiman grew up in New York City. Her father was an early computer programmer, systems analyst, and founder and president of The Ventura Institute of Technology. Her only sibling, Paul, became a meteorologist and specialist in climatic and atmospheric interplanetary modeling.
Greiman first studied graphic design as an undergraduate at the Kansas City Art Institute, from 1966–1970. She then went on to study at the Allgemeine Kunstgewerbeschule Basel, now known as the Basel School of Design (Schule für Gestaltung Basel) in Basel, Switzerland (1970–1971). She was also a student of Armin Hofmann and Wolfgang Weingart, and she was influenced by the International Style and by Weingarts' introduction to the style later known as New Wave, an aesthetic that moved away from a Modernist heritage.
Career
After completing her studies at the Kansas City Art Institute, Greiman worked as a freelance designer and worked directly with the curator of design at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. Greiman moved to Los Angeles in 1976 where she established the multi-disciplinary approach where she "...blends technology, science, word and image with color and space...". She directed her first design studio April Greiman, Inc. from 1978–2004. During the 1970s, she rejected the belief among many contemporary designers that computers and digitalization would compromise the International Typographic Style; instead, she exploited pixelation and other digitization "errors" as integral parts of digital art, a position she has held throughout her career.
Upon her relocation from New York City to Los Angeles, she met photographer-artist Jayme Odgers, who became a significant influence on Greiman. Together, they designed a famous Cal Arts poster in 1977 that became an icon of the California New Wave. In 1982, Greiman became head of the design department at the California Institute of the Arts, also known as Cal Arts. In 1984, she lobbied successfully to change the department name to Visual Communications, as she felt the term “graphic design” would prove too limiting to future designers. In that year, she also became a student herself and investigated in greater depth the effects of technology on her own work.
She then returned to full-time practice and acquired her first Macintosh computer. She would later take the Grand Prize in MacWorld'''s First Macintosh Masters in Art Competition. April also contributed to the design of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, by creating a memorable poster of running legs silhouetted against a square of bright blue sky in collaboration with Jayme Odgers. An early adopter of this computer as noted in Apple's Mac @ 30 video, Greiman produced an issue of Design Quarterly in 1986, notable in its development of graphic design. Entitled Does it make sense?, the edition was edited by Mildred Friedman and published by the MIT Press / Walker Art Center. "She re-imagined the magazine as a fold-out artwork to almost three-by-six feet. The poster must be carefully unfolded three times across, nine times down. It contained a life-size, MacVision-generated image of her outstretched naked body adorned with symbolic images and text— a provocative gesture, which emphatically countered the objective, rational and masculine tendencies of modernist design." Greiman has said about the poster's unusual format and title “Hopefully, someone will make some sense out of this… The sense it has for me is that it’s new and yet old,… it’s a magazine, which is a poster, which is an object, which is… crazy.” The poster was also launched as a complement to the Walker Art Center's new Everyday Art Gallery. In 1995, the US Postal Service launched a stamp designed by Greiman to commemorate the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (Women's Voting Rights).
In 1997, Greiman and her husband, architect Michael Rotondi, purchased a 1940's motel near Palm Springs, Miracle Manor, and turned it into a showcase for her three-dimensional design of space in natural landscapes.
In 2000, Greiman became a partner at the Los Angeles office of the design firm Pentagram, leaving after a few years in the role. In 2005, she began her current Los Angeles-based design consultancy Made In Space. Teaching
In 1982, Greiman became the Director of the Visual Communications Program of the California Institute of the Arts’ design department. In 1992, she was adjunct faculty at the Southern California Institute of Architecture until 2009 when she moved on to the Woodbury University School of Architecture until 2018. In January 2019, Greiman became a tenured professor of design at the University of Southern California Roski School of Art and Design.
With four honorary doctorates, April Greiman is seen as one of the "ultimate risktakers" for her unorthodox and progressive approach to design by embracing new technologies.
Honors and awards
Vesta Award for Outstanding Achievements of Women, Hearth and Home Magazine, Los Angeles, California, 1985
Alliance Graphique Internationale (AGI), Invited Board Member, 1986
Grand Prize Winner, Macintosh Masters in Art Competition, Macworld, San Francisco, California, 1988 Winner, Unesco International Poster Contest, 1987
Winner, The Modern Poster Competition, Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), New York City, New York, 1988
Hall Chair Fellowship, Hallmark Corporation, Kansas City, Missouri, 1990
Frankfurt Book Fair Bronze Medal for From the Edge: Southern California Institute of Architecture,Der Stiftung Buchkunst Prâmiert (Best Books of the World), Los Angeles, California, 1994
50 Best Books of the Year, AIGA, New York City, New York, 1997
AIGA, Gold Medalist, New York City, New York, 1998
Chrysler Award for Design Innovation, Auburn Hill, Michigan, 1998
Finalist, Inaugural National Design Award in Communication Arts, Awarded at White House, Clinton Administration, Washington, DC, 2000
Kansas City Art Institute, Honorary Doctorate, Kansas City, Missouri, 2001
College of Art and Design, Lesley University, Honorary Doctorate, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2002
Academy of Art University, Honorary Doctorate, San Francisco, California, 2003
Masters Series Award, School of Visual Arts, New York City, New York, 2008
Art Center College of Design, Los Angeles, California, 2012
Honorary Member Award for Lifetime Achievement Award, Society of Typographic Arts, Chicago, Illinois, 2018
Notable works and accomplishments
Belmont Beach Aquatic Center, Environmental Graphics, Signage and Color Palette for 5-acre aquatic sports community recreation center with RoTo Architects, Long Beach, California, in progress India Institute of Technology, Experimental Typography, Keynote Speech, Industrial Design Centre, Mumbai, India, March 2, 2019 – March 4, 2019
Architecture + Design Museum (A+D), Farbe/Color: Armin Hofmann, Exhibition Design and Curation with RoTo Architects, 2013, traveled to Miller Institute for Contemporary Art, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, November 15, 201 – March 1, 2015; Rosenwald-Wolf Gallery, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, August 24 – October 7, 2016; and Minneapolis College of Art and Design (MCAD) Gallery, Minneapolis, Minnesota, July 28 – September 17, 2017.
Apple Documentary Movie, MAC @ 30, Featured Designer, January 2014
Architecture + Design Museum (A+D), Drylands Design, Exhibition Environmental Graphics and Graphic Design with Laurie Haycock Makela, Office of Hadley and Peter Arnold and Chu-Gooding Architects, Los Angeles, California, 2012
Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A), Postmodernism: Style and Subversion, 1970–1990, Exhibition and Publication with Essay, September 24, 2011– January 15, 2012
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), American Masters: The Architect and the Painter, Charles and Ray Eames, Video Contribution to Film, 2011
Pacoima Neighborhood City Hall, Environmental Graphics, Signage and Color Palette for Architecture with RoTo Architects, Pacoima, California, 2010
Orange County Great Park, Environmental Graphics, Signage and Color Palette for 1400-acre Park with Ken Smith Landscape Architect, Irvine, California, 2008
Madame Tussaud’s Wax Museum, Color and Materials Palette for Architecture with RoTo Architects, Hollywood, California, 2008
Urban Partners, Hand Holding a Bowl of Rice, Public Art Commission for Wilshire Vermont Metro Station, Los Angeles, California, 2007
Art Center College of Design, Honorary Doctorate, Los Angeles, California, 2012
Pasadena Museum of California Art, Drive-by Shooting: April Greiman Digital Photography, Solo Exhibition and Monograph Publication Design, Pasadena, California, September 9 – October 8, 2006
Prairie View School of Art and Architecture, Color and Materials Palette for Architecture with RoTo Architects, and Texas A & M University, Prairie View, Texas, 2005
Rotovision, Something From Nothing, Monograph Publication Design, 2001
Monacelli Press, From the Center: Design Process @ SCI-Arc,” 1998
Chrysler Award for Design Innovation, Auburn Hill, Michigan, 1998
Miracle Manor Retreat, Design Concept, Interactive and Environmental Graphics and Interiors for Architecture with RoTo Architects, Desert Hot Springs, California, 1997–2018
Rizzoli International Publications, Michele Saee: Buildings & Projects, Publication Design, 1997.
US Postal Commission, 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, Commemorative Stamp, Washington, District of Columbia (DC), August 26, 1995
Warehouse C, Color Palette for Architecture with RoTo Architects, Nagasaki, Japan, 1995
Artemis Publishers, ItsnotwhatAprilyouthinkitGreimanis = cen'estpascequevouscroyez, Monograph Publication Design, 1994
Der Stiftung Buchkunst Prâmiert (Best Books of the World), for From the Edge, Student Workbook, Southern California Institute of Architecture (SCI-Arc), Frankfurt Book Fair Bronze Medal, 1994
Aldus Corporation Video Conference Program, Spokesperson with Paul Brainerd, New York City, New York; Chicago, Illinois; Seattle, Washington; and Toronto, Canada, 1993
Nicola Restaurant, Color and Materials Palette for Architecture as well as Custom Dinnerware, Billboards, Branding and Graphics with RoTo Architects, Los Angeles, California, 1993
Carlson-Reges Residence, Color and Materials Palette for Architecture with RoTo Architects, Los Angeles, California, 1992
Community Redevelopment Agency of Los Angeles (CRA/LA), Walk Earth Talk, Public Art Commission collaboration with Lucille Clifton, Citicorp Plaza Poet’s Walk, Los Angeles, California, 1991
Watson-Guptill Publishers, Hybrid Imagery: The Fusion of Technology and Graphic Design, Monograph Publication Design, 1990
Walker Art Center, Graphic Design in America: A Visual Language History, Exhibition, Poster and Billboard, Featured Designer, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1989
National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), Computer Graphic Studies Grant, Washington, District of Columbia, 1987
Walker Art Center and MIT Press, Design Quarterly #133: ‘Does it Make Sense?’, Publication Design, 1986.
Olympic Organizing Committee, Official Poster for the 1984 Olympic Games, Collaboration with Jayme Odgers, Los Angeles, California, 1984
WET Magazine, Magazine Cover, Collaboration with Jayme Odgers, 1976
Museum of Modern Art (MOMA), The Taxi Project, Exhibition and Catalogue Design with Emilio Ambasz, Curator, New York City, New York, 1975
Collections
Collections of the Cooper Hewitt Design Museum, Museum of Modern Art (MOMA), San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA), Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) and Centre Pompidou
Monographs
April Greiman, WhiteSpace: April Greiman Photography, published by April Greiman, 2021
April Greiman, Drive-by Shooting: April Greiman Digital Photography, exhibition catalog for Pasadena Museum of California Art, 2006
April Greiman and Aris Janigian, Something From Nothing, Rotovision, 2001
April Greiman and Liz Farelly, Floating Ideas into Time and Space, Watson-Guptill Publishers, Cutting Edge Series, 1998
F. Fort, R Poynor and C. Kultenbrouwer, it'snotwhatyouthinkitis = cen'estpascequevouscroyez, Artemis Publishers, 1994
April Greiman, Hybrid Imagery: The Fusion of Technology and Graphic Design, Watson-Guptill Publishers,1990
Keynote speeches
April Greiman, Seeing is a way of thinking. Thinking, a way of seeing, Virginia Tech School of Architecture and Design, March 14, 2022
Objects in Space, Alliance Graphique Internationale (AGI) Open Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, September 24, 2019
Experimental Typography, India Institute of Technology, Industrial Design Centre, Mumbai, India, March 2, 2019 – March 4, 2019
Color as Space, Space as Color, Bend Design Conference, Bend, Oregon, October 2, 2018
Borders, Alliance Graphique Internationale (AGI) at La Maison du Radio, Paris, France, September 20, 2017
Grand Masters of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Industrial Design Centre, Mumbai, India, February 4, 2007 – February 9, 2007April Greiman, MAC Summit at University of California–Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, 1995
April Greiman, Too Corporation, MacWorld, Tokyo, Japan, 1992
April Greiman, IDEAS ‘92 Student Symposium, Melbourne, Australia, 1992
Professional societies and positions
Elected Member, The Trusteeship, International Women’s Forum, Newport Beach, California, 2010
Women in the Arts, Art Table, 2004
Jury Chairperson, General Services Administration Design Awards, Washington, District of Columbia, 1999
USA Expert Juror, China’s First International Graphic Arts Competition, Beijing, China, 1996
USA Expert Juror, Expo 2000 Mascot Competition, Hannover, Germany, 1995
USA Expert Juror, Netherlands All Design Disciplines Competition, Netherlands, 1995
USA Expert Juror, City of Berlin Identity Program Competition, Berlin, Germany, 1993
Chairperson, AIGA Communications Graphics Competition, New York City, New York, 1993
Co-Chair with Tibor Kalman, What’s Going On Now, AIGA National Conference, San Francisco, California, 1987
Invited Member, Alliance Graphique Internationale (AGI), 1986–present
National Board Member, AIGA, 1986–1988
President and Vice-President, AIGA, Los Angeles, 1982–1988
Solo exhibitions
In 2006, the Pasadena Museum of California Art mounted a one-woman show of her digital photography entitled: Drive-by Shooting: April Greiman Digital Photography. She was also in the major group show at Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris called Elle@Centre Pompidou. In 2007, Greiman completed her largest ever work: a public mural, Hand Holding a Bowl of Rice, spanning "seven stories of two building facades marking the entrance to the Wilshire Vermont Metro Station in Los Angeles." In 2014, Greiman collaborated with the London based artist-run organization Auto Italia South East along with a group of artists including Metahaven, in an exhibition POLYMYTH x Miss Information. The exhibition program was included in the external listings for Frieze Art Fair.Do Not Trust Atoms: April Greiman, Avatars and New Photography, bulthaup Los Angeles ‘Kunsthalle b,’ Los Angeles, California, February 1, 2017 – May 15, 2017Objects in Space: April Greiman, Woodbury University Wedge Gallery, Burbank, California, March 4, 2014 – March 30, 2014New Works: April Greiman, Subvecta Motus Gallery, Glendale, California, November 2012 – January 2013Think About What You Think About: April Greiman, Yoon Design: Ddoong Gallery, Korea Society of Basic Design & Art, Seoul, Korea, December 10, 2012 – December 16, 2012
The Masters Series: April Greiman, School of Visual Arts (SVA) Visual Arts Museum, New York City, New York, October 20, 2008 – December 13, 2008Objects in Space, Salve Regina University, Newport, Rhode Island, October 17, 2007 – November 11, 2007
Drive-by Shooting: April Greiman Digital Photography, Pasadena Museum of California Art, Pasadena, California, September 9, 2006 – October 8, 2006
Objects in Space, Nova Ljubjlanska Banka, Llubljana, Slovenia, November 2004
Something from Nothing, Modern Book Gallery, Westwood, California, 2001
Objects in Space, Selby Gallery, Ringling School of Art and Design, Sarasota, Florida, October 25, 1999 – November 24, 1999
It’snotwhatAprilyouthinkitGreimanis, Arc en Rêve Centre d’Architecture, Bordeaux, France, 1994.
Computer Graphics: April Greiman, Itoya Gallery, Tokyo, Japan, 1994.
April Greiman: Hybrid Imagery, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel, 1989One Woman Show, Turner Dailey Gallery, Los Angeles, California, 1989April Greiman, Reinhold–Brown Gallery, New York City, New York, 1986
Selected group exhibitions Between the Lines, Typography in LACMA’s Collection, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California, May 19, 2019–ongoingWest of Modernism: California Graphic Design, 1975–1995, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California, September 30, 2018 – April 21, 2019California: Designing Freedom, Designmuseo, Helsinki, Finland, November 10, 2017 – March 4, 2018
California: Designing Freedom, The Design Museum, London, England, May 24, 2017 – October 17, 2017
Static, Castle Fitzjohns Gallery, New York City, New York, 2016–2017
Typeface to Interface: Graphic Design from the Collection, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, California, May 14, 2016 – October 23, 2016
Physical: Sex and the Body in the 1980s, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California, March 20, 2016 – July 31, 2016
Designing Modern Women 1890–1990, Museum of Modern Art, New York City, New York, October 5, 2013 – October 19, 2014
California’s Designing Women: 1896–1986, The Autry Museum, Los Angeles, California, August 10, 2012 – January 6, 2013
elles@centrepompidou: Women Artists in the Collections of the National Modern Art Museum, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France, May 27, 2009 – February 21, 2011Graphic Design: Now in Production, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 2011
Graphic Design in America: A Visual Language History, Design Museum of London, London, England, 1990
Graphic Design in America: A Visual Language History, IBM Gallery of Science and Art, New York City, New York, 1989
Design USA, United States Information Agency, Travelling Exhibition throughout the United Socialist Soviet Republic (USSR), 1989
Graphic Design in America: A Visual Language History'', Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1989
Selected clients
Art Papers, Atlanta, Georgia
CBRE, Los Angeles, California
Cerritos Center for the Performing Arts, Cerritos, California
Coop Himmelb(l)au Architects, Vienna, Austria
DMJM and AECOM, Los Angeles, California
Esprit, San Francisco, California
Fresh and Easy, Los Angeles, California
Harley Ellis Devereau, Los Angeles, California
Herman Miller, Los Angeles, California
Lifetime Television, New York City, New York
Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles, California
Museum of Applied Arts, Vienna, Austria
Knoll, Los Angeles, California and New York City, New York
Southern California Institute of Architecture (SCI-Arc), Los Angeles, California
Time Warner, New York City, New York
Vitra, Basel, Switzerland
Woodbury University School of Architecture, Burbank, California
Posters
Cal State Sacramento – Think About What You Think About, 2004
Samitaur Constructs, 2002
Objects in Space, Selby Gallery, 1999
Objects in Space, AIGA/OC, 1999
The Havana Project, MAK Center, 1996
Harry Marks, Lifetime Achievement BDA, 1996
It's Not April What You Think It Is, Exhibition, Bordeaux, 1994
Pikes Peak Big Fishy, 1994
AIGA Communication Graphics, 1993
Sci-Arc Admissions, 1993
Pikes Peak Lithographing Co., 1992
UCLA Summer Sessions, 1991
Sci-Arc Summer Programs, 1991
Sci-Arc Making Thinking, 1990
Graphic Design in America, 1989
The Modern Poster, MOMA, 1988
Shaping the Future of Healthcare, 1987
Workspace 1987, 1987
Pacific Wave, Fortuny Museum, 1987
LAICA Fashion Show + Clothing Sale, 1986
Design Quarterly #133: Does it Make Sense, 1986
Snow White and the Seven Pixels, 1986
Sci-Arc, Changing Concepts of Space in Architecture and Art, 1986
Hashi, 1985
AIGA, California Design 2, 1985
LA Olympic Games, 1984
Iris Light, 1984
Your Turn, My Turn, 3-D, 1983
CalArts, 1978
Peter Shire, Swissiyaki, 1978
See also
List of AIGA medalists
References
External links
MadeinSpace.la
MadeinSpaceShop.net
AprilGreiman.com
Drive-by Shooting: April Greiman Digital Photography
AIGA medalists
American graphic designers
Artists from California
Artists from Missouri
1948 births
Living people
Kansas City Art Institute alumni
California Institute of the Arts faculty
Pentagram partners (past and present)
American women graphic designers |
4551009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-Force%3A%20Guardians%20of%20Space | G-Force: Guardians of Space | G-Force: Guardians of Space (1986) is the second American animated television adaptation of the Japanese anime series Science Ninja Team Gatchaman (1972), following Sandy Frank Entertainment's initial 1978 effort Battle of the Planets and preceding ADV Films' 2005 attempt, known merely as Gatchaman. With G-Force, Sandy Frank Entertainment collaborated with Turner Broadcasting to create a newer, more faithful translation of Science Ninja Team Gatchaman for a new audience, and such a translation was made possible with the relaxed television standards of the 1980s, a luxury that the more Star Wars-themed Battle of the Planets did not enjoy.
In the show, five brave teenagers — Ace Goodheart, Dirk Daring, Agatha June, Pee Wee and Hoot Owl battle the aliens Galactor and Computor for the fate of the planet Earth.
Overview
During the early-to-mid 1980s, Sandy Frank Entertainment's Battle of the Planets (or BotP) was gradually being phased off the air after a successful number of years in syndication. Television stations began relegating the show to early morning timeslots (as typically done with programming on its way off the air) before dispensing of it altogether. During this period Ted Turner's cable network TBS (then known as "SuperStation WTBS") also aired the show on their channel (albeit in a slightly more edited form, with cuts for time constraints), and by 1984, WTBS was more or less the exclusive home of BotP before they too dispensed of it around 1985, effectively ending the lengthy run of Battle of the Planets on U.S television.
With Battle of the Planets having run its course, Sandy Frank, still holding the domestic rights to the first Gatchaman series, continued to market BotP wherever they could while seeking ways to continue making use of their license. Interest came from the part of Turner Broadcasting (who was the last to air BotP on a wide scale on their TBS network) in creating a newer, more faithful adaptation of Gatchaman, which would be easier to accomplish with the newly relaxed television standards of the Reagan era-1980s. (Themes such as violence, death and destruction in cartoons were heavily edited during the 1970s.) Turner executives believed that the series still had potential, and in turn acquired the rights from Sandy Frank to begin work on what would come to be known as G-Force (the same title given to the collective group of protagonists in Battle of the Planets, which in turn would be used for the same purpose on the new version).
To develop this project, Turner enlisted the help of Fred Ladd, a pioneer in the field of translating and distributing Japanese animation in the U.S (with famous works such as Astro Boy, Gigantor & Kimba the White Lion, under his belt) to produce the adaptation. Ladd had previously been offered to produce Battle of the Planets by Sandy Frank himself a few years before, but passed on the offer due to location conflicts; Ladd was working out of New York City at the time, while BotP was being produced in California. Ladd, through his production company "Sparklin' Entertainment", put together two "test" pilot episodes chosen by Turner (see Episode order), and sent them in for approval. Within days, Ladd and his company were given the greenlight to produce the adaptation, and work on G-Force began in the fall of 1986. Despite it being handled by Turner & Fred Ladd, Sandy Frank ultimately held the copyrights to the show (along with international distribution rights), while Turner, through its subsidiary Turner Program Services, and King Features Entertainment (a subsidiary of Hearst Corporation; now Hearst Communications) held limited distribution and syndication rights.
Changes and additions in the adaptation
Content editing
For Turner's G-Force, none of Battle of the Planets original elements (such as 7-Zark-7, 1-Rover-1, the concept of space travel and space battles and all of the added American footage) were retained, preferably replaced with a more accurate translation of the original Gatchaman series with far fewer alterations. Most of the plot, backstories, violence and deaths remained intact, only edited or "softened" with added dialogue where it was too explicit (i.e., certain on-screen gun usage, deaths via firearms and/or overly violent means and inter-team violence).
Music
An all-new music score was composed (by composer Dean Andre) for G-Force. The score retained some of the original, 1970s Gatchaman score.
The silent parts of the Gatchaman soundtrack were filled in with additional music, also composed by Dean Andre. This was a relatively common practice, purportedly to maintain the pace of the show and prevent the audience from losing interest during a lull in action. Battle of the Planets had used this practice, composing new scores as well as reusing the existing Gatchaman music, during silent moments such as mecha transformations (which originally had a high-pitched warping sound effect synchronized with the light beams) and the completely musicless scenes where Katse talked with Sosai X. G-Force: Guardians of Space opted to use a sole, repetitive synth instrumental that would play on and off as the Gatchaman score faded in and out. This synth instrumental is actually a stripped-down rendition of the show's opening/ending theme and is played throughout every episode of the series.
Episode order
Unlike Battle of the Planets, which bounced around the Gatchaman episode order and adapted them as the producers saw fit, G-Force followed the original Gatchaman episode order for its entire run, only skipping Gatchaman episodes 81 (due to intense content, also skipped in BotP) and 86 (for unknown reasons) for a total of 85 dubbed episodes (the same number of episodes adapted for Battle of the Planets coincidentally). The final 18 episodes of Gatchaman (episodes 88-105) were not adapted for G-Force either, which resulted in this adaptation lacking a proper conclusion. The reasons behind this decision are not exactly known; some sources claim that only 85 episodes were contracted and bought for this adaptation while others claim that budget constraints or lack of interest in adapting the remaining episodes cut it short. Also to be taken into consideration is the fact that the Gatchaman series became increasingly darker and violent towards its end, which would have made adapting those last episodes difficult, given that G-Force was being marketed towards children. It was not until ADV Films' uncut and unedited release of the first Gatchaman series in 2005-2006 that all 105 episodes were adapted and available in English.
Episodes 18 ("The Whale Submarine") and 87 ("Galactor's Deadly Trap") of G-Force served as the two pilots for the show. They were put together by producer Fred Ladd before he had been given approval to work on the rest of the series, with the purpose being to demonstrate (to Turner Broadcasting) what his work on the show would look and sound like. The two pilots are unique amongst the rest of the episodes for having replaced all of the original Gatchaman music with new music composed by Dean Andre, which was part of the proposed, all-new music score for the show. Due to time constraints, the new pieces of music weren't utilized beyond the pilots and left on the cutting room floor, with the rest of the episodes retaining most of the original Gatchaman score. Incidentally, most of the new music that was exclusively played in the pilots also turned out to be variations of the show's opening/ending theme. There exist earlier, unaired versions of the pilot episodes which contain a radically different music score than even the broadcast versions of the pilots. They also contain an unused opening/closing theme, which along with the aforementioned score was also left on the cutting room floor in favor of the final music selection present in the broadcast episodes. These "pre-production" pilot episodes are only available as extras on the Region 4 (PAL) Battle of the Planets: Collection 2 DVD set.
Between the efforts of both Battle of the Planets and G-Force, 99 of Gatchaman'''s 105 episodes were adapted. Incidentally, the last six untranslated episodes were very crucial to the series' overall storyline, serving as the series's finale. They also featured some of the series' most violent, yet memorable moments. As previously mentioned, ADV Film's uncut Gatchaman release finally adapted all 105 episodes into English, more than 30 years after the show first aired and almost 30 years since its first English adaptation.
Character names and terms
On the creative side, the original Gatchaman character names and terms were once-again re-tooled and Americanized in G-Force for the convenience of the English-speaking market, as they first were with Battle of the Planets years earlier. Despite the existence of BotP's set of English names and terms, G-Forces producers came up with their own set in an attempt to stray away from the previous adaptation as much as possible and avoid any potential confusion between the two. From Battle of the Planets to G-Force, the heroes' names were changed to Ace Goodheart (Mark), Dirk Daring (Jason), Agatha June (Princess), Pee Wee (Keyop), Hoot Owl (Tiny), and Dr. Brighthead (Chief Anderson), while the main villains were renamed Galactor (Zoltar) and Computor (The Great Spirit) respectively. The only terms retained from BotP were the name of the group as a collective ("G-Force", in order to explain the "G" on their costumes and vehicles) and the team's ship ("Phoenix").
Other changes
In G-Force, the Pee Wee character remained mostly identical to his original Gatchaman counterpart Jinpei, as opposed to Battle of the Planets which drastically altered the Jinpei character from a typical 10-year-old to Keyop, an engineered lifeform with a speech impediment.
In Gatchaman and Battle of the Planets, the two primary antagonists (known as Berg Katse/Zoltar & Sosai X/The Great Spirit respectively) shared a strictly subordinate/master relationship, which was changed to more of a master/consultant relationship in G-Force, with Galactor (Berg Katse) becoming the master and Computor (Sosai X) now relegated to his consultant. The reasons for this change is due to religious-based criticism disapproving of "The Great Spirit" role that Sosai X had in Battle of the Planets. Scenes with Sosai X were reduced, including ones with Galactor (Katse) bowing to Sosai X.
Unlike its Gatchaman and Battle of the Planets brethren, G-Force did not have title cards at the beginning of its episodes which made following the show and its individual episodes quite difficult. Foreign-language dubs of G-Force attempted to correct this oversight by having the narrator announce the episode title at the start of each episode. Also, episodes which were listed and titled as two-parters in Gatchaman and Battle of the Planets were not titled as such in G-Force, but the plots in those episodes remained more or less intact. The show's episode titles were later revealed and available to the masses via fan clubs and the Internet.
Credits
Owned and distributed by: Sandy Frank Entertainment (formerly marketed by Turner Program Services and King Features Entertainment, whose rights reverted to Sandy Frank in 2003)
Producer: Fred Ladd
Voice Director: Fred Ladd
Additional Music Composer/Music Editor: Dean Andre
Post-Production: Bruce Austin Productions
Videotape Editor: Kurt Tiegs
Production: Sparklin' Entertainment
Voice cast
Ace Goodheart: Sam Fontana
Dirk Daring/Red Impulse: Cam Clarke (all episodes except 39 & 40)
Agatha June/Pee Wee: Barbara Goodson
Hoot-Owl/Dr.Brighthead/Computor: Jan Rabson (some episodes), Gregg Berger (others)
Galactor: Bill Capizzi
Opening Credits Announcer: Norm Prescott
(NOTE: The show's voice actors were originally uncredited in its credits list.)
Team variations across different versions
The renaming of the various characters and terms in G-Force are highlighted as follows (in correspondence to their Gatchaman equivalents, among others):
Although he was obviously the Swallow, Jimmy called himself the Falcon.
Other character variations across different versions
Identity change variations across different versions
‡The original Japanese language version of Gatchaman contains a small amount of words in English.
Episode list
The Robot Stegosaur (#1. Gatchaman vs. Turtle King)
The Blast at the Bottom of the Sea (#2. The Evil Ghostly Aircraft Carrier)
The Strange White Shadow (#3. The Giant Mummy that Calls Storms)
The Giant Centipoid (#4. Revenge of the Iron Beast Mechadegon)
The Phantom Fleet (#5. Ghost Fleet from Hell)
The Micro-Robots (#6. The Great Mini Robot Operation)
The Bad Blue Baron (#7. Galactor's Great Airshow)
The Secret of the Reef (#8. The Secret of the Crescent Coral Reef)
The Sting of the Scorpion (#9. The Devil from the Moon)
The Antoid Army (#10. The Great Underground Monster War)
The Mighty Blue Hawk (#11. The Mysterious Red Impulse)
The Locustoid (#12. The Giant Eating Monster Ibukuron)
The Deadly Red Sand (#13. Mystery of the Red Sand)
The Rainbow Ray (#14. Fearful Ice-Kander)
The Giant Jellyfish Lens (#15. The Frightening Jellyfish Lens)
The Regenerating Robot (#16. Mechanica, the Indestructible Machine)
The Beetle Booster (#17. Great Insect Operation)
The Whale Submarine (Pilot Episode #1) (#18. Revenge! The Whale Operation)
The Racing Inferno (#19. Hell's Speed Race)
The Mightiest Mole (#20. A Critical Moment for the Science Ninja Team)
Race of the Cyborgs (#21. Who is Leader X?)
The Fiery Dragon (#22. Firebird vs. Fire Eating Dragon)
The Mammoth Iron Ball (#23. Giant Raging Mecha Ball)
The Neon Giant (#24. A Neon Giant Laughs in the Dark)
The Rock Robot (#25. Magma Giant, The Emperor of Hell)
The Secret Sting Ray (#26. The Godphoenix Reborn) (A pilot was produced from this episode by Media360, originally titled "The Zol Indtruders", and featured Georgia-based actors)
The ANIrobot (#27. Galactor's Witch Racer)
Invisible Enemy (#28. The Invisible Demon)
The Project Called "Rock-E-X" (#29. Galack X, The Devil-Man)
The Attack of the Mantis (#30. Kamisoral, the Guillotine Iron Beast)
The Sinister STAR-ONE (#31. Plan to Assassinate Dr. Nambu)
The Giant Squid (#32. The Gezora Operation, Part 1)
In The Tentacles' Grip (#33. The Gezora Operation, Part 2)
Operation Aurora (#34. Evil Aurora Operation)
The Sun-Bird (#35. Fires of the Blazing Desert)
The Deadly Sea (#36. Little Gatchaman)
The Particle Beam (#37. Renjira, the Electron Iron Beast)
The Dinosaur Man (#38. The Mysterious Mechanical Jungle)
The Monster Plants (#39. Jigokiller, the People-Eating Plant, Part 1)
Those Fatal Flowers (#40. Jigokiller, the People-Eating Plant, Part 2)
Killer Music (#41. Murder Music)
Swan Song Prison (#42. The Great Escape Trick)
Human Robots (#43. A Romance Destroyed By Evil)
The Shock Waves (#44. A Challenge From Galactor)
The Case of the Kalanite (#45. The Sea Lion Ninja Team in the Night Fog)
The Deadly Valley (#46. Gatchaman in the Valley of Death)
The Super-z-20 (#47. The Devil's Airline)
The Camera Weapon (#48. Shutterkiller, the Camera Iron Beast)
The Mechanical Fang (#49. The Terrifying Mechadokuga)
The Skeleton Curse (#50. Tracodon, the Dinosaur Skeleton)
Wheel of Destruction (#51. Cataroller, the Rolling Monster)
The Secret Red Impulse (#52. Red Impulse's Secret)
The Van Allen Vector (#53. Farewell, Red Impulse)
The Vengeance (#54. Gatchaman Burns With Rage)
The Micro-Submarine (#55. The Desperate Mini-Submarine)
The Bird Missile (#56. Bitter Bird Missile)
Battle of the North Pole (#57. The Evil White Sea)
The Super-Lazer (#58. Hell's Mecha-Buddha)
Mystery of the Haunted Island (#59. Secret of the Monster Mecha Factory)
G-Force Agent 6 (#60. Science Ninja Team G-6)
Dream of Danger (#61. The Ghost of Red Impulse)
The Snow Devil (#62. Blizzarder, the Snow Devil)
The Strange Strike-Out (#63. Massacre of the Mecha Curve Ball)
A Deadly Gift (#64. A Deadly Christmas Present)
The Iron Beast (#65. Super BEM, the Synthetic Iron Beast)
When Fashion Was Fatal (#66. The Devil's Fashion Show)
The Proto Monster (#67. Mortal Blow! The Gatchaman Fire)
Radioactive Island (#68. Particle Iron Beast, Micro Saturn)
The Devil's Graveyard (#69. Cemetery Under the Moonlight)
Mummy Mania (#70. Uniting Goddesses of Death)
The Abominable Snowman Cometh (#71. The Immortal Leader X)
Plague of Robots (#72. The Swarm! Attack of the Mini Monstermechs)
The Mammothodon (#73. Get Katse!)
Secret of the Power (#74. The Secret of the Bird Styles)
The Crab Robot (#75. Jumbo Shakora, the Sea Devil)
The Reverser Ray (#76. The Bracelet Is Exposed)
Shock Waves (#77 Berg Katse's Success)
Battle on the Ocean Bottom (#78. Deadly Danger! 10,000 Meters Beneath the Sea)
Stolen Identity (#79. Gatchaman Secrets Stolen)
The Mind-Control Machine (#80. Return! Boomerang)
Force of the Mega-Robots (#82. Aim for Crescent Coral Reef!)
The Flame Zone (#83. A Desperate Ring of Fire)
Web of Danger (#84. Smog Fiber, Spiderweb Iron Beast)
The Secret of G-4 (#85. He's G-4!)
Galactor's Deadly Trap (Pilot Episode #2) (#87. Patogiller, the Triple United Iron Beast)
Debut and reception
TBS run (1986)
The revamped G-Force premiered in obscurity on Turner's WTBS network in July 1987 and ran for just a week before mysteriously disappearing afterwards.
The reasons for this brief airing are still unknown. Sources indicate that the purpose behind the WTBS "test run" was to clear a contractual agreement that allowed the rights-holders to list the show as having "aired" in the United States to aid its international syndication sales.G-Force was syndicated internationally in the following years, while the U.S. was left without any incarnation of Gatchaman for eight years.
Cartoon Network run (1995–1997; 2000; 2004)
During the early 1990's, Cartoon Network, another of Ted Turner's networks, was in need of newer programming. Coupled with the runaway success of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers around the same time, this provided an opportunity for G-Force to make its proper U.S. debut as Turner Program Services still held syndication rights to the series. G-Force premiered on Cartoon Network on January 2, 1995 alongside James Bond Jr as the newest additions to the channel's Super Adventures programming block. All 85 episodes of the series were finally aired on weekday and weekend rotation.G-Force was the first anime to air on Cartoon Network, followed later that month by Robot Carnival, Vampire Hunter D, Twilight of the Cockroaches (January 29, 1995). Along with Speed Racer (February 1996), these early entries paved the way for Cartoon Network's Toonami (March 1997) which popularized anime on the channel.
By early 1996, Cartoon Network shifted G-Force to late night and weekend airings, where it lingered until it re-ran its last episode on Saturday, July 12, 1997. The following weekend, the show (then airing during the last remnant of the network's Super Adventures block) was canceled to make way for a Saturday evening edition of Toonami.
G-Force made brief re-appearances in 2000 (on Cartoon Network's late-night "Toonami Midnight Run" block) and again in 2004 (on ADV's "The Anime Network"), never airing more than a handful of episodes after its 1995-1997 Cartoon Network run.
During its short stint on the weekend "Toonami Midnight Run" block in early 2000, G-Force was featured in a number of on-air promotions for Cartoon Network's Toonami, which continued to air even after the show was canceled from the block.
DVD releases and availability
Due to its relative obscurity, and paired with the fact that ADV's recent uncut and unedited Gatchaman release has replaced it as the most accurate English adaptation, G-Force is unlikely to receive a full series or boxset release as its Battle of the Planets brethren has received (in the U.K at least).
Sandy Frank Entertainment (which originally licensed both Battle of the Planets and G-Force: Guardians of Space) lost their distribution and marketing rights to the original Gatchaman series and its adaptations sometime in 2007. They have since been re-acquired by Sentai Filmworks, which has re-released the ADV Films English dub of Gatchaman on Blu-ray and DVD as well as Battle of the Planets on streaming platforms. While they hold the licensing rights to G-Force, they currently have no plans to re-release the show.
To date only a handful of G-Force episodes have been released on home video, totaling to just 13 of its 85 episodes when adding up all of the ones in the following DVD releases:
The Best of G-Force (Region 1 NTSC DVD released on September 28, 2004): A compilation DVD by Rhino Entertainment Company (under its Rhinomation classic animation entertainment brand) featuring seven random G-Force episodes, all presented uncut, but mostly out of episode order.
G-Force: Guardians of Space (Region 0 PAL DVD released on May 13, 2003): Eponymously titled DVD featuring the first three G-Force episodes.
Battle of the Planets Volumes 1-6 (Region 1 NTSC DVDs released between 2001 and 2002): The first six volumes of Rhino's Battle of the Planets release contain one episode of G-Force per volume as "extras" (Episodes 1-6, in the same order as the respective volumes). After Volume 6 this practice was stopped.
Further reading
G-Force: Animated (TwoMorrows Publishing: )
Astro Boy and Anime Come to the Americas: An Insider's View of the Birth of a Pop Culture Phenomenon'' (McFarland & Company: )
References
External links
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1986 American television series debuts
1986 American television series endings
1980s American animated television series
American children's animated action television series
American children's animated space adventure television series
American children's animated science fantasy television series
American children's animated superhero television series
Animated television series about extraterrestrial life
American television series based on Japanese television series
Gatchaman
Science fiction anime and manga
Tatsunoko Production
TBS (American TV channel) original programming
Teen animated television series
Teen superhero television series |
4551030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris%20Ankrum | Morris Ankrum | Morris Ankrum (born Morris Nussbaum; August 28, 1896 – September 2, 1964) was an American radio, television, and film character actor.
Early life
Born in Danville in Vermilion County in eastern Illinois, Ankrum originally began a career in academics. After graduating from The University of Southern California with a law degree, he went on to an associate professorship in economics at the University of California, Berkeley. While at Berkeley he became involved in the drama department and eventually began teaching drama and directing at the Pasadena Playhouse.
From 1923 to 1939 he acted in several Broadway stage productions, including Gods of the Lightning, The Big Blow, and Within the Gates.
Film career
Before signing with Paramount Pictures in the 1930s, Nussbaum had already changed his last name to Ankrum. Upon signing with the studio, he chose to use the name "Stephen Morris" before changing it to Morris Ankrum in 1939.
Ankrum was cast in supporting roles as stalwart authority figures, including scientists, military men (particularly army officers), judges, trail hands, bankers, and even psychiatrists in more than 270 films and television episodes. His parts included villainous roles in Paramount's Hopalong Cassidy film series. Ankrum was in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's production of Tennessee Johnson (1942), a biographical film about Andrew Johnson, the 17th U.S. president. As Sen. Jefferson Davis, Ankrum addresses the United States Senate upon his resignation to lead the Confederate States of America as that republic's first—and only—president. Ankrum's film career spanned 30 years. His credits were largely concentrated in the western and science-fiction genres.
Ankrum appeared in such westerns as Ride 'Em Cowboy in 1942, Vera Cruz opposite Gary Cooper and Burt Lancaster, Apache (1954), and Cattle Queen of Montana with Barbara Stanwyck and Ronald Reagan.
In the science fiction genre, he appeared in Rocketship X-M (1950); as a Martian leader in Flight to Mars (1951); in Red Planet Mars (1952), playing the United States Secretary of Defense; in the cult classic Invaders From Mars (1953), playing a United States Army general; and as another Army general in Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956); as a psychiatrist in the cult classic Kronos (1957); and other military-officer roles in Beginning of the End (1957) and The Giant Claw (1957), and the Independent production, “Giant from the Unknown” released 1958.
Later years
By the end of 1958 Ankrum's film career had essentially ended, though he continued taking television roles. In the syndicated series Stories of the Century Ankrum played outlaw Chris Evans, who with his young associate John Sontag, played by John Smith, turned to crime to thwart the Southern Pacific Railroad, which Evans and Sontag held in contempt.
Ankrum made 22 appearances on CBS's Perry Mason as one of several judges who regularly presided over the murder trials of Mason's clients from the show's first season in 1957 until his death in 1964. The show ended two years later.
Ankrum appeared in western series such as The Adventures of Rin Tin Tin, Bronco, Maverick, Tales of the Texas Rangers, Cimarron City, Rawhide and The Rifleman.
Ankrum appeared in a number of ABC/Warner Brothers westerns. On October 15, 1957, he had a major part in the episode "Strange Land" of the series Sugarfoot, starring Will Hutchins. Ankrum played an embittered rancher named Cash Billings, who allows hired gunman Burr Fulton ( Rhodes Reason) to take over his spread, but Sugarfoot arrives to bring law and justice to the situation. Ankrum appeared again, as John Savage, in 1959 in the Sugarfoot episode "The Wild Bunch". The same year, he portrayed a zealot who abused his daughter, played by Sherry Jackson, in the episode "The Naked Gallows" of the western Maverick with Jack Kelly and Mike Connors. In 1961, he again played embittered, and this time paralyzed, rancher Cyrus Dawson in the episode "Incident at Dawson Flats" of the western series Cheyenne.
In the 1958–59 season Ankrum appeared 12 times in Richard Carlson's syndicated western series Mackenzie's Raiders. In the series set on the Rio Grande border, Carlson plays Col. Ranald Mackenzie, who faces troubles from assorted border outlaws.
Ankrum was cast in an episode of the 1959 CBS sitcom Dennis the Menace. He also made occasional uncredited appearances in several Roger Corman films. While busy in films and television, Ankrum was still involved in live theatre and continued to direct plays at the Pasadena Playhouse.
He and his second wife, Joan Wheeler (married aka Joan Ankrum), had a child, David Ankrum, best known as Adam from Tabitha. David Ankrum eventually became a Hollywood agent. Joan Ankrum, of Joan Ankrum Galleries, became a prominent Los Angeles art dealer with a gallery on La Cienega Boulevard
Death
On September 2, 1964, Ankrum died of trichinosis. At the time of his death, he was still involved with Raymond Burr's Perry Mason TV series. His final appearance on Perry Mason, in the episode "The Case of the Sleepy Slayer", and his last feature film, Guns of Diablo, in which he was cast as Ray Macklin, were released in 1964 and 1965, respectively, following Ankrum's death.
Selected filmography
Reunion in Vienna (1933) as Musician (uncredited)
Stand Up and Cheer! (1934) as Washington Press Correspondent (uncredited)
The Return of Hopalong Cassidy (1936) as Blackie
Trail Dust (1936) as Tex Anderson
Borderland (1937) as Loco
Hills of Old Wyoming (1937) as Andrews
North of the Rio Grande (1937) as Henry Stoneham
Rustlers' Valley (1937) as Glen Randall
Knights of the Range (1940) as Gamecock
The Showdown (1940) as Baron Rendor
Light of the Western Stars (1940) as Nat Hayworth
Buck Benny Rides Again (1940) as Second Outlaw
Cherokee Strip (1940) as Hawk Barrett
Three Men from Texas (1940) as Bruce Morgan
Doomed Caravan (1941) as Stephen Westcott
Cheers for Miss Bishop (1941) as Professor at Minna's Hearing (uncredited)
The Roundup (1941) as 'Parenthesis'
In Old Colorado (1941) as Joe Weiler
Border Vigilantes (1941) as Dan Forbes
Pirates on Horseback (1941) as Ace Gibson
Wide Open Town (1941) as Jim Stuart
This Woman Is Mine (1941) as Roussel
The Bandit Trail (1941) as Red Haggerty
I Wake Up Screaming (1941) as Assistant District Attorney
Road Agent (1941) as Big John Morgan
Ride 'Em Cowboy (1942) as Ace Anderson
Roxie Hart (1942) as Martin S. Harrison
Ten Gentlemen from West Point (1942) as Wood
Tales of Manhattan (1942) as Judge Tom Barnes (Robinson sequence)
The Loves of Edgar Allan Poe (1942) as Mr. Graham
The Omaha Trail (1942) as Henchman Job
Tennessee Johnson (1942) as Jefferson Davis
Time to Kill (1942) as Alexander Morny
Reunion in France (1942) as Martin
The Human Comedy (1943) as Mr. Beaufrere (uncredited)
Assignment in Brittany (1943) as Stenger (uncredited)
Dixie Dugan (1943) as Editor
Best Foot Forward (1943) as Col. Harkrider
Let's Face It (1943) as Man in Sun Shell Cafe (uncredited)
I Dood It (1943) as Brinker
Swing Fever (1943) as Dan Conlon
The Cross of Lorraine (1943) as Col. Demas (uncredited)
Whistling in Brooklyn (1943) as Blake - Newspaper Editor (uncredited)
See Here, Private Hargrove (1944) as Col. Forbes (uncredited)
The Heavenly Body (1944) as Dr. Green
Rationing (1944) as Mr. Morgan
Main Street Today (1944, Short) as Mayor Charlie Maxwell (uncredited)
Radio Bugs (1944, Short) as Pain-Killer Kilroy, the dentist (uncredited)
Important Business (1944, Short) as Army Officer Who Sits by Doakes (uncredited)
And Now Tomorrow (1944)
Meet the People (1944) as Monte Rowland
Kismet (1944) as The Caliph's Messenger (uncredited)
Marriage Is a Private Affair (1944) as Mr. Ed Scofield
Barbary Coast Gent (1944) as Alec Veeder
Return from Nowhere (1944, Short) as Doctor (uncredited)
Thirty Seconds over Tokyo (1944) as Admiral William F. Halsey (uncredited)
Gentle Annie (1944) as Deputy Gansby
Dark Shadows (1944, Short) as Police Lt. Pat McKay
Fall Guy (1945, Short) as District Attorney (uncredited)
Phantoms, Inc. (1945, Short) Narrator (uncredited voice)
The Hidden Eye (1945) as Ferris
Purity Squad (1945, Short) as Dr. Adams (uncredited)
Adventure (1945) as Mr. Ludlow - Farmer (uncredited)
The Thin Man Goes Home (1945) as Willoughby
The Harvey Girls (1946) as Rev. Claggett
The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946) as Judge Parkman (uncredited)
The Green Years (1946) as Dr. Galbraith (uncredited)
Courage of Lassie (1946) as Farmer Crews
The Cockeyed Miracle (1946) as Dr. Wilson
Undercurrent (1946) (uncredited)
Lady in the Lake (1947) as Eugene Grayson
The Mighty McGurk (1947) as Fowles
A Really Important Person (1947, Short) as Contest Emcee (uncredited)
The Sea of Grass (1947) as A.J. Crane, Attorney
Undercover Maisie (1947) as Parker (scenes cut)
Little Mr. Jim (1947) as Col. Starwell
Song of the Thin Man (1947) as The Police Inspector (uncredited)
Cynthia (1947) as Mr. Phillips, the High-School Principal
Merton of the Movies (1947) as Goodfellow's Club Manager (uncredited)
Desire Me (1947) as Hector Martin
Good News (1947) as Dean Griswold
High Wall (1947) as Dr. Stanley Griffin
Alias a Gentleman (1948) as O.K. (scenes cut)
Souvenirs of Death (1948, Short) as Gangster / Gun Owner #7 (uncredited)
Fighting Back (1948) as Robert J. Higby
The Fabulous Fraud (1948, Short) as Blind Girl's Father
For the Love of Mary (1948) as Adm. Walton
Joan of Arc (1948) as Capt. Poton de Xaintrailles
Bad Men of Tombstone (1949) as Mr. Jones
We Were Strangers (1949) as Mr. Seymour
Colorado Territory (1949) as United States Marshal
The Fountainhead (1949) as Prosecutor (uncredited)
Slattery's Hurricane (1949) as Dr. Holmes (uncredited)
Chain Lightning (1950) as Ed Bostwick
Borderline (1950) as Bill Whittaker
The Damned Don't Cry! (1950) as Jim Whitehead
In a Lonely Place (1950) as Lloyd Barnes
Rocketship X-M (1950) as Dr. Ralph Fleming
Southside 1-1000 (1950) as Eugene Deane
Short Grass (1950) as Hal Fenton
The Redhead and the Cowboy (1951) as Sheriff
The Lion Hunters (1951) as Tom Forbes
Fighting Coast Guard (1951) as Navy Captain
Along the Great Divide (1951) as Ed Roden
Tomorrow Is Another Day (1951) as Hugh Wagner
Flight to Mars (1951) as Ikron
My Favorite Spy (1951) as Gen. Frazer
Fort Osage (1952) as Arthur Pickett
Mutiny (1952) as Capt. Radford
Red Planet Mars (1952) as Secretary of Defense Sparks
And Now Tomorrow (1952)
Three for Bedroom "C" (1952) as Well-Wisher at Station (uncredited)
Son of Ali Baba (1952) as Ali Baba
The Raiders (1952) as Alcalde Thomas Ainsworth
Because of You (1952) as Dr. Travis
Hiawatha (1952) as Iagoo
The Man Behind the Gun (1953) as Bram Creegan
Fort Vengeance (1953) as Chief Crowfoot
I Beheld His Glory (1953, TV Movie) as Simon Peter
Invaders From Mars (1953) as Col. Fielding
Arena (1953) as Bucky Hillberry
Devil's Canyon (1953) as Sheriff
Sky Commando (1953) as Gen. W.R. Combs
Mexican Manhunt (1953) as Tip Morgan
The Moonlighter (1953) as Alexander Prince
Flight Nurse (1953) as Interrogating Officer (uncredited)
Three Young Texans (1954) as Jeff Blair
Taza, Son of Cochise (1954) as Grey Eagle
Southwest Passage (1954) as Dr. Elias P. Stanton
Drums Across the River (1954) as Chief Ouray
The Saracen Blade (1954)
Silver Lode (1954) as Zachary Evans
Apache (1954) as Dawson
The Outlaw Stallion (1954) as Sheriff
Two Guns and a Badge (1954) as Sheriff Jackson
Cattle Queen of Montana (1954) as J.I. 'Pop' Jones
The Steel Cage (1954) as Prison Board Member Garvey (segment "The Hostages")
Vera Cruz (1954) as Gen. Ramírez
For the Defense (1954, TV Movie) as Prosecutor
The Little Lamb: A Christmas Story (1955, Short) as Azar the Shepherd (uncredited)
Dr. Harvey W. Wiley (1955, TV Movie) as Dr. Treet
Many Rivers to Cross (1955) as Mr. Emmett - Surly Innkeeper & J.P. (uncredited)
Crashout (1955) as Head Guard
The Silver Star (1955) as Charlie Childress
Chief Crazy Horse (1955) as Red Cloud
The Eternal Sea (1955) as Vice-Adm. Arthur Dewey Struble
No Man's Woman (1955) as Capt. Hostedder
The Last Command (1955) as Military Governor Juan Bradburn (uncredited)
Duel on the Mississippi (1955) as Magistrate (uncredited)
Tennessee's Partner (1955) as Judge Parker
The Adventures of Fu Manchu (1956) as Professor Rutledge
Fury at Gunsight Pass (1956) as Doc Phillips
When Gangland Strikes (1956) as Leo Fantzler
Quincannon, Frontier Scout (1956) as Col. Harry Conover
Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956) as Brig. Gen. John Hanley
Down Liberty Road (1956, Short) as Fred Schroder
Walk the Proud Land (1956) as Gen. Wade
Death of a Scoundrel (1956) as Capt. LaFarge - Homicide Squad
The Desperadoes Are in Town (1956) as Mr. Rutherford
Naked Gun (1956) as Sheriff Jim Jackson
Drango (1957) as Henry Calder
Zombies of Mora Tau(1957) as Dr. Jonathan Eggert
Hell's Crossroads (1957) as Wheeler
Kronos (1957) as Dr. Albert Stern
The Giant Claw (1957) as Lt. Gen. Edward Considine
Beginning of the End (1957) as Gen. John Hanson
Omar Khayyam (1957) as Imam Nowaffak
The Power of the Resurrection (1958) as Annas
Giant from the Unknown (1958) as Dr. Frederick Cleveland
Young and Wild (1958) as Police Capt. Egan
How to Make a Monster (1958) as Police Capt. Hancock
Curse of the Faceless Man (1958) as Narrator (voice, uncredited)
Badman's Country (1958) as Mayor Coleman
Twilight for the Gods (1958) as Sea Captain
The Saga of Hemp Brown (1958) as Bo Slauter
Tarawa Beachhead (1958) as Chief of Staff, Pearl Harbor (uncredited)
From the Earth to the Moon (1958) as President Ulysses S. Grant (uncredited)
Frontier Gun (1958) as Andrew Barton
Half Human (1958) as Dr. Carl Jordan
The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come (1961) as Gen. Lew Wallace (uncredited)
The Most Dangerous Man Alive (1961) as Capt. Davis
Tower of London (1962) as The Archbishop (uncredited)
X: The Man with the X-ray Eyes (1963) as Mr. Bowhead (uncredited)
Guns of Diablo (1965) as Ray Macklin (final film role)
Television credits
Amos 'n' Andy (1 episode, 1951) as Judge
Cowboy G-Men (3 episodes, 1953) as John Calhoun / Judge Jefferson Dixon / Carl Randall
The Pepsi-Cola Playhouse (1 episode, 1953) as Tom
The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp (1 episode, 1955) as Old Man Cullen
Schlitz Playhouse of Stars (3 episodes, 1953–1955) as Link Bradford / Hendrick Vandorp / Damon Norton / Mark Warren
Four Star Playhouse (3 episodes, 1955–1956) as Mr. Raymond / Mr. Mason / Warden
Cavalcade of America (2 episodes, 1953–1956) as Peter Slade / Maj. Gen. C. H. Gerhardt / Gen. Stonewall Jackson
Science Fiction Theatre (4 episodes, 1955–1956) as Dr. McDermott / Campbell / Dr. Clausen / George Halsey
You Are There (1 episode, 1956) as Daniel Webster
Official Detective TV series episode 'Beauty In The Bag' (1957) as Cope
The Adventures of Jim Bowie (1 episode, 1957) as John McDonogh / Gabriel Durand
Lassie (1 episode, 1957) as Harry
Tombstone Territory (2 episodes, 1957 and 1959) as George West / Galeno Mayor
Sugarfoot (2 episodes, 1957 and 1959) as John Savage / Cash Billings
Maverick (2 episodes, 1957 and 1960) as Judge Jason Painter / Joshua Haines
Tales of Wells Fargo (1 episodes, 1957) as Colonel Cole Bryson
The Veil (1 episode, 1958) as Judge Davis
Have Gun - Will Travel (1 episode, 1958) as Maxim Bruckner
U.S. Marshal (in "Good Indian", 1958) as Henry Colt
Mackenzie's Raiders (2 episodes, 1958-1959) as Dutch Herman / Sergeant Lund
Sea Hunt (1 episode, 1958) as Earl Tucker - Head of INS
26 Men (2 episodes, 1958) as Jeff Hubbard / Miles Young
The Adventures of Rin Tin Tin (6 episodes, 1955–1958) as Yellow Wolf / Brig. General Jack Lawrence / Chief Red Eagle / Walking Hawk / Long Dog / Millard Austin
Wagon Train (as Michael Folsom in "The Tobias Jones Story", 1958) as Michael Folsom
Frontier Doctor (1 episode, 1959) as Colonel Martin Brandt
Death Valley Days (in "A Bullet for the Captain", 1958) as Major Rogers and (in "The Talking Wire", 1959) as Phillips
Lawman (in "The Young Toughs", 1959) as Ike Smith
Bat Masterson (in "A Matter of Honor", 1959) as Judge Dorset
Markham (in "The Last Bullet", 1959) as Harold Burgess
Tombstone Territory (2 episodes, 1957–1959) as George West / Galeno Mayor
Riverboat (in "A Night at Trapper's Landing, 1959) as C.C. Thompson
Gunsmoke (as Merle in "The Bobsy Twins", 1960) as Merle Finney
Dennis the Menace (1 episode, 1960) as Minister
The Man from Blackhawk (1 episode, as Martin Randolph in "Portrait of Cynthia", 1960) as Martin Randolph
Cheyene (4 episodes, 1956–1961) as Cyrus Dawson / Matt Benedict / John Clements / Ed Roden, Sr.
Rawhide (2 episodes, 1959–1961) as Doctor Morgan in S3:E11, "Incident of the Broken Word" (1961) / Dr. Tom Jackson
The Rifleman (2 episodes, 1959–1961) as Jacob Black / Aaron Pelser
Bronco (5 episodes, 1958–1961) as Gilbert Groves / General Blunt / Dan Peppin / Gen. George Meade / Todd Morgan
The Barbara Stanwyck Show (as Walter Harwood in "Along the Barbary Coast, 1961)
Bonanza (as Mr. Mason in "The Gamble", 1962) as Mr. Mason
Kraft Suspense Theatre (1 episode, 1964) as Chief Austin
Perry Mason (22 episodes, 1957–1964) as Judge / Judge Bates
References
External links
1896 births
1964 deaths
American male stage actors
American male film actors
American male radio actors
American male television actors
Male actors from Illinois
USC Gould School of Law alumni
University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty
California lawyers
People from Danville, Illinois
Male actors from Berkeley, California
Male actors from Los Angeles
20th-century American male actors
Male Western (genre) film actors
20th-century American lawyers
Western (genre) television actors |
4551091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin%20Spica | Twin Spica | is a Japanese seinen manga series written and illustrated by Kou Yaginuma. The "realistic, slice-of-life science fiction series" tells the story of a group of Japanese high school students training to become astronauts in the early 21st century after the country's first human spaceflight launch ends in a disaster that causes many civilian casualties. It was serialized in the seinen manga magazine Comic Flapper from September 2001 to August 2009 and was later published in 16 tankōbon volumes by Media Factory from January 2002 to October 2009.
The series is named after Spica, a binary star system and the brightest star in the constellation Virgo. In the manga, Yaginuma includes many references to historical events related to the development of human spaceflight as well as literary works such as Kenji Miyazawa's novel Night on the Galactic Railroad. American publishing company Vertical announced acquisition of the manga's license for English-language translation at the New York Anime Festival in September 2009, and the translated first volume was published in May 2010. The series was described by Vertical marketing director Ed Chavez as "technically sound" and "heartfelt" during its initial assessment.
The manga was adapted into an anime television series by animation studio Group TAC. It premiered on November 1, 2003, on Japan's NHK BS2 satellite channel. Twenty episodes of the anime aired until March 27, 2004, when the series concluded prematurely before the manga was completed. Satellite television network Animax has broadcast the anime in multiple regional language releases, including English. A live-action adaptation was produced by NHK in cooperation with the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and aired between June 18 and July 30, 2009.
Story
Author and creator Kou Yaginuma began writing the back-story of Twin Spica in 2000 with his debut work . In it and in subsequent writings, Yaginuma constructed a future history of the development of Japan's spaceflight program. He introduces readers to a future following the launch of Japan's first crewed spaceflight mission, the , in 2010. The mission ends in disaster when the liquid rocket booster fuel catches fire 72 seconds after liftoff. Mission controllers are unable to activate the craft's abort sequence, and the rocket crashes into the city of Yuigahama, causing many casualties among residents.
The Lions explosion becomes one of the major accidents in spaceflight history and sets Japan's spaceflight program back by over a decade. In the years following the accident, the public accuses those involved with the Lion program of negligence. Rumors also begin to circulate about the offshore outsourcing of the rocket's production despite the government's claims that it was developed domestically. To promote recovery from the tragedy, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology establishes the Tokyo National Space School in 2014 as a vocational high school dedicated to training a new generation of students in the space sciences. Japan's spaceflight program is finally reactivated ten years later with the admission of students into the academy's astronaut training program. In the same year, the last operating module of the International Space Station is retired and destroyed by atmospheric reentry following completion of the station's long-term mission. Subsequent development projects are to be completed by individual countries with active spaceflight programs. Of the students in the inaugural class of the astronaut training program, one is selected to join Japan's second crewed mission in 2027. It is the final mission toward completing a space-based solar power satellite.
Main characters
Yaginuma's work prior to serialization introduces readers to Asumi Kamogawa and her mentor, the ghost of a Lion astronaut whom she calls Mr. Lion. Their friendship develops in several short stories in which, throughout her childhood, he nurtures Asumi's interest in space. As her interest and dreams grow, Asumi is often ridiculed by classmates, especially because she immerses herself in books about space and rarely engages in classroom activities. When she decides to apply for admission to the Tokyo Space Academy, her teachers urge her to reconsider because she is below average height. Her friendship with Mr. Lion continues to grow after Asumi successfully enters the academy, and she often consults him during periods of self-doubt.
Asumi's elementary and middle school classmate Shinnosuke Fuchuya also enters the academy much to her surprise. He defended Asumi from ridicule by other classmates throughout their childhood despite occasionally teasing her as well, and it has been suggested that he sees her as a romantic interest. The two eventually befriend three other students in the astronaut training program. Shu Suzuki, who is named student representative for the astronaut program, has an easygoing personality. He wears a distinctive face by shaving his eyebrows as a symbol of defiance against his father. Kei Oumi befriends Asumi during the academy's entrance examination and is portrayed with an outgoing personality and a deep sense of loyalty toward her friends. Marika Ukita initially responds coldly toward gestures of friendship, but she moves into Asumi's dormitory following an argument with her father. The five students later make a promise to complete the astronaut program together as their friendship grows stronger. After three years in the astronaut program, Asumi is chosen out of eleven remaining students to take part in Japan's second human spaceflight mission, making her, at the age of eighteen, the youngest person to go into space.
Throughout their time at the academy, astronaut candidates must overcome numerous physical and mental trials. Readers discover from a pre-serialization story that Asumi's mother dies following the Lion disaster, but this is not known to Asumi's friends until Kei discovers the obituary listing in a newspaper article. Marika is revealed to be the genetic copy of a deceased Marika Ukita despite a standing ban on human cloning. Fuchuya suffers from red-green color blindness after his eyes are exposed to an exploding firework at close range in a childhood accident. Unknown to the group, Shu suffers from hereditary hemoptysis (coughing up of blood) and dies from the condition soon after his selection as an exchange student to the American space program. This tragedy reveals Kei's feelings for him, which she keeps hidden for much of the series.
Production
Writing
The series is named after Spica, a binary star system in the constellation Virgo and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. It appears as one star because of the relatively low center-to-center distance between the two component stars, estimated at an average of 11 million miles (17.7 million km). Astronomical observations also suggest that there may be additional stars in the Spica system. In the story, Asumi mentions Spica's distance to Earth as 350 light-years. This figure is also cited by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency; however, other sources indicate a distance of approximately 260 light-years.
Kou Yaginuma's initial inspiration for the story came from a statement he once read describing the Hohner Little Lady harmonica as one of the first musical instruments taken into space. However, as an aspiring manga artist, Yaginuma had neither resources to conduct research on nor knowledge pertaining to spaceflight. He also hesitated to write the series because his own life experiences did not reflect the dreams of his characters. Despite these challenges, Yaginuma found comfort in the determination of his characters, especially that of Asumi Kamogawa.
Although Twin Spica began serialization in the October 2001 issue of Media Factory's Comic Flapper magazine, its lead character Asumi had appeared in Yaginuma's debut work "2015:Fireworks". This short story published in the July 2000 issue of Comic Flapper also introduced readers to Asumi's father, her elementary school teacher Yuko Suzunari, and the astronaut ghost Mr. Lion. Four additional short stories that predate the series also feature Asumi as the central character: , , , and . These slice-of-life stories eventually served as prequels to Twin Spica.
Cultural references
Twin Spica and its prequel stories make various references to historical figures and events in space exploration. Throughout the manga and the anime, Mr. Lion carries with him a harmonica, one of the first musical instruments to be played in space. A harmonica and bell set was carried aboard the Gemini 6A spaceflight in December 1965 by American astronauts Wally Schirra and Thomas Patten Stafford. During the mission, the two men used these instruments to play "Jingle Bells". Asumi is nicknamed "Seagull" by Shu Suzuki in the anime. The same name was used as the call sign of Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, during her 1963 mission aboard Vostok 6. Prior to Shu's death in the live-action adaptation, he reveals to his friends that the New Horizons spacecraft destined for Pluto carries the cremated ashes of the dwarf planet's discoverer, Clyde Tombaugh. Asumi later brings Shu's ashes during her first journey into space.
There are also various references to real-world literary and musical works. The titles of two short stories in the manga, "Campanella's Forest" and , refer to the two main characters of Kenji Miyazawa's novel Night on the Galactic Railroad. It appears in the penultimate episode of the anime and is also a favorite book of the original Marika Ukita. In both the manga and the live-action adaptation, Kei makes a request for Shu to play the piano piece "Der Flohwalzer", known in Japan as , if he becomes the first in their group to go into space.
Media
Manga
Twin Spica began serialization in the October 2001 issue of the seinen (aimed at younger adult men) manga magazine Comic Flapper. It continued until the publication of the 89th chapter on August 5, 2009. The series was also published in tankōbon format in 16 volumes, with the final volume being published on October 23, 2009. Yaginuma's prequel short stories published prior to serialization are interspersed throughout these compilations. Two were included in the first volume; two were included in the second volume; and one was included in the third volume. Three additional prequel stories were also written by Yaginuma during serialization and published in the fourth, sixth, and ninth volumes, respectively. On March 23, 2006, Media Factory published the 80-page featuring color art from the manga. It also included a 24-month calendar and an interview with Kou Yaginuma.
The series is licensed by Tong Li Publishing for Chinese-language release in Taiwan under the title Dream of Spica (). It was translated by Li Lin-hui (), and the first volume was released in May 2005. Following a three-week contract negotiation, the American publishing company Vertical announced at the 2009 New York Anime Festival that it had acquired the license to publish the series in English. Marketing director Ed Chavez explained that the motivation to acquire Twin Spica came from the company's desire to license works from Japanese publishers that have yet to form committed partnerships with major American publishers. He proposed continuing a previous partnership with Media Factory, from which Vertical licensed The Guin Sagas manga adaptation. Vertical's distributor Random House announced a release date of May 4, 2010, for the first translated volume, contrary to the initial announcement that it will be released in August 2010. Chavez later confirmed via Twitter that Vertical will condense its North American releases into 12 volumes.
Anime
Japanese animation studio Group TAC produced Twin Spicas anime adaptation, which was broadcast by NHK. The 20-episode series premiered on November 1, 2003, and aired until its conclusion on March 27, 2004. Tomomi Mochizuki directed the anime series, and Rika Nakase wrote its screenplay. Masako Goto designed the characters for animation. When the series reached its conclusion, only 30 chapters of the manga had been published. Chapter 25, which concludes the story of Asumi and her classmates undergoing a test of their survival skills, was the final chapter to be adapted for the anime. Consequently, the series concludes prematurely with Asumi's ghost companion Lion-san leaving when he no longer has anything to teach her and her friends. The manga, however, continues with Lion-san appearing in subsequent chapters until his eventual departure in chapter 88. The anime series also aired in other parts of Asia on Animax. It was released in VHS and DVD formats by King Records in five compilation volumes each. A special DVD collection containing the five flashback episodes—episodes 1, 5, 9, 12, and 16—was released on May 26, 2004, and a five-disc DVD box set was released on July 22, 2004. A two-part novelization of the anime and an official guide book to the adaptation were published in April 2004. The English-language dubbing of the Twin Spica anime premiered on Animax Asia on January 24, 2005.
Drama
NHK announced a seven-episode live-action television drama adaptation on March 30, 2009, produced in cooperation with the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, the country's national aerospace agency. Sixteen-year-old actress Nanami Sakuraba was cast for the role of Asumi Kamogawa, and filming for the series began on April 2. The drama was scheduled to air on June 11 but was eventually postponed by one week until June 18. Its airing coincided with the celebration of the International Year of Astronomy. Screenplay for the series was written by Shūko Arai and Daigo Matsui. While writing the script, Arai found himself encouraged by the characters who must overcome various struggles in order to achieve their dreams. He also specified hopes and dreams as central themes in the story. Among the changes made in this adaptation is the removal of Lion-san as a central character. Yaginuma did not make any restrictions for Arai and Matsui as he believed they knew the television audience best. "Nevertheless," he said, "I think the little Asumi I know and the Asumi portrayed by Ms. Nanami are both looking at the same sky." A three-disc DVD compilation box set of the adaptation was released by Geneon Universal Entertainment on December 23, 2009.
Music
The song "Venus Say" by female pop musical group Buzy (band) was used as the anime's opening theme, and it was released as a maxi single with two other songs on March 3, 2004. The single remained on the Oricon music charts for seven weeks with a peak position at 29th place. Male pop group Begin adapted Kyu Sakamoto's 1963 single as the ending theme song. A full soundtrack containing the two theme songs and 33 additional instrumental tracks by composer Kazunori Miyake was released on May 26, 2004. Alternative rock band Orange Range's song was used as the ending theme for the live-action series. It was released as a maxi single with two other songs on July 8, 2009, and remained on the Oricon music charts for six weeks with a peak position at 5th place. A full soundtrack for the series containing 21 instrumental tracks was released by Harbor Records on August 5, 2009.
Reception
In an interview with the Yomiuri Shimbun, Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata named Twin Spica, because of its nostalgic story, as one of five manga series which highlight the dream of reaching space. While assessing the series for licensing in English, Vertical marketing director Ed Chavez, a fan of science fiction, found its story "technically sound" and noted it as "possibly one of the most heartfelt series I've read in ages". He hoped that the series would rank in top 10 of The New York Times Graphic Books Best Seller List for manga and believed that it would make Vertical a "known name, not only amongst better comic shops and independent book stores, but also with anime fans and casual graphic novel readers". While the series was originally published in a seinen magazine, Chavez expected that it would also appeal to fans of shōjo manga. He believed that the word seinen "means adult and does not make reference to gender". He hoped Twin Spica will prove to be a financial success and enable Vertical to fund future licenses of classic works by Osamu Tezuka and the Forty-Niners. The first volume in English was listed by Publishers Weekly as one of the most anticipated graphic novels of 2010.
Jennifer Berman of THEM Anime Reviews rated the anime adaptation of Twin Spica five out of five stars but told readers, "Subtract a star if you don't like anime that have a somewhat slow pace." Berman praised its artistic design and noted that the character designs reminded her of works by Studio Ghibli. She found the characters "likeable" and saw Marika Ukita as the most intriguing character. Despite her praises, Berman noted one weakness in the anime adaptation. She observed the ending as "a rather open-ended one, and while it wasn't a bad ending, they probably should have thought of something better". Similar to the manga, the anime series was seen as gender neutral. Sony Pictures Entertainment vice president Todd Miller stated that Twin Spica was one of the titles aired on Animax which appealed to both genders. The first episode of the drama series aired with a 3.4 percent domestic viewership rating. Reviewers from the Yomiuri Shimbun rated the live-action adaptation an average two out of three stars and ranked it third overall among 11 series airing in summer 2009.
See also
Human spaceflight
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
References
External links
Manga
Twin Spica on Comic Flapper magazine's website
Twin Spica manga on licensor Vertical's website
Anime
Twin Spica on animation studio Group TAC's website
Twin Spica anime on broadcaster NHK's website
Twin Spica anime on music distributor Starchild's website
Drama
Twin Spica drama on broadcaster NHK's website
2001 manga
2003 anime television series debuts
2009 Japanese television series debuts
Coming-of-age anime and manga
Group TAC
Media Factory manga
Kadokawa Dwango franchises
NHK original programming
Science fiction anime and manga
Seinen manga
Vertical (publisher) titles
Works about astronauts |
4551386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20submarines | History of submarines | The history of the submarine spans the entire history of human endeavour as mankind has since early civilisation sought to explore and travel under the sea. Humanity has employed a variety of methods to travel underwater for exploration, recreation, research and significantly, warfare. While early attempts, such as those by Alexander the Great, were rudimentary, the advent of new propulsion systems, fuels, and sonar, propelled an increase in submarine technology. The introduction of the diesel engine, then the nuclear submarine, saw great expansion in submarine use – and specifically military use – during World War I, World War II, and the Cold War. The Second World War use of the U-Boat by the Kriegsmarine against the Royal Navy and commercial shipping, and the Cold War's use of submarines by the United States and Russia, helped solidify the submarine's place in popular culture. The latter conflicts also saw an increasing role for the military submarine as a tool of subterfuge, hidden warfare, and nuclear deterrent. The military use of submarines continues to this day, predominantly by North Korea, China, the United States and Russia.
Beyond their use in warfare, submarines continue to have recreational and scientific uses. They are heavily employed in the exploration of the sea bed, and the deepest places of the ocean floor. They are used extensively in search and rescue operations for other submarines, surface vessels, and air craft, and offer a means to descend vast depths beyond the reach of scuba diving for both exploration and recreation. They remain a focus of popular culture and the subject of numerous books and films.
Early
The concept of underwater combat has roots deep in antiquity. There are images of men using hollow sticks to breathe underwater for hunting at the temples at Thebes, but the first known military use occurred during the siege of Syracuse (415–413 BC), where divers cleared obstructions, according to the History of the Peloponnesian War. At the siege of Tyre (332 BC), Alexander the Great used divers, according to Aristotle. Later legends suggested that Alexander descended into the sea using a primitive submersible in the form of a diving bell, as depicted in a 16th-century illustration in the works of the Mughal poet Amir Khusrau.
According to a report attributed to Tahbir al-Tayseer in Opusculum Taisnieri published in 1562:
Although there were various plans for submersibles or submarines during the Middle Ages, the Englishman William Bourne designed a prototype submarine in 1578. This was to be a completely enclosed boat that could be submerged and rowed beneath the surface. Comprising a completely enclosed wooden vessel sheathed in waterproofed leather, it was to be submerged by using hand-operated wooden screw thread adjustable plungers pressing against flexible leather bags located at the sides to increase or decrease the volume of water to adjust the buoyancy of the craft. The sketch (left) suggests that the depth adjustment was utilizing a crankset projecting above the surface. There is no obvious accommodation for crew.
In 1596 the Scottish mathematician and theologian John Napier wrote in his Secret Inventions the following: "These inventions besides devises of sayling under water with divers, other devises and strategems for harming of the enemyes by the Grace of God and worke of expert Craftsmen I hope to perform."
It is unclear whether or not Napier ever carried out his plans. Henry Briggs, who was professor of mathematics at Gresham College, London, and later at Oxford, was a friend of Napier, whom he visited in 1615 and 1616, and was also an acquaintance of Cornelius Van Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I of England, who designed and built the first successful submarine in 1620. Hence, it is not impossible that it was because of the interest taken by Napier in the submarine that Briggs came in touch with Drebbel.
Drebbel's submarine was propelled by oars. The precise nature of this submarine is unclear, it may be possible that it resembled a bell towed by a boat. Two improved types were tested in the River Thames between 1620 and 1624. Of one of these tests Constantijn Huygens reports in his autobiography of 1651 the following:
On 18 October 1690, his son Constantijn Huygens, Jr. commented in his diary on how Drebbel was able to measure the depth to which his boat had descended (which was necessary to prevent the boat from sinking) utilizing a quicksilver barometer:
In order to solve the problem of the absence of oxygen, Drebbel was able to create oxygen out of saltpetre to refresh the air in his submarine. An indication of this can be found in Drebbel's own work: On the Nature of the Elements (1604), in the fifth chapter:
The introduction of Drebbel's submarine concept seemed beyond conventional expectations of what science was thought to have been capable of at the time. Commenting on the scientific basis of Drebbel's claims, renowned German astronomer Johannes Kepler was said to have remarked in 1607: "If [Drebbel] can create a new spirit, by means of which he can move and keep in motion his instrument without weights or propelling power, he will be Apollo in my opinion."
Although the first submersible vehicles were tools for exploring underwater, it did not take long for inventors to recognize their military potential. The strategic advantages of submarines were first set out by Bishop John Wilkins of Chester in Mathematical Magick in 1648:
Between 1690 and 1692, the French physicist Denis Papin designed and built two submarines. The first design (1690) was a strong and heavy metallic square box, equipped with an efficient pump that pumped air into the hull to raise the inner pressure. When the air pressure reached the required level, holes were opened to let in some water. This first machine was destroyed by accident. The second design (1692) had an oval shape and worked on similar principles. A water pump controlled the buoyancy of the machine. According to some sources, a spy of German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz called Haes reported that Papin had met with some success with his second design on the River Lahn.
By the mid 18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England. In 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft. A mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemen's Magazine reported that a similar design had been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion and stability could be applied.
Early modern
The first American military submarine was in 1776, a hand-powered egg-shaped (or acorn-shaped) device designed by the American David Bushnell, to accommodate a single man. It was the first submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. However, according to British naval historian Richard Compton-Hall, the problems of achieving neutral buoyancy would have rendered the vertical propeller of the Turtle useless. The route that Turtle had to take to attack its intended target, , was slightly across the tidal stream which would, in all probability, have resulted in Ezra Lee becoming exhausted. There are also no British records of an attack by a submarine during the war. In the face of these and other problems, Compton-Hall suggests that the entire story around the Turtle was fabricated as disinformation and morale-boosting propaganda, and that if Ezra Lee did carry out an attack, it was in a covered rowing boat rather than in Turtle. Replicas of Turtle have been built to test the design. One replica (Acorn), constructed by Duke Riley and Jesse Bushnell (claiming to be a descendant of David Bushnell), used the tide to get within of the in New York City (a police boat stopped Acorn for violating a security zone).
Displays of replicas of Turtle which acknowledge its place in history appear in the Connecticut River Museum, the U.S. Navy's Submarine Force Library and Museum, Britain's Royal Navy Submarine Museum and Monaco's Oceanographic Museum.
In 1800, the French Navy built a human-powered submarine designed by Robert Fulton, the . It also had a sail for use on the surface and so exhibited the first known use of dual propulsion on a submarine. It proved capable of using mines to destroy two warships during demonstrations. The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did the British, when Fulton later offered them the submarine design.
In 1834 the Russian Army General demonstrated the first rocket-equipped submarine to Emperor Nicholas I.
The Submarino Hipopótamo, the first submarine built in South America, underwent testing in Ecuador on September 18, 1837. Its designer, Jose Rodriguez Lavandera, successfully crossed the Guayas River in Guayaquil accompanied by Jose Quevedo. Rodriguez Lavandera had enrolled in the Ecuadorian Navy in 1823, becoming a Lieutenant by 1830. The Hipopotamo crossed the Guayas on two more occasions, but it was abandoned because of lack of funding and interest from the government.
In 1851 a Bavarian artillery corporal, Wilhelm Bauer, took a submarine designed by him called the Brandtaucher (fire-diver) to sea in Kiel Harbour. Built by August Howaldt and powered by a treadwheel, Brandtaucher sank, but the crew of three managed to escape.
During the American Civil War both sides made use of submarines. Examples were the , for the Union, and the Hunley, for the Confederacy. The Hunley was the first submarine to successfully attack and sink an opposing warship. (see below)
In 1863 the was built by the German American engineer Julius H. Kroehl, and featured a pressurized work chamber for the crew to exit and enter underwater. This pre-figured modern diving arrangements such as the lock-out dive chamber, though the problems of decompression sickness were not well understood at the time. After its public maiden dive in 1866, the Sub Marine Explorer was used for pearl diving off the coast of Panama. It was capable of diving deeper than , deeper than any other submarine built before.
The Chilean government commissioned the in 1865, during the Chincha Islands War (1864–1866) when Chile and Peru fought against Spain. Built by the German engineer Karl Flach, the submarine sank during tests in Valparaiso Bay on May 3, 1866, with the entire eleven-man crew.
During the War of the Pacific in 1879, the Peruvian government commissioned and built a submarine, the Toro Submarino design by the Peruvian engineer Federico Blume and built in Paita, Peru. It is considered the first operational submarine or submersible in Latin America. With long and manually operate by a crew of 11 persons, it could sumerge to a depth of with a ventilation system a speed of and a maximum dive of . Being fully operational, waiting for its opportunity to attack with naval mines during the Blockade of Callao, it was scuttled to avoid its capture by Chilean troops on January 17, 1881, before the imminent occupation of Lima.
Mechanical power
The first submarine that did not rely on human power for propulsion was the French Navy submarine Plongeur, launched in 1863, and equipped with a reciprocating engine using compressed air from 23 tanks at . In practice, the submarine was virtually unmanageable underwater, with very poor speed and maneouverability.
The first air independent and combustion powered submarine was the Ictineo II, designed by the Spanish engineer Narcís Monturiol. Originally launched in 1864 as a human-powered vessel, propelled by 16 men, it was converted to peroxide propulsion and steam in 1867. The craft was designed for a crew of two, could dive to , and demonstrated dives of two hours. On the surface, it ran on a steam engine, but underwater such an engine would quickly consume the submarine's oxygen. To solve this problem, Monturiol invented an air-independent propulsion system. As the air-independent power system drove the screw, the chemical process driving it also released oxygen into the hull for the crew and an auxiliary steam engine. Apart from being mechanically powered, Monturiol's pioneering double-hulled vessels also solved pressure, buoyancy, stability, diving and ascending problems that earlier designs had encountered.
The submarine became a potentially viable weapon with the development of the first practical self-propelled torpedoes. The Whitehead torpedo was the first such weapon, and was designed in 1866 by British engineer Robert Whitehead. His 'mine ship' was an long, diameter torpedo propelled by compressed air and carried an explosive warhead. The device had a speed of and could hit a target away. Many naval services procured the Whitehead torpedo during the 1870s and it first proved itself in combat during the Russo-Turkish War when, on 16 January 1878, the Turkish ship Intibah was sunk by Russian torpedo boats carrying Whiteheads.
During the 1870s and 1880s, the basic contours of the modern submarine began to emerge, through the inventions of the English inventor and curate, George Garrett, and his industrialist financier Thorsten Nordenfelt, and the Irish inventor John Philip Holland.
In 1878, Garrett built a long hand-cranked submarine of about 4.5 tons, which he named the Resurgam. This was followed by the second (and more famous) Resurgam of 1879, built by Cochran & Co. at Birkenhead, England. The construction was of iron plates fastened to iron frames, with the central section of the vessel clad with wood secured by iron straps. As built, it was long by in diameter, weighed , and had a crew of 3. Resurgam was powered by a closed cycle steam engine, which provided enough steam to turn the single propeller for up to 4 hours. It was designed to have positive buoyancy, and diving was controlled by a pair of hydroplanes amidships. At the time it cost £1,538.
Although his design was not very practical – the steam boiler generated intense heat in the cramped confines of the vessel, and it lacked longitudinal stability – it caught the attention of the Swedish industrialist Thorsten Nordenfelt. Discussions between the two led to the first practical steam-powered submarines, armed with torpedoes and ready for military use.
The first such boat was the Nordenfelt I, a 56 tonne, vessel similar to Garret's ill-fated Resurgam, with a range of , armed with a single torpedo, in 1885. Like Resurgam, Nordenfelt I operated on the surface by steam, then shut down its engine to dive. While submerged, the submarine released pressure generated when the engine was running on the surface to provide propulsion for some distance underwater. Greece, fearful of the return of the Ottomans, purchased it. Nordenfelt commissioned the Barrow Shipyard in England in 1886 to build Nordenfelt II () and Nordenfelt III (Abdül Mecid) in 1887. They were powered by a coal-fired Lamm steam engine turning a single screw, and carried two 356mm torpedo tubes and two 35mm machine guns. They were loaded with a total of 8 tons of coal as fuel and could dive to a depth of . It was 30.5m long and 6m wide, and weighed 100 tons. It carried a normal crew of 7. It had a maximum surface speed of , and a maximum speed of while submerged. Abdülhamid became the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo submerged.
Nordenfelt's efforts culminated in 1887 with Nordenfelt IV, which had twin motors and twin torpedoes. It was sold to the Russians, but soon ran aground and was scrapped. Garrett and Nordenfelt made significant advances in constructing the first modern, militarily capable submarines and fired up military and popular interest around the world for this new technology. However, the solution to fundamental technical problems, such as propulsion, quick submergence, and the maintenance of balance underwater was still lacking, and would only be solved in the 1890s.
Electric power
A reliable means of propulsion for submerged vessels was only made possible in the 1880s with the advent of the necessary electric battery technology. The first electrically powered submarines were built by the Polish engineer Stefan Drzewiecki in 1881, he designed and constructed the world's first submarine in Russia, and later other engineers used his design in their constructions, they were James Franklin Waddington and the team of James Ash and Andrew Campbell in England, Dupuy de Lôme and Gustave Zédé in France and Isaac Peral in Spain.
In 1884, Drzewiecki converted 2 mechanical submarines, installing in each a engine with a new, at the time, source of energy – batteries. In tests, the submarines travelled under the water against the flow of the Neva River at a rate of . They were the first submarines in the world with electric propulsion. Ash and Campbell constructed their craft, the Nautilus, in 1886. It was long with a engine powered by 52 batteries. It was an advanced design for the time, but became stuck in the mud during trials and was discontinued. Waddington's Porpoise vessel showed more promise. Waddington had formerly worked in the shipyard in which Garrett had been active. Waddington's vessel was similar in size to the Resurgam and its propulsion system used 45 accumulator cells with a capacity of 660 ampere hours each. These were coupled in series to a motor driving a propeller at about 750 rpm, giving the ship a sustained speed of for at least 8 hours. The boat was armed with two externally mounted torpedoes as well as a mine torpedo that could be detonated electronically. Although the boat performed well in trials, Waddington was unable to attract further contracts and went bankrupt.
In France, the early electric submarines Goubet I and Goubet II were built by the civil engineer, Claude Goubet. These boats were also unsuccessful, but they inspired the renowned naval architect Dupuy de Lôme to begin work on his submarine – an advanced electric-powered submarine almost 20 metres long. He didn't live to see his design constructed, but the craft was completed by Gustave Zédé in 1888 and named the . It was one of the first truly successful electrically powered submarines, and was equipped with an early periscope and an electric gyrocompass for navigation. It completed over 2,000 successful dives using a 204-cell battery. Although the Gymnote was scrapped for its limited range, its side hydroplanes became the standard for future submarine designs.
The Peral Submarine, constructed by Isaac Peral, was launched by the Spanish Navy in the same year, 1888. It had three Schwartzkopff torpedoes and one torpedo tube in the bow, new air systems, hull shape, propeller, and cruciform external controls anticipating much later designs. Peral was an all-electrical powered submarine with an underwater speed of . After two years of trials the project was scrapped by naval officialdom who cited, among other reasons, concerns over the range permitted by its batteries.
Many more designs were built at this time by various inventors, but submarines were not put into service by navies until the turn of the 20th century.
Modern
The turn of the 20th century marked a pivotal time in the development of submarines, with a number of important technologies making their debut, as well as the widespread adoption and fielding of submarines by a number of nations. Diesel electric propulsion would become the dominant power system and instruments such as the periscope would become standardized. Batteries were used for running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines were used on the surface and to recharge the batteries. Early boats used gasoline, but quickly gave way to kerosene, then diesel, because of reduced flammability. Effective tactics and weaponry were refined in the early part of the century, and the submarine would have a large impact on 20th century warfare.
The Irish inventor John Philip Holland built a model submarine in 1876 and a full scale one in 1878, followed by a number of unsuccessful ones. In 1896, he designed the Holland Type VI submarine. This vessel made use of internal combustion engine power on the surface and electric battery power for submerged operations. Launched on 17 May 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey, the Holland VI was purchased by the United States Navy on 11 April 1900, becoming the United States Navy's first commissioned submarine and renamed USS Holland.
A prototype version of the A-class submarine (Fulton) was developed at Crescent Shipyard under the supervision of naval architect and shipbuilder from the United Kingdom, Arthur Leopold Busch, for the newly reorganized Electric Boat Company in 1900. The Fulton was never commissioned by the United States Navy and was sold to the Imperial Russian Navy in 1905. The submarines were built at two different shipyards on both coasts of the United States. In 1902, Holland received for his relentless pursuit to perfect the modern submarine craft. Many countries became interested in Holland's (weapons) product and purchased the rights to build them during this time.
The Royal Navy commissioned the Holland-class submarine from Vickers, Barrow-in-Furness, under licence from the Holland Torpedo Boat Company during the years 1901 to 1903. Construction of the boats took longer than anticipated, with the first only ready for a diving trial at sea on 6 April 1902. Although the design had been purchased entirely from the US company, the actual design used was an untested improved version of the original Holland design using a new petrol engine.
Meanwhile, the French steam and electric Narval was commissioned in June 1900 and introduced the classic double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a range of over underwater. The French submarine Aigrette in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914.
By 1914, all the main powers had submarine fleets, though the development of a strategy for their use lay in the future.
At the start of World War I, the Royal Navy had the world's largest submarine service by a considerable margin, with 74 boats of the B, C and D classes, of which 15 were oceangoing, with the rest capable of coastal patrols. The D-class, built 1907–1910, were designed to be propelled by diesel motors on the surface to avoid the problems with petrol engines experienced with the A class. These boats were designed for foreign service with an endurance of at on the surface and much-improved living conditions for a larger crew. They were fitted with twin screws for greater maneuverability and with innovative saddle tanks. They were also the first submarines to be equipped with deck guns forward of the conning tower. Armament also included three torpedo tubes (two vertically in the bow and one in the stern). D-class was also the first class of submarine to be equipped with standard wireless transmitters. The aerial was attached to the mast of the conning tower that was lowered before diving. With their enlarged bridge structure, the boat profile was recognisably that of the modern submarine. The D-class submarines were considered to be so innovative that the prototype D1 was built in utmost secrecy in a securely guarded building shed.
The British also experimented with other power sources. Oil-fired steam turbines powered the British "K" class submarines built during the First World War and in following years, but these were not very successful.
The aim was to give them the necessary surface speed to keep up with the British battle fleet.
The Germans were slower to recognize the importance of this new weapon. A submersible was initially ordered by the Imperial Russian Navy from the Kiel shipyard in 1904, but cancelled after the Russo-Japanese War ended. One example was modified and improved, then commissioned into the Imperial German Navy in 1906 as its first U-boat, U-1. It had a double hull, was powered by a Körting kerosene engine and was armed with a single torpedo tube. The fifty percent larger SM U-2 had two torpedo tubes. A diesel engine was not installed in a German navy boat until the class of 1912–13. At the start of World War I, Germany had 20 submarines of 13 classes in service with more under construction.
Interwar
Diesel submarines needed air to run their engines, and so carried very large batteries for submerged travel. These limited the speed and range of the submarines while submerged.
An early submarine snorkel was designed by James Richardson, an assistant manager at Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, Greenock, Scotland, as early as 1916. The snorkel allowed the submarine to avoid detection for long periods by travelling under the water using non-electric powered propulsion. Although the company received a British Patent for the design, no further use was made of itthe British Admiralty did not accept it for use in Royal Navy submarines.
The first German U-boat to be fitted with a snorkel was , which experimented with the equipment in the Baltic Sea during the summer of 1943. The technology was based on pre-war Dutch experiments with a device named a snuiver (sniffer). As early as 1938, a simple pipe system was installed on the submarines and that enabled them to travel at periscope depth operating on its diesels with almost unlimited underwater range while charging the propulsion batteries. U-boats began to use it operationally in early 1944. By June 1944, about half of the boats stationed in the French bases were fitted with snorkels.
Various new submarine designs were developed during the interwar years. Among the most notable were submarine aircraft carriers, equipped with a waterproof hangar and steam catapult to launch and recover one or more small seaplanes. The submarine and its plane could then act as a reconnaissance unit ahead of the fleet, an essential role at a time when radar was not available. The first example was the British , followed by the French , and numerous aircraft-carrying submarines in the Imperial Japanese Navy.
Early submarine designs put the diesel engine and the electric motor on the same shaft, which also drove a propeller with clutches between each of them. This allowed the engine to drive the electric motor as a generator to recharge the batteries and also propel the submarine as required. The clutch between the motor and the engine would be disengaged when the boat dived so that the motor could be used to turn the propeller. The motor could have more than one armature on the shaft – these would be electrically coupled in series for slow speed and parallel for high speed (known as "group down" and "group up" respectively).
In the 1930s, the principle was modified for some submarine designs, particularly those of the U.S. Navy and the British U class. The engine was no longer attached to the motor/propeller drive shaft, but drove a separate generator, which would drive the motors on the surface and/or recharge the batteries. This diesel-electric propulsion allowed much more flexibility. For example, the submarine could travel slowly whilst the engines were running at full power to recharge the batteries as quickly as possible, reducing time on the surface, or use of its snorkel. Also, it was now possible to insulate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure hull, making the submarine quieter.
An early form of anaerobic propulsion had already been employed by the in 1864. The engine used a chemical mix containing a peroxide compound, which generated heat for steam propulsion while at the same time solved the problem of oxygen renovation in an hermetic container for breathing purposes. This system was not employed again until 1940 when the German Navy tested a system employing the same principles, the Walter turbine, on the experimental submarine and later on the naval .
At the end of the Second World War, the British and Russians experimented with hydrogen peroxide/kerosene (paraffin) engines, which could be used both above and below the surface. The results were not encouraging enough for this technique to be adopted at the time, although the Russians deployed a class of submarines with this engine type code named Quebec by NATO. They were considered a failure. Today, several navies, notably Sweden, use air-independent propulsion boats, which substitute liquid oxygen for hydrogen peroxide.
Nuclear propulsion and missile platforms
For further information on nuclear powered submarines, see Nuclear submarine.
The first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a submarine occurred in July 1953 from the deck of , a World War II fleet boat modified to carry this missile with a nuclear warhead. Tunny and her sister boat were the United States' first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. They were joined in 1958 by two purpose-built Regulus submarines, , , and, later, by the nuclear-powered . So that no target would be left uncovered, four Regulus missiles had to be at sea at any given time. Thus, Barbero and Tunny, each of which carried two Regulus missiles, patrolled simultaneously. Growler and Grayback, with four missiles, or Halibut, with five, could patrol alone. These five submarines made 40 Regulus strategic deterrent patrols between October 1959 and July 1964. They were replaced by the introduction of a greatly superior system beginning in 1961: the Polaris missile launched from nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs). The Soviet Navy developed submarine-launched ballistic missiles launched from conventional submarines a few years before the US, and paralleled subsequent US development in this area.
In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. The sailing of the first nuclear-powered submarine, the USN in 1955 was soon followed by similar British, French and Russian boats. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations, together with inertial navigation systems, gave submarines the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months, and enabled previously impossible voyages such as the crossing of the North Pole beneath the Arctic ice cap by the USS Nautilus in 1958. Most of the naval submarines built since that time in the United States and the Soviet Union and its successor state the Russian Federation have been powered by nuclear reactors. The limiting factors in submerged endurance for these vessels are food supply and crew morale in the space-limited submarine.
The Soviet Navy attempted to use a very advanced lead cooled fast reactor on Project 705 "Lira" (NATO Alfa class) beginning in the 1970s, but its maintenance was considered too expensive, and only six submarines of this class were completed. By removing the requirement for atmospheric oxygen all nuclear-powered submarines can stay submerged indefinitely so long as food supplies remain (air is recycled and fresh water distilled from seawater). These vessels always have a small battery and diesel generator installation for emergency use when the reactors have to be shut down.
While the greater endurance and performance of nuclear reactors mean that nuclear submarines are better for long distance missions or the protection of a carrier battle-force, both countries that do and countries that do not use nuclear power continue to produce conventional diesel-electric submarines, because they can be made stealthier, except when required to run the diesel engine to recharge the ship's battery. Technological advances in sound dampening, noise isolation and cancellation have substantially eroded this advantage. Though far less capable regarding speed and weapons payload, conventional submarines are also cheaper to build. The introduction of air-independent propulsion boats led to increased sales numbers of such types of submarines.
In 1958 the USN carried out a series of trials with the . Various hull and control configurations were tested to reduce drag and so allow greater underwater speed and maneuverability. The results of these trials were incorporated into the and later submarines. From the same era is the first SSBN, the .
Recent
The German Type 212 submarine was the first series production submarine to use fuel cells for air-independent propulsion. It is powered by nine 34-kilowatt hydrogen fuel cells.
Most small modern commercial submarines that are not expected to operate independently and use batteries that can be recharged by a mother-ship after every dive.
Towards the end of the 20th century, some submarines were fitted with pump-jet propulsors, instead of propellers. Although these are heavier, more expensive, and often less efficient than a propeller, they are significantly quieter, giving an important tactical advantage.
A possible propulsion system for submarines is the magnetohydrodynamic drive, or "caterpillar drive", which has no moving parts. It was popularized in the movie version of The Hunt for Red October, written by Tom Clancy, which portrayed it as a virtually silent system. (In the book, a form of propulsor was used rather than an MHD.) Although some experimental surface ships have been built with this propulsion system, speeds have not been as high as hoped. In addition, the noise created by bubbles, and the higher power settings a submarine's reactor would need, mean that it is unlikely to be considered for any military purpose.
Associated technology
Sensors
The first submarines had only a porthole to provide a view to aid navigation. An early periscope was patented by Simon Lake in 1893. The modern periscope was developed by the industrialist Sir Howard Grubb in the early 20th century and was fitted onto most Royal Navy designs.
Passive sonar was introduced in submarines during the First World War, but active sonar ASDIC did not come into service until the inter-war period. Today, the submarine may have a wide variety of sonar arrays, from bow-mounted to trailing ones. There are often upward-looking under-ice sonars as well as depth sounders.
Early experiments with the use of sound to 'echo locate' underwater in the same way as bats use sound for aerial navigation began in the late 19th century. The first patent for an underwater echo ranging device was filed by English meteorologist Lewis Fry Richardson a month after the sinking of the Titanic. The First World War stimulated research in this area. The British made early use of underwater hydrophones, while the French physicist Paul Langevin worked on the development of active sound devices for detecting submarines in 1915 using quartz. In 1916, under the British Board of Invention and Research, Canadian physicist Robert William Boyle took on the active sound detection project with A B Wood, producing a prototype for testing in mid-1917. This work, for the Anti-Submarine Division of the British Naval Staff, was undertaken in utmost secrecy, and used quartz piezoelectric crystals to produce the world's first practical underwater active sound detection apparatus.
By 1918, both France and Britain had built prototype active systems. The British tested their ASDIC on in 1920, and started production in 1922. The 6th Destroyer Flotilla had ASDIC-equipped vessels in 1923. An anti-submarine school, HMS Osprey, and a training flotilla of four vessels were established on the English Isle of Portland in 1924. The US Sonar QB set arrived in 1931.
Weapons and countermeasures
Early submarines carried torpedoes mounted externally to the craft. Later designs incorporated the weapons into the internal structure of the submarine. Originally, both bow-mounted and stern-mounted tubes were used, but the latter eventually fell out of favour. Today, only bow-mounted installations are employed. The modern submarine is capable of firing many types of weapon from its launch tubes, including UAVs. Special mine laying submarines were also built. Up until the end of the Second World War, it was common to fit deck guns to submarines to allow them to sink ships without wasting their limited numbers of torpedoes.
To aid in the weapons targeting mechanical calculators were employed to improve the fire control of the on-board weaponry. The firing calculus was determined by the targets' course and speed through measurements of the angle and its range via the periscope. Today, these calculations are achieved by digital computers with display screens providing necessary information on the torpedo status and ship status.
German submarines in World War II had rubber coatings and could launch chemical devices to provide a decoy when the boat came under attack. These proved to be ineffective, as sonar operators learned to distinguish between the decoy and the submarine. Modern submarines can launch a variety of devices for the same purpose.
Safety
After the sinking of the A1 submarine in 1904, lifting eyes were fitted to British submarines, and in 1908 air-locks and escape helmets were provided. The Royal Navy experimented with various types of escape apparatus, but it was not until 1924 that the "Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus" was developed for crew members. The USN used the similar "Momsen Lung". The French used "Joubert's apparatus" and the Germans used "Draeger's apparatus".
Rescue submarines for evacuating a disabled submarine's crew were developed in the 1970s. A British unmanned vehicle was used for recovering an entangled Russian submarine crew in 2005. A new NATO Submarine Rescue System entered service in 2007.
Communication and navigation
Wireless was used to provide communication to and from submarines in the First World War. The D-class submarine was the first submarine class to be fitted with wireless transmitters in 1907. With time, the type, range and bandwidth of the communications systems have increased. With the danger of interception, transmissions by a submarine are minimised. Various periscope-mounted aerials have been developed to allow communication without surfacing.
The standard navigation system for early submarines was by eye, with use of a compass. The gyrocompass was introduced in the early part of the 20th century and inertial navigation in the 1950s. The use of satellite navigation is of limited use to submarines, except at periscope depth or when surfaced.
Military
The first military submarine was Turtle in 1776. During the American Revolutionary War, Turtle (operated by Sgt. Ezra Lee, Continental Army) tried and failed to sink a British warship, HMS Eagle (flagship of the blockaders) in New York harbor on September 7, 1776. There is no record of any attack in the ships' logs.
During the War of 1812, in 1814 Silas Halsey died while using a submarine in an unsuccessful attack on a British warship stationed in New London harbour.
American Civil War
During the American Civil War, the Union was the first to field a submarine. The French-designed Alligator was the first U.S. Navy sub and the first to feature compressed air (for air supply) and an air filtration system. It was the first submarine to carry a diver lock, which allowed a diver to plant electrically detonated mines on enemy ships. Initially hand-powered by oars, it was converted after 6 months to a screw propeller powered by a hand crank. With a crew of 20, it was larger than Confederate submarines. Alligator was long and about in diameter. It was lost in a storm off Cape Hatteras on 1 April 1863 while uncrewed and under tow to its first combat deployment at Charleston.
The Intelligent Whale was built by Oliver Halstead and tested by the U.S. Navy after the American Civil War and caused the deaths of 39 men during trials.
The Confederate States of America fielded several human-powered submarines, including CSS H. L. Hunley (named for its designer and chief financier, Horace Lawson Hunley). The first Confederate submarine was the Pioneer, which sank a target schooner using a towed mine during tests on Lake Pontchartrain, but it was not used in combat. It was scuttled after New Orleans was captured and in 1868 was sold for scrap. The similar Bayou St. John submarine is preserved in the Louisiana State Museum. CSS Hunley was intended for attacking Union ships that were blockading Confederate seaports. The submarine had a long pole with an explosive charge in the bow, called a spar torpedo. The sub had to approach an enemy vessel, attach the explosive, move away, and then detonate it. It was extremely hazardous to operate, and had no air supply other than what was contained inside the main compartment. On two occasions, the sub sank; on the first occasion half the crew died, and on the second, the entire eight-man crew (including Hunley himself) drowned. On 17 February 1864, Hunley sank USS Housatonic off the Charleston Harbor, the first time a submarine successfully sank another ship, though it sank in the same engagement shortly after signalling its success. Submarines did not have a major impact on the outcome of the war, but did portend their coming importance to naval warfare and increased interest in their use in naval warfare.
Russo-Japanese War
On 14 June 1904, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) placed an order for five Holland Type VII submersibles, which were built in Quincy, Massachusetts, at the Fore River Yard, and shipped to Yokohama, Japan in sections. The five machines arrived on 12 December 1904. Under the supervision of naval architect Arthur L. Busch, the imported Hollands were re-assembled, and the first submersibles were ready for combat operations by August 1905, but hostilities were nearing the end by that date, and no submarines saw action during the war.
Meanwhile, the Imperial Russian Navy (IRN) purchased German constructed submersibles built by the Germaniawerft shipyards out of Kiel. In 1903, Germany successfully completed its first fully functional engine-powered submarine, Forelle (Trout), It was sold to Russia in 1904 and shipped via the Trans-Siberian Railway to the combat zone during the Russo-Japanese War.
Due to the naval blockade of Port Arthur, Russia sent their remaining submarines to Vladivostok, and by the end of 1904, seven subs were based there. On 1 January 1905, the IRN created the world's first operational submarine fleet around these seven submarines. The first combat patrol by the newly created IRN submarine fleet occurred on 14 February 1905, and was carried out by Delfin and Som, with each patrol normally lasting about 24 hours. Som first made contact with the enemy on 29 April, when it was fired upon by IJN torpedo boats, which withdrew shortly after opening fire and resulting in no casualties or damage to either combatant. A second contact occurred on 1 July 1905 in the Tartar Strait when two IJN torpedo boats spotted the IRN sub Keta. Unable to submerge quickly enough, Keta was unable to obtain a proper firing position, and both combatants broke contact.
World War I
The first time military submarines had significant impact on a war was in World War I. Forces such as the U-boats of Germany operated against Allied commerce (Handelskrieg); the submarine's ability to function as a practical war machine relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as combination diesel/electric power system that had been developed in the preceding years. More like submersible ships than the submarines of today, submarines operated primarily on the surface using standard engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel, to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow.
Shortly before the outbreak of World War I, submarines were employed by the Italian Regia Marina during the Italo-Turkish War without seeing any naval action, and by the Greek Navy during the Balkan Wars, where notably the French-built became the first such vessel to launch a torpedo against an enemy ship (albeit unsuccessfully).
At the start of the war, Germany had 48 submarines in service or under construction, with 29 operational. These included vessels of the diesel-engined U-19 class with the range () and speed () to operate effectively around the entire British coast. Initially, Germany followed the international "Prize Rules", which required a ship's crew to be allowed to leave before sinking their ship. The U-boats saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic.
After the British ordered transport ships to act as auxiliary cruisers, the German navy adopted unrestricted submarine warfare, generally giving no warning of an attack. During the war, 360 submarines were built, but 178 were lost. The rest were surrendered at the end of the war. A German U-boat sunk and is often cited among the reasons for the entry of the United States into the war.
In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war patrol in history. Their aim was to sink capital ships of the British Grand Fleet, and so reduce the Grand Fleet's numerical superiority over the German High Seas Fleet. Depending more on luck than strategy, the first sortie was not a success. Only one attack was carried out, when U-15 fired a torpedo (which missed) at , while two of the ten U-boats were lost. The had better luck. On 22 September 1914 while patrolling the Broad Fourteens, a region of the southern North Sea, U-9 found three obsolescent British armoured cruisers (, , and ), which were assigned to prevent German surface vessels from entering the eastern end of the English Channel. The U-9 fired all six of its torpedoes, reloading while submerged, and sank the three cruisers in less than an hour.
The British had 77 operational submarines at the beginning of the war, with 15 under construction. The main type was the E class, but several experimental designs were built, including the K class, which had a reputation for bad luck, and the M class, which had a large deck-mounted gun. The R class was the first boat designed to attack other submarines. British submarines operated in the Baltic, North Sea and Atlantic, as well as in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Over 50 were lost from various causes during the war.
France had 62 submarines at the beginning of the war, in 14 different classes. They operated mainly in the Mediterranean; in the course of the war, 12 were lost. The Russians started the war with 58 submarines in service or under construction. The main class was the with 24 boats. Twenty-four submarines were lost during the war.
World War II
Germany
Although Germany was banned from having submarines in the Treaty of Versailles, construction started in secret during the 1930s. When this became known, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1936 allowed Germany to achieve parity in submarines with Britain.
Germany started the war with only 65 submarines, with 21 at sea when war broke out. Germany soon built the largest submarine fleet during World War II. Due to the Treaty of Versailles limiting the surface navy, the rebuilding of the German surface forces had only begun in earnest a year before the outbreak of World War II. Having no hope of defeating the vastly superior Royal Navy decisively in a surface battle, the German High Command planned on fighting a campaign of "Guerre de course" (Merchant warfare), and immediately stopped all construction on capital surface ships, save the nearly completed s and two cruisers, and switched the resources to submarines, which could be built more quickly. Though it took most of 1940 to expand production facilities and to start mass production, more than a thousand submarines were built by the end of the war.
Germany used submarines to devastating effect in World War II during the Battle of the Atlantic, attempting but ultimately failing to cut off Britain's supply routes by sinking more ships than Britain could replace. The supply lines were vital to Britain for food and industry, as well as armaments from Canada and the United States. Although the U-boats had been updated in the intervening years, the major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the famous Enigma cipher machine. This allowed for mass-attack tactics or "wolfpacks" (Rudel), but was also ultimately the U-boats' downfall.
After putting to sea, the U-boats operated mostly on their own trying to find convoys in areas assigned to them by the High Command. If a convoy was found, the submarine did not attack immediately, but shadowed the convoy and radioed to the German Command to allow other submarines in the area to find the convoy. The submarines were then grouped into a larger striking force and attacked the convoy simultaneously, preferably at night while surfaced to avoid the ASDIC.
During the first few years of World War II, the Ubootwaffe ("U-boat force") scored unprecedented success with these tactics ("First Happy Time"), but were too few to have any decisive success. By the spring of 1943, German U-boat construction was at full capacity, but this was more than nullified by increased numbers of convoy escorts and aircraft, as well as technical advances like radar and sonar. High Frequency Direction Finding (HF/DF, known as Huff-Duff) and Ultra allowed the Allies to route convoys around wolfpacks when they detected radio transmissions from trailing boats. The results were devastating: from March to July of that year, over 130 U-boats were lost, 41 in May alone. Concurrent Allied losses dropped dramatically, from 750,000 tons in March to 188,000 in July. Although the Battle of the Atlantic continued to the last day of the war, the U-boat arm was unable to stem the tide of personnel and supplies, paving the way for Operation Torch, Operation Husky, and ultimately, D-Day. Winston Churchill wrote the U-boat "peril" was the only thing to ever give him cause to doubt eventual Allied victory.
By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships, 2,825 merchantmen) were sunk by U-boats. Of the 40,000 men in the U-boat service, 28,000 (70%) died.
The Germans built some novel submarine designs, including the Type XVII, which used hydrogen peroxide in a Walther turbine (named for its designer, Dr Hellmuth Walther) for propulsion. They also produced the Type XXII, which had a large battery and mechanical torpedo handling.
Italy
Italy had 116 submarines in service at the start of the war, with 24 different classes. These operated mainly in the Mediterranean theatre. Some were sent to a base at Bordeaux in Occupied France. A flotilla of several submarines also operated out of the Eritrean colonial port of Massawa.
Italian designs proved to be unsuitable for use in the Atlantic Ocean. Italian midget submarines were used in attacks against British shipping near the port of Gibraltar.
Britain
The Royal Navy Submarine Service had 70 operational submarines in 1939. Three classes were selected for mass production, the seagoing S class and the oceangoing T class, as well as the coastal U class. All of these classes were built in large numbers during the war.
The French submarine fleet consisted of over 70 vessels (with some under construction) at the beginning of the war. After the Fall of France, the French-German Armistice required the return of all French submarines to German-controlled ports in France. Some of these submarines were forcibly seized by British forces.
The main operating theatres for British submarines were off the coast of Norway, in the Mediterranean, where a flotilla of submarines successfully disrupted the Axis replenishment route to North Africa from their base in Malta, as well as in the North Sea. As Germany was a Continental power, there was little opportunity for the British to sink German shipping in this theatre of the Atlantic.
From 1940, U-class submarines were stationed at Malta, to interdict enemy supplies bound for North Africa. Over a period of three years, this force sank over 1 million tons of shipping, and fatally undermined the attempts of the German High Command to adequately support General Erwin Rommel. Rommel's Chief of Staff, Fritz Bayerlein conceded that "We would have taken Alexandria and reached the Suez Canal, if it had not been for the work of your submarines". 45 vessels were lost during this campaign, and five Victoria Crosses were awarded to submariners serving in this theatre.
In addition, British submarines attacked Japanese shipping in the Far East, during the Pacific campaign. The Eastern Fleet was responsible for submarine operations in the Bay of Bengal, Strait of Malacca as far as Singapore, and the western coast of Sumatra to the Equator. Few large Japanese cargo ships operated in this area, and the British submarines' main targets were small craft operating in inshore waters. The submarines were deployed to conduct reconnaissance, interdict Japanese supplies travelling to Burma, and attack U-boats operating from Penang. The Eastern Fleet's submarine force continued to expand during 1944, and by October 1944 had sunk a cruiser, three submarines, six small naval vessels, of merchant ships, and nearly 100 small vessels. In this theatre, the only documented instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged occurred. engaged the and the Venturer crew manually computed a successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally maneuvering target using techniques which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems.
By March 1945, British boats had gained control of the Strait of Malacca, preventing any supplies from reaching the Japanese forces in Burma by sea. By this time, there were few large Japanese ships in the region, and the submarines mainly operated against small ships which they attacked with their deck guns. The submarine torpedoed and sank the heavy cruiser in the Bangka Strait, taking down some 1,200 Japanese army troops. Three British submarines (, , and ) were sunk by the Japanese during the war.
Japan
Japan had the most varied fleet of submarines of World War II, including manned torpedoes (Kaiten), midget submarines (Ko-hyoteki, Kairyu), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines (many for use by the Army), long-range fleet submarines (many of which carried an aircraft), submarines with the highest submerged speeds of the conflict (Sentaka I-200), and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft (World War II's largest submarine, the Sentoku I-400). These submarines were also equipped with the most advanced torpedo of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95 (what U.S. historian Samuel E. Morison postwar called "Long Lance").
Overall, despite their technical prowess, Japanese submarines – having been incorporated into the Imperial Navy's war plan of "Guerre D' Escadre" (Fleet Warfare), in contrast to Germany's war plan of "Guerre De Course" – were relatively unsuccessful. Japanese submarines were primarily used in offensive roles against warships, which were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships. In 1942, Japanese submarines sank two fleet aircraft carriers, one cruiser, and several destroyers and other warships, and damaged many others, including two battleships. They were not able to sustain these results afterward, as Allied fleets were reinforced and became better organized. By the end of the war, submarines were instead often used to transport supplies to island garrisons. During the war, Japan managed to sink about 1 million tons of merchant shipping (184 ships), compared to 1.5 million tons for Great Britain (493 ships), 4.65 million tons for the U.S. (1,079 ships) and 14.3 million tons for Germany (2,840 ships).
Early models were not very maneuverable underwater, could not dive very deep, and lacked radar. Later in the war, units that were fitted with radar were in some instances sunk due to the ability of U.S. radar sets to detect their emissions. For example, sank three such equipped submarines in the span of four days. After the war, several of Japan's most original submarines were sent to Hawaii for inspection in "Operation Road's End" (I-400, I-401, I-201 and I-203) before being scuttled by the U.S. Navy in 1946, when the Soviets demanded access to the submarines as well.
United States
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, many of the U.S. Navy's front-line Pacific Fleet surface ships were destroyed or severely damaged. The submarines survived the attack and carried the war to the enemy. Lacking support vessels, the submarines were asked to independently hunt and destroy Japanese ships and submarines. They did so very effectively.
During World War II, the submarine force was the most effective anti-ship and anti-submarine weapon in the entire American arsenal. Submarines, though only about 2 percent of the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the Japanese Navy, including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. U.S. submarines also destroyed over 60 percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its military forces and industrial war effort. Allied submarines in the Pacific War destroyed more Japanese shipping than all other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet.
Whereas Japanese submarine torpedoes of the war are considered the best, those of U.S. Navy are considered the worst. For example, the U.S. Mark 14 torpedo typically ran too deep and was tipped with a Mk VI exploder, with both magnetic influence and contact features, neither reliable. The faulty depth control mechanism of the Mark 14 was corrected in August 1942, but field trials for the exploders were not ordered until mid-1943, when tests in Hawaii and Australia confirmed the flaws. In addition, the Mark 14 sometimes suffered circular runs, which sank at least one U.S. submarine, . Fully operational Mark 14 torpedoes were not put into service until September 1943. The Mark 15 torpedo used by U.S. surface combatants had the same Mk VI exploder and was not fixed until late 1943. One attempt to correct the problems resulted in a wakeless, electric torpedo (the Mark 18) being placed in submarine service. was lost to a circular run by one of these torpedoes. Given the prevalence of circular runs, there were probably other losses among boats which simply disappeared.
During World War II, 314 submarines served in the United States Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to the Pacific. On 7 December 1941, 111 boats were in commission and 203 submarines from the , , and es were commissioned during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to hostilities; 3,505 sailors were lost, the highest percentage killed in action of any US service arm in World War II. U.S. submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels, a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55% of the total sunk), including 8 aircraft carriers, a battleship, three heavy cruisers, and over 200 other warships, and damaged several other ships including the battleships (badly damaged by ) and (damaged by ). In addition, the Japanese merchant marine lost 16,200 sailors killed and 53,400 wounded, of some 122,000 at the start of the war, due to submarines.
Post-War
During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. This continues today, on a much-reduced scale. The Soviet Union suffered the loss of at least four submarines during this period: was lost in 1968 (which the CIA attempted to retrieve from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes-designed ship named Glomar Explorer), in 1970, in 1986, and Komsomolets in 1989. Many other Soviet subs, such as were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The United States lost two nuclear submarines during this time: and . The Thresher was lost due to equipment failure, and the exact cause of the loss of the Scorpion is not known.
The sinking of in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was the first submarine casualty in the South Asian region.
The United Kingdom employed nuclear-powered submarines against Argentina during the 1982 Falklands War. The sinking of the cruiser by was the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war. During this conflict, the conventional Argentinian submarine ARA Santa Fé was disabled by a Sea Skua missile, and the claimed to have made unsuccessful attacks on the British fleet.
Major incidents
There have been a number of accidental sinkings, but also some collisions between submarines.
Up to August 1914, there were 68 submarine accidents. There were 23 collisions, 7 battery gas explosions, 12 gasoline explosions, and 13 sinkings due to hull openings not being closed. was lost in the English Channel in 1951 due to the snort mast fracturing and in 1963 due to a pipe weld failure during a test dive. Many other scenarios have been proven to be probable causes of sinking, most notably a battery malfunction causing a torpedo to detonate internally, and the loss of the Russian Kursk on 12 August 2000 probably due to a torpedo explosion. An example of the latter was the incident between the Russian K-276 and the in February 1992.
Since 2000, there have been 9 major naval incidents involving submarines. There were three Russian submarine incidents, in two of which the submarines in question were lost, along with three United States submarine incidents, one Chinese incident, one Canadian, and one Australian incident. In August 2005, AS-28, a Russian Priz-class rescue submarine, was trapped by cables and/or nets off of Petropavlovsk, and saved when a British ROV cut them free in a massive international effort.
See also
List of submarine actions
List of submarine museums
List of sunken nuclear submarines
Depth charge and Depth charge (cocktail)
Nuclear navy
Nuclear submarine
Attack submarine
List of countries with submarines
Vessels
Nerwin (NR-1)
Vesikko (museum submarine)
ORP Orzeł
Ships named Nautilus
List of submarines of the Royal Navy
List of submarines of the United States Navy
List of Soviet submarines
List of U-boats of Germany
Kaikō ROV (deepest submarine dive)
Bathyscaphe Trieste (deepest manned dive)
Classes
List of submarine classes
List of submarine classes of the Royal Navy
List of Soviet and Russian submarine classes
List of United States submarine classes
References
Further reading
Blair, Clay Jr., Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan,
Compton-Hall, Richard. Submarine Boats, the beginnings of underwater warfare, Windward, 1983.
Fontenoy, Paul. Submarines: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO, 2007.
Harris, Brayton (Captain, USN ret.). The Navy Times Book of Submarines: A Political, Social, and Military History. Berkley Books, 1997
Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Dieter Jung, Peter Mickel. Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. United States Naval Institute, 1977. Annapolis, Maryland. .
Lockwood, Charles A. (VAdm, USN ret.), Sink 'Em All: Submarine Warfare in the Pacific, (1951)
Polmar, Norman & Kenneth Moore. Cold War Submarines: The Design and Construction of U. S. and Soviet Submarines. Brassey's, Washington DC, 2004.
Preston, Antony. The World's Greatest Submarines Greenwich Editions 2005.
Showell, Jak. The U-Boat Century-German Submarine Warfare 1906–2006. Great Britain; Chatham Publishing, 2006. .
External links
John Holland
German Submarines of WWII
Submarine Simulations
Seehund – German Midget Submarine
Submarines of WWI
Molch – German Midget Submarine
Developed for the NOVA television series.
Role of the Modern Submarine
Submariners of WWII – World War II Submarine Veterans History Project
German submarines using peroxide
record-breaking Japanese Submarines
German U-Boats 1935–1945
U.S. ship photo archive
Israeli missile trials
The Sub Report
The Invention of the Submarine
Submersibles and Technology by Graham Hawkes
Submarine of Karl Shilder
Royal Navy submarine history
A century of Royal Navy submarine operations
Royal Navy submarines
Still floating submarine Lembit (1936)
Submarines, the Enemy Unseen, History Today
American Society of Safety Engineers. Journal of Professional Safety. Submarine Accidents: A 60-Year Statistical Assessment. C. Tingle. September 2009. pp. 31–39. Ordering full article: https://www.asse.org/professionalsafety/indexes/2009.php; or Reproduction fewer graphics/tables: http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices-government/12939133-1.html.
Submarine
Submarines
Submarines
Dutch inventions |
4551616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royce%20Clayton | Royce Clayton | Royce Spencer Clayton (born January 2, 1970) is an American former professional baseball shortstop. He played in Major League Baseball for the San Francisco Giants, St. Louis Cardinals, Texas Rangers, Chicago White Sox, Milwaukee Brewers, Colorado Rockies, Arizona Diamondbacks, Washington Nationals, Cincinnati Reds, Toronto Blue Jays, and Boston Red Sox between 1991 and 2007.
As an amateur, Clayton played baseball at St. Bernard High School and for the United States national under-18 baseball team. The Giants selected him in the first round of the 1988 MLB draft and he made his MLB debut in 1991. The Giants traded Clayton to the Cardinals, where he succeeded his childhood idol, Ozzie Smith, as their starting shortstop and made the All-Star Game in 1997. Traded to Texas in 1998, Clayton signed a free agent contract to stay with the Rangers during the offseason. From 2001 to 2007, he played for Chicago, Milwaukee, Colorado, Arizona, Washington, Cincinnati, Toronto, and Boston.
After his playing career, Clayton appeared in the film Moneyball and pursued various business ventures. He has been the head varsity baseball coach at Oaks Christian School in Westlake Village, California, since 2016.
Early life
Clayton was born on January 2, 1970, in Burbank, California, and was raised in Inglewood. His father, Royal Sr., was a car salesman and his mother, Antoinette, worked for Trans World Airlines. He has an older brother, Royal Jr. Growing up in the middle class, Clayton's parents stressed academics, and did not allow him to play Little League Baseball until he was eight years old. He began to play as a third baseman. After attending a game between the Los Angeles Dodgers and St. Louis Cardinals at Dodger Stadium, he began to idolize Cardinals' shortstop Ozzie Smith and switched to playing his position.
Rather than attend nearby Inglewood High School, Clayton attended St. Bernard High School, a private school in Playa del Rey. He played for the school's baseball team as a shortstop. Clayton would sometimes take the field with a back flip, which Smith was known to do. In 1987, his junior year, Clayton had a .448 batting average. He played in the California Interscholastic Federation's Southern Section 1-A championship game at Dodger Stadium, but lost to Whittier Christian High School. He was invited to the U.S. Olympic Festival in Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina, and earned a spot on the United States national under-18 baseball team for the 1987 World Junior Baseball Championships, held in Windsor, Ontario. The United States won the silver medal, losing the championship game to Cuba.
Clayton had a .513 batting average in 26 games played during his senior year. During his senior year in 1988, Clayton signed a National Letter of Intent to attend the University of Southern California (USC) to play college baseball for the USC Trojans on an athletic scholarship. He chose USC over Florida State University and Loyola Marymount University.
Professional career
San Francisco Giants (1988–1995)
Prior to the 1988 Major League Baseball (MLB) draft, the MLB Scouting Bureau named Clayton one of the 25 best amateur prospects in the United States. The San Francisco Giants selected Clayton in the first round, with the 15th overall selection, of the draft. He opted to sign with San Francisco for a $195,000 signing bonus rather than attend USC. The Giants assigned him to the Everett Giants of the Class A Short Season Northwest League. In 1988, Clayton hit .259 with 30 runs batted in (RBIs), and 10 stolen bases in 60 games for Everett. Starting the 1989 season with the Clinton Giants of the Class A Midwest League, Clayton struggled initially, batting below .200 by the end of May. After batting .310 in June and July, Clayton earn a promotion to the San Jose Giants of the Class A-Advanced California League on July 29. He batted .120 and 10 stolen bases in 28 games for San Jose after the promotion. Clayton returned to San Jose in 1990, where he batted .252 in the first half. Named to the California League's all-star game, he delivered the game-winning hit. He finished the 1990 season with a .267 average, seven home runs, 71 RBIs, and 33 stolen bases.
In 1991, Clayton played for the Shreveport Captains of the Class AA Texas League. Clayton played in the Texas League's all-star game. He batted .280 with 68 RBIs and 36 stolen bases during the 1991 season, helping Shreveport win the Texas League championship. After the 1991 season, Baseball America named Clayton the best defensive shortstop and most exciting player in the Texas League and The Sporting News named him the best prospect in baseball.
After the Texas League's season ended, the Giants promoted Clayton to the major leagues for their final road trip of the season. He made his major league debut on September 20. Clayton batted .115 (3-for-26) in nine games. He arrived to spring training in 1992 having added muscle, increasing his weight from . Clayton competed with José Uribe for the Giants' starting shortstop position. The Giants named Clayton to their Opening Day roster in 1992 as their starting shortstop. After Clayton batted .207 for the Giants through June 20, the Giants demoted him to the Phoenix Firebirds of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League. Clayton batted .237 in 43 games for Phoenix, and was recalled to the major leagues on August 19 when Uribe went on the disabled list with a torn muscle in his rib cage. Between both stints with the Giants in the 1992 season, Clayton batted .224 in 98 games. He earned $109,000, the major league's minimum salary, for the 1992 season.
Before the 1993 season, Clayton signed a one-year contract with the Giants worth $155,000. Uribe's contract expired after the 1992 season, and Clayton became the Giants' regular shortstop. He batted .282 in 153 games, tied Chris Speier's franchise record of 70 RBIs for a shortstop, and led all National League shortstops with 103 double plays turned. After the 1993 season, the Giants offered Clayton a four-year contract worth $9.2 million, but he declined. Clayton signed a contract worth $325,000 for the 1994 season. Clayton and several of his teammates struggled in 1994; he batted .236 with 30 RBIs. The Giants made an offer of a two-year contract after the 1994 season, which Clayton rejected. He signed a one-year contract for the 1995 season worth $475,000. Clayton batted .244 in 138 games in the 1995 season. He also recorded 223 putouts, 411 assists, and 654 total chances, the most among all National League shortstops.
The Giants began to discuss trading Clayton to other teams after the 1995 season as they remained unable to agree to terms on a contract extension. Rich Aurilia was ready to become the Giants' starting shortstop and the team needed to improve their depth of pitchers.
St. Louis Cardinals (1996–1998)
Coming into the 1996 season, Ozzie Smith remained on a perpetual contract with the Cardinals. He was 41 years old and only batted .199 in 44 games during the 1995 season due to a shoulder injury. Cardinals manager Tony La Russa and general manager Walt Jocketty sought to acquire another shortstop as insurance in case Smith could not compete. They attempted to sign Walt Weiss and Greg Gagne, but neither wanted to play in a platoon with Smith, an all-time great.
The Giants traded Clayton and a player to be named later to the St. Louis Cardinals for Doug Creek, Rich DeLucia, and Allen Watson on December 14, 1995. The Giants sent Chris Wimmer to the Cardinals in January 1996 to complete the trade. Eligible for salary arbitration for the first time, Clayton signed a $1.6 million contract with St. Louis for the 1996 season, more than tripling his 1995 salary.
In his first year as the Cardinals' manager, Tony La Russa announced that Smith and Clayton would compete for the starting job in spring training in 1996. Though Smith had better statistics during spring training than Clayton, La Russa gave the starting role to Clayton prior to Opening Day and gave Clayton the majority of the playing time during the season. Cardinals' fans booed Clayton because they preferred Smith. Clayton batted .277 with 33 stolen bases and a .972 fielding percentage, the fourth-best among National League shortstops, in 129 games played. Smith announced in June that he would retire at the end of the season. The Cardinals reached the postseason; they defeated the San Diego Padres in the 1996 National League Division Series and lost to the Atlanta Braves in the 1996 National League Championship Series. Clayton had a .346 average during the 1996 postseason.
After failing to come to terms on a multi-year contract, Clayton and the Cardinals agreed to a one-year contract with a $2.6 million salary for the 1997 season. He was selected as a representative for the National League in the 1997 MLB All-Star Game as an injury replacement for Barry Larkin. At the time, he was batting .261 with six home runs and 19 stolen bases, and had already exceeded his 1996 season totals in RBIs and extra-base hits with 36 and 31, respectively. Clayton batted .266 in 154 games for St. Louis in 1997. He led all National League shortstops with 452 assists. Before the 1998 season, the Cardinals signed Clayton for a $3.5 million salary in his final year before becoming eligible for free agency. He began the season batting .234 in 90 games for the Cardinals.
Texas Rangers (1998–2000)
With the Cardinals struggling during the 1998 season and Clayton due to become a free agent after the season, the Cardinals traded Clayton and Todd Stottlemyre to the Texas Rangers for Darren Oliver, Fernando Tatís, and a player to be named later on July 31, 1998. Mark Little was sent to St. Louis in August to complete the trade. Clayton took over at shortstop for the Rangers from Kevin Elster, who Texas released. He batted .285 in 52 games for Texas during the 1998 season. The Rangers overtook the Anaheim Angels to win the American League West division, but lost to the New York Yankees in the 1998 American League Division Series.
A free agent after the 1998 season, Clayton signed a four-year, $18 million contract to remain with Texas. Clayton batted. 288 in 133 games during the 1999 season, and the Rangers won the division again. The Rangers lost to the Yankees in the 1999 American League Division Series.
In April 2000, Clayton and teammate Chad Curtis got into a shoving match after Curtis insisted on turning off rap music that Clayton was playing when Curtis objected to the lyrics. In May, Clayton wrote a blog post calling out Curtis, and Rangers manager Johnny Oates had them apologize to each other. Clayton batted .242 in 148 games for Texas in 2000. He also led all American League shortstops with 265 putouts.
Chicago White Sox and Milwaukee Brewers (2001–2003)
Days after the Rangers signed Alex Rodriguez to a 10-year, $252 million contract to be their new shortstop, the Rangers traded Clayton to the Chicago White Sox for Aaron Myette and Brian Schmack on December 14, 2000. José Valentín of the White Sox had led all major league shortstops in errors in the 2000 season, and the White Sox tried using him as their center fielder for the 2001 season. Clayton struggled offensively in April and May of the 2001 season, batting .099, but he rebounded to hit .310 for the remainder of the season to finish with a .263 average in 135 games. Clayton batted .197 through the first 54 games of the 2002 season and was benched by White Sox manager Jerry Manuel in early June, who increased the playing time for Tony Graffanino. Only a week later, Manuel returned Clayton to the lineup at shortstop, alternating playing time with Valentín and Graffanino. At the end of July, Manuel decided that Valentín would receive the majority of playing time at shortstop for the remainder of the season. The White Sox released Clayton on September 8. He batted .251 with seven home runs and 35 RBIs in 112 games during the 2002 season.
On December 11, 2002, the Milwaukee Brewers signed Clayton to a one-year contract worth $1.75 million for the 2003 season to succeed José Hernández as their starting shortstop. The contract included a club option for the 2004 season. Clayton batted .228 with 11 home runs and 39 RBIs in 2003. The Brewers declined the $3 million option in Clayton's contract for the 2004 season, buying him out for $290,000 instead, making Clayton a free agent.
Later career (2004–2007)
Clayton signed a minor league contract with the Colorado Rockies for the 2004 season worth $650,000, and he made the Rockies' Opening Day roster as their starting shortstop. He hit .270 with eight home runs and 54 RBIs for the Rockies in 2004, and led all National League shortstops with a .986 fielding percentage. However, the Rockies did not resign Clayton, as they decided to give the starting shortstop role to Clint Barmes for the 2005 season. Clayton signed a one-year contract worth $1.35 million with the Arizona Diamondbacks for the 2005 season, displacing Alex Cintrón as the starting shortstop. Clayton batted .270 in 143 games for Arizona.
On February 2, 2006, Clayton signed a minor league contract with the Washington Nationals, who acquired him to serve as a backup to their incumbent starting shortstop, Cristian Guzmán, who had struggled during the 2005 season. The contract called for Clayton to earn $1 million if he made the team and another $250,000 available through incentives based on his playing time. Guzmán tore a muscle in his shoulder during spring training, and Clayton opened the 2006 season as the Nationals' starting shortstop. He batted .269 in 87 games for Washington. On July 13, 2006, the Nationals traded Clayton, Bill Bray, Brendan Harris, Gary Majewski, and Daryl Thompson to the Cincinnati Reds for Austin Kearns, Felipe López, and Ryan Wagner. Clayton batted .235 in 50 games for the Reds after the trade.
On November 29, 2006, Clayton signed a one-year contract worth $1.5 million with the Toronto Blue Jays. However, the Blue Jays did not commit to having Clayton as their starting shortstop, saying that he would split playing time with Aaron Hill and John McDonald in the middle infield. By June, Clayton lost playing time as the Blue Jays played Hill as their second baseman and McDonald as their shortstop. The Blue Jays released Clayton on August 8, 2007, after he batted .254 with one home run and 12 RBIs in 69 games. He signed a minor league with the Boston Red Sox on August 23, and they assigned him to the Pawtucket Red Sox of the Class AAA International League. He had a .143 batting average and three RBIs in seven games. They promoted him to the major leagues to provide infield depth behind starters Dustin Pedroia and Julio Lugo and backup Alex Cora on September 1, when rosters expanded. Clayton wanted the chance to play for a team in contention for a playoff spot. The Red Sox were the 11th team that Clayton played for, tying the record for position players set by Todd Zeile. In eight games for the Red Sox, Clayton batted 0-for-6. The Red Sox won the 2007 World Series, and though Clayton did not appear in the postseason, he received a World Series ring at Fenway Park in April 2008.
Clayton did not receive any contract offers during the 2007–08 offseason, and retired in March 2008. He finished his career with a .258 average, 110 home runs, 1,904 hits, and 231 stolen bases. Clayton was a candidate for induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame during the 2013 balloting, but did not receive any votes.
Post-playing career
After his playing career, Clayton invested in and became a member of the advisory board of the Goldwater Bank in Arizona. He also worked in real estate and started entertainment companies that worked to develop walk up music for batters and theme songs for players, including one written for Tim Lincecum that aired on Major League Baseball on Fox during Game 5 of the 2010 World Series.
Clayton became involved in coaching youth baseball. He coached Little League Baseball in Malibu, California. On September 12, 2016, Clayton became the head varsity baseball coach for Oaks Christian School in Westlake Village, California. Dmitri Young was an assistant coach for Clayton for three years before becoming head coach at Camarillo High School.
Personal life
After signing his contract with Texas, Clayton and his parents began the Royce Clayton Family Foundation, which worked with numerous charitable organizations, such as Reviving Baseball in Inner Cities, the Jackie Robinson Foundation, and the Sickle Cell Disease Association of America. He also contributed to rebuilding his former Little League Baseball field in Ladera Heights, California.
Clayton met Samantha Davies, a sprinter who represented Great Britain at the 2000 Summer Olympics, in 2000. They married the next year. Clayton credited his wife with teaching him to keep his legs in condition for the longevity of his baseball career; he ran sprints during the offseason to maintain his speed. They have two daughters and two sons, including triplets. Royce's brother also played baseball professionally.
Clayton was portrayed in the 2002 film The Rookie, which depicts the career of Jim Morris, who struck out Clayton while making his major league debut in 1999. Clayton was on set as an adviser. Clayton portrayed Miguel Tejada in the 2011 film Moneyball. As Tejada is from the Dominican Republic, Clayton attempted a Latin accent, but the filmmakers told him to speak without one.
See also
List of Colorado Rockies team records
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
References
External links
1970 births
Living people
African-American baseball players
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Boston Red Sox players
Chicago White Sox players
Cincinnati Reds players
Clinton Giants players
Colorado Rockies players
Everett Giants players
Major League Baseball shortstops
Milwaukee Brewers players
National League All-Stars
Oklahoma RedHawks players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Baseball players from Burbank, California
Phoenix Firebirds players
San Francisco Giants players
San Jose Giants players
Shreveport Captains players
St. Louis Cardinals players
Texas Rangers players
Toronto Blue Jays players
Washington Nationals players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople |
4552421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-tolerance%20policies%20in%20schools | Zero-tolerance policies in schools | A zero-tolerance policy in schools is a policy of strict enforcement of regulations and bans against behaviors or the possession of items deemed undesirable. Public criticism against such policies has arisen because of potential negative consequences when acts deemed intolerable are done in ignorance, by accident, or under extenuating circumstances. The policies have also been criticized for their connection to educational inequality in the United States. In schools, common zero-tolerance policies concern possession or use of illicit drugs or weapons. Students, and sometimes staff, parents, and other visitors, who possess a banned item for any reason are always (if the policy is followed) to be punished.
In the United States and Canada, zero-tolerance policies have been adopted in various schools and other educational platforms. Zero-tolerance policies in the United States became widespread in 1994, after federal legislation would withhold all federal funding from states that did not expel students for one year if they bring a firearm to school.
History
The label of zero-tolerance began with the Gun-Free Schools Act of 1994, when Congress authorized public-school funding subject to the adoption of zero-tolerance policies. Similar policies of intolerance coupled with expulsions for less serious behaviors than bringing a weapon to school had long been a part of private, and particularly religious schools. The use of zero-tolerance policies in public schools increased dramatically after the Columbine High School massacre, with principals declaring that safety concerns made them want zero-tolerance for weapons. These have led to a large number of disproportionate responses to minor, or technical transgressions, many of that have attracted the attention of the international media. These cases include students being suspended or expelled for such offenses as possession of ibuprofen or Midol (both legal, non-prescription drugs commonly used to treat headaches and menstrual cramps respectively) with permission of the students' parents, keeping pocketknives (small utility knife) in cars, and carrying sharp tools outside of a woodshop classroom (where they are often required materials). In Seal v. Morgan, a student was expelled for having a knife in his car on school property, despite his protestations that he was unaware of the knife's presence. In some jurisdictions, zero-tolerance policies have come into conflict with freedom of religion rules already in place allowing students to carry, for example, kirpans.
In the "kids for cash" scandal, judge Mark Ciavarella, who promoted a platform of zero-tolerance, received kickbacks for constructing a private prison that housed juvenile offenders, and then proceeded to fill the prison by sentencing children to extended stays in juvenile detention for offenses as minimal as mocking a principal on Myspace, scuffles in hallways, trespassing in a vacant building, and shoplifting DVDs from Walmart. Critics of zero-tolerance policies argue that harsh punishments for minor offenses are normalized. The documentary Kids for Cash, interviews experts on adolescent behavior, who argue that the zero-tolerance model has become a dominant approach to policing juvenile offenses after the Columbine shooting.
In New York City, Carmen Fariña, head of the New York City Department of Education, restricted school suspension by principals in 2015. The Los Angeles Unified school board, responsible for educating 700,000 students, voted in 2013 to ban suspensions for "willful defiance", which had mostly been used against students from racial minorities. A year later, the same school district decided to decriminalize school discipline so that minor offenses would be referred to school staff rather than prosecuted. The previous approach had resulted in black students being six times more likely to be arrested or given a ticket than white students. The district saw suspensions drop by 53%, and graduation rates rise by 12%.
Media attention
Media attention has proven embarrassing to school officials, resulting in changes to state laws as well as to local school policies. One school board member gave this reason for changes his district made to their rigid policy: "We are doing this because we got egg on our face."
A student at Sandusky High School in Sandusky, Ohio, was suspended for 90 days and failed, after school authorities searched him for drugs in September 1999, and found a broken pocket knife. He had used the knife to clean his golfing cleats.
The Christina School District in Newark, Delaware, has experienced multiple highly publicized cases of zero-tolerance:
After bringing a Cub Scouts dinner knife to school to eat his lunch, a six-year-old boy was ordered to attend an alternative school for students with behavioral problems for nine weeks. After a media uproar, the school board voted unanimously to reduce punishments for kindergartners and first-graders who take weapons to school to a 3-5 day mandatory suspension, retaining the original definition of "weapons".
Kasia Haughton, running for fifth-grade mayor at the Leasure Elementary School in Newark, Delaware was suspended and faced possible expulsion after coming to school with a knife to cut the cake. School officials were called in to investigate the incident, and referred to the knife as a "deadly weapon."
Other cases include a straight-A student who was ordered to attend "reform school" after a classmate dropped a pocket knife in his lap, and in 2007, when a girl was expelled for using a utility knife to cut paper for a project.
Earlier in 2009, an Eagle Scout in New York was suspended for 20 days for having an emergency supply kit in his car that included a pocket knife.
A kindergartner in Grand Rapids, Michigan, was suspended in March 2010 for making a finger gun.
Another kindergartner, in Pennsylvania, was suspended for 10 days in January 2013 for referring to "shooting" a friend with a Hello Kitty bubble making gun. The suspension was reduced to two days after the parent met with school officials.
A second-grader in Baltimore, Maryland, was suspended in March 2013 for biting a Pop-Tart into the shape of a mountain, which school officials mistook for a gun.
A freshman at MacArthur High School in Irving, Texas, was suspended for a week in September 2015 after he put a digital alarm clock in a pencil box, and took it to his school to show a teacher. When the device beeped while in one class, the student was suspended and detained on suspicion of creating a hoax bomb.
In the Escondido school knives case, Brian Cappelletti and another student in San Diego were suspended from school for between 2 and 3 weeks and faced criminal charges and possible expulsion after knives were found in their vehicles parked outside their Escondido high school.
Research
There is no concrete evidence that zero-tolerance reduces violence or drug abuse by students. Furthermore, school suspension and expulsion result in a number of negative outcomes for both schools and students. The American Bar Association finds that the evidence indicates that minority children are the most likely to suffer the negative consequences of zero-tolerance policies. Analysis of the suspension rate of students shows that black females and other racial minorities are suspended at a greater rate. The American Psychological Association concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of zero-tolerance policies as defined and implemented, that there is a clear need to modify such policies, and that the policies create a number of unintended negative consequences, including making schools "less safe".
In 2014, a study of school discipline figures was conducted. It was found that suspensions and expulsions as a result of zero-tolerance policies have not reduced school disruptions. The study's author stated that "zero-tolerance approaches to school discipline are not the best way to create a safe climate for learning". Zero-tolerance policies are sometimes viewed as a quick fix solution for student problems. While this seems like a simple action-reaction type of situation, it often leaves out the mitigating circumstances that are often the important details in student incidents. Even civilian judges consider mitigating circumstances before passing judgment or sentencing. If zero-tolerance policies were applied in adult courtroom scenarios, they would be fundamentally unjust and unconstitutional due to neglecting the laws involving due process, along with cruel and unusual punishments.
Advocacy
Proponents of punishment- and exclusion-based philosophy of school discipline policies claim that such policies are required to create an appropriate environment for learning. This rests on the assumption that strong
enforcement can act as a psychological deterrent to other potentially disruptive students.
The policy assumption is that inflexibility is a deterrent because, no matter how or why the rule was broken, the fact that the rule was broken is the basis for the imposition of the penalty. This is intended as a behavior modification strategy: since those at risk know that it may operate unfairly, they may be induced to take even unreasonable steps to avoid breaking the rule. This is a standard policy in rule- and law-based systems around the world on "offenses" as minor as traffic violations to major health and safety legislation for the protection of employees and the environment.
Disciplinarian parents view zero-tolerance policies as a tool to fight corruption. Under this argument, if subjective judgment is not allowed, most attempts by the authorized person to encourage bribes or other favors in exchange for leniency are clearly visible.
Criticism
Critics of zero-tolerance policies in schools say they are part of a school-to-prison pipeline that over-polices children with behavioral problems, treating their problems as criminal justice issues rather than educational and behavioral problems. Students that may previously have been given short school suspensions before the implementation of policies are now sent to juvenile courts.
Critics of zero-tolerance policies frequently refer to cases where minor offenses have resulted in severe punishments. Typical examples include the honor-roll student being expelled from school under a "no weapons" policy while in possession of nail clippers, or for possessing "drugs" like cough drops and dental mouthwash or "weapons" like rubber bands.
A related criticism is that zero-tolerance policies make schools feel like a jail or a prison.
Furthermore zero-tolerance policies have been struck down by U.S. courts and by departments of education.
Another criticism is that the zero-tolerance policies have actually caused schools to turn a blind eye to bullying, resulting in them refusing to solve individual cases in an attempt to improve their image. The zero-tolerance policy also punishes both the attacker and the defender in a fight, even when the attacker was the one who started the fight unprovoked. In 2017, the Georgia Supreme Court ruled that public schools within Georgia could not have a zero-tolerance policy for violence that does not allow for self-defense.
A particularly dismaying hypothesis about zero-tolerance policies is that they may actually discourage some people from reporting criminal and illegal behavior, for fear of losing relationships, and for many other reasons. That is, ironically, zero-tolerance policies may be ineffective in the very purpose for which they were originally designed.
As schools develop responses to online bullying, schools that have overly harsh approaches to zero-tolerance policies may increasingly police speech of students in their own time that would normally be protected by free speech laws.
The American Bar Association opposes "zero-tolerance policies that mandate either expulsion or referral of students to juvenile or criminal court, without regard to the circumstances or nature of the offense or the students history."
Critics of zero-tolerance policies also argue that the large numbers of students who are suspended and expelled from school experience negative effects, which can prohibit them from finishing high school. Students who experience suspension, expulsion and arrests pay higher psychological and social costs: such as depression, suicidal thoughts, academic failure, and run the risk of being incarcerated as adults. In a study by Forrest et al., (2000), psychologists identified that a third of youths in juvenile detention centers were diagnosed with depression shortly after being incarcerated. In addition to being diagnosed with depression many youths found themselves having suicidal thoughts (Gnau et al. 1997).
Research found that black, Latino, and white adults with low educational attainment risked a higher propensity of being incarcerated in their lifetime (Pettit & Western 2010). The same study found that the incarceration rate in 2008 was 37% and had risen since the 1980s. That showed that incarceration rates of people with low levels of education were continuing to rise and that students were not completing their high school requirements.
According to kidsdata.org, 21,638 students were suspended and 592 students were expelled from San Diego County schools in 2012. A total of 10.1% of students did not complete their high school diploma.
Reforms and alternatives to zero-tolerance policies
The American Psychological Association (APA) assembled a Zero-Tolerance Task Force in 2008 that reviewed data and extensive literature on zero-tolerance policies and their effect on student behavior. It concluded that zero-tolerance policies do not support child development nor improve school climate or school safety. The APA made several recommendations to reform zero-tolerance policies for serious infractions.
One reform introduced by the APA was for school staff to consider teacher expertise and allow for greater flexibility when applying zero-tolerance policies. According to the APA, professional school staff need greater discretion when applying zero-tolerance policies because they are often the best mediators when evaluating infractions.
Similarly, the APA recommended that all offenses be defined and that school officials be adequately trained to handle each offense. The APA affirmed that adequate teacher training will (1) protect teachers from being wrongfully accused of how they applied their school policy and (2) protect students from unfair repercussions.
Another reform presented by the APA was for schools to evaluate their disciplinary prevention strategies. The APA maintained that schools, after evaluating their existing interventions and programs, would have strategies that have a positive effect on student behavior and school climate.
For less severe infractions, the American Psychological Association (APA) provided alternatives to zero-tolerance policies to ensure that students are not denied their opportunity to learn.
The APA encouraged schools to implement preventive strategies that foster student support and a sense of community as an alternative to zero-tolerance policies. In particular, the APA asserted that research-supported preventive strategies improve the school climate and sense of community in schools, whereas zero-tolerance policies result in immediate punishment.
For students who consistently engage in disruptive behavior, the APA recommended that schools design a list of effective alternatives they can use with students. The APA discussed various options that schools can implement to decrease disruptive behavior, including restorative justice, alternative programs, and community service.
The APA also promoted increasing culturally relevant training available to teachers. According to the APA, this strategy is important for teachers to integrate culturally responsive management and instruction in their classrooms and, therefore, reduce the disproportionate amount of disciplinary referrals to maximize student learning.
See also
Juvenile Law Center
School district drug policies
Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990
School disturbance laws
Zero-defects mentality, a similar policy used in the military
Notes
References
American Psychological Association. (2008). Are zero-tolerance policies effective in the schools?: An evidentiary review and recommendations. American Psychologist,63(9), 852-862. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.63.9.852
Robinson, M. (2002). Justice Blind? Ideals and Realities of American Criminal Justice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Rowe, Mary and Bendersky, Corinne, "Workplace Justice, Zero-Tolerance and Zero Barriers: Getting People to Come Forward in Conflict Management Systems", in Negotiations and Change, From the Workplace to Society, Thomas Kochan and Richard Locke (editors), Cornell University Press, 2002
Sherman, L., D., Gottfredson, D. MacKenzie, J. Eck, P. Reuter & S. Bushway. (1997). "Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising."
Snider, Laureen. (2004) "Zero-Tolerance Reversed: Constituting the Non-Culpable Subject in Walkerton" in What is a Crime? Defining Criminal Conduct in Contemporary Canadian Society. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, and Montreal: Laval University Press (French translation), 2004: 155-84.
External links
"Losing my Tolerance for 'Zero-Tolerance'" article by journalist Randy Cassingham on Zero-Tolerance
"The Zero-Intelligence Policy" by W. Bruce Cameron
Education issues
Criminology
Juvenile law
School and classroom behaviour
English phrases
Slogans
School punishments |
4553083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/452nd%20Air%20Mobility%20Wing | 452nd Air Mobility Wing | The 452nd Air Mobility Wing is an Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to the Fourth Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command, stationed at March Air Reserve Base, California. If mobilized, the Wing is gained by the Air Mobility Command.
During World War II, its predecessor unit, the 452nd Bombardment Group (Heavy) was an Eighth Air Force B-17 Flying Fortress unit in England, stationed at RAF Deopham Green. 1st Lieutenant Donald J. Gott and 2nd Lieutenant William E. Metzger, Jr were both awarded the Medal of Honor for their heroic actions.
Overview
The 452nd Air Mobility Wing's mission is to organize, train and equip aircrews to provide air refueling and strategic airlift any time, any place. The wing's aircraft operate under widely varying situations ranging from small movements in battle to large movements over long distances.
Units
The 452d Air Mobility Wing consists of the following major units:
452d Operations Group
336th Air Refueling Squadron (KC-135R)
729th Airlift Squadron (C-17)
452d Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron
452d Maintenance Group
452d Mission Support Group
452d Medical Group
History
Initial activation and mobilization
The wing was first activated as a reserve organization at Long Beach Army Air Field California in June 1949 as the 452nd Bombardment Wing, when Continental Air Command (ConAC) converted its reserve flying organizations under the wing base organization, which combined them with their support organizations under a single wing. It trained under the supervision of the 2347th Air Force Reserve Training Center. President Truman's reduced 1949 defense budget also required reductions in the number of units in the Air Force, and the wing drew its cadre from the 304th Air Division, which was simultaneously inactivated, and the 459th Bombardment Group, which moved on paper to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. The wing trained for light bomber with the Douglas B-26 Invader, but also operated trainer aircraft. The wing was manned at 25% of normal strength but its combat group was authorized four squadrons rather than the three of active duty units.
The wing, along with all reserve combat and corollary units, was mobilized for the Korean war. It was called up in August 1950, and was one of the first two reserve wings to be mobilized The wing was brought up to strength by absorbing more than half the personnel of the 448th Bombardment Wing, also located at Long Beach. Upon mobilization, the wing moved to George Air Force Base, California, and began accelerated aircrew training.
Korean War
On 15 October 1950, the first of five echelons of the 452nd left George for Itazuke Air Base, Kyushu, Japan. Its 731st Bombardment Squadron, trained in night operations, was detached to the 3rd Bombardment Wing at Iwakuni Air Base, Honshu, Japan. The first B-26 of the 452nd arrived at Itazuke on 25 October, and two days later the wing flew its initial B-26 interdiction mission to Korea, exactly seventy-seven days after recall. On the last day of the month, the aircrews of the 452nd learned they were in a real shooting war, as three Yakovlev fighters jumped one of their B-26s and a Mosquito controller near Yangsi. The B-26 crew shot down one of the Soviet-designed fighters, and North American F-51 Mustangs arrived to destroy the other two.
Upon arrival in the theater, the 452nd Bombardment Wing was the only B-26 unit conducting daylight operations. Until June 1951, it gave close support to ground units in Korea and engaged in interdiction of communist-held airfields, supply lines, and bridges, reaching peak operations in February 1951.
The wing moved to Miho Air Base on Honshu, Japan, on 10 December, and within a few days it suffered its first combat losses. Four B-26s and all their crews were lost, only one to hostile fire. One aircraft hit a cable on a power line during a low-level attack, a second flew into a mountain on takeoff in a snow squall, and a third dove out of the overcast into water. The fourth was knocked down by ground fire near Sunchon, North Korea.The 3 men in that crew parachuted free, but shortly after were captured and executed by unknown North Korean guerrillas.
On 25 April 1951, the enemy began a spring offensive, and Fifth Air Force required an extensive effort of the 452nd. For the next eight days the wing dispatched thirty to thirty-six sorties a day, getting maximum use from the approximately eighteen aircraft available each day. This required a refuel and rearm turnaround mission for each aircraft each day. The effort placed a heavy flying burden on all combat personnel as each crew was required to fly nine of ten days. As their effort began to exhaust the combat crews, pilots and observers serving in wing staff and support positions were pressed into service. This surge in operations also produced a sharp increase in maintenance activity as the aircraft sustained extensive battle damage. Three B-26s were lost behind enemy lines, and four others, only one of which was salvaged, sustained major battle damage.
The B-26s were effective in low-level attacks with machine guns, rockets, and bombs, but their crews found it difficult to maneuver at low altitudes in the small valleys of Korea, walled by hills rising from 500 to 5,000 feet. The moment of level flying needed to launch bombs and fire rockets made the light bombers vulnerable to ground fire, and combat losses soon forced them to bomb from medium altitudes. For its combat actions between 9 July 1951 – 27 November 1951 and 28 November 1951 – 30 April 1952 the wing received a second Distinguished Unit Citation. The only combat wing to be cited twice during the Korean War.Korean President Syngman Rhee personally presented the Wing with the Korean Presidential Unit Citation In addition it received credit for participating in eight campaigns.
731st Bombardment Squadron
The 452nd's separated 731st Squadron completed its move from George to Iwakuni on 20 November 1950. Four crews which had left George as an advance echelon on 15 September participated in combat during October, and the unit put up its first complete squadron mission on 14 November 1950.
From the beginning of operations in Korea, the Air Force had been unable to attack moving targets at night. On 6 September 1950, General Vandenberg suggested that General Stratemeyer convert the 3rd Group completely to night attack and assign the 731st Squadron, especially trained for low-level operations, to the understrength 3rd Group. General Stratemeyer quickly implemented this solution to his night-attack problem.
During its seven-month Korean tour, the 731st flew more than 9,000 hours of combat on 2,000 combat sorties. Its missions included high-, medium-, and low-level visual and radar bombing, front-line close support, flare drops, and armed reconnaissance-all under conditions of darkness. When the 3rd Bombardment Wing was brought up to full strength by the acquisition of the 90th Bombardment Squadron as a third active force unit, the 731st was inactivated at Iwakuni on 25 June 1951.
On 10 May 1952, having served its prescribed twenty-one months, the 452nd Bombardment Wing was relieved from active military service, and was inactivated at Pusan East (K-9) Air Base and its personnel and equipment transferred to the 17th Bombardment Wing. The reservists had accumulated nearly 14,000 combat sorties during its active service.
Reconnaissance and Bombardment in the reserves
The wing was redesignated the 452nd Tactical Reconnaissance Wing and activated in June 1952 at Long Beach, where it absorbed the resources of the 921st Reserve Training Wing, which was inactivated. The reserve mobilization for the Korean War, however, had left the reserve without aircraft, and the unit did not receive aircraft until July 1952. Despite its tactical reconnaissance name, it was first equipped with Curtiss C-46 Commando transports. The following year, it began to equip with a mix of aircraft, including The B-26 and North American F-51 Mustang. In 1954 it received its first jets, Lockheed F-80 Shooting Stars.
In 1955, the wing once again became the 452nd Bombardment Wing and trained with the Invader as a tactical bombardment wing. However, at this time, the Joint Chiefs of Staff were pressuring the Air Force to provide more wartime airlift. At the same time, about 150 Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars became available from the active force. Consequently, in November 1956 the Air Force directed ConAC to convert units to the troop carrier mission by September 1957. In July 1957, the wing became the 452nd Troop Carrier Wing.
Airlift operations
The wing began troop carrier operations with Curtiss Commandos and Douglas C-47 Skytrains, finally receiving Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars in 1958. Shortly after the change in mission, the wing was impacted by the Detached Squadron Concept.
Since 1955, the Air Force began had been detaching Air Force Reserve squadrons from their parent wing locations to separate sites. The concept offered several advantages: communities were more likely to accept the smaller squadrons than the large wings and the location of separate squadrons in smaller population centers would facilitate recruiting and manning. In time, the detached squadron program proved successful in attracting additional participants. The 728th, 729th, and 730th Squadrons had all been stationed with the wing at Long Beach. However, in November 1957, the 733rd Troop Carrier Squadron was activated at Hill Air Force Base, Utah to replace the 313th Troop Carrier Squadron and became part of the wing.
The wing began to use inactive duty training periods for Operation Swift Lift, transporting high priority cargo for the air force and Operation Ready Swap, transporting aircraft engines, between Air Materiel Command's depots. The wing continued to train with the 2347th Center until 1958, when the center was inactivated and some of its personnel were absorbed by the wing. In place of active duty support for reserve units, ConAC adopted the Air Reserve Technician Program, in which a cadre of the unit consisted of full-time personnel who were simultaneously civilian employees of the Air Force and held rank as members of the reserves.
In April 1959, the wing converted to the Dual Deputate organization, anc all flying and maintenance squadrons were directly assigned to the wing, when the 452d Troop Carrier Group was inactivated. In October 1960, the wing moved its Long Beach operations to March Air Force Base, California.
Activation of groups under the wing
Although the dispersal of flying units was not a problem when the entire wing was called to active service, mobilizing a single flying squadron and elements to support it proved difficult. This weakness was demonstrated in the partial mobilization of reserve units during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. To resolve this, at the start of 1962, ConAC determined to reorganize its reserve wings by establishing groups with support elements for each of its troop carrier squadrons. This reorganization would facilitate mobilization of elements of wings in various combinations when needed. However, as this plan was entering its implementation phase, another partial mobilization occurred for the Cuban Missile Crisis. The mobilization included the 733rd Squadron at Hill, which was assigned to the 349th Troop Carrier Wing while mobilized, but not the wing and remaining squadrons at Long Beach.
The formation of new troop carrier groups was delayed until January for wings that had not been mobilized. The 942nd, 943rd and 944th Troop Carrier Groups at March, and the 945th Troop Carrier Group at Hill were all assigned to the wing on 17 January.
Trained as a military airlift wing, 1966–1972; as a tactical airlift wing, 1972–1976. From 1957 to 1976 the 452nd participated in troop carrier and airlift joint training exercises with ground forces and performed routing, special transport, and humanitarian missions within the U.S. In the early 1960s began flying missions to Alaska, including airlift support for exercises and humanitarian relief missions for the 1964 Alaska earthquake. Airlifted troops and cargo to the Dominican Republic during the 1965 contingency operation (Power Pack) to restore a stable government there. In 1965 began flying airlift missions worldwide, but especially to the Far East and Southeast Asia. Was the base host organization at Hamilton Air Force Base, 1 October 1973 – December 1975.
Converted to an air refueling mission in 1976, the first reserve wing to directly support Strategic Air Command (SAC) bombers. From 1977 participated in tanker task forces worldwide. On 1 October 1977 the 336th Air Refueling Squadron began standing permanent alert duty with the active duty bombardment wing at March, a duty which continued until cancellation of Strategic Air Command (SAC) alert on 27 September 1991. Won the wing navigation trophy at the SAC Bombing and Navigation Competitions in 1983 and 1985 and the Saunders Trophy in 1985.
Deployed aircraft and volunteer aircrews and other personnel to Saudi Arabia in support of Desert Shield, beginning August 1990. The 336th ARS went on active duty in December 1990 and two squadron aircrews were among the first refuelers to launch on the first day of the Southwest Asia War (Desert Storm) against Iraq. Also, the Security Police Flight went on active duty and deployed to Saudi Arabia, February–June 1991
Post Cold War
On 1 April 1993, the 445th Military Airlift Wing located at Norton Air Force Base, California, became the first associate wing to transition to a "unit-equipped" wing by taking ownership of its own aircraft and resources. In 1993, March was selected for realignment. The 445th MAW was transferred from Norton AFB, to March AFB. As part of the Air Force's realignment, one of March's two reserve units, the 445th Military Airlift Wing, was inactivated and its personnel and equipment transferred to the 452nd, which was redesignated the 452nd Air Mobility Wing on 1 April 1994. On 1 April 1996, March became March Air Reserve Base. In 2005, the wing retired its C-141 fleet.
August 9, 2005 the wing received its first Boeing C-17 Globemaster III strategic airlifter, named "Spirit of California". This was the first of nine C-17s assigned to the 452nd, the wing became the first Air Force Reserve Command C-17 Globemaster III unit.
Lineage
Established as the 452nd Bombardment Wing, Light on 10 May 1949
Activated in the reserve on 27 June 1949
Ordered into active service on 10 August 1950
Inactivated on 10 May 1952
Redesignated: 452nd Tactical Reconnaissance Wing on 6 June 1952
Activated in the reserve on 13 June 1952
Redesignated 452nd Bombardment Wing, Tactical on 22 May 1955
Redesignated 452nd Troop Carrier Wing, Medium on 1 July 1957
Redesignated 452nd Military Airlift Wing on 1 July 1966
Redesignated 452nd Tactical Airlift Wing on 1 April 1972
Redesignated 452nd Air Refueling Wing on 1 October 1976
Redesignated 452nd Air Refueling Wing, Heavy on 8 March 1978
Redesignated 452nd Air Refueling Wing on 1 February 1992
Redesignated 452nd Air Mobility Wing on 1 May 1994
Assignments
Fourth Air Force, 27 June 1949
Tactical Air Command, 10 August 1950
Fifth Air Force, 15 November 1950 – 10 May 1952 (attached to 8th Fighter-Bomber Wing until 30 November 1950, 314th Air Division, 1 December 1950 – 25 May 1951)
Fourth Air Reserve District, 13 June 1952
Fourth Air Force, 1 December 1952
Sixth Air Force Reserve Region, 1 September 1960
Western Air Force Reserve Region, 31 December 1969
Tenth Air Force, 8 October 1976
Fourth Air Force, 1 October 1993 – present
Components
Groups
98th Air Refueling Group: 1 August 1992 – 1 October 1993
452nd Bombardment Group (later 452nd Tactical Reconnaissance Group, 452nd Bombardment Group, 452nd Troop Carrier Group, 452nd Operations Group): 27 June 1949 – 10 May 1952; 13 June 1952 – 14 April 1959; 1 August 1992–
904th Tactical Airlift Group: 31 December 1969 – 1 September 1975
916th Air Refueling Group, 1 October 1986 – 1 July 1987
931st Air Refueling Group, 1 July 1978 – 1 July 1987
939th Tactical Airlift Group (later 939th Military Airlift Group): 26 January 1968 – 15 June 1969 (detached entire period)
940th Air Refueling Group: 26 January 1968 – 1 October 1994
942nd Troop Carrier Group (later 942nd Air Transport Group, 942nd Military Airlift Group): 17 January 1963 – 1 January 1972
943rd Troop Carrier Group (later 943rd Tactical Airlift Group): 17 January 1963 – 25 April 1969
944th Troop Carrier Group (later 944th Tactical Airlift Group, 944th Military Airlift Group): 17 January 1963 – 25 July 1969 (detached after 25 March 1968)
945th Troop Carrier Group (later 945th Military Airlift Group): 17 January 1963 – 1 July 1972 (detached after 15 February 1972)
Squadrons
77th Air Refueling Squadron: 1 October 1985 – 1 October 1986
78th Air Refueling Squadron: 1 November 1981 – 1 October 1987
79th Air Refueling Squadron: 1 September 1982 – 1 August 1992
336th Air Refueling Squadron: 1 September 1975 – 1 August 1992
728th Troop Carrier Squadron: 14 April 1959 – 17 January 1963
729th Troop Carrier Squadron: 14 April 1959 – 17 January 1963
730th Troop Carrier Squadron: 14 April 1959 – 17 January 1963
733rd Troop Carrier Squadron: 14 April 1959 – 28 October 1962, 28 November 1962 – 17 January 1963
Reserve Air Refueling Squadron, Provisional, 9500: attached 1 November 1980 – 1 November 1981
Stations
Long Beach Army Air Field (later Long Beach Municipal Airport), California, 27 June 1949
George Air Force Base, California, 10 August – October 1950
Itazuke Air Base, Japan, 26 October 1950
Miho Air Base, Japan, c. 10 December 1950
Pusan East (K-9) Air Base, South Korea, 23 May 1951 – 10 May 1952
Long Beach Airport, California, 13 June 1952
March Air Force Base, California, 14 October 1960
Hamilton Air Force Base, California, 1 January 1972
March Air Force Base (later March Air Reserve Base), California 12 January 1976 – present
Aircraft
Douglas B-26 Invader, 1949–1952; 1953–1957
Beechcraft T-11 Kansan
Douglas FB-26 Invader, 1953–1954
Douglas TB-26 Invader, 1954–1957
Curtiss C-46 Commando, 1952–1954, 1957–1958
North American F-51 Mustang, 1953–1954
North American TF-51 Mustang, 1953–1954
Beechcraft C-45 Expeditor, 1953–1955, 1957–1958
Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star, 1954–1955
Lockheed TF-80 Shooting Star, 1954–1955
North American B-25 Mitchell, 1954–1955
Douglas C-47 Skytrain, 1957–1958
Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar, 1958–1969
Douglas C-124 Globemaster II, 1965–1972
Lockheed C-130 Hercules, 1972–1976
Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, 1976–present
McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender, 1981–1995
Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, 1994–2005
Boeing C-17 Globemaster III, 2005–present
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Part 1
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
External links
Military in Riverside County, California
Military units and formations in California
Air mobility wings of the United States Air Force |
4553351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WarGames%20match | WarGames match | WarGames is a specialized steel cage match in professional wrestling. The match usually involves two teams of either four, five, or more wrestlers locked inside a steel cage that encompasses two rings placed side by side. The cage may or may not have a roof, depending on which professional wrestling promotion the match is held in.
Created by Dusty Rhodes in 1987, the WarGames match was originally used in Jim Crockett Promotions (JCP) of the National Wrestling Alliance, and later, held annually in World Championship Wrestling (WCW), usually at the Fall Brawl pay-per-view event. These original WarGames matches had a roof on the cage with no pinfalls as a win situation, although later WCW versions allowed pinfalls to win.
Since 2017, WWE, which purchased the assets of WCW in 2001, has held annual WarGames matches at WarGames branded events. WWE's WarGames matches do not have a roof on the cage and also allow pinfalls as a win situation.
In 2021, All Elite Wrestling (AEW) established its own version of the match called Blood and Guts, which is based on the original JCP version with a roof on the cage and no pinfalls. AEW holds the match annually at its Blood & Guts branded event.
Over the years, other promotions have held their own versions of WarGames matches under different names.
History
The WarGames match was created when Dusty Rhodes was inspired by a viewing of Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome. It was originally used as a specialty match for the Four Horsemen. The first WarGames match took place at The Omni in Atlanta, Georgia during the National Wrestling Alliance's (NWA) Jim Crockett Promotions' (JCP) Great American Bash '87 tour, where it was known as War Games: The Match Beyond. It would be held at three house shows later that year, once at the Miami Orange Bowl, once in Chicago at the UIC Pavilion, and the other at the NWA's debut at the Nassau Coliseum on Long Island. In 1988, JCP was sold to Turner Broadcasting and rebranded as World Championship Wrestling (WCW), although with WCW still under the NWA. That year, WarGames would be held during the Great American Bash Tour in 1988 at 11 house shows (one was released on the WWE Horsemen DVD). The final War Games matches under the NWA/WCW banner were at The Great American Bash in 1989 and a house show rematch at The Omni in Atlanta. WCW, no longer under the NWA, then first used the match in 1991 at WrestleWar and at five house shows during the 1991 Great American Bash tour and in 1992 at WrestleWar, before it became a traditional Fall Brawl event from 1993 to 1998.
In 2001, the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, renamed to WWE in 2002) purchased WCW and its assets, including the rights to the WarGames name. WWE, however, would not use the match concept until 2017, when the promotion revived the match to be held for their developmental brand NXT at an event titled NXT TakeOver: WarGames. This would become an annual NXT TakeOver event for WWE until 2021. That year, the TakeOver series was discontinued, but a WarGames event was still held for NXT in December. The following year, WWE rebranded its annual Survivor Series pay-per-view for the main roster brands, Raw and SmackDown, as Survivor Series WarGames, marking WWE's first main roster event to feature the match.
Format
The WarGames match consists of two or three teams, with between three and five participants facing off with each other in staggered entry format.
The setup of the cage consists of two rings side by side with a ring-encompassing rectangular cage that covered both rings, but not the ringside area. Doors are placed at far corners of the cage, near where the opposing teams wait to enter, so the teams do not contact each other before they enter the match.
The match begins with one member of each team entering the cage. After five minutes, a member from one of the teams (usually determined by a coin toss, and almost always the "heel" team in order to provide heat) would enter the cage, giving his team the temporary 2-on-1 handicap advantage. After two minutes, a member from the other team would enter to even the odds for the next 2 minutes. Entrants alternate between teams every two minutes, giving the coin toss-winning team the temporary advantage in terms of numbers, before giving the other team the advantage with the freshest man and even odds.
Teams continue to alternate during the two-minute periods until all participants are in the ring.
Once all participants enter the cage, what is referred to as "The Match Beyond" begins. Both teams wrestle each other in the cage until any participant either submits, surrenders, or is knocked unconscious. There originally were no pinfalls, no count-outs, and no disqualifications. However, later WCW versions began to allow pinfalls.
In WWE and Major League Wrestling's variations, the cage is roofless and pinfalls are allowed. In WWE's variation, however, if one member of a team escapes the cage, their whole team is disqualified. In a 2022 interview with The Ringer, Triple H explained the removal of the cage's roof. Triple H said:
On the October 31, 2019, episode of WWE NXT, the first-ever women's WarGames match was announced for that year's NXT TakeOver: WarGames event. Women Superstars Uncensored and Pro-Wrestling: EVE have previously held variations of the WarGames match, but this would be the first official match to follow the WarGames format.
NWA/WCW/WWE Match history
Participant list
WWE
Males
Females
NWA
WCW
WCW WarGames variations
1998
In 1998, WCW decided to try something different and converted WarGames into a 3-team, 9-man competition (with the same cage and entry format, but they allowed pinfalls) for the #1 Contendership to the WCW World Heavyweight Title.
Team WCW consisted of: Diamond Dallas Page, Roddy Piper, The Warrior
Team Hollywood consisted of: Hollywood Hogan, Stevie Ray, Bret Hart
Team Wolfpac consisted of: Kevin Nash, Sting, Lex Luger
Hogan entered the cage early, by force, so he and Stevie Ray could take out all the other participants, including their teammate Bret Hart. When Hogan went to pin Kevin Nash, smoke engulfed the ring and it appeared that The Warrior had magically entered the cage. Hogan and Stevie Ray beat him down, but more smoke appeared, and when it cleared away The Warrior was gone leaving Hogan holding his coat. The real Warrior then ran out from the back to enter the match. Hogan would eventually force his way out of the cage door, with Warrior following suit by climbing up the cage wall and kicking it in.
Davey Boy Smith suffered a near career ending back injury earlier that night after he fell on the trap door WCW used for this stunt. He became dependent on painkillers during his rehabilitation from this injury which would ultimately contribute to his early death. Perry Saturn was also injured from the trap door, but not as severely.
Page won the match by scoring the Diamond Cutter on Stevie Ray for the pinfall victory. He went on to Halloween Havoc to face Goldberg for the title, only to lose after being hit with a spear and Jackhammer.
2000
After the WarGames match was not held in 1999, Vince Russo brought back WarGames in a new format he called "WarGames 2000", with the tagline "Russo's Revenge". It was held on the September 4, 2000 episode of WCW Nitro. The match consisted of two teams vying for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship in a three-tiered cage first seen in the climax of the WCW produced film Ready to Rumble and later used at Slamboree in May 2000. The rules combined the traditional WarGames entry formats with the rules of the Triple Cage match at Slamboree, which required the competitors to scale the cages in order to retrieve the belt. There were two differences between the matches, however. Instead of the belt hanging above the roof of the third cage, it was instead placed inside said cage. Second, in order to win the match, someone had to escape from the bottom cage with the belt; this meant that a wrestler had to climb up through both cages, open the third cage to get the belt, and then climb back down and leave the cage all while avoiding the other participants who could steal the belt from him and take it for themselves without ever having to leave the bottom cage.
The match pitted Sting, Booker T, Goldberg, and KroniK (Brian Adams and Bryan Clark) against Russo's hand-picked team: WCW World Champion Kevin Nash, Jeff Jarrett, Scott Steiner, and The Harris Brothers (Don and Ron).
The match had been scheduled as a four-on-four match, with Sting, Booker T, Goldberg and Ernest Miller against Nash, Jarrett, Steiner and Russo. Earlier in the night, each man from the first team was forced to wrestle a qualifying match to compete: Sting beat both Vampiro and The Great Muta in a handicap match, Goldberg defeated Shane Douglas, and Booker T had to defeat his brother Stevie Ray. However, Miller lost to KroniK in a handicap match, making it five-on-four. Thus, when it was his turn to enter, Russo sent the Harris Brothers instead, making it 6 on 5.
During the match, Nash teased a betrayal: when he entered the first cage, he chokeslammed Sting then grabbed Steiner, Jarrett and Russo by the throats. However, as Russo was later walking to the door, Nash grabbed and hugged him.
The Harris Brothers and KroniK drove each other out of the arena. Booker T retrieved the belt from the top, but Russo interfered on behalf of his team. Ernest Miller entered the ring but was Jackknife Powerbombed by Nash. Steiner and Jarrett handcuffed Sting and Booker to the walls of the second cage. Goldberg broke free of the handcuffs which held him to the turnbuckle of the ring and attempted to leave the cage with the belt, but was cut off by Bret Hart, who slammed the cage door in his face. Nash then retrieved the title belt and walked out the cage door, retaining the title.
All Elite Wrestling matches
All Elite Wrestling (AEW) announced during Revolution that it would debut their version of WarGames - dubbed "Blood and Guts" - on March 25, 2020 during a special episode of its weekly series Dynamite. Blood and Guts is based largely on the original Crockett-era WarGames rules, with a win condition of submission or surrender (no pinfalls, countouts, or escaping the cage) except with no win condition when a wrestler is knocked unconscious. The inaugural match was announced to be The Elite (Adam Page, Cody Rhodes, Kenny Omega, and Matt and Nick Jackson) vs. The Inner Circle (Chris Jericho, Jake Hager, Sammy Guevara, Santana and Ortiz). Nick Jackson was attacked by The Inner Circle, leaving him out indefinitely. The Inner Circle (Jake Hager, Santana and Ortiz) defeated The Elite (Adam Page, Cody, Matt Jackson) on the March 18 episode of Dynamite, giving them the entry advantage. After the match with The Elite seemingly expected to be outnumbered 5-on-4 going into the event, Matt Jackson revealed the debuting Matt Hardy as their fifth member. However to the COVID-19 pandemic, the event was cancelled.
The concept was reintroduced in April 2021, when Jericho announced that The Inner Circle would participate in the inaugural Blood and Guts match against The Pinnacle (MJF, Wardlow, Shawn Spears, FTR) on the May 5, 2021 episode of Dynamite. Blood and Guts would then become an annual tradition in AEW, with events taking place in 2022, and 2023 on special "Blood & Guts" episodes of Dynamite.
Blood and Guts matches
Other promotions
Combat Zone Wrestling
Combat Zone Wrestling has used WarGames stipulations the some of their Cage of Death events, the most recent being in Cage Of Death XV (2013). For Cage of Death 5, in that there were two rings; one of them was surrounded by the cage, and the other was filled with "one million" thumbtacks (the actual amount has never been verified). Above the two rings was scaffolding walkway on which the wrestlers could walk on at any time. The match started with two members of each team, and every 90 seconds a wrestler, from either team, entered the match according to the number they drew before the match started. These eliminations which will occurred in that would happen when a wrestler would hit the arena floor; however, Cage of Death 5 also had rules that the wrestlers who were not tossed out of or off the cage, that they could travel a scaffold hanging above another ring filled with thumbtacks to safety, scoring points for the team. For Cage of Death 6 there were eliminations that would happen when a wrestler would hit the arena floor much like Cage of Death 5 the year before, the difference being that the tag team titles were hanging on a scaffold stretched across the length of the top of the cage overlooking the two rings, plus all weapons littered around double caged ring.
Cage of Death 7 just had standard pinfall and submissions after all combatants entered the cage. For 2008's Cage of Death, the large eight-sided cage that surrounds the entire ringside area with a barbwire spidernet setup on one side and glass setup on another side with tables underneath and two scaffold platforms across the ring from each other. All different Hardcore and deathmatch wrestling weapons such as thumbtack turnbuckles, barbed wire bats, staple guns, light tubes, barbed wire, baseball bats, thumbtacks, panes of glass, and all others littered around it for wrestlers to use. The WarGames rules returned with pinfalls and submissions that could be done throughout the match after all combatants of either team entered the cage.
Extreme Championship Wrestling
Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) held a version of WarGames known as an "Ultimate Jeopardy steel cage match"; the match is conducted in a similar manner to WarGames, with victory by submission, pinfall, knockout, or surrender, but with weapons provided, and stipulation penalties for the losing team.
The first Ultimate Jeopardy match was held at Ultimate Jeopardy 1994, between Shane Douglas, Mr. Hughes and The Public Enemy, and a team of Terry Funk, Road Warrior Hawk, Kevin Sullivan and The Tazmaniac for the ECW World Heavyweight Championship.
IWA Mid-South
Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South presented "No Blood, No Guts, No Glory 2005" at the National Guard Armory in Valparaiso, Indiana on Saturday night, July 2, 2005. The match pitted "Team Ian" Ian Rotten, Axl Rotten, Chris Hero, Corporal Robinson and Bull Pain against "Team Fannin" B. J. Whitmer, Eddie Kingston, Mark Wolf, J. C. Bailey, and Steve Stone and "Team NWA" Eric Priest, Chandler McClure, Tank and Sal and Vito Thomaselli in a double-ring, double-cage, three-team War Games match, with the winning team taking full control of the IWA-MS. The match was won when JC Bailey caused his own team to be outnumbered, allowing Ian Rotten's Team IWA to capitalize and win the match.
Major League Wrestling
Two WarGames matches would be promoted by Major League Wrestling (MLW).
On September 19, 2003, the WarGames TV Taping was held at the Fort Lauderdale, FL War Memorial Auditorium. The Funkin' Army (Terry Funk, The Sandman, Steve Williams, Sabu, and Bill Alfonso) defeated The Extreme Horsemen (Steve Corino, Simon Diamond, C. W. Anderson, PJ Walker, and Barry Windham) when Funk made Corino submit following a fireball to Corino's face.
In 2018, MLW would return to Fort Lauderdale for a second WarGames event, which was a TV taping for MLW Fusion on BeIN Sports.
Pro Wrestling Unplugged
Pro Wrestling Unplugged (PWU) had held a match called "Cuffed and Caged" match on January 20, 2007. It is somewhat similar to a Lethal Lockdown match in TNA, but with a few small differences.
Two teams of five wrestlers take part in this match. Starts with one member of each team, with one new member added to the match at certain time intervals until all ten are in.
The main differences between this match and a Lethal Lockdown and WarGames match, is that in this match wrestlers are eliminated by pin or submit in the cage or getting handcuffed to the outside of the cage. The winner is the one man or team left standing after all members of opposing team are eliminated.
Pro-Wrestling:EVE
Pro-Wrestling: EVE presented the second ever all female War Games match. It had a steel cage surrounding only the one ring, but all other rules were the same as the original concept. It was the opening contest as part of the first WrestleQueendom event in the iconic York Hall, in Bethnal Green, London on Saturday 5 May 2018. The teams of "Squad Goals" consisting of Rhia O’Reily, Laura Di Matteo, Addy Starr and Emi Sakura and "The Deserving" made up of Jamie Hayter, Charli Evans, Jayla Dark and Blue Nikita competed in the bout. Highlights include a brawl outside the cage before the match started, O'Reilly entering the cage last and diving onto all the competitors and Squad Goals locking in a submission on each member of The Deserving to win the match.
Ring of Honor
In December 2005, Ring of Honor held the first Steel Cage Warfare match. It was used to settle the year-long feud between Generation Next and their former leader Alex Shelley, who was now with The Embassy. The match consisted of only one ring but followed the War Games match in that two wrestlers from each team started the match, and after five minutes another wrestler would enter, then every two minutes after another wrestler would enter. The main difference, however, is that the match was an elimination match contested by teams of three, four, or more. Wrestlers can be eliminated at any point by either pin fall or submission.
In July 2006, Ring of Honor held another War Games style match to settle their feud with Combat Zone Wrestling. ROH challenged them to a Steel Cage Warfare match, but CZW said they would only compete if it were their Cage of Death match. This match that could be contested under WarGames rules so the match can only end when all members of both teams have entered the cage. The cage itself is a yellow-steel wired and eight-sided, and surrounds the entire ringside area. All sorts of weapons surround between the ring and the cage walls. The match starts 2 men for 5 minutes, then having a coin flip to see what team would have the advantage with a new man entering every two minutes.
In September 2008, Ring of Honor held a three 'team' Steel Cage Warfare match. This pitted the team of The Briscoe Brothers and Austin Aries, against the team of The Age of the Fall represented by Delirious, Jimmy Jacobs and Tyler Black, against Necro Butcher who fought alone with no partners. The match was held under the same rules, stating Butcher although alone could be drawn and enter the match at any time regardless of a man advantage held by the other teams.
In June 2013, another Steel Cage Warfare match was held, pitting an ROH team of B. J. Whitmer, Michael Elgin, Jay Lethal and Kevin Steen against the S.C.U.M. team of Jimmy Jacobs, Rhino, Cliff Compton and Rhett Titus, where if the ROH team wins, S.C.U.M. must disband, but if the S.C.U.M. team wins, Steve Corino replaces Nigel McGuinness as match maker. Team ROH won the match on a taped episode of Ring of Honor Wrestling television.
Tennessee
Smoky Mountain Wrestling (Knoxville)
The Knoxville, Tennessee-based Smoky Mountain Wrestling (SMW) had their own variation of the WarGames match, called Rage in a Cage. In Rage in a Cage, the ring was surrounded by a cage made of the wooden frameworks and regular fence wires. The match began with one member of each team entering the cage. After five minutes, a member from one of the teams (usually determined by a coin toss) would enter the cage, giving his team the temporary handicap advantage. After two minutes, a member from the other team would enter to even the odds. Once all eight or ten men (depending on team size) had entered the cage, the match begins. The object of the match was to eliminate one-by-one by submitting or handcuffing all members of the opposing team to and in the cage. The first Rage in a Cage match was held at the Civic Coliseum in Knoxville on May 9, 1993, with The Rock n' Roll Express (Ricky Morton and Robert Gibson), The Stud Stable (Robert Fuller and Jimmy Golden), and Brian Lee defeating The Heavenly Bodies (Tom Prichard and Stan Lane), Killer Kyle, Kevin Sullivan, and The Tazmaniac.
United States Wrestling Association (Memphis)
In the summer of 1995, a inter-promotional feud between Smoky Mountain Wrestling and the Memphis, Tennessee-based United States Wrestling Association saw the match move across the state. On August 7, 1995, the Rage in a Cage match was held at the Mid-South Coliseum in Memphis, which saw Team USWA (Bill Dundee, Billy Jack Haynes, Tommy Rich, Doug Gilbert, Brian Lee, Steven Dunn, & PG-13 (J. C. Ice and Wolfie D)) defeat Team SMW (Tracy Smothers, Robert Gibson, Brad Armstrong, Buddy Landell, The Heavenly Bodies (Tom Prichard and Jimmy Del Ray), Terry Gordy, Pat Tanaka & D-Lo Brown).
Impact Wrestling
Impact Wrestling, then known as NWA: Total Nonstop Action, had their own variation of the WarGames match known as the "Wednesday Bloody Wednesday" Steel Cage match. The single ring was surrounded by a large single steel cage with poles attached to the ring posts measured about five to six feet above the turnbuckles, with single chains wrapped from and hanging on the poles to various points on the ring itself with many weapons hanging from and attached to steel chains above itself but followed the rules of War Games match in that two wrestlers from both teams started the match, and after ninety seconds another wrestler would enter. The only way to win is by pinfall or submission. The first and only "Wednesday Bloody Wednesday" Steel Cage match was contested on September 3, 2003 between a team of AJ Styles, Shane Douglas, Christopher Daniels, Simon Diamond and Johnny Swinger and a team of Jeff Jarrett, Raven, D'Lo Brown, Chris Harris and James Storm.
Later, Impact would introduce the Lethal Lockdown match for their annual Lockdown pay-per-view. The only differences are that one ring enclosed by a steel cage with two teams facing off with each other. The staggered entry system is identical, but weapons are permitted and are even provided. The match begins with two wrestlers who must fight for 5 minutes; after that, a member from one of the teams (usually determined by a coin toss) would enter the cage, giving his team the temporary handicap advantage. After two minutes, a member from the other team would enter to even the odds. Entrants alternated between teams every two minutes, giving the coin toss-winning team the temporary advantage in the numbers game before giving the other team the advantage with the freshest man and even odds. When all competitors have entered the ring, a roof is lowered onto the top of the cage, with various weapons hanging from it. Victory can be attained by pinfall or submission.
Another variant in Impact Wrestling is the Hardcore War match, which is in a single ring and is not a cage match but otherwise resembles WarGames. Two teams face off and there are staggered entries for each, and the match being unable to finish until all competitors have entered. The match ends via pinfall or submission in the ring.
United Wrestling Federation
On September 21, 2007 United Wrestling Federation held a WarGame match in Richmond Va. Team Sgt. Slaughter (Rick and Scott Steiner; Dustin Rhodes and Kirby and TJ Mack) def. Team JBL (Homicide and Hernandez; Steve Corino; CW Anderson and Elix Skipper) in a double ring double cage WarGames match, dubbed as and entitled "Uncivil War", when Scott Steiner submitted Corino with the Steiner Recliner as Slaughter simultaneously submitted JBL with the cobra clutch.
Women Superstars Uncensored
Women Superstars Uncensored presented the first ever War Games match with female wrestlers on November 19, 2011 as part of their Breaking Barriers II iPPV. The match featured two trios - Team WSU of Mercedes Martinez, Alicia and Brittney Savage, and the Midwest Militia of Jessicka Havok, Allysin Kay and Sassy Stephie. The match was contested in a steel cage surrounding only one ring, but all other rules were the same as the original concept. The Midwest Militia won the match when Havok threatened to murder an injured Martinez with a machete, and Savage surrendered on Martinez's behalf.
World Wrestling Entertainment
In June 2013, WWE released a DVD anthology set, War Games: WCW's Most Notorious Matches.
During the November 2017 tapings for WWE NXT, it was announced that at NXT TakeOver: Houston, the main event would be a WarGames match. The event was subsequently renamed to NXT TakeOver: WarGames. This would be the first official WarGames match in nearly 20 years. The match was quite different from standard WarGames- including the cage having no roof (although escaping the cage forfeited the match for that person's team), pinfalls being allowed, and all remaining members of a team entering at the same time. The match involved three teams, with The Undisputed Era defeating Sanity and Roderick Strong/The Authors of Pain.
NXT TakeOver events preceding WWE's Survivor Series pay-per-view have since continued to be headlined by WarGames, with NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2019) featuring two WarGames matches, one of which was WWE's first-ever women's WarGames match.
In 2022, WWE moved the WarGames from NXT onto their main roster with both Men's & Women's matches taking place at Survivor Series (2022). The Women's match featured Team Belair (Bianca Belair, Alexa Bliss, Asuka, Mia Yim, and Becky Lynch) defeating Team Bayley (Damage CTRL (Bayley, Dakota Kai, and Iyo Sky), Nikki Cross, and Rhea Ripley). The main event consisted of The Bloodline (Roman Reigns, Sami Zayn, Solo Sikoa, and The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso)) (with Paul Heyman) defeating The Brawling Brutes (Sheamus, Ridge Holland, and Butch), Drew McIntyre, and Kevin Owens.
Xtreme Pro Wrestling
Rob Black's Xtreme Pro Wrestling promotion also capitalized on the popularity of the WarGames match by holding one of their own, called "Genocide", with the same rules. However, in the XPW version of the WarGames match, an 18-feet-high steel cage that encompassed two rings with weapons are in two rings but the three-sided cage top that covers over, around and on the top of only one of the two rings, which surrounded by large steel cage, permitting wrestlers to (hypothetically) brawl each other at a top the cage and do table spots off the top of the cage, plus all weapons permitted and provided; the cage, however, was extremely poorly constructed, and started to fall apart during the match, preventing most of the promised action.
Notes
References
Professional wrestling match types
World Championship Wrestling
WWE NXT
WWE match types |
4553729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Brighton%20and%20Hove | List of people from Brighton and Hove | This is a list of notable people born or inhabitants of the city of Brighton and Hove in England. This includes the once separate towns of Brighton and Hove.
Note that in the case of persons still living, they may not currently live within the area of the city, but have done so at some time.
For clarification: note the distinction between Kemptown and Kemp Town.
B
Jack Ball (1923–1999), footballer
David Bangs, naturalist, social historian, public artist and author
Saffron Barker, YouTuber who lives and grew up with her family in Brighton
Darren Baxter, footballer
Raymond Briggs, artist, writer and illustrator of many children's books including The Snowman, taught at Brighton Art College
The indie rock band British Sea Power (Yan, Noble, Hamilton and Woody)
Ray Brooks, actor
George Brown, cricketer, born in Brighton in 1821
Janet Brown, actress and impersonator of Margaret Thatcher, lived in Hove
Steve Brown, football player (Charlton, Reading) and manager (Ebbsfleet), born in Brighton in 1972
Adrian Brunel, film director in the silent movie era
Isambard Kingdom Brunel, engineer, attended Dr Morell's school on Hove seafront, close to Hove Street, for several years from 1820
Dora Bryan, comic actress (whose Clarges hotel on Marine Parade was used in the Carry On films)
Margot Bryant, actress who played Minnie Caldwell in Coronation Street, lived at Fourth Avenue in Hove for many years
Janey Buchan, Scottish Labour MEP, died in Brighton in 2012
Arabella Buckley, writer and populariser of science, was born in Brighton in 1840
Nick Burbridge, author of poetry, plays, novel; songwriter-founder of folk rock McDermott's Two Hours
Richard Burchett, artist
Julie Burchill, journalist; founder of Modern Review
Rob Burley, television producer
Sir Edward Burne-Jones, Pre-Raphaelite artist; resident 1880–98
Sir John Cordy Burrows, surgeon and local politician; mayor of Brighton in 1857
Keith Burstein, composer, born (1957) and brought up in Hove
Steve Burtenshaw, football player (played for Brighton & Hove Albion), football manager and scout, born in Portslade in 1935
Sean Bury, actor, was born in Brighton in 1954
Charles Busby, Regency architect, prolific in Brighton; lived in Lansdowne Place; house is adorned by a blue commemorative plaque
Cecil Butcher, cricketer for Sussex, born in Brighton in 1872, died in Portslade in 1929
Dame Clara Butt, recitalist and concert singer, lived in St Aubyns Mansions between 1903 and 1906
Douglas Byng, comic singer and songwriter; lived in Arundel Terrace, Kemp Town; died in 1987
C
Duncan Campbell, investigative journalist and computer forensics expert
Victor Campbell, Antarctic explorer, born in Brighton in 1875
Aimée Campton (1882-1930) English-French actress
Marie-Antoine Carême, chef to the Prince Regent, inventor of chef's toque (hat)
Charles Carpenter, cricketer for Sussex
Edward Carpenter, poet and philosopher
Denis Carter, Baron Carter, agriculturalist and Labour politician, spent some of his early life in Hove
Sam Carter, singer in British metalcore band Architects
Dirick Carver, Protestant martyr, 1554
Juan Francisco Casas, Spanish artist, has lived in Brighton
Michael Cashman, MEP and former EastEnders actor
Gwen Catley, soprano, died in Hove in 1996
Lennox Cato, expert on the Antiques Roadshow
Nick Cave, Australian musician, writer, and film maker
Gianni Celati, Italian writer, lives in Brighton
Celeste, American-born singer, grew up in Saltdean
Paul Cemmick, cartoonist, lives in Hove
Douglas Chamberlain, cardiologist, lives in Hove and worked at the Royal Sussex County Hospital for more than 20 years
Ian Chapman, footballer
Peter Chrisp, children's writer
Isaac Christie-Davies, footballer
Sir Winston Churchill, journalist and politician; attended a school run by the "Misses Thompson" in Hove
Louis Clark, footballer
Adrian Clarke, underground poet of the British Poetry Revival, lives in Brighton
Dave Clarke, techno DJ
Somers Clarke, architect and Egyptologist, born in Brighton in 1841
Jack Clayton, film director, was born in Brighton in 1921
Brendan Cleary, poet, has lived in Brighton
John Clements, actor
Carol Cleveland, Monty Python actress
Bryan Clough, author of State Secrets: The Kent-Wolkoff Affair
Charles Clover-Brown, cricketer, died in Hove in 1982
Brian Cobby, former voice of the British Telecom speaking clock
C. B. Cochran, impresario, showman, born in Prestonville Road in the Prestonville area of Brighton in 1872
Alex Cochrane, footballer
Michael Cochrane, actor, born in Brighton in 1947
Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, hero of the Battle of Navarino; lived in 140 Western Road (1828–52); a blue commemorative plaque adorns the house
Robert Coffin, Catholic Bishop of Southwark, born in Brighton in 1819
Ben Cohen, author, publisher and distributor of bridge books and stationery supplies
Sophie Coleman, triathlete, born in Brighton in 1990
Jean Colin, 1930s film actress, was born in Brighton in 1905
David Collings, actor (Crime and Punishment, Doctor Who), born in Brighton in 1940
Geoffrey Collins, cricketer for Sussex, born in Brighton in 1918
Maria Colwell, born in Hove in 1965, killed in Brighton by her stepfather at age 7; a notorious case of child abuse resulting in a public enquiry
John Comber, cricketer for Sussex, born in Brighton in 1861
Ivy Compton-Burnett, novelist, grew up in Hove
Dainton Connell, a leading Arsenal hooligan, was born in Brighton in 1961
Clare Connor, played for Brighton College men's cricket team and England women's cricket team, was born in Brighton in 1976
John Constable, Romantic painter, intermittently lived in Brighton, calling it "Piccadilly by the Seaside"; resided at 11 Sillwood Road
Edward Tyas Cook, journalist, editor, man of letters, born in Brighton in 1857
Gaz Coombes, lead singer of band Supergrass, once lived in Brighton
George Coppard, corporal in the British Army, wrote With A Machine Gun to Cambrai (a popular memoir of World War I), born in Brighton in 1898
Beth Cordingly, actress (played PC Kerry Young in The Bill), was born in Brighton in 1977
David Cordingly, authority on pirates (of the pre-modern era), father of Beth Cordingly, lives in Brighton
Tich Cornford, cricketer for Sussex, died in Brighton
Tom Cotcher, Scottish actor, lives in Brighton
George Cotterill, footballer, born in Brighton in 1868
Joseph Cotterill, cricketer for Sussex (1870–1888), played once for England, born in Brighton in 1851
David Courtney, born David Cohen in Whitehawk, composer and record producer; discovered and co-wrote with Leo Sayer; also nephew of Henry Cohen who conceived and built Brighton Marina
Robin Cousins, figure skater, won gold at 1980 Olympics, lives in Brighton
Graham Coutts, murderer of Jane Longhurst in 2003, lived in Brighton
Sam Crane, actor, born in Brighton
Addison Cresswell, comedy agent, went to St Luke's Primary School and Brighton Polytechnic
Luke Cresswell, of musical performers Stomp
Henry Radcliffe Crocker, dermatologist, born in Hove in 1846
Lance Cronin, footballer
James Crump, founder of St. Aubyn's School (named after the Hove street in which he lived)
Thomas Cubitt, master builder, employed in the development of Kemp Town; lived in 13 Lewes Crescent
Graham Cutts, a leading British film director in the 1920s, was born in Brighton in 1885
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James Daly, footballer
Tim Daniels, cricketer for Oxford UCCE, born in Brighton in 1980
Alfred Darling, pioneer film equipment manufacturer
Ralph Darling, Governor of New South Wales 1825–1831, who prevented theatre in Sydney, died in Brighton in 1858
John Davey, cricketer for the MCC and Sussex, born in Brighton in 1847, died in Brighton in 1874
Glen Davies, footballer, born in Brighton in 1976
Nicholas Davies, journalist associated with Robert Maxwell, lived in Brighton in 1993
Philip Davies, cricketer for Sussex, born in Brighton in 1893, attended Brighton College
Jill Day, singer and actress in the 1950s to early 1960s, was born in Brighton in 1930
Joe Day, footballer
Lewis Dayton, actor of the 1920s, was born in Brighton in 1889
Alex 'Ali Dino' Dean, bassist in UK metalcore band Architects
Roger Dean, artist, famous for prog-rock album covers
Frederick Delve, firefighter and chief of the London Fire Brigade, 1948–1962, was born in Brighton in 1902
John Leopold Denman, architect, designed many buildings in and around Brighton, was born in Brighton in 1882
Charlie Dennis, footballer
Alfie Deyes, YouTuber lives in Brighton
Amita Dhiri, actress, born in Brighton
Clarissa Dickson Wright, celebrity chef and television personality, attended Sacred Heart School (then in Hove)
Maude Dickinson, inventor
Jeremy Dier, tennis player
Coningsby Disraeli, Member of Parliament for Altrincham, nephew of Benjamin Disraeli, died in Hove in 1936
John Charles Dollman, painter and illustrator, born in Hove in 1851
Alan Donohoe, singer with the band The Rakes, lives in Brighton
Lord Alfred Douglas, poet and writer; friend and lover of Oscar Wilde
Angus Douglas-Hamilton, Victoria Cross recipient
David Downton, fashion illustrator, has lived in Brighton
Alfred Drayton, stage and film actor, born in Brighton
Tim Dry, actor and artist, lived in Brighton in the 1970s
Graham Duff television writer and actor famous for BBC Three TV series ideal
Alice Dudeney, writer, born in Brighton in 1866
Polly Dunbar, illustrator and writer, went to Brighton University, now lives in Brighton
Lewis Dunk, footballer for Brighton & Hove Albion, born in Brighton in 1991
Richard Durrant, guitarist, born in Hollingbury, Brighton in 1962
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Brian Eastman, film and television producer
Frederick Charles Eden, church architect and designer, born in Brighton in 1864
Connie Ediss, buxom comedian in Edwardian music hall, also acted in a few 1930s films, born and died in Brighton
Christiana Edmunds, "The Chocolate Cream Poisoner", while living in Brighton, poisoned several people (killing a four-year-old boy) with adulterated chocolate creams in the 1870s
Les Edwards, illustrator, lives in Brighton
Nick Van Eede, lead singer, Cutting Crew
Adam El-Abd, Egyptian-English footballer for Brighton & Hove Albion, was born in Brighton in 1984
Joe El-Abd, rugby union player, born in Brighton in 1980
Jago Eliot, Lord Eliot, involved in a variety of arts projects, briefly lived in Brighton
Charlotte Elliott, poet and hymn writer, lived in Brighton in the latter part of her life
G. H. Elliott, music hall singer and comedian, buried in Rottingdean church yard
Henry Venn Elliott, English divine, minister of St Mary the Virgin, Brighton, died at Brunswick Square 1865
Sean Ellis, film director, was born in Brighton c.1970
Steve Ellis, singer with the band Love Affair, lives in Brighton
Gary Elphick, footballer
Tommy Elphick, footballer
Harriet Elphinstone-Dick, early swimming champion, originally from Brighton, taught swimming at Brill's Baths in Pool Valley
Maurice Elvey, one of Britain's most prolific film directors of the silent era, died in a nursing home in Brighton in 1967
Bella Emberg, actress; co-star of The Russ Abbot Show
Revd. Richard Enraght, religious controversialist, curate of St. Paul's Church, Brighton 1867–71, and priest in Charge of St. Andrew's Church, Portslade 1871–74
Chris Eubank, ex-boxer, holds the purchased title of "Lord of the Manor of Brighton"
Chris Eubank, Jr., boxer, son of Chris Eubank, lives in Brighton
Maurice Evans, leading Shakespearan actor in the United States, regularly in Bewitched and Batman, and Dr Zaius in Planet of the Apes
Simon Evans, comedian, lives in Hove
Paul Evans, poet of the British Poetry Revival of the 1960s and '70s, studied at Sussex, and later returned to Hove
George Everest, surveyor after whom the mountain was named, buried in Hove
Marjorie Eyre, D'Oyly Carte soprano, died in Brighton in 1987
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Michael Fabricant MP, born in Brighton in 1950; educated at the Brighton, Hove and Sussex Grammar School
Rotimi Fani-Kayode, photographer who explored sexuality, race and culture, lived in Brighton in his youth
Simon Fanshawe, broadcaster, writer, and comedian, lives in Kemptown
Joseph Jefferson Farjeon (1883–1955), crime novelist and playwright, died in Hove
Tommy Farr, boxer, "The Tonypandy Terror", ran a pub in Brighton after retirement
Fatboy Slim, real name Norman Cook, musician formerly of band The Housemartins
Steve Ferrone, drummer with Average White Band and for various high-profile performers, born in Brighton in 1950
Frank Finlay, actor, owned a house in Wyndham Street for 30 years until 2009
Fink (Fin Greenall) (born 1972), singer, songwriter, guitarist, producer, DJ, is based in Brighton
Maria Fitzherbert, illegitimate wife of George IV (under the Royal Marriages Act 1772 marriage of a member of the Royal Family without permission of the monarch was illegal)
Robert Thomas Flower, 8th Viscount Ashbrook, Irish aristocrat, Lieutenant-Colonel in the British Army, and inventor; lived at 22 Adelaide Crescent, Hove, in the 1860s
Russell Floyd, actor, lives in Brighton
Wes Fogden, footballer for Brighton & Hove Albion and various other clubs in the south of England, born in Brighton in 1988
Chris Foreman, nicknamed Chrissy Boy, guitarist, Madness.
Gustavus Fowke, cricketer for Leicestershire, born in Brighton in 1880
Derek Francis, comedy and character actor, was born in Brighton in 1923
Tommy Fraser, footballer
Darren Freeman, footballer
William Friese-Greene, cinematographic pioneer, subject of the film The Magic Box
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Leon Garfield, novelist, born in Brighton in 1921
Sam Gargan, footballer
Constance Garnett, early translator of Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov, was born in Brighton and attended Brighton and Hove High School
David Garnett, novelist, Bloomsbury Group member, lover of Duncan Grant, was born in Brighton
John Garrick, film actor, was born in Brighton in 1902
Joe Gatting, cricketer and footballer
Leslie Gay (1871–1949), cricketer and footballer
George, Prince of Wales, Prince Regent, and later King George IV of the United Kingdom
Grant Gee, filmmaker and music video director
Genesis P-Orridge, real name Neil Megson, performance artist
Mikey Georgeson, artist, moved to Brighton in 1989
Dave Gibbons, comic book illustrator, famed for co-creating Watchmen
Annabel Giles, TV presenter, lives in Brighton
Eric Gill, typographer, engraver, sculptor, born in Brighton in 1882
Nick Gillard, stunt coordinator, Star Wars, Indiana Jones, Alien; was born and still lives in Brighton's North Laine
Charlie Gilmour, footballer
David Gilmour, guitarist and vocalist of Pink Floyd, owns house on Kings Esplanade, Hove
Harvey Goldsmith, rock promoter
Nat Gonella, singer and trumpeter, lived in Saltdean
William Gold, a.k.a Wilbur Soot, popular YouTuber and singer-songwriter, grew up in Brighton and currently resides there.
JoAnne Good, radio presenter and actress, lives in Brighton
Arthur Murray Goodhart, composer and organist, lived in Brighton
Leon Gordon, Hollywood screenwriter, born in Brighton in 1894
Theodore Gordon, Scottish inspector of army hospitals, died in Brighton in 1845
Colin Grant, author, lives in Brighton
Stephen Grant, comedian and writer, lives in Brighton and frequently performs in the town's Komedia venue
Emily Gravett, children's author and illustrator, lives in Brighton
Simon Greatwich, footballer
Graham Greene, writer (worked in but did not live in Brighton)
Dave Greenfield, keyboard player with The Stranglers, born in Brighton in 1949
Roy Greenslade, professor of journalism at City University London, media commentator and journalist for The Guardian and the London Evening Standard, has lived in Brighton since the 1970s
Lucy Griffiths, actress (attended Varndean College)
Ioan Grillo, journalist and author of the book El Narco: Inside Mexico's Criminal Insurgency
Nicholas Grimshaw, architect, designed Waterloo International railway station and the Eden Project, was born in Hove
Martha Gunn, famous dipper and friend of the Prince Regent
Sally Gunnell, athlete, Olympic 400m hurdles champion in 1992
Gerry Gurr, footballer
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Almer Hall, football player and manager, was born in Hove
Brian Hall, actor (played Terry the chef in Fawlty Towers), born in Brighton in 1937
Grant Hall, footballer
Bertrand Hallward, university administrator and centenarian
Eamon Hamilton, of the band Brakes and formerly of British Sea Power
Kay Hammond, stage and film actress, wife of John Clements, died in Brighton in 1980
Robert Hammond, (1850-1915) pioneered electricity supply for shop lighting in Brighton in 1882
Gilbert Harding TV personality in the 1950s; lived in Clifton Terrace, Brighton
Cyriak Harris, British freelance animator, lived in Brighton for 10 years
Harry Harrison, science fiction writer, had a flat in Brighton for his visits to England
Phil Hartnoll, of band Orbital
Lee Harwood, poet, moved to Brighton in 1967
Tony Hawks, comedian, author and philanthropist
John Albert Hay, former British politician
Peter Thomas Hay, author
Michael Heath, cartoonist
Den Hegarty, of bands Darts and Rocky Sharpe and the Razors/Replays
Toby Hemingway, actor best known for playing Reid Garwin in The Covenant
Max Hemmings, footballer
Sue Hendra, author and illustrator
James Herbert, horror author of The Rats and The Fog
Phoebe Hessel, disguised herself as a man to join the British Army, moved to Brighton; died in 1821 aged 108; buried in the graveyard of St Nicholas Church, Brighton
Dave Hill, Marxist educator, grew up in Brighton and was a local Labour councillor
Rowland Hill, postal reformer
Steve Hillier of band Dubstar (Hove)
Daisy and Violet Hilton, conjoined twins born in Brighton in 1908; toured the US sideshow and Vaudeville circuit
Annie Holland, guitarist with Britpop band Elastica, lives in Brighton
Georg Hólm, bassist of Sigur Rós
Nicholas van Hoogstraten, multimillionaire and property tycoon
Rufus Hound, comedian and presenter
Richard Hough, writer on maritime history, was born in Brighton
Martin How, composer and organist with the Royal School of Church Music, briefly lived in Brighton as a child
Derek Hudson, conductor and composer in Rhodesia and Zimbabwe, born in Hove
Dionne Hughes, comedian and television presenter, briefly lived in Brighton
Herbert Hughes, Irish composer, collector of folk songs, died in Brighton in 1937
Jason Hughes, Welsh actor, lives in Brighton
Barbara Hulanicki, fashion designer and founder of Biba, moved to Brighton aged 12, studied at Brighton Art College
Jessica Hynes (née Stephenson), actress and writer, grew up in Brighton
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Paul Ifill, footballer
Boyd Irwin, actor, appeared in 135 films between 1915 and 1948, was born in Brighton in 1880
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Jacksepticeye, real name Seán William McLoughlin, Irish game commentator, currently lives in Brighton
Mick Jackson, writer, best known for novel The Underground Man, lives in Brighton
Edward James, poet and art collector, who lent many famous Surrealist works to Brighton Museum in the 1950s and 1960s
Peter James, writer of detective stories featuring Roy Grace, was born in Brighton
Samantha Janus, actress in EastEnders
Konrad Jarnot, opera singer
Michael Jayston, actor, lives in Hove
Richard Jefferies, nature writer (1848–1887), lived at 87 Lorna Road, Hove, from 1882 to 1884 and wrote his spiritual autobiography The Story of My Heart (1883) there.
Teddy Jenks, footballer
Gwyneth Jones, novelist
Jenny Jones, prominent member of the Green Party, grew up in Brighton
Maggie Jones, Baroness Jones of Whitchurch, Labour politician, lives in Brighton
Peter Jones, actor and Just A Minute panellist; had a house in Hove in the 1970s
William Jones (1876–1959), footballer
Brandon Joseph-Buadi, footballer
Petra Joy, German feminist and advocate/producer of erotic films for women, lives in Brighton
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Charles Albert Keeley, pioneering colour theorist and entertainer
Natasha Kaplinsky, journalist and newsreader
Tim Keegan, English musician, lives in Brighton
Nigel Kennedy, violinist, born at the Royal Sussex County Hospital and lived at Regency Square, Brighton and Lyndhurst Road, Hove during his childhood
Bobak Kianoush, member of boy band Another Level, born in Hove and attended Blatchington Mill School
Michael Kilgarriff, tall actor, born in Brighton in 1937
Alex King, rugby player
Matt King, actor and comedian; Super Hans in Peep Show
Philip King, playwright; wrote the farce See How They Run
William King, philanthropist; supporter of Cooperative Movement
Rudyard Kipling, author; lived in Rottingdean between 1897 and 1903
William Forsell Kirby, entomologist and folklorist, lived in Brighton
Prince Peter Alexeevich Kropotkin, Russian anarchist; resident 1912–17
Felix Kjellberg, Also known as PewDiePie, Popular Swedish YouTuber, lives in Brighton
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Thomas Lainson, architect
Michael Langdon, opera singer, died in Hove in 1997
George Larner, race-walker; double gold medallist at 1908 Olympics
Walter Ledermann, mathematician, lived in Rottingdean and Hove
Vivien Leigh, actress, Scarlet O'Hara in Gone with the Wind
Alfred Lennon, father of John Lennon, was living in Brighton at the time of his death in 1976
PJ Liguori, internet personality and filmmaker under the name KickThePJ, who currently resides in Brighton
Fred Lillywhite, cricketer; organised first England overseas tour
David Lindsay, Scottish novelist (wrote A Voyage to Arcturus), ran a boarding house in Brighton, died in Hove in 1945
Ken Livingstone, politician; formerly Mayor of London; had a house in the Seven Dials area
Hugh Lloyd, actor and comedian, lived in Rottingdean
Emma Lomax, composer, pianist, toy theatre enthusiast was born, lived and worked in Brighton
Jane Longhurst, killed by Graham Coutts; the Jane Longhurst Trust was set up to campaign for the criminalisation of what the Government labelled "extreme pornography", a move opposed by Backlash and the Consenting Adult Action Network
Jay Lovett, football player and manager
E G Handel Lucas (1861–1936), artist, lived in Brighton from 1909 to 1914
Greg Luer, footballer
Ida Lupino, actress and film-maker, daughter of Stanley Lupino, attended schools at Norman Road, Aldrington and Ventnor Villas, Hove and the Sunday school of All Saints Church, Hove
Desmond Lynam, broadcaster
Zoe Lyons, comedian, lives in Brighton
Lovejoy, indie rock band, formed in Brighton
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Matt Machan, Sussex cricketer
Percival Mackey, pianist, composer and music director in the early 20th century, lived in Brighton
Mathilde Madden, erotica author, lives in Brighton
Sake Dean Mahomet, introduced the Turkish bath to Britain
Stephen Mallinder, musician, lives in Brighton
Gideon Mantell, doctor, palaeontologist, discoverer of dinosaurs (Iguanodon), lived and worked in Brighton in the 1830s
Lesley Manville (born 1956), English actress
Edward Marshall-Hall, criminal barrister famous for Edwardian theatrics in court
Russell Martin, football player and manager
Niall Mason, footballer
Ivan Massow, entrepreneur
Susan Maughan, singer of hit record "Bobby's Girl", lived in Rottingdean
Peter Mayle, author of A Year in Provence
Conor Maynard, singer, was born in Brighton
Margaret Mayo, children's author, lives in Brighton
Pete McCarthy, actor and writer, lived in Brighton for a while, and List of Brighton & Hove bus names a local bus was named after him
Natascha McElhone, actress in Surviving Picasso, The Truman Show, Solaris, Californication; spent childhood in Brighton (attended St Mary's Hall)
Joe McGann, actor; star of The Upper Hand
Seán McLoughlin aka Jacksepticeye, popular Irish YouTuber, lives in Brighton
Kevin McNally, actor, lives in Brighton
Harriet Mellon (1777–1837), actress, wife of banker Thomas Coutts, had a house by Regency Square, Brighton
Alan Melville (1910–1983), revue author, playwright, lyricist, radio and TV personality; moved to Brighton in 1951 and lived in Clifton Terrace and Victoria Street
Sara Mendes da Costa, the British Telecom speaking clock
Kevin Meredith, a.k.a. Lomokev, photographer, lives and works in Brighton
Prince Klemens von Metternich (15 May 1773 – 11 June 1859), Austrian Foreign Minister, Diplomat and creator of the Congress of Vienna
Max Miller, comedian, the "Cheeky Chappie", born in Brighton in 1894, lived there most of his life; blue plaque at 160 Marine Parade and statue in New Road
Heather Mills, ex-wife of ex-Beatle Sir Paul McCartney, owns the vegan restaurant VBites in Hove
Fred Monk (1920–1987), football player and coach
Bruce Montague, actor (played Leonard in Butterflies), lives in Brighton
Juan, Count of Montizón, the Carlist claimant to the throne of Spain and Legitimist claimant to the throne of France — lived in Hove c.1870s – 1887, where he died; funeral mass held in the Church of the Sacred Heart, Hove
William Moon, teacher and inventor of an alphabet for the blind
Gary Moore, musician, guitarist with Thin Lizzy amongst others as well as solo, lived in Hove
Ryan Moore, three-time champion jockey
Caitlin Moran, journalist, was born in Brighton
James Morrison, recording artist, lives in Hove
Garnt Maneetapho aka Gigguk, popular Thai-British YouTuber, born in Brighton in 1990
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Dame Anna Neagle, actress; lived at Lewes Crescent, Kemp Town
Jo Neary, comedian, based in Brighton
Vivien Neves, British model
John Henry Newman, priest, writer, Catholic convert, Cardinal, now beatified, had a family home in Marine Square, Kemp Town, when he was a young man
Annie Nightingale, BBC TV and Radio presenter and sometime Brighton night-club owner
Michael Nightingale, film and television actor, born in Brighton in 1922
Ray Noble, band leader, composer, born 17 December 1903 in 1 Montpelier Terrace
Jeff Noon, speculative fiction writer
Henry Normal, comedian, writer and TV producer, lives in Brighton
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Bridget O'Connor, author and playwright, lived in Hove
Peter O'Donnell, creator of Modesty Blaise
Natasha O'Keeffe, actress, was born in Brighton
Laurence Olivier (Lord Olivier) and Joan Plowright, lived at Royal Crescent 1960–78
John Osborne, playwright, lived in 7a Arundel Terrace, Kemp Town in the 1950s
Kitty O'Shea, wife of Charles Stewart Parnell
Denise Van Outen, television presenter, currently renovating a house
Steve Ovett, Olympic runner, 800 metres gold medalist in 1980, born and brought up in Brighton; there was a statue of him in Preston Park, Brighton, which was stolen, and a replacement statue is in Madeira Drive; was made Freeman of the city in July 2012
Bill Owen, actor, lived in Sussex Square in the 1950s
Tom Owen (born 1949), actor, son of Bill Owen, was born in Brighton
Adrian Oxaal, guitarist, formerly with James
Ocean Wisdom, rapper, grew up in Brighton
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Will Packham, footballer
George Painter, biographer, died at Hove on 8 Dec 2005
Chris Paling, novelist
Patsy Palmer, EastEnders actress
Steve Palmer, footballer
Juliet Pannett (1911–2005), born in Hove, portrait artist
Charles Stewart Parnell, Irish politician, died in Brighton
Passenger, real name Mike Rosenberg, singer, is originally from Brighton
Heather Peace, actress and musician, lives in Brighton
David Pearce, philosopher
John Pedder (1784–1859), first Chief Justice of Van Diemen's Land, died in Brighton
Donald Peers, Welsh crooner, lived in St. John's Road, Hove; memorial tablet at Downs Crematorium
John Pelling, artist, born (1930) and raised in Hove
Laurie Penny, columnist and blogger, grew up in Brighton, attended Brighton College
Fred Perry, tennis player, lived in Rottingdean
Roland Pertwee, playwright, screenwriter and actor; was born and grew up in Denmark Villas, Hove
Felix Arvid Ulf Kjellberg, better known by online pseudonym PewDiePie, Swedish internet personality, who currently resides in Brighton
Otto Pfenninger (1855–1929), moved to Brighton where he pioneered colour photography
Sir Richard Phillips (1767–1840), author, died in Brighton
Samuel Phillips (1814–1854), journalist, died in Brighton
Karen Pickering, swimmer, former 200 metres freestyle champion
David Pilbeam, anthropologist
Alan Pipes, author and illustrator
Adam Pitts, drummer of the band Lawson
Andrew Plimer (1763–1837), portrait miniaturist, died in Brighton
Joan Plowright, see Lord Olivier, above
Tony Pollard (born 1965), battlefield archaeologist, lived in Brighton 1995–1997
Peter Polycarpou, actor, was born in Brighton
Tim Pope, film director and video maker
John Cyril Porte (1884–1919), flying boat pioneer, died in Brighton
Samuel Preston, lead singer of the band The Ordinary Boys, formally married to Celebrity Big Brother winner, Chantelle Houghton
Katie Price, model (also known as Jordan)
Partho Sen-Gupta, film director and scriptwriter (resident since October 2006)
Luke Pritchard, lead singer and rhythm guitarist for The Kooks
Jay Purvis (born 1976), Canadian model and television presenter, lived in Brighton in his youth
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Roger Quilter, composer, born at 4 Brunswick Square, Brunswick Town in 1877
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Thomas Raikes (1777–1848), dandy, friend of Beau Brummell, the Duke of Wellington and Talleyrand, died in Brighton soon after buying a house there
Peggy Ramsay (1908–1991), theatrical agent, lived in Kensington Place, Brighton; blue plaque at the property
Robert Rankin, author
Terence Rattigan, playwright, author of The Browning Version and The Winslow Boy lived at Bedford House, 79 Marine Parade; blue plaque at the property
Tom Raworth, poet, lived in Brighton; now lives in Hove
Rita Ray, former singer with the Darts, latterly radio presenter and DJ
Glen Rea, footballer
Amanda Redman, actress, born in Brighton in 1957
Matt Redman, Christian musician, lives in Brighton
Siân Rees, English historian of the 17th and 18th centuries, lives in Brighton
Terence Reese, from London, a national and international award-winning player of and highly regarded writer on contract bridge; a writer on other games; died at the age of 83 of aspirin poisoning on January 29, 1996, at his residence at 23 Adelaide Crescent; an inquest ruled his death accidental
Philip Reeve, novelist; grew up in Brighton
Louise Rennison, writer (author of Angus, Thongs and Full-Frontal Snogging) and comedian, went to Brighton University, and lived in Brighton
Sam Rents, footballer
Dakota Blue Richards, actress, lives in Brighton, attended Brighton College
Laurence Rickard, actor, writer, notable for his role in the Horrible Histories television series, was born and still lives in Brighton
Mike Ring, footballer, born in Brighton in 1961
Rizzle Kicks, hip-hop duo
Haydon Roberts, footballer
Paul Roberts, frontman and singer with pop band the Stranglers; session singer and actor
Simon Roberts, photographer, lives in Brighton
Frederick William Robertson, Anglican divine
George Robey (1869–1954), music hall comedian, lived in Arundel Drive, Saltdean until his death
Jake Robinson, footballer
Dame Flora Robson, actress, 1960 until her death in 1984, famous as Elizabeth I
Dame Anita Roddick, founder of The Body Shop, opened first shop in Kensington Gardens, Brighton in 1976; a blue commemorative plaque marks the building
John Roman Baker, poet, playwright and novelist, spent his childhood and much of his adult life in Brighton
Martin Rossiter, singer with the band Gene, lives in Brighton
Arnold Ruge, German philosopher and political writer, lived in exile in Brighton from 1850 until his death in 1880
Dr. Richard Russell (1687–1759), encouraged the submersion in and drinking of seawater; buried in the churchyard of St Nicholas Church, Brighton
Gilbert Ryle, philosopher
John Alfred Ryle, professor of medicine at Cambridge and Oxford; physician to George V; brother of Gilbert Ryle
Martin Ryle, winner of 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics
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Charles Sabini, criminal, said to have lived in the Grand Hotel, Brighton, ran protection rackets against bookmakers; inspiration for character Colleoni in Graham Greene's Brighton Rock
Victoria Sackville-West, had two houses in Sussex Square, Kemp Town conjoined by Sir Edwin Lutyens, who also built her another at nearby Roedean
Sir Albert Abdullah David Sassoon, British Indian philanthropist and merchant, 1st Baronet Sassoon
Sir Edward Albert Sassoon, businessman and politician, MP for Hythe, whose mausoleum became the Hanbury Arms; 2nd Baronet Sassoon, of Kensington Gore
Tom Sayers, boxer
Leo Sayer, singer born in Shoreham-by-Sea lived in Brighton, discovered in Brighton by David Courtney
Paul Scofield, actor, lived in Brighton as a child and went to school there
Tom Searle, guitarist of UK Metalcore band Architects
Dan Searle, drummer of UK Metalcore band Architects
Captain Sensible, punk musician with The Damned
Jake Shillingford, musician and front-man of My Life Story
Roy Skelton, actor and voice of the Daleks
Sylvia Sleigh, artist
Alistair Slowe, footballer
George Albert Smith, pioneering early cinematographer, lived and built a studio in Hove
John Smith, Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order
Kevin Smith, cricketer
Jack Smith, painter
Jimmy Somerville, musician formerly of band The Communards
Wilbur Soot, YouTuber and musician, lives in Brighton
Ewen Spencer, photographer
Herbert Spencer, philosopher and political theorist
Mimi Spencer, journalist, lives in Brighton
Andi Spicer, composer, lives in Brighton
Victor Spinetti, actor, film, stage TV, lived in Kemp Town
Dusty Springfield, singer, had a home in Wilbury Road, Hove
Arthur Stanley-Clarke, first-class cricketer and British Army officer
Jesse Starkey, footballer
Paul Stenning, author, was born and lived in Brighton as a child
Jordan Stephens, singer in the duo Rizzle Kicks
Fin Stevens, footballer
Victor Stiebel, fashion designer, lived in Chichester Terrace
Jack Strachey, composer and songwriter, lived in Brighton towards the end of his life
Brian Street, anthropologist; lived in Brighton, died in Hove
Andy Sturgeon, garden designer (winner at 2010 Chelsea Flower Show), has lived in Brighton
Zoe Sugg, YouTuber lives in Brighton
Joakim Sundström, Swedish sound editor, sound designer and musician
Keston Sutherland, poet, lives in Brighton
Suvadhana, Thai princess, lived in Brighton in the middle of the 20th century
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Chris T-T, singer-songwriter, lives in Brighton
Tagore family, of Kolkata, owned a house here in the 19th century
Sir Peter Tapsell, Conservative Party politician, was born in Brighton
Keith Taylor, Member of the European Parliament for the Green Party, lives or lived in Brighton
Maui Taylor, Filipino actress, big in the Philippines, born in Brighton
Noah Taylor, Australian actor and musician, lives in Brighton
Chris Terrill, adventurer, anthropologist and filmmaker
Angela Thirkell, buried in St Margaret's Church, Rottingdean
David Thomas, lead singer of Pere Ubu, Rocket from the Tombs, and David Thomas & Two Pale Boys
Francis Tillstone, Brighton's Town Clerk from 1881 to 1904
Peter Tobin (born 1946), serial killer, lived in Brighton in the 1970s and 1980s
Denise Tolkowsky, composer
Tony Towner, footballer
Arthur Treacher, actor
Tommy Trinder comedian, owned and lived in 71 Marine Parade
Jack Tripp, English pantomime dame, died 2005
Lynne Truss, writer; author of Eats, Shoots & Leaves
Roger Tucker (born 1945), television and film director
Ed Turns, footballer
Keith Tyson, artist and Turner Prize winner in 2002, studied Critical Fine Art Practice at Brighton University's Grand Parade campus
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David Van Day, singer
Ralph Vaughan Williams, composer, went to school in Rottingdean
Wanda Ventham, actress, was born in Brighton
Adam Virgo, footballer
Magnus Volk, electrical engineer and inventor
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Johnny Wakelin, musician, born in Brighton in 1939
Peter Wales, Sussex cricketer, born in Hove in 1928
Seann Walsh, comedian, brought up in Brighton
Keith Waterhouse, journalist, novelist and playwright, lived in Embassy Court, Brighton
David Watkin, Oscar and BAFTA winning cinematographer, lived in Sussex Mews, Kemp Town until his death in 2008
Alan Weeks, BBC sports commentator, notably for ice hockey and other winter sports, grew up in Brighton and died in Hove
Scott Welch, boxer, moved to Brighton at age 16
Paul Weller, footballer
Louise Wener, lead singer of 1990s Britpop band Sleeper and author
Ben Wheatley, film director, lives in Brighton and made the film Down Terrace
David Wheeler, footballer
Gary Whelan, Irish actor, lives in Brighton and owns the Lion & Lobster pub there
Thomas and Alex White, musicians and members of Electric Soft Parade and Brakes
Wildman Whitehouse, surgeon and destroyer of the first transatlantic telegraph cable
Rachel Whiteread, artist and Turner Prize winner in 1993
Octavia Wilberforce, doctor, suffragist, founder of New Sussex Hospital for Women, and lifelong partner of Elizabeth Robins, had a home and medical practice in Montpelier Crescent
Herbert Wilcox, film producer and director lived in Lewes Crescent, Kemp Town
Amon Wilds and his son Amon Henry Wilds, both Regency architects, prolific in Brighton
Stan Willemse (1924–2011), footballer
Billy Williams, Australian music hall performer, died in Hove in 1915
Mark Williams, member of The Fast Show team and actor in the Harry Potter films
James Williamson, cinema pioneer, had a chemist's shop in Church Road, Hove before building a studio in Cambridge Grove
Holly Willoughby, television presenter, born in Brighton
Joe Lee Wilson, jazz singer
John Wisden, cricketer, founded Wisden Cricketers' Almanack
Robert Wisden, actor, was born in Brighton
W.I.Z., music video director
Eliza Wyatt, American playwright and author
Y
Bernard Youens, actor who played Stan Ogden in Coronation Street, was born in Hove
Robert Young, guitarist and co-founder of Primal Scream, lived in Hove
Robyn Young, author
Z
Helen Zahavi, writer
Paul Zenon, magician
See also
List of people from Sussex
References
Bibliography
Brighton and Hove
Brighton and Hove-related lists |
4553860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques%20Olier | Jean-Jacques Olier | Jean-Jacques Olier, S.S. (20 September 1608 – 2 April 1657) was a French Catholic priest and the founder of the Sulpicians. He also helped to establish the Société Notre-Dame de Montréal, which organized the settlement of a new town called Ville-Marie (now Montreal) in the colony of New France.
Early life
Olier was born in Paris, but the family moved to Lyon, where his father had become a judge. There he was given a thorough education in the classics at the local Jesuit college (1617–25). He was encouraged to become a priest by Francis de Sales, who predicted his sanctity and great services to the Catholic Church.
In preparation for this career, Olier first studied philosophy at the College of Harcourt in Paris, then scholastic theology and patristics at the College of Sorbonne. He preached during this period, by virtue of a benefice which his father had obtained for him. The young student became a man of great ambition; he also frequented fashionable society, which caused anxiety to those interested in his spiritual welfare. He lived in the grand manner of the day, having two carriages and many servants. His success in defending theses in Latin and Greek led him to go to Rome for the purpose of learning Hebrew so as to gain greater notice by being able to defend his theses in that language at the Sorbonne.
When his eyesight began to fail, Olier made a pilgrimage to the Shrine of the Holy House in Loreto, Italy, where his official biographies attest not only to a cure, but also a complete religious conversion. For a time he considered entering the Carthusians, and visited the charterhouses in southern Italy. Upon the news of his father's death in 1631, however, he returned to Paris. Once back in the capital, he refused a chaplaincy at the royal court, with its prospect of high honours. Instead he gathered the poor and the outcast on the streets for instruction in the Catholic faith, a practice which was at first derided but soon widely imitated. Under the guidance of Vincent de Paul, Olier assisted de Paul's missionaries, both in Paris and the rural countryside, while he prepared for Holy Orders, being ordained 21 May 1633.
Revival of religion
A disciple of Father Vincent de Paul and of Father Charles de Condren, Jean-Jacques Olier (1608-1657) took part in "missions" organized by them in France. The work Condren had most at heart was the foundation of seminaries after the Counter-Reformation model mandated by the Council of Trent. The Catholic Church felt that its success in its own renewal lay in the thorough and systematic formation of the clergy through their education in these schools. The attempts in France to carry out the designs of the Council having failed, Condren, unable to succeed through the Oratory, gathered a few young ecclesiastics around him for that purpose, Olier among them. The missions in which he employed them were meant to impress on their minds the religious needs of the country.
Parish of Saint-Sulpice
A first attempt to found a seminary at Chartres failed. On 29 December 1641, Olier and two others, the Abbés de Foix and du Ferrier, formed a small community at Vaugirard, then a suburban village near Paris. Others soon joined them, and before long there were eight seminarians, who followed with the priests the same rule of life and were instructed in theology, with Olier teaching Scripture. The pastor of Vaugirard took advantage of the presence of the priests in his parish to take an extended vacation, during which time they reformed his parish.
Impressed by the reports of this reform, the curé of the Church of St. Sulpice in Paris, who had become discouraged by the deplorable state of his parish, offered it in exchange for some of Olier's benefices. In August 1641, Olier took charge of the Parish of St. Sulpice. His aims were to reform the parish, establish a seminary, and Christianize the Sorbonne, then very secular in its instruction. This was to be achieved through the example set by the seminarians who attended its courses. The parish covered all of the Faubourg Saint-Germain-des-Prés, with a population as numerous and varied as a large city. It was commonly described as the largest and most fashionable parish in the city. There Olier trained his priests in community life. The parish name came to be identified with the society he founded.
Of special attention were the poor, the uninstructed, and those in irregular marital unions. Thirteen catechetical centres were established, for the instruction not only of children but of many adults who were almost equally ignorant of the Catholic faith. Special instructions were provided for every class of persons, for the beggars, the poor, domestic servants, midwives, workingmen, the aged, etc. Instructions and debates on Catholic doctrine were organized for the benefit of Calvinists, hundreds of whom were converted. A vigorous campaign was waged against immoral and heretical literature and obscene pictures. Pamphlets, holy pictures and prayer books were distributed to those who could or would not come to church, and a bookstore was opened at the parish church to supply good literature.
It would appear that Vincent de Paul so esteemed Olier that in February 1644 he risked the ire of Cardinal Mazarin by obtaining a benefice for Olier that Mazarin was seeking for the son of the Duke de la Rouchefoucault.
Society of Saint-Sulpice
In 1645, Olier founded the Society of St. Sulpice, which established seminaries throughout France that became known for their moral and academic teaching. During the period of the Fronde (1648-1653), the civil war which reduced Paris to widespread misery and famine, Olier supported hundreds of families and provided many with clothing and shelter. None were refused. The poor were cared for according to methods of relief inspired by the practical genius of Vincent de Paul. His rules of relief, adapted in other parishes, became the accepted methods and are still followed at St. Sulpice.
At times, as many as 60 to 80 priests were ministering together in the parish, of whom the most illustrious, a little after Olier's time, was the Abbé Fénelon, later Archbishop of Cambrai. This was one of the best effects of Olier's work, for it sent trained, enlightened, zealous priests into all parts of France, and later beyond.
Orphans, very numerous during the war, were placed in good parishes, and a house of refuge established for orphan girls. A home was open to shelter and reform the many women rescued from prostitution, and another for young girls exposed to that danger. Many free schools for poor girls were founded by Olier, and he laboured also at the reform of the teachers in boys' schools, not, however, with great success.
Olier perceived that the reform of boys' schools could be accomplished only through a religious community; which in fact came about after his death through the work of Jean-Baptiste de la Salle, a former pupil of St. Sulpice. Free legal aid was provided for the poor. He also gathered under one roof the nuns from many different communities and Orders who had been driven out of their monasteries in the countryside and had fled to Paris for refuge. He cared for them till the close of the war. In the end, there was no misery among the people, spiritual or corporal, for which the pastor did not seek a remedy.
Olier led the movement against duelling, formed a society for its suppression, and enlisted the active aid of military men of renown, including the marshals of France and some famous duellists. He converted many of noble and royal blood, both men and women. He worked to overcome the common idea that Christian perfection was only for priests and religious orders, and inspired many to the practices of a devout life, including daily meditation, spiritual reading and other exercises of piety, and to a more exact fulfillment of their duties, whether at the court, in business or at home.
Seminary of St. Sulpice
The second great work of Olier was the establishment of the seminary of St. Sulpice. By his parish, which he intended to serve as a model to the parochial clergy, as well as by his seminary, he hoped to help give France a worthy secular priesthood, through which alone, he felt, the revival of religion could come. The seminary was at first installed in the rectory of the parish, but very soon (1 October 1642) moved to a little house in the vicinity, de Foix being placed in charge by Olier. The beginnings were in great poverty, which lasted many years, for Olier would never allow any revenues from the parish to be expended except on parish needs. From the start he designed to make it a national seminary and regarded as providential the fact that the Parish of St. Sulpice, and thus the seminary, depended directly on the Holy See.
Within two years, students had come to the seminary from about twenty dioceses of France. Some attended the courses at the Sorbonne, others followed those given in the seminary itself. His seminarians were initiated into parochial work, being employed very fruitfully in teaching the catechism. At the Sorbonne their piety, it appears, had a very marked influence. After Father Olier described his model of a seminary to the Assembly of Clergy of France in 1651, bishops throughout the country asked the Sulpicians to oversee the operation of their seminaries.
At this time, Mere Marie Alvequin, superior of the Dames Augustines de St. Magloire, petitioned Olier directly and through others to undertake the responsibility of spiritual director of the monastery, but Olier preferred to focus his attentions on the parish and seminary of St. Sulpice.
New establishments
The rules of Olier's seminary, approved by the General Assembly of the Clergy in 1651, were adopted in many new establishments. Within a few years, Olier, at the urgent request of the bishops, sent priests to found seminaries in several dioceses throughout the country. The first was at Nantes in 1648. It was not Olier's intention to establish a congregation to conduct seminaries, but merely to lend priests for the foundation of a seminary to any bishop and to recall them after their work was well established. The repeated requests of bishops, considered by him as indications of God's will, caused him to modify his plan, and to accept a few seminaries permanently.
The society which formed around Olier at St. Sulpice was not formed into a religious institute, but instead continued as a community of secular priests, following a common life but bound by no special religious vows. The aim of the society was to live perfectly the life of a secular priest. Olier wished it to remain a small company, decreeing that it should never consist of more than seventy-two members, besides the superior and his twelve assistants. This regulation remained in force until circumstances induced a successor, the Abbé Emery, to abolish the limitation.
Political influence
Olier's influence was powerful with the Queen Regent, Anne of Austria, to whom he spoke with great plainness, yet with great respect, denouncing her prime minister, Cardinal Mazarin, as responsible for simoniacal and unworthy nominations to the episcopate. He persuaded the rich— royalty, nobles, and others— to a great generosity, without which his large works of charity would have been impossible. The foundation of the present Church of St. Sulpice was laid by him.
Founder of Ville-Marie in New France
Olier was always the missionary, with a global outlook. His zeal led to his helping in the foundation of the Society of Our Lady of Montreal. The society organized the establishment of the colony of Fort Ville-Marie in New France, the nucleus of the modern city of Montreal. The Sulpicians undertook their first overseas mission at the colony in 1657, and eventually were given the control of the seigneury of much of the colony.
Later life
Olier suffered a stroke in February 1652. He resigned his pastorate into the hands of Abbé de Bretonvilliers and, when he regained sufficient strength, on the orders of his physicians he visited various spas of Europe in search of health, as well as making many pilgrimages. On his return to Paris, his old energy and enthusiasm reasserted themselves, especially in his warfare against Jansenism. A second stroke at Saint-Péray, in September 1653, left him completely paralysed.
Olier was an influential author. Besides letters, which reveal his strength as spiritual director, he wrote four books intended for his parishioners: La journee chretienne (1655), a Catechisme chretien (1656), L'Introduction a la vie et aux vertus chretiennes (1657), and L'Explication des ceremonies de la grande messe de paroisse (1657). These books, written in the years immediately before his death, are all the more remarkable as Olier was partially paralyzed at that time.
Olier's last years were full of intense suffering, both bodily and mental, which he bore with the utmost sweetness and resignation. His visions and his mysticism caused the Jansenists to ridicule him as a visionary; but they, as well as others, acknowledged his sanctity. His numerous ascetical writings show him a profound master of spiritual doctrine. His friend Vincent de Paul was with him at his death.
Olier was buried in the Church of St. Sulpice. When the interior of the church was destroyed during the French Revolution, his remains were lost. Only his heart, removed per the customs of the day, is preserved in the Sulpician seminary in Issy-les-Moulineaux. He is the author of mystical writings.
Attempt at canonization
Diocesan attempts to canonize Olier were introduced in Paris and Montreal between 1865 and 1867, but the Vatican did not proceed with the cause. Vincent de Paul regarded Olier as a saint. Writing to Mademoiselle d' Aubrai on 26 July 1660, just two months before his own death, Vincent de Paul stated that he had "asked God for great graces through the intercession of M. Olier." Church historian, Frederick William Faber, in his "Growth in Holiness" (Baltimore ed., p. 376) says of him: "Of all the uncanonized servants of God whose lives I have read, he most resembles a canonized Saint."
Legacy
"When we look to the legacy of Jean-Jacques Olier," Donald Cardinal Wuerl, Archbishop of Washington and Chancellor of The Catholic University of America, has said, "we can find three enduring elements: the priests of the Society of St. Sulpice, the structure of seminary formation and the outline of the spirituality for the diocesan priest."
Bibliography
Works
Lettres de M. Olier, 2 vol., ed. E. Levesque, de Gigord, Paris, 1935
Le catéchisme chrétien et La journée chrétienne, ed. F. Amiot, Le Rameau, Paris, 1954
Introduction à la vie et aux vertus chrétiennes, ed. F. Amiot, Le Rameau, Paris, 1954
Le traité des Saints Ordres, comparé aux écrits authentiques de Jean-Jacques Olier († 1657), ed. G. Chaillot, P; Cochois, I. Noye, Procure de la Compagnie de Saint-Sulpice, Paris, 1984
L’Esprit des cérémonies de la messe, ed. C. Barthe, Le Forum, Perpignan, 2004
L'Ame cristal. Des Attributs divins en nous, ed. Mariel Mazzocco, Paris, Editions du Seuil, 2008
De La Création du monde à La Vie divine, ed. M. Mazzocco, Paris, Editions du Seuil, 2009
Des anges. Fragrances divines et odeurs suaves, ed. M. Mazzocco, Paris, Editions du Seuil,2011
Tentations diaboliques et Possession divine, ed. M. Mazzocco, Paris, Champion, 2012.
Monographs and articles
Michel Dupuy, Se laisser à l'Esprit. Itinéraire spirituel de Jean-Jacques Olier, Paris, Cerf, 1982.
Mariel Mazzocco, I volti del nulla tra le pagine di Jean-Jacques Olier, in Rivista di Storia e Letteratura Religiosa, Olschki, Firenze, 2009, vol. 45, n° 1, pp. 53–84 .
Mariel Mazzocco, Note di semplicità: gli appunti spirituali di Jean-Jacques Olier, in Rivista di Storia e Letteratura Religiosa, Olschki, Firenze, 2010, vol. 46, n° 1, pp. 59–101.
(Various Authors), Jean-Jacques Olier : Homme de talent, serviteur de l'Evangile (1608–1657), ed. M. Vidal, Paris, Desclée de Brouwer, 2010.
Mariel Mazzocco, Les petits mots d'un aventurier mystique, in Tentations diaboliques et possession divine, Paris, Champion, 2012.
See also
French school of spirituality
References
1608 births
1657 deaths
Clergy from Paris
17th-century French Roman Catholic priests
17th-century French Catholic theologians
Founders of Catholic religious communities
Société Notre-Dame de Montréal
Roman Catholic mystics
Burials at Saint-Sulpice, Paris
Superiors General of the Society of the Priests of Saint Sulpice |
4553970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna%20as%20a%20gay%20icon | Madonna as a gay icon | American singer and actress Madonna is an ally recognized as a gay icon. She was introduced, while still a teenager, by her dance instructor, Christopher Flynn, an openly gay man who mentored her. Since then, Madonna has always acknowledged the importance of the community for her life and career, declaring that she "wouldn't have a career if it weren't for the gay community".
Madonna has consistently been an advocate for the LGBT community throughout her career, being recognized by GLAAD Media Awards in 1991 (Raising Gay Awareness) and 2019 (Advocate for Change). Madonna's works often use gay culture as a symbolic repertoire. In an era not dominated by the massification of Internet, she served as a mainstream vehicle, being tagged as "the first major mainstream artist to give gay images and themes explicit mass treatment and exposure".
Madonna has been recognized as a "pioneering ally" by academic and press accounts from outlets such as The New York Times and Associated Press (AP), after a special emphasis in the AIDS crisis when the community was substantially stigmatized and she was one of the very first artists to advocate for the cause, according to publications like The Hollywood Reporter. Using her popularity, she became "the first worldwide celebrity" of that era to do an interview with a national gay magazine, The Advocate, according to themselves. Critic Stephen Holden labeled her interview with them as an "unprecedented frankness for a major star". Sarah Kate Ellis, president of GLAAD stated in 2019: "Madonna always has and always will be the LGBTQ community's greatest ally". Madonna has been considered by "many" over the years as the "greatest gay icon", a statement seconded or confirmed by outlets such as The Advocate or Parade among others.
Madonna's influence impacted generations of LGBT people, as documented diverse authors. Public figures from the community such as Matt Cain and Anderson Cooper have talked about her influence in their own lives, addressing their LGBT background, while for Ellen DeGeneres, Madonna was instrumental for her 1997 decision to come out. Rosie O'Donnell made similar remarks. Over the years, she has been credited variously, for her role in bringing gay culture into the mainstream, including helping make lesbianism more acceptable at some cultural contours. However, she was also accused of "appropriation" both inside and outside the community, and other criticisms came from diverse sectors including religious, where she was depicted with moral horror. In many aspects, her representation and relationship was commented in Australasian gay & lesbian law journal, in 1993, as they recalled "nowhere has this issue been more hotly debated than in Madonna's 'relationship' with gay and lesbian subcultures".
Friendship and introduction
Madonna was introduced to the gay community while still a teenager. It was her ballet teacher, Christopher Flynn, a gay man, who first told Madonna that she had something to offer the world. He also introduced her to the local gay community of Detroit, Michigan, often taking her to local gay bars and discotheques. Observing Flynn she was "conscious of understanding that there was such a thing as gay ... It wasn't called that then. I just came to understand that he was attracted to men". Biographer Carol Gnojewski, wrote "some Madonna devotees tout Christopher Flynn as 'arguably the first Madonna-positive person'".
After moving to New York City in the 1970s to pursue a career in modern dance, Madonna would be surrounded by gay men, including art-world figures such as the plastic artist Keith Haring. Her immersion into the New York gay community became so complete that she began to wish that she were gay: "I didn't feel like straight men understood me. They just wanted to have sex with me. Gay men understood me, and I felt comfortable around them".
Christopher Glazek explains: "Madonna has been intimately connected to a wide community of gay men for decades, as an artistic collaborator, as a political ally, as an employer, as a friend, and as a sister". Some examples include her first book Sex when collaborated with a gay photographer, and included gay models. At some stage of her career, she repeated in interviews that her best friends are gay. After David Collins's death, Madonna penned a letter describing his influence on her life. By the end of the 1980s and early 1990s, media "romantically linked" her name with various women, including Sandra Bernhard, Ingrid Casares, and model Jenny Shimizu, nor confirmed or denied by Madonna. In 1991, Madonna told to The Advocate that she believed "everybody has a bisexual nature".
Advocacy and life as an LGBT icon
Madonna has a long-lasting history advocating for the community, and "actively participating in gay culture" according to LGBT-targeted magazine Attitude. In this aspect, French academic Georges-Claude Guilbert, writes in Gay Icons (2018) that "Madonna has done little else in her career, camping like a gay man, quoting like a gay man". Boy George described Madonna as "a gay man trapped in a woman's body". In 2017, the British LGBT Awards stated:
Selected 20th century forays
According to The Hollywood Reporter, Madonna began as one of the first "notable" names in the entertainment industry to advocate in response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the 1980s. The period affected the community or subcultures substantially. Nerdist's Eric Diaz considered her as "the biggest" and "relevant" among young people talking about these problems when government initially ignored the "thousands of mostly gay men dying of AIDS". At some point, she reportedly described the AIDS as "the worst thing to happen to the world since Hitler".
Madonna made numerous statements in favor of the community. Most notable, in a two-part interview with The Advocate in 1991, Madonna criticized homophobia in the music industry. The New York Times critic, Stephen Holden deemed that interview, as an "unprecedented frankness for a major star". According to The Advocate themselves, it was the first time a worldwide celebrity did an interview with a national gay magazine. Madonna addressed homophobia again in an interview with Good Morning America, saying: "I deal with a lot of issues ... and what I think to be a big problem in the United States and that is homophobia". In his 2008 autobiography Hit Man, record producer David Foster relates a meeting with Madonna where he expresses distaste at the sight of two men kissing; Madonna scowled and responded, "Two men kissing should be looked at as normal! You represent everything I'm trying to change."
Selected 21st century forays
In August 2009, during a show in Bucharest, Romania, during her Sticky and Sweet Tour, Madonna criticized discrimination against the Roma, also speaking against the discrimination of gays.
In June 2010, Madonna released a statement criticizing the decision to jail two men in Malawi because they celebrated their union with a ceremony. Madonna's statement included the following excerpt: "As a matter of principle, I believe in equal rights for all people, no matter what their gender, race, color, religion, or sexual orientation. This week, Malawi took a giant step backward. The world is filled with pain and suffering; therefore, we must support our basic human right to love and be loved. I call upon the progressive men and women of Malawi—and around the world—to challenge this decision in the name of human dignity and equal rights for all."
In November 2010, Madonna made a special appearance on The Ellen DeGeneres Show to speak against the bullying of children and teenagers in general, including the bullying of gay teens and related recent suicides. In her conversation with DeGeneres, Madonna reiterated how she became close to the gay community when she was a teenager, stating that she felt different in high school and found acceptance and sympathy among gay friends, particularly her dance instructor. She also said "In fact, I wouldn't have a career if it weren't for the gay community".
In June 2011, Madonna urged her fans to support same-sex marriage in New York, posting the following message on her website: "New Yorkers your voices must be heard. Tell your state Congressmen to support same sex marriage bill. All you need is love". The Marriage Equality Act passed one week later, legalizing same-sex marriage in New York. The following year, 2013, Madonna asked her audience to "Vote No" on the Minnesota marriage amendment for same-sex couples.
In March 2013, Madonna presented the Vito Russo Award to openly gay journalist Anderson Cooper at the 24th GLAAD Media Awards in New York City. Dressed as a Cub Scout, in protest of the Boy Scouts of America's ban on homosexual Scouts and Scout leaders, she gave a speech in which she stated that "things like bigotry, homophobia, hate crimes, bullying and any form of discrimination always seem to be a manifestation of fear of the unknown" and wagered that "if we just took the time to get to know one another, did our own investigation, looked beneath the surface of things, that we would find that we are not so different after all." She also said "you cannot use the name of God or religion to justify acts of violence to hurt, to hate, to discriminate" and called to start a revolution, asking the crowd "Are you with me? It's 2013, people. We live in America — land of the free and home of the brave? That's a question, not a statement." That year she joined a Human Rights Campaign's "Love Conquers Hate" to support Russian LGBT community. In 2020, she encouraged her fans through an Instagram story to sign a petition on anti-LGBTQ legislation. In a conversation with Reddit users, she answered several questions, including "If you were a gay man, would you be a top or a bottom?" and she said: "I am a gay man".
Madonna has given multiple surprise performances at the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, Manhattan, the birthplace of the modern gay rights movement, including 2018, 2019 and 2022. In her 2018 speech, she said: "I stand here proudly at the place where Pride began. Let us never forget the Stonewall riots". At NYC Pride 2022, Madonna stated metaphorically that New York City was "the best place in the world because of the queer people here. Let me tell you something, if you can make it here, then you must be queer".
Russian incidents
During her Russian stop of The MDNA Tour, Madonna loudly criticized the Russian gay propaganda law in front of a more than 10,000-audience. Her speaking out in favor of gay right and gay pride was a provocation aimed at getting a reaction from state officials. She indeed drew criticism from the Russian government and caused opponents of gay-rights to sue her as the claimants argued that Madonna's performance would adversely affect Russia's birth rate and therefore its ability to maintain a proper army. One of the claimants, Marina Yakovlyeva told the court: "In the coming years, this type of violation could become the norm. But we have created a precedent —any artist coming to our city will know now what laws exist".
To Western viewers it reaffirmed, if not initiated, the connection between liberal gay rights issues and Pussy Riot. Miriam Elder, correspondent of The Guardian in Moscow said that Russia "attempted to silence the world's biggest pop star", documenting that some Russian politicians attacked Madonna, with a senior official calling her a "moralising slut". Madonna's Facebook page prior to her performance, which was used against her, stated:
Referential works
Gay culture is represented in many of her works, with various of her songs and other projects grounded in queer sensibility, including the documentary Truth or Dare, and music videos for her songs "Justify My Love", "Erotica", and "Vogue". The music video for "God Control" was reminiscent of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting.
Erin Harde is cited in Catching a Wave (2016) as saying that Madonna has supported the gay community by using "camp" values to pay respect to the community. In this aspect, Muri Assunção from Billboard explained that Madonna has been fighting for acceptance and pushing the gay agenda with her art since the release of her first single "Everybody" in 1982. Many Madonna's videos and concerts feature same-sex couples, or herself as part of them. Michael Musto also explained that she turned many of her concerts into a "gigantic gay bar".
Mainstream vehicle
Madonna's figure made possible in her generation provided many with their first impression or representation of the collective, in an era not dominated by Internet. In Good As You: From Prejudice to Pride – 30 Years of Gay Britain (2017), editor Paul Flynn documented that Madonna's Blond Ambition tour was the first time British gay and girls "got to claim ownership of the thrilling communion and euphoria of a stadium show". The tour was followed by her 1991 documentary Truth or Dare in which "several generations of gay men reported was the first time they had ever seen their own desires represent ... onscreen". Seeing the dance troupe in her 1990 tour, wrote Jeremy Atherton Lin in Gay Bar (2021), "amounted to my first impression of gays". Writing for The Georgia Straight in 2016, Craig Takeuchi explains that many recognized this Madonna's era, as a number were "living in an era prior to the internet and had never seen gay men or gay kissing on screen before". According to LGBT-targeted publication Washington Blade, it became "a gay cultural touchstone".
Louis Virtel of Billboard, said that Madonna accomplished something astounding with "Vogue": She ushered an audacious, unapologetically queer art form into mainstream America, and that means gays everywhere got to witness (and recognize) a rare kind of performative ebullience. For Hopper, she revived an "entire movement" when she performed this song at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards. Music critic Kelefa Sanneh, said that she "helped define gay nightlife in New York".
Appearances on listicles
Madonna's music was linked to and made appearances in listicles related to the community. In 2017, Louis Virtel from Billboard commented that Pride Month "is not the same without Madonna and her music". In 2005, The Advocates Steve Gdula commented that "back in the 1980s and even the early 1990s, the release of a new Madonna video or single was akin to a national holiday, at least among her gay fans".
Many have considered "Vogue" a gay anthem, and for scholar Georges-Claude Guilbert is "her gayest song" in many ways. In 2022, the staff of Billboard included the song among the "60 Top LGBTQ Anthems of All Time" that defined queer culture. In 2019, Rolling Stone editors including Suzy Exposito and Rob Sheffield placed the song among their "25 Essential LGBTQ Pride Songs". Around 2012, LGBTQ magazine Out included various Madonna's albums in their list of "The 100 Greatest, Gayest Albums" of all time, in which it was addressed record's impact for the community. They explained that "Papa Don't Preach" had a "profound meaning for gay men of the Reagan era". Queerty editors, included The Immaculate Collection in their 2022 ranking of albums essential in shaping LGBTQ culture, further describing the compilation as "a must for any gold star gay's record collection".
Commentaries
Relationship
Her relationship with gay community has attracted commentaries by media and scholars, defined by Samuel R. Murrian from Parade in 2019, as a "unique, historic connection to the LGBTQ community". Her figure resonated across different decades in the community, with a The Advocate editor commenting in the 1990s, "the gay world ... gets Madonna in a big way". In Madonna as Postmodern Myth (2002), Guilbert defined how she became an "indispensable part of the gay cultural landscape". Judith Peraino, music professor at Cornell University also adds that Madonna's early hypersexuality had particular resonance with gay men. It was also commented that "the gay attraction to Madonna includes her ubiquitous transformations of image, liberated sexuality and elaborate and often campy stage antics". Commenting about her then-massive appeal, Pamela Robertson from University of Notre Dame, wrote in Guilty pleasures (1996), that critics argue that many gay men and lesbians identify with "Madonna's power and independence". Sonya Andermahr from University of Northampton asserted that Madonna's popularity among lesbians is due to her self-determination and autonomy. Michael Musto also said: "Her pride, flamboyance, and glamour reach out to gay guys as much as her refusal to be victimized strikes a chord in lesbians". Musto also said that Madonna offers a more equitable model, different from Judy Garland, identified as a gay icon/tragic figure.
Over her career, however, other reviewers have observed a solid rejection from various. Alone in the 1990s, sexologist Carol Queen wrote about the rejection of Madonna by various gay and lesbian communities during the release of her first book Sex. In 2023, editor Matthew Rettenmund explored a decline amid newer generations, saying she is "frequently rejected" and even at times some with "trying to erase or demonize her past efforts". Similarly, Brazilian writer and academic Renato Gonçalves, in a conversation with Terra Networks in 2020, explored how many from community tried to cancel her with her erratic posts during the COVID-19 lockdowns.
Academic
Over decades Madonna has received significant academic attention, including areas like queer studies. She was identified as a symbol of queer studies for years. A group of her then scholars worked also in queer theory. In the mid-1990s, scholar Michael R. Real in Exploring media culture: A guide (1996) summed up that studies of Madonna by Patton (1993), Henderson (1993), and Schwichtenberg (1993) read her contribution in the community, and how "they find densely coded references with rich meaning for gays and lesbians in Madonna texts".
Controversies, criticisms and ambiguities
Madonna has faced a variety of criticisms inside and outside of the LGBT community.
She has been accused of using the "gay archive" for her own gain and for heterosexualising it. Some feminists criticized her pluralistic queerness because it questions the concept of "woman" and "homosexual identities" and "ignores differences". Christopher Glazek describes the criticisms saying she's "getting rich on the appropriation and mining of gay subcultures". A scholar summed up that critics labeled her adoption more as appropriation than "convincing politics". "Vogue" marked a significant point, because the song and video attracted criticisms of appropriation for no showing "real" voguing, although Virtel feels it shows both real and stylized non-voguing. Citing bell hooks' criticisms towards Madonna as example, editors of Intersectional Analysis as a Method to Analyze Popular Culture (2019), explains she is "typically credited as the first to use black gay culture, in a clear and forward way". Notoriously after the release of "Vogue", subcultural groups, including the Black community argued she "kitschified" their culture. Therefore, Madonna was viewed as a "straight white woman" that appropriated the movement for the white population, further been criticizing for song's lyrics that referred only white Hollywood stars. Although, Thomas Adamson for Associated Press commented in 2018, "though black dancers featured in the video". The divisive perceptions within Madonna, was remarked by a 1993 article in Australasian gay & lesbian law journal, describing it as "nowhere has this issue been more hotly debated than in Madonna's 'relationship' with gay and lesbian subcultures". With the rise of the term queerbaiting in the 2010s, Madonna has been one of several public figures accused for using it. In 2004, Dick Hall, assistant headmaster at The Lovett School discussed with MedicineNet the Britney Spears-Madonna influence in the raise of the term Celesbian.
Other different individuals have expressed conflicting views on Madonna both for her early activism and also for her representation of the community. Michael Musto notoriously "spoofed" her, as a mainstream public figure talking about gay awareness was not a favorable thing in his view. Musto said that the term "gay ally" gets tossed around too much, as "if we're supposed to turn somersaults of joy just because someone famous thinks we're actually acceptable human beings who deserve equal rights". However, in 2015, Musto disregarded some of the critics he made on Madonna. Guy Babineau from LGBT-focused publication Xtra Magazine, in 2008, had also ambiguous views on Madonna, lumping her with contemporary industry colleagues such as Michael Jackson and Prince to say "all benefited from their popularity in gay clubs", each "affecting an androgynous, outrageous and supercharged sexual persona", although he recognized she credited the gay community and glorified them.
Madonna has also faced controversies inside the community. She was included among gay icons ranging from Elton John to Lady Gaga and Beyoncé for performing in the United Arab Emirates, a country with "records of human rights violations", including LGBT rights. Madonna was also criticized by public figures like Janeane Garofalo when reportedly she defended Eminem's "homophobic statements" in early 2000s. In Life with My Sister Madonna, Madonna's brother Christopher Ciccone accused her then spouse Guy Ritchie as "homophobic" which also contributed to fracture siblings' relationship. Ritchie shut down claims and also commented "The poor chap wrote it out of desperation". Ciccone also claimed her sister outed him in an interview with The Advocate without asking his permission. Madonna, caused social media reactions after a TikTok video posted on October 22, in 2022 with the on-screen caption, "If I miss, I'm Gay"; she then throws the panties toward a nearby wastebasket, and "intentionally" failed. Samantha Chery from Washington Post, noted her video was posted two days early of the National Coming Out Day. She was criticized by using a hashtag "#DidItFirst" when Lil Nas X kissed a male dancer in 2021. Lil himself, defended Madonna by saying "me and Madonna are friends. It's a joke".
Views on criticism
The body of criticisms Madonna has commanded both inside or outside the community, was not unnoticed, and some have provided responses or sympathetic views at some points. T. Cole Rachel, writing for Pitchfork in 2015, explored Madonna's career and figure within gay community where he also argued "gay fandom is a complicated phenomenon". In 2015, Glazek suggested that censuring Madonna for "ransacking gay subcultures could be viewed as just another variation on the time-honored practice of devaluing the accomplishments of female recording artists". By 2017, Tom Breihan from Stereogum describes: "Madonna also loved LGBTQ culture, to the point where she's often been accused of exploiting it". In 2020, Gonçalves explained that since her early career, Madonna opted for diversity, hiring homosexual dancers, Latinos and Blacks further playing with identities that were largely ignored in mainstream culture in her generation. In 2022, with the release of "Break My Soul (The Queens Remix)", The New York Times critic Jon Caramanica saw how both singers have received criticisms from Queer critics, but he felt "Madonna is still demonstrating her ongoing, deep engagement with queer culture".
In a Nightline interview after being asked for her "sexual irresponsibility", Madonna replied: "Why are images of degradation and violence toward women okay, almost mainstream, yet images of two women or two men kissing taboo?". Lynne Layton, a Harvard University lecturer in women's studies, refers to this statement: "Why is it that only Madonna was raising this question, not her critics?". Layton also called that this is "indeed a hypocritical culture". Scholar Lisa Henderson at Pennsylvania State University agreed with Layton's views. Henderson also cites Down Shewey who interviewed Madonna for The Advocate as saying: "Hollywood doesn't really get Madonna. She doesn't fit any past models of Hollywood stardom". In 1995, Los Angeles Times reacted skeptical with The Advocate naming Madonna "Sissy of the Year", as she presented to her audience "ambiguous" and "mystical" about many things, including sexuality. But they agreed: "Two things she is very firm about is her support for the lesbian and gay community and doing something about HIV/AIDS".
Cultural charges
In her early career, Madonna was also accused for others for "being irresponsible because of her support for gay culture". Some of her early tours were criticized by pro-family, political and religious groups, accusing her of promoting homosexuality and immorality, including the Girlie Show in 1993, with an "unprecedented discussion" in the Chamber of Deputies of Mexico. In 2012, author Nicholas C. Charles denounced:
Impact and legacy
Her impact and likeness in the LGBT community have been remarked by numerous LGBT publications and mainstream media alike since the 1980s.
Recognition of her activism
AIDS crisis and homophobia affecting the community
She donated time and money to charitable organizations in favor of the community and the AIDS crisis. She spent perhaps more time in vocal advocacy. There were various predecessors and contemporary artists helping for the crisis, although a number of reviewers compared her solo global reaching and with Christopher Rosa from Glamour saying "she faced several of these battles alone". The era, is considered by various witnesses, as a period that affected considerably the community or its subcultures, being called a "gay disease" and with a "country reacting" by several measurements as "antigay". Rosa called it as "perhaps Madonna's greatest social contribution". According to some reports, GLAAD Media Awards recognized Madonna in 1991 with the Raising Gay Awareness. A year later, Mark Brown from Telegraph Herald was critical towards Madonna's public image but praised her "to increase our AIDS awareness". In a cover for OutWeek in 1994, Michael Musto declared she "was more influential than any politician out there when it came to equality because her yay-gay gestures were truly changing our landscape in significant ways". In 1991, writing for LGBT newspaper San Francisco Bay Times, Don Baird said: "Never has a pop star forced so many of the most basic and necessary elements of gayness right into the face of this increasingly uptight nation with power and finesse. Her message is clear -Get Over It- and she's the most popular woman in the world who's talking up our good everything".
Rettenmund as cites Hartford Courant in 2006, felt that when AIDS and homophobia caused others to retreat, Madonna's pro-sex persona was a big deal. Guy Babineau from LGBT-focused publication Xtra Magazine mentioned other predecessors like Cher and Bette Midler but explaining that "neither spoke to the awakening albeit confused sexual freedom of young women and gay men in the era of the AIDS the way Madonna did". Babineau also mentioned others "gay-er" pop stars during that era, and in a similar connotation, Eric Diaz from Nerdist said that various gay pop stars hid "their sexual orientation from the wrath of a homophobic public". In comparison, Christopher Glazek said Madonna "became gay" by association. Along with her sexual image, her advocacy contributed to spread rumors that she was a HIV-positive. In 1991, Richard Rouilard from The Advocate recalls, "I think this particular rumor is entirely AIDS-phobic and homophobic ... It's a backlash at Madonna for being so actively involved in AIDS and championing gay people, both in her movies and in her interviews". "When other artists tried to distance themselves from the very audience that helped their stars to rise, Madonna only turned the light back on her gay fans and made it burn all the brighter", said Steve Gdula from The Advocate in 2005.
Post-AIDS crisis
As she continued her advocacy, many reviewers praised her long-standing contributions. In 2019, GLAAD honored her with the Advocate for Change, for which she became the second person and first woman to receive the award. By 2015, Glazek held that "it's hard to think of any celebrity who has done more than Madonna to promote public awareness of gay culture". In Listening to the Sirens (2006), music professor Judith A. Peraino proposes that "no one has worked harder to be a gay icon than Madonna, and she has done so by using every possible taboo sexual in her videos, performances, and interviews". Sarah Kate Ellis, president and CEO of GLAAD, stated in 2019 that Madonna "always has and always will be the LGBTQ community's greatest ally". Years prior, in 2015, Andy Towle discussed her as "the Most Pro-Gay Pop Ally of All Time". The Associated Press in a 2019 published article for USA Today called her a "pioneer for gay rights". The staff of The New York Times also called her "a pioneering ally" in 2018, recognizing both her pre and post-AIDS crisis advocacy describing:
Attributed effects on pop culture
Aside Madonna there were many others helping as well, although her solo influence and contributions for the community attracted significant international views perceiving cultural effects in favor to the community, often described as a perpetuated entrance to the "mainstream". As early as 1996, Mark Watts commented "she has done a lot to bring gay culture into the mass media". On the point, Darren Scott from The Independent felt and commented in 2018: "Her relentless insistence on treating us like the equals that we actually are meant that gay culture became part of the mainstream". Musto believes she helped brought gay audiences to "center stage".
Editors of Sontag and the Camp Aesthetic (2017), commented "in many ways, Madonna contributed to making gay mainstream" and "part of this contribution was her colonization of queer male, non-white subculture to the benefit of modern queer". Craig Takeuchi from The Georgia Straight attributes to Madonna's period of her Truth or Dare film along with the Blond Ambition Tour for "brought gay culture to the mainstream". Another observer, British writer Matt Cain attributed her for bringing gay culture into the mainstream as well. Writing for 20 minutos in 2019, José Casesmeiro gave also to Madonna a "fundamental" role to "normalize" the collective. Greek scholar Constantine Chatzipapatheodoridis, also argued she has been contributed in the socio-artistic evolution of queer culture worldwide, while Alex Hopper of American Songwriter as do others, explained that Madonna contributed to bringing ballroom culture and voguing into mainstream pop culture.
C. E. Crimmins in How the homosexuals saved civilization (2004), called Madonna a "pioneer" explaining and considering her in the 1980s and 1990s as "the first homosexual icon to interact with her audience sexually (well, unless you count Judy Garland's marriages to gay men)". In this area, Gina Vivinetto from The Advocate held in 2015, that since the 1980s "Madonna has been giving visibility to LGBT eroticism". Scott felt she helped change the way many people perceived gay sex. In similar connotations, John Leland explored for Newsweek in 1992, how Madonna incorporated mainstream homosexual sex.
Lesbianism
Mark Bego commented that her exploration of traditional gender roles helped make lesbianism more acceptable to mainstream society. In a 1989 article for Gay Community News, Sydney Pokorny refers the duo Madonna and Sandra Bernhard that inspired such devotion from lesbians.
Lucy O'Brien cited an editor from lesbian-targeted magazine Diva whom described "Madonna became meaningful in the early nineties with that lesbian chic thing ... There was a hunger to see ourselves reflected in popular culture, and she made us visible". Writer Thomas Dyja in New York, New York, New York (2022), also lumped the public dilliance between Madonna and Bernhard along with Martina Navratilova and k.d. lang for ushering the lesbian chic. Torie Osborn, executive director of National LGBTQ Task Force asserted: "[She's] the first major woman pop star who's out and proud and fine about it. It signals a whole new era of possibility for celebrities". Osborn also credited k.d. lang in bringing a new peak for Lipstick lesbian. An author described Madonna, as the archetypal femme lesbian, regarded both the champion of sexual feminism and the pirate of traditional lesbian feminist lifestyles.
Madonna sparked again conversations after kissing Christina Aguilera and Britney Spears at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards. Their kiss have been replicated numerous times, including by Israeli activists in 2019, to celebrate Madonna's arrival at the Eurovision Song Contest and to show that "love break down barriers", and in popular culture by celebrities like Kylie Jenner.
Influence on individuals
Madonna's influence on individuals from the community has been noted in a decades-long period. In 2019, GLAAD's Sarah Kate Ellis said: "Her music and art have been life-saving outlets for LGBTQ people over the years and her affirming words and actions have changed countless hearts and minds". The Hollywood Reporter also remarked "her music and advocacy has positively affected the lives of LGBTQ people". In this regard, Madonna told: "It's a total reciprocation because, like I said in my speech (2019 GLAAD Media Awards), they made me feel not afraid to be different. And then I made them feel not afraid to be different". In 2008, Guy Babineau, commented:
Various public figures from the community such as British journalist Matt Cain and musician Arca, have mentioned Madonna's impact in their lives addressing their LGBT background. The lattermost expressed: "I don't know if I can't overstate how major Madonna's music and persona were in my household". Christopher Bergland, commented that a 1983 performance she made at a small gay club on Lansdowne St. in Boston, changed his life. In February 2023, when Kim Petras became the first openly transgender woman to win a Grammy Award, she thanked Madonna in her acceptance speech for fighting for LGBTQ rights, saying "I don't think I could be here without Madonna". Anderson Cooper noted the importance of Madonna to him and said during the 2019 GLAAD Media Awards: "As a gay teenager growing up ... Her music and outspokenness showed me as a teenager a way forward. Through her music, she told me and millions of teenagers —gay and straight — that we are not alone. We are connected to each other". Commemorating her 60-years old birthday in 2018, The Advocate dedicated an article of love letters to Madonna that included commentaries from their staff, with many talking about Madonna's influence on them.
Madonna topped KBGO's 2011 rank of the "stars that helped their LGBTQ+ Fans Come Out". Agence France-Presse referred to her Truth or Dare film inspired many to coming out. Wesley Morris of The New York Times, said that maybe he knew was gay because of Truth or Dare. Ellen DeGeneres said that Madonna was instrumental in her 1997 decision to come out. Rosie O'Donnell similarly credited Madonna to help her become more comfortable in her own skin about her LGBT life.
Depictions
Madonna has been depicted in diverse LGBT-media content, and events over the years. In 2022, a special show named "Madonna Made Me Gay" in Feast Festival was dedicated to her. In A Drag Queen's Guide to Life (2022), Bimini Bon Boulash wrote "would any queer inspiration be complete without the Queen of Pop herself?". LGBT-targeted publications such as The Advocate, Attitude, to DNA have created listicles about "Madonna's gayest moments". Other publications like HuffPost addressed similar lists.
In 2016, to pay tribute to her contributions to the LGBT community, contestants of the eighth season of reality competition show RuPaul's Drag Race were asked to render some of prominent Madonna looks on the runway. In effort to address the criticism the runway received for its repetitiveness, it was brought back for season nine. In season 12, the reality show paid tribute to Madonna again as the contestants performed in Madonna: The Unauthorized Rusical, a musical that chronicled her major accomplishments and contributions to the LGBT community. According to Billboard, Poses season two was influenced by her.
Glee dedicated to Madonna an episode named "The Power of Madonna" accompanied with their first-ever EP released, Glee: The Music, The Power of Madonna. In Brian Tarquin's book The Insider's Guide to Music Licensing (2014), it was mentioned the importance of Madonna for their producers and the challenges they faced and weeks of negotiation with Madonna's team. Both episode and soundtrack were well received, with an insider commenting, "If you do justice arguably to the biggest female act in the world, people will respond". Her episode was also the first time the music on Glee was turned over in its entirety to one performer as well. The documentary Strike a Pose is based in the dance troupe that accompanied Madonna in the documentary Truth or Dare and the Blond Ambition Tour; six of them were homosexual at a time when "homosexuality was much more taboo and associated by many straight people with illness".
Critic' lists and publications
Sobriquets
Inside gay press, Madonna has been called variously over her multiple-decades career. Out called her a "true gay icon". In Queer (2002), editor Simon Gage explained that an UK gay magazine always referred to her as "Our Glorious Leader". In 2016, an editor from LGBT publication Washington Blade referred to her as "Our Lady".
In 2019, Samuel R. Murrian of Parade confirmed that she "is considered by many to be the greatest LGBTQ icon". Scholars Carmine Sarracino and Kevin Scott in The Porning of America (2008), attributed that calling her "the biggest gay icon of all time", was a result of her career-long popularity with gay audiences. Gage called her "the biggest gay icon of the 20th century" in Queer (2002). "The biggest musical LGBTQ icon of all time", at least to an entire generation wrote Eric Diaz for Nerdist in 2018. In 2006 and 2012, editors from The Advocate named Madonna "the greatest gay icon". In 2022, an editor from BBC Mundo considered her as the "quintessential gay icon".
Madonna is also referred to as a queer icon and icon of queerness. Theologian Robert Goss expressed: "For me, Madonna has been not only a queer icon but also a Christ icon who has dissolved the boundaries between queer culture and queer faith communities". Musicologist Sheila Whiteley wrote in her book Sexing the Groove: Popular Music and Gender (2013) that "Madonna came closer to any other contemporary celebrity in being an above-ground queer icon".
See also
LGBT history
Madonna studies
Madonna and sexuality
References
Book sources
External links
Madonna's official site
Madonna at GLAAD
Madonna at The Advocate
Madonna at Out
Madonna at Gay Times
Further reading
Vogue Boy: Reeling in Pride: 10 years ago, his video dancing to 'Vogue' at Hampton Beach went viral — The Portsmouth Herald
Beyond Madonna: A More Colorful Picture of Queer History — Wired
I Made It Through the Wilderness: On Gay Fandom, and Growing Older with Madonna — Pitchfork
Gay icon
Madonna
LGBT-related music
Gay icon
Articles containing video clips |
4554066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate%2095%20in%20Delaware | Interstate 95 in Delaware | Interstate 95 (I-95) is an Interstate Highway running along the East Coast of the United States from Miami, Florida, north to the Canada–United States border in Houlton, Maine. In the state of Delaware, the route runs for across the Wilmington area in northern New Castle County from the Maryland state line near Newark northeast to the Pennsylvania state line in Claymont. I-95 is the only primary Interstate Highway that enters Delaware, although it also has two auxiliary routes within the state (I-295 and I-495). Between the Maryland state line and Newport, I-95 follows the Delaware Turnpike (also known as the John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway), a toll road with a mainline toll plaza near the state line. Near Newport, the Interstate has a large interchange with Delaware Route 141 (DE 141) and the southern termini of I-295 and I-495. I-95 becomes the Wilmington Expressway from here to the Pennsylvania state line and heads north through Wilmington concurrent with U.S. Route 202 (US 202). Past Wilmington, I-95 continues northeast to Claymont, where I-495 rejoins the route right before the Pennsylvania state line.
Plans for a road along the I-95 corridor through Wilmington to the Pennsylvania state line predate the Interstate Highway System. After the Delaware Memorial Bridge was built in 1951, the Delaware Turnpike was proposed between the bridge approach near Farnhurst (present-day interchange between I-95 and I-295) and the Maryland state line near Newark in order to alleviate traffic congestion on parallel US 40. With the creation of the Interstate Highway System in 1956, both these roads were incorporated into I-95. Construction on the Delaware Turnpike began in 1957 and ended in 1963. Construction on building I-95 through Wilmington began in the early 1960s. I-95 was completed from Newport north to downtown Wilmington in 1966 and from Wilmington north to the Pennsylvania state line in 1968. Between 1978 and 1980, I-95 was temporarily rerouted along the I-495 bypass route while the South Wilmington Viaduct was reconstructed; during this time, the route through Wilmington was designated as Interstate 895 (I-895). Improvements continue to be made to the highway including widening projects and reconstruction of sections of the road and interchanges.
Route description
Delaware Turnpike
I-95 enters Delaware from Maryland southwest of the city of Newark in New Castle County. From the state line, the highway heads east (north) as the Delaware Turnpike (John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway), a six-lane freeway, through wooded areas. Not far from the Maryland state line, the road crosses Muddy Run before it comes to the Newark mainline toll plaza. I-95 widens to eight lanes and reaches a partial cloverleaf interchange with DE 896, which heads north to Newark and the University of Delaware and south to Glasgow. Following this interchange, the Interstate Highway crosses the Christina River and runs between industrial areas to the north and farm fields to the south, coming to bridges over Norfolk Southern Railway's Delmarva Secondary railroad line and DE 72 without access. The road heads through more woodland with nearby suburban development as it curves northeast, with the median widening for the Biden Welcome Center service plaza accessible from both directions. A short distance later, I-95 reaches a modified cloverleaf interchange with DE 273 west of Christiana. The freeway continues northeast and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with the DE 1/DE 7 freeway to the northwest of the Christiana Mall; this interchange serves as the northern terminus of DE 1. This interchange has flyover ramps from southbound I-95 to southbound DE 1/DE 7 and from northbound DE 1/DE 7 to northbound I-95; the northbound ramp splits onto both sides of the northbound lanes of I-95. The interchange with DE 1/DE 7 also has access to the Christiana Mall via ramps connecting to Mall Road.
Past this interchange, I-95 widens to 10 lanes and passes under DE 58, with a ramp from southbound I-95 to DE 58 that provides the missing connection between southbound I-95 and northbound DE 7. The highway continues through woods before heading through Churchman's Marsh, where it crosses the Christina River. After this bridge, I-95 has a northbound ramp to Airport Road that serves to provide access to southbound US 202/DE 141. At this point, the lanes of the Interstate split further apart, and the northbound ramp for I-295 and northbound DE 141 exits off to parallel the northbound lanes of I-95. The ramp to northbound I-295 has two lanes while northbound I-95 carries four lanes. After this, I-95 crosses US 202/DE 141 at an interchange, at which point US 202 becomes concurrent with I-95. Upon crossing US 202/DE 141, the ramp to northbound DE 141 from the northbound I-295 ramp splits off while the ramp from US 202/DE 141 to northbound I-95 merges in from the left. Southbound, a collector–distributor road serves to provide access between I-95 and US 202/DE 141. Not far after encountering US 202/DE 141, I-295 splits off to the southeast, with the northbound entrance from I-295, the southbound exit to I-295, and the southbound entrance from I-295 on the left side of the road. At this point, the Delaware Turnpike comes to its northern terminus. After I-295, I-95/US 202 turns north and comes to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with the southern terminus of I-495, which bypasses the city of Wilmington to the east.
Wilmington Expressway
Following the I-495 interchange, the median narrows and I-95/US 202 heads northeast through marshland as the six-lane Wilmington Expressway, crossing the Christina River. The freeway comes to bridges over Norfolk Southern Railway's Shellpot Secondary railroad line and Little Mill Creek as it continues through more wetlands west of the Russell W. Peterson Urban Wildlife Refuge, with Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad line running parallel a short distance to the northwest. The road enters Wilmington and curves to the north, passing to the west of Daniel S. Frawley Stadium, which is home of the Wilmington Blue Rocks baseball team, and the Chase Center on the Riverfront convention center as it heads west of the Wilmington Riverfront. I-95/US 202 heads toward downtown Wilmington and crosses onto a viaduct, passing over Norfolk Southern Railway's Wilmington & Northern Running Track and the Northeast Corridor before coming to an interchange with DE 4 and DE 48 that provides access to the downtown area and the Wilmington Riverfront. At this point, the four-lane freeway continues northeast, with one-way northbound North Adams Street to the east and one-way southbound North Jackson Street to the west serving as frontage roads. I-95/US 202 continues through residential areas to the west of downtown Wilmington and passes over DE 9, with a southbound exit. Farther northeast, the freeway heads into an alignment below street level and comes to an interchange with DE 52. Past this interchange, the road heads to the north and crosses Brandywine Creek, heading through Brandywine Park, which is a part of the Wilmington State Parks complex. The freeway curves northeast again and passes under CSX Transportation's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line before reaching a modified cloverleaf interchange with the northern terminus of DE 202 at the northern edge of Wilmington, at which point US 202 splits from I-95 to head north along Concord Pike.
Past US 202, I-95 leaves Wilmington for the suburban Brandywine Hundred area and continues northeast as a four-lane road, passing southeast of the Rock Manor Golf Club and running along the northwest side of the CSX Transportation line. The freeway heads across Matson Run before it curves east to pass over the railroad tracks. The roadway continues through wooded areas to the south of the CSX Transportation tracks, crossing Shellpot Creek and coming to a diamond interchange with DE 3 northwest of the town of Bellefonte. After this exit, I-95 and the rail line curve to the northeast and continue through woodland with nearby residential areas, passing northwest of Bellevue State Park and crossing Stoney Creek. The highway crosses Perkins Run before it reaches a northbound exit and southbound entrance with Harvey Road southeast of the villages of Arden, Ardentown, and Ardencroft. Past this interchange, the freeway curves east away from the CSX Transportation tracks and winds northeast near suburban neighborhoods in Claymont. In Claymont, the Interstate comes to a diamond interchange with DE 92, at which point I-495 also merges onto the northbound direction of the interstate via a southbound exit and northbound entrance. The southbound exit to DE 92 is via the I-495 interchange while all other ramps of the DE 92 interchange connect directly to I-95. Following the interchange, I-95 passes to the west of the former Tri-State Mall before it crosses the state line into Pennsylvania. The southbound exit from I-95 to I-495 is located in Pennsylvania, before the Delaware state line.
I-95 in Delaware has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 205,868 vehicles at the I-295 interchange near Newport to a low of 56,903 vehicles at the DE 92 interchange in Claymont. As part of the Interstate Highway System, the entire length of I-95 in Delaware is a part of the National Highway System, a network of roadways important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility.
Tolls
I-95 has a mainline toll plaza along the Delaware Turnpike near the Maryland state line in Newark. Cash or E-ZPass is accepted for payment of tolls. The plaza is staffed by toll collectors and also features high-speed E-ZPass lanes. The toll for passenger vehicles costs $4.00 both northbound and southbound.
When the highway first opened in 1963, the toll at the toll plaza near the state line was $0.30 (equivalent to $ in ). Prior to 1976, ramp tolls were collected at the DE 896, DE 273, and DE 7 interchanges. The ramp tolls required exact change, and many motorists were caught by police evading the tolls because they did not have the proper change. In 1970, an attempt was made to use the honor system for motorists without the proper change at the tollbooth to pay the tolls by mailing them. However, it was discontinued after a month because most motorists did not mail in their tolls. In 1976, Governor Sherman W. Tribbitt signed House Bill 1278, which was sponsored by Representative Gerard A. Cain. This bill called for the elimination of the three ramp tolls while keeping the mainline toll plaza near the Maryland state line. The ramp tolls stopped being collected on October 1, 1976.
In 1981, plans were announced to demolish the former toll booths at the DE 273 and DE 7 interchanges; however, the DE 896 interchange toll booths were to remain to collect tolls from trucks. The mainline toll plaza was planned to be closed on July 1, 1981, after the bonds to construct the road were paid off, but was kept by "Operation Overhaul", a $93-million (equivalent to $ in ) project by Governor Pete du Pont that would use the tolls collected at the toll plaza to fund improvements to the turnpike along with other roads in the state of Delaware. In the middle of 2011, reconstruction of the Delaware Turnpike toll plaza was completed in a $32.6-million (equivalent to $ in ) project funded by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, adding high-speed E-ZPass lanes. On March 17, 2020, cash tolls were suspended at the mainline toll plaza along I-95 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with all tolls collected electronically through the high-speed E-ZPass lanes and motorists without E-ZPass billed by mail; cash tolls resumed on May 21, 2020.
Services
The Biden Welcome Center (formerly Delaware Welcome Center and also referred to as Delaware House) service plaza is located in the median of I-95 between the DE 896 and DE 273 interchanges east of Newark, with access from both directions of the highway. The service plaza offers a Sunoco gas station, electric vehicle charging stations, a convenience store, multiple fast-food restaurants, a visitor center, and retail options including a store called Postcards from Delaware that sells Delaware-related merchandise. There is also a Tesla Supercharger station at the Biden Welcome Center. The Biden Welcome Center is run by Applegreen.
When the Delaware Turnpike opened in 1963, a Hot Shoppes restaurant and an Esso service station were located along the road in the median. In 1964, a proposal was made to build a truck stop and motel next to the existing facilities. The truck stop proposal was off and on for several years until a truck stop was built just across the state line in Maryland in 1975. In 1983, Hot Shoppes was replaced by Roy Rogers and Bob's Big Boy in order to offer both sit-down dining and fast food. This was the largest Roy Rogers and Bob's Big Boy location at the time and restaurant namesake Roy Rogers and Lieutenant Governor Mike Castle were in attendance for the opening. In September 2009, the Delaware Welcome Center was closed for a reconstruction project that built a new service plaza building, new gas pumps, new truck parking, and an improved visitor center. The renovated service plaza opened in June 2010 at a cost of $35 million (equivalent to $ in ).
On September 17, 2018, the service plaza was renamed the Biden Welcome Center in honor of the Biden family, a Delaware political family that includes US Senator, 47th Vice President, and subsequently 46th President, Joe Biden. A renaming ceremony was held, with Governor John Carney and members of the Biden family (including Joe Biden) in attendance. At the ceremony, Governor Carney signed a bill formally renaming the service plaza.
History
Planning and construction
In 1948, the Wilmington Transportation Study proposed two new roads running between the southern end of Wilmington and the Pennsylvania state line to improve traffic flow in the Wilmington area. Route A followed the current alignment of I-95 while Route B bypassed the city to the east along the current alignment of I-495. Plans for building Route A were made in 1950 but were deferred a year later due to opposition.
Following the completion of the Delaware Memorial Bridge connecting to the New Jersey Turnpike in 1951, through traffic coming from the bridge led to significant congestion on US 13 and US 40. As a result of this, suggestions were made in 1954 for a limited-access road to be constructed leading to the bridge that would alleviate congestion on US 40. In 1956, the Interstate Highway System was created, with two routes proposed along the current alignment of I-95. FAI-1 was proposed to run from the Maryland state line east to an interchange west of Farnhurst while FAI-2 was proposed between this interchange and the Pennsylvania state line through the western part of Wilmington. The corridor following FAI-1 and FAI-2 would become designated as part of I-95, an Interstate Highway running along the East Coast of the US. FAI-1 was originally planned as a free Interstate Highway using federal funds; however, the road would not have been completed until 1967 under this plan. As a result, the state of Delaware financed the road with bond issues and would build it as a toll road called the Delaware Turnpike.
The first construction contracts for the Delaware Turnpike were awarded in 1957, with construction soon following that year. Construction began on building a new bridge over US 13/US 40 at the Farnhurst interchange in 1958 that would connect the Delaware Turnpike to the I-295/US 40 approach to the Delaware Memorial Bridge. The same year, plans were made for several bridges along I-95. In 1959, work began on rebuilding the Farnhurst interchange to Interstate Highway standards. The same year, recommendations were made for the design and right-of-way acquisition along the planned route of I-95 as well as the construction of several contracts between the Maryland border and Farnhurst along the Delaware Turnpike, including the interchange with DE 41/DE 141 and between I-95, I-295, and I-495 near the Christina River. The proposed routing for I-95 through Wilmington would take it through the central core between Adams and Jackson streets. Locals tried to fight routing I-95 through the central core and instead suggested routing it along Bancroft Parkway to the west or the present-day route of I-495 to the east. However, the lame-duck Republican-controlled city council approved routing I-95 along Adams and Jackson streets in 1957. The demolition of homes began in January 1959.
A year later, construction began on overpasses and ramps at the Farnhurst interchange. The same year, suggestions were made to build I-95 across the Christina Marsh as well as construct the bridges over the Christina River and the Pennsylvania Railroad in Wilmington. A contract was awarded for the Christina River interchange in 1961. By 1961, all construction contracts along the Delaware Turnpike had been completed except for the DE 41/DE 141 interchange and the Christina River interchange. In 1962, the I-95 bridges over the Christina River, the Pennsylvania Railroad, and Little Mill Creek were finished while plans were made for the South Wilmington Viaduct that would cross over several railroad tracks belonging to the Pennsylvania, Baltimore and Ohio, and Reading railroads. The same year, the roadway was built between the Christina River interchange and the South Wilmington Viaduct. The new northbound lanes of DE 41/DE 141 through the I-95 interchange opened in November 1962. The southbound lanes of DE 41/DE 141 opened in June 1964, enabling directional flow of DE 41/DE 141 through the interchange. In September 1963, construction work on the turnpike was halted by picketing workers.
The Delaware Turnpike, along with the connecting Northeast Expressway in Maryland, was dedicated by President John F. Kennedy, Delaware Governor Elbert N. Carvel, and Maryland Governor J. Millard Tawes in a ceremony at the state line on November 14, 1963, in which a ribbon-cutting took place and a replica Mason–Dixon line crownstone was unveiled. The Delaware Turnpike was opened to traffic at midnight on November 15, 1963. The first motorist to pay a toll on the turnpike was Omero C. Catan, also known as "Mr. First", of Teaneck, New Jersey, who marked this occasion as the 517th first moment he achieved. The completion of the Delaware Turnpike allowed motorists to travel from Washington, D.C. to Boston without having to stop at a traffic light. Construction of the Delaware Turnpike cost $30 million (equivalent to $ in ). Following the opening of the turnpike, traffic levels on US 40 and US 301 fell by 40 to 50 percent. The rerouting of traffic to the Delaware Turnpike led to the reduction in profits for businesses along US 13 and US 40, with several businesses forced to close. Meanwhile, the Delaware Turnpike saw more traffic volume than originally projected. Eight days after dedicating the toll road, President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. As a result, both the Delaware Turnpike and the Northeast Expressway were renamed the John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway in his honor in December 1963. On the one-year anniversary of the dedication of the Delaware Turnpike on November 14, 1964, a memorial service and wreath laying in honor of Kennedy was held at the state line, with Governor Carvel in attendance.
The remainder of I-95 between the Christina River interchange and the Pennsylvania state line was built as a non-tolled freeway. In April 1964, construction contracts were awarded for bridges at the Christina River interchange that would carry I-95 and I-495 traffic over I-295. In mid-1964, construction on the South Wilmington Viaduct began. In June of that year, the substructure of the I-95 bridge over the Brandywine Creek was completed. In August 1964, construction began on the I-95 interchange with Naamans Road and the northern terminus of I-495 in Claymont. In 1965, construction was underway to build the below-surface alignment of I-95 between Fourth Street and the Brandywine Creek in Wilmington. The construction of I-95 through Wilmington resulted in the demolition of 360 to 370 homes in the West Side neighborhood between Adams and Jackson streets. The construction of the highway led to the decline of the residential and commercial base in Wilmington. Work was also underway on the portion of I-95 northeast of Wilmington, which would parallel the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. In 1966, I-95 was completed and opened to traffic between the Christina River interchange with I-295 and I-495 and downtown Wilmington, where ramps connected the highway to Maryland and Lancaster avenues. The completion of this section of I-95 provided an uninterrupted freeway connection between Wilmington and Baltimore. The ramps to downtown Wilmington were added as a compromise of building the freeway through the city and would bring economic development to the Wilmington Riverfront. In August 1968, I-95 between the South Wilmington Viaduct and US 202 was completed and opened to traffic. On November 1, 1968, the freeway was opened between US 202 and the Pennsylvania state line. With this, the entire length of I-95 in Delaware was constructed, making Delaware the third state to complete its section of I-95.
Improvements
In November 1968, work began to widen the Delaware Turnpike from four to six lanes to handle increasing traffic volumes. The widening project was completed in December 1969, one year ahead of schedule. In 1969, a plan was made to widen the turnpike between DE 896 and DE 273 to 10 lanes and between DE 273 and DE 141 to 12 lanes in a 3–3–3–3 local–express lane configuration. This was later scaled down to a proposal to widen the road to eight lanes total. The widening of the Delaware Turnpike to eight lanes occurred in the 1980s. From 1971 to 1978, a north–south extension of the Delaware Turnpike running south to Dover was studied. This extension of the turnpike evolved into a "Relief Route" for US 13 and was built as DE 1 between 1987 and 2003.
On June 28, 1978, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) approved rerouting I-95 along the I-495 alignment. However, AASHTO disapproved renumbering the alignment of I-95 through Wilmington as I-595. On October 27 of that year, AASHTO gave conditional approval for I-95 through Wilmington to be designated as I-195 from I-95 near Newport north to US 202 while the route from US 202 north to I-95 in Claymont would become I-395. I-895 was designated along the conditionally approved route of I-195 and I-395 on June 25, 1979. In 1980, the South Wilmington Viaduct was reconstructed. On November 14, 1980, I-95 and I-495 were returned to their original alignments, with I-895 decommissioned. US 202 was designated concurrent with I-95 through Wilmington in 1984.
In 2000, I-95 was completely rebuilt between US 202/DE 202 and the Pennsylvania state line. The reconstruction completely tore apart the concrete pavement and replaced it with asphalt and also improved drainage and rebuilt bridges. In April 2000, the southbound lanes were closed, with the lanes between DE 3 and US 202/DE 202 reopening in May and the remainder reopening soon after. In July, the northbound lanes were closed, with the lanes reopening between US 202/DE 202 and DE 3 in September and the remainder reopening in October. During the closure, through traffic was detoured to I-495.
In 2003, construction began on a new bridge carrying DE 58 over I-95 to replace the previous bridge, which was over 40 years old and experienced deterioration. Construction of the new bridge, which cost $17 million (equivalent to $ in ), was originally planned to be finished in late 2005 but completion was delayed to late 2006. The new bridge carrying DE 58 over I-95 was built to accommodate future widening of I-95. In May 2007, construction began to widen I-95 between the DE 1/DE 7 and US 202/DE 141 interchanges from eight to ten lanes due to rising traffic levels and increased development. The widening project was completed in November 2008. Traffic congestion at the cloverleaf interchange with DE 1/DE 7 in Christiana led to the Delaware Department of Transportation (DelDOT) to improve the interchange. The project included adding flyover connecting ramps from northbound DE 1 to northbound I-95 and from southbound I-95 to southbound DE 1 which allowed for easier merging patterns and the elimination of lengthy backups on the former ramp design. Construction of a new "ring access road" around Christiana Mall began in February 2011 and was completed in March 2012, with a newly built bridge over DE 1, just south of the I-95 interchange. The ramp from southbound I-95 to southbound DE 1/DE 7 opened on August 27, 2013, and the ramp from northbound DE 1/DE 7 to northbound I-95 opened on October 17, 2013, with a ribbon-cutting ceremony attended by Governor Jack Markell and DelDOT Secretary Shailen Bhatt.
In December 2011, a project began to improve the interchange between I-95 and US 202/DE 202 in order to reduce congestion. The project widened the ramp between northbound I-95 and northbound US 202 to two lanes, the ramp between southbound US 202 and southbound I-95 was extended to modern standards, and the ramp between southbound I-95 and southbound DE 202 was relocated from a cloverleaf loop to a directional ramp that intersects DE 202 at a signalized intersection. In addition, the interchange ramps were repaved and bridges were rehabilitated. The project was finished in July 2015, months behind schedule due to the closure of I-495 in 2014. On August 7, 2015, a dedication ceremony to mark the completion of the project was held, with Governor Markell, Senator Tom Carper, and DelDOT Secretary Jennifer Cohan in attendance. The project, which cost over $33 million (equivalent to $ in ), was 80-percent funded by the federal government.
On June 2, 2014, the I-495 bridge over the Christina River was closed after it was discovered that four support columns were tilting. During this closure, traffic from I-495 was detoured onto I-95, and several major roads in the Wilmington area experienced increased traffic congestion. The southbound lanes of I-495 reopened on July 31, a month earlier than expected, and the northbound lanes of I-495 reopened on August 23.
In 2016, a project began to improve the interchange with DE 141. The project reconstructed the bridges that carry DE 141 over I-95 and added safety improvements to the interchange ramps. In June 2016, the ramp from northbound I-95 to northbound DE 141 closed until June 2017 to allow for reconstruction of the bridge along northbound DE 141. Construction on improving the interchange along with the adjacent section of DE 141 was completed in December 2021.
DelDOT completely rebuilt I-95 from the southern end of I-495 to the Brandywine Creek bridge in Wilmington in a $200-million project beginning in February 2021. Several overpasses were repaired and new guardrails were installed. The southbound entrance ramp from South Jackson Street was demolished and the entrance from 2nd Street was rebuilt. At times during construction, the highway was reduced to two lanes of traffic. Construction was finished in November 2022, months ahead of schedule. On April 6, 2023, a ceremony marking the completion of the project was held, with Governor Carney, Senators Carper and Chris Coons, Representative Lisa Blunt Rochester, Wilmington Mayor Mike Purzycki, and DelDOT Secretary Nicole Majeski in attendance.
On March 15, 2021, a construction project began that will improve the DE 273 interchange by realigning ramps and widening DE 273 through the interchange. Construction on this interchange improvement is planned to be completed in 2023. There are plans to reconstruct the interchange with DE 896 by adding two flyovers and realigning ramps in order to improve safety and congestion at the interchange. A groundbreaking ceremony was held on May 1, 2023, with Governor Carney, Senator Carper, Representative Blunt Rochester, and DelDOT Secretary Majeski in attendance. The reconstruction project, which is projected to cost $143 million, began on May 7, 2023, and is planned to be completed in 2026. The project received a $57-million grant from the US Department of Transportation which allowed construction to begin earlier than originally planned.
In March 2021, a group of state lawmakers led by Representative Sherry Dorsey Walker pushed for US Secretary of Transportation Pete Buttigieg, and, by proxy, President Joe Biden, to endorse a plan to add a freeway lid on top of I-95 through Wilmington and construct an urban park on top of the highway, reuniting neighborhoods that were divided when the highway was constructed. In April 2021, Wilmington city council unanimously approved backing the plan for constructing an urban park over I-95 through the city.
Exit list
Auxiliary routes
I-95 has two auxiliary routes that are located within the state of Delaware. I-295 runs from I-95 near Newport east (north) to the Delaware Memorial Bridge, where it crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey. Once in New Jersey, I-295 intersects the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and continues northeast a bypass route of Philadelphia parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike. I-295 loops to the north of Trenton, and enters Pennsylvania, heading south (west) and reaching its terminus at I-95 in Bristol Township. I-495 is a bypass of Wilmington to the east. I-495 heads north from I-95 south of Wilmington near Newport, passing the Port of Wilmington and running along the Delaware River, before merging back in with I-95 just before the Pennsylvania state line in Claymont.
See also
References
External links
I-95 at AARoads.com
I-95 Widening
Delaware Roads - I-95
The Roads of Metro Philadelphia: Delaware Turnpike (I-95)
The Roads of Metro Philadelphia: Wilmington Expressway (I-95)
95
Delaware
Transportation in New Castle County, Delaware
Toll roads in Delaware |
4554230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuji-in | Kuji-in | The kuji-in () or jiǔzìyìn (), also known as Nine Hand Seals, is a system of mudras and associated mantras that consist of nine syllables. The mantras are referred to as kuji (), which literally translates as nine characters. The syllables used in kuji are numerous, especially within Japanese esoteric Mikkyō.
Scholars have stated that kuji is of Taoist origin, not Buddhist. There is no mention of the kuji in any of the Shingon or Tendai records that were brought back from China. [citation needed] The use of kuji is essentially a layman's practice and is uncommon in many orthodox Buddhist traditions. It is, however, found extensively in Shugendō, the ascetic mountain tradition of Japan and Ryōbu Shintō, which is the result of blending Shingon Buddhism and Shinto.
History
The kuji are first introduced in the Bàopǔzǐ (), a Chinese Taoist text written by Gé Hóng c.280–340 CE). He introduces the kuji in chapter 17, entitled Dēngshè (登涉; lit. "Climbing [mountains] and crossing [rivers]), as a prayer to the Liùjiǎ (六甲; Six Generals), ancient Taoist gods. In Daoist Magic, the Jiǎ are powerful celestial guardians and are among the gods of the Celestial Thunder Court of Emperor Xuanwu.
The kuji are first seen in line 5 which reads,
抱朴子曰：“入名山，以甲子開除日，以五色繒各五寸，懸大石上，所求必得。又曰，入山宜知六甲秘祝。祝曰，臨兵鬭者，皆陣列前行。凡九字，常當密祝之，無所不辟。要道不煩，此之謂也。”
Translation:
The kuji form a grammatically correct sentence in Classical Chinese. They come from this section of the chapter and are written as which can be roughly translated, "(Celestial) soldiers/fighters descend and arrange yourselves in front of me", or "May all those who preside over warriors be my vanguard!"
Other translations are possible as well, as variations exist in Japanese esoteric Buddhism. According to the Baopuzi, the kuji is a prayer to avert difficulties and baleful influences and to ensure things proceed without difficulty. To this end it can be said that the primary purpose of kuji is abhisheka (正灌頂, ) and exorcism (調伏, ).
The Taoist kuji are next cited in a text called The commentary on the discourse about the Sutra on Immeasurable Life, and on the verses about the vow to be reborn [in the Pure Land] (無量壽經優婆提舍願生偈註, Wúliàng shòu jīng yōu pó tí shě yuàn shēng jì zhù), also known as the Commentary on the treatise on rebirth in the Pure Land (往生論註, Wǎngshēng lùn zhù) written by Taluan (467?–542? CE).
How the kuji arrived in Japan is still a matter of debate. The Korean variant is 臨兵鬥者皆陣列在前行. Some contemporary scholars assert that the kuji arrived in Japan via China through Jōdo-shū and Shugendō around the 8th century, if not much later. Others assert that they were introduced by Korea. As to what the kuji consisted of at the time it arrived in Japan is unknown. The mudras are found in Taoist material as well as in Shugendō. Some have suggested that Shugendō created the mudras that are currently associated with the kuji, as the vast majority of information that is known about the kuji comes from Shugendō literature.
Ryobu kuji
The earliest known Japanese application of the kuji comes from the Shingon monk Kakuban (1095–1143 CE) who was an academic of Taluan's writings and teachings. Kakuban introduced several kuji formulas dedicated to Amitābha, in his text The Illuminating Secret Commentary on the Five Chakras and the Nine Syllables (五輪九字明秘密義釈, Gorin kuji myō himitsu gishaku or 五輪九字 Gorin kuji hishaku).
The kuji formulas Kakuban introduces are commonly grouped under the title zokushu, and are completely unrelated to original Taoist kuji. The monk Shinran (1173–1263 CE), founder of Jōdo Shinshū sect, introduced several new kuji formulas, also dedicated to Amitābha. Nichiren, founder of the Nichiren sect, introduced a kuji prayer derived from chapter 26 of the Lotus Sutra, where it is uttered by the god Vaiśravaṇa.
Neither the founder of Shingon, Kōbō Daishi, nor the founder of Tendai, Saichō, mentioned the kuji in any of their writings. It may be assumed that they were unfamiliar with the kuji or only considered them as part of a minor teaching. Regardless, the nine syllables of the kuji have developed several correlations and associations with religious and philosophical aspects of Japanese esoteric Buddhism. They are associated with the five chakras (五輪, gorin), the five elements (五大, godai), certain directions of the compass, colors, and deities.
Variations on the ryōbu kuji
There are numerous variations of the nine original Taoist kuji in Japanese Buddhism. Most of these variations occurred well after the introduction of the kuji into Japan. Some, however, are other Taoist formulas taken from Taoist writings and Buddhist sutras. The kuji that is most often seen in the context of budo, or martial arts, and also in general, consists of the nine original Taoist syllables Rin Pyou Tou Sha Kai Chin Retsu Zai Zen ([Celestial] soldiers/fighters descend and arrange yourselves in front of me). The fact that the Taoist kuji are not seen in Japanese documents and writings until at least the 1500s, and then not extensively until around the Edo (1603-1868) and Meiji (1868-1912) periods indicates that they were either not extensively practiced, or taught as kuden (oral transmission). However, the fact that so many koryu list the kuji in their makimono indicates it must have been considered an essential teaching (goku-i). And the fact the kuji are listed in numerous kobudō makimono from the 1500s onward, is proof that the kuji were practiced by the bushi.
Significance of the number nine
Why the number nine is used has also been of concern to some. The number nine is seen in Taoist divination as the perfect number for yang/yo, the “bright side” when determining the individual hexagram lines according to the I-ching (Book of Changes). Some have suggested that the number nine refers to the nine planets, that the Taoist believe directly influence human destiny, or to the seven stars of the Big Dipper (Northern Seven Stars) plus the two attendant/guardian stars which Taoist believe is the gateway to heaven, and which each star is a Taoist deity. The Imperial Palace had nine halls, the celestial sphere has nine divisions, both in Buddhism and Taoism, heaven is 'nine enclosures' (chiu ch'ung). The nine submandalas of the Vajradhãtu-mandala correspond to the imperial city of Ch'ang-an. (Waterhouse, 1996)
Kuji no in (Hand seals of the Nine Syllables)
The Kuji-in (九字印), “Nine Hand Seals,” refers to the mudra (hand seals/gestures) associated with the nine syllables themselves, whereas kuji-ho refers to the entire ritual of kuji and encompasses the mudra, mantra and meditation. Kuji-kan (nine syllable visualization) is a specialized form of Buddhist meditation. Technically the word “Kuji no in” refers only to the hand postures (mudra), whereas “kuji no shingon” refers to the related incantations (mantra). There are hundreds of mudras in Shingon alone. Shugendō itself has hundreds of mudras, as does Taoism. Many of these mudras are shared; however, many are not. To further complicate this fact, there are also untold numbers of variations on a given mudra, and many mudras are associated with more than one deity or idea. Furthermore, a mudra may have more than one name, or one association depending on its purpose. Practitioners would be wise to keep this in mind when practicing kuji ho.
Yin/Yang and kuji
The dualistic influence of inyogoku (yin yang dualism) is apparent only in respects to the mudra of certain kuji rituals. As stated earlier the kuji in and of itself is a simple prayer. The obvious influences of onmyōdō (the way of Yin and Yang) is clearly seen in the mudra themselves which were added latter. Especially in regard to the first and last mudras, the mudras associated with the syllables "to" and "sha", "kai" and "jin". These mudras are obvious yin and yang counterparts. This is significant in that the concept of yin and yang is seen as encompassing all the cosmic phenomena, all eternity between the two polar opposites. The mudra gejishi-in (gesture of the outer lion) and its immediate counterpart naijishi-in (gesture of the inner lion) clearly represent this yin/yang relation. In fact, not only do these two related mudras represent the alpha and omega by themselves, but the two lions associated with them take this association a step further. The two lions are commonly seen outside the doors of Buddhist temples, where they stand as guardians against evil and baleful influences. The first lion utters the sound “A” which symbolizes the alpha, that all reality and phenomena are, in the tradition of mikkyō, said to neither absolutely exist, nor non-exist – they arise in dependence on conditions, and cease when those conditions cease. Whereas the second lion utters the sound “Un” (Hūm) which symbolizes the omega, the destruction of all evils; it summarizes the two basic false views of nihilism and externalism and shows them to be false. The truth of things is that they are neither real nor unreal. This description also applies to the next two mudra, gebbaku-in (gesture of the outer bond) and its immediate counterpart neibbaku-in (gesture of the inner bound). The first (dokko-in, kongōshin-in) and last mudra (hobyo-in, ongyō-in), occupy the two most important positions, the beginning and the end, again with relation to the Taoist and mikkyō points of view of the alpha and omega.
In relation to yin and yang theory, the yang aspect is the light, masculine, positive, offensive, absolute, horizontal, left, forward, upward. While the yin aspect is the dark, feminine, negative, defensive, relative, vertical, right, backward, down. (Waterhouse, 1996)
Ryobu kuji and the martial arts
Ku-ji ho as generally practiced in budo comes from text Sugen jinpi gyoho fuju shu or Fuju shu for short, a Shugendō document of the Tozan-ha lineage, edited between 1871 and 1934 by Nakuno Tatsue. The original compiler is unknown, but it appears to incorporate numerous Shugendō rituals from various Shingon sects such as Tachikawa-ryu. The text compilation of texts appears to span a time period from the 1200s on up to 1500s and 1600s. The Fuju shu lists 400 rituals, 26 of them kuji-ho. (Waterhouse, 1996).
The two particular techniques of ku-ji that are most directly related to budo, and most widely known are kuji hon-i (Fuju Shu #199) and kuji no daiji (Fuju Shu #200). These two kuji rituals are centered in the esoteric deities of Shingon mikkyo, the shirtenno (Four Heavenly Kings) and Godai myo-o (Five Wisdom Kings). Other groupings of deities exist as well depending on the sect and purpose of the kuji.
Kuji-kiri (Cutting the nine syllables)
The related practice of making nine cuts— five horizontal and four vertical, alternating — in the air or palm of a hand with the finger or on paper with a brush is known as kujikiri, nine syllable cuts. Kuji-kiri is explained in Shugendo texts, quite correctly, as a preparatory ritual of protection, to cut off demonic influences and their inki (vital substance) (Waterhouse, 1996). In Japanese folk-magic and onmyodo, the nine cuts are often made over writing or a picture, to gain control of the object named or pictured. Thus, a sailor wishing to be protected from drowning might write them over the kanji for "sea" or "water". Author and historian John Stevens notes that methods of oral sex using kuji-kiri were employed by practitioners of Tachikawa-ryu. The Fuju shu does not spell out every ritual in detail. However, in several of the kuji-kiri rituals it is spelled out that the strokes are made alternately horizontal and then vertical: five horizontal and four vertical for men; and four horizontal and five vertical for women. A modern Japanese text labeled Dai Marishi-Ten hiju/大摩利子天秘授 (Nine syllables of the Tactics of the Great Goddess of Light (Marishi-Ten)) says that five horizontal slashes are made while reciting the yo-syllables: rin, toh, kai, retsu, zen, which spells (come, fight, ready, line up, in front) first. These are to be followed by four vertical slashes while reciting the in-syllables: pyo, sha, jin, zai which spells (warriors, one formation, take position). The document gives no other information as to why this arrangement is used.
Kujiho in practice
Ku-ji itself is a very flexible practice that can be modified depending on the needs of the practitioner. The practice of ku-ji ho as found in Japanese esoteric Buddhism is a sanmitsu nenju (concentrated three mysteries practice), and as such, consists of several dependent, integrated practices. It can be practiced in the form of either of the two mandaras of esoteric Buddhism [mikkyo]. The Kongo-kai/金剛界 mandara (vajradhatu; Diamond Universe Nine Assemblies mandala) of Shingon Buddhism, or the Taizo-kai/胎蔵界 mandara (garbhakosa-dhatu; Womb mandala). It is also used by other Buddhist sects, especially in Japan; some Taoists and practitioners of Shinto and Chinese traditional religion; and in folk-magic throughout East Asia.
In general, simply offering incense, reciting the kuji with hands in gasho, and being mindful and present is sufficient to appease to Jia.
The Kuji-in practice symbolizes that all the forces of the universe are united against evil; because of this, it was often used by the common people for luck when traveling, especially in the mountains.
Mantra and mudra
In Japanese, the nine syllables are:
Rin (臨), Pyō (兵), Tō (闘), Sha (者), Kai (皆), Jin (陣), Retsu (列), Zai (在), Zen (前). If the nine cuts are then made, as is sometimes done, the syllable Kō (行) is sometimes spoken.
Note that the syllables are shortened forms, and there are also longer, Japanese mantra that go with the same mudra. As to why there appears to be no correlation between the mudra and mantra and the representative deities is unknown at this time. Also, many mantras end with the Sanskrit word o'ṃ (om). The meaning of o'ṃ is literally "to shout loudly", while the esoteric religious meaning is seen as the sacred name or essence of God and means "I am existence". It is used at the end of the invocation to the god being sacrificed to (anuvakya) as an invitation to and for that god to partake of the sacrifice.
divi
There is no indication of where this particular kuji ritual comes from. It seems to be one of more common forms of the Buddhist (possibly Shugendo) kuji. If the original source is discovered, it will be made available.
The mudra [hand postures] are as follows:
臨 (Rin): Hands together, fingers interlocked. The index (sometimes middle) fingers are raised and pressed together.
Mudra is, dokko-in/kongoshin-in, "seal of the thunderbolt."
Note: the mudra dokko-in is associated with Tammon-ten/Bishamon-ten. Whereas the mudra kongoshin-in is the mudra of Taishaku-ten (Indra)
Mantra is, On baishiramantaya sowaka. [All hail the glory of Vaiśravaṇa (The one who likes to hear the Dharma). o'ṃ] [Eng.]
Note: this is the mantra of Tamon-ten/多聞天 (a.k.a. Bishamon-ten) (Vaiśravaṇa)
兵 (Pyō): Hands together, pinkies and ring fingers interlocked (often on the inside). Index finger and thumb raised and pressed together, middle fingers cross over index fingers and their tips curl back to touch the thumbs' tips, the middle-fingers' nails touching.
Mudra is, daikongorin-in, "seal of the great thunderbolt."
Mantra is, On ishanaya intaraya sowaka. (All hail the instrument of divine righteousness, o'ṃ)
闘 (Tō): Hands together, index fingers cross each other to touch opposite ring fingers, middle fingers crossed over them. Ring and pinky fingers are straight. Tips of ring fingers pressed together, tips of pinkies pressed together, but both sets of ring and pinky fingers are separated to form a V shape or bird beak.
Mudra is, gejishi-in, "seal of the outer lion."
Note: this mudra is not found in Shingon. But is rather a Shugendo mudra.
Mantra is, On jiterashi itara "jiva"ratanō sowaka. [All hail the exultant and glorious celestial jewel, o'ṃ]
Note: this mudra is associated with the pair of lions which stand guard over Buddhist temples, in particular the lion who utters the sound "a", the alpha.
者 (Sha): Hands together, ring fingers cross each other to touch opposite index fingers, middle fingers crossed over them. Index finger, pinky and thumb straight, like American Sign Language "I love you".
Mudra is, naijishi-in, "seal of the inner lion."
Note: this mudra is not found in Shingon. But is rather a Shugendo mudra.
mantra is, On hayabaishiramantaya sowaka. (All hail the swift thunderbolt of exalted strength, virtue, and glory! o'ṃ)
Note: this mudra is associated with the pair of lions which stand guard over Buddhist temples, in particular the lion who utters the sound "Un" (hūṃ), the omega.
Note: The Sanskrit word haya as in the prefix of the god Hayagriva means "horse" (bato – Jpn.) and is used to denote the concept of "swift", "to ride", "to harness", Etc.
皆 (Kai): Hands together, fingers interlocked.
Mudra is, gebaku-in, "seal of the outer bonds."
Mantra is, On nōmaku sanmanda basaradan kan. [Homage to all-pervading diamond thunderbolts. Utterly crush and devour! o'ṃ] [Eng.]
Note: this is the "One Word Mantra/不動一字呪 of Fudo myo-O (Acalanatha)
Note: The Sanskrit bija/bonji (esoteric syllable) haṃ (Kan – Jpn.) is a concept that cannot be exactly defined. It is the bija of Hayagriva and also Acala, and symbolizes a divine weapon of sorts, like a vajra spear or vajra sword thrown or wielded against an enemy, and denotes something like "split", break", "devour", or "crush", referring to the devouring of all evils. The "ṃ" at the end with the anusvara (nasal) is the universal symbol.
陣 (Jin): Hands together, fingers interlocked, with the fingertips inside.
Mudra is, naibaku-in, "seal of the inner bonds."
Mantra is, On aganaya in maya sowaka. [All hail the glory of Agni (God of the Sacred Fire). o'ṃ!]
列 (Retsu): Left hand in an upward-pointing fist, index finger raised. Right hand grips index finger, and thumb is pressed onto left index's nail.
Mudra is, Chiken-in, "seal of the wisdom fist," also known as "seal of the interpenetration of the two realms."
Note: this is the primary mudra associated with Dainichi Nyorai (Vairocana)
Mantra is, On irotahi chanoga jiba tai sowaka. [All hail the radiant divine all-illuminating light, bursting and streaming forth in all directions, o'ṃ]
在 (Zai): Hands spread out in front, with thumb and index finger touching.
Mudra is, hokkai-jō-in, "seal of the ring of the Sun, Moon, and Earth."
Mantra is, On chirichi iba rotaya sowaka. (Glory to Divine perfection, o'ṃ)
前 (Zen): Hands form a circle, thumbs on top and fingers on the bottom, right hand overlapping left up to the knuckles.
Mudra: hobyo-in/ongyo-in "seal of the hidden form, mudra which conceals its form"
Note: The mudra hobyo-in is associated with Fugen Bosatsu (Samantabhadra) in the Kongo-Kai mandara, as well as Ichiji Kinrin. Whereas the mudra ongyo-in is a mudra associated with Marishi-Ten (Marici).
mantra: On a ra ba sha nō sowaka [All hail! A ra pa ca na. o'ṃ)
Note: this is mantra of Monju bosatsu (Mañjusri Bodhisattva)
Note: Each letter of this bija mantra is associated with some point of the Dharma, and all together are referred to as the syllable-doors (to the Dharma). The 'power' of these syllables is somewhat cryptically explained, but the point is that all of the reflections are pointing towards the nature of sunyata.
Note: There is no further translation to this mantra. It is composed entirely of bija/bonji and cannot be reduced any further.
Without any further information regarding this particular kuji ho the best guess is as follows:
臨/Rin: Tammon-Ten (Vaiśravaṇa)
兵/Pyō: ?
闘/Tō: ?
者/Shā: Bato myo-O (Hayagriva), Taishaku-Ten (Indra)
皆/Kai: Fudo myo-O (Acala)
陣/Jin: Ka-Ten (Agni)
列/Retsu: Dainichi Nyorai (Vairocana)
在/Zai: Marishi-Ten (Marici)
前/Zen: Monju bosatsu (Mañjusri)
Without further information no other conclusions can be made.
Meaning of kuji symbolism
The influence of Taoism is very apparent in the practice of ku-ji, in that there are yin/in and yang/yō aspects to ku-ji that must be taken into consideration by the practitioner. There are five yang/yō-syllables, and four yin/in-syllables. In onmyōdo philosophy yin/in is related to relative, to benefit self, defensive; yang/yō is absolute, to use against others, offensive. Thus, when looking at the implied meaning of the syllables in ku-ji it is apparent that the in-syllables are used to defend the self, and the yō-syllables are used to attack outside influences.
The yin and yang theory of kuji also carries over to kuji kiri. In kuji kiri the vertical strokes/slashes represent the yin/in syllables, while the horizontal strokes/slashes represent the yang/yo syllables. Thus, in kuji kiri the practitioner is first making an aggressive horizontal slash representing the first syllable which is a yang/yo which represents the absolute aspect or offensive nature of the deity. The second stroke/slash is defensive and represents the second syllable or relative aspect or defensive nature of the deity.
Often a tenth syllable is added at the end. Generally, it is the mata [syllable] for victory, or "to destroy".
Yang/Yō syllables [horizontal, absolute]
臨/Rin: come
闘/Tō: fight
皆/Kai: ready
列/Retsu: line-up
前/Zen: in front
Yin/In syllables [vertical, relative]
兵/Pyō: warriors
者/Shā: one
陣/Jin: formation
在/Zai: take position
Thus the essence of the meaning of the ku-ji can be roughly translated as,
Taoist: “May all those who preside over warriors be my vanguard.”
Japanese: "Come warriors, fight as one, ready in formation, line up and take position in front. Destroy/victory!"
Each of the nine syllables has a meaning that when integrated with the corresponding mudra, mantra, and visualization [corresponding deity] manifests sanmitsu kaji [grace, virtue, merit of the Three mysteries]. In general, it can be said that ku-ji is the harnessing and control of psychospiritual or psychophysical energies, and, or, of cosmic–universal spirits/deities/energies.
The deities most commonly called upon in mikkyo (esoteric Buddhism, Vajaryana-tantra) are deities of Hindu and Tantric origin, which are ultimately all emanations of Mahavairocana (Dainichi Nyorai). These deities are the shirtenno and the Godai myō-Ō, as well as Marishi-ten [Goddess of light], Nitten [Sun god], Bon-ten (Brahma), Ichiji Kinrin Bochto (Ekaksa-rosnisa-cakra, or Ekasara-buddhosnisa-cakra), and so on.
With relation to Japanese esoteric Buddhism [mikkyo], the yang/yō-syllables represent the shirtenno (Four Heavenly Kings), with the exception of the “kai” syllable which represents Fudo-myō-o. The yin/in-syllables represents the Godai myō-o. A simple look at the ku-ji and their relation to the prescribed deities shows a very logical pattern. The ku-ji and associated deities form a simple mandara, with Fudō myō-Ō at his rightful and proper place in the center, surrounded by the other four Myō at their respective locations, which comprises the inner sanctum–hall of the mandara. The shidaitenno being of a lower rank–office than the Myō, occupy the outer sanctum/hall of the mandara at their respective positions.
Fuju shu #199, kuji hon-i
Yō/yang syllables
臨/Rin: Tammon-ten/Bishamon-ten (Vaisravana – Skt.)
闘/Tō: Jikoku-ten (Dhrtarastra – Skt.)
皆/Kai: Fudo myō-o (Acalanatha -Skt.)
列/Retsu: Komoku-ten (Virūpākṣa – Skt.)
前/Zen: Zocho-ten (Virudhaka -Skt.)
In/yin syllables
兵/Pyō: Gonzanze myō-o/Shozonzae myo-o (Trailokyavijaya -Skt.)
者/Shā: Kongō-yaksha myō-o (Vajrayaksa – Skt.)
陣/Jin: Gundari myō-o (Kundali -Skt.)
在/Zai: Dai-itoku myō-o (Yamantaka -Skt.)
Fuju shu #200, kuji no daiji
This is the other kuji ho that most directly deals with the martial arts, the most direct being the above kuji hon-i.
Yō/yang syllables
臨/Rin: Tammon-ten/Bishamon-ten (Vaisravana – Skt.)
闘/Tō: Nyoirin
皆/Kai: Aizen Myo-O (Ragaraja)
列/Retsu: Amida Nyorai (Amitābha)
前/Zen: Monju bosatsu (Mañjuśrī)
In/yin syllables
兵/Pyō: Juichimen Kan'non (Ekadasa-mukha)
者/Shā: Fudosan (Ācalanātha)
陣/Jin: Sho Kan'non (Āryāvalokitesvara)
在/Zai: Miroku Bosatsu (Maitreya)
Other groupings of the ku-ji include:
A] Kujisuijaku [Nine Planets][Fuju Shu no. 197]
In Fuju #197 and #198 which relates to the nine planets and Seven Northern Stars, the purpose of the kuji-ho is to obtain protection, as well as longevity; and the correlations with the nine planets and Seven Northern Stars. The idea was to perform the ritual to remove bad or baleful influences which a particular star or stars might in exerting over at that time over a person in a particular age group, by converting it into an auspicious star, planet, and influence.
臨/Rin: Keitosei [Descending lunar node], southwest, Jizo bosatsu
兵/Pyō: Nichiyōsei [Sun], northeast, Sunday, Fudo myo-O
闘/Tō: Mokuyōsei [Jupiter], east, Thursday, Monju bosatsu
者/Shā: Kayōsei [Mars], south, Tuesday, Hachiman bosatsu
皆/Kai: Ragosei [Ascending lunar node], southeast, Dainichi Nyorai
陣/Jin: Doyōsei [Saturn], center, Saturday, Kan'non bosatsu
列/Retsu: Getsuyōsei [Moon], northwest, Monday, Fugen bosatsu
在/Zai: Kin-yōsei [Venus], west, Friday, Kokuzo bosatsu
前/Zen: Suiyōsei [Mercury], north, Wednesday, Seishi bosatsu
Note: if Myoken bosatsu is included at the end, kujisuijaku becomes jujisuijaku or ten stars/十曜星. Myoken is the primary deity of worship of the shukuyoo/宿曜 or nine constellations/planets.
B] Kujihonji [Northern Seven Stars (Big Dipper Ursa Major))] [Fuju Shu 198]
臨/Rin: Donrōshō/貪狼星; Nichirin Bosatsu; ; [Dubhe; Alpha Ursae Majoris (α UMa / α Ursae Majoris)]
兵/Pyō: Komoshō/巨門星; Gachirin Bosatsu; ; [Merak ; Beta Ursae Majoris (β UMa / β Ursae Majoris)]
闘/Tō: Rokuzonshō/禄存星; Kōmyōshō; [Phecda, Phekda or Phad; Gamma Ursae Majoris (γ UMa / γ Ursae Majoris)]
者/Shā: Monkokushō/文曲星; Zōchō Bosatsu; [Megrez; Delta Ursae Majoris (δ UMa / δ Ursae Majoris)]
皆/Kai: Renjōshō/簾貞星; Ekoshō Bosatsu; [Alioth; Epsilon Ursae Majoris (ε UMa / ε Ursae Majoris)]
陣/Jin: Mukokushō/武曲星; Jizō Bosatsu; Mizar; (ζ UMa / ζ Ursae Majoris)]
列/Retsu: Hagunshō/破軍星; Kongōshu Bosatsu (Fugen bosatsu) (Samantabhadra -Skt.); [Alkaid (or Elkeid) and Benetnash (Benetnasch); Eta Ursae Majoris (η UMa / η Ursae Majoris)]
Two attendant stars
在/Zai: Gatten; M101 [The Pin Wheel Galaxy] located to the north of Alkaid
前/Zen: Nitten; M51 [The Whirlpool Galaxy] located to the south of Alkaid
C] Zokushu
Zokushu is the earliest known Buddhist adaptation of the kuji. It is a kuji ritual based on Kakuban's formula, in which each of the kuji corresponds to a shuji/bonji/bija. However, instead of the original nine Taoist syllables, Kakuban created a new set of nine syllables based on the mantra of Amida Nyorai. There are in fact several zokushu rituals that Kakuban designed. The ritual itself is based on the deities Avalokitesvara [Kan'non bosatsu], and Amida buddha (Amitabha) as well as the nine deities of the inner sanctum of the Taizo-kai mandara/胎蔵界曼荼羅 (Garbhadhatu). Zokushu is based on Jodoshu [Pure land sect] and therefore the primary deity of worship is Amida Nyorai.
Zokushu #5
Zokushu #5 gives lists the nine original Taoist syllables and gives a corresponding Japanese syllable. The shuji themselves when placed in order of their corresponding kuji form no logical sentence or statement, and may represent Sanskrit bija, and, or Tantric deities, or it may be a prayer. Without further evidence, no other conclusions can be made.
臨/Rin: Ri
兵/Pyō: Na
闘/Tō: Tan
者/Shā: Sha
皆/Kai: Ku
陣/Jin: Chirin
列/Retsu: Raku
在/Zai: Rau
前/Zen: Ron
Ri-na-tan-sha-ku-chirin-raku-rau-ron
It is unclear how this set of kuji is related to the Sanskrit bija Kakuban gives for the primary zokushu kuji, which is the mantra of Amida buddha.
Um, a, mr, ta, te, je, ha, ra, hum
which compose the mantra,
Om amrta tese (teje) hara hum [Om to the elixir/nectar of immortality of most exalted virtues and noble strengths, to the heavenly queen Amida buddha, hum.] or [Om save us in the glory of the Deathless One hûm].
Another kuji formula is found in the writings of Jodo Shinshu, founded by Shinran, and is yet another mantra to Amida Nyorai which reads:
Na, mu, fu, ka, shi, gi, ko, nyo, rai
Which spells the mantra, Namu fukashigi-ko Nyorai (Homage to the Tathāgata [buddha] of inconceivable light.)
A juji formula is then given with the syllables,
Ki, myō, jin, jip, pō, mu, ge, kō, nyo, rai
This spells the mantra, Kimyo jinjippō mugekō Nyorai (Homage to the Tathāgata [buddha] whose light shines without obstruction universally in the ten directions!)
It may be that this juji ritual is based on, or connected to an older Taoist juji formula,
Ten-ryū-ko-ō-shō-ze-myō-ki-sui-dai
Kakuban then goes on to give a list of deities related to the mantra of Avalokiteśvara (Kan'non)
A: Avalokiteśvara (Kan'non Bosatsu)
Mŗ: Maitreya (Miroku Bosatsu)
Ta: Ākāśagarbha (Kokūzō Bosatsu/虚 空 蔵)
Te: Samantabhadra (Fugen Bosatsu)
Se: Vajrapani (Kongō shu bosatsu /金剛手菩薩. Vajrapani is associated with Acala who is venerated as Fudo-Myo and is serenaded as the holder of the Vajra
Ha: Manjusri (Monju Bosatsu)
Ra: Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin (Sarvanivāraṇaviṣkambhin)
Hūm: Ksitigarbha (Jizo Bosatsu)
Hrīh: Avalokiteśvara (Kan'non Bostsu)
Note: the deletion of the Om syllable in the beginning and addition of the Hrīh] syllable is an adaptation. Hrīh signifies the element metal and lungs. The placement of Avalokiteśvara at the beginning and end obviously signifies that the other deities are contained within Avalokiteśvara.
Rather these kuji and juji originated strictly within Japanese Buddhism is unlikely as Jodo Shinshu is, like many things in Japanese theology, influenced by Taoism. And it is also safe to assume that both Kakuban and Shinran would have been familiar with the various Taoist kuji and juji formulas. Rather or not their kuji and juji formulas are Japanese versions of Taoist formulas may never be known. However, what is clear is that they represent the earliest known use of the kuji and juji in Japanese esoteric Buddhism [mikkyo]. (Waterhouse, 1996)
Again, in the absences of further evidence no other conclusions can be made.
The same ritual goes on to give a list of related Taoist deities.
C.2]
臨/Rin: Taishi
兵/Pyō: Suzaku
闘/Tō: Bunno
者/Shā: Genbu
皆/Kai: Santei
陣/Jin: Byakko
列/Retsu: Gyokujo
在/Zai: Kyuchin
前/Zen: Seiryu
D] Shinto deities related to kuji
Lastly, in the late Edo jidai the kuji were practiced by various Shinto schools. And therefore, a set of correlations was developed between the kuji and various Shinto schools and related deities. Below is one such list belonging to a Shinto school in the Yamato region.
臨/Rin: Tensho Kodaijingu/ Amaterasu Omikami
兵/Pyō: Sho Hachiman Daijin
闘/Tō: Kasuga Daimyojin
者/Shā: Kamo Daimyojin
皆/Kai: Inari Daimyojin
陣/Jin: Sumiyoshi Daimyojin
列/Retsu: Tanyu Daimyojin
在/Zai: Nittenshi
前/Zen: Marishi-Ten (Marici -Skt.)
E] Tammon-Ten’s kaji kuji (Vaisravana’s nine syllable empowerment)
Another kuji prayer is outlined by the monk Nichiei (Nichiren), and is found in chapter 26 of the Lotus Sutra where it is uttered by the deva King of the North, Tammon-ten/Bishamon-ten (Vaisravana), and is said to guarantee protection to those who recite it.
The verse goes (CH 26 Lotus sutra):
"Thereupon, the devarāja Vaiśravaṇa, a world-protector, addressed the
Buddha, saying: “O Bhagavat! I will also teach a dhāraṇī out of pity for sentient beings and in order to protect expounders of the Dharma.”
He then recited a dhāraṇī, saying:
Aṭṭe naṭṭe vanaṭṭe anaḍe nāḍi kunaḍi (Skt.); (Ryo-hyaku-yu-jun-nai-mu-sho-sui-gen)(Jpn.)
“O Bhagavat! With this mantra-dhāraṇī I protect the expounders of the
Dharma; I will also protect those who hold to this sutra. All heavy cares shall
be banished for a hundred yojanas around.” [Cause all feeble sickness to be naught a distance of a hundred yojans (approximately 1,000 miles/1,600 km)]
F]Jioku-ten's kaji kuji (Dhṛtarāṣṭra's nine syallable empowerment)
Also in chapter 26 of the Lotus Sutra immediately following Vaiśravaṇa, the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra (Jioku-Ten) Guardian of the eastern quarter announces a kuji in Sanskrit to complement Vaiśravaṇa's dharani. The verse goes:
"At that time the devarāja Dhṛtarāṣṭra the great Heavenly King and Upholder of the Nation was present in the assembly, respectfully surrounded by millions upon million of myriads of koṭis of nayutas of gandharvas.
He came before the Buddha together with them and addressed the Buddha
with his palms pressed together, saying: “O Bhagavat! With a mantra-dhāraṇī
I will also protect those who hold to the Lotus Sutra.”
He then recited the dhāraṇī, saying:
Agni Gauri gandhāri caṇḍāli matangi jaṅguli vrūsaṇi agasti."
“O Bhagavat! This mantra-dhāraṇī was spoken by forty-two koṭis of
buddhas. Anyone who attacks or slanders an expounder of the Dharma also
attacks or slanders these buddhas."
Conclusion
As it should be apparent, the kuji are a very adaptable ritual which has, and will likely continue to be, adapted to the local needs of the individual or organization. In so long as the overall structure of esoteric practice is understood, that being the practice of sanmitsu, then the kuji can be adopted to fit almost any need.
Meanings in Shinto
Each word is translated to the following meaning for Shinto.
Rin: To face.
Pyō: The soldier.
Tō: To fight.
Sha: The man (or the people); a foe
Kai: The all, or the whole effect, or whole effort.
Jin: In Formation, or position in camp or to prepare.
Retsu: To move in column or a row, in a line; or marching, or to focus.
Zai: To appear, or to exist to make yourself known, or create existence.
Zen: To be in front, or show up in front.
Kuji-in is used as part of a ritual in Shinto, and is used to purify a person with a waterfall.
Meanings in Buddhism
Each word is translated to the following meaning in Buddhism.
Rin, To confront
Pyō, To soldier on
Tō, To battle with
Sha, Against one/person
Kai, With everyone/entire/group
Jin, The formation
Retsu, In a row
Zai, To presence
Zen, To move forward
There as many as 81 variations to the Kuji-in within certain sects of Buddhism in Japan, to say nothing of other mudra that are also used.
Meanings in Ninjutsu
While the kuji-in have no unique relation to ninjutsu, the ninja traditions are steeped in esoteric Buddhist beliefs, especially Mikkyo. The kuji-in, known here as Kuji-kiri, are used in a number of their meditations, both those related simply to their religious practice and those dealing with their martial arts; in some ways, they are used similarly to the Taoist ideas in Chinese internal martial arts (some of the ideas of Chinese internal arts are, however, incorporated in many Japanese arts, including ninjutsu and jujutsu). In his book Ninja Vol. II: Warrior Ways of Enlightenment, Stephen K. Hayes claims the following interpretations:
Rin – Strength
Pyō – Channel
Tō – Harmony
Sha – Healing
Kai – Sense of Danger
Jin – Reading of thoughts
Retsu – Control of space and time
Zai – Control of sky and elements
Zen – Enlightenment
The kuji-in are a tool to be used in meditation, and are frequently over-simplified in popular culture as being a form of magic. This belief, along with the use of the mudra and mantra, has been further popularized by Tekken, Tenchu, Dead or Alive and certain neo-ninja games. The lines of the Chinese poem, compounding the syllables, reads "Nozomeru Hei, tatakau mono, kaijin wo hari, retsu wo tukutte, mae ni ari".
See also
Kuji-kiri
Mudra
Glossary of Shinto
Glossary of Japanese Buddhism
Om
Katsu (Zen)
References
Further reading
Ninja Volume 2: Warrior Ways of Enlightenment by Stephen K. Hayes
External links
Buddhist meditation
Buddhist martial arts
Hand gestures
Taoist practices
Shugendō
Vajrayana |
4554433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Battalion%2C%206th%20Marines | 1st Battalion, 6th Marines | The 1st Battalion, 6th Marines (1/6) is an infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps based in Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. It consists of approximately 1,100 marines and sailors. They fall under the command of the 6th Marine Regiment, the 2nd Marine Division of the II Marine Expeditionary Force (II MEF).
Subordinate units
Headquarters and Services Company – "Hawkeye"
Alpha Company – "Apache"
Bravo Company – "Black Foot"
Charlie Company – "Cold Steel"
Weapons Company – "Warrior"
History
World War I (1917–1919)
Activated on 11 July 1917 at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, as the 1st Battalion, 6th Marine Regiment. 1/6 deployed to France from September to October 1917 and was assigned to the 4th Brigade, 2nd Division (Army), American Expeditionary Force. For the actions at Belleau Wood, Soissons, and Blanc Mont, the 6th Marine Regiment was awarded the French Croix de Guerre three times. As a result, the regiment is authorized to wear the fourragère of the Croix de Guerre (seen in the unit's logo), one of only two units in the Marine Corps so honored, (the other being the 5th Marine Regiment). The fourragère thereafter became part of the uniform of the unit. All members of the modern 6th Marines are authorized to wear the fourragère while serving with the regiment. (World War One Victory Medal, Army Occupation of Germany Medal, French Croix de guerre)
The battalion participated in the following World War I campaigns:
Aisne
Aisne-Marne
St. Mihiel
Meuse-Argonne
Along with the following defensive campaigns:
Touln-Troyon
Chateau-Thierry
Marabache
Limey
1/6 participated in the Occupation of the Rhineland from December 1918 to July 1919. After the war the battalion relocated to Quantico, Virginia in August 1919 and was deactivated on 20 August 1919.
1922 – 1934
The battalion was reactivated on 12 June 1922 and participated in maneuvers at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. From June–July 1922, it was assigned to the Marine Corps Expeditionary Force.
In June 1924 1/6 deployed to the Dominican Republic and Guantanamo Bay, Cuba participating in expeditionary operations until September 1925. The unit returned to Norfolk, Virginia, and was deactivated on 1 October 1925. (Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal)
On 29 March 1927, 1/6 was reactivated in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in May 1927, 1/6 deployed to Shanghai, China and was assigned to 3rd Brigade. The battalion was again deactivated in March 1929 in San Diego, California
Yangtze River Valley (1934–1938)
On 9 September 1934, at Norfolk, Virginia, 1/6 relocated to San Diego during September and October 1934 and then deployed to Shanghai in China in August 1937 where it was assigned to the 2nd Marine Brigade, Fleet Marine Force. The battalion returned to San Diego during February to April 1938. (Yangtze Service Medal, China Service Medal)
World War II (1939–1946)
On 1 February 1941, the 2nd Marine Brigade was re-designated as the 2nd Marine Division, Fleet Marine Force (FMF). In anticipation of joining the war 1/6 deployed during May to July 1941 to Reykjavík, Iceland and was reassigned to the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade.
1/6 relocated during March 1942 to San Diego and were reassigned to the 2nd Marine Division, FMF. From October to November 1942 it deployed to Wellington in New Zealand. During the course of World War II the battalion fought at Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Saipan, Tinian and Okinawa.
The 6th Marines landed at Guadalcanal on 4 January 1943 where it was briefly reunited with the 2nd and 8th Marines. The 6th Marines, fighting as part of a temporary Army-Marine division after the bulk of the 2nd Marine Division departed, participated in the final American offensive on Guadalcanal advancing from Kokumbona to Cape Esperance and eliminating the last remaining enemy forces. The 6th Marines suffered 223 casualties (53 killed in action or died of wounds, 170 wounded in action), during its six weeks on the "Canal".
During the Battle of Tarawa, the 6th Marines was the V Amphibious Corps' floating reserve. The assault waves stormed ashore on 20 November 1943 but ran into stiff opposition. Casualties were so heavy that the entire division reserve was committed on the first day. The 6th Marines was ordered ashore the following morning. The 1st and 3rd Battalions landed across Betio's Green Beach and were ordered to drive the length of the island, the 2nd Battalion was used as a blocking force on nearby Bairiki Island. Betio was declared secure after 76 bloody hours. The 1st and 3rd Battalions were re-located to a new rest camp in Hawaii, but the 2nd Battalion stayed on to clear the rest of the atoll. The 6th Marines suffered 355 casualties (99 dead, 256 wounded) and received a Presidential Unit Citation for its actions on Tarawa.
The regiment next participated in the Battle of Saipan and the Tinian operation. The regiment landed under heavy fire at Saipan's Red Beach on 15 June. This was the most difficult assault landing in regimental history; two of the three battalion commanders were seriously wounded in the first minutes ashore. Early the next morning, the 6th Marines repulsed several tank-supported counterattacks that saved the beachhead. Machine gunner PFC Harold G. Epperson sacrificed his own life by diving on a grenade on 25 June and received a posthumous Medal of Honor for that action. The regiment then drove north up the west side of the island through the coastal town of Garapan and on toward Tanapag, where the Marines faced the largest Japanese "Banzai" attack of the war.
The next battle for the regiment was at Tinian on 25 July and joined the rest of the 2nd Marine Division as it elbowed its way down the island until reaching the escarpment that marked Tinian's southern tip on 1 August. It took three days of tough fighting to reduce the final enemy stronghold. During that fighting, PFC Robert L. Wilson covered a live grenade with his body to protect his comrades and earned a posthumous Medal of Honor. The regiment lost 34 killed and 165 wounded in ten days on Tinian.
In September 1945, the unit deployed to Nagasaki where it participated in the Occupation of Japan from September 1945 to June 1946. (Presidential Unit Citation, American Defense Service Medal, European-African-Middle East Campaign Medal, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, World War II Victory Medal, Navy Occupation Medal)
Cold War (1946–1990)
In July 1946, 1/6 relocated to Camp Pendleton, California and was reassigned to the 3rd Marine Brigade, FMF. In July 1947, it was reassigned to the 1st Marine Division and deactivated on 1 October 1947. On 7 October 1949 1/6 was reactivated at the Marine Corps Base at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina and was assigned to the 2nd Marine Division. Unit personnel subsequently deployed at various times as the Battalion Landing Team 1/6 in Okinawa, the Mediterranean and the Caribbean.
In 1958, 1/6 participated in Operation Blue Bat during the 1958 Lebanon Crisis.(Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal)
In 1962, 1/6 participated in the Cuban Missile Crisis in October and November 1962 (Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal)
In 1965, 1/6 participated in the Intervention in the Dominican Republic from April to June 1965 in support of Operation Powerpack. (Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal)
On 21 April 1967, a military coup overthrew the elected government of Greece. Navy units were immediately alerted and directed to the Ionian Sea. Two Battalion Landing Teams (BLT 3/8, and BLT 1/6) were in the Mediterranean at the time, because of a turn-over; both were active in the operation, which involved a show of force and a contingency (stand-by) evacuation response.
The Six-Day Arab-Israeli War of June 1967 caused the Marine Amphibious Ready Group (BLT 1/6) to be put on alert for possible operations. On 6 June, two carrier task forces moved closer to the fighting, while four days later, President Johnson ordered a high-speed carrier movement toward Syria to facilitate a cease-fire agreement.
On 1 September 1969, a coup overthrew the Libyan monarchy. At the same time, conditions were very unsettled in Lebanon, leading to the 22 October resignation of the Lebanese Prime Minister. Contingency forces in the period 26–30 October included two carrier task forces and the Mediterranean Amphibious Ready Group (MARG) with BLT 1/6 embarked.
From January to July 1989 elements of Charlie Company 1/6 deployed to Panama with 6th Marine Regiment in support of Operation Just Cause. (Navy Unit Commendation, Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, Multinational Force and Observers Medal)
(National Defense Service Medals awarded for active duty service during Korean War 27 June 1950 to 27 July 1954 and war Vietnam War 1 January 1961 to 14 August 1974, Navy Unit Commendation awarded 1986–1987, Sea Service Deployment Ribbons Awarded for deployments for a period of either 90 consecutive days or two periods of at least 80 days each within a given 12-month period; or 6 months stationed overseas in a forward deployed location, 15 August 1974– Present)
Persian Gulf War (1990–1991)
The battalion participated in Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm in 1991. The battalion was already deployed to Okinawa since July 1990, then on to Saudi Arabia via amphibious ships with the 4th MEB. After extensive training and attaching to the 2nd Marine Division upon their arrival in December, they were ready to fight. The battalion provided valuable information to the Division since they had been in country since September and was pleased to rejoin their higher command, the 6th Marine Regt. The 6th Marines was commanded by Col Lawrence H. "Rhino 6" Livingston, a highly decorated Vietnam Veteran, winning the Navy Cross, Silver Star, four Bronze stars and five purple hearts respectively. Lt Col Thomas S. Jones, who command 1/6 was a decorated combat veteran of Vietnam himself and had served an exchange tour with the 42 Commando British Royal Marines, was well suited for the task at hand. He was well respected throughout the battalion and the Regiment as well. At 0600 on 24, 1/6 February quickly closed on the first of the obstacle belts which consisted of two minefield and wire obstacles. The Combat Engineer Battalion opened the lanes using the mine clearing line charges and then mine plows as best as they could. Various types of mines were encountered, but were expected. Plastic antipersonnel and antitank mines would slide back into the lanes as the AAVs with infantry Marines inside and the CAAT teams advanced to the objective. Under indirect and direct fire from the enemy, the battalion fought through two mine fields and also had to quickly go to MOPP level 4, responding to the alarm of chemical agent of "mustard gas" detected by the "Fox" chemical reconnaissance vehicle. After the first day of fighting, hundreds of Iraqis on the front line surrendered, many of them had to be "convinced" to give up the fight or die. Along with the Army's Tiger Brigade (Tanks), 1st Battalion, 6th Marines destroyed many enemy tanks, armored personnel carriers, bunkers, and enemy ground troops who did not understand the fact that, Marines take the fight to the enemy, hard and heavy. (Navy Unit Commendation, National Defense Service Medal, Southwest Asian Service, Kuwait Liberation Medal Kuwait, Kuwait Liberation Medal Saudi Arabia)
Operation Sea Signal (1994)
From July 1994 to October 1994 under Joint Task Force 160, 1/6 participated in Operation Sea Signal a United States Military humanitarian operation in the Caribbean in response to an influx of Cuban and Haitian migrants attempting to gain asylum in the United States. (Joint Meritorious Unit Award, Humanitarian Service Medal)
Operation Pacific Haven (1996-1997)
While on a six-month deployment to Okinawa, Japan elements of 1st Battalion 6th Marines were called upon to support the Ground Combat Element, Marine Component, Joint Task Force (JTF) Pacific Haven on the island of Guam. Operation Pacific Haven was activated in September 1996 to provide humanitarian assistance to over 2,500 Kurds evacuated from Northern Iraq seeking asylum and eventual entry into the U.S. From 2 December 1996 to 19 March 1997, Bravo Company 1/6 was assigned to the Tiyan housing area in Guam to provide security and support the overflow of Kurdish evacuees. (Joint Meritorious Unit Award, Humanitarian Service Medal)
Kosovo Campaign (1999)
1st Battalion 6th Marines participated in Operation Noble Anvil in Kosovo from January to April 1999. Also known as the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia or Operation Allied Force, the bombing killed around 1,000 members of the Yugoslav security forces. It destroyed bridges, industrial plants, barracks and military installations. Throughout the air campaign, 1/6 attached to the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit was poised in the Aegean and Adriatic Seas to conduct Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Personnel (TRAP) missions in support of combat operations had U.S. or NATO aircrews required assistance. While in the Aegean, 1/6 participated in humanitarian assistance efforts in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to assist Kosovar refugees with food, water, shelter and medical aid. In the days after the Yugoslav army withdrew, over 164,000 Serbs and 24,000 Roma left Kosovo and many of the remaining non-Albanian civilians (as well as Albanians perceived as collaborators) were victims of abuse which included beatings, abductions, and murders. (Navy Unit Commendation, Kosovo Campaign Medal, NATO Medal Kosovo)
Global War on Terrorism (2001–2021)
(National Defense Service Medal and Global War on Terrorism Service awarded for active service during Global War on Terrorism from 11 September 2001 to Present)
In 2004, 1st Battalion 6th Marines deployed as the ground combat element of the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit to Oruzgan Province in Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. (Navy Unit Commendation, Afghanistan Campaign Medal, NATO Medal ISAF)
In 2005, 1/6 deployed to Fallujah, Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. (Iraq Campaign Medal)
In 2006–2007 1/6 deployed to Ar Ramadi, Iraq, where they participated in the Battle of Ramadi. (Navy Unit Commendation, Iraq Campaign Medal)
In 2007, 1/6 became Battalion Landing Team 1/6, attached to the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit and provided reserve support in 5th and 6th Fleet for Operations Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom. (Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal)
In 2008, 1/6 deployed to Helmand Province in Afghanistan between February and September in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. During its tasking, the battalion reinforced British and Afghan forces in the Helmand Province campaign. Most combat operations took place in the Taliban-held town of Garmsir. (Meritorious Unit Commendation, Afghanistan Campaign Medal, NATO Medal ISAF)
In December 2009 1/6 deployed again to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. This was part of the 20,000-troop increase approved just a week before by President Barack Obama, originally ordered by George W. Bush. On 13 February 2010, 1/6 took part in the invasion of Marjah in Helmand Province, known as Operation Moshtarak, and was the first Afghan-led operation of the war. The invasion began with members of Alpha and Bravo companies inserting via CH-53 Super Stallion helicopters with approximately 300 Marines and Afghan soldiers and Charlie company using mobile forces to clear and hold a major portion of the city. By 14 June 2010, 1/6's advanced party had returned to the US and by late July the entire battalion was back from the deployment. (Presidential Unit Citation, Navy Unit Commendation, Afghanistan Campaign Medal, NATO Medal ISAF)
In 2011, 1/6 again deployed to Helmand Province and engaged in Operation Eastern Storm, in an effort to clear Sangin and Kajaki Districts of Taliban insurgents, while Charlie Company supported 3rd Battalion 6th Marines in the Marjah district of Afghanistan. (Afghanistan Campaign Medal, NATO Medal ISAF)
In 2014 1/6 deployed as the ground element of the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit as the Bataan Amphibious Ready Group (BATARG) located in the 5th and 6th Fleet in support of Operation Inherent Resolve and the evacuation of the US embassy in Tripoli by 3rd Battalion 8th Marines(Operation Oaken Lotus). After the evacuation of the US embassy in Tripoli the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit’s deployment was extended to support ongoing operations in Iraq, and Syria. Detachments of Marines were sent to Iraq to reinforce the US embassy in Baghdad, and support special operations forces in Kurdistan.(Navy Unit Commendation, Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal)
In 2015, 1/6 participated in BALTOPS (Baltic Operations), an annual exercise with allied NATO forces in Poland, Sweden, Germany, and the Baltic States.
Operation Odyssey Lightning: In 2016, 1st Battalion 6th Marines deployed as the ground combat element of the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit. Aboard the , , and , Marines conducted precision strikes in support of the Libyan Government of National Accord-aligned forces against ISIS and Daesh targets in Sirte, Libya, as part of the Battle of Sirte (2016). Before joining the operation in Libya, elements of 1/6 aboard the USS San Antonio came under attack as it moved through the Bab al-Mandeb strait on the southern end of the Red Sea while conducting operations in support of Operation Enduring Freedom-Horn of Africa, Operation Restoring Hope, and Operation Oaken Steel. Shortly after the attacks, the destroyed three radar sites in Yemen in retaliation for the two separate attacks on U.S. ships in the Red Sea. This was credited as the first surface naval battle since the Persian Gulf War. Members of the 22nd MEU received the Presidential Unit Citation and Combat Action Ribbons for operations in Libya and Yemen. (Navy Unit Commendation, Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal)
Operation Inherent Resolve: In September 2017 elements of 1st Battalion 6th Marines deployed to Syria with 1st Battalion 10th Marines as a part of Combined Joint Task Force-Operation Inherent Resolve in order to support operations against ISIS militants in the Battle of Raqqa. (Joint Meritorious Unit Commendation, Navy Unit Commendation, Inherent Resolve Campaign Medal)
In 2018, 1/6 deployed as part of the Black Sea Rotational Force (18.1) postured in Mihail Kogălniceanu Air Base, Romania, which enabled the continuation of promoting regional stability, and building and maintaining enduring partnerships with allied and partner nations. 1/6 also sent Marines to Norway to train with allied NATO forces for a potential cold-weather fight with North Korea or Russia. Upon completion of their training the Marines of 1/6 had their deployment extended due to Hurricane Florence preventing them from returning to Camp Lejeune on schedule. (Navy Arctic Service Ribbon)
In 2020, 1st Battalion, 6th Marine Regiment deployed under the Unit Deployment Program to Camp Schwab, Okinawa, Japan under 3rd Marine Division. (Meritorious Unit Commendation)
In 2021, 1st Battalion, 6th Marine Regiment participated in Exercise Sea Breeze 2021 a multinational maritime exercise, involving sea, land, and air components, and is co-hosted by the United States and Ukraine to enhance interoperability and capability among participating forces in the Black Sea region.
On August 18, 2021; Bravo Company and other elements from the 1st Battalion, 6th Marine Regiment deployed aboard the USS Arlington (LPD 24) in U.S. 4th Fleet area of operations off the coast of Haiti in support of Joint Task Force-Haiti, following a 7.2-magnitude earthquake that struck Haiti on August 14. They returned on September 6. (Humanitarian Service Medal)
Honors and awards
The 1st Battalion 6th Marines has been awarded the following:
Presidential Unit Citation Streamer with Bronze star
World War II Tarawa – 1943
Afghanistan 2009–2010
Joint Meritorious Unit Award
Operation Sea Signal
Operation Pacific Haven
Operation Inherent Resolve 2017
Navy Unit Commendation Streamer with Silver Star and Bronze Star
Panama – 1989
Southwest Asia – 1990–1991
Kosovo – 1999
Afghanistan – 2004, 2010
Iraq – 2006 – 2007
BLT 1/6 2014
BLT 1/6 2016
OIR 1/6 C - 2017
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation Streamer with Bronze Star
1986–1987
Afghanistan 2008
1/6 UDP 2020
World War I Victory Streamer with five Bronze Stars
Army of Occupation of Germany streamer
Yangtze Service Streamer
China Service Streamer
Marine Corps Expeditionary Streamer with two Bronze Stars
American Defense Service Streamer with one Bronze Star
European – African – Middle Eastern Campaign Streamer
Asiatic – Pacific Campaign Streamer with one Silver And One Bronze Star
World War II Victory Streamer
Navy Occupation Service Streamer With "Asia" And "Europe"
National Defense Service Streamer with three Bronze Stars
Armed Forces Expeditionary Streamer With one Bronze star
South West Asia Service Streamer with two Bronze Stars
Kosovo Campaign Streamer with on Bronze Star
Global War on Terrorism Service Streamer
Afghanistan Campaign Streamer with three Bronze Stars
Iraq Campaign Streamer with three Bronze Stars
Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Streamer
Inherent Resolve Campaign Streamer
French Croix de guerre With Two Palms And One Gilt star, allowing the members to wear a Croix de guerre Fourragère.
See also
Organization of the United States Marine Corps
List of United States Marine Corps battalions
The Battle for Marjah
Operation Asbury Park
Notes
References
Bibliography
Web
1/6's official website
Infantry battalions of the United States Marine Corps |
4554684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1860s%20in%20association%20football | 1860s in association football | The following are events in the 1860s decade which are relevant to the development of association football. Included are events in closely related codes, such as the Sheffield Rules. All events happened in English football unless specified otherwise.
There was constant discussion about the rules throughout this decade and several codes were in use. The Football Association (the FA) was founded in 1863 and its rules eventually prevailed. Points at issue among the various associations included offside, the throw-in, the corner kick, the crossbar and the now-obsolete touch down. Among the clubs founded in the 1860s were Notts County, Nottingham Forest, Queen's Park FC, Sheffield Wednesday, Stoke City and Kilmarnock.
Events
1860
Foundation of Hallam FC, local rivals of Sheffield FC.
31 January – Sheffield FC revised its rules to ban all methods of handling the ball except by a fair catch. The 1858 rules had allowed players to control the ball by hand as long as they did not hold and carry it.
26 December – The first match between Hallam FC and Sheffield FC took place at Hallam's Sandygate Road ground under the Sheffield Rules. The fixture remains the oldest in world football.
1861
October – Sheffield FC modified its rules governing the goal kick and the throw-in.
14 December – An article in The Field called for a common code of football. It inspired Charles Thring, an Uppingham School teacher, in his efforts to create such a code. He was strongly opposed to the Rugby School version of football and championed a strict offside law.
28 December – The Field published a letter from Thring in which he outlined his ideas for the "very first principles of football" including offside, use of a round ball and goals to be scored by kicking the ball under (not over) the crossbar.
1862
31 January – A new version of the Sheffield Rules introduced the rouge (borrowed from the Eton field game) as a tiebreaker. Goal dimensions were specified for the first time with two goal "sticks" twelve feet apart and a crossbar (or tape) nine feet above the ground. The change of ends at half-time was introduced but it only happened if a goal had been scored. There was still no offside law.
1 October – Following correspondence throughout the year, Charles Thring published a pamphlet called The Rules of Foot-ball: The Winter Game. Revised for the use of schools. It proposed a set of laws for what Thring called "The Simplest Game".
Unknown date – Foundation of Notts County, recognised as the world's oldest professional football club. County began as a "gentlemen-only" club and played a form of football that has been loosely termed the Nottingham Rules.
1863
Summer – Ahead of the 1863–64 season, Sheffield FC adopted a "single player" offside rule which required that there must be at least one defending player between the goal and the first attacking player (or level with him).
Monday, 26 October – In an effort to resolve the common rules issue, representatives of twelve clubs and schools in the London area met at the Freemasons' Tavern, in Great Queen Street. The meeting was organised by Ebenezer Cobb Morley, founder of Barnes FC, for the purpose of "forming an Association with the object of establishing a definite code of rules for the regulation of the game". The Football Association was founded with eleven clubs joining at the outset.
26 October to 8 December – The new FA held a total of six meetings to try and determine the rules of play. They envisaged a game played primarily with the feet and banned running with the ball in hand. Hacking was also forbidden. They did allow the fair catch, however, and as in Sheffield this earned a free kick. The bans on handling and hacking led to the withdrawals of both Blackheath and Richmond who, along with other clubs which favoured Rugby rules, formed the Rugby Football Union in 1871. The game created by the FA became known as association football to distinguish it from rugby football.
1864
7 December – Having been founded as an ad hoc team in 1862, Notts County was formally established as Notts FC.
1865
2 January – Sheffield FC went to Nottingham to play their first match outside the Sheffield area, against Notts FC. The game was eighteen-a-side under the local Nottingham Rules.
Unknown date – Foundation of Nottingham Forest by shinty players at the Clinton Arms pub on Shakespeare Street in Nottingham.
1866
22 February – At its Annual General Meeting (AGM), the FA formulated their second version of the Laws of the Game. These included the introductions of both the three-man offside rule and the crossbar (then a tape) with the stipulation that the ball must pass beneath it for a goal. Although the touchdown was temporarily retained, the resultant conversion was abolished as was the clean catch to earn a free kick.
22 March – First Nottingham derby between Forest and County.
31 March – The London v Sheffield match was played under FA rules in Battersea Park, London. The London team, captained by Arthur Pember, was representative and won by two goals and four touchdowns to nil.
October to December – Analysis of the sporting press has revealed that a total of 122 known matches were played in and around London during this period (the total rose to 170 in the same three months of 1867).
1867
12 February – Opening of the Youdan Cup in Sheffield as the world's first-ever organised tournament in any code of football. Twelve local clubs took part, playing under the Sheffield Rules: Broomhall, Fir Vale, Garrick, Hallam (winners), Heeley, Mackenzie, Mechanics, Milton, Norfolk, Norton, Pitsmoor and Wellington. Sheffield FC declined to take part.
26 February – At its AGM, the FA abolished the touchdown and placed additional limitations on handling. The new FA Secretary, R. G. Graham undertook to correspond with all known clubs throughout England in an effort to increase membership which totalled only ten clubs.
5 March – The Youdan Cup Final was played at Bramall Lane between Hallam and Norfolk. The score was nil-all in goals but Hallam won by two rouges (touchdowns) to one.
March – The Sheffield & Hallamshire County Football Association was formed by Sheffield FC and the twelve clubs that had competed in the Youdan Cup. This is the world's second-oldest football association after the FA itself. The new association took immediate ownership of the Sheffield Rules and issued its own first version. Sheffield & Hallamshire teams played under the Sheffield Rules until 1877 when they adopted the FA rules.
20 June – The first recorded football match in Argentina was played at Parque Tres de Febrero, Palermo, Buenos Aires, by two teams of British railway workers.
9 July – Foundation of Queen's Park FC in Glasgow. It is the oldest Scottish association football club.
4 September – Foundation of Sheffield Wednesday at the Adelphi Hotel in Sheffield by members of the Wednesday Cricket Club who wanted to play a winter sport to maintain fitness. The team played its first match on 19 October. The club was known as Wednesday Football Club until 1929 when they added Sheffield to their name.
19 October – Chesterfield F.C. was formed as an offshoot of Chesterfield Cricket Club in October 1867.
West Kent Football Club were founded in 1867 by a core of Old Rugbeians including Arthur Guillemard. Playing at Chislehurst Common, they first played football using both Association rules and Rugby School rules.
1868
February – The second oldest football tournament in the world, the Cromwell Cup, was played under the Sheffield Rules. The four clubs taking part were Sheffield Wednesday (the winners), Exchange, Garrick and Wellington.
1 August – Queen's Park played their first competitive match against the now-defunct Thistle FC and won 2–0.
October – An early version of the corner kick was included in the Sheffield Rules at the request of Norfolk F.C. It differed significantly from the modern version in that it could be awarded to either side depending on who played the ball over the goal-line. There was an exception in that if the ball went directly over the crossbar, and regardless of who played it last, the decision was a goal-kick by the defending team. The FA adopted the Sheffield version of the corner kick in 1872.
October – Stoke Ramblers FC, which may have been founded up to five years previously by former pupils of Charterhouse School who were employed at the North Staffordshire Railway works, played their first documented match against E. W. May's XV. The club became Stoke FC in 1878 and then Stoke City in 1925 after Stoke-on-Trent was granted city status. Stoke City claim to have been founded in 1863 but lack documented proof of any activity before the match in 1868 and, in 2019, the English Football League (EFL) declared that Nottingham Forest (founded 1865) was the EFL's oldest club ahead of the 2019–20 season, Notts County having been relegated to the National League.
1869
5 January – Foundation of Kilmarnock FC, the second-oldest club in Scotland. As would happen on numerous future occasions, the club was formed by a group of local cricketers looking for a sporting pursuit to keep themselves fit and active outside of the cricket season.
It was about this time that tactics first became evident in football with the designation of positions to appropriate players. This probably began in Scotland when, ahead of an 1869 game against Hamilton Gymnasium F.C., the Queen's Park captain Robert Gardner distributed cards to his colleagues which showed each of them where and how he must play. The Scots soon developed the 2-2-6 formation with fullbacks recognised as distinct from forwards, while halfbacks began to emerge in a sort of midfield role. Forwards, however, still played in a pack to support the man in possession. Dribbling remained the key skill but there was no sign yet of a passing game to use the full width of the field. Queen's Park was the first team to play a passing game a few years later.
Births
Unknown
c.1860 – Michael Paton (d. unknown), Scotland international full back in five matches (1883–1886).
c.1862 – John Marshall (d. unknown), Scotland international in four matches (1885–1887).
c.1869 – James Hamilton (d. unknown), Scotland international in three matches, scoring three goals (1892–1893).
c.1869 – William Thomson (d. unknown), Scotland international in four matches (1892–1898).
1860
4 March – Eadie Fraser (d. 1886), Scotland international in five matches, scoring four goals (1880–1883).
28 August – James McAulay (d. 1943), Scotland international goalkeeper in nine matches (1882–1887).
unknown date – Arthur Dunn (d. 1902), England international in four matches (1883–1892).
unknown date – William Anderson (d. unknown), Scotland international in six matches, scoring three goals (1882–1885).
unknown date – Robert Calderwood (d. unknown), Scotland international in three matches, scoring three goals (1885).
1861
3 January – Jack Yates (d. 1917), England international forward in one match (1889), scoring three goals and so one of the five England players to score a hat-trick on his only international appearance.
9 January – Howard Vaughton (d. 1937), England international in five matches (1882–1894), scoring six goals.
February – Alf Jones (d. 1935), England international in three matches (1882–1883).
4 March – William Rose (d. 1937), England international goalkeeper in five matches (1884–1891).
12 May – Walter Arnott (d. 1931), Scotland international right back in 14 matches (1883–1893).
16 June – Arthur Bambridge (d. 1923), England international in three matches (1881–1884).
22 June – Leitch Keir (d. 1922), Scotland international in four matches (1886–1888).
9 October – William Harrower (d. 1910), Scotland international in three matches, scoring four goals (1882–1886).
1862
7 January – John Auld (d. 1932), Scotland international in three matches (1887–1889).
13 January – John Forbes (d. 1928), Scotland international in five matches (1884–1887).
20 February – Clement Mitchell (d. 1937), England international in five matches (1880–1885), scoring five goals.
31 July – Jimmy Brown (d. 1922), England international in five matches (1881–1885), scoring three goals.
30 August – John Brodie (d. 1925), England international in three matches (1889–1891).
26 September – Charles Heggie (d. 1925), Scotland international in one match, scoring four goals (1886).
unknown date – John Lindsay (d. 1932), Scotland international goalkeeper in three matches (1888–1893).
1863
4 February – Nevill Cobbold (d. 1922), England international in nine matches (1883–1887), scoring six goals.
14 February – Herbie Arthur (d. 1930), England international goalkeeper in seven matches (1885–1887).
16 February – Ralph Aitken (d. 1928), Scotland international in two matches (1886–1888).
13 April – Charlie Mason (d. 1941), England international in three matches (1887–1890).
30 April – David Allan (d. 1930), Scotland international in three matches, scoring two goals (1885–1886).
19 June – John Goodall (d. 1942), England international in 14 matches (1888–1898), scoring twelve goals.
31 August – Billy Crone (d. 1944), Ireland international player (1882–1890, 12 matches) and coach (1897).
10 September – Ralph Squire (d. 1944), England international in three matches, all in 1886.
30 September – Percy Melmoth Walters (d. 1936), England international in 13 matches (1885–1890).
7 November – Alex Higgins (d. 1920), Scotland international in one match, scoring three goals (1885).
28 November – Dennis Hodgetts (d. 1945), England international in six matches (1888–1894).
16 December – Fred Dewhurst (d. 1895), England international in nine matches (1886–1889), scoring eleven goals.
1864
13 May – Frank Shaw (d. unknown), Scotland international in two matches (1884).
24 June – Jimmy Forrest (d. 1925), England international in eleven matches (1884–1890).
1 August – Benjamin Spilsbury (d. 1938), England international in three matches (1885–1886), scoring five goals.
17 August – James Adams (d. 1943), Scotland international in three matches (1889–1893).
17 October – George Haworth (d. 1943), England international in five matches (1887–1890).
4 November – William Johnstone (d. 1950), Scotland international in three matches (1887–1890).
28 December – Thomas Robertson (d. 1924), Scotland international in four matches (1889–1892).
unknown date – Dan Doyle (d. 1918), Scotland international in eight matches (1892–1898).
1865
26 January – Arthur Melmoth Walters (d. 1941), England international in nine matches (1885–1890).
2 March – James McCall (d. 1925), Scotland international in five matches, scoring two goals (1886–1890).
12 March – Tommy Clare (d. 1929), England international full-back in four matches (1889–1894).
10 April – Johnny Holt (d. 1937), England international in ten matches (1890–1900), scoring eight goals.
14 April – Joe Lofthouse (d. 1919), England international in seven matches (1885–1890), scoring three goals.
23 April – George Brann (d. 1954), England international in three matches (1886–1891).
11 June – Jake Madden (d. 1948), Scotland international in two matches, scoring five goals (1893–1895).
20 June – Bob Howarth (d. 1938), England international in four matches (1886–1894).
July – Alexander Hamilton (d. unknown), Scotland international in four matches (1885–1888).
11 September – Alf Shelton (d. 1923), England international in six matches (1889–1892).
2 October – Bob Kelso (d. 1950), Scotland international in seven matches (1885–1898).
15 October – Bob Smellie (d. unknown), Scotland international in six matches (1887–1893).
15 October – James Kelly (d. 1932), Scotland international in eight matches (1888–1896).
27 October – Tinsley Lindley (d. 1940), England international in 13 matches (1886–1891), scoring 14 goals and held the England international goal scoring record from 1888 to 1898.
1866
3 January – Charlie Perry (d. 1927), England international in three matches (1890–1893).
19 January – Harry Allen (d. 1895), England international in five matches (1888–1890).
7 February – Willie Paul (d. 1911), Scotland international in three matches, scoring five goals (1888–1890).
16 February – Frank Watt (d. unknown), Scotland international in four matches, scoring three goals (1889–1891).
12 March – John McLeod (d. 1953), Scotland international goalkeeper in five matches (1888–1893).
5 April – Harry Daft (d. 1945), England international in five matches, scoring three goals (1889–1892).
29 April – David Mitchell (d. 1948), Scotland international in five matches (1890–1894).
27 August – William Dickson (d. 1910), Scotland international in one match, scoring four goals (1888).
18 September – Samuel Johnston (d. 1910), youngest-ever Ireland international at 15 years 154 days; played in five matches (1882–1886) and scored two goals.
21 September – William Sellar (d. 1914), Scotland international in nine matches, scoring four goals (1885–1893).
6 October – Jimmy Turner (d. 1903), England international in three matches (1893–1898).
9 October – Charles Wreford-Brown (d. 1951), England international in four matches (1889–1898).
29 October – Ned Doig (d. 1919), Scotland international goalkeeper in five matches (1887–1903).
27 November – George Kinsey (d. 1936), England international in four matches (1892–1896).
11 December – Jack Southworth (d. 1956), England international in three matches, scoring three goals (1889–1892).
unknown date – James Allan (d. 1945), Scotland international in two matches, scoring two goals (1887).
unknown date – James Wilson (d. 1900), Scotland international in four matches (1888–1891).
1867
1 April – Albert Allen (d. 1899), England international forward in one match (1888), scoring three goals and so one of the five England players to score a hat-trick on his only international appearance.
23 June – Bob Holmes (d. 1955), England international in seven matches (1888–1895).
2 July – Bob Boyd (d. 1930), Scotland international in two matches, scoring two goals (1889–1891).
20 August – William Berry (d. 1919), Scotland international in four matches (1888–1891).
1 September – Alex Latta (d. 1928), Scotland international in two matches, scoring two goals (1888–1889).
19 December – Arthur Henfrey (d. 1929), England international in five matches, scoring two goals (1891–1896).
unknown date – Daniel McArthur (d. 1943), Scotland international in three matches (1895–1899).
1868
3 January – Jimmy Oswald (d. 1948), Scotland international in three matches (1889–1897).
23 January – Fred Geary (d. 1955), England international forward in two matches (1890–1891), scoring three goals, all on his debut.
25 January – Neil Munro (d. 1948), Scotland international in two matches, scoring two goals (1888–1889).
4 April – George Cotterill (d. 1950), England international in four matches, scoring two goals (1891–1893).
14 April – John Willie Sutcliffe (d. 1947), England international goalkeeper in five matches (1893–1903).
4 June – Isaac Begbie (d. 1958), Scotland international in four matches (1890–1894).
7 June – Billy Moon (d. 1943), England international goalkeeper in seven matches (1888–1891).
15 June – Cunliffe Gosling (d. 1922), England international in five matches, scoring two goals (1892–1895).
16 June – Jimmy Cowan (d. 1918), Scotland international in three matches (1896–1898).
19 June – John McPherson (d. 1926), Scotland international in nine matches, scoring six goals (1888–1897).
26 June – Harry Wood (d. 1951), England international in three matches (1890–1896).
7 August – Rupert Sandilands (d. unknown), England international in five matches, scoring three goals (1892–1896).
11 August – Fred Pelly (d. 1940), England international in three matches (1893–1894).
20 August – Willie Groves (d. 1908), Scotland international in three matches, scoring four goals (1888–1890).
30 October – Donald Sillars (d. 1905), Scotland international in five matches (1891–1895).
18 December – John Lambie (d. 1923), Scotland international in three matches (1886–1888).
1869
27 January – Billy Bassett (d. 1937), England international in 16 matches, scoring eight goals (1888–1896).
21 February – Jack Reynolds (d. 1917), international half back for both Ireland (1890–1891, 5 matches) and England (1892–1897, 8 matches); won three FA Cup winners medals with West Bromwich Albion and Aston Villa.
26 February – Olphert Stanfield (d. 1952), Ireland international forward in 30 matches (1887–1897), scoring eleven goals; the most-capped international of the 19th century.
4 March – Davie Baird (d. 1946), Scotland international in three matches (1890–1892).
18 March – Hughie Wilson (d. 1940), Scotland international in four matches (1890–1904).
14 June – Edgar Chadwick (d. 1942), England international in seven matches, scoring three goals (1891–1897).
28 June – John Barker (d. 1941), Scotland international in two matches, scoring four goals (1893–1894).
19 July – John Veitch (d. 1914), England international forward in one match (1894), scoring three goals and so one of the five England players to score a hat-trick on his only international appearance.
22 July – Walter Gilliat (d. 1963), England international forward in one match (1893), scoring three goals and so one of the five England players to score a hat-trick on his only international appearance.
23 July – Albert Smith (d. 1921), England international in three matches (1891–1893).
6 October – Jack Bell (d. unknown), Scotland international in ten matches, scoring five goals (1890–1900).
20 October – Alex Keillor (d. 1960), Scotland international in six matches, scoring two goals (1891–1897).
1 November – Fred Wheldon (d. 1924), England international in four matches, scoring six goals (1897–1898).
unknown date – James Sharp (d. unknown), Scotland international in five matches (1904–1909).
References
Bibliography
Association football by decade |
4554716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration%20with%20Nazi%20Germany%20and%20Fascist%20Italy | Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy | In World War II, many governments, organizations and individuals collaborated with the Axis powers, "out of conviction, desperation, or under coercion." Nationalists sometimes welcomed German or Italian troops, believing they brought liberation from colonization. The Danish, Belgian, and Vichy French governments attempted to appease or bargain with the invaders, in hopes of mitigating harm to their citizens and economies. Some countries cooperated with Italy and Germany because they wanted to regain territory lost during and after the First World War or which their nationalist citizens simply coveted. Others, such as France, already had strong fascist movements and/or anti-semitic sentiment, which the invaders validated and empowered. Individuals such as Hendrik Seyffardt in the Netherlands and Theodoros Pangalos in Greece saw collaboration as a path to power in their country. Others believed that Germany would prevail, and either wanted to be on the winning side, or feared being on the losing one.
Axis military forces recruited many volunteers, often with promises they later broke, or from among POWs trying to escape appalling conditions in their camps. Other volunteers freely enlisted because they subscribed to Nazi or fascist ideology.
In France the term "collaborationist" was coined for those who collaborated for ideological reasons. Bertram Gordon, a professor of modern history, also used the terms "collaborationist" and "collaborator" for ideological and non-ideological collaboration. Elsewhere, "collaboration" described cooperation, sometimes passive, with a victorious power.
Stanley Hoffmann saw collaboration as either involuntary, a reluctant recognition of necessity, or voluntary, opportunistic, or greedy. He also categorized collaborationism as "servile", attempting to be useful, or "ideological", full-throated advocacy of the occupier's ideology.
Collaboration in Western Europe
Belgium
Belgium was invaded by Nazi Germany in May 1940 and occupied until the end of 1944.
Political collaboration took separate forms across the Belgian language divide. In Dutch-speaking Flanders, the Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond (Flemish National Union or VNV), clearly authoritarian and anti-democratic and influenced by fascist ideas, as part of the pre-war Flemish Movement, became a major player in the German occupation strategy. VNV politicians were promoted to positions in the Belgian civil administration. VNV and its comparatively moderate stance was increasingly eclipsed later in the war by the more radical and pro-German DeVlag movement.
In French-speaking Wallonia, Léon Degrelle's Rexist Party, a pre-war authoritarian and Catholic Fascist political party, became the VNV's Walloon equivalent, although Rex's Belgian nationalism put it at odds with the Flemish nationalism of VNV and the German Flamenpolitik. Rex became increasingly radical after 1941 and declared itself part of the Waffen-SS.
Although the pre-war Belgian government went into exile in 1940, the Belgian civil service remained in place for much of the occupation. The Committee of Secretaries-General, an administrative panel of civil servants, although conceived as a purely technocratic institution, has been accused of helping to implement German occupation policies. Despite its intention to mitigate harm to Belgians, it enabled but could not moderate German policies such as the persecution of Jews and deportation of workers to Germany, although it did manage to delay the latter to October 1942. Encouraging the Germans to delegate tasks to the Committee allowed much more efficient implementation than could have been achieved by force. Since Belgium depended on Germany for food imports, the committee was always at a disadvantage in negotiations.
The Belgian government in exile criticized the committee for helping the Germans. The Secretaries-General were also unpopular within Belgium itself. In 1942, journalist Paul Struye described them as "the object of growing and almost unanimous unpopularity." As the face of the German occupation authority, they became unpopular with the public, which blamed them for the German demands they implemented.
After the war, several of the Secretaries-General were tried for collaboration. Most were quickly acquitted. , the former secretary-general for internal affairs, was sentenced to twenty years imprisonment, and Gaston Schuind, Judicial Police of Brussels, was sentenced to five. Many former secretaries-general had careers in politics after the war. Victor Leemans served as a senator from the centre-right Christian Social Party (PSC-CVP) and became president of the European Parliament.
Belgian police have also been accused of collaborating, especially in the Holocaust.
Towards the end of the war, militias of collaborationist parties actively carried out reprisals for resistance attacks or even assassinations. Those assassinations included leading figures suspected of resistance involvement or sympathy, such as Alexandre Galopin, head of the Société Générale, assassinated in February 1944. Among the retaliatory massacres of civilians was the Courcelles massacre, in which 20 civilians were killed by the Rexist paramilitary for the assassination of a Burgomaster, and a massacre at Meensel-Kiezegem, where 67 were killed.
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands were the only British territory in Europe occupied by Nazi Germany. The policy of the islands' governments was what they called "correct relations" with the German occupiers. There was no armed or violent resistance by islanders to the occupation. After 1945 allegations of collaboration were investigated. In November 1946, the UK Home Secretary informed the UK House of Commons that most allegations lacked substance. Only twelve cases of collaboration were considered for prosecution, and the Director of Public Prosecutions ruled them out for insufficient grounds. In particular, it was decided that there were no legal grounds for proceeding against those alleged to have informed the occupying authorities against their fellow citizens.
On the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, laws were passed to retrospectively confiscate the financial gains made by war profiteers and black marketeers.
After liberation, British soldiers had to intervene to prevent revenge attacks on women thought to have fraternized with German soldiers.
Denmark
When on 9 April 1940, German forces invaded neutral Denmark, they violated a treaty of non-aggression signed the year before, but claimed they would "respect Danish sovereignty and territorial integrity, and neutrality." The Danish government quickly surrendered and remained intact. The parliament maintained control over domestic policy. Danish public opinion generally backed the new government, particularly after the Fall of France in June 1940.
Denmark's government cooperated with the German occupiers until 1943, and helped organize sales of industrial and agricultural products to Germany. The Danish government enacted a number of policies to satisfy Germany and retain the social order. Newspaper articles and news reports "which might jeopardize German-Danish relations" were outlawed and on 25 November 1941, Denmark joined the Anti-Comintern Pact. The Danish government and King Christian X repeatedly discouraged sabotage and encouraged informing on the resistance movement. Resistance fighters were imprisoned or executed; after the war informants were sentenced to death.
Prior to, during and after the war Denmark enforced a restrictive refugee policy; it handed over to German authorities at least 21 Jewish refugees who had managed to cross the border; 18 of these people died in concentration camps, including a woman and her three children. In 2005 prime minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen officially apologized for these policies.
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, German authorities demanded the arrest of Danish communists. The Danish government complied, directing the police to arrest 339 communists listed on secret registers. Of these, 246, including the three communist members of the Danish parliament, were imprisoned in the Horserød camp, in violation of the Danish constitution. On 22 August 1941, the Danish parliament passed the Communist Law, outlawing the Communist Party of Denmark and also communist activities, in another violation of the Danish constitution. In 1943, about half of the imprisoned communists were transferred to Stutthof concentration camp, where 22 of them died.
Industrial production and trade were, partly due to geopolitical reality and economic necessity, redirected towards Germany. Many government officials saw expanded trade with Germany as vital to maintaining social order in Denmark. It was feared that increased unemployment and poverty could lead to civil unrest, resulting in a crackdown by the Germans. Unemployment benefits could be denied if jobs were available in Germany, so an average of 20,000 Danes worked in German factories through the five years of the war.
The Danish cabinet, however, rejected German demands for legislation discriminating against Denmark's Jewish minority. Demands for a death penalty were likewise rebuffed and so were demands to give German military courts jurisdiction over Danish citizens and for the transfer of Danish army units to the German military.
France
Vichy France
World War I hero Marshal Philippe Pétain became the head of the post-democratic French State, governed not from Paris but from Vichy, when the French Third Republic collapsed after the Battle of France. Prime minister Paul Reynaud resigned rather than sign the resulting armistice agreement. The National Assembly then gave Pétain absolute power to call a constituent assembly (constitutional convention) to write a new constitution. Pétain, instead used his plenary powers to establish the authoritarian French State (l'État Français).
Pierre Laval and other Vichy ministers initially prioritized saving French lives and repatriating French prisoners of war. The illusion of autonomy was important to Vichy, which wanted at costs to avoid direct rule by the German military government.
German authorities implicitly threatened to replace the Vichy administration with explicitly pro-Nazi leaders such as Marcel Déat and Jacques Doriot, who were permitted to operate, publish and criticize Vichy for insufficiently enthusiastic cooperation with Germany. These parties collaborated in organizing and recruiting the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism to fight alongside German forces on the Eastern Front.
French workers for Germany
Vichy initially agreed, for every repatriated French prisoner-of-war, to send three French volunteers to work in German factories. When this program (la relève) didn't draw enough workers to please the Reich, Vichy began to conscript French citizens into the Service du travail obligatoire (STO; English: compulsory labour service).
Many workers joined the French Resistance rather than report for the STO, which had made the occupation personal for young French people, who began to disappear into forests and mountain wildernesses to join the maquis (rural Resistance).
Vichy collaboration in the Holocaust
Long before the Occupation, France had had a history of native anti-Semitism and philo-Semitism, as seen in the controversy over the guilt of Alfred Dreyfus (from 1894 to 1906). Historians differ how much of Vichy's anti-Semitic campaigns came from native French roots, how much from willing collaboration with the German occupiers and how much from simple (and sometimes reluctant) cooperation with Nazi instructions.
Pierre Laval was an important decision-maker in the extermination of Jews, the Romani Holocaust, and of other "undesirables." Following an increasingly restrictive series of anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic measures. such as the Second law on the status of Jews, Vichy opened a series of internment camps in France — such as one at Drancy — where Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, and political opponents were interned. The French police directed by René Bousquet, under increasing German pressure, helped to deport 76,000 Jews (both directly and via the French camps) to Nazi concentration and extermination camps.
In 1995, President Jacques Chirac officially recognized the responsibility of the French state for the deportation of Jews during the war, in particular, the more than 13,000 victims, of whom only 2,500 survived, of the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup of July 1942, in which Laval decided, of his own volition, to deport children along with their parents. Bousquet also organized the French police to work with the Gestapo in the massive Marseille roundup (rafle) that decimated a whole neighbourhood in the Old Port.
Estimates of how many of France's Jews (about 300,000 at the start of the Occupation) died in the Holocaust range from about 60,000 (≅ 20%) to about 130,000 (≅ 43%).
Aftermath
As the Liberation spread across France in 1944–45, so did the so-called Wild Purges (Épuration sauvage). Resistance groups took summary reprisals, especially against suspected informers and members of Vichy's anti-partisan paramilitary, the Milice. Unofficial courts tried and punished thousands of people accused (sometimes unjustly) of collaborating and consorting with the enemy. Estimates of the numbers of victims differ, but historians agree that the number will never be fully known.
As a formal legal order returned to France, the informal purges were replaced by l'Épuration légale (legal purge). The most notable, and most demanded, convictions were those of Pierre Laval, tried and executed in October 1945, and Marshal Philippe Pétain, whose 1945 death sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment on the Bréton Yeu, where he died in 1951.
Several decades later, a few surviving ex-collaborators such as Paul Touvier were tried for crimes against humanity. René Bousquet was rehabilitated and regained some influence in French politics, finance and journalism, but was nonetheless investigated in 1991 for deporting Jews. He was assassinated in 1993 just before his trial would have begun. Maurice Papon served as prefect of the Paris police under President de Gaulle (thus bearing ultimate responsibility for the Paris massacre of 1961) and, 20 years later, as Budget Minister under President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, before Papon's 1998 conviction and imprisonment for crimes against humanity in organizing the deportation of 1,560 Jews from the Bordeaux region to the French internment camp at Drancy.
Other collaborators such as Émile Dewoitine also managed to have important roles after the war. Dewoitine was eventually named head of Aérospatiale, which created the Concorde airplane.
Luxembourg
Luxembourg was invaded by Nazi Germany in May 1940 and remained under German occupation until early 1945. Initially, the country was governed as a distinct region as the Germans prepared to assimilate its Germanic population into Germany itself. The Volksdeutsche Bewegung (VdB) was founded in Luxembourg in 1941 under the leadership of Damian Kratzenberg, a German teacher at the Athénée de Luxembourg. It aimed to encourage the population towards a pro-German position, prior to outright annexation, using the slogan Heim ins Reich. In August 1942, Luxembourg was annexed into Nazi Germany, and Luxembourgish men were drafted into the German military.
Monaco
During the Nazi occupation of Monaco, the Monaco police arrested and turned over 42 Central European Jewish refugees to the Nazis while also protecting Monaco's own Jews.
Netherlands
The Germans re-organized the pre-war Dutch police and established a new Communal Police, which helped Germans fight the country's resistance and to deport Jews. The National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands (NSB) had militia units, whose members were transferred to other paramilitaries like the Netherlands Landstorm or the Control Commando. A small number of people greatly assisted the German in their hunt for Jews, including some policemen and the Henneicke Column. Many of them were members of the NSB. The column alone was responsible for the arrest of about 900 Jews.
Norway
In Norway, the national government, headed by Vidkun Quisling, was installed by the Germans as a puppet regime during the German occupation, while king Haakon VII and the legally elected Norwegian government fled into exile. Quisling encouraged Norwegians to volunteer for service in the Waffen-SS, collaborated in the deportation of Jews, and was responsible for the executions of members of the Norwegian resistance movement.
About 45,000 Norwegian collaborators joined the fascist party Nasjonal Samling (National Union), and about 8,500 of them enlisted in the Hirden collaborationist paramilitary organization. About 15,000 Norwegians volunteered on the Nazi side and 6,000 joined the Germanic SS. In addition, Norwegian police units like the Statspolitiet helped arrest many of Jews in Norway. All but 23 of the 742 Jews deported to concentration camps and death camps were murdered or died before the end of the war. Knut Rød, the Norwegian police officer most responsible for the arrest, detention and transfer of Jewish men, women and children to SS troops at Oslo harbour, was later acquitted during the legal purge in Norway after World War II in two highly publicized trials that remain controversial.
Nasjonal Samling had very little support among the population at large and Norway was one of few countries where resistance during World War II was widespread before the turning point of the war in 1942–43.
After the war, Quisling was executed by firing squad. His name became an international eponym for "traitor".
Collaboration in Eastern Europe
Albania
After the Italian invasion of Albania, the Royal Albanian Army, police and gendarmerie were amalgamated into the Italian armed forces in the newly created Italian protectorate of Albania.
The Albanian Fascist Militia formed after the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939. In the Yugoslav part of Kosovo, it established the Vulnetari (or Kosovars), a volunteer militia of Kosovo Albanians. Vulnetari units often attacked ethnic Serbs and carried out raids against civilian targets. They burned down hundreds of Serbian and Montenegrin villages, killed many people, and plundered the Kosovo and neighboring regions.
Baltic states
The three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, first invaded by the Soviet Union, were later occupied by Germany and incorporated, together with the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic of the U.S.S.R. (Belarus, see below), into Reichskommissariat Ostland.
Estonia
In German plans, Estonia was to become an area for future German settlements, as Estonians themselves were considered high on the Nazi racial scale, with potential for Germanization. Unlike the other Baltic states, the seizure of Estonian territory by German troops was relatively long, from July 7 to December 2, 1941. This period was used by the Soviets to carry out a wave of repression against Estonians. It is estimated that the NKVD's subordinate Destruction battalions killed some 2,000 Estonian civilians, and 50–60,000 people were deported deep into the USSR. 10,000 of them died in the GULAG system within a year. Many Estonians fought against Soviet troops on the German side, hoping to liberate their country. Some 12,000 Estonian partisans took part in the fighting. Of great importance were the 57 Finnish-trained members of the Erna group, who operated behind enemy lines.
Resistance groups were organised by Germans in August 1941 into the Omakaitse (), which had between 34,000 and 40,000 members, mainly based on the Kaitseliit, dissolved by the Soviets. Omakaitse was in charge of clearing the German army's rear of Red Army soldiers, NKVD members, and Communist activists. Within a year its members killed 5,500 Estonian residents. Later, they performed guard duty and fought Soviet partisans flown into Estonia. From among Omakaitse members were recruited Estonian policemen, members of the Estonian Auxiliary Police and officers of the Estonian 20th Waffen-SS Division.
The Germans formed a puppet government, the Estonian Self-Administration, headed by Hjalmar Mäe. This government had considerable autonomy in internal affairs, such as filling police posts. The Security Police in Estonia (SiPo) had a mixed Estonian-German structure (139 Germans and 873 Estonians) and was formally under the Estonian Self-Administration. Estonian police cooperated with Germans in rounding up Jews, Roma, communists and those deemed enemies of existing order or asocial elements. The police also helped to conscript Estonians for forced labor and military service under German command. Most of the small population of Estonian Jews fled before the Germans arrived, with only about a thousand remaining. All of them were arrested by Estonian police and executed by Omakaitse. Members of the Estonian Auxiliary Police and 20th Waffen-SS Division also executed Jewish prisoners sent to concentration and labor camps established by the Germans on Estonian territory.
Immediately after entering Estonia, the Germans began forming volunteer Estonian units the size of a battalion. By January 1942, six Security Groups (battalions No. 181-186, about 4,000 men) had been formed and were subordinate to the Wermacht 18th Army. After the one-year contract expired, some volunteers transferred to the Waffen-SS or returned to civilian life, and three Eastern Battalions (No. 658-660) were formed from those who remained. They fought until early 1944, after which their members transferred to the 20th Waffen-SS Division.
Beginning in September 1941, the SS and police command created four Infantry Defence Battalions (No. 37-40) and a reserve and sapper battalion (No. 41-42), which were operationally subordinate to the Wermacht. From 1943 they were called Police Battalions, with 3,000 serving in them. In 1944 they were transformed into two infantry battalions and evacuated to Germany in the fall of 1944, where they were incorporated into the 20th Waffen-SS Division.
In the fall of 1941, the Germans also formed eight police battalions (No. 29-36), of which only Battalion No. 36 had a typically military purpose. However, due to shortages, most of them were sent to the front near Leningrad, and were mostly disbanded in 1943. That same year, the SS and police command created five new Security and Defense Battalions (they inherited No. 29-33 and had more than 2,600 men). In the spring of 1943, five Defence Battalions (No. 286-290) were established as compulsory military service units. The 290th Battalion consisted of Estonian Russians. Battalions No. 286, 288 and 289 were used to fight partisans in Belarus.
On Aug. 28, 1942, the Germans formed the volunteer Estonian Waffen-SS Legion. Of the approximately 1,000 volunteers, 800 were incorporated into Battalion Narva and sent to Ukraine in the spring of 1943. Due to the shrinking number of volunteers, in February 1943 the Germans introduced compulsory conscription in Estonia. Born between 1919 and 1924 faced the choice of going to work in Germany, joining the Waffen-SS or Estonian auxiliary battalions. 5,000 joined the Estonian Waffen-SS Legion, which was reorganized into the 3rd Estonian Waffen-SS Brigade.
As the Red Army advanced, a general mobilization was announced, officially supported by Estonia's last Prime Minister Jüri Uluots. By April 1944, 38,000 Estonians had been drafted. Some went into the 3rd Waffen-SS Brigade, which was enlarged to division size (20th Waffen-SS Division: 10 battalions, more than 15,000 men in the summer of 1944) and also incorporated most of the already existing Estonian units (mostly Eastern Battalions). Younger men were conscripted into other Waffen-SS units. From the rest, six Border Defense Regiments and four Police Fusilier Battalions (Nos. 286, 288, 291, and 292).
The Estonian Security Police and SD, the 286th, 287th and 288th Estonian Auxiliary Police battalions, and 2.5–3% of the Estonian Omakaitse (Home Guard) militia units (between 1,000 and 1,200 men) took part in rounding up, guarding or killing of 400–1,000 Roma and 6,000 Jews in concentration camps in the Pskov region of Russia and the Jägala, Vaivara, Klooga and Lagedi concentration camps in Estonia.
Guarded by these units, 15,000 Soviet POWs died in Estonia: some through neglect and mistreatment and some by execution.
Latvia
Deportations and murders of Latvians by the Soviet NKVD reached their peak in the days before the capture of Soviet-occupied Riga by German forces. Those that the NKVD could not deport before the Germans arrived were shot at the Central Prison. The RSHA's instructions to their agents to unleash pogroms fell on fertile ground. After the Einsatzkommando 1a and part of Einsatzkommando 2 entered the Latvian capital, Einsatzgruppe A's commander Franz Walter Stahlecker made contact with Viktors Arājs on 1 July and instructed him to set up a commando unit. It was later named Latvian Auxiliary Police or Arajs Kommandos. The members, far-right students and former officers were all volunteers, and free to leave at any time.
The next day, 2 July, Stahlecker instructed Arājs to have the Arājs Kommandos unleash pogroms that looked spontaneous, before the German occupation authorities were properly established. Einsatzkommando-influenced mobs of former members of Pērkonkrusts and other extreme right-wing groups began pillaging and making mass arrests, and killed 300 to 400 Riga Jews. Killings continued under the supervision of SS Brigadeführer Walter Stahlecker, until more than 2,700 Jews had died.
The activities of the Einsatzkommando were constrained after the full establishment of the German occupation authority, after which the SS made use of select units of native recruits. German General Wilhelm Ullersperger and Voldemārs Veiss, a well known Latvian nationalist, appealed to the population in a radio address to attack "internal enemies". During the next few months, the Latvian Auxiliary Security Police primarily focused on killing Jews, Communists and Red Army stragglers in Latvia and in neighbouring Byelorussia.
In February–March 1943, eight Latvian battalions took part in the punitive anti-partisan Operation Winterzauber near the Belarus–Latvia border, which resulted in 439 burned villages, 10,000 to 12,000 deaths, and over 7,000 taken for forced labor or imprisoned at the Salaspils concentration camp. This group alone killed almost half of Latvia's Jewish population, about 26,000 Jews, mainly in November and December 1941.
The creation of the Arājs Kommando was "one of the most significant inventions of the early Holocaust", and marked a transition from German-organised pogroms to systematic killing of Jews by local volunteers (former army officers, policemen, students, and Aizsargi). This helped with a chronic German personnel shortage and provided the Germans with relief from the psychological stress of routinely murdering civilians. By the autumn of 1941, the SS had deployed the Latvian Auxiliary Police battalions to Leningrad, where they were consolidated into the 2nd Latvian SS Infantry Brigade. In 1943, this brigade, which later became the 19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Latvian), was consolidated with the 15th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Latvian) to become the Latvian Legion. Although the Latvian Legion was a formally volunteer Waffen-SS unit, it was voluntary only in name; approximately 80–85% of its men were conscripts.
Lithuania
Prior to the German invasion, some leaders in Lithuania and in exile believed Germany would grant the country autonomy, as they had the Slovak Republic. The German intelligence service Abwehr believed that it controlled the Lithuanian Activist Front, a pro-German organization based at the Lithuanian embassy in Berlin. Lithuanians formed the Provisional Government of Lithuania on their own initiative, but Germany did not recognize it diplomatically, or allow Lithuanian ambassador Kazys Škirpa to become prime minister, instead actively thwarting his activities. The provisional government disbanded, since it had no power and it had become clear that the Germans came as occupiers not liberators from Soviet occupation, as initially thought. By 1943, the German opinion of Lithuanians was that they had failed to show allegiance to them. When the Germans called-up Lithuanians for military service in spring 1943, Lithuanians protested against it by making the call-up produce dismally low numbers, which angered the German occupiers.
Units under Algirdas Klimaitis and supervised by SS Brigadeführer Walter Stahlecker started pogroms in and around Kaunas on 25 June 1941. Lithuanian collaborators killed hundreds of thousands of Jews, Poles and Gypsies. According to Lithuanian-American scholar Saulius Sužiedėlis, an increasingly antisemitic atmosphere clouded Lithuanian society, and antisemitic LAF émigrés "needed little prodding from 'foreign influences. He concluded that Lithuanian collaboration was "a significant help in facilitating all phases of the genocidal program . . . [and that] the local administration contributed, at times with zeal, to the destruction of Lithuanian Jewry". Elsewhere, Sužiedėlis similarly emphasised that Lithuania's "moral and political leadership failed in 1941, and that thousands of Lithuanians participated in the Holocaust", though he warned that "[u]ntil buttressed by reliable accounts providing time, place and at least an approximate number of victims, claims of large-scale pogroms before the advent of the German forces must be treated with caution".
In 1941, the Lithuanian Security Police was created, subordinate to Nazi Germany's Security Police and Criminal Police. Of the 26 Lithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalions, 10 were involved in the Holocaust. On August 16, the head of the Lithuanian police, , ordered the arrest of Jewish men and women with Bolshevik activities: "In reality, it was a sign to kill everyone." The Special SD and German Security Police Squad in Vilnius killed 70,000 Jews in Paneriai and other places. In Minsk, the 2nd Battalion shot about 9,000 Soviet prisoners of war, and in Slutsk it massacred 5,000 Jews.
In March 1942, in Poland, the 2nd Lithuanian Battalion guarded the Majdanek concentration camp. In July 1942, the 2nd Battalion participated in the deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka extermination camp. In August–October 1942, some of the Lithuanian police battalions were in Belarus and Ukraine: the 3rd in Molodechno, the 4th in Donetsk, the 7th in Vinnytsa, the 11th in Korosten, the 16th in Dnepropetrovsk, the 254th in Poltava and the 255th in Mogilev (Belarus). One battalion was also used to put down the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943.
The participation of the local populace was a key factor in the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Lithuania which resulted in the near total decimation of Lithuanian Jews living in the Nazi-occupied Lithuanian territories that would. From 25 July 1941, participation was under the Generalbezirk Litauen of Reichskommissariat Ostland. Out of approximately 210,000 Jews, (208,000 according to the Lithuanian pre-war statistical data) an estimated 195,000–196,000 perished before the end of World War II (wider estimates are sometimes published); most from June to December 1941. The events happening in the USSR's western regions occupied by Nazi Germany in the first weeks after the German invasion (including Lithuania – see map) marked the sharp intensification of the Holocaust.
Bulgaria
Bulgaria was interested in acquiring Thessalonica and western Macedonia and hoped to gain the allegiance of the 80,000 Slavs who lived there at the time. The appearance of Greek partisans there persuaded Axis forces to allow the formation of Ohrana collaborationist detachments. The organization initially recruited 1,000 to 3,000 armed men from the Slavophone community in the west of Greek Macedonia.
Czecho-Slovakia
Sudetenland
Konrad Henlein, a populist strongman who represented the sizable German minority of the Sudetenland border region, actively sought a Nazi invasion of Czechoslovakia. and his efforts arguably triggered the Munich Agreement After the invasion he administered the Nazi deportations that sent Jews to Theresienstadt Ghetto, almost none of whom survived. For example, 42,000 people, mostly Czech Jews, were deported from Theresienstadt in 1942, of whom only 356 survivors are known. Henlein also tried to expel all Czechs from the Sudetenland, but the neighbouring Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia refused to accept them and he was informed that the need of the area's factories for labour outweighed such ethnic policies.
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (the Czech lands)
When the Germans annexed Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939, they created the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia from the Czech part of pre-war Czechoslovakia It had its own military forces, including a 12-battalion 'government army', police and gendarmerie. Most members of the 'government army' were sent to Northern Italy in 1944 as labourers and guards. Whether or not the government army was a collaborationist force has been debated. Its commanding officer, Jaroslav Eminger, was tried and acquitted on charges of collaboration following World War II. Some members of the force engaged in active resistance operations while in the army, and, in the waning days of the conflict, elements of the army joined in the Prague uprising.
Slovak Republic
The Slovak Republic (Slovenská Republika) was a quasi-independent ethnic Slovak state which existed from 14 March 1939 to 8 May 1945 as an ally and client state of Nazi Germany. The Slovak Republic existed on roughly the same territory as present-day Slovakia (except for the southern and eastern parts). It bordered Germany, the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, German-occupied Poland, and Hungary.
Greece
Germany put a Nazi government in place in Greece. Prime ministers Georgios Tsolakoglou, Konstantinos Logothetopoulos and Ioannis Rallis all cooperated with Axis authorities. Greece exported agricultural products, especially tobacco, to Germany, and Greek "volunteers" worked in German factories.
The collaboration government created armed paramilitary forces such as the Security Battalions to fight the EAM/ELAS resistance Former dictator General Theodoros Pangalos saw the Security Battalions as a way to make a political comeback, and most of the Hellenic Army officers recruited in April 1943 were republicans in some way associated with Pangalos.
Greek National-Socialist parties like George S. Mercouris' Greek National Socialist Party of the ESPO organization, or such openly anti-semitic organisations as the National Union of Greece, helped German authorities fight the Greek resistance, and identify and deport Greek Jews. The BUND Organization and its leader Aginor Giannopoulos trained a battalion of Greek volunteers who fought in SS and Brandenburgers units.
During the Axis occupation, a number of Cham Albanians set up their own administration and militia in Thesprotia, Greece, under the Balli Kombëtar organization, and actively collaborated with first Italian and then German occupation forces, committing a number of atrocities. In one incident on 29 September 1943, Nuri and Mazzar Dino, Albanian paramilitary leaders, instigated the mass execution of all Greek officials and notables in Paramythia.
An Aromanian political and paramilitary force, the Roman Legion, led by Aromanian nationalists Alcibiades Diamandi and Nicolaos Matussis, also collaborated with Italian forces.
Hungary
In April 1941, in order to regain territory and under German pressure, Hungary allowed the Wehrmacht across its territory in the invasion of Yugoslavia. Hungarian prime minister Pál Teleki wanted to maintain a pro-Allies neutral stance, but could no longer stay out of the war. British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden threatened to break diplomatic relations if Hungary did not actively resist the passage of German troops across its territory. General Henrik Werth, chief of the Hungarian General Staff, made a private arrangement with the German High Command, unsanctioned by the Hungarian government, to transport German troops across Hungary. Teleki, unable to stop these events, committed suicide on April 3, 1941. After the war the Hungarian People's Court sentenced Werth to death for war crimes.
Hungary joined the war on April 11, after the proclamation of the Independent State of Croatia.
It is not clear whether the 10,000–20,000 Jewish refugees (from Poland and elsewhere) were counted in the January 1941 census. They, and about 20,000 people who could not prove legal residency since 1850, were deported to southern Poland. According to Nazi German reports, a total of 23,600 Jews were murdered, including 16,000 who had earlier been expelled from Hungary between July 15 and August 12, 1941, and either abandoned there or handed over to the Germans. In practice, the Hungarians deported many people whose families had lived in the area for generations. In some cases, applications for residency permits were allowed to pile up without action by Hungarian officials until after the deportations had been carried out. The vast majority (16,000) of those deported were massacred in the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre at the end of August.
In the massacres in Újvidék (Novi Sad) and nearby villages, 2,550–2,850 Serbs, 700–1,250 Jews and 60–130 others were murdered by the Hungarian Army and "Csendőrség" (gendarmerie) in January 1942. Those responsible, Ferenc Feketehalmy-Czeydner, , József Grassy, László Deák and others, were later tried in Budapest in December 1943 and were sentenced, but some escaped to Germany.
During the war, Jews were called up to serve in unarmed "labour service" () units which repaired bombed railroads, built airports or cleaned up minefields at the front barehanded. Approximately 42,000 Jewish labour service troops were killed on the Soviet front in 1942–43, of whom about 40% perished in Soviet POW camps. Many died as a result of harsh conditions on the Eastern Front and cruel treatment by their Hungarian sergeants and officers. Another 4,000 forced laborers died in the copper mine of Bor, Serbia. But Miklós Kállay, prime minister beginning on March 9, 1942, and Regent Miklós Horthy refused to allow the deportation of Hungarian Jews to German extermination camps in occupied Poland. This lasted until German troops occupied Hungary and forced Horthy to oust Kállay.
Following the German occupation of Hungary on March 19, 1944, Jews from the provinces were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp; between May and July that year, 437,000 Jews were sent there from Hungary, most of them gassed on arrival.
Poland
Unlike some other German-occupied European countries, occupied Poland did not have a government that collaborated with the Nazis. The Polish government did not surrender, but instead went into exile, first in France, then in London, while evacuating the armed forces via Romania and Hungary and by sea to allied France and Great Britain. German-occupied Polish territory was either annexed outright by Nazi Germany or placed under German administration as the General Government.
Shortly after the German Invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Nazi authorities ordered the mobilization of prewar Polish officials and Polish police (Blue Police), who were ordered to report for duty under threat of severe penalties. Apart from serving as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities, the Blue Police was used by the Germans also to combat smuggling and resistance, to round up łapanka, random civilians, for forced labor, and to apprehend Jews (German: Judenjagd, "hunting Jews") and participate in their extermination. Polish policemen were instrumental in implementing the Nazi policy of centralising Jews in ghettos and, from 1942 onwards, liquidating the ghettos. In the late autumn and early winter of 1941, shooting Jews, including women and children, became one of their many activities at the orders of the German occupiers. After an initial phase of hesitation, Polish policemen became familiar with Nazi brutality and, according to Jan Grabowski, sometimes "surpassed their German teachers." While many officials and police followed German orders, some acted as agents for the Polish resistance.
Some of the collaborators – szmalcowniks – blackmailed Jews and their Polish rescuers and acted as informers, turning in Jews and Poles who hid them, and reporting on the Polish resistance. Many prewar Polish citizens of German descent voluntarily declared themselves Volksdeutsche ("ethnic Germans"), and some of them committed atrocities against the Polish population and organized large-scale looting of property.
The Germans set up Jewish-run governing bodies in Jewish communities and ghettos – Judenrāte (Jewish councils) that served as self-enforcing intermediaries to manage Jewish communities and ghettos; and Jewish Ghetto Police (Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst), which functioned as auxiliary police to maintaining order and combating crime.
The Polish Underground State's wartime underground courts investigated 17,000 Poles who collaborated with the Germans; about 3,500 were sentenced to death.
Romania
See also Responsibility for the Holocaust (Romania), Antonescu and the Holocaust, Porajmos#Persecution in other Axis countries.
According to an international commission report released by the Romanian government in 2004, between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews died on Romanian soil, in the war zones of Bessarabia, Bukovina, and in territories formerly occupied by Soviets that came under Romanian control (Transnistria Governorate). Of the 25,000 Romani deported to concentration camps in Transnistria, 11,000 died.
Though much of the killing was committed in the war zone by Romanian and German troops, in the Iaşi pogrom of June 1941 over 13,000 Jews died in trains traveling back and forth across the countryside.
Half of the estimated 270,000 to 320,000 Jews living in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Dorohoi County were murdered or died between June 1941 and the spring of 1944. Of these, between 45,000 and 60,000 Jews were killed in Bessarabia and Bukovina by Romanian and German troops within months of the entry of the country into the war during 1941. Even after the initial killings, Jews in Moldavia, Bukovina and Bessarabia were subject to frequent pogroms, and were concentrated into ghettos from which they were sent to camps in Transnistria built and run by the Romanian authorities.
Romanian soldiers and gendarmes also worked with the Einsatzkommandos, German killing squads, tasked with massacring Jews and Roma in conquered territories, the local Ukrainian militia, and the SS squads of local Ukrainian Germans (Sonderkommando Russland and Selbstschutz). Romanian troops were in large part responsible for the 1941 Odessa massacre, in which from October 18, 1941, to mid-March 1942 Romanian soldiers, gendarmes and police, killed up to 25,000 Jews and deported more than 35,000.
The lowest respectable mortality estimates run to about 250,000 Jews and 11,000 Roma in these eastern regions.
Nonetheless, half of the Jews living within the pre-Barbarossa borders survived the war, although they were subject to a wide range of harsh conditions, including forced labor, financial penalties, and discriminatory laws. All Jewish property was nationalized.
A report commissioned and accepted by the Romanian government in 2004 on the Holocaust concluded:
Of all the allies of Nazi Germany, Romania bears responsibility for the deaths of more Jews than any country other than Germany itself. The murders committed in Iasi, Odessa, Bogdanovka, Domanovka, and Peciora, for example, were among the most hideous murders committed against Jews anywhere during the Holocaust. Romania committed genocide against the Jews. The survival of Jews in some parts of the country does not alter this reality.
Yugoslavia
On 25 March 1941, under considerable pressure, the Yugoslav government agreed to the signing of the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany, guaranteeing Yugoslavia's neutrality. The agreement was extremely unpopular in Serbia and led to massive street demonstrations. Two days later, on 27 March, Serb military officers led by general Dušan Simović overthrew the regency and placed 17-year-old King Peter on the throne. Furious at the temerity of the Serbs, Hitler ordered the invasion of Yugoslavia. On 6 April 1941, without a declaration of war, combined German and Italian military armies invaded. Eleven days later Yugoslavia capitulated and was subsequently partitioned among the Axis states.
The Central Serbia region and the Banat were subjected to German military occupation in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, Italian forces occupied the Dalmatian coast and Montenegro; Albania annexed the Kosovo region and part of Macedonia; Bulgaria received Vardar Macedonia (today's North Macedonia); Hungary occupied and annexed the Bačka and Baranya regions as well as Međimurje and Prekmurje; the rest of Drava Banovina (roughly present-day Slovenia) was divided between Germany and Italy; Croatia, Syrmia and Bosnia were combined into the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state under the direction of Croatian fascist Ante Pavelić.
Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia
Serbia was placed under German military occupation, at first directly administered by Nazis, then under a puppet government led by General Milan Nedić. The main function of the government was to maintain internal order, under the authority of the German Command, with the use of local paramilitary units. The Wehrmacht Operations Staff never considered raising a unit to serve in the German armed forces. By mid 1943, the collaborationist forces in Serbia, (Serbian and ethnic Russian units), numbered between 25,000 and 30,000.
Serbian units
Serbian collaborationist organizations the Serbian State Guard (SDS) and the Serbian Border Guard (SGS) reached a combined 21,000 men at their peak. The Serbian Volunteers Corps (SDK), the party militia of the fascist Yugoslav National Movement led by Dimitrije Ljotić, reached 9,886 men; its members helped guard and run concentration camps and fought the Yugoslav Partisans and the Chetniks alongside the Germans. In October 1941, the Serbian Volunteer Corps participated in the Kragujevac massacre, arresting and delivering hostages to the Wehrmacht. The members of the Serbian Volunteer Corps had to take an oath stating that they would fight to death against both Communists and Chetniks.
Collaborationist Belgrade Special Police helped German units round up Jewish citizens for deportation to concentration camps. By the summer of 1942, most Serbian Jews had been exterminated. By the end of 1942 the Special Police had 240 agents and 878 police guards under the command of the Gestapo. After the liberation of the country in October 1944, the collaborationist forces retreated with the German army and were later absorbed into the Waffen-SS.
Almost from the start, two rival guerrilla movements, the Chetniks and the Partisans, engaged in a bloody civil war with each other, in addition to fighting against the occupying forces. Some Chetniks collaborated with the Axis occupation to fight the rival Partisan resistance, whom they viewed as their primary enemy, by establishing modus vivendi or operating as "legalised" auxiliary forces under Axis control.
In August 1941 Kosta Pećanac put himself and his Chetniks at the disposal of Milan Nedić's government, becoming the occupation regime's ‘legal Chetniks'. At the peak of their strength in mid-May 1942, the two legal Chetnik auxiliary forces numbered 13,400 men; these detachments were dissolved by the end of 1942. Pećanac was captured and executed by forces loyal to his Chetnik rival Draža Mihailović in 1944. As no single Chetnik organization existed, other Chetnik units engaged independently in marginal resistance activities and avoided accommodations with the enemy. Over a period of time, and in different parts of the country, some Chetnik groups were drawn progressively into opportunist agreements: first with the Nedić forces in Serbia, then with the Italians in occupied Dalmatia and Montenegro, with some of the Ustaše forces in northern Bosnia, and after the Italian capitulation, also with the Germans directly. In some regions Chetniks collaborated "extensively and systematically", which they called "using the enemy".
Ethnic Russian units
The Auxiliary Police Troop and the Russian Protective Corps were paramilitary units raised in the German-occupied territory of Serbia, composed exclusively of anti-communist White émigrés or Volksdeutsche from Russia, under the command of General Mikhail Skorodumov (around 400 and 7,500 men respectively by December 1942). The force reached a peak size of 11,197 by September 1944. Unlike the Serbian units, the Russian Protective Corps was part of the German armed forces and its members took the Hitler Oath.
Banat
Between April 1941 and October 1944, the Serbian half of the Banat was under German military occupation as an administrative unit of the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia. Its daily administration and security were left up to its 120,000 Volksdeutsche, who represented 20% of the local population. In the Banat, security, anti-partisan warfare, and border patrols, were exclusively carried out by the Volksdeutsche in the Deutsche Mannschaft. In 1941, the Banat Auxiliary Police force was created to serve in concentration camps. It had 1,552 members by February 1943. It was affiliated with the Ordnungspolizei and included some 400 Hungarians. The Gestapo in the Banat employed local ethnic Germans as agents. Banat Jews were deported and exterminated with the full participation of the Banat German leadership, the Banat Police and many ethnic German civilians.
According to German sources, as of 28 December 1943, the Volksdeutsche minority of the Banat had contributed 21,516 men to the Waffen SS, the auxiliary police, and the Banat police.
The 700,000 Volksdeutsche who lived in Yugoslavia were the basis for the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen, which towards the war's end included other ethnicities. The division's soldiers brutally punished civilians accused of working with partisans in both occupied Serbia and the Independent State of Croatia, going so far as to raze entire villages.
Montenegro
The Italian governorate of Montenegro was established as an Italian protectorate with the support of Montenegrin separatists known as Greens. The Lovćen Brigade, the militia of the Greens, collaborated with the Italians. Other collaborationist units included local Chetniks, police, gendarmerie and Sandžak Muslim militia.
Kosovo
Most of Kosovo and the western part of southern Serbia (, included in Zeta Banovina) was annexed to Albania by fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Kosovar Albanians were recruited into Albanian paramilitary groups known as the Vulnetari, set up to assist Italian fascists maintain order, many Serbs and Jews were expelled from Kosovo and sent to internment camps in Albania.
The Balli Kombëtar militias, or Ballistas, were volunteer Albanian nationalistic groups that started as a resistance movement, then collaborated with the Axis Powers in hopes of seeing Greater Albania created. Military units were formed within the militias, among them the Kosovo Regiment, raised in Kosovska Mitrovica as a Nazi auxiliary military unit after Italian capitulation.
According to German reports, in early 1944 some 20,000 Albanian guerrillas led by Xhafer Deva fought the Partisans alongside the Wehrmacht in Albania and Kosovo.
Macedonia
In Bulgaria-annexed Vardar Macedonia, the occupation authority organized the Ohrana into auxiliary security forces. On 11 March 1943, Skopje's entire Jewish population was deported to the gas chambers of Treblinka concentration camp.
Slovene Lands
The Axis powers divided the Slovene Lands into three zones. Germany occupied the largest, northern part. Italy annexed the southern part, and Hungary annexed the northeast part, Prekmurje. As in the rest of Yugoslavia, the Nazis used the Slovene Volksdeutsche to further their aims, in groups like the Deutsche Jugend (German Youth) which was used as an auxiliary military force for guard duty and fighting the partisans, and the Slovenian National Defense Corps.
The Slovene Home Guard () was a collaborationist force formed in September 1943 in the Province of Ljubljana (then a part of Italy). It was led by former general Leon Rupnik but had limited autonomy, and at first, functioned as an auxiliary police force that assisted the Germans in anti-partisan actions. Later, it gained more autonomy and conducted most of the anti-partisan operations in Ljubljana. Much of the Guard's equipment was Italian (confiscated when Italy dropped out of the war in 1943), although German weapons and equipment were used as well, especially later in the war. Similar, but much smaller units, were also formed in the Littoral (Primorska) and Upper Carniola (Gorenjska). The Blue Guard, also known as the Slovene Chetniks, was an anti-communist militia led by Karl Novak and Ivan Prezelj.
The Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia (MVAC), was under Italian authority. One of the biggest components of the MVAC was the Civic Guards (), a Slovene volunteer military organization formed by the Italian Fascist authorities to fight the partisans, as well as some collaborationist Chetniks units. The Legion of Death (), was another Slovene anti-partisan armed unit formed after the Blue Guard joined the MVAC.
Independent State of Croatia
On 10 April 1941, a few days before Yugoslavia's capitulation, Ante Pavelić's Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established as an Axis-affiliated state, with Zagreb as capital. Between 1941 and 1945, the fascist Ustaše regime collaborated with Nazi Germany, and engaged in independent persecution. According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, this resulted in the murder of approximately 30,000 Jews, between 25,000 and 30,000 Roma, and between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia, in camps like the infamous Jasenovac concentration camp.
The 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian), created in February 1943, and the 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama (2nd Croatian), created in January 1944, were manned by Croats and Bosniaks as well as local Germans. Earlier in the war, Pavelić formed a Croatian Legion for the Eastern Front and attached it to the Wehrmacht. Volunteer pilots joined the Luftwaffe as Pavelić did not want to get his army directly involved for both propaganda reasons (Domobrans/Home Guards were a "chieftain of Croatian values, never attacking and only defending") and due to a safeguarding need for political flexibility with the Soviet Union.Pavelić proclaimed that Croats were the descendants of Goths, to eliminate the leadership's inferiority complex and be better viewed by the Germans. The Poglavnik stated that "Croats are not Slavs, but Germanic by blood and race". Nazi German leadership was indifferent to this claim.
Bosnia
In 1941 Bosnia became an integral part of the Independent State of Croatia. Bosnian Muslims were considered Croats of Islamic confession.
Collaboration with the Soviet Union and on Soviet territory
1939–1941
.
After 1941
Operation Barbarossa began on 22 June 1941 and, by November 1942, Nazi Germany occupied around of the Soviet Union. By November 1944, the German forces had been forced out of the pre-World War II Soviet territory.
According to the American historian Jeffrey Burds, out of the 3 million armed collaborators with Nazi Germany in Europe, as many as 2.5 millions originated from the Soviet Union, and that by 1945, every eighth German soldier was a pre-war Soviet citizen. Antony Beevor writes that 1 to 1.5 million men from the territory of the USSR served militarily under the Germans. Regardless, the precise number will never be known. The people from the Soviet Union served in the Wehrmacht under a wide array of units: Hiwi, Security units, Russian Liberation Army (ROA), KONR, Ukrainian Liberation Army, various independent Russian units (, RNNA, RONA, 1st Russian National Army) and the Eastern Legions.
Toward's the war's end, the SS Main Office and the Ostministerium began conflicting over the Eastern Legions and Cossack units. The former tried to control all non-German troops fighting in the Wehrmacht, while the latter had its own policy towards the military units, which was helped by the national committees whose patron it was. Most national committees refused to subordinate themselves and the associated military units to Andrey Vlasov's Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia (KONR) and its armed forces (ROA), instead choosing to declare national armies, e.g. Caucasian Liberation Army and National Army of Turkestan. However, through the help of his patrons in the SS Main Office, Vlasov became their ostensibly leader by April 1945 and all national committees and related troops were nominally subordinated to him.According to Antony Beevor, the vast majority of those serving the Germans were "often extraordinarily naïve and ill-informed." Many viewed their service under the Germans as just serving in another army and a way to ensure food for themselves, which they preferred to being maltreated and starved in a prisoner-of-war camp. Nevertheless, there were ideologically motivated collaborators.
The Waffen-SS recruited from many nationalities living in the Soviet Union, and the German government attempted to enroll Soviet citizens voluntarily for the Ostarbeiter program. Originally this effort worked well, but the news of the terrible conditions faced by workers dried up the flow of new volunteers and the program became forcible.
Hiwis
Already from the very first days, individual deserters and prisoners from the Red Army were offering their help to the Germans in auxiliary duties such as, but not limited to, cooking, driving, and medical assistance. There were also Soviet civilians that joined supply units and construction battalions. Both military and civilian auxiliaries were called Hiwis (German abbreviation for auxiliary volunteer) with the former Soviets soldiers frequently wearing their Red Army uniforms without any Soviet insignia. After two months service, they were permitted to wear German uniforms with insignia and ranks, which made veteran Hiwis almost indistinguishable from the regular German soldiers, although their promotion up the ranks was very limited.
Although Hitler reluctantly permitted in September 1941 to recruit people from the Soviet Union as unarmed voluntary assistants, but in practice this was frequently ignored and many of them served in frontline units. Sometimes large parts of German units consisted of the Hiwis, for example, half of the 134th Infantry Division and a quarter of the 6th Army consisted of Hiwis in late 1942. The Red Army authorities estimated that more than a million served in the Wehrmacht as Hiwis.
Eastern Legions
The failure of the Axis powers to immediately defeat the Soviet Union in late 1941 led the Wehrmacht to resort to new sources of manpower necessary for a protracted war. In November–December 1941, Hitler ordered the formation of four Eastern Legions: Turkestan, Georgian, Armenian and Caucasian Mohammedan. In August 1942, the "Regulations on Local Auxiliary Formations in the East" singled out the Turkic peoples and the Cossacks as "equal allies fighting shoulder to shoulder with German soldiers against Bolshevism in composition of special combat units." The incorporation of eastern battalions into German divisions guarding the Atlantic Wall in Western Europe caused problems as they were totally unfit to fight against the Western Allies and the battalions were actually a burden on the weakened divisions that they were supposed to replenish. Between 275,000 and 350,000 "Muslim and Caucasian" volunteers and conscripts served in the Wehrmacht.
Between early 1942 and late 1943, the formed a total of 54 battalions, but this was not the only place where such units were being created:
Russia
In Russia proper, ethnic Russians governed the semi-autonomous Lokot Autonomy in Nazi-occupied Russia. On 22 June 1943, a parade of the Wehrmacht and Russian collaborationist forces was welcomed and positively received in Pskov. The entry of Germans into Pskov was labelled "Liberation day" by occupying authorities, and the old Russian tricolor flag was included in the parade.
Kalmykians
The Kalmykian Cavalry Corps was composed of about 5,000 Kalmyks who chose to join the retreating Germans in 1942 rather than remain in Kalmykia as the German Army retreated before the Red Army. Joseph Stalin subsequently declared the Kalmyk population as a whole to be German collaborators in 1943 and ordered mass deportations to Siberia, causing great loss of life.
Belarus
In Byelorussia under German occupation, local pro-independence politicians attempted to use the Nazis to re-establish an independent Belarusian state, which was conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1919. A Belarusian representative body, the Belarusian Central Council, was created under German control in 1943 but had no real power and concentrated mainly on managing social issues and education. Belarusian national military units (the Byelorussian Home Defence) were only created a few months before the end of the German occupation.
Many Belarusian collaborators retreated with German forces in the wake of the Red Army advance. In January 1945, the 30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Belarusian) was formed from the remains of Belarusian military units. The division participated in a small number of battles in France but demonstrated active disloyalty to the Nazis and saw mass desertion.
Transcaucasia
Ethnic Armenian, Georgian, Turkic and Caucasian forces deployed by the Germans consisted primarily of Soviet Red Army POWs assembled into ill-trained legions. Among these battalions were 18,000 Armenians, 13,000 Azerbaijanis, 14,000 Georgians, and 10,000 men from the "North Caucasus." American historian Alexander Dallin notes that the Armenian and Georgian Legions were sent to the Netherlands as a result of Hitler's distrust of them, and many later deserted. Author Christopher Ailsby called the Turkic and Caucasian forces formed by the Germans "poorly armed, trained and motivated", and "unreliable and next to useless".
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (the Dashnaks) was suppressed in Armenia when the First Republic of Armenia was conquered by the Russian Bolsheviks in the 1920 Red Army invasion of Armenia and thus ceased to exist. During World War II, some of the Dashnaks saw an opportunity to regain Armenia's independence. The Armenian Legion under Drastamat Kanayan participated in the occupation of the Crimean Peninsula and the Caucasus. On 15 December 1942, the Armenian National Council was granted official recognition by Alfred Rosenberg, the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories. The president of the Council was Ardasher Abeghian, its vice-president was Abraham Guilkhandanian, and it numbered among its members Garegin Nzhdeh and Vahan Papazian. Until the end of 1944, the organization published a weekly journal, Armenian, edited by Viken Shantn, who also broadcast on Radio Berlin with the aid of Dr. Paul Rohrbach.
Collaboration beyond Europe with the European Axis powers
Egypt and the Palestine mandate
The well-publicized Arab-Jewish clash in Mandatory Palestine from 1936 to 1939, and the rise of Nazi Germany, began to affect Jewish relations with Egyptian society, despite the fact that the number of active Zionists was small. Local militant and nationalistic societies, like the Young Egypt Party and the Society of Muslim Brothers, circulated reports claiming that Jews and the British were destroying holy places in Jerusalem, and other false reports that hundreds of Arab women and children were being killed. Some of this antisemitism was fueled by an association between Hitler's regime and anti-imperialist Arab activists. One activist, Haj Amin al-Husseini, received Nazi funds for the Muslim Brotherhood to print and distribute thousands of anti-Semitic propaganda pamphlets.
In the 1940s the situation worsened. Sporadic pogroms began in 1942.
French colonial empire
France retained its colonial empire, and the terms of the armistice shifted the balance of power of France's reduced military resources away from metropolitan France and towards its overseas possessions, especially French North Africa. Although in 1940, most French colonies except for the French Equatorial Africa had rallied to Vichy France, this changed during the war. By 1943, all French colonies, except for Japanese-controlled French Indochina, were under the control of the Free French. French Equatorial Africa in particular played a key role.
French North Africa
Concerned that the French fleet might fall into German hands, the British Royal Navy sank or disabled most of it in the July 1940 attack on the Algerian naval port at Mers-el-Kébir, killing over a thousand French sailors.
When Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa, began on 8 November 1942 with landings in Morocco and Algeria, Vichy forces initially resisted, killing 479 and wounding 720. Admiral François Darlan appointed himself High Commissioner of France (head of civil government) for North and West Africa, then ordered Vichy forces there to stop resisting and co-operate with the Allies, which they did.
Most Vichy figures were arrested, including Darlan and General Alphonse Juin, chief commander in North Africa. Both were released, and US General Dwight D. Eisenhower accepted Darlan's self-appointment. This infuriated , who refused to recognise Darlan. Darlan was assassinated on Christmas Eve 1942 by a French monarchist.
German Wehrmacht forces in North Africa established the Kommando Deutsch-Arabische Truppen, composed of two battalions of Arab volunteers of Tunisian origin, an Algerian battalion and a Moroccan battalion. The four units had total of 3,000 men; with German cadres.
Morocco
In 1940, Résident Général Charles Noguès implemented antisemitic decrees coming from Vichy excluding Moroccan Jews from working as doctors, lawyers or teachers. All Jews living elsewhere were required to move to the Jewish quarters, called , Vichy anti-semitic propaganda encouraged boycotting Jews, and pamphlets were pinned to Jewish shops. These laws put Moroccan Jews in an uncomfortable position "between an indifferent Muslim majority and an antisemitic settler class."
Sultan Mohammed V reportedly refused to sign off on "Vichy's plan to ghettoize and deport Morocco's quarter of a million Jews to the killing factories of Europe," and, in an act of defiance, insisted on inviting all the rabbis of Morocco to the 1941 throne celebrations.
Tunisia
Many Tunisians took satisfaction in France's defeat by Germany in June 1940, but little else. Despite his commitment to ending the French protectorate, the pragmatic independence leader Habib Bourguiba abhorred the Axis state ideologies. and feared any short-term benefit would come at the cost of long-term tragedy.
After the Second Armistice at Compiègne, Pétain sent a new Resident-General to Tunis, Admiral Jean-Pierre Esteva. Arrests followed of and , central figures in the Neo-Destour party.
Bey Muhammad VII al-Munsif moved towards greater independence in 1942, but when the Free French forced out the Axis powers in 1943, they accused him of collaborating with Vichy and deposed him.
French Equatorial Africa
The federation of colonies in French Equatorial Africa (AEF or Afrique-Équatoriale française) rallied to the cause of after Félix Éboué of Chad joined him in August 1940. The exception was Gabon, which remained Vichy French until 12 November 1940, when it surrendered to the invading Free French. The federation became the strategic centre of Free French activities in Africa.
Syria and the Lebanon (League of Nations mandates)
The Vichy government's Armée du Levant (Army of the Levant) under General Henri Dentz had regular metropolitan colonial troops and troupes spéciales (special troops, indigenous Syrian and Lebanese soldiers). Dentz had seven infantry battalions of regular French troops at his disposal, and eleven infantry battalions of "special troops", including at least 5,000 cavalry in horsed and motorized units, two artillery groups and supporting units. The French had (according to British estimates), the Armée de l'air had (increasing to after reinforcement) and the Marine nationale (French Navy) had two destroyers,a sloop and three submarines.
The Royal Air Force attacked the airfield at Palmyra, in central Syria, on 14 May 1941, after a reconnaissance mission spotted German and Italian aircraft. Attacks against German and Italian aircraft staging through Syria continued: Vichy French forces shot down a Blenheim bomber on 28 May, killing the crew, and forced down another on 2 June. French Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 fighters also escorted German Junkers Ju 52 aircraft into Iraq on 28 May. Germany permitted French aircraft en route from Algeria to Syria to fly over Axis-controlled territory and refuel at the German-controlled Eleusina air base in Greece.
After the Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre, on 14 July 1941, 37,736 Vichy French prisoners of war survived, who mostly chose to be repatriated rather than join the Free French.
Foreign volunteers
French military volunteers
French volunteers formed the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism (LVF), Légion impériale, SS-Sturmbrigade Frankreich and finally in 1945 the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French), which was among the final defenders of Berlin.
Volunteers from British India
The Indian Legion (Legion Freies Indien, or Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS) was created in August 1942, recruiting chiefly from disaffected British Indian Army prisoners of war captured by Axis forces in the North African campaign. Most were supporters of the exiled nationalist and former president of the Indian National Congress Subhas Chandra Bose. The Royal Italian Army formed a similar unit of Indian prisoners of war, the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan. (A Japanese-supported puppet state, Azad Hind, was also established in far-eastern India with the Indian National Army as its military force.)
Non-German units of the Waffen-SS
By the end of World War II, 60% of the Waffen-SS was made up of non-German volunteers from occupied countries. The predominantly Scandinavian 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland along with remnants of French, Italian, Spanish and Dutch volunteers were the last defenders of the Reichstag in Berlin.
The Nuremberg Trials, in declaring the Waffen-SS a criminal organisation, explicitly excluded conscripts, who had committed no crimes. In 1950, The U.S. High Commission in Germany and the U.S. Displaced Persons Commission clarified the U.S. position on the Baltic Waffen-SS Units, considering them distinct from the German SS in purpose, ideology, activities and qualifications for membership.
Business collaboration
A number of international companies have been accused of having collaborated with Nazi Germany before their home countries' entry into World War II, though it has been debated whether the term "collaboration" is applicable to business dealings outside the context of overt war.
American companies that had dealings with Nazi Germany included Ford Motor Company, Coca-Cola, and IBM.
Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. acted for German tycoon Fritz Thyssen, who helped finance Hitler's rise to power. The Associated Press (AP) supplied images for a propaganda book called The Jews in the USA, and another titled The Subhuman.
In December 1941, when the United States entered the war against Germany, 250 American firms owned more than $450 million of German assets. Major American companies with investments in Germany included General Motors, Standard Oil, IT&T, Singer, International Harvester, Eastman Kodak, Gillette, Coca-Cola, Kraft, Westinghouse, and United Fruit. Many major Hollywood studios have also been accused of collaboration, in making or adjusting films to Nazi tastes prior to the U.S. entry into the war.
German financial operations worldwide were facilitated by banks such as the Bank for International Settlements, Chase and Morgan, and Union Banking Corporation.
Robert A. Rosenbaum writes: "American companies had every reason to know that the Nazi regime was using IG Farben and other cartels as weapons of economic warfare"; and he noted that"as the US entered the war, it found that some technologies or resources could not be procured, because they were forfeited by American companies as part of business deals with their German counterparts."
After the war, some of those companies reabsorbed their temporarily detached German subsidiaries, and even received compensation for war damages from the Allied governments.
See also
Blue Division
Collaborationism
Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China
Finland in World War II
German-occupied Europe
Italian Civil War
International Commission for the Evaluation of the Crimes of the Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in Lithuania
List of Allied traitors during World War II
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
Pursuit of Nazi collaborators
Resistance during World War II
Responsibility for the Holocaust
Notes
References
Bibliography
Beinin, Joel. The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry: Culture, Politics, and the Formation of a Modern Diaspora. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1998 1998. The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry
Hamilton, A. Stephan (2020) [2008]. Bloody Streets: The Soviet Assault on Berlin, April 1945. Helion & Co.
Kárný, Miroslav (1994). "Terezínský rodinný tábor v konečném řešení" [Theresienstadt family camp in the Final Solution]. In Brod, Toman; Kárný, Miroslav; Kárná, Margita (eds.). Terezínský rodinný tábor v Osvětimi-Birkenau: sborník z mezinárodní konference, Praha 7.-8. brězna 1994 [Theresienstadt family camp at Auschwitz-Birkenau: proceedings of the international conference, Prague 7–8 March 1994] (in Czech). Prague: Melantrich. ISBN 978-8070231937
Further reading
Birn, Ruth Bettina, Collaboration with Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian Security Police. Contemporary European History 2001, 10.2, 181–198.
Christian Jensen, Tomas Kristiansen and Karl Erik Nielsen: Krigens købmænd, Gyldendal, 2000 ("The Merchants of War", in Danish)
Hirschfeld, Gerhard: Nazi rule and Dutch collaboration: the Netherlands under German occupation, 1940–1945 Berg Publishers, 1988
Jeffrey W. Jones "Every Family Has Its Freak": Perceptions of Collaboration in Occupied Soviet Russia, 1943–1948 – Slavic Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 747–770
Kitson, Simon (2008). The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Klaus-Peter Friedrich Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II – Slavic Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 711–746
Rafaël Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress, Legal classics library,
World constitutions, Volume 56 of Publications of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of International Law, 1944
Hitler's Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe, by Mark Mazower, Penguin Books 2008 (paperback), Chapter 14, "Eastern Helpers", pp. 446–47 ()
Nazism, a history in documents and eyewitness accounts, 1919–1945, Volume II: Foreign Policy, War and Racial Extermination, edited by J. Noakes and G. Pridham, Schocken Books (paperback), 1988,
Estonia
External links
The Holocaust |
4555244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walker%20Air%20Force%20Base | Walker Air Force Base | Walker Air Force Base is a closed United States Air Force base located three miles (5 km) south of the central business district of Roswell, New Mexico. It was opened in 1941 as an Army Air Corps flying school and was active during World War II and the postwar era as Roswell Army Air Field (RAAF). During the early years of the Cold War, it became the largest base of the Strategic Air Command. It is also known for the Roswell UFO incident, an event that occurred on 4 July 1947. It is alleged that a "flying disc" crashed during a severe thunderstorm near the base at Corona, New Mexico.
Walker AFB was named after General Kenneth Newton Walker, a native of Los Cerrillos, New Mexico who was killed during a bombing mission over Rabaul, New Britain, Papua New Guinea on 5 January 1943. His group scored direct hits on nine Japanese ships before being intercepted by enemy fighters. Walker was last seen leaving the target area with one engine on fire and several fighters on his tail, and he was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1943. The base was renamed in his honor on 13 January 1948. Funding cutbacks during the Vietnam War led to the closure of the base in 1967.
History
What became Roswell Army Air Field was acquired by the United States Army Air Forces in 1941 from rancher David Chesser for the purpose of establishing a Military Flying Training Center and Bombardier School. From the beginning, it was designed as a large, expansive facility, given the excellent flying weather in New Mexico. The airfield consisted of seven concrete runways, two parallel North/South 7329x200 and 7000x200; two parallel NE/SW 7200x200 and 5655x200; two parallel NW/SE, 6964x200 and 5900x200 and one E/W runway 6884x200 (E/W).
In addition, no fewer than nine auxiliary landing fields for overflow and touch/go landing/takeoffs were established in the area. Enough construction was completed for the base and airfield to be activated and assigned to the United States Army Air Corps Training Command on 20 September 1941.
World War II
The Roswell Army Flying School was activated on 20 September 1941. Its mission was the training of third-phase aviation cadets in twin-engine aircraft. The school operated Beechcraft AT-11 Kansan twin-engine trainers and four (548th, 549th, 550th and 551st) Two-Engine Flying Training Squadrons. In addition to the flying school the Bombardier's school, operated 3 training squadrons also flying the AT-11.
In 1943, three additional twin engine flying training squadrons were added and two additional squadrons were added to the Bombardiers school as additional runways became available. Over 300 trainers filled the large parking ramp, which included Vultee BT-13 and BT-15 Valiant single engine trainers and Cessna AT-17 twin-engine trainers.
Until the fall of 1944, Second Air Force provided all Boeing B-29 Superfortress transition training for the Army Air Forces. Then, on 12 September 1944, HQ AAF directed Training Command to establish B-29 schools for the transition of crews consisting of pilots, copilots, and flight engineers. Initially, there were few B-29s available for Training Command to conduct training. However, by January 1945 Roswell AAF had transitioned and the 3030th AAF Base Unit (Pilot School, Specialized Very Heavy) which specialized in B-29 Superfortress 4 engine pilot transition and bombardier training was activated.
Although there was a bombing target adjacent to the runway, the only items dropped from an aircraft were bags of sand or flour. The practice bombing and gunnery ranges were due south of the air field and on Matagorda Island along the Texas Gulf coast.
In addition to the airfield, the Roswell Prisoners of War (POW) camp was built for up to 4,800 POWs. Most of the POWs housed at the camp were German and Italian soldiers captured during the North African campaign. The POWs were actually used as construction laborers on local projects and many of Roswell's parks were built by POWs. The Spring River, which passes through downtown Roswell, was lined with concrete and stones using POW labor. The prisoners used stones of different colors to form an Iron Cross in the riverbed.
With the end of World War II, the training mission at Roswell AAF ended on 1 November 1945. The base was designated as a permanent Army Air Force facility and jurisdiction of the base was transferred to 238th Army Air Forces Base Unit, Second Air Force, Continental Air Command.
Strategic Air Command
The 509th Composite Group returned from its wartime base on Tinian and relocated to Roswell on 6 November 1945, initially being assigned to Second Air Force under Continental Air Forces. With demobilization in full swing in late 1945, much juggling of units was being performed by the Army Air Forces. It was reassigned to the 58th Bombardment Wing at Fort Worth Army Airfield on 17 January 1946. The 509th was assigned to Strategic Air Command on 21 March 1946, being one of the first eleven organizations assigned to SAC.
In April 1946 many of the group's Boeing B-29 Superfortress aircraft deployed to Kwajalein as part of Operation Crossroads, a series of atomic bomb tests. The remainder became the core of two new squadrons activated as part of the group, the 715th Bomb Squadron and the 830th Bomb Squadron. In May 1946, the Army Air Forces gave the newly formed SAC the responsibility of delivering the atomic bomb. Only the 509th was trained and ready for the atomic bomb mission.
Squadrons assigned to the 509th were:
393d Bombardment Squadron
715th Bombardment Squadron
830th Bombardment Squadron
On 10 July 1946, the group was renamed the 509th Bombardment Group (Very Heavy). With the creation of the United States Air Force as a separate service, the group became the combat component of the 509th Bombardment Wing on 17 November 1947, although it was not operational until 14 September 1948, when Colonel John D. Ryan was named commander.
The wing pioneered a new concept on 30 June 1948, when the 509th Air Refueling Squadron was activated as part of the 509th BW, along with the 43rd ARS at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona, the first such units ever created. With the addition of KB-29M tankers, the 509th's bombers could reach virtually any point on Earth. In June 1950, it began receiving the upgraded version of the B-29, the Boeing B-50A Superfortress. When the huge Convair B-36 Peacemaker joined the Air Force inventory, the "Very Heavy" designation was dropped. The 509th – like all other B-29 and B-50 wings – was redesignated "Medium".
In January 1954, the Boeing KC-97 aerial tanker replaced the aging KB-29Ms, and the wing entered the jet age in June 1955 when it received the first all-jet bomber: the Boeing B-47 Stratojet. On 16 June 1958 the 509th Bombardment Wing was transferred to Pease AFB, New Hampshire.
The 468th Bombardment Group arrived at Roswell on 12 January 1946 from West Field, Tinian. At Roswell the group exchanged aircraft and equipment with the 509th, with the lowest-hour and most reliable B-29 aircraft being transferred then being sent to Carswell Air Force Base, Texas for modification to Silverplate (Atomic Bomb-Capable) specifications. The balance of the aircraft were sent to storage at Davis-Monthan AFB Arizona or Pyote Army Airfield Texas. The group was inactivated on 31 March 1946.
33rd Fighter Group
The 33rd Fighter Group was assigned to Roswell on 25 August 1947, being transferred from Bad Kissingen AB, West Germany after a year of occupation duty. Squadrons of the 33rd at Roswell were:
59th Fighter Squadron (F-51, F-84)
60th Fighter Squadron (F-51, F-84)
The group was initially attached to the 509th Bombardment Group to perform fighter escort duties. The group was redesignated as the 33rd Fighter Wing on 15 October 1947. It remained at Roswell until 16 November 1948 when it was transferred to Otis Air Force Base, Massachusetts.
6th Bombardment Wing
The 6th Bombardment Wing, Medium was activated on 2 January 1951 at Walker AFB and was equipped with Boeing B-29 Superfortress. On 1 August 1951, the 307th Air Refueling Squadron was attached to the wing. It flew KB-29 tankers until inactivated 16 June 1952. The 6th, along with the 509th Bombardment Wing at Walker formed the SAC 47th Air Division until June 1958 with the reassignment of the 509th to Pease AFB.
However the three squadrons of the wing (24th, 39th, 40th) were soon re-equipped with SAC's new heavy bomber, Convair B-36D Peacemaker and the unit was redesignated the 6th Bombardment Wing (Heavy).
The B-36D was the first major production model of the bomber, being equipped with two pairs of General Electric J47-GE-19 turbojets in pods underneath the outer wings to assist the six R-4360-41 piston engines. The B-36D flew fairly well on just four or even three piston engines, so it was common practice to shut down some of the engines during cruise. The turbojets were normally used only for speed dashes over the target area or for takeoff. The 6th conducted strategic bombardment training with the aircraft, being deployed at Andersen AFB, Guam from October 1955 to January 1956.
The phaseout of the B-36 began in 1957, when the wing began receiving the new Boeing B-52 Stratofortress jet bomber. They were flown by its existing squadrons. The last of the B-36s departed Walker in 1958.
To provide air defense of the base, United States Army Nike Hercules Surface-to-air missile sites were constructed during 1959 near Roswell (W-10) and Hagerman (W-50) , New Mexico. The sites were selected and built, the battalion activated, batteries were assigned, and then the whole setup was shut down. Many of the personnel were later transferred to Omaha, Nebraska for the protection of Offutt AFB.
In September 1959, the 24th and 30th Bombardment Squadrons joined the newly assigned 4129th Combat Crew Training Squadron to train B-52 and KC-135 crews. The 40th Bombardment Squadron continued flying operational missions until 10 June 1960. From 10 June 1960 to 1 December 1961 the wing flew a few operational missions in a non-combat ready status. The 40th Squadron returned to operational status on 1 December 1961. The other two bomb squadrons regained tactical status on 5 September 1963. The 39th Squadron discontinued a few days later, but the 24th and 40th continued global bombardment training through December 1966, when they phased down for inactivation.
The 6th Air Refueling Squadron, flying early-model KC-135A aircraft, was assigned to Walker AFB from 3 January 1958. On 3 February 1960, a "short-tail" (non-hydraulic-power-assisted rudder) KC-135A crashed during takeoff in strong and gusty crosswinds. The pilot failed to maintain directional control, rotated the aircraft 5–10 knots too early and the aircraft settled onto the dirt apron of the runway, shed two engines, plowed through the aircraft parking area and came to rest in an aircraft hangar. This single crash resulted in the destruction of three KC-135 aircraft and the deaths of eight military personnel.
The wing was redesignated the 6th Strategic Aerospace Wing on 1 May 1962. On 25 June 1965, the 310th Air Refueling Squadron was attached to the wing. It flew KC-135A aircraft until the base was closed and the unit was moved to Plattsburgh AFB, NY on 25 January 1967.
579th Strategic Missile Squadron
In 1960, Atlas missile silos were constructed around the Roswell area. Reportedly, the first Atlas missile to arrive in Roswell received a welcoming parade. On 2 January 1961, the 579th Strategic Missile Squadron was activated as part of the 6 BW at Walker. New Mexico's Governor Mecham gave the keynote speech at a Site 10 ceremony held on 31 October 1961, in which the first missile site was turned over to the Air Force.
Although Chaves County residents took patriotic pride in the news of the missile squadron's arrival, Roswell residents submitted 10 permit requests for bomb shelters in October 1961 as construction went ahead.
The 579th SMS received its first missile on 24 January 1962. In April 1962, a completed liquid oxygen plant built at Walker AFB was turned over to the Air Force. The squadron completed missile installation approximately one month before the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Roswell's sites developed a notorious reputation due to three missile explosions. On 1 June 1963, launch complex 579-1 was destroyed during a propellant loading exercise. On 13 February 1964 an explosion occurred during another propellant loading exercise, destroying launch complex 579-5. Again, a month later, on 9 March 1964, silo 579-2 fell victim to another explosion that occurred during a propellant loading exercise.
These missiles were not mated with their warheads at the time of the incidents. The only injury reported was that of a crewman running into barbed wire as he fled a site.
The accidents at Walker and at other Atlas and Titan I sites accelerated the decision to inactivate these systems. On 25 March 1965 the 579 SMS was inactivated and the Air Force removed the missiles from their silos. After being demilitarized, the former missile sites reverted to private ownership.
686th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron
Walker AFB was selected to be part of the planned deployment by Air Defense Command of forty-four mobile radar stations across the United States to support the permanent Radar network established during the Cold War for air defense of the United States. This deployment had been projected to be operational by mid-1952. Funding, constant site changes, construction, and equipment delivery delayed deployment.
A temporary radar site (L-46) was activated at Walker AFB in 1950 to protect the approaches. L-46 was located in an old government housing building, with a complement of less than 100 personnel of the 120th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron. The 120th AC&W Squadron consisted of members of the federalized Arkansas Air National Guard, called to active duty during the Korean War. The station functioned as a Ground-Control Intercept (GCI) and warning station. As a GCI station, the squadron's role was to guide interceptor aircraft toward unidentified intruders picked up on the unit's radar scopes.
Designated to receive a new radar as part of the mobile radar program, this radar site continued to be operational on a Lashup basis in late 1952 using an AN/TPS-1B radar. A more permanent facility at Walker was operational, with the 686th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron activated on 1 October 1953, replacing the federalized ANG unit which was inactivated. The squadron consisted of about 150 Officers and Airmen.
The 686th AC&W Squadron operated AN/MPS-7 search and AN/MPS-14 height-finder radars.
In addition to the main facility, Walker operated several AN/FPS-14 Gap Filler sites:
Santa Rosa, NM (M-90B):
Sierra Blanca, TX (M-90E):
In March 1963 the Air Force ordered the site to shut down. Operations ceased 1 August 1963. Today the cantonment area is still extant, now used by the physical plant crew of the Eastern New Mexico University – Roswell (ENMU-R). The radar site at Walker is decrepit and abandoned, with refuse around buildings and the concrete road badly cracked and deteriorated.
Closure
In 1967, the Air Force announced that Walker AFB would be closed. This was during a round of stateside base closings and consolidations as the Defense Department struggled to pay the expenses of the Vietnam War within the budgetary limits set by Congress. The 6th BW became the 6th Strategic Wing and was relocated to Eielson AFB, Alaska.
Walker AFB was officially closed on 30 June 1967. It has since been redeveloped by civil authorities into the Roswell International Air Center. Large numbers of out-of-service aircraft are stored on the parking ramps and disused taxiways/runways for refurbishment and sale. In addition, the Boeing Company uses RIAC for braking performance testing of its aircraft, most recent was the testing of the BF Goodrich carbon brakes on the 737-900ER model. Also testing on brakes was performed on the new Boeing 787 Dreamliner.
The Eastern New Mexico University has built a large campus on the west side of the former base, however much of the base still has the look and feel of the former Air Force Base. Many former Air Force buildings, including aircraft hangars, maintenance shops, barracks, and office buildings have been reused for private interests. The large housing area still exists, with the former government housing units in private hands. Large numbers of buildings have also been removed or torn down, leaving large areas of vacant land with streets and former parking lots and concrete foundations.
In 2005, the base was used for a secret Foo Fighters concert celebrating the band's tenth anniversary.
Previous names
Roswell Army Flying School, 1941–1942
Roswell Army Air Field (RAAF), 1942–1947
Roswell Air Force Base, 1947–1948
Walker Air Force Base, 1948–1967
Major commands to which assigned
West Coast Air Corps Training Center, 1941–1943
Western Flying Training Command, 1943–1945
Second Air Force, 1945–1946
Strategic Air Command, 1946–1967
Major units assigned
Roswell Army Flying School, 1941–1945
3030th AAF Base Unit, 1945
509th Bombardment Group (Wing), 1945–1958
468th Bombardment Group, 1946
33d Fighter Group (Wing), 1947–1948
6th Bombardment (later Strategic Aerospace) Wing, 1951–1967
47th Air Division, 1951–1958
58th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (ADC), 1959–1960
22d Air Division, 1963–1965
579th Strategic Missile Squadron, 1961–1965
SM-65F Atlas Missile Sites
The 579th Strategic Missile Squadron operated twelve missile sites, of one missile at each site.
579-1 (1962–1963)*, 0.8 mi NW of Acme, NM
579-2 (1962–1964)*, 8.1 mi ENE of Acme, NM
579-3, 16.1 mi ENE of Acme, NM
579-4, 12.7 mi ENE of Rio Hondo, NM
579-5 (1962–1964)*, 20.0 mi SE of Acme, NM
579-6, 12.4 mi ESE of Hagerman, NM
579-7, 4.2 mi E of Hagerman, NM
579-8, 7.3 mi S of Hagerman, NM
579-9, 2.5 mi ENE of Sunset, NM
579-10, 11.2 mi E of Sunset, NM
579-11, 6.2 mi W of Arroyo Macho del, NM
579-12, 16.7 mi NW of Acme, NM
* Missile explosion destroyed site
See also
Ivor Parry Evans
Roswell International Air Center
New Mexico World War II Army Airfields
38th Flying Training Wing (World War II)
Central Air Defense Force (Air Defense Command) (34th Air Division)
References
Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office 1961 (republished 1983, Office of Air Force History, ).
Ravenstein, Charles A. Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Office of Air Force History 1984. .
Mueller, Robert (1989). Volume 1: Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982. USAF Reference Series, Office of Air Force History, United States Air Force, Washington, D.C. ,
Krauss, Robert (2005) The 509th Remembered: A History of the 509th Composite Group as Told by the Veterans Themselves, 509th Anniversary Reunion, Wichita, Kansas 509th Press
Lloyd, Alwyn T. (2000), A Cold War Legacy, A Tribute to Strategic Air Command, 1946–1992, Pictorial Histories Publications
Turner Publishing Company (1997), Strategic Air Command: The Story of the Strategic Air Command and Its People. Turner Publishing Company
USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present
ArmyAirForces.com
Strategic-Air-Command.com
External links
Official website of the Walker Air Force Base Museum
Whiteman AFB, Missouri – Current home of the 509th Bombardment Wing
6th Bombardment Wing
579th Strategic Missile Squadron
Walker AFB at Strategic Air Command.Com
B-36 operations Walker AFB 1955–1957
Current-Day Walker AFB Photos
Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields: Roswell Area (Information on auxiliary airfields of Roswell AAF)
Installations of the United States Air Force in New Mexico
1941 establishments in New Mexico
Roswell, New Mexico
Transportation in Chaves County, New Mexico
Buildings and structures in Chaves County, New Mexico
History of Chaves County, New Mexico
Airports in New Mexico
Military installations closed in 1967
1967 disestablishments in New Mexico
Military in New Mexico |
4555470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Medal%20%28Royal%20Society%20of%20Arts%29 | Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts) | The Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts (RSA) was instituted in 1864 as a memorial to Prince Albert, who had been President of the Society for 18 years. It was first awarded in 1864 for "distinguished merit in promoting Arts, Manufactures and Commerce". In presenting the Medal, the Society now looks to acknowledge individuals, organizations and groups that lead progress and create positive change within contemporary society in areas that are linked closely to the Society's broad agenda.
Through the Albert Medal, the Society acknowledges the creativity and innovation of those that work to tackle some of the world's intractable problems. Each year, the RSA identifies issues by asking the Society's Fellowship to suggest problems and subjects linked to the Society's programme. These proposals are reviewed and recommendations made to the Trustees and Council, who are responsible for selecting one upon which the Fellowship will be asked to nominate worthy recipients.
Full list of medalists
1864: Sir Rowland Hill KCB FRS 'for his great services to Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, in the creation of the penny postage, and for his other reforms in the postal system of this country, the benefits of which have, however, not been confined to this country, but have extended over the civilised world'
1865: The Emperor of the French (Napoleon III) 'for distinguished merit in promoting, in many ways, by his personal exertions, the international progress of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, the proofs of which are afforded by his judicious patronage of Art, his enlightened commercial policy, and especially by the abolition of passports in favour of British subjects'
1866: Michael Faraday DCL FRS 'for his discoveries in electricity, magnetism, and chemistry, which in their relation to the industries of the world have so largely promoted Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce'
1867: William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone FRS 'in recognition of their joint labours in establishing the first electric telegraphy'
1868: Joseph Whitworth LLD FRS 'for the invention and manufacture of instruments of measurement and uniform standards by which the production of machinery has been brought to a state of perfection hitherto unapproached to the great advancement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce'
1869: Baron Justus von Liebig Associate of the Institute of France ForMembRS Chevalier of the Legion of Honour etc. 'for his numerous valuable researchers and writings, which have contributed most importantly to the development of food economy and agriculture, to the advancement of chemical science, and to the benefits derived from that science by Arts, Manufactures and Commerce'
1870: Ferdinand, Viscount de Lesseps Member of Institute of France HonGCSI 'for services rendered to Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, by the realisation of Suez Canal'.
1871: Henry Cole 'for his important services in promoting Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, especially in aiding the establishment and development of International Exhibitions, the Department of Science and Art, and the South Kensington Museum'
1872: Henry Bessemer FRS 'for the eminent services rendered by him to Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, in developing the manufacture of steel
1873: Michel Eugène Chevreul ForMembRS Member of the Institute of France 'for his chemical researches, especially in reference to saponification, dyeing, agriculture, and natural history, which for more than half a century have exercised a wide influence on the industrial arts of the world'
1874: Carl Wilhelm Siemens DCL FRS 'for his researches in connection with the laws of heat, and the practical applications of them to furnaces used in the Arts; and for his improvements in the manufacture of iron; and generally for the services rendered by him in connection with the economisation of fuel in its various applications to Manufactures and the Arts'
1875: Michel Chevalier 'the distinguished French statesman, who, by his writings and persistent exertions, extending over many years, has rendered essential services in promoting Arts, Manufactures and Commerce'
1876: Sir George Biddell Airy KCB FRS, Astronomer Royal 'for eminent services rendered to Commerce by his researches in nautical astronomy and in magnetism, and by his improvements in the application of the mariner's compass to the navigation of iron ships
1877: Jean-Baptiste Dumas ForMembRS Member of the Institute of France 'the distinguished chemist, whose researchers have excised a very material influence on the advancement of the Industrial Arts'
1878: William Armstrong (later The Lord Armstrong) CB DCL FRS 'because of his distinction as an engineer and as a scientific man, and because by the development of the transmission of power – hydraulically – due to his constant efforts, extending over many years, the manufactures of this country have been greatly aided, and mechanical power beneficially substituted for most laborious and injurious manual labour'
1879: William Thomson (later The Lord Kelvin) OM LLD DCL FRS 'on account of the signal service rendered to Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, by his electrical researches, especially with reference to the transmission of telegraphic messages over ocean cables'
1880: James Prescott Joule LLD DCL FRS 'for having established, after most laborious research, the true relation between heat, electricity and mechanical work, thus affording to the engineer a sure guide in the application of science to industrial pursuits'
1881: August Wilhelm von Hofmann MD LLD FRS, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Berlin 'for eminent services rendered to the Industrial Arts by his investigations in organic chemistry, and for his successful labour in promoting the cultivation of chemical education and research in England'
1882: Louis Pasteur Member of the Institute of France ForMembRS 'for his researches in connection with fermentation, the preservation of wines, and the propagation of zymotic diseases in silkworms and domestic animals, whereby the arts of wine making, silk production and agriculture have been greatly benefited'
1883: Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker KCSI CB MD DCL LLD FRS 'for the eminent services which, as a botanist and scientific traveller, and as Director of the National Botanical Department, he has rendered to the Arts, Manufactures and Commerce by promoting an accurate knowledge of the floras and economic vegetable products of our several colonies and dependencies of the Empire'
1884: Captain James Buchanan Eads 'the distinguished American engineer, whose works have been of such great service in improving the water communications of North America, and have thereby rendered valuable aid to the commerce of the world'
1885: Henry Doulton 'in recognition of the impulse given by him to the production of artistic pottery in this country'
1886: Samuel Lister (later The Lord Masham) 'for the services he has rendered to the textile industries, especially by the substitution of mechanical wool combing for hand combing, and by the introduction and development of a new industry – the utilisation of waste silk'
1887: The Queen (Queen Victoria) 'in commemoration of the progress of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce throughout the Empire during the fifty years of her reign'
1888: Professor Hermann von Helmholtz ForMembRS 'in recognition of the value of his researches in various branches of science and of their practical results upon music, painting and the useful arts'
1889: John Percy LLD FRS 'for his achievements in promoting the Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, though the worldwide influence which his researches and writings have had upon the progress of the science and practice of metallurgy'
1890: William Henry Perkin FRS 'for his discovery of the method of obtaining colouring matter from coal tar, a discovery which led to the establishment of a new and important industry, and to the utilisation of large quantities of a previously worthless material'
1891: Sir Frederick Abel Kt KCB DCL DSc FRS 'in recognition of the manner in which he has promoted several important classes of the Arts and Manufactures by the application of Chemical Science, and especially by his researches in the manufacture of iron and of steel, and also in acknowledgement of the great services he has rendered to the State in the provision of improved war material, and as Chemist to the War Department'
1892: Thomas Edison 'in recognition of the merits of his numerous and valuable inventions, especially his improvements in telegraphy, in telephony, and in electric lighting, and for his discovery of a means of reproducing vocal sounds by the phonograph'
1893: Sir John Bennet Lawes Bt FRS and Sir Henry Gilbert PhD FRS 'for their joint services to scientific agriculture, and notably for the researches which, throughout a period of fifty years, have been carried on by them at the Experimental Farm, Rothamsted'
1894: Sir Joseph Lister Bt FRS 'for the discovery and establishment of the antiseptic method of treating wounds and injuries by which not only has the art of surgery been greatly promoted, and human life saved in all parts of the world, but extensive industries have been created for the supply of materials required for carrying the treatment into effect.'
1895: Sir Lowthian Bell Bt FRS 'in recognition of the services he has rendered to Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, by his metallurgical researches and the resulting development of the iron and steel industries'
1896: Professor David Edward Hughes FRS 'in recognition of the services he has rendered to Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, by his numerous inventions in electricity and magnetism, especially the printing telegraph and the microphone'
1897: George James Symons FRS 'for the services he has rendered to the United Kingdom by affording to engineers engaged in the water supply and the sewage of towns, a trustworthy basis for their work, by establishing and carrying on during nearly forty years systematic observations (now at over 3000 stations) of the rainfall of the British Isles, and by recording, tabulating and graphically indicating the results of these observations in the annual volumes published by himself'
1898: Professor Robert Bunsen MD ForMembRS 'in recognition of his numerous and most valuable applications of Chemistry and Physics to the Arts and Manufactures'
1899: Sir William Crookes FRS 'for his extensive and laborious researches in chemistry and in physics, researches which have in many instances developed into useful practical applications in the Arts and Manufactures'
1900: Henry Wilde FRS 'for the discovery and practical demonstration of the indefinite increase of the magnetic and electric forces from quantities indefinitely small, a discovery now used in all dynamo machines; and for its application to the production of the electric search-light, and to the electro-deposition of metals from their solutions'
1901: The King (Edward VII) 'in recognition of the aid rendered by His Majesty to Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, during thirty-eight years' presidency of the Society of Arts, by undertaking the direction of important exhibitions in this country and the executive control of British representation at International Exhibitions abroad, and also by many other services to the cause of British Industry'
1902: Professor Alexander Graham Bell 'for his invention of the Telephone'
1903: Sir Charles Augustus Hartley Kt KCMG 'in recognition of his services, extending over forty-four years, as Engineer to the International Commission of the Danube, which have resulted in the opening up of the navigation of that river to ships of all nations, and of his similar services, extending over twenty years, as British Commissioner on the International Technical Commission of the Suez Canal'
1904: Walter Crane 'in recognition of the services he has rendered to Art and Industry by awakening popular interest in Decorative Art and Craftsmanship, and by promoting the recognition of English Art in the form most material to the commercial prosperity of the country'
1905: The Lord Rayleigh OM DCL ScD FRS 'in recognition of the influence which his researches, directed to the increase of scientific knowledge, have had upon industrial progress, by facilitating amongst other scientific applications, the provision of accurate electrical standards, the production of improved lenses and the development of apparatus for Sound Signaling at Sea'
1906: Sir Joseph Swan MA DSc FRS 'for the important part he took in the invention of the incandescent electric lamp, and for his invention of the carbon process of photographic printing'
1907: The Earl of Cromer GCB OM GCMG KCSI CIE PC FRS 'in recognition of his pre-eminent public services in Egypt, where he has 'imparted security to the relations of this country with the East, has established justice, restored order and prosperity, and, by the initiation of great works, has opened up new fields for enterprise'
1908: Sir James Dewar MA DSc LLD FRS 'for his investigations into the liquefaction of gases and the properties of matter at low temperatures, investigations which have resulted in the production of the lowest temperatures yet reached, the use of vacuum vessels for thermal isolation, and the application of cooled charcoal to the separation of gaseous mixtures and to the production of high vacua'
1909: Sir Andrew Noble Bt KCB DSc DCL FRS 'in recognition of his long-continued and valuable researches into the nature and action of explosives, which have resulted in the greater development and improvement of modern ordnance'
1910: Marie Curie 'for the discovery of Radium'
1911: The Hon Sir Charles Algernon Parsons KCB LLD DSc FRS 'for his experimental researches into the laws governing the efficient action of steam in engines of the turbine type, and for his invention of the reaction type of steam turbine, and its practical application to the generation of electricity and other purposes'
1912: The Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal GCMG GCVO LLD DCL FRS 'for his services in improving the railway communications, developing the resources, and promoting the commerce and industry of Canada and other parts of the British Empire'
1913: The King (George V) 'for nine years President, and now Patron of the Society, in respectful recognition of His Majesty's untiring efforts to make himself personally acquainted with the social and economic condition of the various parts of his Dominions, and to promote the progress of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce in the United Kingdom and throughout the British Empire'
1914: Chevalier Guglielmo Marconi LLD DSc 'for his services in the development and practical application of wireless telegraphy'
1915: Professor Sir J. J. Thomson OM DSc LLD FRS 'for his researches in physics and chemistry, and their application to the advancement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce'
1916: Professor Élie Metchnikoff ForMemRS 'in recognition of the value of his investigations into the causes of immunity in infective diseases, which have led to important changes in medical practice, and to the establishment of principles certain to have a most beneficial influence on the improvement of public health'
1917: Orville Wright 'in recognition of the value of the contributions of Wilbur and Orville Wright to the solution of the problem of mechanical flight'
1918: Sir Richard Glazebrook CB ScD FRS 'for his services in the application of science to the industries of peace and war, by his work as Director of the National Physical Laboratory since 1899, and as Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics'
1919: Sir Oliver Lodge DSc LLD FRS 'in recognition of his work as the pioneer of wireless telegraphy'
1920: Professor Albert Abraham Michelson 'whose optical inventions have rendered possible the reproduction of accurate metric standards, and have provided the means of carrying out measurements with a minute precision hitherto unobtainable'
1921: Professor John Ambrose Fleming FRS 'in recognition of his many valuable contributions to electrical science and its applications, and specially of his original invention of the thermionic valve, now so largely employed in wireless telegraphy and for other purposes'
1922: Sir Dugald Clerk KBE DSc LLD FRS 'in recognition of his important contributions, both theoretical and practical to the development of the internal combustion engine, who in its latter forms has rendered aerial navigation possible, and is also extensively employed in the motor car, and in the submarine and for many other purposes'
1923: Major-General Sir David Bruce Kt KCB DSc LLD FRCP FRS and Colonel Sir Ronald Ross KCB KCMG DSc LLD MD FRS FRCS 'in recognition of the eminent services they have rendered to the Economic Development of the World by their achievements in Biological Research and the Study of Tropical Diseases'
1924: The Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII) 'in recognition of Services rendered to the Arts, Manufactures and Commerce as President of the British Empire Exhibition, and by his visits to the Dominions and Colonies'
1925: Lieut-Colonel Sir David Prain CMG CIE ME LLD FRS 'for the application of Botany to the development of raw materials of the Empire'
1926: Professor Paul Sabatier Member of the Institute of France ForMembRS 'in recognition of his distinguished work in science and of the eminent services to industry rendered by his renowned researches in Physics and Chemistry, which laid the foundation of important industrial processes'
1927: Sir Aston Webb Kt GCVO CB PRA PRIBA FSA LLD 'for distinguished services to Architecture'
1928: Sir Ernest Rutherford OM LLD DSc FRS 'for his pioneer researches into the structure of matter'
1929: Sir James Alfred Ewing KCB LLD FRS 'for his work in magnetism and his services to technical education'
1930: Professor Henry Edward Armstrong LLD DSc FRS 'for his discoveries in Chemistry and his services to Education'
1931: The Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 'in grateful appreciation of his presidency of the Society since 1911'
1932: Frank Brangwyn RA 'for his services to decorative and commercial art'
1933: Sir William Llewellyn GCVO PRA 'for his encouragement of Art in Industry'
1934: Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins LLD DSc PRS 'for his researches in Biochemistry and the Constituents of Foods'
1935: Sir Robert Hadfield Bt Kt DSc FRS 'for his researches in Metallurgy and his services to the Steel Industry'
1936: The Earl of Derby Bt KG GCB GCVO PC 'for the advancement of Commerce and Arts, especially in Lancashire'
1937: William Nuffield OBE 'for services to industry, transport and medical science'
1938: Queen Mary 'in recognition of Her Majesty's unremitting interest in arts and manufactures, to the great benefit of British industry and commerce'
1939: Sir Thomas Henry Holland KCSI KCIE DSc LLD FRS 'for services to the mineral industries'
1940: John Alexander Milne CBE 'for services to Industrial Art'
1941: President Franklin D. Roosevelt 'in recognition of his pre-eminent services to humanity as the fearless and resolute champion of the ideals of freedom and individual liberty'
1942: Field Marshal Rt Hon Jan Smuts OM CH FRS 'Statesman. Soldier. Scientist. Philosopher'
1943: Sir John Russell OBE DSc FRS 'for his researches and leadership in agricultural science and his services to husbandry in many lands'
1944: Sir Henry Tizard KCB DCL FRS 'for his achievements in applying scientific principles to aeronautics and his services to advanced Technical Education'
1945: Rt Hon Winston Churchill CH FRS MP 'whose foresight, faith and fortitude led free men to victory'
1946: Sir Alexander Fleming FRS and Sir Howard Florey FRS
1947: Sir Robert Robinson MA DSc LLD FRS 'for his outstanding contributions to the advancement of organic chemistry'
1948: Sir William Reid Dick KCVO RA 'for National Memories in Living Stone'
1949: Sir Giles Gilbert Scott OM 'Builder of a lasting heritage for Britain'
1950: Sir Edward Victor Appleton GBE KCB MA DSc ScD LLD FRS 'for outstanding services to science and industrial research'
1951: The King (George VI) 'in respectful recognition of His Majesty's lifelong concern for the progress of industry and for industrial welfare'
1952: Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle KBE CB FRS 'for his development of the continuous-combustion gas turbine and jet propulsion'
1953: Dr Edgar Adrian OM MD PRS 'for his outstanding contribution to neuro-physiology'
1954: Sir Ambrose Heal 'for his services to industrial design'
1955: Dr Ralph Vaughan Williams OM 'for his eminent service to music'
1956: Sir Henry Hallett Dale OM GBE MD FRS 'for eminent service to science, particularly physiology'
1957: Sir Christopher Hinton Kt KBE FRS 'for his outstanding leadership in nuclear power development'
1958: The Queen (Elizabeth II) 'to mark Her Majesty's personal service to arts, manufactures and commerce, at home and abroad'
1959: Vincent Massey CH 'for his distinguished encouragement of the arts and sciences'
1960: Sir Frederick Handley Page CBE
1961: Professor Walter Gropius DrIng FIAA HonRDI 'for his contributions to architectural and industrial design'
1962: Sir Sydney Gordon Russell CBE MC RDI FSIA 'for his services to industrial design'
1963: The Duke of Edinburgh 'for distinguished merit in promoting arts, manufactures and commerce'
1964: Dame Ninette de Valois DBE 'for her services to the art of ballet'
1965: Sir Leon Bagrit 'for his work in the application of automation to industry'
1966: Christopher Cockerell CBE 'for his work in the invention and technical development of the hovercraft'
1967: Sir Edward Lewis 'for his contribution to the electronics industry'
1968: Sir Barnes Wallis 'in recognition of his contributions to the development of aeronautical science and engineering'
1969: Sir Allen Lane 'for his contribution to publishing and education'
1970: Peter Scott CBE 'for his work in the conservation of wild life'
1971: Sir William Glock CBE 'for his outstanding services to music'
1972: Sir George Edwards OM CBE FRS 'for services to aeronautical science and aviation'
1973: Sir John Betjeman CBE 'for his contribution to poetry and the appreciation of architecture'
1974: Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother 'in recognition for Her Majesty's outstanding support and patronage of the arts, manufactures & commerce'
1975: Sir Nikolaus Pevsner CBE 'for his distinguished services to Britain's industrial heritage'
1976: The Lord Olivier (the actor Laurence Olivier) 'for his service to the Drama and the British Theatre'
1977: The Lord Robens of Woldingham PC 'for his contribution to industrial progress in Britain'
1978: Sir John Charnley 'for his contributions to orthopaedic surgery'
1979: Sir Robert Mayer CH 'for his services to music, and in particular his generous and practical encouragement of young musicians and of young people learning to appreciate music'
1980: The Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth (the economist Barbara Ward) 'for her work in the field of international co-operation in economic development'
1981: Yehudi Menuhin KBE 'for his contribution to music'
1982: Akio Morita 'for his contributions to technological and industrial innovation and management'
1983: Sir Arnold Alexander Hall 'for his outstanding contributions to the aeronautical industry, and in particular to aeronautical engineering'
1984: Sir Hugh Casson KCVO RIBA RDI 'for his contributions to art and design'
1985: The Prince of Wales 'for increasing recognition of the need for new – and often young – enterprise in industry, and for multiplying support, both corporate and private, for the arts'
1986: Sir Alastair Pilkington 'for his outstanding contribution to industrial innovation'
1987: Dr Francis Crick FRS 'for his contributions to molecular and cell biology'
1988: Sir Shridath Ramphal CMG QC 'for his outstanding contributions towards accord within the Commonwealth, and his promotion of the worldwide concept of or inseparable humanity'
1989: The Lord Sainsbury of Preston Candover 'for his outstanding contributions in the fields of business and the arts'
1990: Dr Jonathan Miller 'for his outstanding contribution he has made to both the arts and science and the way he has brought both to a larger audience'
1991: The Baroness Seear PC 'for her distinguished contribution to public life in the spheres of industrial relations and the development of the principles of human resources management in industry'
1992: The Lord Young of Dartington 'for his impact and achievement in a multiplicity of fields, especially education, consumer affairs and social services'
1993: Paul Hamlyn CBE 'for his contribution to the arts, manufactures and commerce as a businessman, publisher and philanthropist'
1994: Sir Ernest Hall OBE 'for his charitable enterprise founded on his achievements as a financial analyst'
1995: Sir Adrian Cadbury 'for his outstanding contribution to business and to corporate governance'
1996: Sir Claus Moser KCB CBE FBA 'for his contribution to social sciences and commitment to education, music and the arts'
1997: Sir Simon Rattle CBE 'for his outstanding contribution as a leading conductor and champion or orchestral involvement in a broad programme of education and community activity'
1998: The Baroness Warnock DBE 'in recognition of her national and international influence on the fields of education, ethics, human fertility, environmental issues and philosophy'
1999: Professor Stephen Hawking CH CBE FRS 'for making physics more accessible, understandable and exciting and opening the subject to a wider audience through his books and television programmes'
2000: The Princess Royal 'for her many years of enthusiastically promoting and encouraging arts, manufactures and commerce in her visit programme and her dedicated work for charities.
2001: Mary Robinson 'for her work as the main architect of the Global Compact on Corporate Social Responsibility.'
2002: Tim Berners-Lee OBE 'for his outstanding contribution to the World Wide Web.'
2003: Tim Smit CBE 'for developing the Eden Project which has broken new boundaries in tourism, ecology, education, enterprise and development partnership.'
2004: Karan Bilimoria CBE 'for meeting the RSA manifesto challenge to encourage enterprise'
2005: Dr Gro Harlem Brundtland 'for awaking the world to the environmental challenge'
2008: Dr Simon Duffy for social innovation
2009: Zarine Kharas, CEO of Justgiving 'for democratising fundraising'
2010: Jeremy Deller, contemporary visual artist 'for creating art that encourages public responses and creativity'.
2011: Albina Ruiz, of Ciudad Saludable, a sustainable development organisation based in Peru.
2013: Selwyn Image, of Emmaus UK, 'for setting up the UK branch of the international movement that gives homeless people a place to live and work.'
2014: Jos de Blok of Buurtzorg Nederland, for 'a transformational new model of community health care.'
2015: James Timpson OBE, of Timpson, 'for successfully uniting the commercial and social benefit aspects of business'
2016: Peter Tatchell, human rights campaigner for 'tireless campaigning on human rights & social equality'
2017: Robin Murray (posthumous), 'for pioneering work in social innovation'
2018: Neil Jameson of Citizens UK, 'for services to community organising for the common good'
2019: Paul Sinton-Hewitt CBE of parkrun, 'for building a global participation movement'
2021: Prof Sarah Gilbert of University of Oxford for 'collaborative innovation for the global common good'
References
External links
Awards established in 1864
Royal Society of Arts
Lists of award winners
Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom
Arts awards in the United Kingdom
Monuments and memorials to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
1864 establishments in the United Kingdom |
4556078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20sound%20recording | History of sound recording | The history of sound recording - which has progressed in waves, driven by the invention and commercial introduction of new technologies — can be roughly divided into four main periods:
The Acoustic era (1877–1925)
The Electrical era (1925–1945)
The Magnetic era (1945–1975)
The Digital era (1975–present)
Experiments in capturing sound on a recording medium for preservation and reproduction began in earnest during the Industrial Revolution of the 1800s. Many pioneering attempts to record and reproduce sound were made during the latter half of the 19th century – notably Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville's phonautograph of 1857 – and these efforts culminated in the invention of the phonograph by Thomas Edison in 1877. Digital recording emerged in the late 20th century and has since flourished with the popularity of digital music and online streaming services.
Overview
The Acoustic Era (1877–1925)
The earliest practical recording technologies were entirely mechanical devices. These recorders typically used a large conical horn to collect and focus the physical air pressure of the sound waves produced by the human voice or musical instruments. A sensitive membrane or diaphragm, located at the apex of the cone, was connected to an articulated scriber or stylus, and as the changing air pressure moved the diaphragm back and forth, the stylus scratched or incised an analogue of the sound waves onto a moving recording medium, such as a roll of coated paper, or a cylinder or disc coated with a soft material such as wax or a soft metal.
These early recordings were necessarily of low fidelity and volume and captured only a narrow segment of the audible sound spectrum — typically only from around 250 Hz up to about 2,500 Hz — so musicians and engineers were forced to adapt to these sonic limitations. Musical ensembles of the period often favoured louder instruments such as trumpet, cornet, and trombone; lower-register brass instruments such as the tuba and the euphonium doubled or replaced the double bass, and blocks of wood stood in for bass drums. Performers also had to arrange themselves strategically around the horn to balance the sound, and to play as loudly as possible. The reproduction of domestic phonographs was similarly limited in both frequency-range and volume.
By the end of the acoustic era, the disc had become the standard medium for sound recording, and its dominance in the domestic audio market lasted until the end of the 20th century.
The Electrical Era (1925–1945) (including sound on film)
The 'second wave' of sound recording history was ushered in by the introduction of Western Electric's integrated system of electrical microphones, electronic signal amplifiers and electromechanical recorders, which was adopted by major US record labels in 1925. Sound recording now became a hybrid process — sound could now be captured, amplified, filtered, and balanced electronically, and the disc-cutting head was now electrically powered, but the actual recording process remained essentially mechanical – the signal was still physically inscribed into a wax 'master' disc, and consumer discs were mass-produced mechanically by stamping a metal electroform made from the wax master into a suitable substance, originally a shellac-based compound and later polyvinyl plastic.
The Western Electric system greatly improved the fidelity of sound recording, increasing the reproducible frequency range to a much wider band (between 60 Hz and 6000 Hz) and allowing a new class of professional – the audio engineer – to capture a fuller, richer, and more detailed and balanced sound on record, using multiple microphones connected to multi-channel electronic amplifiers, compressors, filters and mixers. Electrical microphones led to a dramatic change in the performance style of singers, ushering in the age of the "crooner", while electronic amplification had a wide-ranging impact in many areas, enabling the development of broadcast radio, public address systems, and electronically amplified home record players.
In addition, the development of electronic amplifiers for musical instruments now enabled quieter instruments such as the guitar and the string bass to compete on equal terms with the naturally louder wind and horn instruments, and musicians and composers also began to experiment with entirely new electronic musical instruments such as the Theremin, the Ondes Martenot, the electronic organ, and the Hammond Novachord, the world's first analogue polyphonic synthesiser.
Contemporaneous with these developments, several inventors were engaged in a race to develop practical methods of providing synchronised sound with films. Some early sound films — such as the landmark 1927 film The Jazz Singer – used large soundtrack records which were played on a turntable mechanically interlocked with the projector. By the early 1930s, the movie industry had almost universally adopted sound-on-film technology, in which the audio signal to be recorded was used to modulate a light source that was imaged onto the moving film through a narrow slit, allowing it to be photographed as variations in the density or width of a "soundtrack" running along a dedicated area of the film. The projector used a steady light and a photoelectric cell to convert the variations back into an electrical signal, which was amplified and sent to loudspeakers behind the screen.
The adoption of sound-on-film also helped movie-industry audio engineers to make rapid advances in the process we now know as "multi-tracking", by which multiple separately-recorded audio sources (such as voices, sound effects and background music) can be replayed simultaneously, mixed together, and synchronised with the action on film to create new 'blended' audio tracks of great sophistication and complexity. One of the best-known examples of a 'constructed' composite sound from that era is the famous "Tarzan yell" created for the series of Tarzan movies starring Johnny Weissmuller.
Among the vast and often rapid changes that have taken place over the last century of audio recording, it is notable that there is one crucial audio device, invented at the start of the "Electrical Era", which has survived virtually unchanged since its introduction in the 1920s: the electro-acoustic transducer, or loudspeaker. The most common form is the dynamic loudspeaker – effectively a dynamic microphone in reverse. This device typically consists of a shallow conical diaphragm, usually of a stiff paper-like material concentrically pleated to make it more flexible, firmly fastened at its perimeter, with the coil of a moving-coil electromagnetic driver attached around its apex. When an audio signal from a recording, a microphone, or an electrified instrument is fed through an amplifier to the loudspeaker, the varying electromagnetic field created in the coil causes it and the attached cone to move backward and forward, and this movement generates the audio-frequency pressure waves that travel through the air to our ears, which hear them as sound.
Although there have been numerous refinements to the technology, and other related technologies have been introduced (e.g. the electrostatic loudspeaker), the basic design and function of the dynamic loudspeaker has not changed substantially in 90 years, and it remains overwhelmingly the most common, sonically accurate and reliable means of converting electronic audio signals back into audible sound.
The Magnetic Era (1945–1975)
The third wave of development in audio recording began in 1945 when the allied nations gained access to a new German invention: magnetic tape recording. The technology was invented in the 1930s but remained restricted to Germany (where it was widely used in broadcasting) until the end of World War II. Magnetic tape provided another dramatic leap in audio fidelity—indeed, Allied observers first became aware of the existence of the new technology because they noticed that the audio quality of obviously pre-recorded programs was practically indistinguishable from live broadcasts.
From 1950 onwards, magnetic tape quickly became the standard medium of audio master recording in the radio and music industries, and led to the development of the first hi-fi stereo recordings for the domestic market, the development of multi-track tape recording for music, and the demise of the disc as the primary mastering medium for sound. Magnetic tape also brought about a radical reshaping of the recording process—it made possible recordings of far longer duration and much higher fidelity than ever before, and it offered recording engineers the same exceptional plasticity that film gave to cinema editors—sounds captured on tape could now easily be manipulated sonically, edited, and combined in ways that were simply impossible with disc recordings.
These experiments reached an early peak in the 1950s with the recordings of Les Paul and Mary Ford, who pioneered the use of tape editing and multi-tracking to create large 'virtual' ensembles of voices and instruments, constructed entirely from multiple taped recordings of their own voices and instruments. Magnetic tape fueled a rapid and radical expansion in the sophistication of popular music and other genres, allowing composers, producers, engineers and performers to realize previously unattainable levels of complexity. Other concurrent advances in audio technology led to the introduction of a range of new consumer audio formats and devices, on both disc and tape, including the development full-frequency-range disc reproduction, the change from shellac to polyvinyl plastic for disc manufacture, the invention of the 33rpm, 12-inch long-playing (LP) disc and the 45rpm 7-inch "single", the introduction of domestic and professional portable tape recorders (which enabled high-fidelity recordings of live performances), the popular 4-track cartridge and compact cassette formats, and even the world's first "sampling keyboards", the pioneering tape-based keyboard instrument the Chamberlin, and its more famous successor, the Mellotron.
The Digital Era (1975–present)
The fourth and current "phase", the "digital" era, has seen the most rapid, dramatic and far-reaching series of changes in the history of audio recording. In a period of fewer than 20 years, all previous recording technologies were rapidly superseded by digital sound encoding, and the Japanese electronics corporation Sony in the 1970s was instrumental with the first consumer (well-heeled) PCM encoder PCM-F1, introduced in 1981 https://www.kenrockwell.com/audio/sony/pcm-f1.htm. Unlike all previous technologies, which captured a continuous analogue of the sounds being recorded, digital recording captured sound by means of a very dense and rapid series of discrete samples of the sound. When played back through a digital-to-analogue converter, these audio samples are recombined to form a continuous flow of sound. The first all-digitally-recorded popular music album, Ry Cooder's Bop 'Til You Drop, was released in 1979, and from that point, digital sound recording and reproduction quickly became the new standard at every level, from the professional recording studio to the home hi-fi.
Although a number of short-lived "hybrid" studio and consumer technologies appeared in this period (e.g. Digital Audio Tape or DAT, which recorded digital signal samples onto standard magnetic tape), Sony assured the preeminence of its new digital recording system by introducing, together with Philips, the digital compact disc (CD). The compact disc rapidly replaced both the 12" album and the 7" single as the new standard consumer format, and ushered in a new era of high-fidelity consumer audio.
CDs are small, portable and durable, and they could reproduce the entire audible sound spectrum, with a large dynamic range (~96 dB), perfect clarity and no distortion. Because CDs were encoded and read optically, using a laser beam, there was no physical contact between the disc and the playback mechanism, so a well-cared-for CD could be played over and over, with absolutely no degradation or loss of fidelity. CDs also represented a considerable advance in both the physical size of the medium, and its storage capacity. LPs could only practically hold about 20–25 minutes of audio per side because they were physically limited by the size of the disc itself and the density of the grooves that could be cut into it — the longer the recording, the closer together the grooves and thus the lower the overall fidelity. CDs, on the other hand, were less than half the overall size of the old 12" LP format, but offered about double the duration of the average LP, with up to 80 minutes of audio.
The compact disc almost totally dominated the consumer audio market by the end of the 20th century, but within another decade, rapid developments in computing technology saw it rendered virtually redundant in just a few years by the most significant new invention in the history of audio recording — the digital audio file (.wav, .mp3 and other formats). When combined with newly developed digital signal compression algorithms, which greatly reduced file sizes, digital audio files came to dominate the domestic market, thanks to commercial innovations such as Apple's iTunes media application, and their popular iPod portable media player.
However, the introduction of digital audio files, in concert with the rapid developments in home computing, soon led to an unforeseen consequence — the widespread unlicensed distribution of audio and other digital media files. The uploading and downloading of large volumes of digital media files at high speed was facilitated by freeware file-sharing technologies such as Napster and BitTorrent.
Although infringement remains a significant issue for copyright owners, the development of digital audio has had considerable benefits for consumers and labels. In addition to facilitating the high-volume, low-cost transfer and storage of digital audio files, this new technology has also powered an explosion in the availability of so-called "back-catalogue" titles stored in the archives of recording labels, thanks to the fact that labels can now convert old recordings and distribute them digitally at a fraction of the cost of physically reissuing albums on LP or CD. Digital audio has also enabled dramatic improvements in the restoration and remastering of acoustic and pre-digital electric recordings, and even freeware consumer-level digital software can very effectively eliminate scratches, surface noise and other unwanted sonic artefacts from old 78rpm and vinyl recordings and greatly enhance the sound quality of all but the most badly damaged records. In the field of consumer-level digital data storage, the continuing trend towards increasing capacity and falling costs means that consumers can now acquire and store vast quantities of high-quality digital media (audio, video, games and other applications), and build up media libraries consisting of tens or even hundreds of thousands of songs, albums, or videos — collections which, for all but the wealthiest, would have been both physically and financially impossible to amass in such quantities if they were on 78 or LP, yet which can now be contained on storage devices no larger than the average hardcover book.
The digital audio file marked the end of one era in recording and the beginning of another. Digital files effectively eliminated the need to create or use a discrete, purpose-made physical recording medium (a disc, or a reel of tape, etc.) as the primary means of capturing, manufacturing and distributing commercial sound recordings. Concurrent with the development of these digital file formats, dramatic advances in home computing and the rapid expansion of the Internet mean that digital sound recordings can now be captured, processed, reproduced, distributed and stored entirely electronically, on a range of magnetic and optical recording media, and these can be distributed anywhere in the world, with no loss of fidelity, and crucially, without the need to first transfer these files to some form of permanent recording medium for shipment and sale.
Music streaming services have gained popularity since the late 2000s. Streaming audio does not require the listener to own the audio files. Instead, they listen over the internet. Streaming services offer an alternative method of consuming music and some follow a freemium business model. The freemium model many music streaming services use, such as Spotify and Apple Music, provide a limited amount of content for free, and then premium services for payment. There are two categories in which streaming services are categorized, radio or on-demand. Streaming services such as Pandora use the radio model, allowing users to select playlists but not specific songs to listen to, while services such as Apple Music allow users to listen to both individual songs and pre-made playlists.
Acoustical recording
The earliest method of sound recording and reproduction involved the live recording of a performance directly to a recording medium by an entirely mechanical process, often called "acoustical recording". In the standard procedure used until the mid-1920s, the sounds generated by the performance vibrated a diaphragm with a recording stylus connected to it while the stylus cut a groove into a soft recording medium rotating beneath it. To make this process as efficient as possible, the diaphragm was located at the apex of a hollow cone that served to collect and focus the acoustical energy, with the performers crowded around the other end. Recording balance was achieved empirically. A performer who recorded too strongly or not strongly enough would be moved away from or nearer to the mouth of the cone. The number and kind of instruments that could be recorded were limited. Brass instruments, which recorded well, often substituted instruments such as cellos and bass fiddles, which did not. In some early jazz recordings, a block of wood was used in place of the snare drum, which could easily overload the recording diaphragm.
Phonautograph
In 1857, Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville invented the phonautograph, the first device that could record sound waves as they passed through the air. It was intended only for visual study of the recording and could not play back the sound. The recording medium was a sheet of soot-coated paper wrapped around a rotating cylinder carried on a threaded rod. A stylus, attached to a diaphragm through a series of levers, traced a line through the soot, creating a graphic record of the motions of the diaphragm as it was minutely propelled back and forth by the audio-frequency variations in air pressure.
In the spring of 1877 another inventor, Charles Cros, suggested that the process could be reversed by using photoengraving to convert the traced line into a groove that would guide the stylus, causing the original stylus vibrations to be recreated, passed on to the linked diaphragm, and sent back into the air as sound. Edison's invention of the phonograph soon eclipsed this idea, and it was not until 1887 that yet another inventor, Emile Berliner, actually photoengraved a phonautograph recording into metal and played it back.
Scott's early recordings languished in French archives until 2008 when scholars keen to resurrect the sounds captured in these and other types of early experimental recordings tracked them down. Rather than using rough 19th-century technology to create playable versions, they were scanned into a computer and software was used to convert their sound-modulated traces into digital audio files. Brief excerpts from two French songs and a recitation in Italian, all recorded in 1860, are the most substantial results.
Phonograph/Gramophone
The phonograph, invented by Thomas Edison in 1877, could both record sound and play it back. The earliest type of phonograph sold recorded on a thin sheet of tinfoil wrapped around a grooved metal cylinder. A stylus connected to a sound-vibrated diaphragm indented the foil into the groove as the cylinder rotated. The stylus vibration was at a right angle to the recording surface, so the depth of the indentation varied with the audio-frequency changes in air pressure that carried the sound. This arrangement is known as vertical or "hill-and-dale" recording. The sound could be played back by tracing the stylus along the recorded groove and acoustically coupling its resulting vibrations to the surrounding air through the diaphragm and a so-called "amplifying" horn.
The crude tinfoil phonograph proved to be of little use except as a novelty. It was not until the late 1880s that an improved and much more useful form of the phonograph was marketed. The new machines recorded on easily removable hollow wax cylinders and the groove was engraved into the surface rather than indented. The targeted use was business communication, and in that context, the cylinder format had some advantages. When entertainment use proved to be the real source of profits, one seemingly negligible disadvantage became a major problem: the difficulty of making copies of a recorded cylinder in large quantities.
At first, cylinders were copied by acoustically connecting a playback machine to one or more recording machines through flexible tubing, an arrangement that degraded the audio quality of the copies. Later, a pantograph mechanism was used, but it could only produce about 25 fair copies before the original was too worn down. During a recording session, as many as a dozen machines could be arrayed in front of the performers to record multiple originals. Still, a single "take" would ultimately yield only a few hundred copies at best, so performers were booked for marathon recording sessions in which they had to repeat their most popular numbers over and over again. By 1902, successful molding processes for manufacturing prerecorded cylinders had been developed.
The wax cylinder got a competitor with the advent of the Gramophone, which was patented by Emile Berliner in 1887. The vibration of the Gramophone's recording stylus was horizontal, parallel to the recording surface, resulting in a zig-zag groove of constant depth. This is known as lateral recording. Berliner's original patent showed a lateral recording etched around the surface of a cylinder, but in practice, he opted for the disc format. The Gramophones he soon began to market were intended solely for playing prerecorded entertainment discs and could not be used to record. The spiral groove on the flat surface of a disc was relatively easy to replicate: a negative metal electrotype of the original record could be used to stamp out hundreds or thousands of copies before it wore out. Early on, the copies were made of hard rubber, and sometimes of celluloid, but soon a shellac-based compound was adopted.
"Gramophone", Berliner's trademark name, was abandoned in the US in 1900 because of legal complications, with the result that in American English Gramophones and Gramophone records, along with disc records and players made by other manufacturers, were long ago brought under the umbrella term "phonograph", a word which Edison's competitors avoided using but which was never his trademark, simply a generic term he introduced and applied to cylinders, discs, tapes and any other formats capable of carrying a sound-modulated groove. In the UK, proprietary use of the name Gramophone continued for another decade until, in a court case, it was adjudged to have become genericized and so could be used freely by competing disc record makers, with the result that in British English a disc record is called a "gramophone record" and "phonograph record" is traditionally assumed to mean a cylinder.
Not all cylinder records are alike. They were made of various soft or hard waxy formulations or early plastics, sometimes in unusual sizes; did not all use the same groove pitch; and were not all recorded at the same speed. Early brown wax cylinders were usually cut at about 120 rpm, whereas later cylinders ran at 160 rpm for clearer and louder sound at the cost of reduced maximum playing time. As a medium for entertainment, the cylinder was already losing the format war with the disc by 1910, but the production of entertainment cylinders did not entirely cease until 1929 and use of the format for business dictation purposes persisted into the 1950s.
Disc records, too, were sometimes made in unusual sizes, or from unusual materials, or otherwise deviated from the format norms of their eras in some substantial way. The speed at which disc records were rotated was eventually standardized at about 78 rpm, but other speeds were sometimes used. Around 1950, slower speeds became standard: 45, 33⅓, and the rarely used 16⅔ rpm. The standard material for discs changed from shellac to vinyl, although vinyl had been used for some special-purpose records since the early 1930s and some 78 rpm shellac records were still being made in the late 1950s.
Electrical recording
Until the mid-1920s records were played on purely mechanical record players usually powered by a wind-up spring motor. The sound was "amplified" by an external or internal horn that was coupled to the diaphragm and stylus, although there was no real amplification: the horn simply improved the efficiency with which the diaphragm's vibrations were transmitted into the open air. The recording process was, in essence, the same non-electronic setup operating in reverse, but with a recording, stylus engraving a groove into a soft waxy master disc and carried slowly inward across it by a feed mechanism.
The advent of electrical recording in 1925 made it possible to use sensitive microphones to capture the sound and greatly improved the audio quality of records. A much wider range of frequencies could be recorded, the balance of high and low frequencies could be controlled by elementary electronic filters, and the signal could be amplified to the optimum level for driving the recording stylus. The leading record labels switched to the electrical process in 1925 and the rest soon followed, although one straggler in the US held out until 1929.
There was a period of nearly five years, from 1925 to 1930 when the top "audiophile" technology for home sound reproduction consisted of a combination of electrically recorded records with the specially-developed Victor Orthophonic Victrola, an acoustic phonograph that used waveguide engineering and a folded horn to provide a reasonably flat frequency response. The first electronically amplified record players reached the market only a few months later, around the start of 1926, but at first, they were much more expensive and their audio quality was impaired by their primitive loudspeakers; they did not become common until the late 1930s.
Electrical recording increased the flexibility of the process, but the performance was still cut directly to the recording medium, so if a mistake was made the whole recording was spoiled. Disc-to-disc editing was possible, by using multiple turntables to play parts of different "takes" and recording them to a new master disc, but switching sources with split-second accuracy was difficult and lower sound quality was inevitable, so except for use in editing some early sound films and radio recordings it was rarely done.
Electrical recording made it more feasible to record one part to disc and then play that back while playing another part, recording both parts to a second disc. This and conceptually related techniques, known as overdubbing, enabled studios to create recorded "performances" that feature one or more artists each singing multiple parts or playing multiple instrument parts and that therefore could not be duplicated by the same artist or artists performing live. The first commercially issued records using overdubbing were released by the Victor Talking Machine Company in the late 1920s. However, overdubbing was of limited use until the advent of audio tape. Use of tape overdubbing was pioneered by Les Paul in the 1940s.
Magnetic recording
Magnetic wire recording
Wire recording or magnetic wire recording is an analog type of audio storage in which a magnetic recording is made on thin steel or stainless steel wire.
The wire is pulled rapidly across a recording head, which magnetizes each point along the wire in accordance with the intensity and polarity of the electrical audio signal being supplied to the recording head at that instant. By later drawing the wire across the same or a similar head while the head is not being supplied with an electrical signal, the varying magnetic field presented by the passing wire induces a similarly varying electric current in the head, recreating the original signal at a reduced level.
Magnetic wire recording was replaced by magnetic tape recording, but devices employing one or the other of these media had been more or less simultaneously under development for many years before either came into widespread use. The principles and electronics involved are nearly identical. Wire recording initially had the advantage that the recording medium itself was already fully developed, while tape recording was held back by the need to improve the materials and methods used to manufacture the tape.
Magnetic recording was demonstrated in principle as early as 1898 by Valdemar Poulsen in his telegraphone. Magnetic wire recording, and its successor, magnetic tape recording, involve the use of a magnetized medium which moves with a constant speed past a recording head. An electrical signal, which is analogous to the sound that is to be recorded, is fed to the recording head, inducing a pattern of magnetization similar to the signal. A playback head can then pick up the changes in the magnetic field from the tape and convert it into an electrical signal.
With the addition of electronic amplification developed by Curt Stille in the 1920s, the telegraphone evolved into wire recorders which were popular for voice recording and dictation during the 1940s and into the 1950s. The reproduction quality of wire recorders was significantly lower than that achievable with phonograph disk recording technology. There were also practical difficulties, such as the tendency of the wire to become tangled or snarled. Splicing could be performed by knotting together the cut wire ends, but the results were not very satisfactory.
On Christmas Day, 1932 the British Broadcasting Corporation first used a steel tape recorder for their broadcasts. The device used was a Marconi-Stille recorder, a huge and dangerous machine which used steel tape that had sharp edges. The tape was wide and thick running at past the recording and reproducing heads. This meant that the length of tape required for a half-hour programme was nearly and a full reel weighed .
Magnetic tape sound recording
Engineers at AEG, working with the chemical giant IG Farben, created the world's first practical magnetic tape recorder, the 'K1', which was first demonstrated in 1935. During World War II, an engineer at the Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft discovered the AC biasing technique. With this technique, an inaudible high-frequency signal, typically in the range of 50 to 150 kHz, is added to the audio signal before being applied to the recording head. Biasing radically improved the sound quality of magnetic tape recordings. By 1943 AEG had developed stereo tape recorders.
During the war, the Allies became aware of radio broadcasts that seemed to be transcriptions (much of this due to the work of Richard H. Ranger), but their audio quality was indistinguishable from that of a live broadcast and their duration was far longer than was possible with 78 rpm discs. At the end of the war, the Allies captured a number of German Magnetophon recorders from Radio Luxembourg that aroused great interest. These recorders incorporated all of the key technological features of analogue magnetic recording, particularly the use of high-frequency bias.
American audio engineer John T. Mullin served in the U.S. Army Signal Corps and was posted to Paris in the final months of World War II. His unit was assigned to find out everything they could about German radio and electronics, including the investigation of claims that the Germans had been experimenting with high-energy directed radio beams as a means of disabling the electrical systems of aircraft. Mullin's unit soon amassed a collection of hundreds of low-quality magnetic dictating machines, but it was a chance visit to a studio at Bad Neuheim near Frankfurt while investigating radio beam rumours that yielded the real prize.
Mullin was given two suitcase-sized AEG 'Magnetophon' high-fidelity recorders and fifty reels of recording tape. He had them shipped home and over the next two years, he worked on the machines constantly, modifying them and improving their performance. His major aim was to interest Hollywood studios in using magnetic tape for movie soundtrack recording.
Mullin gave two public demonstrations of his machines, and they caused a sensation among American audio professionals—many listeners could not believe that what they were hearing was not a live performance. By luck, Mullin's second demonstration was held at MGM studios in Hollywood and in the audience that day was Bing Crosby's technical director, Murdo Mackenzie. He arranged for Mullin to meet Crosby and in June 1947 he gave Crosby a private demonstration of his magnetic tape recorders.
Crosby was stunned by the amazing sound quality and instantly saw the huge commercial potential of the new machines. Live music was the standard for American radio at the time and the major radio networks did not permit the use of disc recording in many programs because of their comparatively poor sound quality. But Crosby disliked the regimentation of live broadcasts, preferring the relaxed atmosphere of the recording studio. He had asked NBC to let him pre-record his 1944–45 series on transcription discs, but the network refused, so Crosby had withdrawn from live radio for a year, returning for the 1946–47 season only reluctantly.
Mullin's tape recorder came along at precisely the right moment. Crosby realized that the new technology would enable him to pre-record his radio show with a sound quality that equalled live broadcasts and that these tapes could be replayed many times with no appreciable loss of quality. Mullin was asked to tape one show as a test and was immediately hired as Crosby's chief engineer to pre-record the rest of the series.
Crosby became the first major American music star to use tape to pre-record radio broadcasts and the first to master commercial recordings on tape. The taped Crosby radio shows were painstakingly edited through tape-splicing to give them a pace and flow that was wholly unprecedented in radio. Mullin even claims to have been the first to use "canned laughter"; at the insistence of Crosby's head writer, Bill Morrow, he inserted a segment of raucous laughter from an earlier show into a joke in a later show that had not worked well.
Keen to make use of the new recorders as soon as possible, Crosby invested $50,000 of his own money into Ampex, and the tiny six-man concern soon became the world leader in the development of tape recording, revolutionizing radio and recording with its famous Ampex Model 200 tape deck, issued in 1948 and developed directly from Mullin's modified Magnetophones.
Development of magnetic tape recorders in the late 1940s and early 1950s is associated with the Brush Development Company and its licensee, Ampex; the equally important development of magnetic tape media itself was led by Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing corporation (now known as 3M).
Multitrack recording
The next major development in the magnetic tape was multitrack recording, in which the tape is divided into multiple tracks parallel with each other. Because they are carried on the same medium, the tracks stay in perfect synchronization. The first development in multitracking was stereo sound, which divided the recording head into two tracks. First developed by German audio engineers ca. 1943, two-track recording was rapidly adopted for modern music in the 1950s because it enabled signals from two or more microphones to be recorded separately at the same time (while the use of several microphones to record on the same track had been common since the emergence of the electrical era in the 1920s), enabling stereophonic recordings to be made and edited conveniently. (The first stereo recordings, on disks, had been made in the 1930s, but were never issued commercially.) Stereo (either true, two-microphone stereo or multi mixed) quickly became the norm for commercial classical recordings and radio broadcasts, although many pop music and jazz recordings continued to be issued in monophonic sound until the mid-1960s.
Much of the credit for the development of multitrack recording goes to guitarist, composer and technician Les Paul, who also helped design the famous electric guitar that bears his name. His experiments with tapes and recorders in the early 1950s led him to order the first custom-built eight-track recorder from Ampex, and his pioneering recordings with his then-wife, singer Mary Ford, were the first to make use of the technique of multitracking to record separate elements of a musical piece asynchronously — that is, separate elements could be recorded at different times. Paul's technique enabled him to listen to the tracks he had already taped and record new parts in time alongside them.
Multitrack recording was immediately taken up in a limited way by Ampex, who soon produced a commercial 3-track recorder. These proved extremely useful for popular music since they enabled backing music to be recorded on two tracks (either to allow the overdubbing of separate parts or to create a full stereo backing track) while the third track was reserved for the lead vocalist. Three-track recorders remained in widespread commercial use until the mid-1960s and much famous pop recordings — including many of Phil Spector's so-called "Wall of Sound" productions and early Motown hits — were taped on Ampex 3-track recorders. Engineer Tom Dowd was among the first to use the multitrack recording for popular music production while working for Atlantic Records during the 1950s.
The next important development was 4-track recording. The advent of this improved system gave recording engineers and musicians vastly greater flexibility for recording and overdubbing, and 4-track was the studio standard for most of the later 1960s. Many of the most famous recordings by The Beatles and The Rolling Stones were recorded on 4-track, and the engineers at London's Abbey Road Studios became particularly adept at a technique called "reduction mixes" in the UK and "bouncing down" in the United States, in which several tracks were recorded onto one 4-track machine and then mixed together and transferred (bounced down) to one track of a second 4-track machine. In this way, it was possible to record literally dozens of separate tracks and combine them into finished recordings of great complexity.
All of the Beatles classic mid-1960s recordings, including the albums Revolver and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, were recorded in this way. There were limitations, however, because of the build-up of noise during the bouncing-down process, and the Abbey Road engineers are still famed for their ability to create dense multitrack recordings while keeping background noise to a minimum.
4-track tape also enabled the development of quadraphonic sound, in which each of the four tracks was used to simulate a complete 360-degree surround sound. A number of albums were released both in stereo and quadrophonic format in the 1970s, but 'quad' failed to gain wide commercial acceptance. Although it is now considered a gimmick, it was the direct precursor of the surround sound technology that has become standard in many modern home theatre systems.
In a professional setting today, such as a studio, audio engineers may use 24 tracks or more for their recordings, using one or more tracks for each instrument played.
The combination of the ability to edit via tape splicing and the ability to record multiple tracks revolutionized studio recording. It became common studio recording practice to record on multiple tracks, and bounce down afterward. The convenience of tape editing and multitrack recording led to the rapid adoption of magnetic tape as the primary technology for commercial musical recordings. Although 33⅓ rpm and 45 rpm vinyl records were the dominant consumer format, recordings were customarily made first on tape, then transferred to disc, with Bing Crosby leading the way in the adoption of this method in the United States.
Further developments
Analog magnetic tape recording introduces noise, usually called "tape hiss", caused by the finite size of the magnetic particles in the tape. There is a direct tradeoff between noise and economics. Signal-to-noise ratio is increased at higher speeds and with wider tracks, and decreased at lower speeds and with narrower tracks.
By the late 1960s, disk reproducing equipment became so good that audiophiles soon became aware that some of the noise audible on recordings was not surface noise or deficiencies in their equipment, but reproduced tape hiss. A few specialist companies started making "direct to disc recordings", made by feeding microphone signals directly to a disk cutter (after amplification and mixing), in essence reverting to the pre-War direct method of recording. These recordings never became popular, but they dramatically demonstrated the magnitude and importance of the tape hiss problem.
Before 1963, when Philips introduced the Compact audio cassette, almost all tape recording had used the reel-to-reel (also called "open reel") format. Previous attempts to package the tape in a convenient cassette that required no threading met with limited success; the most successful was 8-track cartridge used primarily in automobiles for playback only. The Philips Compact audio cassette added much-needed convenience to the tape recording format and a decade or so later had begun to dominate the consumer market, although it was to remain lower in quality than open-reel formats.
In the 1970s, advances in solid-state electronics made the design and marketing of more sophisticated analog circuitry economically feasible. This led to a number of attempts to reduce tape hiss through the use of various forms of volume compression and expansion, the most notable and commercially successful being several systems developed by Dolby Laboratories. These systems divided the frequency spectrum into several bands and applied volume compression/expansion independently to each band (Engineers now often use the term "compansion" to refer to this process). The Dolby systems were very successful at increasing the effective dynamic range and signal-to-noise ratio of analog audio recording; to all intents and purposes, audible tape hiss could be eliminated. The original Dolby A was only used in professional recording. Successors found use in both professional and consumer formats; Dolby B became almost universal for prerecorded music on cassette. Subsequent forms, including Dolby C, (and the short-lived Dolby S) were developed for home use.
In the 1980s, digital recording methods were introduced, and analog tape recording was gradually displaced, although it has not disappeared by any means. (Many professional studios, particularly those catering to big-budget clients, use analog recorders for multitracking and/or mixdown.) The digital audio tape never became important as a consumer recording medium partially due to legal complications arising from "piracy" fears on the part of the record companies. They had opposed magnetic tape recording when it first became available to consumers, but the technical difficulty of juggling recording levels, overload distortion, and residual tape hiss was sufficiently high that unlicensed reproduction of magnetic tape never became an insurmountable commercial problem. With digital methods, copies of recordings could be exact, and copyright infringement might have become a serious commercial problem. Digital tape is still used in professional situations and the DAT variant has found a home in computer data backup applications. Many professional and home recordists now use hard-disk-based systems for recording, burning the final mixes to recordable CDs (CD-R's).
Most Police forces in the United Kingdom (and possibly elsewhere) still use analogue compact cassette systems to record Police Interviews as it provides a medium less prone to accusations of tampering.
Recording on film
The first attempts to record sound to an optical medium occurred around 1900. Prior to the use of recorded sound in film, theatres would have live orchestras present during silent films. The musicians would sit in the pit below the screen and would provide the background noise and set the mood for whatever was occurring in the movie. In 1906, Eugene Augustin Lauste applied for a patent to record Sound-on-film, but was ahead of his time. In 1923, Lee de Forest applied for a patent to record to film; he also made a number of short experimental films, mostly of vaudeville performers. William Fox began releasing sound-on-film newsreels in 1926, the same year that Warner Bros. released Don Juan with music and sound effects recorded on discs, as well as a series of short films with fully-synchronized sound on discs. In 1927, the sound film The Jazz Singer was released; while not the first sound film, it made a tremendous hit and made the public and the film industry realize that sound film was more than a mere novelty.
The Jazz Singer used a process called Vitaphone that involved synchronizing the projected film to sound recorded on a disc. It essentially amounted to playing a phonograph record, but one that was recorded with the best electrical technology of the time. Audiences used to acoustic phonographs and recordings would, in the theatre, have heard something resembling 1950s "high fidelity".
However, in the days of analog technology, no process involving a separate disk could hold synchronization precisely or reliably. Vitaphone was quickly supplanted by technologies which recorded an optical soundtrack directly onto the side of the strip of motion picture film. This was the dominant technology from the 1930s through the 1960s and is still in use although the analog soundtrack is being replaced by digital sound on film formats.
There are two types of a synchronised film soundtrack, optical and magnetic. Optical soundtracks are visual renditions of sound wave forms and provide sound through a light beam and optical sensor within the projector. Magnetic soundtracks are essentially the same as used in conventional analog tape recording.
Magnetic soundtracks can be joined with the moving image but it creates an abrupt discontinuity because of the offset of the audio track relative to the picture. Whether optical or magnetic, the audio pickup must be located several inches ahead of the projection lamp, shutter and drive sprockets. There is usually a flywheel as well to smooth out the film moves to eliminate the flutter that would otherwise result from the negative pulldown mechanism. If you have films with a magnetic track, you should keep them away from strong magnetic sources, such as televisions. These can weaken or wipe the magnetic sound signal. Magnetic sound on a cellulose acetate film base is also more prone to vinegar syndrome than a film with just the image.
For optical recording on film there are two methods utilized. Variable density recording uses changes in the darkness of the soundtrack side of the film to represent the soundwave. Variable area recording uses changes in the width of a dark strip to represent the soundwave.
In both cases, a light that is sent through the part of the film that corresponds to the soundtrack changes in intensity, proportional to the original sound, and that light is not projected on the screen but converted into an electrical signal by a light-sensitive device.
Optical soundtracks are prone to the same sorts of degradation that affect the picture, such as scratching and copying.
Unlike the film image that creates the illusion of continuity, soundtracks are continuous. This means that if film with a combined soundtrack is cut and spliced, the image will cut cleanly but the soundtrack will most likely produce a cracking sound. Fingerprints on the film may also produce cracking or interference.
In the late 1950s, the cinema industry, desperate to provide a theatre experience that would be overwhelmingly superior to television, introduced widescreen processes such as Cinerama, Todd-AO and CinemaScope. These processes at the same time introduced technical improvements in sound, generally involving the use of multitrack magnetic sound, recorded on an oxide stripe laminated onto the film. In subsequent decades, a gradual evolution occurred with more and more theatres installing various forms of magnetic-sound equipment.
In the 1990s, digital audio systems were introduced and began to prevail. In some of them the sound recording is again recorded on a separate disk, as in Vitaphone; others use a digital, optical sound track on the film itself. Digital processes can now achieve reliable and perfect synchronization.
Digital recording
The first digital audio recorders were reel-to-reel decks introduced by companies such as Denon (1972), Soundstream (1979) and Mitsubishi. They used a digital technology known as PCM recording. Within a few years, however, many studios were using devices that encoded the digital audio data into a standard video signal, which was then recorded on a U-matic or other videotape recorder, using the rotating-head technology that was standard for video. A similar technology was used for a consumer format, known as Digital Audio Tape (DAT) which used rotating heads on a narrow tape contained in a cassette. DAT records at sampling rates of 48 kHz or 44.1 kHz, the latter being the same rate used on compact discs. Bit depth is 16 bits, also the same as compact discs. DAT was a failure in the consumer-audio field (too expensive, too finicky, and crippled by anti-copying regulations), but it became popular in studios (particularly home studios) and radio stations. A failed digital tape recording system was the Digital Compact Cassette (DCC).
Within a few years after the introduction of digital recording, multitrack recorders (using stationary heads) were being produced for use in professional studios. In the early 1990s, relatively affordable multitrack digital recorders were introduced for use in home studios; they returned to recording on videotape. The most notable of this type of recorder is the ADAT. Developed by Alesis and first released in 1991, the ADAT machine is capable of recording 8 tracks of digital audio onto a single S-VHS video cassette. The ADAT machine, followed by the Tascam equivalent, the DA-88, using a smaller Hi-8 video cassette, was a common fixture in professional and home studios around the world until approximately 2000 when it was supplanted by various interfaces and 'DAWs' (digital audio workstations) which allowed a computer's hard drive to be the recording medium..
In the consumer market, tapes and gramophones were largely displaced by the compact disc (CD) and a lesser extent the minidisc. These recording media are fully digital and require complex electronics to play back. Digital recording has progressed towards higher fidelity, with formats such as DVD-A offering sampling rates of up to 192 kHz.
Digital sound files can be stored on any computer storage medium. The development of the MP3 audio file format, and legal issues involved in copying such files, has driven most of the innovation in music distribution since their introduction in the late 1990s.
As hard disk capacities and computer CPU speeds increased at the end of the 1990s, hard disk recording became more popular. As of early 2005 hard disk recording takes two forms. One is the use of standard desktop or laptop computers, with adapters for encoding audio into two or many tracks of digital audio. These adapters can either be in-the-box soundcards or external devices, either connecting to in-box interface cards or connecting to the computer via USB or Firewire cables. The other common form of hard disk recording uses a dedicated recorder which contains analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters as well as one or two removable hard drives for data storage. Such recorders, packing 24 tracks in a few units of rack space, are actually single-purpose computers, which can in turn be connected to standard computers for editing.
The revival of vinyl
Vinyl records, or long playing (LP) records, have become popular again as a way to consume music despite the rise of digital media. Over 15 thousand units were sold between 2008 and 2012, their sales reaching the highest level in 2012 since 1993. Popular artists have begun releasing their albums on vinyl, and stores such as Urban Outfitters and Whole Foods have started selling them. Popular music corporations, such as Sony, have started manufacturing LP for the first time since 1989 as this medium becomes more popular. However, some companies are facing production problems as there are only 16 record plants currently functioning in the United States.
Technique
The analog tape recorder made it possible to erase or record over a previous recording so that mistakes could be fixed. Another advantage of recording on tape is the ability to cut the tape and join it back together. This allows the recording to be edited. Pieces of the recording can be removed, or rearranged. See also audio editing, audio mixing, multitrack recording.
The advent of electronic instruments (especially keyboards and synthesizers), effects and other instruments has led to the importance of MIDI in recording. For example, using MIDI timecode, it is possible to have different equipment 'trigger' without direct human intervention at the time of recording.
In more recent times, computers (digital audio workstations) have found an increasing role in the recording studio, as their use eases the tasks of cutting and looping, as well as allowing for instantaneous changes, such as duplication of parts, the addition of effects and the rearranging of parts of the recording.
See also
Binaural recording
Bootleg recording
High fidelity
Microphone technique
Timeline of audio formats
Volta Laboratory-Sound recording
References
Further reading
Bennett, H. Stith, On Becoming a Rock Musician, Amherst : University of Massachusetts Press, 1980.
Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. .
Milner, Greg, "Perfecting Sound Forever: An Aural History of Recorded Music", Faber & Faber; 1 edition (June 9, 2009) . Cf. p. 14 on H. Stith Bennett and "recording consciousness".
"Recording Technology History: notes revised July 6, 2005, by Steven Schoenherr", San Diego University (archived 2010)
External links
First Sounds (audio files of the earliest recorded sound, dating back to the 1850s)
Song recording guide
Recording History – The History of Sound Recording Technology
Listen to The Hen Convention - Australia's oldest surviving piece of recorded sound (1897) on the National Film and Sound Archive's australianscreen online
Sound recording history - Museum of Magnetic Sound Recording
Audio engineering
Sound recording
History of sound recording
Sound recording
nn:Lydopptak |
4556457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Messner | Michael Messner | Michael Alan Messner (born 1952) is an American sociologist. His main areas of research are gender (especially men's studies) and the sociology of sports. He is the author of several books, he gives public speeches and teaches on issues of gender-based violence, the lives of men and boys, and gender and sports.
Since 1987, Messner has worked as a professor of sociology and gender studies at the University of Southern California. He was head of the department, and still retains his dual faculty appointment. He was the president of the Pacific Sociological Association in 2010-2011, and in 2011 the California Women's Law Center presented him with the Pursuit of Justice Award.
Biography
Messner was born in Salinas, California.
Education
Messner was educated from kindergarten to his Ph.D. in California's public schools. He has a bachelor's degree in social science and a master's degree in sociology from California State University, Chico. He obtained a Ph.D. in sociology in 1985 from the University of California, Berkeley with a dissertation titled Masculinity and Sports: An Exploration of the Changing Meaning of Male Identity in the Lifecourse of the Athlete.
In the late 1970s, he began to work with feminist theory and the construction of gender. He took part in one of the first ever classes about men and masculinity in the USA, held by Bob Blauner in Berkeley.
Personal life
Messner lives in South Pasadena with his wife, Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, a sociologist and author. They have two sons, named Miles and Sasha.
Views
Comments regarding "fight clubs"
In an article about a "fight club" in Menlo Park, California, Messner remarked that men involved in them "often carry bottled-up violent impulses learned in childhood from video games, cartoons and movies. [...] Boys have these warrior fantasies picked up from popular culture, and schools sort of force that out of them." In these fantasies: "The good guys always resort to violence, and they always get the glory and the women."
Sexuality and Gender Roles
Messner establishes the emphasis society puts on sexuality and gender roles in various works upholding the notions that roles in society are predetermined by these categorizations. Gender role is the set of characteristics prescribed by a culture and expressed through direct communication and through media. These predetermined roles can lead to inequivalent advantages to people classified in certain categories over others. In many societies, this has become a systematic oppression. He discusses these ideas through various articles and explores different topics such as the participation of women in sports as well as what it means to be 100% straight.
Messner upholds the theory that sexuality is, "a constructed identity, a performance, and an institution". It is not necessary and it influences behaviors in society every day. He discusses this idea in depth in his article, "Becoming 100 percent Straight". In this article, he discusses how he as a teenager was influenced to become a jock because of his height and build and, as a result, repressed his sexual fluidity in fear of being outcast. He talks about his experience with basketball and his relationship with his friend because of his repressed romantic feelings for him. As a result of these feelings, he targets him as an external source of his frustrations and even goes as far as bullying him to express these frustrations. Although Messner does not identify as bisexual, he describes his experiences based on the Freudian model of bisexuality which states that most people go through a stage in life in which they are attracted to people of the same sex. Adult experiences eventually lead them to shift their sexual desires to people of the same sex. This suppression of sexual desires can lead to aggression and violence in order to clarify boundaries between one's self and others. His experience serves as an example of a new perspective on sexuality that others in dominant gender/sexuality categories can identify with: one that is not dominated by socially constructed values.
Along with sexuality, Messner views gender to be a determining factor of the roles we exhibit in society. The world of sports is a prime example of the inherent differences that are constructed for different genders. Sports are a terrain of contested gender relations to Messner. Before the 1970s, girls did not feel as if they belonged in the sporting world because they were not made for it. However, Title IX passed in the early 70's gave them the equal opportunity to pursue sports in school. The participation in sports by women has a strong correlation with the presence of women in the workplace. While the participation of women in sports is a triumph in a movement toward equality, the sports world is still inherently different for men and women. It is fueled by "soft-essentialism", Messner's theory of the shared belief that boys and girls are inherently different as opposed to "hard essentialism," which basically creates a more categorical structure for men. Men are pushed to be more competitive than women through this notion of hard essentialism leading them to be driven by a linear notion that success and leadership in the workplace is the ultimate goal. Women, however, are routed towards sports like softball or even in different leagues altogether giving them choices and complicating the meaning of equality. He argues that separate can never truly be equal because of these components. This furthers the frame of mind that men and women are inherently different, and girls should not be where the boys are.
While integration of sports sound like an opportunity for equality, this idea of merging boys and girls together in youth sports would be potentially counterproductive. Sexists attitudes and presumptions develop in either scenario; if sports become coed, girls may be seen as disadvantaged, but if sports stay segregated the theory of soft essentialism can only help but run up against the social barriers of equal choice for women today. In order to dismantle the notion of soft essentialism, a coupled strategy of de-gendering boys sports along with a strategic categorization of women's sports can help break down gender based inequalities exhibited in society.
Gender also plays a key role in the development of gifted students. Gender identities in gifted students usually differ from those of their peers. For example, gifted girls are more like gifted boys than other girls. This complicates the development of their gender identity. Girls are more likely to underachieve because of stereotypes such as, "girls are bad at math" even though the math gap has shrunk significantly where the discrepancy between boys and girls used to be extreme. For this reason it is important for counselors to be practiced in understanding gender educational practices and support students.
Sports and education provide a look at the inequalities found based on gender in boys and girls, but it does not paint the picture of gender and sexuality relations in society as a whole. Messner's views of gender predetermining roles in society is seen in extreme ways when looking at other cultures such as the Congolese. For example, when Moore wrote of her experiences in the Congo with women's rights, she found disturbing evidence that women were only used to birth children. When a women's workshop was held demonstrating that it is wrong for a husband to beat his wife, one man asked, "But if we can't beat our wives what can we do when they won't have sex with us?" This shows a universal, somewhat exaggerated, example of how women are seen in society, as childbearers. Male entitlement to women's bodies has become a standard in societies such as these and reflects the values that feminists like Messner aim to change.
Sexuality is a powerful tool used to control nations especially when it is paired with orthodox religious thinking. Feki states, "If you want to understand a people, look in their bedrooms". Her hypothesis is correct when looking at societies such as Egypt. Governments and parents do not trust their children enough to learn about sex education. As a result, religious views of sexuality are established and followed strictly. Women are expected to remain virgins until marriage and chastity thereafter even though their sexuality is a family matter, usually determined by the patriarch on when and who she weds. It is this thinking that has kept women from leadership positions in the workplace and in politics. If women are not deemed responsible enough to control their own bodies, they will not be deemed capable of leading in any aspect. This affirms Messner's belief that roles in society are determined by one's gender and sexuality.
Messner examines gender and sexuality and concludes that they play an important role in determining one's place in society. They can shape the way people behave and develop and can mold views and actions to fit society's standards. It is fueled by notion that men and women are inherently different, a term Messner coins as soft essentialism. This theory often leads to sexuality and gender used as tools of oppression in some cultures which leads to views of women as sexual objects for men who do not have control of their bodies. Religion is sometimes paired with this theory to further the old hegemonic patriarchies established in emerging democracies such as Egypt. Changing the frame of mind of what sexuality and gender truly mean in society will help take steps towards equality. Equal opportunity for people of differing genders and sexuality can only benefit a society. For example, countries such as Germany, Denmark, and Norway have the closest gender gap in the workplace and they have some of the most powerful economies because of it according to Reding who states, "Humans are distinguished in their contributions to society by character, ability, and motivation, and there is no meaningful correlation between those traits and sex and sexuality".
Title IX
Messner has spoken out as a strong advocate for Title IX. Having interests in both gender studies and sports, he has analyzed it both from a feminist and sports perspective. Published in the Journal of Sport and Social Issues, his article "Social justice and Men's Interests: The Case of Title IX" reviews the effect Title IX has on men's interest in sports. He argues that although "men's superordinate status sets the stage for them to understand their interests as opposed to those of women", men gain much from integration of women into sports. He states that "these kinds of experiences can provide a commitment for men to take action with girls, women, and other men who are interested in building a more equitable and just world". Overall, Messner believes that only through integration and mutual respect in all institutions (particularly sport) can we begin to grow relationships between men and women that allow for a better future for both parties.
Research
Messner has conducted research in several subcategories of Sociology over four decades. Primarily, his research was influenced by several events that took place in the mid 20th century. He states in his online biography: "My teaching and research were sparked and continue to be animated by the movements for social justice that erupted in the 1960s, 1970s and beyond, especially feminism". Messner's research can be broken up into three main categories: gender and sport; sports media; and men, feminism and politics.
Gender and Sport
Messner has written four books and over eleven articles on gender and sport. His main article contributions have been to the Sociology of Sport Journal, Gender & Society, and other scholarly journals. His website features many of these articles.
Soft Essentialism
In his paper, "Gender ideologies, youth sports, and the production of soft essentialism" Messner introduces the concept of soft essentialism as "a currently ascendant hegemonic ideology… that valorizes the liberal feminist ideal of individual choice for girls, while retaining a largely naturalized view of boys and men". He argues that essentially, especially in youth sports, we assume natural differences between boys and girls. However, by offering girls equal opportunity, soft essentialism does not "endorse categorical social containment of women in domestic life". While this type of thought is less restrictive for girls and women than hard essentialism, because it still uses institutions (particularly sport) to reinforce a "natural difference" between boys and girls, it is still counterproductive to the feminism movement as a whole.
Through extensive research and interviewing of youth soccer, baseball, and softball coaches about boys, girls, and gender, Messner found that most adults had a tendency to describe girls' lives as being full of choices – a way of thinking that Messner argues is a major accomplishment of liberal feminism. However, he found that when asked about boys, the responses were less sophisticated and assumed that boys were simply driven by testosterone. In his conclusion, Messner determines that there exist three main sources of strain that proliferate hegemonic gender inequality in the form of soft essentialism: working class mothers, today's largely unreconstructed and categorical view of boys, and the celebration of equal opportunity and free choice for girls. He argues that strategic categoricalism in girls' sports coupled with a de-gendering of boys' sports.
Sports Media
Messner has conducted research in sports media for over twenty years, focusing on what it covers and ignores. On his website he breaks his research down into three main areas: "First, [he] has conducted a longitudinal content and textual analysis of gender in televised news and highlights programs. Second, [he] is interested in how the sports media handles a particular story, especially a "scandal." Third, [he] is interested in the dominant gendered messages that are pitched to boys and men as consumers through sport broadcasts". Overall, Messner believes that sports media is yet another institution that promotes patriarchal sexist ideology.
Most of Messner's research in sports media revolves around the way the media portrays females and female athletes. In his most recent article on sports media, "Women Play Sport, But Not on TV: A Longitudinal Study of Televised News Media" he and co-authors Cheryl Cooky and Robin Hextrum analyze 6 weeks of local and national news coverage. Their evidence found that despite "tremendous increased participation of girls and women in sport at the high school, collegiate, and professional level," coverage of women's sport on television is "the lowest ever". Through their research, Messner, Cooky, and Hextrum determined that sports media doesn't simply show what people want to see, but rather proliferates hegemonic gender asymmetries by contributing to a specific reception of sport that idealizes it as a man's world.
Men and Feminism
In his research on both men and women's studies, Messner has analyzed the feminist movement from a male perspective since the 1970s. His research particularly focuses on men's personal, organizational and political responses to feminism. His most recent contribution to feminism is his co-authored book, Some Men: Feminist Allies and the Movement to End Violence Against Women, which was released in March 2015 through the Oxford University Press. As a general trend, Messner believes that it is in the best interest of men to support the feminist movement and the end of sexism.
In his 2004 article "On Patriarchs and Losers: Rethinking Men's Interests", Messner explores the concept of "men's interests', deciding whether or not there exists a universal interest for men and how that plays into the role of feminism in the United States. Furthermore, he discusses the development of the scholarly focus on "men and masculinity", observing exactly how men's interests in the United States are being articulated both in commercial and political discourse. Messner believes that all men must be on board with feminism. In particular, he points out an example with a young white guy speeding by in a pick-up truck with a gun rack. He writes, "I want that guy in the men's movement… and to get him involved, we have to convince him that the masculinity he has learned is self-destructive and toxic, and that feminist change is in his interest". Messner argues that, at its core, feminism is in the best interest of every person because systemic, hegemonic oppression harms everyone, not just women.
Works (selection)
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See also
Triad of Violence
Jean-Marie Brohm
References
2. Anekphong. Sports Team. Digital image. WikiGender. OECD, 29 Nov. 2014. Web. 17 Apr. 2015.
3. "Michael Messner." Digital image. USC Dornsife. University of Southern California, n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2015.
External links
Michael Messner's faculty page at the University of Southern California site
Sports and Male Violence: Sociologist's Research Links the Two, by Barbara Alderson (about Messner's approach)
Messner's book review of A Place on the Team: The Triumph and Tragedy of Title IX by Welch Suggs, Academe, (Jan/Feb 2006)
Dropping the Ball on Covering Women's Sports, by Messner at Huffington Post
SL Interview: Michael Messner talks about his new book on youth sports, interview by SportsLetter about It's All for the Kids: Gender, Families, and Youth Sports
University of Southern California faculty
California State University, Chico alumni
1952 births
Living people
People from Salinas, California
American feminists
American sociologists
Male feminists
Men and masculinities scholars
Postmodern feminists
Social constructionism |
4556995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higurashi%20When%20They%20Cry | Higurashi When They Cry | is a Japanese murder mystery dōjin soft visual novel series produced by 07th Expansion that comprises the first two entries of the When They Cry franchise. The series focuses on a group of young friends living in the fictional village of Hinamizawa and the strange events that occur there in 1983.
The games are built on the NScripter game engine and the Microsoft Windows operating system. The first game in the series, Onikakushi-hen, was released in August 2002, and the eighth and final game in the original PC series, Matsuribayashi-hen, was released in August 2006. While the first four games carried the overall title Higurashi no Naku Koro ni and are considered the first entry in the When They Cry franchise, the next four games were produced under the title Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Kai and are considered the second entry.
A bonus fan disc called Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Rei was released in December 2006. In addition to the original series, new stories were created in manga form and in video games for the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo DS, in order to expand the story. The original eight PC releases were released in English by MangaGamer between 2009 and 2010. Two sets of drama CDs were produced, one by Wayuta and the other by Frontier Works. Novelizations of the game series were released by Kodansha between August 2007 and March 2009. A manga series adapted from the games began with eight different manga artists working separately on one to three of the multiple story arcs and were published by Square Enix and Kadokawa Shoten. The manga was licensed for release in English in North America by Yen Press under the title Higurashi: When They Cry and the first volume was released in November 2008.
Two anime television series (also known simply as When They Cry prior to 2020) were produced by Studio Deen and directed by Chiaki Kon in 2006 and 2007; a third anime adaptation was released as an original video animation (OVA) series in 2009. The first anime series was licensed by Geneon Entertainment in English in 2007, but the license expired in 2011. Sentai Filmworks has since licensed both anime seasons and the 2009 OVAs. A live-action film adaptation of the series, directed and written by Ataru Oikawa, premiered in Japanese theaters in May 2008, with a sequel released in April 2009. A six-episode live-action television series adaptation premiered in Japan in May 2016, and a four-episode sequel premiered in November 2016. A new anime television series by Passione aired from October 2020 to March 2021, and a sequel aired from July to September 2021.
Format and structure
Higurashi When They Cry is a "sound novel", a variation of visual novel with a focus on sound and atmosphere. The story is conveyed via narration and dialogue presented in on-screen text during its scenes, during which characters are displayed as static two-dimensional sprite images. The versions ported to home consoles additionally feature voice acting provided by professional Japanese voice actors. The narrative is divided into chapters, each of which covers a separate story arc, which become accessible in a sequence strictly established by the developers. The narration is conducted on behalf of various characters. After reading a certain amount of text within a chapter, playback ends. At this point, the user is invited to save their progress, as well as read "tips" that reveal details of the story's setting that were not present in the main narrative. The tips may also encourage the audience to deduce the reasoning behind the narrative's mysterious events.
The chapters are divided into two categories – "question arcs" and "answer arcs". Each question arc is a self-contained story taking place in an alternate reality, while each answer arc is based on the same scenario as a certain question arc and is intended to help the audience formulate a more accurate vision of the events of the pertaining question arc. Each chapter is assigned a "difficulty rating" that indicates the complexity of the mystery. After completing a chapter, all previously opened tips and images of individual scenes in the form of a gallery become available to the user from the main menu. In addition, the user can access a feature entitled the "Staff Room", in which writer Ryukishi07 discusses and examines the chapter, or the "All-Cast Review Session", in which the characters break the fourth wall and debate about the events of the chapter.
Plot
In June 1983, Keiichi Maebara moves to the village of and befriends classmates Mion Sonozaki, her twin sister Shion, Rena Ryūgū, Rika Furude, and Satoko Hōjō. Keiichi soon learns of the village's annual Watanagashi Festival, a celebration dedicated to the local deity Oyashiro. Hinamizawa initially seems calm and peaceful, but shortly before the festival, Keiichi learns that for four years in a row, murders and disappearances have been taking place on the day of the festival. This chain of incidents remains unsolved and has come to be known as the "Oyashiro Curse" by the superstitious villagers. The day after this year's festival, police discover the corpse of visiting freelance photographer Jirō Tomitake, who appears to have torn his throat out with his bare hands, and the charred body of Miyo Takano, a nurse in the village clinic. In most chapters of the game, Keiichi or one of his friends attempts to investigate the mysteries of Hinamizawa and the Oyashiro Curse, only to succumb to paranoia and homicidal rage. A few days after the festival, Rika's body is found in the family shrine dedicated to Oyashiro. On the same day, a cataclysm befalls the village and wipes out the population, which is explained by the media as a release of swamp gas.
The answer arcs reveal that each preceding arc is an alternate reality in which Rika tried and failed to save herself and her friends. As a priestess of the Furude Shrine, Rika can communicate with the spirit Hanyū, who served as the basis for Oyashiro and is the ancestress of the Furude clan. Each time Rika died, Hanyū would move her to another reality; however, the very ending of Rika's life is not retained in her memories when she transfers, obstructing her from knowing the cause of her death. In the final two chapters, it is revealed that the village's local clinic is secretly a government institute investigating a mysterious parasite in the village that causes Hinamizawa Syndrome; a disease that induces paranoia, delusion, and homicidal rage in its victims before pushing them to tear out their own throats. This disease is responsible for instigating the characters to commit murders in the previous arcs, and some of the incidents in the earlier years were caused by it. The rest of the incidents were caused by Miyo, who had killed Tomitake and faked her death, using the Oyashiro Curse as a cover. Hinamizawa Syndrome manifests in those experiencing extreme stress or those who move a distance away from the "Infection Queen", who releases a pheromone that prevents the aggravation of the villagers' condition. The women of the Furude clan have all acted as Infection Queens, and Rika is the sole remaining member of the line after the death of her parents in the 1981's incident.
The theory by Miyo's adoptive grandfather, Hifumi Takano, is that if there is no Infection Queen, all villagers will succumb to the syndrome, and a mass outbreak of violence will occur. In some of the realities, Shion, succumbing to Hinamizawa Syndrome, kills Rika; however, life in Hinamizawa goes on, showing that Hifumi's theories have been exaggerated. In most of the realities, Miyo kills Rika, and the threat of the mass outbreak convinces the government to massacre the village, with the release of swamp gas being a cover story. Miyo's motive is to vindicate the work of Hifumi and force his work to be recognized after he was mocked and shamed by the government and scientific community for his thesis about the disease. After several hundred loops, Keiichi becomes either vividly or subconsciously aware of the previous realities, allowing him to avoid several critical points where various characters would be murdered or driven insane. In the final loop, the group asks Hanyū to join them, and the spirit manages to manifest a physical body. With her assistance and all of the knowledge and allies they have formed along the way, they thwart Miyo's plan and go on to live happy lives afterward. In the secret ending, Rika travels back to the past to prevent Miyo's suffering from the traumatic childhood that led her to become who she was.
Production
Development
The series is the first visual novel series produced by 07th Expansion. The game director and scenario writer for the series are Ryukishi07, who also drew all of the character illustrations. Background images were taken from photographs taken by Ryukishi07, his younger brother Yatazakura, and Kameya Mannendō. Programming was worked on by Yatazakura, who worked on the main structure, 4U who worked on the intermission and Tips, and BT who worked on the mini games. The games were designed using the game engine NScripter. The music of Higurashi was provided by various music artists including both professionals and dōjin artists, including Dai, the composer of most of the music found in the answer arcs. Ryukishi07 wrote in 2004 how he was influenced by Key's works during the planning of Higurashi no Naku Koro ni. Ryukishi07 played Key's games as a reference, among other visual novels, and analyzed them to figure out the reason why they were found to be so popular. He figured that the secret was due to how the stories would start with ordinary, enjoyable days, but then a sudden occurrence would happen to lead the player to cry due to the shock value. He used a similar model for the basis of Higurashi but instead of leading the player to cry, Ryukishi07 wanted to scare the player with the addition of horror elements. In this way, Ryukishi07 wished to be in some way associated with Key who he described as a "masterpiece maker."
In an interview in the December 2008 issue of Yen Press's Yen Plus manga anthology, Ryukishi07 stated that Higurashi had its origins from an unpublished theater script called he had written a few years before the first Higurashi game was released. When he decided to rewrite the script and release it, he wanted to build upon "the contrast between a fun, ordinary life, and something terrifying and out of the ordinary." Ryukishi07 was greatly influenced by the worlds of Seishi Yokomizo when developing the universe of Higurashi. Ryukishi07 had decided "early on to design the story so that the truth comes to light by looking at several overlapping stories," though he originally planned to release it as a single game due to initially believing he could finish the story in a single year. The word higurashi is the name of a kind of cicada. Naku means , specifically referring to those sounds made by non-human organisms. According to Ryukishi07, the red Na (な) in the logo is an official part of the title.
Release history
The first game of the Higurashi: When They Cry visual novel series, titled Onikakushi-hen, was released on August 10, 2002. The second game Watanagashi-hen was released on December 29, 2002. The third game Tatarigoroshi-hen was released on August 15, 2003. The fourth game Himatsubushi-hen was released on August 13, 2004. The first four games are part of the question arcs, and the following four games, under the title Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Kai, are part of the answer arcs. The fifth game Meakashi-hen was released on December 30, 2004. The sixth game Tsumihoroboshi-hen was released on August 14, 2005. The seventh game Minagoroshi-hen was released on December 30, 2005. The eighth game Matsuribayashi-hen was released on August 13, 2006. A fan disc titled Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Rei was released on December 31, 2006. A second fan disc titled was released on August 17, 2014. In January 2021, 07th Expansion announced a remastered version with new music and upscaled graphics titled Higurashi: When They Cry Hō + in development for a Q3 2021 release. It released on January 28, 2022 and featured a new short scenario, Mehagashi-hen, originally a mini-light novel chapter included with the Higurashi Gou BD. It also included a new All-Cast review chapter as a retrospective for the franchise and featured discussion of the Higurashi Gou and Sotsu anime arcs.
The eight original PC games were released in English by MangaGamer under the title Higurashi: When They Cry starting with the first four games released in December 2009 and the last four released in monthly intervals starting in February 2010. MangaGamer's release of the visual novels does not include several background music tracks and two bonus features specific to the original Japanese version: the music room and a minigame. The eight original PC games were also released in French by Saffran Prod under the title Le sanglot des cigales, starting with the first two games released together in November 2009. The Japanese company Seams has done releases for iOS devices in Japanese and English. The Japanese version includes all eight games. The English version is based on the translation by MangaGamer and as of May 2012 includes the first five games. A remastered version of Onikakushi-hen from Higurashi: When They Cry Hō was released by MangaGamer on Steam on May 15, 2015 for Windows, OS X and Linux. The updates include a re-translation, previously cut music tracks and content, the original Japanese text, and alternative character art by illustrator Kurosaki.
A dōjin game named Higurashi Daybreak, based on the Higurashi series and featuring an original scenario by Ryukishi07, was developed by Twilight Frontier, the creators of Immaterial and Missing Power and Eternal Fighter Zero. The gameplay is that of a versus third-person shooter, in which most of the characters of the main Higurashi series are playable. Higurashi Daybreak was first released on August 13, 2006, and an expansion pack followed on April 22, 2007.
A video game console port for the PlayStation 2 was released as by Alchemist on February 22, 2007. Higurashi is the third dōjin game to be ported to a video game console; the first was Hanakisō by HaccaWorks*, and the second was Melty Blood by French-Bread and Ecole. Although Higurashi was the first to have a video game console port announced, its long development time made it the third to be released. Due to the popularity of Matsuri, a second enhanced PlayStation 2 port, known as , was released on December 20, 2007. It was sold as an append disc to the original Matsuri and as a standalone game. It contains all of Matsuri'''s content, in addition to Matsuribayashi-hen from the original games and other bonus content.
A series of four games for the Nintendo DS under the collective title with new story arcs are being developed by Alchemist. The first, with the added title , was released on June 26, 2008 containing the first three chapters from the question arcs, and a new chapter entitled Someutsushi-hen, with its story based on the Onisarashi-hen manga series. The second, with the added title , was released in November 2008. The third game in the series, with the added title , was released in March 2009. The final game, subtitled , was released in February 2010.
A PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita port titled and published by Kaga Create was released in Japan on March 12, 2015. This edition features all scenarios from previous versions, in addition to full voice acting, new songs, CGs, minigames and functions. A Nintendo Switch port titled Higurashi: When They Cry Hō and published by Entergram was released in Japan on July 26, 2018. It includes the previous content covered by Sui, in addition to three new scenarios adapted from the Windows version of Hō. A PlayStation 4 port of Higurashi: When They Cry Hō was released by Entergram in Japan on January 24, 2019.
A mobile phone RPG game titled and planned by D-techno, written by Kiichi Kanō and developed by Smile Axe was released on September 3, 2020. The story stars a new protagonist, Kazuho Kimiyoshi, who visits Hinamizawa in the year 1993. After gaining the power to fight monsters called "Tsukuyami" by Tamurahime-no-Mikoto, Kazuho somehow wanders into Hinamizawa of 1983.
Adaptations
Drama CDs
Several sets of drama CDs based on the series have been released, mainly distributed by Frontier Works and Wayuta. The latter's releases differ from other media adaptations in that they make extensive use of the source material from the original sound novels, and sometimes include original songs from dai's albums. The main eight sound novel arcs have been adapted into a total of eleven CD releases, published by HOBiRECORDS and distributed by Wayuta and Geneon Entertainment, between May 27, 2005 and March 9, 2012; Minagoroshi-hen and Matsuribayashi-hen have been split into two and three separate releases respectively. Each chapter is 200–300 minutes long and contains 3-6 discs. The CDs feature remixes of the games' music and sound effects and the voice cast members have been chosen by Ryūkishi07 himself, though some of them have been changed for the anime and PS2 release due to scheduling conflicts. The booklets included with the CDs contained passwords that, if entered on the official site, unlocked downloads to audio files that adapted the TIPS for each of the arcs. In response to fan requests, audio TIPS for the first five arcs later became available on drama CDs named Append Disc 01, released on December 29, 2005 at Comiket 69, and Append Disc 02, released on October 26, 2007. HOBiRECORDS has also released three drama CDs that adapted several fan-submitted stories from the Kataribanashi-hen novel/manga anthology arc. The first CD was released on April 25, 2007, the second on May 9, 2008, and the third on April 24, 2009.
Frontier Works released several CDs, starting with an anthology piece called Anthology Drama CD 1 on December 22, 2005, followed by a second CD titled Anthology Drama CD 2 on March 24, 2006, and a third CD titled Anthology Drama CD Higurashi no Naku Koro ni featuring Umineko no Naku Koro ni on May 27, 2009. In addition to the anthologies, there have also been numerous character song CDs and DJCDs released during special events such as at Comiket, magazine subscriptions, and anime/film/game pre-orders.
Manga
There are eight main titles in the Higurashi manga series, spanning the four question arcs and the four answer arcs. Each question arc manga are compiled into two bound volumes. The first two answer arc manga are compiled into four volumes, meanwhile Minagoroshi-hen is compiled into six volumes, and Matsuribayashi-hen into eight. The manga uses multiple artists between the various arcs. Karin Suzuragi drew Onikakushi-hen, Tsumihoroboshi-hen, and Matsuribayashi-hen, Yutori Hōjō drew Watanagashi-hen and Meakashi-hen, Jirō Suzuki drew Tatarigoroshi-hen, Yoshiki Tonogai drew Himatsubushi-hen, and Hinase Momoyama drew Minagoroshi-hen. Another manga entitled is drawn by Yuna Kagesaki and began in Kadokawa Shoten's magazine Comp Ace on August 26, 2008. The manga series was licensed by Yen Press for English distribution in North America under the title Higurashi: When They Cry. The manga was initially serialized in Yen Press' Yen Plus anthology magazine, the first issue of which went on sale on July 29, 2008. The first English volume of the manga was originally planned to be sold in early 2009, but was released in November 2008.
There are three side stories related to the main Higurashi story, but with new characters. The first, named , is drawn by En Kitō and was serialized between March 2005 and July 2006 in Comp Ace. The next, entitled , is drawn by Mimori and was serialized between in GFantasy between 2006 and 2007. The last side story is known as is also drawn by En Kitō and was serialized in Comp Ace between 2006 and 2007. A manga adaptation of Higurashis precursor Hinamizawa Teiryūjo began serialization in the debut issue of Square Enix's Big Gangan magazine, sold on October 25, 2011.
A manga spin-off illustrated by Asahi, titled Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Oni, began serialization in Futabasha's Monthly Action magazine on February 25, 2022.
Novels
There are four light novels which contain additional illustrations by five different artists, and seventeen novelizations of the separate visual novel arcs. Each novel is written by Ryukishi07. The light novels were all released as limited editions not sold in stores. The first one, Nekogoroshi-hen, was illustrated by Karin Suzuragi, Yutori Hōjō, and Jirō Suzuki, and was sent out to those who bought the first volume of the manga versions of Onikakushi-hen, Watanagashi-hen, and Tatarigoroshi-hen. One needed to send the cutout stamps in all three of these manga by the deadline to receive this special short story. The second light novel, Kuradashi-hen, was illustrated by Yoshiki Tonogai, Karin Suzuki, Yutori Hōjō, and Mimori. This novel was sent out to those who bought the second volume of the manga version of Himatsubushi-hen, and the first volumes of the manga Tsumihoroboshi-hen, Meakashi-hen, and Yoigoshi-hen. One needed to send the cutout stamps in all four of these manga by a certain deadline to receive this special short story. The third light novel, Hajisarashi-hen, contained illustrations by Rato, and was included with the limited edition of the PlayStation 2 game Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Matsuri. The fourth novel, Kuradashi-hen Zoku is a sequel to Kuradashi-hen and was sent out to those who bought the second volumes of the manga Tsumihoroboshi-hen, Meakashi-hen, and Yoigoshi-hen. One needed to send the cutout stamps in all four of these manga by a certain deadline to receive this special short story. The light novels were published by Square Enix and released in 2006 and 2007.
Kodansha Box released 17 novelizations of the visual novel arcs with illustrations by Tomohi between August 2007 and March 2009, starting with Onikakushi-hen and ending with Saikoroshi-hen. Most of the story arcs are divided into two volumes, except for Himatsubushi-hen and Saikoroshi-hen which are compiled into one volume each, and Matsuribayashi-hen which is compiled into three volumes. In September 2010, editor Katsushi Ōta confirmed on Twitter that the novelizations would be re-released in bunkobon editions. The re-releases were published by Seikaisha with new cover art by Tomohi from January 12, 2011 to June 8, 2012. In 2020, the series received new bunkobon editions illustrated by Sato Yoshimi, published by Futabasha under the Futabasha Junior Bunko label, starting with Onikakushi-hen on October 23.
Anime
The first anime television series was animated by Studio Deen and produced by Frontier Works, Geneon Entertainment and Sotsu. It is directed by Chiaki Kon, with Toshifumi Kawase handling series composition, Kyūta Sakai designing the characters and Kenji Kawai composing the music. The season covers the four question arcs and the first two answer arcs, and aired in Japan between April 4 and September 26, 2006, comprising 26 episodes. Most of the characters were played by the same voice actors as the drama CD series. The series is available on DVD in Japan, France and North America (following Geneon Entertainment's licensing of the series). However, Geneon's U.S. division announced that it discontinued all ongoing anime projects in September 2007, including Higurashi on November 6, 2007. Only three of a planned six DVDs of Higurashi were released, under the title When They Cry: Higurashi. On July 3, 2008, Geneon and Funimation announced an agreement to distribute select titles in North America. While Geneon still retained the license, Funimation assumed exclusive rights to the manufacturing, marketing, sales and distribution of select titles. Higurashi was one of the several titles involved in the deal. Funimation released a complete box set of the series in August 2009. However, in August 2011, the rights to the series expired due to low sales. Sentai Filmworks has licensed both anime series.
People in Japan, who had bought all nine of the DVDs of the first season, had the chance to receive a special anime DVD entitled Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Gaiden Nekogoroshi-hen, based on the short story that was given to those who had bought the manga. Despite being a bonus for the first season (and having the first season's opening and closing sequences), Nekogoroshi-hen featured Sakai's updated character designs from the second season.
A continuation of the series produced by the same core staff, and based on one new story arc and the final two original answer arcs of the franchise, entitled , aired in Japan between July 6 and December 17, 2007, containing twenty-four episodes. Sentai Filmworks has licensed the second anime series. As the result of a murder case in September 2007 in Japan involving the murder of a police officer by his sixteen-year-old daughter with an axe, as well as the Japanese media relating the case to anime such as Higurashi, the latest episode screenings of both Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Kai and another anime at the time, School Days, were canceled by a number of stations, due to excessive violence. However, AT-X, TV Saitama and Sun TV announced that they would be airing the episodes as planned. Later, TV Saitama announced that they had ceased broadcasting of Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Kai from episode thirteen onwards. Additionally, Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Kai had its opening altered when it re-aired. Originally, a bloody bill hook cleaver (as used by Rena) was shown halfway through (at timestamp 0:55) the opening; it was replaced with an image of a van from the series' fictional junk yard.
An original video animation (OVA) series, entitled , was released on February 25, 2009, and is directed and written by Toshifumi Kawase, with Kazuya Kuroda taking over Sakai's role as character designer. The series also started a limited broadcasting in Bandai Channel prior to DVD release. Sentai Filmworks has licensed the Rei OVAs. The OVA contains three story arcs, Hajisarashi-hen, Saikoroshi-hen and Hirukowashi-hen, with Saikoroshi-hen concluding in three episodes, and the other two arcs concluding in one episode each. Hajisarashi-hen was originally a light novel included with the limited edition of the PlayStation 2 game Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Matsuri, and took the place of Batsukoishi-hen from the Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Rei fandisc. Frontier Works announced another original video anime series, in March 2011, to celebrate the tenth anniversary of Higurashi no Naku Koro ni. It is directed and storyboarded by Hideki Tachibana and written by Kawase, with Tomoyuki Abe taking over Kuroda's role as character designer and Tomoki Kikuya serving as additional music composer. An OVA film titled , adapted from Ryukishi07's short story "Higurashi Outbreak", was announced in December 2012 and was later released in August 2013. Sakai returned as a character designer for Outbreak.
Gou and Sotsu
On January 6, 2020, 07th Expansion and Kadokawa announced that a new anime project by Passione was in production. Akio Watanabe serves as a character designer, and Infinite serves as a producer. Keiichiro Kawaguchi is directing the series, with Naoki Hayashi handling series composition and Kenji Kawai returning as music composer. The main cast will reprise their roles. The series was set to premiere in July 2020, but was delayed to October 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The series aired from October 1, 2020 to March 19, 2021. The series, entitled , was acquired by Funimation and streamed on its website in North America and the British Isles, and on AnimeLab in Australia and New Zealand. Following Sony's acquisition of Crunchyroll, the series was moved to Crunchyroll. In Southeast Asia and South Asia, Medialink has acquired the series, and are streaming the series on its YouTube channel Ani-One. Before episode 2 aired, the title of the anime was Higurashi: When They Cry – New and it was marketed as a remake to the original anime series. When episode 2 aired, the subtitle was changed to and it was revealed that the anime is not actually a direct remake as it was previously marketed to be. The new series ran for 24 episodes.
After Gou finished airing, a sequel, entitled , was announced. The series aired from July 1 to September 30, 2021. Funimation will stream the series. Following Sony's acquisition of Crunchyroll, the series was moved to Crunchyroll. In Southeast Asia and South Asia, Medialink has acquired the series, and are streaming the series on its YouTube channel Ani-One.
Live-action films
A live-action film adaptation of the series entitled , directed and written by Ataru Oikawa, premiered in Japanese theaters on May 10, 2008. The film is an adaptation of the first story arc, Onikakushi-hen. Gōki Maeda plays Keiichi, Airi Matsuyama plays Rena, Rin Asuka plays Mion, Aika plays Rika, and Erena Ono plays Satoko. The film was released in 60 theaters and earned over at the box office. A sequel, also live action, was released in Japanese theaters on April 18, 2009 and is entitled . The sequel is based on the Tsumihoroboshi-hen arc, but it incorporates elements from other arcs and has a slightly different ending. The cast, including Maeda as Keiichi, is almost the same as in the previous film, but the role of Ōishi has been changed from Tetta Sugimoto to Ren Osugi.
Live-action series
A live-action television series adaptation directed by Tōru Ōtsuka and starring Yu Inaba as Keiichi premiered in Japan on May 20, 2016 on cable channel BS SKY PerfecTV!. The cast includes the members of NGT48. A four-episode sequel premiered on November 25, 2016.
Music
Unlike visual novels created by established companies, 07th Expansion did not create the music found in the Higurashi games. The music for the question arcs consists of license free songs found on the Internet while the music for the answer arcs was provided by dōjin music artists that were fans of Higurashi. Later, a CD album called Thanks/you was released by the dōjin music artist, Dai; many of his tracks were used in the answer arcs. Fans initially referred to this album as the official soundtrack. However, the actual official soundtrack has since been released for the series, featuring a majority of the songs featured in the answer arcs. This two-disc set is, to date, the most complete collection of songs from the games.
The first season anime's opening theme is "Higurashi no Naku Koro ni" sung by Eiko Shimamiya; it went on sale in Japan on May 24, 2006. The ending theme is "Why, or Why Not" sung by Rekka Katakiri; it was released on June 28, 2006. They were released as two original soundtracks. The series is composed by Kenji Kawai and the albums were produced by Frontier Works. Volume 1 was released on July 21, 2006, and volume 2 was released on October 6, 2006, in Japan. Three character song CDs were also released, sung by voice actors from the anime adaptation, between March 28 and July 25, 2007. The second season anime's opening theme is "Naraku no Hana" also sung by Shimamiya. The first season's opening theme includes a hidden message : the unintelligible lyrics at the beginning ("hanni hara hare hi") were generated by reversing the phrase . The second season's opening theme also includes a reversed part at the end ("ie hanann") which was made by playing backwards the reversed bit from the first opening theme. The ending theme is "Taishō a" performed by anNina. The first OVA season's opening theme is "Super scription of data" by Shimamiya, and the ending theme is by anNina. The opening theme for the OVA Higurashi No Naku Koro Ni Kira is "Happy! Lucky! Dochy!" by Yukari Tamura, Mika Kanai, and Yui Horie—the voice actors for Rika, Satoko, and Hanyū, respectively. The ending theme, , had four separate versions: one by Mai Nakahara, Rena's voice actor and the others are sung by Yukari Tamura and Mika Kanai, Satsuki Yukino, Mion and Shion's voice actor, and Yui Horie. The opening theme for Gou is "I Believe What You Said" by Asaka. Except for the first episode that uses "Higurashi no Naku Koro ni" by Shimamiya as its ending theme, the ending themes for Gou are "Kamisama no Syndrome" for episodes 2–17 and "Fukisokusei Entropy" for episodes 18–23 by Ayane.
For the first live-action film, a short version of the film's theme song was released on December 22, 2007, in Japan. Once again, Shimamiya sang the song, entitled . Shimamiya also performed the ending theme entitled .
Reception
Visual novels
Over 100,000 copies of the original games were sold in Japan by 2006, a feat not attained by a dōjin game since Type-Moon released Tsukihime. Many fans attribute the game's success to the suspense and horror the novel portrays. Fan-based community boards emerged where fans began discussing their own theories. The popularity of the games grew exponentially as many took interest in their well-outlined script and story, which eventually led the game to be showcased in large gaming magazines with positive reviews. With the announcement of the live-action film adaptation of Onikakushi-hen came the news that over 500,000 copies of the games had been sold, by August 13, 2007. The enhanced PlayStation 2 port, Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Matsuri, had sold 140,397 copies by October 11, 2007. Later console releases in the series, between December 2007 and January 2019, have sold 408,391 copies in Japan, as of February 2019, bringing total software sales to copies in Japan.
The PS2 version received a total review score of 31/40 (out of the four individual review scores of 9, 8, 8 and 6) from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu. The game was voted the tenth most interesting bishōjo game by readers of Dengeki G's Magazine in an August 2007 survey. Its English-language release also received a positive reception from critics. Hardcore Gamer stated that the "writing is incredibly eerie, and amazingly effective" and concluded that "few video games make it anywhere near the skillful story weaving present within the Higurashi series." APGNation stated the "Excellent writing and music make for an evocative reading experience."
Manga
In Japan, the third volume of the manga adaptation ranked as the 19th weekly best-selling book on January 16, 2008. The first volume ranked as the 18th weekly bestseller on June 10, 2008. The fourth volume ranked as the 19th bestseller on January 14, 2009. In the United States, the first volume was ranked 253rd in the top 300 graphic novels sold in November 2008 and ranked as 25th in the top 25 Manga sold in the first quarter of 2009 release of ICv2 Retailers Guide to Anime/Manga.
The manga series had over 8 million copies in circulation by 2009; and over 10 million copies in circulation by 2020.
Debi Aoki of About.com stated that reading the chapters in succession as they were presented in its serialization in Yen Plus made the story "easier to follow" and built the suspense better. Justin Colussy-Estes of Comic Village praised the setting for hinting at something "much darker". He also praised the structure stating that the "mystery develops slowly" to immerse the reader in the characters and then later force the reader to "confront the possibility that one or more of them may be [the] murderer"; a decision he described as "clever". Phil Guie of Popcultureshock expressed that this characterization "is brushed aside" for the horror as it gave the friendship between characters "real depth" adding to the surprise of the plot twists. Anime News Network's Casey Brienza praised the manga for being an "effective" horror story, as it follows a harem manga plot, which "becomes terrifying" producing an effect that is "trashy horror at its absolute greatest". She expressed being surprised by the end of the second volume as the central question remains unanswered though still felt the manga is "wholly enjoyable and satisfying" nonetheless. Brienza stated that although the artwork is "average", the illustrator "seems to know exactly how to transition between the adorable and the abominable—and does so with dramatic, nightmarish effect." Aoki described the artwork as although "pander[ing] to otaku fetishes" containing and awkward character designs, providing "overbearing cutesiness [that] makes the secrets that the girls are hiding behind their smiles just that much creepier."
Anime
Rebecca Silverman from Anime News Network praised the anime series for its storytelling, atmosphere, characters and horror feeling, giving it an overall rating of "A-", and stated "Despite some dated artwork, When They Cry holds up really well as a horror title. It has mystery, gore, and an interesting conceit that keeps it interesting from arc to arc, and we're given just enough new information each time the story resets to keep us hooked. It isn't as gruesome as other series, which actually is a plus for squeamish viewers, and this season ends with just enough answers to make us want to know what's really going on. Even if you've seen it before, it's worth rewatching When They Cry because knowing what's coming only makes the story more interesting. Improves on rewatching, builds on itself very well and generally good voices for both languages, scary without being too gross. So come take a trip to Hinamizawa and find out another reason why the devil is in charge of small towns."
A review by The Escapist gave the anime television series a highly positive review. James Henley praised the story, saying that each arc is interesting in its own way, but said that watching Kai was necessary to fully understand the story. He also praised the cast of characters, and how, despite having only one main male character, it never falls into harem genre, and how each one has a unique back story, revealed in different arcs. He criticized the dub as poor quality, but recommended the anime, mainly subbed, if one "can stomach the brutality." The Anime Almanac similarly praised the story, as a unique method of storytelling and the art of the characters, and went to add that the "moe" design on the girls made the scary scenes special. He ultimately recommended the series. Another review, from THEM Anime Reviews, giving it 3 out of 5 stars, praising the story, but panning the sorrow of the characters and the violence, saying "Higurashi is a hard show to watch; while it's interesting, each chapter is progressively soul-sucking and depressing, as the characters struggle desperately to avoid grisly fates, often to no avail, multiple times." He finished the review by saying "...Higurashi'' is interesting and visceral enough to be worth viewing by the more adventurous."
References
External links
Higurashi no Naku Koro ni at MangaGamer
Manga official website
Anime official website
Novel official website
Novel official website (Futabasha)
Higurashi When They Cry - Gou official website
Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Mei official website
Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Matsuri official website
Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Sui official website
Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Hō official website (Entergram)
2002 video games
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2007 Japanese novels
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4557222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20L%C3%A9glise%20Trophy | Jacques Léglise Trophy | The Jacques Léglise Trophy is an annual amateur boys' team golf competition between Great Britain & Ireland and the Continent of Europe. It was first played in 1977, as a one-day match before the Boys Amateur Championship, but since 1996 it has been played as a separate two-day match. The venue generally alternates between Great Britain and Ireland and the continent. From 1958 to 1966 a similar match was played between a combined England and Scotland team and the Continent of Europe.
History
The event can trace its origins back to 1958. An England–Scotland boys match had been played since 1923 before the Boys Amateur Championship. In 1958 the match was played on the Friday and a match between a combined England and Scotland team and Europe was played on the Saturday. The English and Scottish selectors each chose four players to make up the British team. The match, consisting of four foursomes and eight singles matches, was very one-sided with the European team losing 11 of the 12 matches and halving the other. The 1959 match had only three foursomes matches and six singles. The Europeans won one of the foursomes and halved two of the singles. The 1960 match had five foursomes matches and ten singles. The match was close with the continental team winning two of the foursomes matches and five of the singles. In 1961, the continental team lost all five foursomes matches but won four of the singles matches. In 1962, the score was the same with the continent winning one foursomes match and three singles, while in 1963 they won two foursomes matches and one singles. The 1964 and 1965 contests had four foursomes matches and nine singles. The Continental team won just one singles match on each occasion The 1966 match wes reduced to four foursomes and eight singles, the continental team winning just two singles matches. The combined England and Scotland team had dominated to such an extent that it was discontinued after 1966, and replaced by an annual youth international, played before the British Youths Open Amateur Championship and which was held for the first time in 1967.
The boys match was revived in 1977 when Jean-Louis Dupont donated a trophy in memory of Jacques Léglise, who had been president of the French Golf Federation and of the European Golf Association. There were four foursomes and nine singles matches and the Continental team won for the first time. In 1978 the Continental team won again by the same score, 7–6. From 1979 the number of singles match was reduced to eight. In 1993 the match was extended, with five foursomes and ten singles matches Up to 1995 it was played over a single day in connection with the Boys Amateur Championship.
Since 1996 it has been played as a separate two-day match with the venue generally alternating between Great Britain and Ireland and the continent. There were 10 players in each team in 1996 reduced to 9 since 1997. From 1996 to 2014 both days had four foursomes in the morning and eight singles matches in the afternoon. From 2015, there have been nine singles matches on the final afternoon.
Format
Currently the teams are nine strong and the tournament is played over two days, with four foursomes in the morning and either eight or nine singles matches in the afternoon. The Great Britain and Ireland team is selected by The R&A and the Continent of Europe side by the European Golf Association. Players must be under 18 on 1 January of the year in which the event takes place.
In recent years the Great Britain and Ireland team have chosen a captain from among the players; in addition to a non-playing manager. The Continent of Europe side has a non-playing captain.
Results
Since the event was revived in 1977, the Great Britain & Ireland team has won the event 29 times, while Continent of Europe has 15 victories. The 2015 match ended in a tie and so Great Britain & Ireland retained the trophy.
Future sites
2023 - France
2024 - West Lancashire
Teams
There have been 9 players in each team since 1997.
Great Britain & Ireland
2023 Hugh Adams, Donnacha Cleary, Monty Holcombe, Sean Keeling, Kris Kim, Oliver Mukherjee, Jack Murphy, Dylan Shaw-Radford, Niall Sheils Donegan
2022 Josh Berry, Connor Graham, Josh Hill, Frank Kennedy, Oliver Mukherjee, Dylan Shaw-Radford, Niall Shiels Donegal, Harley Smith, Tyler Weaver
2021 Cameron Adam, Jack Bigham, Daniel Bullen, Archie Finnie, Connor Graham, Josh Hill, Joshua Hill, Ruben Lindsay, Harley Smith
2019 Barclay Brown, Archie Davies, Joshua Hill, Aaron Marshall, Tom McKibbin, Connor McKinney, Luke O'Neill, Joe Pagdin, Ben Schmidt
2018 Barclay Brown, Archie Davies, Conor Gough, Max Hopkins, Tom McKibbin, Connor McKinney, Joe Pagdin, Mark Power, Robin Williams
2017 Toby Briggs, Alex Fitzpatrick, Luke Harries, Darren Howie, Ben Jones, Thomas Plumb, Mark Power, Charlie Strickland, Robin Williams
2016 Toby Briggs, Alex Fitzpatrick, Harry Goddard, Kevin LeBlanc, Thomas Mulligan, Marco Penge, Mark Power, Jamie Stewart, Charlie Strickland
2015 Ben Chamberlain, Will Enefer, Calum Fyfe, Tim Harry, Bradley Moore, Thomas Mulligan, Marco Penge, Sandy Scott, Tom Williams
2014 George Burns, Jamie Dick, Ewen Ferguson, Tim Harry, Rowan Lester, Haydn McCullen, Bradley Moore, Marco Penge, Ashton Turner
2013 Ben Amor, Robin Dawson, Ewen Ferguson, Robert MacIntyre, Bradley Moore, Bradley Neil, Marco Penge, Connor Syme, Ashton Turner
2012 Harry Ellis, Matt Fitzpatrick, Alex Gleeson, Patrick Kelly, Gavin Moynihan, Bradley Neil, Max Orrin, Toby Tree, Ashton Turner
2011 David Boote, Harrison Greenberry, Gary Hurley, Nathan Kimsey, Paul Kinnear, Dermot McElroy, Gavin Moynihan, Callum Shinkwin, Toby Tree
2010 James Burnett, Adam Carson, Paul Dunne, Grant Forrest, Scott Gibson, Chris Lloyd, Paul Lockwood, Dermot McElroy, Rhys Pugh
2009 Jonathan Bell, Adam Carson, Sebastian Crookall-Nixon, Paul Dunne, Tom Lewis, Chris Lloyd, Eddie Pepperell, Paul Shields, Max Smith
2008 Alan Dunbar, Ben Enoch, Tommy Fleetwood, Stiggy Hodgson, Gary King, Luke Lennox, Tom Lewis, Eddie Pepperell, Michael Stewart
2007 James Byrne, Paul Cutler, Tommy Fleetwood, Fraser Fotheringham, Matt Haines, Jack Hiluta, Andrew Johnston, Eddie Pepperell, Michael Stewart
2006 James Byrne, Paul Cutler, Rhys Enoch, Luke Goddard, Sam Hutsby, Niall Kearney, Lewis Kirton, Matthew Nixon, Adam Runcie
2005 Matt Evans, Zac Gould, Tom Haylock, Scott Henry, Steven McEwan, Tom Sherreard, Mark Trow, Simon Ward, Danny Willett
2004 Matthew Baldwin, Gary Boyd, Jordan Findlay, Zac Gould, Scott Henry, Cian McNamara, Aaron O'Callaghan, Paul O'Hara, John Parry
2003 Wallace Booth, Rhys Davies, Daniel Denison, Tommy Hunter, Cian McNamara, Aaron O'Callaghan, Lloyd Saltman, Gareth Shaw, Paul Waring
2002 Clancy Bowe, Rhys Davies, Farren Keenan, Jamie Moul, Mark Pilling, Matthew Richardson, Gareth Shaw, Michael Skelton, Paul Waring
2001 Clancy Bowe, Stephen Buckley, Chris Cousins, James Heath, Scott Jackson, Farren Keenan, David Porter, Niall Turner, Daniel Wardrop
2000 Yasin Ali, Stephen Buckley, Jack Doherty, David Inglis, Derek McNamara, David Porter, Zane Scotland, Richard Scott, Joshua Simons
1999 Nick Dougherty, Scott Godfrey, Sandeep Grewal, Barry Hume, David Inglis, Mark O'Sullivan, David Porter, David Price, Zane Scotland
1998 Ian Campbell, Nick Dougherty, Adam Frayne, Justin Kehoe, David Griffiths, David Jones, John MacDougall, Steven O'Hara, Robin Symes
1997 Ian Campbell, Mark Campbell, Graham Gordon, David Jones, Richard Jones, Neil Matthews, Lee Rhind, Justin Rose, Phil Rowe
1996 Martin Brown, Kenneth Ferrie, David Jones, Mark Loftus, Morgan Palmer, Oliver Pughe, Justin Rose, Phil Rowe, Graeme Storm, Daniel Sugrue
1995 Grant Campbell, Luke Donald, Carl Duke, Graham Fox, Craig Lee, Jamie Little, Denny Lucas, Morgan Palmer, Tim Rice, Steven Young
1994 Steven Craig, Carl Duke, Alastair Forsyth, Gary Harris, Jamie Harris, Craig Heap, Jamie Little, Ciaran McMonagle, Stephen Raybould, Steve Webster
1993 James Bunch, R Davies, Gary Harris, James Healey, David Howell, Andrew McCormick, Sean Quinlivan, Stephen Raybould, A Wall, Steven Young
1992 Scott Drummond, Andrew Farmer, Stephen Gallacher, Hugh McKibbin, David Park, Sean Quinlivan, Alan Reid, Iestyn Taylor
1991 Raymond Burns, Stuart Cage, Richie Coughlan, Bradley Dredge, Craig Hislop, Iain Pyman, Murray Urquhart, Lee Westwood
1990 Neil Archibald, Raymond Burns, Richie Coughlan, Matthew Ellis, Garry Jack, Neil Macrae, Michael Welch, Lee Westwood
1989 Raymond Burns, Colin Fraser, Ian Garbutt, Pádraig Harrington, Richard Johnson, Raymond Russell, Murray Urquhart, Carl Watts
1988 Colin Fraser, Pádraig Harrington, Martin Hastie, Richard Johnson, Paul Page, Stuart Paul, Mike Smith, Stuart Syme
1987 Stuart Bannerman, David Bathgate, Andrew Coltart, Steve Docherty, David Errity, Wayne Henry, Gary McNeill, Jim Payne
1986 Jason Bennett, Neil Duncan, Steve Edgley, Paddy Gribben, Wayne Henry, Graham King, James Lee, Alan Tait
1985 Peter Baker, J Cook, Craig Everett, Jason Farrell, Wayne Henry, Graham King, James Lee, Eoghan O'Connell
1984 Peter Baker, Mark Brennan, Jason Farrell, Andrew Hare, William Owen, Phillip Price, Alan Turnbull, Lee Vannet
1983 Peter Baker, Jim Carvill, Calum Innes, Michael Macara, Jeremy Robinson, Lee Vannet, Reeves Weedon, Keith Williams
1982 Colin Brooks, David Gilford, Graeme Miller, Jacky Montgomery, John Morris, Roddy Park, Chris Rees, Andrew Saines
1981 Keith Dobson, Michael Few, Ronald Gregan, Adam Hunter, John McHenry, Stewart Scott, Craig Stewart, Martin Thompson
1980 Alan Currie, David Curry, Andrew Glen, Ronald Gregan, Michael McLean, G Miller, Mark Roe, Paul Way
1979 Gordon Dalgleish, Ian Ferguson, Peter Hammond, Lindsay Mann, Malcolm MacKenzie, Ronan Rafferty, Mark Tomlinson, Duncan Weir
1978 Colin Dalgleish, Ross Fraser, Stephen Keppler, Brendan McDaid, Mark Mouland, Roy Mugglestone, Jonathan Plaxton, John Queen, David Whelan
1977 Jeremy Bennett, Frank Coutts, Colin Dalgleish, Paul Downes, Ian Ford, John Huggan, Stephen Keppler, Mark Mouland, Roy Mugglestone
1966 Alasdair Black, John Cook, Bernard Gallacher, Michael King, John McTear, Alastair Milne, Andrew Phillips, Peter Tupling
1965 Sinclair Ferguson, Andrew Forrester, Bernard Gallacher, James Garland, Bill Lockie, Peter Oosterhuis, Ronnie Penman, Andrew Phillips, Richard Slee
1964 Andrew Brooks, Bill Lockie, George McKay, Peter Oosterhuis, Gordon Robert, Richard Slee, Derek Small, W Thomson, Peter Townsend
1963 Iain Clark, Leslie Crawford, Rod Lambert, Bill Lockie, Finlay Morris, Reg Radway, David Rigby, Derek Small, John Threlfall, Peter Townsend
1962 Brian Barnes, John Campbell, Clive Clark, Bill Hogg, Finlay Morris, Tom Pattison, Cameron Penman, Peter Townsend, Peter Wingfield
1961 Scott Cochran, Malcolm Cowell, Robert Hayes, Tony Jacklin, Scott Macdonald, Douglas Miller, Finlay Morris, Cameron Penman, A Wilson, David Winslow
1960 Paul Baxter, David Brown, Peter Green, Malcolm Gregson, John Martin, John McIntyre, William Rodger, Alan Scott, John Sharp, K Thomson
1959 Peter Brown, Peter Green, Richard Langridge, Alan Scott, Eddie Shamash, Hugh Stuart
1958 Jimmy Grant, Michael Hoyle, Gordon Hyde, Richard Langridge, H McDonald, David Simons, Ian Smith, Bobby Walker
Continent of Europe
2023 Louis Anceaux, Filip Fahlberg-Johnsson, Marcel Fonseca, Lev Grinberg, Jorge Siyuan Hao, Simon Hovdal, Hugo Le Goff, Peer Wernicke, Tim Wiedemeyer
2022 Thijmen Batens, Marco Florioli, Oïhan Guillamoundeguy, Tom Haberer, Albert Hansson, Jorge Siyuan Hao, Carl Siemens, Tim Wiedemeyer, William Wistrand
2021 Tiger Christensen, Riccardo Fantinelli, Marco Florioli, Oïhan Guillamoundeguy, Yannick Malik, Flavio Michetti, Jaime Montojo, Daniel Svärd, Tim Wiedemeyer
2019 Bård Bjørnevik Skogen, Matteo Cristoni, Daniel Da Costa Rodrigues, Loïc Ettlin, Charles Larcelet, Alvaro Mueller-Baumgart Lucena, David Puig, Tom Vaillant, Adam Wallin
2018 Eemil Alajärvi, Daniel Da Costa Rodrigues, Loïc Ettlin, Jerry Ji, David Puig, Eduard Rousaud Sabate, Saku Tuusa, Kiet van der Weele, Adam Wallin
2017 Alejandro Aguilera, Markus Braadlie, Adrien Dumont de Chassart, Falko Hanisch, Rasmus Højgaard, Matias Honkala, Pedro Lencart Silva, David Nyfjäll, Eduard Rousaud Sabate
2016 Alejandro Aguilera, Edgar Catherine, Jonathan Gøth-Rasmussen, Falko Hanisch, Pontus Nyholm, Adrien Pendaries, Kristoffer Reitan, Maximilian Schmitt, Marcus Svensson
2015 John Axelsen, Christoffer Bring, Viktor Hovland, Guido Migliozzi, Adrien Pendaries, Kristoffer Reitan, Maximilian Schmitt, Gisli Sveinbergsson, Tim Widing
2014 Oskar Bergqvist, Adam Blomme, Klaus Ganter, Marcus Kinhult, Stefano Mazzoli, Vítek Novák, Kristoffer Reitan, Vince van Veen, Federico Zuckermann
2013 Iván Cantero, Paul Elissalde, Dominic Foos, Mario Galiano, Michael Hirmer, Romain Langasque, Nicolas Manifacier, Renato Paratore, Kristoffer Ventura
2012 Giulio Castagnara, Dominic Foos, Mario Galiano, Romain Langasque, Renato Paratore, Hannes Rönneblad, Matthias Schwab, Kenny Subregis, Victor Tärnström
2011 Thomas Detry, Robin Goger, Florian Loutre, Gonçalo Pinto, Jon Rahm, Max Rottluff, Javier Sainz, Kenny Subregis, Kristoffer Ventura
2010 Thomas Detry, Stanislas Gautier, Domenico Geminiani, Kristian Krogh Johannessen, Moritz Lampert, Markus Maukner, Adrián Otaegui, Thomas Pieters, Thomas Sørensen
2009 Lucas Bjerregaard, Emilio Cuartero, Pedro Figueiredo, Toni Hakula, Robin Kind, Moritz Lampert, Maximilian Röhrig, Kasper Sørensen, Romain Wattel
2008 Emilio Cuartero, Daniel Jennevret, Maximilian Kieffer, Fredrik Kollevold, Matteo Manassero, Carlos Pigem, Kasper Sørensen, Cristiano Terragni, Romain Wattel
2007 Nikolai Aagaard, Floris de Vries, Édouard Dubois, Sean Einhaus, Pedro Figueiredo, Maximilian Kieffer, Daniel Løkke, Matteo Manassero, Christiano Terragni
2006 Björn Åkesson, Victor Dubuisson, Pedro Figueiredo, Lluís García del Moral, Jesper Kennegård, Anders Kristiansen, Andrea Pavan, Tim Sluiter, Marius Thorp
2005 Tristan Bierenbroodspot, Floris de Vries, Lluís García del Moral, Nicklas Glans, Jesper Kennegård, Kajetan Kromer, Andrea Pavan, Tim Sluiter, Marius Thorp
2004 Gonzalo Berlin, Knut Børsheim, Jorge Campillo, Wouter de Vries, Xavier Feyaerts, Lluis Garcia del Moral, Peter-Max Hamm, Peter Meldgaard, Andrea Pavan
2003 Federico Colombo, Wouter de Vries, Matteo Delpodio, Lorenzo Gagli, Stephan Gross, Mike Lorenzo-Vera, Pablo Martín, Pierre Relecom, Bernd Wiesberger
2002 Gustav Adell, Antti Ahokas, Peter Baunsee, Rafa Cabrera-Bello, Carlos del Moral, Oscar Florén, Mike Lorenzo-Vera, Pablo Martín, Andrea Romano
2001 Gustav Adell, Simone Brizzolari, Rafa Cabrera-Bello, Alejandro Cañizares, Raphaël de Sousa, Peter Erofejeff, Joachim Fourquet, Niklas Lemke, Bilbo Perrot
2000 Rafa Cabrera-Bello, Nicolas Colsaerts, Eduardo de la Riva, Raphaël de Sousa, Tim Ellis, Andreas Högberg, Alex Norén, Erik Stenman, Andrea Zanini
1999 Anders Bøgebjerg, Nicolas Colsaerts, Raphaël de Sousa, Xavier Guzmán, Anders Hofvander, Eirik Tage Johansen, Roberto Paolillo, Stefano Reale, Tuomas Tuovinen
1998 Raúl Ballesteros, Pascal Celhay, Nicolas Colsaerts, Michael Jørgensen, Mikko Korhonen, Edoardo Molinari, Roberto Paolillo, Stefano Reale, Rafael Vera
1997 Sergio García, Anders Hultman, Mikko Ilonen, Michael Jørgensen, Raúl Quirós, Stefano Reale, Ángel Luis Saura, Massimiliano Secci, Rafael Vera
1996 Joakim Bäckström, Kariem Baraka, Henrik Bjørnstad, Alexandre Henriques, Alessandro Napoleoni, Christian Nilsson, Christian Petersson, Raúl Quirós, Tino Schuster, Mads Vibe-Hastrup
1995 Joakim Bäckström, Christoph Bausek, Oliver David, Peter Davidsson, Sergio García, José Manuel Lara, Tino Schuster, Marco Soffietti, Philippe Touze, Mads Vibe-Hastrup
1994 Peter Davidsson, Henric Ingemarson, José Manuel Lara, David Smolin, Henrik Stenson, Michael Thannhäuser, Jonas Torines, Morten Vildhøj, Juan Vizcaya, Matteo Zaretti
1993 Kalle Brink, Johan Edfors, Diego Fiammengo, Richard Gillot, Viktor Gustavsson, Henric Ingemarson, Søren Kjeldsen, José Manuel Lara, Georges Plumet, Juan Vizcaya
1992 Thomas Biermann, Sébastien Delagrange, Petter Ederö, Freddie Jacobson, Christophe Ravetto, Luca Ruspa, Fabrice Stolear, Francisco Valera, Juan Vizcaya, Leif Westerberg
1991 Niels Boysen, Andrea Brotto, Didier de Vooght, Chris Hanell, Luca Ruspa, Rudi Sailer, Fabrice Stolear, Francisco Valera
1990 Patricio Beautell, Régis Bleze-Pascau, Francisco de Pablo, Frédéric Duger, Knut Ekjord, Mikael Persson, Johan Stålberg, Arild Townhill
1989 Carlos Beautell, Ralf Berhorst, Diego Borrego, Massimo Florioli, Marco Gortana, Gabriel Hjertstedt, Mikael Persson, Øyvind Rojahn
1988 Javier Ansorena, Thomas Bjørn, Diego Borrego, Frédéric Cupillard, Pierre Fulke, Jakob Greisen, Raimo Sjöberg, Jesper Thuen
1987 Éric Giraud, Jakob Greisen, Joakim Haeggman, Peter Hedblom, Peter Olsson, Nils Sallman, Ben Tinning, Romain Victor
1986 Jesús María Arruti, José Manuel Arruti, Joakim Haeggman, Nicola Hansen, Peter Hedblom, Lars Herne, Marco Mores, Marcello Santi
1985 Peter Digebjerg, Oliver Eckstein, Claus Gillitzer, Éric Giraud, Willem-Oege Goslings, Fredrlk Karlsson, Thomas Levet, Johan Remmelgas
1984 Søren Bjørn, Oliver Eckstein, Yvon Houssin, Fredrlk Karlsson, Friedrich Kötter, Adam Mednick, Henrik Simonsen, Daan Slooter
1983 Yago Beamonte, Håkan Eriksson, Jörg Kappmeier, Mikael Krantz, Fredrik Lindgren, José María Olazábal, Marc Pendariès, Peter Schwarze
1982 Emanuele Bolognesi, Luigi Figari, Ignacio Gervás, Jörg Kappmeier, Mikael Krantz, José María Olazábal, Jesper Parnevik, Marc Pendariès
1981 Tom Fredriksen, Christian Jung, Jesús López, José María Olazábal, Magnus Persson, Sergio Prati, Magnus Sunesson, Xavier Wenger
1980 G Chartier, G Comin, Marco Durante, Fabrizio Felici, Jesús López, Marc Pendariès, Magnus Persson, Steen Tinning
1979 Andrea Canessa, G Comin, Marco Durante, Jean-Charles Gassiat, Silvio Grappasonni, Jean LaMaison, Toni Lundahl, Steen Tinning
1978 Torbjörn Antevik, Andrea Canessa, Marco Durante, Anders Forsbrand, Silvio Grappasonni, François Illouz, Jean LaMaison, Andreas Stamm, Steen Tinning
1977 Carlo Alberto Acutis, Marco Durante, François Illouz, Mats Jonmarker, Christoph Prasthofer, Rolf Seliberg, Ove Sellberg, Ralf Thielemann, Alfonso Vidaor
1966 Jean Delgado, Jean-Michel Larretche, Staffan Mannerström, D Manuel (FRA), Tomas Persson, J C Santandrea (FRA), José Sousa-Mello, Philippe Toussaint
1965 Olivier Brizon, L Giuffre (ITA), Michele Goldschmid, Harald Jochums, G Leven (FRA), Bengt Malmquist, François Thevenin Lemoine, Philippe Toussaint, Hans Weinhofer
1964 Olivier Brizon, Yves Brose, Jean‐Charles Desbordes, Hervé Frayssineau, S Galard de Béarn (FRA), H Hoving (NED), Bernard Pascassio, François Thevenin Lemoine, Philippe Toussaint
1963 Lars Björneman, Olivier Brizon, Alberto Croze, Hervé Frayssineau, Patrick Frayssineau, Charles Kreglinger, M Rey (SWI), P Sondergaard (DNK), Rüdiger van Gülpen, Anders Werthén
1962 Lars Björk, Hervé Frayssineau, Patrick Frayssineau, Johan Jöhncke, Charles Kreglinger, D B Lane (PRT), Klaus Nierlich, Yves Saubaber, P Sondergaard (DNK), D Walli (SWI), Jürgen Weghmann
1961 S V Andersen (DNK), Stefano Cimatti, Patrick Cros, Martin Hodler, Hans-Hubert Giesen, Mats Göranson, Hans Hedjerson, Friedrich-Carl Janssen, Yves Saubaber, D Walli (SWI), Jürgen Weghmann
1960 S V Andersen (DNK), Carlo Bordogna, Patrick Cros, Alexis Godillot, H Moos (SWI), Jan Olsson, Krister Peil, Yves Saubaber, Enrico Sposetti, Jürgen Weghmann
1959 Prince Alexandre of Belgium, Carlo Bordogna, Patrick Cros, Alexis Godillot, Peter Jochums, Yves Saubaber
1958 Henri-Pierre Bonneau, Patrick Cros, S Gruhn (DNK), Jan Janssen, Claes Jöhncke, Jan Olsson, L Sabini (ITA), Lorenzo Silva, Bo Sallnäs, Henning Sonstmann
See also
St Andrews Trophy - the equivalent men's amateur event
Junior Vagliano Trophy - the equivalent girls amateur event
References
External links
Coverage on the R&A's site
Coverage on the EGA's site
Junior golf tournaments
Team golf tournaments
European international sports competitions
R&A championships |
4557424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolina%E2%80%93Duke%20rivalry | Carolina–Duke rivalry | The Carolina–Duke rivalry refers to the sports rivalry between the University of North Carolina Tar Heels and Duke University Blue Devils, particularly in the sport of basketball. It is considered one of the most intense rivalries in all of US sports: a poll conducted by ESPN in 2000 ranked the basketball rivalry as the third greatest North American sports rivalry, and Sports Illustrated on Campus named it the #1 "Hottest Rivalry" in college basketball and the #2 rivalry overall in its November 18, 2003 issue. The intensity of the rivalry is augmented for many reasons. One reason is by the proximity of the two universities—they are located only ten miles apart along U.S. Highway 15–501 (also known as Tobacco Road) or eight miles apart in straight-line distance. In addition, Duke is a private university whereas Carolina is a public school; the vastly different funding structures and cultures between the two further contribute to the intensity of the rivalry. However one of biggest reasons for this rivalry lies in their respective basketball programs. Almost every year at least one of the schools is a contender to win the national championship.
Carolina leads the rivalry 143–117.
Men's basketball
Duke and North Carolina played their first basketball game on January 24, 1920. The two teams have met at least twice a year since then. The games frequently determine the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) champion; since the ACC's founding in 1953, Duke and Carolina have combined to win or share 49 ACC regular season titles (77.7% of the total) and 38 tournament titles (59.4% of the total), including 14 of 15 from 1996 to 2011. The final game of the regular season for both schools alternates between Chapel Hill and Durham and has been played in Cameron Indoor Stadium since 1940 and the Dean E. Smith Center since 1986.
The Carolina–Duke rivalry is all the more intense because the two schools have consistently been among the nation's elite men's basketball teams for most of the last 40 years. Both schools are also two of the most victorious programs in NCAA men's basketball history; Carolina is third on the list of all-time winningest programs in Division I history, while Duke is fourth. Carolina has won six NCAA championships and appeared in a record 21 Final Fours,
Additionally, Carolina was also retroactively awarded a national championship by the Helms Athletic Foundation in 1942 for their undefeated 1924 season.
Combining for eleven national championships over the last 36 years, Duke and Carolina have captured 28% of the national championships, or greater than one every four years. Over the past 18 years, one of the two teams has been the AP pre-season #1 ranked team in the country 8 times (44% of the time). Since 1977–78, Duke or Carolina has been in the pre-season top three 28 times (70%). Over the entirety of the AP poll (the past 69 years), the teams have been in the pre-season top four 69% of the time. Over this same period, one has been pre-season #1 18 times, making it an almost 3 in 10 chance that Duke or North Carolina starts the year at #1 in the last 50+ years. One of the two teams has peaked at AP #1 in 32 separate seasons since 1977, a 7 in 10 chance that Duke or Carolina peaked as the top-ranked team in the country at some point in the season since 1977.
History
Though the two schools have always had the great emotion born of familiarity and proximity, some of the earliest roots of the modern basketball rivalry occurred in the early 1960s when Art Heyman reneged on his commitment to play for North Carolina in order to commit to playing for Duke. After a brawl between the two universities' freshman teams during the 1959–60 season involving Heyman and North Carolina's Dieter Krause, tensions heightened further during a February 4, 1961, varsity game when a brawl occurred initiated by Heyman and North Carolina's Larry Brown, which resulted in suspensions for both players. The rivalry reached unprecedented heights in the mid-1980s under head coaches Dean Smith of North Carolina and Mike Krzyzewski of Duke, thanks to the emergence of cable channels such as ESPN and the increasing coverage of the ACC in national broadcasts by the three major networks, giving a vast national audience more opportunities to witness the two teams and their coaches. Indeed, the two teams have been fixtures on national television since the early 1980s, and their final regular season clash has been nationally televised for most of that time.
When Smith retired after the 1997 season, he held what was at the time the record for most wins by an NCAA Division I men's head coach, with 879 wins. On December 29, 2010, against the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Duke head coach Mike Krzyzewski passed coach Smith with his 880th win to become the 2nd all-time winningest coach in Division I men's basketball, (a mark he has since surpassed). In 1982, with players Michael Jordan, Sam Perkins and James Worthy, coach Smith won his first national championship and second overall for UNC that year. In 1991 Duke won its first national championship and then with most of their team returning, won another national championship in 1992.
North Carolina then won the championship the next year in 1993. Since then, Duke won the national championship in 2001, 2010 and 2015 while North Carolina won national championships in 2005, 2009, and 2017. In 2011, Krzyzewski became the new holder of the record for most career wins by a D-I men's coach, surpassing his mentor Bob Knight (who had surpassed Smith in 2007). On January 25, 2015, Krzyzewski also became the first NCAA Men's Division 1 Basketball head coach to reach 1,000 career wins after Duke defeated St Johns in Madison Square Garden 77–68. On February 16, 2019, Krzyzewski won his 1,123rd game to become the all-time winningest coach in college basketball history at any level (men's or women's), passing Harry Statham of Division II McKendree University.
After Smith's retirement in 1997, North Carolina suffered through three coaching changes (from Dean Smith to Bill Guthridge to Matt Doherty to Roy Williams) between 1997 and 2003. The six seasons between Bill Guthridge and Matt Doherty from 1997 to 2003 Duke won 13 of 17 games against North Carolina and some said that the rivalry was on the decline. However, with the arrival of North Carolina's alumnus Roy Williams as head coach in 2003, North Carolina won six regular season titles in eight years (2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012), won the ACC tournament in back to back years in 2007 and 2008 and won its fourth, fifth, and sixth NCAA championships in 2005, 2009, and 2017 respectively. North Carolina also won 6 of 8 games against Duke from 2005 to 2009. Erik Spanberg of The Christian Science Monitor even argued in 2008 that the rivalry has tilted towards North Carolina in recent years.
However, since 2009 and as of March 11, 2017 Duke has won 13 of the past 18 games against North Carolina including 3 season sweeps over North Carolina in 2010, 2013 and 2015 and Duke has won 2 national championships since then in 2010 and 2015. During the 2009–2010 season, Duke won the regular season finale by 32 points, which was the second largest Duke win in series history.
Following that game, Duke went on to win a fourth National title in 2010.
In 2017, UNC won its 6th national title, and the rivalry has been in UNC's favor ever since. UNC won 2 out of 3 matchups against Duke in 2018, 2019, and 2022. UNC swept Duke 2–0 in 2021. In 2022, UNC defeated Duke in Coach K's final home game in Cameron, and then a month later defeated Duke in Coach K's final game ever in the 2022 Final Four.
Former Esquire editor and author (and North Carolina graduate) Will Blythe argues that the rivalry's passion can be attributed greatly to class and culture in the South.
The rivalry has been the subject of various books and articles, including To Hate Like This Is to Be Happy Forever by Blythe and Blue Blood by Art Chansky.
Further illustrating the intensity of the rivalry, U.S. Representative Brad Miller, a die-hard Carolina fan, told an Associated Press writer in 2012, "I have said very publicly that if Duke was playing against the Taliban, then I'd have to pull for the Taliban."
NCAA tournament/postseason NIT
Prior to their meeting in the 2022 NCAA Final Four, North Carolina and Duke's only other postseason meeting was at the 1971 National Invitation Tournament, with North Carolina winning 73–67 in the semifinals at Madison Square Garden. Under current bracket rules, if both teams qualify for the NCAA tournament, the earliest both teams would be able to meet in the NCAA tournament is the regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) due to facing each other at least twice per season. If both teams meet three or more times (typically by meeting one another in the ACC tournament), then the earliest both teams can meet in the NCAA tournament is the Regional Finals (Elite Eight).
In 1991, the teams came within one game of playing each other for the national championship, as both advanced to that year's Final Four at the Hoosier Dome in Indianapolis. Chansky writes in Blue Blood that Carolina fans chanted "0-for-4!" at the Duke fans (referring to Duke's previous Final Four runs) while Duke responded with "Long time, no see!" (as this was Carolina's first Final Four since the 1982 national title season). In the first semifinal, North Carolina was upset 79–73 by a Kansas team coached by Roy Williams, who would later return to Chapel Hill to take the head coaching job. Some Duke fans had already arrived for their team's game by the time Dean Smith was ejected for arguing with the officials, and Chansky writes that they were ecstatic at the ejection, waving their hands and yelling, "See ya!" as they normally did at Cameron for a player or coach who was ejected or in foul trouble.
Below, in the Duke locker room, the Blue Devils were preparing for a rematch of the 1990 title game with UNLV in their semifinal. UNLV had won that game by 30 points and had come in undefeated in 1991, with many wondering if they were the best college basketball team ever. When the Carolina-Kansas result news got through, Mike Krzyzewski asked the team if they felt it was okay to lose since that meant they would do no worse than the Tar Heels, and some nodded. Krzyzewski understood but then added, "Flush it. Let's go kick their ass." Duke then stunned the sports world by defeating UNLV 79–77 and then went one better by beating Kansas 72–65 in the championship game to win its first national title. Chansky writes that one UNC athletic department staffer in Indianapolis was so distraught that he did not leave his hotel room the day after the national championship game, while when Duke arrived back in Durham, Krzyzewski is said to have asked the team at a turnoff to Chapel Hill if the team wanted to cruise down Franklin Street. In the wake of the Final Four, when talking about how close the two rivals came to meeting for the national championship, Krzyzewski said that he never wanted to see it happen because regardless of who won, the pain of losing that game would be unbearable for the defeated school and its fans.
Memorable games and incidents
March 2, 1968: #10 Duke 87, #3 North Carolina 86 (3OT)
At Duke Indoor Stadium, Durham
Duke defeated North Carolina 87–86 in triple overtime at Duke Indoor Stadium (later renamed Cameron Indoor Stadium) when seldom used Duke junior Fred Lind erupted for 16 points, 9 rebounds, and 3 blocks, having previously scored 21 points during his entire career. When Duke All-American center Mike Lewis picked up his third foul in the first half (and Warren Chapman, his backup, had a knee injury), Duke coach Vic Bubas called on Lind to fill the void against UNC greats Rusty Clark and Bill Bunting. Lewis returned in the second half, but fouled out (four Blue Devils and one Tar Heel fouled out of the game) with about five minutes left in regulation when Duke was down by five, and Lind returned to the court. Lind went on to carry the Blue Devils in the three overtimes, blocking North Carolina's shot attempt at the end of regulation, making two free throws at the end of the first overtime, and knocking down a 15-foot jumper at the buzzer to send it into a third overtime. Lind would be celebrated for the action by being carried to Duke's main quad.
March 25, 1971: #13 North Carolina 73, Duke 67
At Madison Square Garden, New York City (National Invitation Tournament Semifinals)
The first-ever postseason meeting and the only one before 2022. North Carolina not only won the game but also went on to win the 1971 NIT after beating Georgia Tech 84–66, while Duke lost the third-place game to St. Bonaventure. UNC's Bill Chamberlain was named tournament MVP after scoring 87 points in the tournament including 34 against the Yellow Jackets.
March 2, 1974: #4 North Carolina 96, Duke 92 (OT)
At Carmichael Auditorium, Chapel Hill
8 Points in 17 Seconds. Duke led UNC 86–78 with 17 seconds left. Despite the deficit and despite the fact that the game took place prior to the implementation of the three-point shot, Carolina rallied with a pair of free throws by Bobby Jones, then baskets by John Kuester and Jones after a steal by Walter Davis and a turnover on inbounds attempts. After Duke's Pete Kramer missed the front end of a one-and-one, UNC tied the score on Davis' 30-foot bank shot as time expired. The game went into overtime, where UNC prevailed, 96–92.
January 3, 1975: Duke 99, #8 North Carolina 96 (OT)
At Greensboro Coliseum, Greensboro (Big Four Tournament)
In a Big Four Tournament matchup between North Carolina and Duke, the two teams played a see-saw game until a 10–0 Duke run in the second half made the score 64–56. North Carolina eventually tied the score at 70–70 with four minutes to go. Duke went back up by four with 1:41 to go, but a driving layup by Phil Ford with eight seconds to go in regulation tied the score at 82 and extended the game to overtime. The Blue Devils got quick baskets from Kevin Billerman and Bob Fleischer to open the overtime but the Tar Heels answered and eventually took the lead, 89–88, on two Ford free throws with two minutes to go. Duke answered with four straight points and North Carolina came back to tie the score at 92, and then Tate Armstrong converted a three-point play to put the Blue Devils ahead for good. The teams combined for eight points in the final 20 seconds of the game, but Duke's free throw shooting gave them the 99–96 win. Fleischer led Duke with 26 points and Phil Ford scored 22 for North Carolina.
February 24, 1979: #6 Duke 47, #4 North Carolina 40
At Cameron Indoor Stadium, Durham
Jim Spanarkel's Senior Day game turned into one of the strangest afternoons in ACC basketball history as Duke held Carolina scoreless for a half before knocking off the No. 4-ranked Tar Heels 47–40. Dean Smith resorted to the four corners offense and the Tar Heels held the ball throughout the first half, but Duke led 7–0 as Spanarkel forced two turnovers, assisted on a basket to Mike Gminski and scored the last bucket of the half on a short jumper. (Smith later said, "It should have been 2–0, or something like that, at the half.") Carolina's only two shots of the first half were air balls, that resulted in the first-ever chants of "Air ball . . . Air ball!" from the Cameron Crazies. Spanarkel added 15 points in the second half and finished with a game-high 17, hitting 8-of-9 field goal attempts. The win allowed Duke to tie North Carolina for the ACC regular season title.
Duke coach Bill Foster wasn't amused by Smith's tactics in the first half and the next day said, "I've been doing this a long time, but during the first half last night I began to think maybe I've been doing it for too long." He then added this infamous dig: "I thought Naismith invented basketball, not Dean Smith."
December 5, 1980: #10 North Carolina 78, Duke 76
At Greensboro Coliseum, Greensboro (Big Four Tournament)
Carolina led by as many as 11 in the first half of the Big Four Tournament contest before Duke trimmed the lead to five at halftime. Carolina played much of the second half shorthanded as Al Wood and Sam Perkins got into foul trouble; Perkins would foul out with 7:55 to go. James Worthy did his best to pick up the slack, leading the Tar Heels with 26 points and hitting eight straight shots at one point in the second half. Nevertheless, Gene Banks was able to give Duke only its second lead of the game, 73–71, with 2:36 left. Carolina came back to tie it at 76. Future Tar Heel head coach Matt Doherty, a freshman at the time, was then fouled, and hit a free throw with 12 seconds remaining to provide the winning margin. A Jimmy Braddock free throw in the final second gave Carolina the 78–76 victory.
February 28, 1981: Duke 66, #11 North Carolina 65 (OT)
At Cameron Indoor Stadium, Durham
Duke struggled in its first season under Coach Mike Krzyzewski, going 17–13 overall and 6–8 in the ACC. However, the Blue Devils' regular-season finale was one to remember. On Senior Night, Duke's Gene Banks put on a tuxedo and threw roses to the crowd at Cameron Indoor Stadium before the game. Carolina controlled the game early, then went scoreless over a four-minute stretch of the second half to allow Duke to take a 46–45 lead late in regulation. The Tar Heels fought back to go up 50–49, and the teams traded baskets until two Sam Perkins free throws gave Carolina a 58–56 lead with two seconds to play. Duke inbounded to midcourt and called time out with one second left. Banks took the inbounds pass and nailed a jumper at the buzzer to force overtime. The Blue Devils took a 62–59 lead early in the extra session, but Carolina rallied to take a 65–64 lead on the strength of an Al Wood jumper and two free throws by Mike Pepper. Duke's Vince Taylor misfired on a short jumper, but Banks rebounded and banked home the game-winner with 19 seconds left. Banks led Duke with 25 points, while Perkins scored 24 for Carolina. Perkins also had 10 assists.
March 3, 1984: #1 North Carolina 96, Duke 83 (2OT)
At Carmichael Auditorium, Chapel Hill
The final home game for Matt Doherty, Michael Jordan, and Sam Perkins was a memorable one for Tar Heels fans. Carolina looked to be finished when Duke's Mark Alarie converted a three-point play with 20 seconds to go in regulation and the Tar Heels missed a jumper that would have tied the game. However, after the Blue Devils missed the front end of a one-and-one, Matt Doherty took the inbounds pass the length of the court and hit a 15-footer with one second left to force overtime. The teams traded baskets during the first overtime and headed for the second extra session tied at 79. Michael Jordan opened the second overtime with an ally oop and a free throw, but Johnny Dawkins cut the North Carolina lead to 82–81 with a short jumper. Duke would get only one more basket as Jordan and Sam Perkins carried the Tar Heels to the 96–83 final, and Carolina became the first ACC team in 10 years to go undefeated in conference play (14–0). Alarie led all scorers with 28 points, while Jordan topped Carolina with 25.
March 10, 1984: #16 Duke 77, #1 North Carolina 75
At Greensboro Coliseum, Greensboro (ACC tournament semifinals)
After losing two close games to Carolina in the regular season, Duke finally upset the Tar Heels in the semifinals of the ACC tournament. Johnny Dawkins and Tommy Amaker led the Blue Devils to a 40–32 halftime advantage. Nevertheless, Carolina went on a 12–2 run to open the second half, tying the score at 44 in a game that was close the rest of the way. David Henderson hit four late free throws to keep Duke in the lead, but Michael Jordan closed the gap to 77–75. Carolina regained possession with three seconds left in the game, but the Tar Heels comeback bid ended with Matt Doherty's errant inbounds pass. Jordan led all scorers with 22 points, while Doherty scored 20 and grabbed 10 rebounds.
January 18, 1986: #1 North Carolina 95, #3 Duke 92
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
The number 1 ranked Tar Heels opened the brand new Dean Smith Center against the number 3 ranked Blue Devils with the winner possibly becoming the number 1 ranked team in the nation. North Carolina survived a late Blue Devil rally to win 95–92.
January 21, 1988: #9 Duke 70, #2 North Carolina 69
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
Duke opened the game with an 11–2 run and eventually led 29–15, but Carolina cut the lead to three before the Blue Devils took a 44–39 halftime lead. Carolina still trailed 55–44 with 12:53 left when J.R. Reid took over the game. Reid scored 14 of Carolina's final 16 points to help the Tar Heels tie the score at 69 with 1:24 to go. A Danny Ferry free throw with 52 seconds remaining provided the winning margin for Duke, but not before Carolina forced a turnover and failed to convert on four field goal attempts in the final 30 seconds. Kevin Strickland scored 22 points and Ferry added 19 for Duke, while Reid dropped in 27 for the Tar Heels. This would become the first of three Duke victories in a season sweep over Carolina in 1988, including the ACC tournament.
March 12, 1989: #9 North Carolina 77, #7 Duke 74
At the Omni Coliseum, Atlanta, Georgia (ACC tournament championship)
In one of the most intense games in the rivalry's history, Carolina defeated Duke 77–74 in the ACC tournament final at the Omni in Atlanta to secure the Heels' first ACC tournament title in seven seasons. The teams had split the two regular season meetings; Carolina defeating top ranked and then undefeated Duke 91–71 in Cameron in January (a game notable for the infamous "J.R. Can't Reid" placard displayed by some Duke fans) then Duke returned the favor in Chapel Hill in the season finale, knocking off Carolina 88–86. Tensions between coaches Dean Smith and Mike Krzyzewski boiled over during Tournament week, stemming from the Reid sign in Durham in January, and by the time the two teams met in the conference championship, the game had developed the atmosphere of a heavyweight title fight. Carolina led for much of the game, including a 39–35 halftime lead, but never could pull away. Carolina's J.R. Reid, however, outplayed Duke's Naismith Award-finalist and ACC tournament MVP Danny Ferry. The game saw an incredible 49 fouls called between the two squads, and Carolina prevailed, but only when Ferry's 3/4 court shot rimmed out as time expired.
February 5, 1992: #9 North Carolina 75, #1 Duke 73
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
In a rough game between the Blue Devils and Tar Heels that featured blood and broken bones, Duke used an early 9–0 run to take a 16–11 lead with 12:55 to go in the first half. Hubert Davis' three-point play capped off a Carolina run to give the Tar Heels a 20–19 lead. The teams exchanged the lead 10 times before a Thomas Hill baseline jumper gave the Blue Devils a 39–38 halftime lead. The Tar Heels opened the second half with a 10–0 spurt, but then saw its offense disappear. Duke went five minutes before scoring a second-half basket but fought back with tough defense, holding Carolina without a field goal over the last minutes of the game. Carolina hit 12 of 14 free throws during that stretch; including two by Derrick Phelps with 44.5 seconds remaining to give the Tar Heels a 75–73 lead. Christian Laettner had two shots to tie the game in the final 24 seconds, but missed both. However, the lasting image from this game had to be Carolina's Eric Montross who took a couple of rough elbows to the face and looked more like a boxer than a center as he sank two late free throws with blood streaming down his face. Bobby Hurley broke his foot during the game, but continued playing. Brian Davis led Duke with 16 points, while Davis scored 16 for Carolina. In Duke's 1991–92 season, where they became the first team since UCLA in 1972 and 1973 to repeat as national champions and also were ranked #1 all year long, North Carolina was one of only two teams (the other being Wake Forest in Winston-Salem) to beat the Blue Devils.
February 2, 1995: #2 North Carolina 102, Duke 100 (2OT)
At Cameron Indoor Stadium, Durham
With Mike Krzyzewski on leave of absence for the year, the Blue Devils suffered through their worst season in well over a decade. They seemed out-manned on their home court from the opening tip, falling behind 26–9 in the first half, highlighted by alley-oops by Carolina's Rasheed Wallace and a reverse jam by Jerry Stackhouse over two Blue Devils. However, Duke rallied in the second half and led by as much as 12, before North Carolina staged a rally of its own. The two squads exchanged leads four times at the end of regulation before heading into overtime. With three seconds left in the first overtime, Carolina led 95–92 and sent Serge Zwikker to the foul line with the chance to ice the game for the heavily favored Tar Heels. However Zwikker missed both free throws, setting up Duke's Jeff Capel for a running, 37-foot heave that tied the game as the buzzer sounded, sending Cameron into a state of euphoria. With the game still tied late in the second overtime, Donald Williams scored for the Heels and Jeff McInnis stole the inbounds pass for an easy layup, putting Carolina up 102–98. Duke answered with a basket of their own and after stopping the Tar Heels, had a chance to force a third overtime or win the game outright. Nevertheless, Steve Wojciechowski's jumper missed and Greg Newton's putback drew nothing but air, preserving Carolina's 102–100 victory.
January 31, 1996: #8 North Carolina 73, Duke 72
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
Duke took a 42–30 advantage into the locker room at halftime, and led 37–20 over Carolina with less than five minutes to go in the first half. Carolina managed to close the gap to 44–42 with 14:14 left in the game, but the Blue Devils stretched the lead back to 11 with 8:44 left. The Tar Heels fought back and pulled within one behind scoring from six different players over the next few minutes. Steve Wojciechowski hit a three-pointer to give Duke a 72–68 lead with 1:13 to go. Shammond Williams answered with a three to cut the Duke lead to one with 58 seconds left, and Carolina forced a turnover on the ensuing inbounds pass. Jeff McInnis drove the lane and fed Serge Zwikker, whose shot was blocked by Greg Newton, but Dante Calabria was there for the tip-in and a 73–72 Carolina lead. Duke's Ricky Price could not connect on a jumper at the buzzer, and the Tar Heels escaped.
February 28, 1998: #1 Duke 77, #3 North Carolina 75
At Cameron Indoor Stadium, Durham
Just two months removed from a broken foot that most assumed would sideline him for the season, Duke freshman Elton Brand rallied the Blue Devils from a 64–47 second-half deficit with 12 minutes remaining to a 77–75 victory over Carolina. The victory earned Duke the ACC regular-season championship and Coach Mike Krzyzewski his 500th victory in the most memorable game of the college season. Duke tied the game at 75 on a slashing floater by sophomore Chris Carrawell with 2:00 remaining and took the lead for the first time on a driving basket by Roshown McLeod one minute later as the Carolina offense lapsed into a series of turnovers and errant shots. Both point guard Ed Cota and freshman center Brendan Haywood had a chance to tie the game from the free-throw line in the waning seconds, but both missed the first of two free throws, and the Tar Heels were unable to turn intentional misses on the second attempts into points.
February 3, 2000: #3 Duke 90, North Carolina 86 (OT)
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
The Tar Heels were unranked coming into the game for the first time since 1990. Shane Battier scored 14 first-half points for Duke and Carolina turned the ball over 14 times to give the Blue Devils a 17-point halftime lead. Duke eventually took a 19-point lead early in the second half. Carolina then turned the tide down the stretch, scoring on 19 of its final 22 possessions, including a three-pointer by Joseph Forte with 5.2 seconds left to send the game to the extra period at 73. The Blue Devils scored on their first six possessions in overtime and got seven points from Carlos Boozer in the extra frame to hold on for the 90–86 victory.
March 4, 2001: #2 Duke 95, #4 North Carolina 81
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
Earlier in the year, Matt Doherty had won his first rivalry game as North Carolina coach after returning from Notre Dame to succeed Bill Guthridge 85–83 in Durham. Entering the game, Duke had lost starting center Carlos Boozer to a broken foot in their Senior Night loss to Maryland, which ultimately ruled him out until the Sweet Sixteen. Faced with a disadvantage inside as the Tar Heels still fielded Brendan Haywood and power forward Kris Lang, Mike Krzyzewski adopted an uptempo game plan designed to tire the Tar Heels out. Duke led at the half 42–40 but pulled away as Doherty was prompted to switch to a smaller lineup in the second half to match the Blue Devils' pace. Duke also won the rubber match in Atlanta in the ACC tournament championship 79–53 en route to the third national championship for both Krzyzewski and the school.
February 4, 2004: #1 Duke 83, #17 North Carolina 81 (OT)
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
In the first game in the Carolina–Duke rivalry pitting Mike Krzyzewski against new UNC head coach Roy Williams, Chris Duhon's reverse layup with 6.5 seconds left in overtime gave Duke its 16th straight victory overall and fifth victory in the last six years on Carolina's home court. Duke turned up the defense late in regulation and went on a 10–0 run, taking a 72–69 lead on two free throws by Luol Deng with 1:06 left. Sean May scored on a rebound with 53 seconds to go, but JJ Redick restored the three-point lead on a drive with 38 seconds left. After a Carolina timeout, Jawad Williams hit a game-tying three-pointer with 18 seconds left; Daniel Ewing missed a potential game-winner for Duke with 3 seconds left. In overtime, Shelden Williams had two blocks and his defense forced Carolina into a 35-second shot clock violation with 22 seconds left. Redick then made two free throws to make it 81–78 and Rashad McCants drilled the game-tying three that set the stage for Duhon's heroics.
March 6, 2005: #2 North Carolina 75, #6 Duke 73
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
On Senior Day in Chapel Hill, before the largest crowd to see a college game on-campus in the state of North Carolina (22,125), the Tar Heels had a chance to win their first outright ACC regular-season title since 1993. However, they trailed Duke 73–64 with 3:07 left after Duke's Lee Melchionni made a 3. Offensive rebounds and subsequent put-backs by Carolina's Jawad Williams and Marvin Williams, the latter set up by a Duke turnover, cut the lead to five with two minutes to go. Duke's DeMarcus Nelson then missed the front end of a one-and-one. Sean May then rebounded a miss of his own, and was fouled on the put-back; he hit the free throw to make it 73–71 with 1:44 left. Misses by Melchionni and JJ Redick gave the ball back to the Tar Heels, but Duke's Shelden Williams came up with a huge block to regain possession for the Blue Devils with less than a minute to go. Duke inbounded the ball and looked to move it quickly up court, but Carolina's David Noel chased down Daniel Ewing from behind and knocked the ball away before he could get a pass off. Raymond Felton came up with the loose ball in a scrum and called for time, setting up a game-tying possession for the Tar Heels – an eerily similar scenario to the game a month earlier at Cameron Indoor Stadium. This time, he took the ball to the hoop and got fouled with 19.4 seconds left. Felton hit the first, but missed the second. However, he redeemed himself for his failure at Cameron, and managed to tip the board to Marvin Williams, who took it straight back up, was fouled with 17 seconds left and banked it in to give the Tar Heels the lead and set off a wild celebration in the Smith Center. The free throw made it 75–73; Duke called time to set up one final play. Duke's sharpshooter, Redick, got the ball, but his 3-pointer rimmed out with 6.7 seconds left. Ewing's desperation jumper with 4 seconds left was an airball; May grabbed the rebound to run out the clock and seal the 75–73 comeback win.
March 4, 2006: #13 North Carolina 83, #1 Duke 76
At Cameron Indoor Stadium, Durham
Coming into the game ranked #1 in both polls, Duke hosted senior night, honoring the National Player of the Year and all-time ACC leading scorer JJ Redick and two-time National Defensive Player of the Year Shelden Williams. North Carolina, the defending national champions, had lost the whole core of the team that won it all the year before, but came into the game on a 7-game winning streak. Freshmen Tyler Hansbrough and Danny Green led Carolina as well as veterans Reyshawn Terry and David Noel. ESPN broadcast the game on all three of its channels as part of its first ESPN Full Circle coverage, showing a marathon of past games hours before tipoff. Duke led early 13–2 as Redick caught fire and hit his first five shots. The Tar Heels fought back, cutting the deficit to one by halftime. The Tar Heels stormed out to a 72–62 lead as Hansbrough and Terry starting hitting their shots in the second half. After a timeout, Duke's Williams hook shot pulled Duke back within eight, but Hansbrough recovered a loose ball 25 feet from the hoop answered with a three-pointer to beat the shot clock. DeMarcus Nelson then hit 3-pointers on 3 successive possessions to put the Devils back to within 3 with 1:31 left. However, that was as close as it would get. The Heels hit their free throws down the stretch, Redick missed 15 of his last 16 shots, and DeMarcus Nelson shot an air ball that resulted in a shot clock violation that prevented a late Duke rally, leading to a final score of 83–76. The game was watched by 3.78 million households on ESPN and ESPN2.
March 4, 2007: #8 North Carolina 86, #14 Duke 72
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
Carolina beat Duke at the Dean Smith Center 86–72, completing the season sweep of the Blue Devils. The most memorable part of this game was a combative foul by Gerald Henderson when his elbow contacted Tyler Hansbrough's nose on a hard foul attempt with 14.5 seconds on the clock and the result of the game clearly determined. The contact broke Hansbrough's nose, drawing blood. The officials charged Henderson with a combative foul and ejected him from the game. After the foul, Hansbrough jumped up with blood streaming from his nose, but was calmed by his teammate Dewey Burke, before heading to the locker room for medical attention. Since then, both Hansbrough and Henderson have stated the foul was unintentional. To protect his broken nose, Hansbrough wore a face mask throughout the ACC tournament, and into the second round of the NCAA tournament.
February 8, 2012: #9 Duke 85, #5 North Carolina 84
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
UNC held a lead of 10 points or more for most of the second half and were leading by 10 points until 2:09 when Duke's Tyler Thornton hit a 3-point shot quickly followed by another 3 by Seth Curry to close the margin to 4. With just 14 seconds left in the game, Tyler Zeller accidentally tipped the ball into the Duke basket on a Duke 3-point shot by Ryan Kelly. Duke was awarded 2 points on the tip in by Zeller leaving Carolina with a 1-point lead. Duke's Tyler Thornton fouled Zeller who made his first shot but missed his second leaving Carolina with a 2-point lead. Duke brought the ball up court following the defensive rebound off Zeller's missed free throw and Duke guard Austin Rivers – with his father, NBA player and coach Glenn "Doc" Rivers in attendance – hit the game-winning 3 over Zeller as time expired. Rivers finished the game with a career high 29 points, including six three-pointers.
Rameses, UNC's famed live mascot, died the next day. Ann Leonard, Rameses' owner, said the 8-year-old ram died peacefully, most likely of old age.
February 18, 2015: #4 Duke 92, #15 North Carolina 90 (OT)
At Cameron Indoor Stadium, Durham
Entering the game at Duke's Cameron Indoor Stadium with the passing of North Carolina's long-time coach Dean Smith a couple of days before, both Duke and UNC coaches, players and staff all gathered at center court and held a moment of silence for Smith. Once the game started Duke jumped right out of the gate with an 18–6 lead early in the game thanks to hot shooting. UNC would respond by outscoring Duke 30–22 over the next several minutes of the 1st half to cut Duke's lead down to 40–36 with around 4 minutes left in the 1st half. Duke then went on a 9–0 run over the next 2 minutes to get their largest lead of the game at 49–36 with 2 minutes left in the half. UNC would score the last 6 points of the half to cut Duke's lead down to 49–42 at halftime. In the 2nd half almost everything went UNC's way as UNC started dominating the post and eventually built their largest lead of the game 77–67 over Duke with 4 minutes left in regulation to complete a 41–18 run over Duke in an 18-minute span. With Duke still trailing UNC 79–72 with around minutes left in regulation Duke's Tyus Jones would help Duke finish regulation on a 9–2 run over UNC to tie the game at 81 points apiece to send it to overtime. In overtime, the game was filled with missed free throws, missed shots, fouls, turnovers, lead changes and ties with Duke eventually winning the game 92–90.
March 4, 2017: #5 North Carolina 90, #17 Duke 83
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
On senior night in Chapel Hill, UNC had already locked up the number one seed in the ACC with Louisville's loss to Notre Dame, but Duke still had to win to clinch a double-bye in the ACC tournament. Joel Berry II, who came off the bench so seniors could start, and Luke Kennard led the way for their respective teams and would score 28 points each. Berry made each of his five attempted three-pointers in the first half to supplement Isaiah Hicks's success in the post for UNC, while Duke's Kennard, Grayson Allen, and Jayson Tatum enjoyed success from outside the arc, including a bank shot for Kennard and a four-point play for Allen. Neither team led by more than four points in the first half, which ended with a 48–46 lead for UNC. In the second half, UNC stayed in front or tied until Frank Jackson would give Duke the lead on a free throw with fifteen minutes left in the regulation. In a game that ultimately featured 24 lead changes and 14 ties, Justin Jackson put UNC up 74–71 on a straightaway three-pointer after missing his first six attempts from outside the arc. After Jackson's shot, Duke would get as close as down by one but Berry scored seven straight points to keep UNC ahead. Allen uncharacteristically missed three consecutive free throws for Duke in the final minutes and UNC emerged victorious 90–83.
March 10, 2017: #14 Duke 93, #6 North Carolina 83
At the Barclays Center, Brooklyn, New York (ACC tournament semifinals)
Six days after North Carolina avenged their earlier loss at Duke in February with a 90–83 victory at the Dean Dome, the two teams would face off in the semifinals of the ACC tournament, this time in Brooklyn. This game was only the fifth time that Duke and North Carolina had played each other outside of the state of North Carolina. North Carolina controlled the first half by outscoring Duke in the paint 32–10, with North Carolina's Kennedy Meeks leading the charge. North Carolina led by as many as 13 points and threatened to turn the game into a blowout, but Duke's Grayson Allen made four 3-pointers to get Duke within 7 points at the half, with North Carolina leading 49–42. In the second half, with North Carolina leading Duke 56–48 with 15:04 left, North Carolina's Joel Berry II picked up his fourth foul, which forced North Carolina to take him out of the game. Though North Carolina led by 13 points at 61–48 with 13:53 remaining, Duke used a 20–4 run over the next five minutes, thanks to steals and three-pointers from Duke's Jayson Tatum and Luke Kennard, to put Duke up 68–65 over North Carolina with 8:24 left. Duke then pulled away and won 93–83 to complete a 45–22 run over North Carolina in the final 14 minutes of the game.
February 20, 2019: #8 North Carolina 88, #1 Duke 72
At Cameron Indoor Stadium, Durham
The first meeting between the rivals in the 2018–19 season at Duke was overshadowed by a freak injury to the Blue Devils' superstar freshman Zion Williamson during Duke's first possession of the game. While dribbling near the free throw line, Williamson tried to plant his left foot on the court. His shoe catastrophically failed, with the sole ripping loose from the midsole along its entire outside edge, causing Williamson's foot to go completely through the gap. He suffered what was later described as a mild sprain to his right knee in the incident, and never returned to the game. Following the incident, former United States president Barack Obama was shown on television mouthing the words "his shoe broke". The Tar Heels took full advantage, never trailing at any time and leading by as many as 22 points on their way to the win. Luke Maye starred for North Carolina with 30 points and 15 rebounds.
March 15, 2019: #5 Duke 74, #3 North Carolina 73
At the Spectrum Center, Charlotte (ACC tournament semifinals)
After Duke's Zion Williamson only played the first 30 seconds of the 1st meeting and missed all of the 2nd meeting against North Carolina due to a mild knee sprain in his right knee he was finally able to play a full game against North Carolina in the semifinals of the ACC tournament. North Carolina blitzed Duke early thanks to hot shooting from Cam Johnson to put North Carolina up 33–20 over Duke with about minutes left in the 1st half. Duke's Zion Williamson finally got going and scored 12 of Duke's last 24 points of the half to help Duke comeback and tie the score at 44 points a piece at halftime. The second half was neck and neck the entire way with both teams having their best players making big play after big play. Both teams became tired down the stretch and both teams suffered small scoring droughts at different parts late in the second half. In the end Duke was able to hold off North Carolina's last 2 shot attempts at winning the game to escape with a 74–73 win over North Carolina to snap a 3-game losing streak to their biggest rival and advance to the ACC tournament championship game. Zion Williamson was the hero for Duke after scoring 31 points in his second game back from injury.
February 8, 2020: #7 Duke 98, North Carolina 96 (OT)
At the Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill
North Carolina entered this first rivalry game of 2020 with a 10–12 overall record (3–8 in conference play), their worst season record in 18 years. Ranked #7, Duke was a clear favorite to win this away match-up, having been in the top 10 all year. However, the Tar Heels outperformed expectations, in part due to 24 points and 11 rebounds by Cole Anthony, who had recently returned from a lengthy injury leave. North Carolina lead 44–35 at halftime and held a 13-point lead with 3:55 remaining in regulation time. However, they struggled with free throws, shooting 21-of-38 on the night, and Duke mounted a comeback, cutting the lead to five points with 0:20 remaining. Duke point guard Tre Jones scored 8 points in the final 50 seconds of regulation. Down 84–82 with 4.4 seconds remaining, Jones sent the game to overtime by intentionally ricocheting a free throw off the rim, rebounding, and sinking a 2-point buzzer-beater. In the extra period, North Carolina initially pulled ahead again, and held a 96–91 lead with 0:21 remaining. However, after a basket by Jones and a controversial non-foul call in Duke's favor, the Blue Devils trailed by only one point in the final seconds. At the free throw line again, Jones made his first but missed the second. After scrambling to rebound, Jones put up an off-target shot, which teammate Wendell Moore Jr. rebounded and put it back at the buzzer to give Duke the 98–96 victory.
March 5, 2022: North Carolina 94, #4 Duke 81
At Cameron Indoor Stadium, Durham
In Duke coach Mike Krzyzewski's final game in Cameron Indoor Stadium, unranked North Carolina traveled to Durham as heavy underdogs, having already lost to the fourth-ranked Blue Devils 87–67 in Chapel Hill on February 6. Led by first year head coach Hubert Davis, North Carolina was off to the races early, building an 11–4 lead early in the first half. However, thanks to hot shooting by Paolo Banchero, Duke would go on a 14–0 run later in the half, converting a 28–23 UNC lead to a 37–28 Duke lead in just over 3 minutes of game time. The Tar Heels made a push at the very end of the first half, capping it off with a buzzer-beating triple from R. J. Davis to cut the Blue Devil lead to two. Duke extended their lead to as many as seven in the second half, but a balanced team effort allowed North Carolina to claw back. With some late-game heroics from all five UNC starters, the Tar Heels dominated the Blue Devils 38–20 in the final 10:30 of regulation to pull off the stunning road upset in front of the Cameron Crazies and 96 of Coach K's former players.
April 2, 2022: (#8 East) North Carolina 81, #9 (#2 West) Duke 77
At the Caesars Superdome, New Orleans, Louisiana (NCAA Tournament Final Four)
The first NCAA Tournament matchup in the rivalry's history. 2022 marked the second time both teams made the Final Four after Indianapolis in 1991, but unlike 1991, both teams were matched against each other with the winner playing Kansas (victor against Villanova in the earlier national semifinal) in the national championship game. Ahead of the game, Governor Roy Cooper signed a proclamation proclaiming the state of North Carolina as the center of the college basketball universe.
During the tournament, Mike Krzyzewski passed UCLA's John Wooden for the most Final Four appearances by a single head coach, while North Carolina also set a record with their 21st Final Four appearance and beat two Final Four teams from the previous season in UCLA and reigning national champion Baylor.
In a thriller that included 18 lead changes, Carolina overcame a 3-point halftime deficit to win 81–77. It was Carolina's 7th win vs Duke in their previous 11 meetings. North Carolina was led by sophomore Caleb Love, whose 28-point performance included a clutch 3-point shot that stretched the North Carolina lead to 4 with only 24.8 seconds remaining and signaled the conclusion of both Duke's season and Krzyzewski's career. Having bested him for the second game in a row in his rookie season as head coach, Hubert Davis led North Carolina into the national championship against Kansas, where they would lose 72–69.
Route to the game
Student engagement and tenting
In order to get standing room in the annual Duke-UNC game in Cameron Indoor Stadium, Duke students set up tents and sleep outside in a grassy area outside of the stadium known as Krzyzewskiville and named after former head coach Mike Krzyzewski. The process of lining up for tickets can last up to two months depending on the level of tenting the students choose to do and whether the game in Cameron Indoor is the first or second meeting of the teams during the season. The complex tenting rules are enforced by a set of students known as Line Monitors who regulate the tents and serve as leaders for the student section during the games.
Duke students who regularly camp in Krzyzewskiville are known for their methodical preparedness, bringing headlamps, portable chargers, shoe bins, and many layers of clothing to endure the North Carolina winters (games are typically played in February or March, when the average low in Durham is 29.5 and 37 degrees Fahrenheit, respectively). In the hours leading up to the game, students play music and put on dark blue and white paint (Duke's colors).
After the game, dependent on a win by the Duke Blue Devils, students rush out to their main residential quads (only a short distance from Cameron Indoor Stadium), and burn benches. Many residential communities at Duke traditionally build and paint benches for day-to-day use in the hopes of burning them in celebration of a win over Carolina. The students then rebuild benches shortly after in hopes of being able to burn them again the next year.
At Carolina, a win over Duke typically results in students rushing Franklin Street, the main thoroughfare just north of UNC's campus and the commercial heart of Chapel Hill. Police block off the street before the game in anticipation of thousands of students celebrating the win. Bonfires are also a feature of these celebrations, often using Duke gear as fuel.
Results
Scores of games (1920–2023)
Ranking of the team at the time of the game by the AP poll is shown in parentheses next to the team name (failure to list AP ranking does not necessarily mean the team was not ranked at the time of the game).
Achievements by season (1975–2022)
* This was the last year of a balanced regular season schedule (each team played a home-and-away series with every other conference foe). In subsequent years, this was not possible due to conference expansion.
† The NCAA tournament was canceled in response to the COVID-19 global pandemic of 2020. The ACC tournament was canceled after the second round after North Carolina was eliminated and Duke had yet to play a game.
Football
The football rivalry is also intense, although not as intense as the basketball rivalry. While both schools agree that Carolina holds a large lead in the series, the two schools disagree on an 1889 game in which both teams thought they were supposed to be the home team. Carolina claims a 58–36–4 lead; Duke claims UNC leads 57–37–4. On 10/20/12, Duke beat UNC in football for the first time since 2003. On 11/30/13, Duke beat UNC in football for the second straight year, 27–25, winning back to back games in the series for the first time since 1989. That year, Duke won its seventh ACC Championship, while UNC has won five times. The 2013 win also gave Duke the outright Coastal Division championship and sent Duke to the ACC Championship Game for the first time since its 2005 inception and became the first Coastal Division representative other than Virginia Tech or Georgia Tech. Duke is the last university in the North Carolina Triangle region to win an ACC football championship. The two game win streak by Duke was snapped in 2014 on a nationally televised Thursday game when the Tar Heels beat Duke 45–20 at Wallace Wade Stadium. The upset loss took the Blue Devils out of a second ACC Championship game and allowed Georgia Tech to win the Coastal Division because Duke had also lost to Miami and Virginia Tech while Georgia Tech only had 2 conference losses.
Nonetheless, there is some tradition behind the football rivalry. The two teams first met in 1888, and the rivalry has been renewed every year since 1922. In the 1920s Duke began appearing as the last game of the Carolina football season with some regularity, Virginia being the other team with that spot.
The Tar Heels-Blue Devils matchup would be the last regular season game for both teams for all but a few years from the 1930s until the ACC split into two divisions in 2005. Now the schedules are less predictable. The matchups at Wallace Wade Stadium in 2014 and 2016 took place on Thursday night and were televised on ESPN, adding national exposure to the rivalry.
Other sports
The rivalry between Duke and Carolina has spilled over into other arenas. From 2001 until 2011, the rivalry was strengthened by the awarding of the Carlyle Cup. This cup was given each year to the school that had the most combined head-to-head wins against the other school in all of the shared varsity sports. UNC claimed the cup 7 times, winning in 2002, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011. Duke won the cup 3 times, in 2001, 2003, and 2004. UNC and Duke tied for the cup in 2007.
Duke and Carolina have also developed a strong women's college basketball rivalry since the 1990s as Duke and Carolina field two of the strongest women's basketball teams in the nation. Duke made four Women's Final Four appearances in 1999, 2002, 2003, and 2006. Carolina made three Women's Final Four appearances in 1994 (winning its only NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship), 2006, and 2007.
In 1992 North Carolina defeated Duke by a 9–1 score in the NCAA championship game in women's soccer in a game played in Chapel Hill's Fetzer Field, a decided home advantage for the Tar Heels. UNC was led by future Team USA legends Kristine Lilly and Mia Hamm. This is the only time the two schools have ever met for a national championship in any sport.
In men's lacrosse the two schools have developed a fierce rivalry that carries national implications. Duke has won national championships in men's lacrosse in 2010, 2013, and 2014, while North Carolina has five titles. In 2007, 2008, and 2010, Duke and North Carolina played each other in the NCAA lacrosse quarterfinals, with Duke winning each time. The programs have also met 13 times in ACC postseason play, with UNC leading the overall rivalry 42–33 through 2020. For further information, see Duke–North Carolina lacrosse rivalry.
Twenty four students from the two schools got together from January 14–16, 2006 in order to attempt to break the world record for the longest continuous game of basketball ever recorded. The game set a new world record at 57 hours, 17 minutes and 41 seconds with Duke winning the game 3699–3444. All $60,000 raised from the marathon benefited the Hoop Dreams Basketball Academy, an organization which helps children with life-threatening illnesses develop successful life skills through basketball.
School newspapers
As a tradition, one day prior to a Duke-Carolina basketball game, The Chronicle, Duke's student newspaper, publishes a spoof cover page for the day's edition with the title The Daily Tar Hole. Contained within are fake news stories poking fun at The Daily Tar Heel and the North Carolina Tar Heels. The Daily Tar Heel typically publishes former columnist Ian Williams' "Insider's guide to hating Duke" for the two basketball match-ups each year. There is a longstanding agreement that if Duke wins the first matchup, The Daily Tar Heel's masthead is printed in Duke blue, and if Carolina wins the first matchup, The Chronicle's masthead is painted Carolina blue. The losing school's paper also has to put the other school's logo in a conspicuous location and claim that the winning school is "still the best."
See also
Duke Blue Devils men's basketball
North Carolina Tar Heels
Cameron Crazies
References
Further reading
To Hate Like This Is to Be Happy Forever: A Thoroughly Obsessive, Intermittently Uplifting, and Occasionally Unbiased Account of the Duke-North Carolina Basketball Rivalry by Will Blythe
Blue Blood: Duke-Carolina: Inside the Most Storied Rivalry in College Hoops by Art Chansky
External links
Men's basketball game log (1950–present) via Sports Reference
College basketball rivalries in the United States
Duke Blue Devils
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill rivalries
College sports in North Carolina |
4557934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thonburi%20Kingdom | Thonburi Kingdom | The Thonburi Kingdom (, ) was a major Siamese kingdom which existed in Southeast Asia from 1767 to 1782, centered around the city of Thonburi, in Siam or present-day Thailand. The kingdom was founded by Taksin the Great, who reunited Siam following the collapse of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, which saw the country separate into five warring regional states. The Thonburi Kingdom oversaw the rapid reunification and reestablishment of Siam as a preeminient military power within mainland Southeast Asia, overseeing the country's expansion to its greatest territorial extent up to that point in its history, incorporating Lan Na, the Laotian kingdoms (Luang Phrabang, Vientiane, Champasak), and Cambodia under the Siamese sphere of influence.
The Thonburi Kingdom saw the consolidation and continued growth of Chinese trade from Qing China, a continuation from the late Ayutthaya period (1688-1767), and the increased influence of the Chinese community in Siam, with Taksin and later monarchs sharing close connections and close family ties with the Sino-Siamese community.
The Thonburi Kingdom lasted for only 14 years, ending in 1782 when Taksin was deposed by a major Thonburi military commander, Chao Phraya Chakri, who subsequently founded the Rattanakosin Kingdom, the fourth and present ruling kingdom of Thailand.
History
Taksin's Reunification of Siam
Phraya Tak, personal name Sin, Zheng Zhao (鄭昭) or Zheng Xin (鄭信), was a nobleman of Teochew Chinese descent. By the time of Burmese Invasion of 1765-1767, Phraya Tak had been the governor of Tak and called to join the defense of Ayutthaya. In January 1767, about three months before the Fall of Ayutthaya, Phraya Tak gathered his own forces of 500 followers and broke through the Burmese encirclement to the east. After battling with Burmese scouting forces and some local resistances, Phraya Tak and his retinue settled in Rayong on the eastern Siamese coast. There, Phraya Tak competed with Pu Lan the Phraya Chanthaburi or the governor of Chanthaburi for domination over the eastern coastline. In the famous episode, Phraya Tak ordered all cooking pots in the supplies to be destroyed and then successfully took Chanthaburi in June 1767. Phraya Tak established his dominions of influence on the eastern coast stretching from Bang Plasoi (Chonburi) to Trat.
Ayutthaya fell in April 1767. Due to the intervening Sino-Burmese War, Burma was obliged to divert most of its forces from Ayutthaya to the Chinese front. The Burmese had left a garrison at Phosamton to the north of Ayutthaya under the command of the Mon Thugyi. The Burmese were in control only in Lower Central Siam as the rest of Siam fell into the hands of various warlord regimes that sprang up. In the northeast, Prince Kromma Muen Thepphipit established himself in Phimai. To the north, Chaophraya Phitsanulok Rueang made his base in Phitsanulok, while the heterodox monk Chao Phra Fang founded a theocratic regime in Sawangkhaburi. To the south, Phra Palat Nu or Chao Nakhon became the leader of Nakhon Si Thammarat (Ligor) regime.
In October 1767, Phraya Tak left Chanthaburi and took his fleet of 5,000 men to the Chao Phraya. He took Thonburi and proceeded to attack the Burmese at Phosamton in November, defeating the Burmese commander Thugyi or Suki. Phraya Tak founded the new Siamese capital at Thonburi and enthroned himself as king there in December 1767. He is colloquially and posthumously known as King Taksin, combining his title Phraya Tak and his name Sin. For strategic reasons, Taksin decided to move the capital from Ayutthaya to Thonburi, making it easier for commerce. Six months after the Fall of Ayutthaya, Taksin managed to reconquer and establish his powers in Central Siam. A Burmese force from Tavoy arrived to attack the Chinese encampment of Bangkung in Samut Songkhram. King Taksin repelled the Burmese in the Battle of Bangkung in 1768.
King Taksin then went on his campaigns against other competing rival regimes to unify Siam. He first moved against Phitsanulok in the north in 1768 but was defeated at Koeichai with Taksin himself got shot at his leg. Thonburi went on to conquer the Phimai regime in the northeast in 1768 and the Nakhon Si Thammarat regime in October 1769. Prince Thepphiphit was executed but Nakhon Nu of Ligor was allowed to live in custody. In the north, Chao Phra Fang conquered and incorporated the Phitsanulok regime in 1768, becoming a formidable opponent of Taksin. In 1770, the forces of Chao Phra Fang penetrated south as far as Chainat. King Taksin, in retaliation, led the Thonburi armies to capture Phitsanulok in August 1770. Thonburi forces continued north to seize Sawangkhaburi. Chao Phra Fang escaped and disappeared from history. With the conquest of the last rival regime by 1770, Taksin's position as the ruler of Siam was assured and Siam was unified at last.
Invasion of Cambodia and Hà Tiên
In the eighteenth century, the port city of Hà Tiên, ruled by the Cantonese Mạc Thiên Tứ, arose to become the economic center of the Gulf of Siam. After the fall of Ayutthaya, two Ayutthayan princes: Prince Chao Sisang and Prince Chao Chui, took refuge at Oudong the royal city of Cambodia and Hà Tiên, respectively. The Qing Chinese court at Beijing refused to recognize King Taksin as the ruler of Siam in Chinese tributary system because Mạc Thiên Tứ had told Beijing that the remaining descendants of the Ayutthayan dynasty were with him in Hà Tiên. In 1769, King Taksin urged the pro-Vietnamese King Ang Ton of Cambodia to send tributes to Siam. Ang Ton refused and Taksin sent armies to invade Cambodia in 1769 but did not meet with success.
In 1771, Taksin resumed his campaigns to invade Cambodia and Hà Tiên in order to find the Ayutthayan princes and to put the pro-Siamese Ang Non on the Cambodian throne. King Taksin ordered Phraya Yommaraj Thongduang (later King Rama I) to bring the army of 10,000 men to invade Cambodia by land, while King Taksin himself with Phraya Phiphit Chen Lian (陳聯, called Trần Liên in Vietnamese sources) as the admiral invaded Hà Tiên with the fleet of 15,000 men. Hà Tiên fell to Siamese invaders in November 1771. Phraya Yommaraj was also able to seize control of Oudong and Cambodia. Both Mạc Thiên Tứ and the Cambodian king Ang Ton fled to Cochinchina under the protection from the Nguyen Lord. Taksin appointed Chen Lian as the new governor of Hà Tiên with the title of Phraya Rachasetthi. The Siamese armies continued in search for Mạc Thiên Tứ and Ang Ton but were defeated by Vietnamese forces at Châu Đốc. Taksin put Ang Non in power in Cambodia with himself returning to Thonburi in December 1771, leaving Chen Lian in Hà Tiên and Phraya Yommaraj to be in charge in Cambodia.
Prince Chui was captured and brought to be executed at Thonburi, while Prince Sisang died in 1772. The Nguyen Lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần organized the Vietnamese counter-offensives in order to restore Mạc Thiên Tứ and Ang Ton to their former positions. Chen Lian, the Siam-appointed governor of Hà Tiên, was defeated and left Hà Tiên for three days until he managed to raise a fleet to retake the city. The Vietnamese commander Nguyễn Cửu Đàm led the armies to seize control of Phnom Penh and Cambodia in July 1772, prompting Ang Non to move to Kampot. However, this Siamese-Vietnamese War coincided with the uprising of the Tây Sơn, which began in 1771, against the Nguyen Lord's regime. Instability at home made the Nguyen Lord order Mạc Thiên Tứ to make peace with Siam in 1773. Taksin then realized that the Siamese control over Cambodia and Hà Tiên was untenable. He ordered the withdrawal of Siamese troops from Cambodia and Hà Tiên in 1773 but not before 10,000 Cambodians were taken as captives to Siam.
Ang Ton resumed his rule in Cambodia. With the Vietnamese support dwindling due to the Tây Sơn uprising, however, Ang Ton decided to reconcile with his rival Ang Non and with Siam. Ang Ton abdicated in 1775 in favor of Ang Non, who became the new pro-Siamese King of Cambodia. With the Ayutthayan princes gone, the Qing court had improved attitudes towards Taksin.The Qing finally recognized Taksin as Wang (王) or King or the ruler of Siam in 1777 in the Chinese tributary system.
Conquest of Lanna
After the Burmese conquest of Lanna (modern Northern Thailand) in 1763, Lanna including Chiang Mai returned to the Burmese rule. Thado Mindin the Burmese governor of Chiang Mai oppressed the local Lanna nobles. King Taksin marched against the Burmese-held Chiang Mai in 1771 but failed to take the city. In Chiang Mai, Thado Mindin faced opposition from Phaya Chaban Boonma, the native Lanna noble who led the resistance against Burmese domination.
In 1772, King Hsinbyushin of the Burmese Konbaung dynasty realized that Siam had recovered and arose powerful under Thonburi regime. Hsinbyushin initiated a new campaign against Siam. He ordered troops to be gathered in Burmese Chiang Mai and the Mon town of Martaban in order to invade Siam from both the north and the west in two directions: a similar approach to the invasion of 1765-1767. In 1774, Binnya Sein, a nephew of Binnya Dala the last king of Hanthawaddy, led a failed Mon rebellion against Burma, resulting in the mass exodus of thousands of Mon people into Siam. Hsinbyushin appointed Maha Thiha Thura, the renowned general from the Sino-Burmese War, to be the supreme commander of the new campaigns and assigned Nemyo Thihapate, the Burmese general who had previously conquered Ayutthaya in 1767, to be in charge of Burmese forces in Lanna.
The Burmese forces from Chiang Mai attacked the Northern Siamese border towns of Sawankhalok in 1771 and Phichai in 1772-1773. Taksin was then resolved to extinguish Burmese threat from the north once and for all by conducting an expedition to seize the Burmese-held Chiang Mai in December 1774. This expedition to the north coincided with the Mon refugee situation. Phaya Chaban of Chiang Mai, upon learning of the Siamese invasion, joined with Kawila of Lampang to overthrow the Burmese. Phaya Chaban, under the guise of navigation, ran to submit to Taksin. King Taksin marched to Tak where he received the Mon refugees. Taksin ordered Chaophraya Chakri to lead the vanguard to Lampang, where Kawila had earlier insurrected against the Burmese. Kawila led the way for the Siamese armies to Chiang Mai. The brothers Chaophraya Chakri and Surasi combined forces to successfully seize Chiang Mai in January 1775. Burmese leaders Thado Mindin and Nemyo Thihapate retreated to Chiang Saen where they reestablished Burmese administrative headquarter. This began the transfer of Lanna from Burmese rule to Siamese domination after 200 years of Lanna being under Burmese suzerainty, even though northern parts of Lanna including Chiang Saen would remain under Burmese rule for another thirty years until 1804.
Phaya Chaban was rewarded with the governorship of Chiang Mai whereas Kawila was made the governor of Lampang. In 1777, the Burmese attacked Chiang Mai in their bid to reclaim Lanna. Phaya Chaban decided to evacuate Chiang Mai in the face of Burmese invasion due to numerical inferiority of his forces. Chiang Mai was then abandoned and ceased to exist as a functional city for twenty years until it was restored in 1797. Lampang under Kawila stood as the main frontline citadel against subsequent Burmese incursions.
Burmese Invasions
Plan of King Hsinbyushin to invade Siam from two directions was foiled by the Mon Rebelllion and the Siamese capture of Chiang Mai. Maha Thiha Thura, who had taken commanding position in Martaban, sent his vanguard force under Satpagyon Bo to invade Western Siam through the Three Pagodas Pass in February 1775. Taksin was unprepared as most of his troops were in the north defending Chiang Mai. He recalled the northern Siamese troops down south to defend the west. Satpagyon Bo took Kanchanaburi and continued to Ratchaburi, where he encamped at Bangkaeo (modern Tambon Nangkaeo, Photharam district), hence the name Bangkaeo Campaign. King Taksin sent preliminary forces under his son and his nephew to deal with the Burmese at Ratchaburi. The princes led the Siamese forces to completely encircle Satpagyon Bo at Bangkaeo in order to starve the Burmese into surrender. Northern Siamese troops arrived in the battlefield of Bangkaeo, bringing the total number of Siamese to 20,000 men, greatly outnumbering the Burmese. After 47 days of being encircled, Satpagyon Bo capitulated in March 1775. The Siamese took about 2,000 Burmese captives from this battle.
Six months after the Siamese victory at Bangkaeo, in September 1775, the Burmese from Chiang Saen attacked Chiang Mai again. The two Chaophrayas Chakri and Surasi led troops north to defend Chiang Mai. However, Maha Thiha Thura took this opportunity to personally lead the Burmese armies of 35,000 men through the Mae Lamao Pass to invade Hua Mueang Nuea or Northern Siam in October. Chakri and Surasi had to hurriedly return to defend Phitsanulok. Maha Thiha Thura laid siege on Phitsanulok, the administrative center of Northern Siam. King Taksin led the royal armies from Thonburi to the north and stationed at Pakphing near Phitsanulok in efforts to relieve the siege of the city. Maha Thiha Thura managed to attack the Siamese supply line at Nakhon Sawan and Uthaithani. He also defeated King Taksin in the Battle of Pakphing in March 1776, compelling the Siamese king to retreat south to Phichit. Chaophrayas Chakri and Surasi then decided to abandon and evacuate Phitsanulok. Phitsanulok fell to the Burmese, was completely destroyed and burnt to the grounds.
Maha Thiha Thura was preparing to march onto Thonburi when he learned of the death of the Burmese King Hsinbyushin in 1776. Maha Thiha Thura was recalled, decided to abruptly abandon the campaign in Siam and quickly return to Burma in order to support his son-in-law Singu Min to the Burmese throne. The remaining Burmese regiments in Siam were thus left disorganized and uncontrolled. Siam nearly succumbed to the Burmese conquest for the second time after the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767. The untimely demise of Hsinbyushin saved Siam from such fate. King Taksin took this chance to pursue the retreating Burmese. The Burmese had all left Siam by August 1776 and the war came to the end.
Conquest of Laos
In 1765, Lao kingdoms of Luang Phrabang and Vientiane became Burmese vassals. After the Siamese capture of Chiang Mai in 1775, the Burmese influence in Laos waned. King Ong Boun of Vientiane had been a Burmese ally, as he instigated the Burmese to invade his rival Luang Phrabang two times in 1765 and 1771. King Taksin had been suspicious about Ong Boun being in cooperation with Burma. In 1777, the governor of Nangrong rebelled against Thonburi with support from Champasak. King Taksin ordered Chaophraya Chakri to lead the Siamese armies to invade and retaliate Champasak. After this expedition, Taksin rewarded Chakri with the rank and title of Somdet Chaophraya Maha Kasatsuk. The rank of Somdet Chaophraya was the highest possible a noble could attain with honors equal to a prince.
In 1778, Phra Vo, a Lao secessionist figure, sought protection under Siam against Ong Boun of Vientiane. However, Ong Boun managed to send troops to defeat and kill Phra Vo in the same year. This provoked Taksin who regarded Phra Vo as his subject. The death of Phra Vo at the hands of Vientiane served as the casus belli for Thonburi to initiate the subjugation of Lao kingdoms in 1778. He ordered Chaophraya Chakri to conduct the invasion of Laos. Chaophraya Chakri commanded his brother Chaophraya Surasi to go to Cambodia to raise troops there and invade Laos from another direction. Surasi led his Cambodian army to cross the Liphi waterfall and capture Champasak including the king Sayakumane who was taken to Thonburi. Chakri and Surasi then converged on Vientiane. King Surinyavong of Luang Phrabang, who had long been holding grudges against Ong Boun, joined the Siamese side and contributed forces. King Ong Boun assigned his son Nanthasen to lead the defense of Vientiane. Nanthasen managed to resist the Siamese for four months until the situation became critical. Ong Boun secretly escaped Vientiane, leaving his son Nanthasen to surrender and open the city gates to the Siamese in 1779.
Buddha images of Emerald Buddha and Phra Bang, the palladia of the Vientiane kingdom, were taken by the victorious Siamese to Thonburi to be placed at Wat Arun. Lao inhabitants of Vientiane, including members of royalty Nanthasen and the future king Anouvong, were deported to settle in Thonburi and various places in Central Siam. All three Lao kingdoms of Luang Phrabang, Vientiane and Champasak became the tributary kingdoms of Siam on this occasion.
Downfall of Thonburi regime
Taksin's ruling style differed from traditional Ayutthayan mystic kingship in the aspect that it was based on personal charisma and merits rather than exquisite grandeur. Initially, Taksin's energy in fighting the Burmese earned him loyalty but as situation progressed some began to notice noncomformity of his rule. He did not erect a great royal city with splendid palaces nor did he actively pursued the old Ayutthayan way. High titles and commands belonged to Taksin's early followers who were not much of high aristocratic stratum. Taksin's defeat at the hands of the Burmese in 1776 affected him greatly. After 1776, Taksin ceased to personally lead armies in battlefields but instead relegated military commands to the brothers Chaophraya Chakri and Chaophraya Surasi so powers shifted away from him as he focused on religious pursuits. Chaophraya Chakri emerged as the most powerful courtier and came to represent old Ayutthayan elite.
King Taksin persecuted French missionaries in 1775 for their refusals to participate in a ceremony and ended up expelling them from Siam in 1779. A decade of strenuous warfare had taken toll on him. In late 1776, Taksin began to obsess with Buddhist Kammaṭṭhāna meditations. In 1777, Taksin declared before Sangha council that he had become a sotapanna or Buddhist saint and he believed that he could fly. In 1779, the pro-Siamese King Ang Non of Cambodia, an ally of Taksin, was murdered and the pro-Vietnamese Cambodian minister Chauvea Tolaha Mu took power. Taksin's relationship with his son Prince Inthraphithak deteriorated to the point that he banished his son from the palace. His paranoia and religious obsession worsened in mid-1780 when he commanded Buddhist monks to perform the wai to pay respect to him instead of other way round. Five hundred monks who refused to comply were flogged. Also in 1780, Taksin ordered massacre of some fifty Vietnamese people including Mạc Thiên Tứ and Nguyễn Phúc Xuân, who had earlier taken political refuge in Thonburi, for their alleged sedition. In May 1781, Taksin dispatched his first and only official tributary mission to China. In December 1781, King Taksin sent army of 20,000 men, led by Chaophrayas Chakri and Surasi, to fight the Vietnamese forces of Nguyễn Phúc Ánh to restore Siamese influence in Cambodia and to install his own son Inthraphithak as new King of Cambodia. He burnt a court lady alive, suspecting that she had stolen from his treasury and falsely punished around three hundred people, for their alleged smuggling of rice and salt, at the instigation of two corrupted officials. Chinese merchants had to renounce almost all commerce, some were even killed.
In March 1782, a rebellion broke out against Taksin in Ayutthaya due to conflicts over treasure digging rights. King Taksin sent Phraya San to quell the rebellion. However, Phraya San instead joined the rebels and returned to attack Thonburi. With most of his troops away in Cambodia, Taksin relied on Portuguese gunners to defend him, who would soon abandon the king. Taksin surrendered. Phraya San forced Taksin to abdicate and become a monk at Wat Arun with Phraya San taking control in Thonburi. Chaophraya Chakri in Cambodia, informed about the incidents, assigned his nephew Phra Suriya Aphai to lead armies from Nakhon Ratchasima to pacify Thonburi. Phraya San ordered Taksin's nephew Prince Anurak Songkhram to attack Phra Suriya Aphai at Bangkok Noi in the Battle of Bangkok Noi in April 1782. Phra Suriya Aphai was about to be overrun by Phraya San's forces when Siri Rochana, Lanna wife of Surasi, appealed to Binnya Sein the Mon leader to assault Prince Anurak Songkhram in the rear, allowing Phra Suriya Aphai to prevail with Phraya San's army retreated. Chaophraya Chakri, having brokered a truce with the Vietnamese, marched to return to Thonburi. He convened a judicial court to try Taksin and Phraya San of their wrongdoings. Taksin was executed for his "improper and unjust actions that caused great pain for the kingdom". Phraya San, his supporters and Thonburi loyalists, total number of 150 people, were also executed. Taksin's son Inthraphithak, Taksin's nephews Anurak Songkhram and Prince Ramphubet were executed but his other young children were spared and allowed to live. Chaophraya Chakri ascended the throne as King Rama I, founding the new and current-ruling Chakri dynasty of the Rattanakosin Kingdom in April 1782.
Government
Thonburi government organization was centered around a loose-knit organization of city-states, whose provincial lords were appointed through 'personal ties' to the king, similar to Ayutthaya and, later, Rattanakosin administrations. Thonburi inherited most of the government apparatus from the Late Ayutthaya. Two Prime Ministers; Samuha Nayok the Prime Minister and Samuha Kalahom the Minister of Military, led the central government. In the early years of Thonburi, Chaophraya Chakri Mud the Muslim of Persian descent hold the position of Samuha Nayok until his death in 1774. Chakri Mut was succeeded as Prime Minister by Chaophraya Chakri Thongduang who later became King Rama I. Below the Prime Minister were the four ministers of Chatusadom.
Like in Ayutthaya, the regional government was organized in the hierarchy of cities, in which smaller towns were under jurisdiction of larger cities. The provincial government was an association of local lords tied by personal ties to the king. The regional administrative center of Northern Siam was Phitsanulok, while for Southern Siam was Nakhon Si Thammarat. After his conquest of Hua Mueang Nuea or Northern Siam in 1770, King Taksin installed his early followers who had distinguished themselves in battles as the governors of Northern Siamese cities. Governors of Sawankhalok, Nakhon Sawan and Sankhaburi were given exceptionally high rank of Chaophraya, while the central Chatusadom ministers were ranked lower as Phraya. Chaophraya Surasi Boonma was the governor of Phitsanulok during Thonburi times. Phitsanulok and other Northern Siamese towns were devastated by Maha Thiha Thura's invasion in 1775–1776.
After his conquest of the Ligor regime in 1769, Taksin made his nephew Prince Nara Suriyawong the ruler of Nakhon Si Thammarat. Prince Nara Suriyawong of Ligor died in 1776 and King Taksin made Chaophraya Nakhon Nu, the former leader of the Ligor regime, an autonomous ruler of Nakhon Si Thammarat. Ligor would enjoy autonomy until the end of Thonburi Period in 1782 when King Rama I curbed the power of the Ligor by demoting the ruler of Ligor to be the 'governor' instead.
With the exception of Bunma (later Chao Phraya Surisi and later Maha Sura Singhanat), a member of the old Ayutthaya artistocracy who had joined Taksin early on in his campaigns of reunification, and later Bunma's brother, Thongduang (later Chao Phraya Chakri and later King Rama I), high political positions and titles within the Thonburi Kingdom were mainly given to Taksin's early followers, instead of the already established Siamese nobility who survived after the fall of Ayutthaya, many of whom having supported Thep Phiphit, the governor of Phitsanulok and an Ayutthaya aristocrat, during the Siamese civil war. In the Northern cities, centered around Sukhothai and Phitsanulok, Taksin installed early supporters of his who had distinguished themselves in battle, many of whom were allowed to establish their own local dynasties afterwards, but elsewhere, several noble families had kept their titles and positions within the new kingdom (Nakhon Si Thammarat, Lan Na), (the ruler of Nakhon Si Thammarat that Taksin defeated during the civil war was reinstated as its ruler) whose personal connections made them a formidable force within the Thonburi court.
Kingship
The Thonburi period saw the return of 'personal kingship', a style of ruling that was used by Naresuan but was abandoned by Naresuan's successors after his death. Taksin, similar to Naresuan, personally led armies into battle and often revealed himself to the common folk by partaking in public activities and traditional festivities, thereby abandoning the shroud of mysticism as adopted by many Ayutthaya monarchs. Also similar to Naresuan, Taksin was known for being a cruel and authoritarian monarch. Taksin reigned rather plainly, doing little to emphasize his new capital as the spiritual successor to Ayutthaya and adopted an existing wat besides his palace, Wat Jaeng (also spelled Wat Chaeng, later Wat Arun), as the principal temple of his kingdom. Taksin largely emphasized the building of moats and defensive walls in Thonburi, all while only building a modest Chinese-style residence and adding a pavilion to house the Emerald Buddha and Phra Bang images at Wat Jaeng, recently taken in 1778 from the Lao states (Vientiane and Luang Prabang, respectively).
Territories
After the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Siamese mandala system was in disarray and its former tributary states faced political uncertainties. The Malay sultanates that used to pay bunga mas tributes to Ayutthaya initially nullified their tributary ties and refused any further allegiance. After the establishment of Thonburi and the momentous rebirth of Siam, the sultanates of Pattani, Terengganu and possibly Kedah sent tributes to Thonburi in 1769. Francis Light mentioned that Kedah had sent tributes to Siam but did not specify a year. Despite the bunga mas tributes, the degree of actual Siamese control over the Malay sultanates in the Thonburi Period was doubtful. King Taksin requested military and monetary obligations from Pattani, Kelantan and Terengganu to aid Siam against the Burmese invasion in 1776. However, the Malay sultans ignored this order and did not face any repercussions. In 1777, Nakhon Nu the ruler of Ligor proposed to King Taksin to send expedition to subjugate the Malay sultanates. King Taksin refused, however, stating that the defense of frontiers against Burmese incursions was more of priority. Siam only resumed real political control over the Northern Malay sultanates in 1786 in the Rattanakosin Period.
With the exception of the western Tenasserim Coast, the Thonburi Kingdom reconquered most of the land previously held under the Ayutthaya Kingdom and expanded Siam to its greatest territorial extent up to that point. During the Thonburi period, Siam acquired new Prathetsarats or tributary kingdoms. Thonburi took control of Lanna in 1775, ending the 200 years of Burmese vassalage, which became Northern Thailand today. Taksin appointed his supporters against the Burmese, Phaya Chaban and Kawila, as the governors of Chiang Mai and Lampang respectively in 1775. The princedom of Nan also came under the power of Thonburi in 1775. However, Burma pushed on an intensive campaign to reclaim lost Lanna territories, resulting in the abandonment of Chiang Mai in 1777 and Nan in 1775 due to Burmese threats. Only Lampang under Kawila stood as the forefront citadel against Burmese incursions.
After the capture of Vientiane in 1779, all of the three Lao kingdoms of Luang Phrabang, Vientiane and Champasak became tributary kingdoms under Siamese suzerainty. King Taksin appointed the Lao prince Nanthasen as the new King of Vientiane in 1781. Vassal (mandala) states of the Thonburi Kingdom at its height in 1782, to varying degrees of autonomy, included the Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom, the Northern Thai principalities of Chiang Mai, Lampang, Nan, Lamphun, and Phrae, and the Lao Kingdoms of Champasak, Luang Phrabang, and Vientiane.
Economy
In the Late Ayutthaya Period, Siam was a prominent rice exporter to Qing China. After the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Siamese economy collapsed. Rice production and economic activities ceased. Thonburi period was the time of economic crisis as people died from warfare and starvation and inflation was prevalent. Siam became a rice importer. In 1767, after his reconquest of Ayutthaya, King Taksin donated to over 1,000 desolate people. He also ordered an Ayutthayan bronze cannon to be broken down into pieces to buy rice and distribute to the starving populace, earning him a great popularity. The rice commodity price in Thonburi period was high, reaching apex in 1770 at the price of three Chang per one Kwian of rice. Thonburi court purchased imported rice and distribute it to ease the famine crisis. The port city-state of Hà Tiên was the major rice exporter into Siam before 1771.
Qing China and the Dutch were the main trading partners of Siam in the Late Ayutthaya Period. The Ayutthayan court relied on trade with China under the Chinese tributary system as a source of revenue. The Dutch had earlier abandoned their factory in Ayutthaya and left Siam in 1765 due to the Burmese invasion. The Thonburi court sent a letter to the Supreme Government of Dutch East Indies Company at Batavia in 1769 in efforts to resume the trade but the Dutch were not interested. King Taksin, himself a Teochew Chinese, sought imperial recognition from the Qing Beijing court. However, the Qing court under Emperor Qianlong refused to accept Taksin as the rightful ruler of Siam because Mạc Thiên Tứ the ruler of Hà Tiên had told Beijing that remaining descendants of the fallen Ayutthayan dynasty were with him in Hà Tiên. This urged Taksin to conduct an expedition in 1771 to destroy Hà Tiên and to capture the scions of former dynasty. Only then the Qing finally recognized Taksin as the King of Siam in the Chinese tributary system in 1777.
Even though Siam did not procure successful relation with China until 1777, trade in private sectors flourished. A Chinese document from 1776 suggested a rapid revival of Sino-Siamese trade after the Burmese war. King Taksin employed his own personal Chinese merchants to trade at Guangzhou to acquire wealth into the royal revenue. Prominent royal merchants of King Taksin included Phra Aphaiwanit Ong Mua-seng (王満盛, a grandson of Ong Heng-Chuan 王興全 the Hokkien Chinese Phrakhlang of the Late Ayutthaya) and Phra Phichaiwari Lin Ngou (林伍). J. G. Koenig, the Danish botanist who visited Siam in 1779, observed that Siam "was amply provided with all sorts of articles from China" and that King Taksin made fortunes by "buying the best goods imported at a very low price and selling them again to the merchants of the town at 100 percent interest".
During the early years of Thonburi, a Teochew Chinese Phraya Phiphit Chen Lian was the acting Phrakhlang or the Minister of Trade. Chen Lian was appointed as the governor of Hà Tiên in 1771 and was succeeded as Phrakhlang by another Chinese Phraya Phichai Aisawan Yang Jinzong (楊進宗).
Siamese economic conditions improved over time as trade and production resumed. After the devastation of Central Siam by the Burmese invasion of 1775–1776, however, Siam was again plunged into another economic downturn. King Taksin ordered his high-ranking ministers to supervise the rice production in the outskirts of Thonburi and had to postpone tributary mission to China. During the Burmese Invasion of Ayutthaya, the elites of Ayutthaya found no way to protect their wealth and belongings other than by simply burying them in the grounds. However, not all of them returned to claim their wealth as they either died or were deported to Burma. Surviving owners and other hunters rushed to dig for treasures in the grounds of the former royal city. This Ayutthaya treasure rush was so widespread and lucrative that the Thonburi court intervened to tax.
Demography
Population of Siam decades before the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767 was estimated to be around two million people, with 200,000 people in the royal city of Ayutthaya. It is also estimated that 30,000 inhabitants of the Ayutthaya city were deported to Burma. No direct records exist about the demographic change post-1767 but it is clear that a great number of Siamese people died in the Burmese invasion war and the overall Siamese population plummeted. Central Siam was the most affected region due to its position in the center of warfare. Large number of people also escaped chaos by living in the jungles unreached by any government authorities. The general shortage of manpower put Siam into economic and military disadvantages. In 1782, the newfound city of Bangkok had the population of around 50,000 people, presumably what Thonburi city had at the end of the period.
Ineffective manpower control had been a problem since the Late Ayutthaya Period and was one of the factors that contributed to the Fall of Ayutthaya. In 1773, King Taksin introduced the Sak Lek Mai Mu or Conscription Tattooing, which had not been widely practiced before, to put stringent control over manpower. Able-bodied male Phrai commoners of eligible age were drafted and marked onto their wrists with small tattoos denoting their responsible departments – a form of universal conscription. Krom Suratsawadi or the Conscription Department would take the task of registering the recruits into Hangwow registers. This Sak Lek practice enabled more effective recruitment and made evasion harder. The Conscription Tattooing would continue into the Rattanakosin Period. The Phrai corvée obligations in Thonburi period was intensive due to lack of manpower. Unlike the Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin Periods when the Phrai served in alternating months and were allowed free time to return to their homes, the Phrai of Thonburi served government all year round.
Thonburi Kingdom also acquired its population through forced ethnic immigrations in the course of military subjugation of neighboring polities. Two major population influx events occurred in 1773 with 10,000 Cambodians and in 1779 with ten thousands of Lao people deported to resettle in Siam. These ethnic migrants were settled in various towns of Central Siam, where the manpower was in great demand. The Cambodians were settled in Thonburi and Ratchaburi, while the Lao were bound for Saraburi, Thonburi and Ratchaburi. People as far as the Tai Dam of Sipsong Chuthai were taken to settle in Phetchaburi. The Cambodian and the Lao people became the major labor force in the foundation of Bangkok in 1782. The failed Mon rebellion against Burma in 1774 propelled another Mon exodus into Siam, numbering thousands of people. King Taksin also encouraged immigration of his fellow Teochew Chinese people from Guangdong in his efforts to solve the manpower shortage problem.
Unlike Central Siam, the Hua Mueang Nuea or Northern Siam, the area comprising the former core territories of the Sukhothai kingdom in the Upper Chao Phraya Basin, was largely spared from the Burmese destruction in 1767. However, the Burmese invasion by general Maha Thiha Thura in 1775–1776 destroyed and devastated Northern Siam. Thai chronicles described available manpower in Northern Siamese cities before 1775 as 15,000 men in Phitsanulok, 7,000 men in Sawankhalok and 5,000 men in Sukhothai. A decade later, during the Nine Armies' War in 1786, Northern Siam was so depopulated that it cannot raise an army to defend itself against the Burmese invasion. In 1833, only 5,000 men from Phitsanulok, 500 men from Sawankhalok and 600 men from Sukhothai were drafted into the Siamese–Vietnamese War, showing significant drop in population.
Religion
Theravada Buddhism
After the Fall of Ayutthaya, the Ayutthayan monastic order dissolved and Buddhist monks were left unsupported. King Taksin made efforts, in his reconstruction of Siam, to rehabilitate Theravada Buddhism. Taksin ordered his officials to search for remaining learned monks of knowledge to give them new robes and honor, inviting them to stay in Thonburi. In 1768, King Taksin had the monks assembled at Wat Bangwayai temple (modern Wat Rakhang), where Taksin appointed the new monastic hierarchy in order to restore Siamese ecclesiastic organization and also appointed the venerable monk Dee from Wat Pradu Songtham as the Sangharaja or the Buddhist hierophant of Thonburi in 1769. However, an accusation was filed against the Sangharaja that he had previously collaborated with Burmese occupiers to forcibly extract money from the populace at Phosamton. The Sangharaja Dee was put into a judiciary trial of walking into fire to prove his innocence, which he failed, was sacked from his Sangharaja position and defrocked.
When King Taksin took the city of Nakhon Si Thammarat (Ligor) in 1769, he gave money, rice and robes to the Ligorian monks. He also had Pāli Tripitaka manuscripts from Ligor transported to Thonburi in order to generate copies of Buddhist scriptures lost in wars. King Taksin appointed the Venerable Si of Wat Phanan Choeng, who had earlier taken refuge from Burmese invasion in Ligor, as the new Sangharaja in 1770 staying at Wat Bangwayai in Thonburi. While King Taksin treated Southern Siamese monks generously, he took a different approach on Northern Siamese monks. Taksin believed that Northern Siamese monks were the followers of the heterodox monk Chao Phra Fang, who claimed supernatural abilities and had been Taksin's rival warlord. After his conquest of Northern Siam in 1770, King Taksin ordered massive laicization of Northern Siamese monks. Those who wished to retain their monkhood should undergo the trial of diving into water to prove their sanctity. King Taksin presided over a grand ceremony to purify Northern Siamese Sangha, in which the monks were put to the trials. This perhaps was done to purge any remaining Chao Phra Fang's sympathizers. Then, King Taksin appointed Central Siamese monks from Thonburi to be abbots of various temples in Northern Siam.
King Taksin's ultimate goal was not only being king but also attaining Buddhahood, which mindfulness and meditations were the way to achieve. In late 1776, King Taksin began to actively pursue esoteric Borān Kammaṭṭhāna meditational practices. He seriously studied meditation methods with the monk Phra Wannarat Thongyu at Wat Hong Rattanaram. King Taksin even composed his own meditation manual in 1775. He sent monks to Ligor and Cambodia in search for Visuddhimagga treatise on meditation. In 1777, King Taksin declared that he had become a sotapanna the 'stream-enterer' who had entered the first of four-stage path to Buddhahood. In 1778, Taksin ordered the recompliation of Traiphum – Buddhist literature on cosmology. Upholding Buddhism had been considered royal duties but Taksin went beyond being Buddhist patron by taking the role of teacher and leader of the Sangha and personally practising the Kammaṭṭhāna. In 1780, King Taksin commanded that the monks should perform wai gesture to pay respect to him and lay prostrate before him. Taksin's new stance reversed the usual relationship between monk and king and caused schism in the Sangha between those who complied with the king's rhetoric and those who rejected. Sangharaja Si insisted that monks were always superior to laymen. The angered king stripped Venerable Si of his Sangharaja position and made the monk Chuen of Wat Hong, who supported Taksin's assertion, the new Sangharaja instead. Five hundred monks who refused to obey royal orders were beaten as punishment. Si and other monks were condemned to menial works in Wat Hong, serving the new patriarch. When Taksin fell from power in 1782, King Rama I restored Venerable Si to his position as Sangharaja, praising him for undeterred adherence to orthodoxy.
Christianity
Pierre Brigot, the vicar apostolic of Siam in Ayutthaya, was captured along with other Christians by the Burmese during the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767 and was deported to Rangoon in Burma. Brigot later went to Pondicherry in 1768, never to return to Siam again. Father Jacques Corre, a French priest, led the community of 400-500 Portuguese Christian survivors from Ayutthaya to resettle in the Kudi Chin district on the west bank of Chao Phraya. Olivier-Simon Le Bon the Bishop of Metellopolis, a French bishop, arrived in Thonburi in 1772 in efforts to re-establish Christian mission in Siam. In 1772, dissidents who refused to accept the authority of the French mission moved to the east bank and founded the Holy Rosary Church.
In 1775, King Taksin invited Buddhist monks, Christian priests and Muslims to join a religious debate about whether killing an animal is a sin. Christians and Muslims argued that killing animals was not sinful. Taksin was angered by this argument and issued an edict in March 1775 forbidding the conversion of native Siamese and Mon people to Christianity and Islam. The Siamese king became suspicious of the Christian missionaries. Taksin ordered the missionaries to undertake the Siamese lustral water-drinking ritual to swear fealty to him. The missionaries found out that they had to swear allegiance to the king in front of a Buddha image so they refused to participate. King Taksin was even more enraged and ordered the imprisonment of Bishop Le Bon and two other French priests, namely Arnaud-Antoine Garnault and Joseph-Louis Coudé, in September 1775. They were put in cangues, interrogated and whipped with rattan blows. They were released one year later in September 1776 and Olivier-Simon Le Bon was appointed the new vicar apostolic of Siam shortly after. However, the situation for Christian missionaries were still deteriorating and they were eventually expelled from Siam in December 1779. Le Bon retired to Goa where he died in 1780. Joseph-Louis Coudé was made to succeed him as the vicar apostolic of Siam in 1782. Coudé went to Bangkok in 1783 where the new King Rama I pardoned him and allowed the missionaries to skip the drinking ceremony.
Diplomacy
In September 1767, Li Shiyao (李侍堯), the viceroy of Liangguang, dispatched Xu Quan (許全) to either Hà Tiên or Chanthaburi to investigate the situation in Siam after the Fall of Ayutthaya. As soon as he set up his new capital at Thonburi, King Taksin sent his Chinese merchant Chen Mei (陳美) as his delegate to go to Guangzhou, reaching the Chinese city in September 1768. Taksin, addressing himself as Gan En Zhi (甘恩敕), reported to the Chinese court that Ayutthaya had fallen to the Burmese invaders and asked for formal investiture from Chinese Emperor Qianlong as the 'King of Siam' – the recognition that would assist Taksin in his subjugation of rival lords. However, Mạc Thiên Tứ the ruler of Hà Tiên also sent a competing mission to Guangzhou in 1768. Mạc Thiên Tứ reported to the Chinese court that the two Ayutthayan princes; namely Zhao Cui (Chao Chui) and Zhao Shichang (Chao Sisang), were under his protection in Hà Tiên. Emperor Qianlong strongly rejected Taksin's proposal in his imperial decree, urging Taksin to promote the Ayutthayan princes to the throne instead and had Li Shiyao give the response to Chen Mei. Xu Quan was reported dead from illness in August 1768 and Li Shiyao had to send Zheng Rui (鄭瑞) as a replacement for Xu Quan in December 1768. Next year, in 1769, Zheng Rui met with Prince Chui at Hà Tiên. Prince Chui told Zheng Rui that he needed help from the Chinese Emperor.
The acting Phrakhlang, in the name of the Thonburi court, sent a letter to Supreme Government of the Dutch East India Company at Batavia in January 1769. The Siamese Phrakhlang told the Dutch that it was the Siamese king (Ekathat) who had sent Phraya Tak to Chanthaburi. Thonburi requested for some thousands flintlock ammunitions from the Dutch and also urged Batavia to forward the letter to the Prince of Orange and Nassau in order to ask the prince to appoint a new Dutch residence in Siam to resume trade. However, the Dutch, who had earlier abandoned their factory in Ayutthaya in 1765 in the face of Burmese invasion, were not interested in returning to Siam. The Dutch Supreme Government in Batavia replied in May 1769 that re-establishment of Dutch factory in Siam required consent from the Prince of Orange and Nassau but the ammunitions were promised to be sent in the meantime via Chinese skippers. The Dutch flintlock muskets actually arrived in Thonburi in 1770. The Dutch would not reach any diplomatic agreements with Siam again until 1860.
As China and Burma had been engaging in the Sino–Burmese War, in August 1769, Li Shiyao sent a commander Cai Han (蔡漢) to bring orders to Mạc Thiên Tứ, instructing the ruler of Hà Tiên to capture the Burmese. However, Mạc Thiên Tứ instead suggested that the order should be transmitted to King Taksin. Cai Han sent the order to Taksin, urging him to pursue and capture the Burmese. The Qing court then realized that King Taksin was the actual ruler of Siam and began to adjust its diplomatic policy. King Taksin took advantage of Chinese enmity towards Burma by sending fifty Burmese captives, including a Burmese chief, to present at Guangzhou in his second mission in August 1771, addressing himself in the letter as Zheng Zhao. Qianlong proclaimed in November 1771 in favor of Taksin as he realized that the Siamese king could be a reliable ally against the Burmese. After his capture of Hà Tiên in November 1771, Taksin sent the Chinese farmers in Hà Tiên back to their homelands in China unharmed. By 1772, in respect to Hà Tiên, it was clear that Taksin gained victory over Mạc Thiên Tứ diplomatically.
The Qing court made an exception to allow Thonburi to purchase military materials from China, which were usually prohibited from export, to fight against the Burmese. King Taksin sent his Chinese merchants in 1774 and 1775 to purchase saltpeter and other military equipment in Guangzhou. As the tides turned in his favor, Taksin dispatched a mission to Yang Jingsu (楊景素) the new viceroy of Liangguang in July 1777, expressing that he wished to offer the traditional tributes to the Chinese Emperor in full protocol. Qianglong replied by ordering Yang Jingsu to keep the door open for Taksin's regime. On this occasion, the Qing court referred to Taksin as Wang or 'King' for the first time – the gesture of unofficial recognition of Taksin as King of Siam in the tributary system. However, Taksin showed little interest in this huge progress for he had already secured his power as the ruler of Siam and no longer needed the Chinese influence to consolidate his position.
In 1776, Francis Light the British merchant, in his private venture, procured 1,400 flintlocks from the Danish at Tranquebar and presented them to King Taksin along with other goods as gifts. King Taksin was eager to acquire more flintlock muskets so he had his Phrakhlang write a letter to the Danish. In the letter dated to December 1776, the Siamese Phrakhlang requested for a ten thousand of flintlock muskets from David Brown the Danish governor at Tranquebar, through Francis Light, in possible exchange for Siamese tin.
Due to the devastating Burmese invasion of 1775–1776, King Taksin sent a letter asking to postpone the tributary mission in 1778. The first and only official Siamese tributary mission to China in the Thonburi Period was eventually dispatched in May 1781, headed by Phraya Sundhon Aphai. The rituals and protocol were observed in full for the first time after the Fall of Ayutthaya. In February 1782, the Siamese diplomatic mission reached Beijing but Phraya Sundhon Aphai fell ill and died. His funeral was arranged by the Qing court. Phraya Sundhon Aphai was replaced by his deputy Luang Phichai Saneha and set off to return to Thonburi in July 1782. The Qing court finally recognized Taksin as King of Siam and gave the red robes and the Qing royal stamp for Taksin's use as King. However, when the mission returned the regime had already changed as Taksin had been deposed. The new (Rattanakosin) court was officially recognized and invested title by the Qing in 1787 in the reign of King Rama I.
Military
Much like Naresuan two centuries prior, Taksin often personally led his troops on campaign and into battle. Later on, Taksin would increasingly delegate his chief generals, Chao Phraya Chakri and Chao Phraya Surasi, on leading Thonburi military expeditions, such as the 1781 expedition to Cambodia, immediately prior to Taksin's deposition.
Following the Burmese–Siamese War (1775–1776), the military balance of power within the kingdom shifted as Taksin took away troops from his old followers in the Northern Cities, who had performed disappointingly in the previous war, and concentrated these forces to protect the capital at Thonburi, also similar to Naresuan, placing more military power within the hands of two powerful brother-generals from the traditional aristocracy, Chao Phraya Chakri and Chao Phraya Surasi, who later overthrew Taksin in an elite-backed coup in 1782.
See also
King Taksin the Great
Coronation of the Thai monarch
List of Kings of Thailand
Thai monarchs' family tree
Thonburi province
Thon Buri (district)
References
Former countries in Thai history
Former countries in Burmese history
Former countries in Malaysian history
Former monarchies of Southeast Asia
Former kingdoms
Indianized kingdoms
1760s in Thailand
1770s in Thailand
1780s in Siam
18th century in Burma
18th century in Siam
States and territories established in 1767
States and territories established in 1782
1767 in Thailand
1767 establishments by country
1767 establishments in Asia
1782 disestablishments in Asia
1760s establishments in Thailand
1780s disestablishments in Siam
Tributaries of Imperial China |
4558187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston%20School%20of%20Law | Charleston School of Law | The Charleston School of Law is a private for-profit law school in Charleston, South Carolina. It was established in 2003 and accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA) in August 2011. The school was founded upon a principle of promoting public service by its students and graduates; each student must perform at least 50 hours of public service before graduation. According to the school's 2021 ABA-required disclosures, 85% of the Class of 2017 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation.
History
Inspiration and establishment
In 2002, five Charleston judges and attorneys started establishing a law school in Charleston, the first organized effort to offer instruction in the law in Charleston since the 1828 dissolution of the Forensic Club. The five founders were Alex Sanders (a former president of the College of Charleston and a former Chief Judge of the South Carolina Court of Appeals), Edward J. Westbrook (a notable civil lawyer in Charleston), Robert Carr (a U.S. magistrate judge), George Kosko (a U.S. magistrate judge until 2008), and Ralph McCullough (a professor emeritus and former associate dean at the University of South Carolina Law School). The South Carolina Commission on Higher Education granted a license for the school to start accepting students in Fall 2004.
ABA accreditation
In October 2005, the American Bar Association (ABA) sent an accreditation team to review the progress of the law school. In April 2006, the ABA's Accreditation Committee recommended provisional accreditation, but its final authority (the ABA's Council of the Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar) deferred a vote on the recommendation until December 2006. The school was asked to address questions about the institution's governance, library resources, and commitment to diversity.
The deferral caused concern for the school: In South Carolina, only graduates of ABA-accredited law schools may sit for the bar exam. Although students graduating from a provisionally accredited law school enjoy the full rights guaranteed to those graduating from fully accredited schools, including the right to sit for the bar exam, the delay until December 2006 was a problem since the deadline for registering for the bar exam was January 2007.
On December 2, 2006, the ABA granted provisional accreditation. Full accreditation cannot be granted until a school has been in operation for five years. On August 5, 2011, the ABA granted the school full accreditation.
On May 15, 2020, the council of the American Bar Association's Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar met remotely and determined this school and nine others had significant noncompliance with Standard 316. This Standard was revised in 2019 to provide that at least 75% of an accredited law school's graduates who took a bar exam must pass one within two years of graduation. The school was asked to submit a report by Feb. 1, 2021; and, if the council did not find the report demonstrated compliance, the school would be asked to appear before the council at its May, 2021 meeting. On February 26, 2021, the ABA's council posted that the school was now in compliance with the standard.
School's first graduation
On May 19, 2007, the school's first class of 186 students graduated at a ceremony held at The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, located in Charleston. Former U.S. Senator Ernest "Fritz" Hollings delivered the main address. Jean H. Toal, Chief Justice of the South Carolina Supreme Court, and William Walter Wilkins, Chief Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit received LL.D. honorary degrees.
With the blessing of the descendants of the organizers of the original Forensic Club, the school organized an honorary society also known as the Forensic Club. In its current form, up to five students are inducted into the group each year from the graduating class based on the recommendation of the faculty and approval by the founders.
Change of ownership
On July 25, 2013, the school announced that it had entered a consulting/management contract with a subsidiary of InfiLaw, a Delaware Corporation with headquarters in Naples, Florida, which owns three other law schools. Two of the school's founders, Sanders and McCullough, were paid by InfiLaw and left the board when the arrangement with InfiLaw was announced. This announcement was seen as a prelude to a sale of the school and was immediately opposed by students. Formal announcement of a sale was made on August 28, 2013, but documents submitted to the South Carolina Commission on Higher Education (CHE) revealed that an agreement had been executed between the law school and InfiLaw on July 23, 2013. The students and alumni of the law school were opposed to the sale for reasons including the perceived poor reputation of InfiLaw schools. In the weeks after the announcement of the possible takeover, 41 students transferred, a 64% increase from previous years. Still first year student enrollment in the fall of 2013 exceeded the enrollment for 2012. below.
On September 27, 2013, one of the three remaining founders, Westbrook, wrote to the other two remaining founders with proposals for avoiding the sale to InfiLaw: a cooling off period, the redemption of the interests of Kosko and Carr by the law school, and the exploration of a merger with the College of Charleston. Westbook stated that he would donate his own one-third interest to the College of Charleston if the third option were accepted. On October 2, 2013, Carr and Kosko rejected the offer made by Westbrook, claiming that no offers had been submitted; instead, they announced that they were proceeding with pursuing a sale to InfiLaw.
On October 3, 2013, the CHE agreed to waive a condition of the law school's license to permit the exploration of a possible merger between the law school and the College of Charleston or other public school; the waiver of that prohibition was granted for 90 days. On October 14, 2013, InfiLaw said it was willing to consider discussions with either the College of Charleston or the University of South Carolina about the future ownership of the school. Representatives of the College of Charleston and InfiLaw met in late October 2013, but no information about the meeting, including its attendees and agenda, has been released. In a survey completed almost exclusively by current students and released in early November 2013, only 0.55% of respondents supported the sale of the school to Infilaw.
The CHE assembled a team to investigate the possible transfer and accepted statements about the transfer through February 10, 2014. Charleston mayor Joseph P. Riley Jr. on December 16, 2013, opposed the InfiLaw deal. Among his reasons was a real estate agreement from 2004; the city had purchased property on Woolfe St. for $1.2 million and sold it to the new law school for $875,000 to help it establish itself. He explained, "Certainly the city of Charleston would not have done this with any thought that eventually the Charleston School of Law would become part of a national, for-profit system of law school." Among those opposing the deal were tenured professors Jerry Finkel and Randall Bridwell who wrote about concerns about bar passage rates and class sizes.
The CHE's Academic Affairs and Licensing Committee scheduled its meeting to vote on the InfiLaw proposal on May 1, 2014, at 9:00 a.m. The full CHE announced that it would take up the committee's vote immediately afterward at 10:30 a.m. Instead of taking up the issue, a panel of the CHE announced on May 1, 2014, that it would hold two more public meetings before considering the matter on May 19, 2014; the full CHE would then hear the panel's recommendation at a meeting on June 5, 2014. On May 13, 2014, a supermajority of the school's faculty publicly released two letters opposing the InfiLaw deal.
The first public hearing on the takeover was held in Charleston on May 16, 2014. Representatives of Inifilaw were "greatly outnumbered" by those opposing the license, including faculty, alumni, and students. Riley also opposed the license. One of the founders, Westbrook, offered to continue his funding of the school in the event of a denial of Infilaw's license. A second public hearing was held on May 19, 2014, in Columbia, South Carolina. Speakers expressed concerns about InfiLaw's practice of accepting students who incur large debt but do not graduate and bar a bar exam. During the second hearing, Infilaw's lawyer revealed that the founders of the school had taken $25 million in profits between 2010 and 2014 and that InfiLaw had paid $6 million more to some of the founders. Founder Carr said, ". . . I never thought it was going to be a big business deal. I was wrong." Westbrook later revealed that Carr and Kosko had not only been draining profits from the business for several years over his objections, but had also depleted the finances of the school by signing an expensive consulting contract with InfiLaw and by hiring a marketing firm to manage the public relations crisis.
The CHE's Committee on Academic Affairs and Licensing voted 3–1 to reject the license to buy the school at its meeting on May 19, 2014. The vote was set to be taken up by the full CHE at its meeting on June 5, 2014.
On May 27, 2014, a lawyer representing InfiLaw stated that InfiLaw would seek to have the $6,000,000 used to buy out the interests of McCullough and Sanders repaid immediately if negative publicity did not stop, explaining that the purchase agreement prohibited any of the founders from doing anything to interfere with the takeover, including speaking out at public hearings.
Shortly before the CHE was scheduled to meet, the South Carolina Attorney General's office issued an advisory opinion confirming that the CHE would need to follow the law and either deny or grant a license based on whether InfiLaw satisfied the requirements of the licensing law. OnJune 4, 2014, InfiLaw withdrew its application from the agenda of the CHE for its June 5, 2014 meeting. A state senator, John Courson, had apparently initiated the delay to give the CHE more time to consider the matter; opponents suggested that the delay was sought to avoid what InfiLaw saw as a likely defeat. In a prepared statement, InfiLaw stated that it would still pursue the license. Soon after the withdrawal of the application, opponents of the takeover, including representatives of both the current students and alumni, began calling for the creation of a non-profit to run the school instead. On June 14, 2014, he Charleston Post & Courier, published its editorial favoring that outcome.
By the start of the Fall 2014 term in August 2014, no new application for the transfer of the license had been filed with the CHE, but the school's dean said that he had been told to continue with the parallel process of obtaining American Bar Association approval. Meanwhile, a nonprofit was created as of August 7, 2014, in South Carolina known as the Charleston School of Law Eleemosynary. On September 18, 2014, Ed Westbook announced the make-up of the first board of directors for the non-profit; members included representatives of the local bar, the South Carolina judiciary, and law school administrators with national experience. On September 22, 2014, the Charleston Post & Courier'''s editorial board endorsed the non-profit for the school.
A delegation presented the case for the transfer to a committee of the ABA on October 30, 2014. Owners Carr and Kosko used their majority vote to send only Dean Abrams on behalf of the school and not to permit dissenting owner Westbrook a chance to speak. Following the meeting, the ABA said that the committee's decision would be taken up by the association's full Council of the Section of Legal Education and Admission to the Bar on December 6, 2014, and declined to comment about the October 30, 2014 decision.
On November 13, 2014, the three members of the school voted to hire Maryann Jones as the new president, replacing Dean Andy Abrams, who had been serving simultaneously as the dean and the president of the business since the retirement of McCullough. After eight days on the job, Jones gave notice that she would not continue in the position, citing the disharmony about the future of the school. She had begun immediately pressuring constituencies to support the sale of the school to InfiLaw (for whom she had been working before taking the job), but when Westbrook objected to her taking a position without first familiarizing herself with the positions of the interested parties, she resigned.
The ABA's Council of the Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar on December 6, 2014, deferred action on InfiLaw's request for its takeover until the state regulators a had made their own decision. Infilaw began a campaign of lobbying members of the state legislature to influence the selection of CHE members.
On December 15, 2014, both Westbrook and InfiLaw's representative, Peter Gopelrud, addressed the Charleston County legislative delegation.a. Gopelrud admitted that InfiLaw had hired a member of the South Carolina House of Representatives, Jim Merrill, to assist it. (On December 14, 2016, Merrill was indicted for attempting "to influence a governmental decision" in exchange for $35,000 from Infilaw.) Following the presentations, the delegation adopted a resolution favoring Westbrook's non-profit model by a vote of 10-0 (with three members abstaining).
In mid- March 2015, the law school offered a buy-out of existing faculty members to reduce its operating costs. In March 2015, the school's first dean, Richard Gershon, wrote a blog post in which he charged that the two of the three remaining founders favoring InfiLaw's takeover, Carr and Kosko, were motivated by greed; they had never contributed money to the operation of the school at its start and had any personal, financial responsibility for the school discharged after only two years.
On March 24, 2015, Westbrook gave notice that he was resigning as a director of the company owning the school, saying he would either donate his ownership interest to a charity or sell that interest and donate the proceeds to charity. He stated that he would be willing to sell his interest to the remaining owners of the LLC.
On May 6, 2015, the two remaining owners, Carr and Kosko, released a statement saying that the school might not accept new students for the 2015-2016 entering class, but conduct a "teach out," by continuing to educate those students already enrolled. Two other schools, likely InfiLaw schools in North Carolina and Florida, have been contacted about absorbing the current students. On May 6, 2015, Carr and Kosko held a meeting with the school's faculty and staff. Carr said that the burden of keeping the school afloat was on the shoulders of the faculty and staff. He implored the attendees to contact InfiLaw's representatives either individually or collectively to express support for InfiLaw and to plead for InfiLaw's return. Carr said that such support would have to be expressed to the students and to the public, including the Commission on Higher Education. He also announced that a decision about the school's future would be made the week of May 11.
Carr suggested that the lack of strong and public support for the sale to InfiLaw would mean that the law school would close. However, three days later, the CHE wrote to Carr and Kosko and reminded them that any teach-out plans and decision not to accept an entering class would require approval, but that nothing had been shared with the CHE to that point.
On May 15, 2015, approximately three-quarters of the school's faculty recorded their strong opposition to the InfiLaw sale in a commentary appearing in the local newspaper. On the same day, the remaining owners released a statement stating that no information about the future of the school would be released until the following week (that is, the week of May 18). On May 22, 2015, the school announced that it would accept an entering class for 2015–2016. It simultaneously announced that the school would not be renewing the contracts of seven of its faculty in a cost-cutting move.
On June 5, 2015, the board of the school announced the hiring of Joseph D. Harbaugh as the interim president. In addition to his educational background, Harbaugh serves on InfiLaw System's National Policy Board.
On June 26 and 29, 2015, Nancy Zisk and Allyson Haynes-Stuart, two of the seven professors whose contracts had not been renewed, filed suit against the law school's owners (including Carr, Kosko, and their limited liability company). The suits claim that the owners of the school falsely claimed a financial emergency existed but have continued draining money from the school's operation to avoid paying salaries and have violated tenure rights to retaliate for the plaintiffs' opposition to the sale of the school to InfiLaw. South Carolina trial judge Markley Dennis granted Zisk an injunction which required the school to rehire her pending the outcome of the lawsuits. On October 19, 2015, Carr, Kosko, and the law school counterclaimed against Zisk and Haynes, alleging that they had sabotaged the school and conspired with others to prevent its sale to Infilaw.
On August 14, 2015, the school announced that it would not be granting three professors tenure despite admitting their qualifications. explaining that it could not extend tenure during the alleged financial crisis. On October 16, 2015, two of the professors sued the school for several claims arising out of their denial of tenure and the financial mismanagement by the school's owners.
On October 28, 2015, the dean of the school announced that Ed Bell, a lawyer from Georgetown, South Carolina, would assume the presidency as of Thursday, October 29, 2015. Bell explained that he had agreed to personally fund the pay-off of the approximately $6 million debt the school had incurred to InfiLaw. He stated that his immediate plans included creating a board of directors, converting the school to a nonprofit, and securing a new campus. Bell paid off the loan for debt to InfiLaw 2017 and has updated facilities to meet standards set by the American Bar Association. Bell reports that he earns a salary of $1 and has not taken any money out of the college since he began in 2015.
In March 2016, the law school announced that the seven faculty members fired in 2015 would be returning in various capacities in the fall of 2016.
After being placed on the U.S. Department of Education's list of schools with a problematic Financial Ratio Responsibility score, the school's score rose from a failing minus 0.6 in 2014 and 2015 to 2.6 for 2016. A 1.5 is the point at which a school is placed on the watch list.
In June 2018, the school reported it was debt free.
Costs, post-graduation information and student debt
Costs
The total per semester tuition cost of attendance at Charleston for the 2023–2024 academic year is $45,100.00. Law School Transparency's estimated debt-financed cost of attendance for three years is $213,710.
Employment
According to the school's 2018 ABA-required disclosures, 44.5% of the Class of 2017 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation. Its Transparency under-employment score is 40%, indicating the percentage of the Class of 2017 unemployed, pursuing an additional degree, or working in a non-professional, short-term, or part-time job nine months after graduation.
Average debt
According to U.S. News & World Report, the average debt for law school of 2013 graduates who incurred law school debt was $146,765, and 89% of 2013 graduates took on debt.
Admissions
The following tables reflect admissions information arranged by the year of admission, not by year of graduation. Starting with the class enrolling in Fall 2017, the law school reported all students together and did not separately report full-time and part-time students.
South Carolina bar-exam passage
In South Carolina, the bar exam is administered twice a year, in July and February. July is the primary testing date for those who graduate in May. A much smaller group, generally out-of-state applicants, repeat takers, and December graduates, take the February exam. The school graduated its first students in May 2007 who sat for the exam in July 2007.
In 2022, CSOL students scored a higher pass rate than students from the University of South Carolina School of Law.
* The July 2007 results were revised upwards (from an original 65 percent rate) after the South Carolina Supreme Court threw out a section of the exam because of an error by a bar examiner.
Student body
The median age of first-year, full-time students at the school is 23 years; however, students range from age twenty to fifty-one. About half of the full-time student body (56 percent) are South Carolina residents. Males outnumber females in the full-time program by a 52–48 margin.
Other information
On November 29, 2007, the school's first dean, Richard Gershon, announced he would be leaving the post to return to full-time teaching at the school. He was awarded an honorary LL.D degree in May 2008.
In December 2007, Andrew L. Abrams, a professor at the school and a former provost for the College of Charleston, was named as the school's interim dean. In June 2008, Abrams became the school's second dean.
Former U.S. Senator and South Carolina Governor Ernest Hollings is on the Board of Advisors of the Charleston School of Law and is a Distinguished Visiting professor of Law there. He delivered the commencement address to the first graduating class there on May 19, 2007.
Facilities
When the law school was first organized in 2003, the school was operated out of a building at 560 King Street while work progressed on its future location. Although the school left that building within one year, the school's physical plant has always been located in Charleston's Upper King Street district. During its first year in operation, the school was located at 81 Mary Street in an antebellum railroad station. That building continues to serve as the school's law library, while most classrooms, offices, and other uses have moved to new locations as the school has grown .
The school has leased space in nearby buildings including a large portion of the AT&T Building at the southwest corner of Mary and Meeting Streets and administrative space at 494 King Street. The school signed a letter of intent to buy the AT&T Building in 2006.
In 2004, the city agreed to buy a 1.25 acre lot at the corner of Woolfe Street and Meeting Street from the Army Corps of Engineers for $1,170,000; the Corps of Engineers had bought the parcel in $137,500 in 1977 and used it as storage. The city then was to sell the land to the law school at a loss for only $875,000 (with interest-only payments for nine years) in an effort to help the law school stay on the peninsula. In 2009, the deal was extended to allow the law school until July 1, 2017, to pay for the property. The deal was revised again on June 28, 2017; the law school would get 75% of the proceeds if it sold the land, and the city would get 25% (with a minimum return of $1,865,000). In 2017, a contract was pending for the sale of the land for $12.75 million. In February 2019, the city approved the site for the construction of a 252-room hotel despite public opposition to the plan to add yet another large hotel to the neighborhood.
In 2019, the city tried to renegotiate its 2017 agreement to give the city a bigger piece of the proceeds from the sale to a hotel. In March 2022, the city began asserting that none of the agreements with the law school since the initial sale were valid; the subsequent agreements were done by resolutions of city council instead of by ordinances. According to a court filing of March 25, 2022, the city regretted its decision to sell the land to the law school. By arguing that the subsequent agreements were all invalid, the City asserted that the original contract was still in place and that the law school lost title to the land when no school was built by the initial deadline.
In 2023, the Charleston School of Law opened its new library on the first floor of 385 Meeting Street, completing the law school's transition to relocate all its services, business operations and classrooms to a single location.
Publications
Charleston Law Review
The Charleston Law Review is a journal published by second- and third-year students at the school. Its primary objective is to foster the knowledge and insight of students, practitioners, scholars and the judiciary through a traditional forum dedicated to the pursuit of innovative legal expression, composition and scholarship. Members of the organization contribute to this objective by editing articles, writing notes, and actively participating in all aspects of the publication process.
Its inaugural issue in Fall 2006, featured five articles by legal scholars on topics ranging from human trafficking to preservation of Gullah-Geechee culture. It published a second issue containing to student work in Spring 2007.
The foreword of Volume 2, Issue 1 (Fall 2007) was written by U.S. President Barack Obama, who, at the time, was a U.S. Senator from Illinois and a leading candidate for the Democratic Party nomination in the 2008 U.S. presidential election. Retired Justice Sandra Day O'Connor was the keynote speaker at a symposium on First Amendment religious issues co-hosted by the Charleston Law Review on April 15, 2013.
Sara Ruff was the inaugural editor-in-chief (2006–2007). Subsequent editors-in-chief have been George "Matt" Kendall (2007–2008), Katie Fowler Monoc (2008–2009), Ben Garner (2009–2010), Piper Reiff Byzet (2010–2011), Mollie Mohan (2011–2012), Morgan Peterson (2012–2013), Leigh Ellen Gray (2013–2014), Jose Gonzales (2014–2015), Roger "Hank" Young (2015–2016), David DuTremble (2016–2017), and Lauren Daniels (current).
Federal Courts Law Review (2005-2016)
Founded in July 1997, the Federal Courts Law Review is an electronic law review dedicated to legal scholarship relating to federal courts. Articles are from scholars, judges and distinguished practitioners. Its editorial board, composed primarily of U.S. magistrate judges and law-school professors, is designed to combine the insight of the federal judiciary with the perspective of law-school academics.
The school was selected in 2005 by the Federal Magistrate Judges Association to oversee the publication of a printed version of the Federal Courts Law Review. This companion to the current online format was intended to cater to subscribers who would welcome a printed version, as well as allow for inclusion of selected student works.
As of 2016, the Federal Courts Law Review was no longer affiliated with the Charleston School of Law and has been absorbed by the University of Mississippi School of Law.
Maritime Law Bulletin
The Maritime Law Bulletin (MALABU) is a periodical bulletin, edited by law students, focusing on significant maritime issues. First published in February 2006, the bulletin is the publishing arm of the school's Charleston Maritime Law Institute.
The institute is a collaborative effort involving students, professors and leading maritime lawyers and professionals from around the Southeastern U.S. In addition to promoting maritime legal studies at the school, the institute will provide programs and seminars periodically on maritime matters.
Resolved: Journal of Alternative Dispute Resolution Resolved is a student-run electronic publication that was founded in conjunction with the Center for Dispute Resolution. The center's vision in creating Resolved is to promote research and writing in the areas of dispute resolution theory, skills, techniques and application. Resolved provides a comprehensive resource that fosters intellectual discourse among the judiciary, professors, students, mediators and attorneys through a contemporary medium. Resolved'' is dedicated to increasing awareness of alternative dispute resolution trends and sharing thought-provoking viewpoints. Megan Hunt was its inaugural editor-in-chief. Subsequently, Justice Perkins was editor-in-chief for 2010–2011 and M. Christie McDonnell was the editor-in-chief for 2011–2012.
Notable alumni
Russell Fry (2011), Republican, former member of the South Carolina House of Representatives and current representative to the House of Representatives from South Carolina's 7th congressional district following the 2022 elections.
Nick Shalosky (2013), former member of the Charleston County School District and the first openly gay elected official in South Carolina.
References
External links
Official website
Education in Charleston, South Carolina
Universities and colleges established in 2003
For-profit universities and colleges in the United States
Independent law schools in the United States
Law schools in South Carolina
Education in Charleston County, South Carolina
Private universities and colleges in South Carolina
2003 establishments in South Carolina |
4558294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Blues%20Brothers%20%28film%29 | The Blues Brothers (film) | The Blues Brothers is a 1980 American musical action comedy film directed by John Landis. It stars John Belushi as "Joliet" Jake Blues and Dan Aykroyd as his brother Elwood, characters developed from the recurring musical sketch "The Blues Brothers" on NBC's variety series Saturday Night Live. The script is set in and around Chicago, Illinois, where it was filmed, and the screenplay is by Aykroyd and Landis. It features musical numbers by rhythm and blues (R&B), soul, and blues singers James Brown, Cab Calloway (in his final feature film role), Aretha Franklin, Ray Charles, Chaka Khan, and John Lee Hooker. It features non-musical supporting performances by Carrie Fisher, Henry Gibson, Charles Napier, Kathleen Freeman and John Candy.
The story is a tale of redemption for paroled convict Jake and his blood brother Elwood, who set out on "a mission from God" to prevent the foreclosure of the Roman Catholic orphanage in which they were raised. To do so, they must reunite their R&B band and organize a performance to earn the $5,000 needed to pay the orphanage's property tax bill. Along the way, they are targeted by a homicidal "mystery woman", neo-Nazis, and a country and western band—all while being relentlessly pursued by the police.
Universal Studios, which won the bidding war for the film, was hoping to take advantage of Belushi's popularity in the wake of Saturday Night Live, the film Animal House, and The Blues Brothers' musical success; it soon found itself unable to control production costs. The start of filming was delayed when Aykroyd, who was new to film screenwriting, took six months to deliver a long and unconventional script that Landis had to rewrite before production, which began without a final budget. On location in Chicago, Belushi's partying and drug use caused lengthy and costly delays that, along with the destructive car chases depicted onscreen, made the film one of the most expensive comedies ever produced.
Due to concerns that the film would fail, its initial bookings were less than half of those similar films normally received. Released in the United States on June 20, 1980, it received mostly positive reviews from critics and grossed over $115 million in theaters worldwide before its release on home video, and has become a cult classic over the years. A sequel, Blues Brothers 2000, was released in 1998 to critical and commercial failure. In 2020, The Blues Brothers was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Plot
Blues vocalist and petty criminal Jake Blues is released from prison after serving three years for armed robbery and is picked up by his brother Elwood in his Bluesmobile, a battered former police car. Elwood demonstrates its capabilities by jumping an open drawbridge. The brothers visit the Catholic orphanage where they were raised, and learn from Sister Mary Stigmata that it will be closed unless it pays $5,000 in property taxes. During a sermon by the Reverend Cleophus James at the Triple Rock Baptist Church, Jake has an epiphany: they can reform their band, the Blues Brothers, which disbanded while Jake was in prison, and raise the money to save the orphanage.
That night, state troopers attempt to arrest Elwood for driving with a suspended license due to 116 parking tickets and 56 moving violations. After a chase through the Dixie Square Mall, the brothers escape. The next morning, as the police arrive at the flophouse where Elwood lives, a mysterious woman detonates a bomb that demolishes the building, but leaves Jake and Elwood unharmed, saving them from arrest.
Jake and Elwood begin tracking down members of the band. Five of them are performing as "Murph and The MagicTones" at a deserted Holiday Inn lounge and quickly agree to rejoin. Another turns them down as he is the maître d' at an expensive restaurant, but the brothers refuse to leave the restaurant until he relents. On their way to meet the final two band members, the brothers find the road through Jackson Park blocked by an American Nazi Party demonstration on a bridge; Elwood runs them off the bridge into the East Lagoon. The last two band members, who now run a soul food restaurant, rejoin the band against the advice of one's wife. The reunited group obtains instruments and equipment from Ray's Music Exchange in Calumet City, and Ray, "as usual", takes an IOU.
As Jake attempts to book a gig, the mystery woman blows up the phone booth he is using; once again, he is miraculously unhurt. The band stumbles onto a gig at Bob's Country Bunker, a honky-tonk in Kokomo, Indiana. They win over the rowdy crowd, but run up a bar tab higher than their pay, and infuriate the Good Ole Boys, the country band that was booked for the gig.
Realizing that they need a big show to raise the necessary money, the brothers persuade their old agent to book the Palace Hotel Ballroom, north of Chicago. They mount a loudspeaker atop the Bluesmobile and drive around the Chicago area promoting the concert—and alerting the police, the neo-Nazis, and the Good Ole Boys of their whereabouts. The ballroom is packed with blues fans, police officers, and the Good Ole Boys. Jake and Elwood perform two songs, then sneak offstage, as the tax deadline is rapidly approaching. A record company executive offers them a $10,000 cash advance on a recording contract—more than enough to pay off the orphanage's taxes and Ray's IOU—and then tells the brothers how to slip out of the building unnoticed. As they make their escape via an electrical riser and a service tunnel, they are confronted by the mystery woman: Jake's vengeful ex-fiancée. After her volley of M16 rifle bullets leaves them once again miraculously unharmed, Jake offers a series of ridiculous excuses that she rejects, but when she looks into his eyes she takes interest in him again, allowing the brothers to escape to the Bluesmobile.
Jake and Elwood race back toward Chicago, with dozens of state and local police and the Good Ole Boys in pursuit. They elude them all with a series of improbable maneuvers, including a miraculous gravity-defying escape from the neo-Nazis. At the Richard J. Daley Center, they rush inside the adjacent Chicago City Hall building, soon followed by hundreds of Chicago Police officers, Illinois State Troopers, SWAT teams, US Armed Forces soldiers, Chicago Fire Department firefighters, and US Military Police officers. Finding the office of the Cook County Assessor, the brothers pay the tax bill. Just as their receipt is stamped, they are arrested by the mob of law officers. In prison, the band plays "Jailhouse Rock" for the inmates.
Cast
John Belushi as "Joliet" Jake Blues, a former blues singer, paroled from prison after three years.
Dan Aykroyd as Elwood J. Blues, Jake's blood brother, also a former blues singer.
James Brown as the Reverend Cleophus James, pastor of the Triple Rock Baptist Church. His musical sermon "The Old Landmark" causes Jake to have an epiphany.
Cab Calloway as Curtis, an old friend/father figure of the brothers, who suggests they visit the church, and helps them advertise the show and performs "Minnie the Moocher" for the audience.
Ray Charles as Ray, a blind music store owner, who performs "Shake a Tail Feather" to demonstrate the effectiveness of the instruments he sells.
Aretha Franklin as Mrs. Murphy, Matt Murphy's wife, who owns a soul food restaurant with him. She performs "Think" to persuade him not to join the band.
Steve "The Colonel" Cropper – lead guitar; a member of Murph and the Magic Tones.
Donald "Duck" Dunn – bass guitar; a member of Murph and the Magic Tones.
Murphy Dunne ("Murph") – keyboards; lead singer of Murph and the Magic Tones.
Willie "Too Big" Hall – drums; a member of Murph and the Magic Tones.
Tom "Bones" Malone – trombone, saxophone; a member of Murph and the Magic Tones.
"Blue Lou" Marini – saxophone; the dishwasher at the soul food restaurant.
Matt "Guitar" Murphy – lead guitar; the cook at the soul food restaurant.
"Mr. Fabulous" Alan Rubin – trumpet; the maitre d' at the Chez Paul restaurant.
Carrie Fisher as the Mystery Woman, Jake's former fiancée, who tries to kill him for leaving her at the altar.
Henry Gibson as the Head Nazi, the leader of a local American National Socialist White People's Party.
John Candy as Burton Mercer, Jake's parole officer assisting the police in their hunt for the Blues Brothers.
John Lee Hooker as Street Slim, a man singing "Boom Boom" together with a small band on Maxwell Street.
Kathleen Freeman as Sister Mary Stigmata, AKA "The Penguin", the nun who leads the orphanage where the brothers grew up.
Steve Lawrence as Maury Sline, the agent who organized and booked many of the Blues Brothers' performances before Jake was sent to jail.
Twiggy as the Chic Lady, a woman who Elwood flirts with at the gas station.
Frank Oz as a corrections officer, who returns Jake's clothes to him at the beginning of the film.
Jeff Morris as Bob, the owner of Bob's Country Bunker.
Charles Napier as Tucker McElroy, lead singer and Winnebago driver of the Good Ole Boys.
Steven Spielberg as the Cook County Assessor, who takes Jake and Elwood's money at the end of the film.
Stephen Bishop as Charming Trooper
Steven Williams as Trooper Mount, one of the cops who follows Jake and Elwood from the start.
Armand Cerami as Trooper Daniel, Mount's partner and the other cop who follows Jake and Elwood from the start.
John Landis as Trooper La Fong, a cop who chases the Bluesmobile at the mall.
Joe Walsh as Prison Inmate
Ben Piazza as Father, dining with his wife and three daughters at the Chez Paul and subject to abuse by Jake.
Cindy Fisher as Daughter #2, one of the daughters who Jake leers at.
Paul Reubens as Waiter, a colleague of Mr. Fabulous' at the Chez Paul.
Rosie Shuster as Cocktail Waitress, who works at the Holiday Inn where Murph and the Magic Tones play.
Chaka Khan as Choir Soloist, a member of the Triple Rock Baptist Church choir.
Gary McLarty as Toys "R" Us Customer, who asks about buying a Miss Piggy toy right before the Bluesmobile begins smashing the mall.
Layne Britton as The Cheese Whiz, a resident at the flophouse where Elwood lives.
Pinetop Perkins as Luther Jackson, who argues with Street Slim over who wrote "Boom Boom."
Carolyn Franklin as Soul Food Chorus #1, who sings along with "Think".
De'voreaux White as Young Guitar Thief, who tries to steal from Ray's Music Exchange, only to nearly be shot by Ray.
James Avery as Detective Avery (Uncredited)
Lou Perryman as Man At Bar
Luis Contreras as Bob's Country Bunker Patron #1 (Uncredited)
Raven De La Croix as Woman In Concert Crowd
Ralph Foody as Police Dispatcher, who comments on the Bluesmobile's arrival at Cook County and allows for using unnecessary violence in capturing Jake and Elwood.
Leonard R. Garner Jr. as Lobby Guard #1
Production
Origins
Belushi and Aykroyd created the characters Jake and Elwood Blues in performances on Saturday Night Live. The name "The Blues Brothers" was Howard Shore's idea. Aykroyd developed the blood brothers' backstory and character sketches in collaboration with Ron Gwynne, who is credited as a story consultant for the film. As related in the liner notes of the band's debut album, Briefcase Full of Blues, the brothers grew up in an orphanage, learned the blues from a janitor named Curtis, and sealed their brotherhood by cutting their middle fingers with a steel string said to have come from Elmore James's guitar.
Belushi had become a star in 1978 as a result of both the Blues Brothers' musical success and his role in National Lampoon's Animal House. At one point, he managed the triple feat of being the star of the week's top-grossing film and top-rated television series and singing on the No. 1 album within a year. When Aykroyd and Belushi decided they could make a Blues Brothers film, the bidding war was intense. Universal Studios narrowly beat Paramount Pictures for the project. John Landis, who had directed Belushi in Animal House, was aboard as director.
The project had neither a budget nor a script. Universal head Lew Wasserman thought the film could be made for $12 million; the filmmakers wanted $20 million. It was impossible to settle on an amount without a screenplay to review, and after Mitch Glazer declined to help him, Aykroyd wrote one on his own.
Aykroyd had never written a screenplay before, as he admitted in the 1998 documentary Stories Behind the Making of The Blues Brothers, or even read one, and he was unable to find a writing partner. He put together a very detailed volume that explained the characters' origins and how the band members were recruited. His final draft was 324 pages, three times longer than a standard screenplay, written not in a standard screenplay format, but more like free verse. To soften the impact, Aykroyd made a joke of the thick script and had it bound with the cover of the Los Angeles Yellow Pages directory when he turned it in to producer Robert K. Weiss. He titled it "The Return of the Blues Brothers", and credited it to "Scriptatron GL-9000". Landis was tasked with editing the script into a usable screenplay, which took him about two weeks.
Casting
At Aykroyd's demand, soul and R&B stars James Brown, Cab Calloway, Ray Charles and Aretha Franklin were cast in speaking parts to support musical numbers built around them. This later caused friction in the production between Landis and Universal, as its costs far exceeded the original budget. Since none of them except Charles had any hits in recent years, the studio wanted Landis to replace them with—or add performances by—younger acts, such as Rose Royce, whose "Car Wash" had made them disco stars after its use in the 1976 film of that name.
Other musicians in the cast include Big Walter Horton, Pinetop Perkins, and John Lee Hooker (who performs "Boom Boom" during the Maxwell Street scene). The members of The Blues Brothers Band were themselves notable. Steve Cropper and Donald Dunn are architects of the Stax Records sound (Cropper's guitar can be heard at the start of the Sam & Dave song "Soul Man") and were half of Booker T. & the M.G.'s. Horn players Lou Marini, Tom Malone, and Alan Rubin had all played in Blood, Sweat & Tears and the house band on Saturday Night Live. Drummer Willie Hall had played in The Bar-Kays and backed Isaac Hayes. Matt "Guitar" Murphy was a veteran blues guitarist who played with Memphis Slim and Howlin' Wolf. As the band developed at Saturday Night Live, pianist Paul Shaffer was part of the act and cast in the film, but due to contractual obligations with SNL, he was unable to participate, so actor-musician Murphy Dunne (whose father, George Dunne, was the Cook County Board President) was hired to take his role.
Fisher, Freeman, Gibson, and Candy were cast in non-musical supporting roles. The film is also notable for the number of cameo appearances by established celebrities and entertainment-industry figures, including Steve Lawrence as a booking agent, Twiggy as a "chic lady" in a Jaguar convertible whom Elwood propositions at a gas station, Steven Spielberg as the Cook County Assessor's clerk, Landis as a state trooper in the mall chase, Paul Reubens as a waiter in the restaurant Chez Paul, Joe Walsh in a cameo as the first prisoner to jump up on a table in the final scene, and Chaka Khan as the soloist in the Triple Rock choir. Muppet performer Frank Oz plays a corrections officer, and in the scene where the brothers crash into Toys "R" Us, the customer who asks for a Miss Piggy doll is played by stunt coordinator Gary McLarty. Singer/songwriter Stephen Bishop is an Illinois state trooper who complains that Jake and Elwood broke his watch (a result of the car chase in the mall). Makeup artist Layne Britton is the old card player who asks Elwood, "Did you get me my Cheez Whiz, boy?" The character portrayed by Cab Calloway is named Curtis as a homage to Curtis Salgado, an Oregon blues musician who inspired Belushi while he was in that area filming Animal House.
Over 500 extras were used for the next-to-last scene, the blockade of the building at Daley Center, including 200 National Guardsmen, 100 state and city police officers, with 15 horses for the mounted police (and three each Sherman tanks, helicopters, and fire engines).
Filming
Principal photography began in July 1979, with the film's budget still not settled. For the first month, things ran smoothly on and off the set. When Weiss saw the supposedly final $17.5 million budget, he reportedly joked, "I think we've spent that much already."
In the next month, the production began falling behind schedule. Much of the delay was due to Belushi's partying and carousing. When not on set, he went out to his familiar Chicago haunts such as Wrigley Field and the Old Town Ale House. People often recognized him and slipped him cocaine, a drug he was already using heavily on his own, hoping to use it with him. "Every blue-collar Joe wants his John Belushi story," said Smokey Wendell, who was eventually hired to keep it away from the star. As a result of his late nights and drug and alcohol use, Belushi often missed unit calls (the beginning of a production day) or went to his trailer after them to sleep, wasting hours of production time. One night, Aykroyd found him crashing on the sofa of a nearby house, where Belushi had already helped himself to food in the refrigerator.
Cocaine was already so prevalent on the set (like many other film productions of that era) that Aykroyd, who used far less than Belushi, claims a section of the budget was actually set aside for purchases of the drug during night shooting. The stars had a private bar, the Blues Club, built on the set, for themselves, crew, and friends. Carrie Fisher, Aykroyd's girlfriend at the time, said that most of the bar's staff doubled as dealers, procuring any drug patrons desired.
The movie's original budget was quickly surpassed, and Wasserman grew increasingly frustrated. He was regularly confronting Ned Tanen, the executive in charge of production for Universal, over the costs. Sean Daniel, another studio executive, was not reassured when he came to Chicago and saw the production had set up a special facility for the 70 cars used in the chase sequences. Filming there, which was supposed to have concluded in the middle of September, continued into late October.
On the set, Belushi's drug use worsened. Fisher, who herself later struggled with cocaine addiction, said Landis told her to keep Belushi away from the drug. Wendell was hired to clear any drugs from the places Belushi visited off-camera. Nevertheless, at one point, Landis found Belushi with what he described as a "mountain" of cocaine on a table in his trailer, which led to a tearful confrontation in which Belushi admitted his addiction and feared it could eventually kill him.
After Aykroyd and Belushi's wife Judy talked to Belushi, the production returned to Los Angeles. Filming there again ran smoothly until it came time to shoot the final sequence at the Hollywood Palladium. Just beforehand, Belushi fell off a borrowed skateboard and seriously injured his knee, making it unlikely he could shoot the scene, which required him to sing, dance, and do cartwheels. Wasserman persuaded the city's top orthopedic surgeon to postpone his weekend plans long enough to anesthetize Belushi's knee, and the scene was filmed as intended.
Locations
Much of The Blues Brothers was shot on location in and around Chicago between July and October 1979, including Joliet Correctional Center in nearby Joliet, Illinois, and Wauconda, Illinois, where the car crashes into the side of Route 12. Made with the cooperation of Mayor Jane M. Byrne, it is credited for putting Chicago on the map as a venue for filmmaking. In an article written to mark the film's 25th Anniversary DVD release, Aykroyd told the Chicago Sun-Times: "Chicago is one of the stars of the movie. We wrote it as a tribute."
The first traffic stop was in Park Ridge, Illinois. The shopping mall car chase was filmed in the real, albeit shuttered, Dixie Square Mall, in Harvey, Illinois. The bridge jump was filmed on an actual drawbridge, the 95th Street bridge over the Calumet River, on Chicago's southeast side. The main entrance to Wrigley Field (and its sign reading "Save lives. Drive safely, prevent fires") makes a brief appearance when the "Illinois Nazis" visit it after Elwood registers the ballpark's address, 1060 West Addison, as his home address on his driver's license. (Elwood's Illinois driver's license number is an almost-valid encoded number, with Aykroyd's own birth date embedded.) Jake's final confrontation with his girlfriend was filmed in a replica of a section of the abandoned Chicago freight tunnel system. The other chase scenes included lower Wacker Drive, Lake Street, and Richard J. Daley Center.
In the final car chase scene, the production actually dropped a Ford Pinto, representing the one driven by the "Illinois Nazis", from a helicopter at an altitude of about 1,200 feet—and had to gain a Special Airworthiness Certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration to do it. The FAA was concerned that the car could prove too aerodynamic in a high-altitude drop and pose a threat to nearby buildings. The shot leading up to the car drop, where the "Illinois Nazis" drive off a freeway ramp, was shot in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, near the Hoan Bridge on Interstate 794. The Lake Freeway (North) was a planned but not completed six-lane freeway, and I-794 contained an unfinished ramp off which the Nazis drove. Several Milwaukee skyscrapers are visible in the background as the Bluesmobile flips over, notably the U.S. Bank Center.
The Palace Hotel Ballroom, where the band performs their climactic concert, was at the time of filming a country club, but later became the South Shore Cultural Center, named after the Chicago neighborhood where it is located. The interior concert scenes were filmed in the Hollywood Palladium.
The filming in downtown Chicago was conducted on Sundays during the summer of 1979, and much of downtown was cordoned off from the public. Costs for filming the largest scene in the city's history totaled $3.5 million. Permission was given after Belushi and Aykroyd offered to donate $50,000 to a charity after filming. Although the Bluesmobile was allowed to be driven through the Daley Center lobby, special breakaway panes were temporarily substituted for the normal glass in the building. The speeding car caused $7,650 in damage to 35 granite paver stones and a bronze air grille in the building. Interior shots of the elevator, staircase, and assessor's office were all recreated in a film set for filming.
Bluesmobile
The film used 13 different cars bought at auction from the California Highway Patrol to depict the retired 1974 Mount Prospect, Illinois, Dodge Monaco patrol car. The vehicles were outfitted by the studio to do particular driving chores: some were customized for speed and others for jumps, depending on the scene. For the large car chases, filmmakers purchased 60 police cars at $400 each, and most were destroyed at the completion of the filming. More than 40 stunt drivers were hired, and the crew kept a 24-hour body shop to repair cars.
For the scene when the brothers finally arrive at the Richard J. Daley Center, a mechanic took several months to rig the car to fall apart. At the time of its release, The Blues Brothers held the world record for the most cars destroyed in one film.
Post-production
Landis's difficulties continued even after principal photography ended. The first cut of The Blues Brothers lasted two and a half hours, with an intermission. After one early screening, Wasserman demanded it be shortened, and 20 minutes were cut. The film's final budget was $27.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ), $10 million over its original budget.
Prospects for a successful release did not look good. Aykroyd and Belushi had left SNL at the end of the previous season, reducing their bankability. Belushi's fame had taken a further hit after the critical failure of Spielberg's film 1941 at the end of the year. One day after the editing was done, Wasserman invited Landis up to his office to speak with Ted Mann, head of the Mann Theatres chain, which dominated film exhibition in the Western United States. He told Landis that he would not book the film at any theaters in predominantly white neighborhoods, such as Westwood. Not only did Mann not want black patrons going there to see the film, but he also surmised that white viewers were unlikely to see a film featuring older black musical stars. Ultimately, the film got less than half the bookings nationwide for its initial release than a typical big-budget studio film of the era, which did not bode well for its box-office success.
Reception
Box office
The Blues Brothers opened on June 20, 1980, in 594 theaters. It took in $4,858,152, ranking second for that week (after The Empire Strikes Back). The film in total grossed $57,229,890 domestically and $58,000,000 in foreign box office for a total of $115,229,890. It ranked 10th at the domestic box office for the year. By genre, it is the ninth-highest-grossing musical and the 10th-highest earner among comedy road movies. It ranks second, between Wayne's World and Wayne's World 2, among films adapted from Saturday Night Live sketches. Landis claimed The Blues Brothers was also the first American film to gross more money overseas than it did in the U.S. Over the years, the film has retained a following through television and home video.
Critical reception
The Blues Brothers received mostly positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 72% "Certified Fresh" rating, based on 90 reviews, with an average rating of 7.60/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Too over the top for its own good, but ultimately rescued by the cast's charm, director John Landis' grace, and several soul-stirring musical numbers." It won the Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing and Sound Effects, is 14th on Total Film magazine's "List of the 50 Greatest Comedy Films of All Time," 20th on Empires list of "The 50 Greatest Comedies", and 69th on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies". Metacritic gave the film a score of 60 based on 12 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave The Blues Brothers three out of four stars, praising it for its energetic musical numbers and "incredible" car chases. Ebert wrote, "Belushi and Aykroyd come over as hard-boiled city guys, total cynics with a world-view of sublime simplicity, and that all fits perfectly with the movie's other parts. There's even room, in the midst of the carnage and mayhem, for a surprising amount of grace, humor, and whimsy." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film a "rare four-star rating", calling it "one of the all-time great comedies" and "the best movie ever made in Chicago". He called the film "technically superb", praised it for "countering every explosion with a quiet moment," and said it "is at once a pure exercise in physical comedy as well as a marvelous tribute to the urban blues sound." He ranked it eighth on his list of the ten best movies of 1980. Richard Corliss wrote in Time, "The Blues Brothers is a demolition symphony that works with the cold efficiency of a Moog synthesizer gone sadistic."
In his Washington Post review, Gary Arnold criticized Landis for engorging "the frail plot of The Blues Brothers with car chases and crack-ups, filmed with such avid, humorless starkness on the streets of Chicago that comic sensations are virtually obliterated." Janet Maslin of The New York Times criticized The Blues Brothers for shortchanging viewers on details about Jake and Elwood's affinity for African-American culture. She also took Landis to task for "distracting editing", mentioning the Soul Food diner scene in which saxophonist Marini's head is out of shot as he dances on the counter. In the documentary, Stories Behind the Making of The Blues Brothers, Landis acknowledges the criticism, and says, "Everybody has his opinion", and Marini recalls the dismay he felt at seeing the completed film.
Kim Newman, writing for Empire in 2013, called The Blues Brothers "an amalgam of urban sleaze, automobile crunch and blackheart rhythm and blues" with "better music than any film had had for many years." He noted that Belushi and Aykroyd pack in their heroes: "Aretha storming through 'Think', Cab Calloway cruising through 'Minnie the Moocher', John Lee Hooker boogying through 'Boom Boom' and Ray Charles on electric piano", and observed that "the picture had revived the careers of virtually all the musicians that appeared in it", concluding, "it still sounds great and looks as good as ever through Ray Bans."
On the 30th anniversary of the film's release, L'Osservatore Romano (the daily newspaper of Vatican City State) wrote that the film is filled with positive symbolism and moral references that can be related to Catholicism, adding that The Blues Brothers "is a memorable film, and, judging by the facts, a Catholic one."
Cult-film status
The Blues Brothers has become a staple of late-night cinema, even slowly morphing into an audience-participation show in its regular screenings at the Valhalla Cinema, in Melbourne, Australia. Landis acknowledged the support of the cinema and the fans by a phone call he made to the cinema at the 10th-anniversary screening, and later invited regular attendees to make cameo appearances in Blues Brothers 2000. The fans act as the members of the crowd during the performance of "Ghost Riders in the Sky".
In August 2005, a 25th-anniversary celebration for The Blues Brothers was held at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles. Attendees included Landis, former Universal Studios executive Thom Mount, film editor George Folsey Jr., and cast members James Brown, Henry Gibson, Charles Napier, Steve Cropper, and Stephen Bishop. It featured a press conference, a panel discussion Aykroyd joined by satellite, and a screening of the film's original theatrical version. The panel discussion was broadcast directly to many other cinemas around the country.
The cult-like popularity of The Blues Brothers has also spread to non-English-language markets such as Japan; it was an inspiration for Japanese companies Studio Hibari and Aniplex, which led to the creation of the manga and anime franchise Nerima Daikon Brothers, which contain heavy references to the film.
American Film Institute
AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – nominated
AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
"Think" – nominated
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:
"We're on a mission from God." – nominated
Release
Home media
When The Blues Brothers was first screened for a preview audience, a producer demanded that Landis cut 25 minutes. After trimming 15 minutes, it was released in theaters at 132 minutes. The film was first released on VHS and Betamax by MCA Videocassette Inc. in 1983; a Laserdisc from MCA Videodisc was released in the same year. It was then rereleased on VHS, Laserdisc, and Betamax in 1985 from MCA Home Video, and again in 1990 from MCA/Universal Home Video. It was also released in a two-pack VHS box set with Animal House. The original 148-minute length was restored for the "Collector's Edition" DVD and a Special Edition VHS and Laserdisc release in 1998. The DVD and Laserdisc versions included a 56-minute documentary, The Stories Behind the Making of The Blues Brothers. Produced and directed by JM Kenny (who also produced the "Collector's Edition" DVD of Animal House that year), it included interviews with Landis, Aykroyd, members of The Blues Brothers Band, producer Robert K. Weiss, editor George Folsey Jr., and others involved with the film. It includes production photographs, the theatrical trailer, production notes, and cast and filmmaker bios. The 25th Anniversary DVD release in 2005 included both the theatrical cut and the extended version.
The Blues Brothers was released on Blu-ray on July 26, 2011, with the same basic contents as the 25th Anniversary DVD. In a March 2011 interview with Ain't it Cool News, Landis said he had approved the Blu-ray's remastered transfer. On May 19, 2020, the movie was given a 4K UHD release; it has a new 4K remaster from the original negative, and the extended footage was remastered from the same archived print as well.
SoundtrackThe Blues Brothers: Original Soundtrack Recording (later rereleased as The Blues Brothers: Music from the Soundtrack) is the Blues Brothers Band's second album. Released on June 20, 1980, it was a followup to their debut live album, Briefcase Full of Blues. The band toured the same year to promote the film, later releasing a second live album, Made in America, which featured the Top 40 track "Who's Making Love".
The soundtrack was recorded in Chicago at Universal Recording Corporation at the same time the movie was being filmed, with the exception of "Gimme Some Lovin", which was recorded at the Record Plant in Los Angeles, and "The Old Landmark", which was recorded live on a Universal Studios sound stage on the West Coast, with overdubs later recorded at a studio in New York City.
The songs on the soundtrack album are a noticeably different audio mix than in the film, with a prominent baritone saxophone in the horn line (also heard in the film during "Shake a Tail Feather", though no baritone sax is present), and female backing vocals on "Everybody Needs Somebody to Love", though the band had no other backup singers, besides Jake and/or Elwood, in the film. A number of regular band members, including saxophonist Tom Scott and drummer Steve Jordan, perform on the album but are not in the film.
According to Landis in The Stories Behind the Making of 'The Blues Brothers, filmed musical performances by Franklin and Brown took more effort, as neither artist was accustomed to lip-synching their performances. Franklin required several takes, and Brown simply rerecorded his performance live on a Universal Studios sound stage during filming of the holy roller church scene, with overdubs later recorded at a studio in New York City. Calloway initially wanted to do a disco variation on his signature tune, "Minnie the Moocher", having done the song in several styles in the past, but Landis insisted that the song be done in the original big-band version.
"Gimme Some Lovin" was a Top 20 Billboard hit for the Blues Brothers, peaking at number 18. The album sold more than a million copies.
Personnel
Partial credits from Richard Buskin and Bob Tischler. According to Buskin and producer/engineer Bob Tischler, Murphy Dunne, who plays pianist Murph in the film, could play piano but not well enough to play on the soundtrack. It is unclear whether Dunne plays tambourine on the soundtrack version of "Shake A Tail Feather", as he is portrayed doing in the film.The Blues Brothers'''
"Joliet" Jake Blues (John Belushi) – lead vocals, backing vocals on "Shake A Tail Feather" and "Think"
Elwood Blues (Dan Aykroyd) – backing vocals, harmonica, lead vocals on "Theme from Rawhide"
Paul "The Shiv" Shaffer (uncertain) – Hammond organ, Wurlitzer electric piano, acoustic piano, backing vocals, musical director
Steve "The Colonel" Cropper – guitar
Matt "Guitar" Murphy – guitar
Donald "Duck" Dunn – bass guitar
Steve "Getdwa" Jordan (uncertain) – drums, backing vocals
Willie "Too Big" Hall - drums
Lou "Blue Lou" Marini – tenor and alto saxophones, backing vocals
Alan "Mr. Fabulous" Rubin – trumpet, backing vocals
Tom "Triple Scale" Scott – tenor and alto saxophones, backing vocals
Tom "Bones" Malone – tenor and baritone saxophones, trombone, trumpet, backing vocals
Special guests
Ray Charles - lead vocals on "Shake A Tail Feather" and "Jailhouse Rock," Wurlitzer electric piano on "Shake A Tail Feather"
James Brown - lead vocals on "The Old Landmark" and "Jailhouse Rock"
Chaka Khan - additional vocals on "The Old Landmark"
Aretha Franklin - lead vocals on "Think" and "Jailhouse Rock," piano on "Think"
Cab Calloway - lead vocals on "Minnie the Moocher"
Additional musicians and production staff
"The Crew" (of the film) - lead vocals on "Jailhouse Rock"
Brenda Corbett, Margaret Branch, Carolyn Franklin - backing vocals on "Think"
Larry Willis - piano
Bill Payne - piano
John Springer - piano
John Hason - piano
Terry Fryer - piano
Richard T. Bear - piano
Bob Tischler - producer, engineer
Charts
Certifications
Other songs in the film
The film's score includes "God Music" (instrumental with choir vocalise) by Elmer Bernstein, who had worked with Landis on National Lampoon's Animal House. Other songs in the film include:
Sequel
The 1998 sequel, Blues Brothers 2000, had similar traits to the original, including large car-chase scenes and musical numbers. Landis returned to direct the film and Aykroyd reprised his role, joining John Goodman, Joe Morton, and 10-year-old J. Evan Bonifant as the new Blues Brothers. Franklin and Brown were among the celebrities returning from the first film. There were also musical performances by Sam Moore, Wilson Pickett, Paul Shaffer, B.B. King, and Eric Clapton, among others. Dozens of artists were packed into an all-star band called The Louisiana Gator Boys. Even with many returning cast members, the film was considered a box-office failure, generating a little over $14 million in sales, and critics' reactions were negative.
Other works in the franchise
In 1980, the book Blues Brothers: Private was published, designed to help flesh out the universe in which the film takes place. Private was written and designed by Belushi's wife, Judith Jacklin, and Tino Insana, a friend of Belushi's from their days at The Second City.
The video game The Blues Brothers'' was released in 1991. It is a platform game in which the object is to evade police and other vigilantes to get to a blues concert.
In the 1990s, Film Roman was putting an animated series based on this film in the works, which was scheduled to be released in fall 1997. The brothers of Aykroyd and Belushi (Peter and Jim) were set to take their roles as the titled characters. The series was ultimately canceled due to casting complications. John Belushi's memory was dedicated in the then-upcoming sequel as his character was killed off.
References
External links
The Blues Brothers
1980 films
1980s action comedy films
1980s adventure comedy films
1980s buddy comedy films
1980 comedy films
1980s chase films
1980s musical comedy films
American action comedy films
American adventure comedy films
American buddy comedy films
American chase films
American musical comedy films
Blues films
1980s English-language films
Fictional film duos
Films set in 1980
Films about brothers
Films about Catholic nuns
Films about musical groups
Films about orphans
Films directed by John Landis
Films set in Chicago
Films set in Illinois
Films set in Indiana
Films shot in Chicago
Films shot in Illinois
Films shot in Wisconsin
Jukebox musical films
Films about neo-Nazis
Saturday Night Live films
Saturday Night Live in the 1980s
Films with screenplays by Dan Aykroyd
Films with screenplays by John Landis
Universal Pictures films
Films produced by George Folsey Jr.
United States National Film Registry films
Films produced by Robert K. Weiss
1980s American films
1980s musical films |
4558584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precast%20concrete | Precast concrete | Precast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a reusable mold or "form" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and maneuvered into place; examples include precast beams, and wall panels for tilt up construction. In contrast, cast-in-place concrete is poured into site-specific forms and cured on site.
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Reinforcement
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Building and site amenities
Precast concrete building components and site amenities are used architecturally as fireplace mantels, cladding, trim products, accessories and curtain walls. Structural applications of precast concrete include foundations, beams, floors, walls and other structural components. It is essential that each structural component be designed and tested to withstand both the tensile and compressive loads that the member will be subjected to over its lifespan. Expanded polystyrene cores are now in precast concrete panels for structural use, making them lighter and serving as thermal insulation.
Multi-storey car parks are commonly constructed using precast concrete. The constructions involve putting together precast parking parts which are multi-storey structural wall panels, interior and exterior columns, structural floors, girders, wall panels, stairs, and slabs. These parts can be large; for example, double-tee structural floor modules need to be lifted into place with the help of precast concrete lifting anchor systems.
Retaining walls
Precast concrete is employed in a wide range of engineered earth retaining systems. Products include commercial and residential retaining walls, sea walls, mechanically stabilized earth panels, and other modular block systems.
Sanitary and stormwater
Sanitary and stormwater management products are structures designed for underground installation that have been specifically engineered for the treatment and removal of pollutants from sanitary and stormwater run-off. These precast concrete products include stormwater detention vaults, catch basins, and manholes.
Utility structures
For communications, electrical, gas or steam systems, precast concrete utility structures protect the vital connections and controls for utility distribution. Precast concrete is nontoxic and environmentally safe. Products include: hand holes, hollow-core products, light pole bases, meter boxes, panel vaults, pull boxes, telecommunications structures, transformer pads, transformer vaults, trenches, utility buildings, utility vaults, utility poles, controlled environment vaults (CEVs), and other utility structures.
Water and wastewater products
Precast water and wastewater products hold or contain water, oil or other liquids for the purpose of further processing into non-contaminating liquids and soil products. Products include: aeration systems, distribution boxes, dosing tanks, dry wells, grease interceptors, leaching pits, sand-oil/oil-water interceptors, septic tanks, water/sewage storage tanks, wet wells, fire cisterns, and other water and wastewater products.
Transportation and traffic-related products
Precast concrete transportation products are used in the construction, safety, and site protection of roads, airports, and railroad transportation systems. Products include: box culverts, 3-sided culverts, bridge systems, railroad crossings, railroad ties, sound walls/barriers, Jersey barriers, tunnel segments, concrete barriers, TVCBs, central reservation barriers, bollards, and other transportation products. Precast concrete can also be used to make underpasses, surface crossings, and pedestrian subways. Precast concrete is also used for the roll ways of some rubber-tyred metros.
Modular paving
Modular paving is available in a rainbow of colors, shapes, sizes, and textures. These versatile precast concrete pieces can be designed to mimic brick, stone or wood.
Specialized products
Cemetery products
Underground vaults or mausoleums require watertight structures that withstand natural forces for extended periods of time.
Hazardous materials containment
Storage of hazardous material, whether short-term or long-term, is an increasingly important environmental issue, calling for containers that not only seal in the materials, but are strong enough to stand up to natural disasters or terrorist attacks.
Marine products
Seawalls, floating docks, underwater infrastructure, decking, railings, and a host of amenities are among the uses of precast along the waterfront. When designed with heavy weight in mind, precast products counteract the buoyant forces of water significantly better than most materials.
Structures
Prestressed concrete
Prestressing is a technique of introducing stresses into a structural member during fabrication and/or construction to improve its strength and performance. This technique is often employed in concrete beams, columns, spandrels, single and double tees, wall panels, segmental bridge units, bulb-tee girders, I-beam girders, and others. Many projects find that prestressed concrete provides the lowest overall cost, considering production and lifetime maintenance.
Precast concrete sandwich wall (or insulated double-wall) panels
Origin
The precast concrete double-wall panel has been in use in Europe for decades. The original double-wall design consisted of two wythes of reinforced concrete separated by an interior void, held together with embedded steel trusses. With recent concerns about energy use, it is recognized that using steel trusses creates a "thermal bridge" that degrades thermal performance. Also, since steel does not have the same thermal expansion coefficient as concrete, as the wall heats and cools any steel that is not embedded in the concrete can create thermal stresses that cause cracking and spalling.
Development
To achieve better thermal performance, insulation was added in the void, and in many applications today the steel trusses have been replaced by composite (fibreglass, plastic, etc.) connection systems. These systems, which are specially developed for this purpose, also eliminate the differential thermal expansion problem.The best thermal performance is achieved when the insulation is continuous throughout the wall section, i.e., the wythes are thermally separated completely to the ends of the panel. Using continuous insulation and modern composite connection systems, R-values up to R-28.2 can be achieved.
Characteristics
The overall thickness of sandwich wall panels in commercial applications is typically 8 inches, but their designs are often customized to the application. In a typical 8-inch wall panel the concrete wythes are each 2-3/8 inches thick), sandwiching 3-1/4 inches of high R-value insulating foam. The interior and exterior wythes of concrete are held together (through the insulation) with some form of connecting system that is able to provide the needed structural integrity. Sandwich wall panels can be fabricated to the length and width desired, within practical limits dictated by the fabrication system, the stresses of lifting and handling, and shipping constraints. Panels of 9-foot clear height are common, but heights up to 12 feet can be found.
The fabrication process for precast concrete sandwich wall panels allows them to be produced with finished surfaces on both sides. Such finishes can be very smooth, with the surfaces painted, stained, or left natural; for interior surfaces, the finish is comparable to drywall in smoothness and can be finished using the same prime and paint procedure as is common for conventional drywall construction. If desired, the concrete can be given an architectural finish, where the concrete itself is colored and/or textured. Colors and textures can provide the appearance of brick, stone, wood, or other patterns through the use of reusable formliners, or, in the most sophisticated applications, actual brick, stone, glass, or other materials can be cast into the concrete surface.
Window and door openings are cast into the walls at the manufacturing plant as part of the fabrication process. In many applications, electrical and telecommunications conduit and boxes are cast directly into the panels in the specified locations. In some applications, utilities, plumbing and even heating components have been cast into the panels to reduce on-site construction time. The carpenters, electricians and plumbers do need to make some slight adjustments when first becoming familiar with some of the unique aspects of the wall panels. However, they still perform most of their job duties in the manner to which they are accustomed.
Applications and benefits
Precast concrete sandwich wall panels have been used on virtually every type of building, including schools, office buildings, apartment buildings, townhouses, condominiums, hotels, motels, dormitories, and single-family homes. Although typically considered part of a building's enclosure or "envelope," they can be designed to also serve as part of the building's structural system, eliminating the need for beams and columns on the building perimeter. Besides their energy efficiency and aesthetic versatility, they also provide excellent noise attenuation, outstanding durability (resistant to rot, mold, etc.), and rapid construction.
In addition to the good insulation properties, sandwich panels require fewer work phases to complete. Compared to double-walls, for example, which have to be insulated and filled with concrete on site, sandwich panels require much less labor and scaffolding.
Precast Concrete Market
The precast concrete industry is largely dominated by Government initiated projects for infrastructural development. However, these are also being extensively used for residential (low and high rise) and commercial constructions because of their various favourable attributes. The efficiency, durability, ease, cost effectiveness, and sustainable properties of these products have brought a revolutionary shift in the time consumed in construction of any structure. Construction industry is a huge energy consuming industry, and precast concrete products are and will continue to be more energy efficient than its counterparts. The wide range of designs, colours, and structural options that these products provide is also making it a favourable choice for its consumers.
Regulations
Many state and federal transportation projects in the United States require precast concrete suppliers to be certified by either the Architectural Precast Association, National Precast Concrete Association or Precast Prestressed Concrete Institute.
See also
Cast in place concrete
Million Programme
Prestressed concrete
Roll way
Structural robustness
Tilt up
References
External links
A Comfortable House for $1,000, Popular Science monthly, February 1919, page 39, Scanned by Google Books: Popular Science
Concrete
Concrete buildings and structures
Building engineering
Reuse |
4559427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyenne%20Frontier%20Days | Cheyenne Frontier Days | Cheyenne Frontier Days is an outdoor rodeo and western celebration in the United States, held annually since 1897 in Cheyenne, Wyoming. It bills itself as the "World's Largest Outdoor Rodeo and Western Celebration." The event, claimed to be one of the largest of its kind in the world, draws nearly 200,000 annually. Lodging fills up quickly during the peak tourist season throughout southern and eastern Wyoming, into northern Colorado and western Nebraska. The celebration is held during the ten days centered about the last full week of July. In 2008, Cheyenne Frontier Days was inducted into the ProRodeo Hall of Fame.
Background
The rodeo draws visitors from different parts of the United States as well as internationally. These visitors generally stay in hotels, motels, or in recreational vehicles. High temperatures around and fair weather are normal for the time of year when this event is held; the elevation is approximately above sea level.
Cowboy style bars and country and western themed establishments scattered throughout the city of Cheyenne are popular with many rodeo fans and participants, and they file in with large numbers after the night shows.
Overview
Prior to the annual kickoff of Cheyenne Frontier Days on a Friday, the annual Cattle Drive is held on the preceding Sunday morning. This event, which attracts considerable attention, is inspired by the cattle drives of the Old West. In 2013, 447 steers, herded by mounted cowboys, walked three miles from Hynds Boulevard into Frontier Park. In 2015, 550 steers walked this route. It starts from a pasture north of the city and runs along Interstate 25, south and then through the city streets aforementioned into the park.
Cheyenne Frontier Days has a full-time staff of 18 people year round, and an estimated 3,000 volunteers, of whom a small number are paid. There is preparation before the event and cleanup after the event as well as all of the work that needs performed during the actual event.
Rodeo
PRCA Rodeo
In 2014, Cheyenne Frontier Days received the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA) Large Outdoor Rodeo of the Year award for the 16th total and 11th consecutive time. Frontier Days runs nine days with more sections of bull riding, saddle and bareback bronc riding than any other rodeo. The rodeo is also known for its large number of participants. All events are performed each day. The rodeo draws many of the sport's top competitors due to its more than $1 million in cash and prizes available.
Frontier Days delivers three types of competition: roughstock events, timed events, and racing on the track. Roughstock events include bull riding, bareback bronc riding, saddle bronc riding, and rookie saddle bronc riding. Timed events include steer wrestling, team roping, tie-down roping, and women's breakaway roping & barrel racing. Tie-down roping includes calf roping, steer roping, and senior steer roping. Some of the timed events are shown during slack. After all of the events are concluded, there is an all-around champion winner.
There are also a few other select events which include saddle bronc futurity, trick riding, the wild horse race, and the dinner bell derby.
Timed event slack
Slack events are events that do not fit into the normal rodeo hours in the afternoon. Slack rodeo events are open to the public at no charge and usually take place in the early to mid morning hours. Slack events include calf roping, team roping, steer roping, barrel racing, breakaway roping and steer wrestling.
PBR Bull Riding
PBR Team Series
Since 2022, Cheyenne has been the first stop of the Professional Bull Riders (PBR)'s Team Series, where teams of bull riders representing different regions of the United States ride against each other throughout the summer and autumn to culminate at the Team Series Championship at T-Mobile Arena in Las Vegas, Nevada. While most of the regular season events take place in the teams' home cities, two "neutral site" events are included on the schedule, including Cheyenne.
Previous tours
PBR Challenger Tour/Touring Pro Division
The PBR's first minor league tour, the Touring Pro Division, had an event at Cheyenne Frontier Days for several years. It started in 2001 and ran through 2010, until returning in 2018. The Touring Pro Division debuted in 1995 and was known as such until being renamed in 2001 as the Challenger Tour. It was changed back to its original title of the Touring Pro Division in 2010.
Championship Bull Riding
In 2011, the stand-alone bull riding event at Cheyenne Frontier Days became a regular-season event for Championship Bull Riding (CBR). Then from 2012 through 2018, it was the World Finals event for said organization. In 2018, the annual two-day stand-alone bull riding event at Cheyenne Frontier Days was sanctioned by two different organizations; the first day was the PBR Touring Pro Division event, and the second day was the 2018 CBR World Finals. The latter competition, though a CBR event, was produced by the PBR, and CBR went out of business after its 2018 World Finals event had concluded.
PBR Premier Series
In 2019, the PBR brought the Unleash the Beast Premier Series' Last Cowboy Standing event to Cheyenne. The event would have taken place in 2020, but was canceled, along with the entire Cheyenne Frontier Days festival because of COVID-19 restrictions. However, it all returned in 2021.
Events
Cheyenne Frontier Days features nightly concerts by popular music and comedy acts, a midway, a fair with rides, games, and food vendors, wild west shows featuring Western riding, an Indian village, and a large PRCA nationally sanctioned rodeo. A common moniker for the event is "The Daddy of 'em All®", based on its long history and the fact that the rodeo is billed as the largest such event in the world. The rodeo and the majority of the events are centered on the property of Frontier Park, but some of the events such as the pancake breakfasts are held in a different part of the city.
Pancake Breakfasts
Three free pancake breakfasts are served each year which are sponsored by the local Kiwanis chapter. They are held every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday with close to 40,000 people taking advantage of this every year. The record for a daily breakfast is 39,111 people set in 1996. In one week, over 100,000 pancakes are served, along with over 3,000 pounds of ham. This event was started in 1952 by the Cheyenne Frontier Committee. The food is cooked on military ranges. The event takes place at the historic Cheyenne Depot Square.
There were none served in 2020.
Grand Parade
On the days in between the free pancake breakfasts, the city of Cheyenne hosts the Grand Parade in the morning. The parade starts at the Wyoming State Capitol, goes down to the Cheyenne Depot Square, and then returns to the Wyoming State Capitol on an alternate street. Until 1925, with two exceptions, the Frontier Days parades were rowdy affairs. In 1926, upon request, Dazee Bristol created floats which are still in use today. The parade is now composed of floats, automobiles, horse-drawn antique carriages, riders in period dress, and top marching bands.
Indian Village
In 1898, shortly after the second Frontier Days occurred, the committee extended an invitation to Native American performers to participate in following Frontier Days. Since then, they have participated every year. One popular attraction is the Native American Village which is open throughout Frontier Days and is free. Historically, the visiting performers shifted their campground around until in the 1960s when the committee established a permanent campground, the "Indian Village." The Indian Village hosts authentic dancing, music, storytelling, and pow-wows. There are also exhibit booths and food vendors.
Behind the Chutes tour
Behind the Chutes tours are free. There are 1–3 tours every day of Frontier Days. The tour follows the same path that the bucking broncs and bulls take from the pens behind the arena. The tour shows where the livestock is kept and rounded up. Then the tour follows where livestock go through gates to the chutes. Then it is out into the arena and the tour is finished by walking across the arena. Depending on what time the tour is taken, there might be livestock in the pens.
Chuckwagon Cookoff
Authentic chuckwagon crews visit for a few days to demonstrate life on the Goodnight Trail, which was more than 100 years ago. Crews cook with standard ingredients; meals are judged and can also be tasted by the public. They are also judged on their wagon, tools, and campsite. The Championship Cookoff takes place on the last demonstration day. However, the champions do not get their buckles until the rodeo finals day.
Old Frontier Town
The Old Frontier Town (previously Wild Horse Gulch) is open every day of Frontier Days. It is free and is located between the Old West Museum and the Indian Village. There are merchants, guest characters, and/or craftspeople and artisans in some buildings.
Carnival Midway
On the Frontier Park itself, not far from the stadium, there is the carnival midway, a fair with games, rides, and food vendors. The carnival runs the entire length of Frontier Days. There are a number of different options for daily and season passes.
Buckin' A Saloon
This saloon is located on Frontier Park. The saloon is open from 11 a.m. until Midnight. This makes it available to anyone who is there for the rodeo and its events in the day. And then in the evening, there are nightly concert ticket giveaways, beer specials, bands, and the usual good time. It runs most nights of Frontier Days.
Fiesta Day
One day per year Frontier Days celebrates Fiesta Day. This is a day of Latino entertainment featuring folk dancers and other family events. Also included are concerts by famous Regional Mexican artists.
United States Air Force Thunderbirds
Another annual event is an air show featuring the United States Air Force Thunderbirds Air Demonstration Squadron, which takes place on Wednesday. The Thunderbirds made their public debut at Cheyenne Frontier Days in 1953 and have continued to perform regularly since then. The ground portion of this show along with static displays and flying of other aircraft takes place on the Wyoming Air National Guard side of the Cheyenne Regional Airport. The Thunderbirds' main aerobatic display is performed over Francis E Warren Air Force Base.
Affiliated events
Old West Museum and Store
Cheyenne Frontier Days Old West Museum is open all year round. There is a modest admission fee. It is located on Frontier Park. A statue of bull rider rodeo icon Lane Frost riding a bull stands near the entrance. There is an extensive exhibit of western carriages. There is also a permanent exhibit on the history of Cheyenne Frontier Days. During Frontier Days, there is also a Western Art Show and Sale in the museum. The museum also hosts the Cheyenne Frontier Days Hall of Fame for its rodeo. Inductees include legends such as Lane Frost, Chris LeDoux, Johnny Cash, Charlie Daniels, Reba McEntire, George Strait, and Garth Brooks.
Art Show and Sale
Circa 1980, the annual Western Art Show has been taking place in the Cheyenne Frontier Days Old West Museum. To kick off the art show, a reception is held on the first day, which is usually also the opening day of Frontier Days. Top western and wildlife artists are featured using many different mediums. Those who register for the reception get many special benefits. First there is a buy-it-now option, which enables ticket holders to instantly purchase art at a premium. Then there is a live auction. Both of these enable ticket holders a chance to purchase art before it is made available to the general public. Tickets include art show admission, the Governor's Mansion reception, the official Western Art Show poster, the official show catalogue and a western dinner. After the special events are concluded, the general public is free to view and purchase art at the museum by paying the museum admission fee.
Fort D.A. Russell Days
F.E. Warren Air Force Base and Cheyenne have a long history together. The U.S. Cavalry founded Fort D.A. Russell, the precursor to the base, in 1867, the same year Cheyenne was founded. For a few days during Frontier Days, the base conducts tours and specials. There are historic home tours, military reenactments, and tours of missile systems. There are also other specials, demonstrations, and transportation. The base is located on the outskirts of Western Cheyenne off Interstate 25.
Cowboy Church
Cowboy Church is held the first and last Sunday of Frontier Days. Services are held in the B Stand. Location is subject to change. Some services are held non-denominational and everyone is welcome to attend. Some services are held for the cowboys, such as Fellowship of Christian Cowboys.
Wyoming National Guard Open House
One day during Frontier Days, the Wyoming National Guard may open its doors to the public. This event does not occur every year. The open house features equipment displays of the National Guard and of the F.E. Warren Air Force Base. Sometimes the U.S. Navy Parachute Team, "The Leap Frogs," performs at the event. There are shuttle buses from Frontier Mall to the event. Valid IDs are required. Security enforcement is in place at the base.
History
Cheyenne held its first Frontier Days celebration in 1897. It started as a cowboy roundup that took place for one day.
Clayton Danks, the winner of three Cheyenne Frontier Days competitions prior to 1910, is the model cowboy on the horse Steamboat on the Wyoming trademark, the Bucking Horse and Rider.
From 1908 to 1970, an almost-annual train (skipped 1924, 1942–45) carried travelers between Denver Union Station in Denver, Colorado and the Cheyenne Depot Museum. The final train in 1970 had 27 cars with 1,127 guests.
Revived in 1992 for the Denver Post's 100th anniversary, the "Centennial Special" used Amtrak locomotives with Ski Train coaches and carried almost 800 passengers, including Colorado Governor Roy Romer and Denver Mayor Wellington Webb.
In 1994, the excursion train returned as an annual event. It typically consists of Union Pacific 844, a Union Pacific water car, a helper diesel engine, a tool car, and as many as 22 passenger coaches. After the renovation of the Denver Union Station resulted in a greatly shortened passenger platform, the train's been based at a site near the Denver Coliseum, where it's on display the day before. Tickets for the popular trip are available by lottery and proceeds benefit the Denver Post Community Foundation.
In 1996, Shirley E. Flynn of Cheyenne wrote a history of Cheyenne Frontier Days called Let's Go! Let's Show! Let's Rodeo! The History of Cheyenne Frontier Days. The book declares that the celebration was a full success from the first year.
On December 4, 2014, Cheyenne Frontier Days won the 2014 PRCA Large Outdoor Rodeo of the Year for the 15th time and the 10th consecutive time at an award banquet last night in Las Vegas. Cheyenne Frontier Days has previously received the PRCA Large Outdoor Rodeo of the Year award in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013. PRCA rodeo personnel vote on the finalists for this award. An award banquet is held during the National Finals Rodeo where the winner is announced.
In 2015, the concert lineup was considered to be their best ever, with the opening weekend featuring Miranda Lambert and Big & Rich.
In 2019, the Denver Post announced the end of the excursion, with the Union Pacific Railroad's vintage fleet being a contributing factor.
The next year saw the COVID-19 pandemic forcing officials to scrap the festival & rodeo, and defer to 2021.
See also
Union Pacific 844
Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association
Professional Bull Riders, Inc.
National Finals Rodeo
Rodeo bareback rigging
Wyoming Transportation Museum
Cheyenne Frontier Days Old West Museum
Cheyenne Frontier Days Arena
Livestock
Bonnie McCarroll
Dan Collins Taylor
References
Bibliography
External links
Cheyenne Frontier Days Art Show and Sale
Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA)
Professional Bull Riders, Inc.
NFR website
Denver Post Cheyenne Frontier Days Train
Rodeos
1897 establishments in the United States
Cheyenne, Wyoming
Tourism in Wyoming
Cowboy culture
Festivals in Wyoming
Tourist attractions in Cheyenne, Wyoming
Music of Wyoming
Rodeo in the United States
ProRodeo Hall of Fame inductees
Recurring sporting events established in 1897 |
4559718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicity | Catholicity | Catholicity (from , via ) is a concept pertaining to beliefs and practices that are widely accepted by numerous Christian denominations, most notably by those Christian denominations that describe themselves as catholic in accordance with the Four Marks of the Church, as expressed in the Nicene Creed formulated at the First Council of Constantinople in 381: "[I believe] in one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church." The English adjective catholic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective (romanized: katholikos), meaning "general", "universal". Thus, "catholic" means that in the Church the wholeness of the Christian faith, full and complete, all-embracing, and with nothing lacking, is proclaimed to all people without excluding any part of the faith or any class or group of people. An early definition for what is "catholic" was summarized in what is known as the Vincentian Canon in the 5th century Commonitory: "what has been believed everywhere, always, and by all."
This is distinct from the capitalized word Catholic, referring specifically to the Catholic Church and often, further, the Roman Catholic Church, used especially in ecumenical contexts and in countries where other churches use the term catholic, to distinguish it from broader meanings of the term. Though the community led by the pope in Rome is known as the Catholic Church, the traits of catholicity, and thus the term catholic, are also ascribed to denominations such as the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Assyrian Church of the East. It also occurs in the language of churches that decisively split from the Roman Catholic Church, like Lutheranism and Anglicanism, as well as Independent Catholicism and other Christian denominations. While traits used to define catholicity, as well as recognition of these traits in other denominations, vary among these groups, such attributes include formal sacraments, an episcopal polity, apostolic succession, highly structured liturgical worship, and other shared Ecclesiology.
Among Protestant and related traditions, catholic is used in the sense of indicating a self-understanding of the universality of the confession and continuity of faith and practice from Early Christianity, encompassing the "whole company of God's redeemed people". Specifically among Moravian, Lutheran, Anglican, Methodist, and Reformed denominations the term "catholic" is used in claiming to be "heirs of the apostolic faith". These denominations consider themselves to be part of the catholic (universal) church, teaching that the term "designates the historic, orthodox mainstream of Christianity whose doctrine was defined by the ecumenical councils and creeds" and as such, most Reformers "appealed to this catholic tradition and believed they were in continuity with it." As such, the universality, or catholicity, of the church pertains to the entire body (or assembly) of believers united to Christ.
History
Summary of major divisions
A common belief related to catholicity is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ. Many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The following summarizes the major schisms and conflicts within Christianity, particularly within groups that identify as catholic; there are several competing historical interpretations as to which groups entered into schism with the original early church.
According to the theory of Pentarchy, the early undivided church came to be organized under the three patriarchs of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, to which later were added the patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem. The Bishop of Rome was at that time recognized as first among them, as is stated, for instance, in canon 3 of the First Council of Constantinople (381)—many interpret "first" as meaning here first among equals—and doctrinal or procedural disputes were often referred to Rome, as when, on appeal by Athanasius against the decision of the Council of Tyre (335), Pope Julius I, who spoke of such appeals as customary, annulled the action of that council and restored Athanasius and Marcellus of Ancyra to their sees. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils. When the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Rome's influence was sometimes challenged. Nonetheless, Rome claimed special authority because of its connection to the Apostles Peter and Paul, who, many believe, were martyred and buried in Rome, and because the Bishop of Rome saw himself as the successor of Peter. There are sources that suggest that Peter was not the first Pope and never went to Rome.
The 431 Council of Ephesus, the third ecumenical council, was chiefly concerned with Nestorianism, which emphasized the distinction between the humanity and divinity of Jesus and taught that, in giving birth to Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary could not be spoken of as giving birth to God. This Council rejected Nestorianism and affirmed that, as humanity and divinity are inseparable in the one person of Jesus Christ, his mother, the Virgin Mary, is thus Theotokos, God-bearer, Mother of God. The first great rupture in the Early Church followed this Council. Those who refused to accept the Council's ruling were largely Persian and are represented today by the Assyrian Church of the East and related churches, which, however, do not now hold a "Nestorian" theology. They are often called Ancient Oriental Churches.
The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon (451). This Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation" and thus is both fully God and fully human. The Alexandrian Church rejected the terms adopted by this Council, and the Christian churches that follow the tradition of non-acceptance of the Council—they are not Monophysite in doctrine—are referred to as Pre-Chalcedonian or Oriental Orthodox Churches.
The next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. Longstanding doctrinal disputes, as well as conflicts between methods of church government, and the evolution of separate rites and practices, precipitated a split in 1054 that divided the church, this time between a "West" and an "East". Spain, England, France, the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, Bohemia, Slovakia, Scandinavia, the Baltic states, and Western Europe in general were in the Western camp, and Greece, Romania, Russia and many other Slavic lands, Anatolia, and the Christians in Syria and Egypt who accepted the Council of Chalcedon made up the Eastern camp. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism.
In 1438, the Council of Florence convened, which featured a strong dialogue focussed on understanding the theological differences between the East and West, with the hope of reuniting the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches.
Another major division in the church occurred in the 16th century with the Protestant Reformation, after which many parts of the Western Church rejected Papal authority, and some of the teachings of the Western Church at that time, and became known as "Reformed" or "Protestant".
A much less extensive rupture occurred when, after the Roman Catholic Church's First Vatican Council, in which it officially proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility, small clusters of Catholics in the Netherlands and in German-speaking countries formed the Old-Catholic (Altkatholische) Church.
Beliefs and practices
Use of the terms "catholicity" and "catholicism" depends on context. For times preceding the Great Schism, it refers to the Nicene Creed and especially to tenets of Christology, i.e. the rejection of Arianism.
For times after the Great Schism, Catholicism (with the capital C) in the sense of the Catholic Church, combines the Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches of Greek tradition, and the other Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches (or, as Richard McBrien calls them, the "Communion of Catholic Churches"). Contrast this with the term Catholicos (but not Catholicism) in reference to the head of a Particular Church in Eastern Christianity. In the Roman Catholic Church, the term "catholic" is understood as to cover those who are baptized and in communion with the Pope.
Other Christians use it in an intermediate sense, neither just those Christians in communion with Rome, but more narrow than all Christians who recite the Creeds. They use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs and practices of this definition of catholicity:
Direct and continuous organizational descent from the Church founded by Jesus and guided by the Holy Spirit.
Belief that Jesus Christ is Divine, a doctrine officially clarified in the First Council of Nicaea and expressed in the Nicene Creed.
Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that bread and wine truly become the Body of Christ at consecration.
Belief in the Apostolic succession of ordained ministry.
Belief in the Catholic (from the Greek καθολικός, meaning "universal") Church as the Body of Christ, where Jesus is the head.
Belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments.
Liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross.
The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship.
Observation of the Christian liturgical year.
Devotion to the saints, particularly Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the human mother of Jesus Christ, or Theotokos ("God-bearer" or "Mother of God"), a title that became "Catholic" only after the Nicene Council, with the Council of Ephesus in 431, but a rejection of her worship.
Belief in the Communion of Saints.
Sacraments or sacred mysteries
Churches in the Roman Catholic tradition administer seven sacraments or "sacred mysteries": Baptism, Confirmation or Chrismation, Eucharist, Penance, also known as Reconciliation, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony. For Protestant Christians, only Baptism and Eucharist are considered sacraments.
In churches that consider themselves catholic, a sacrament is considered to be an efficacious visible sign of God's invisible grace. While the word mystery is used not only of these rites, but also with other meanings with reference to revelations of and about God and to God's mystical interaction with creation, the word sacrament (Latin: a solemn pledge), the usual term in the West, refers specifically to these rites.
Baptism – the first sacrament of Christian initiation, the basis for all the other sacraments. Churches in the Catholic tradition consider baptism conferred in most Christian denominations "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit" (cf. ) to be valid, since the effect is produced through the sacrament, independently of the faith of the minister, though not of the minister's intention. This is not necessarily the case in other churches. As stated in the Nicene Creed, Baptism is "for the forgiveness of sins", not only personal sins, but also of original sin, which it remits even in infants who have committed no actual sins. Expressed positively, forgiveness of sins means bestowal of the sanctifying grace by which the baptized person shares the life of God. The initiate "puts on Christ" (Galatians 3:27), and is "buried with him in baptism ... also raised with him through faith in the working of God" (Colossians 2:12).
Confirmation or Chrismation – the second sacrament of Christian initiation, the means by which the gift of the Holy Spirit conferred in baptism is "strengthened and deepened" (see, for example, Catechism of the Catholic Church, §1303) by a sealing. In the Western tradition it is usually a separate rite from baptism, bestowed, following a period of education called catechesis, on those who have at least reached the age of discretion (about 7) and sometimes postponed until an age when the person is considered capable of making a mature independent profession of faith. It is considered to be of a nature distinct from the anointing with chrism (also called myrrh) that is usually part of the rite of baptism and that is not seen as a separate sacrament. In the Eastern tradition it is usually conferred in conjunction with baptism, as its completion, but is sometimes administered separately to converts or those who return to Orthodoxy. Some theologies consider this to be the outward sign of the inner "Baptism of the Holy Spirit", the special gifts (or charismata) of which may remain latent or become manifest over time according to God's will. Its "originating" minister is a validly consecrated bishop; if a priest (a "presbyter") confers the sacrament (as is permitted in some Catholic churches) the link with the higher order is indicated by the use of chrism blessed by a bishop. (In an Eastern Orthodox Church, this is customarily, although not necessarily, done by the primate of the local autocephalous church.)
Eucharist – the sacrament (the third of Christian initiation) by which the faithful receive their ultimate "daily bread", or "bread for the journey", by partaking of and in the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ and being participants in Christ's one eternal sacrifice. The bread and wine used in the rite are, according to Catholic faith, in the mystical action of the Holy Spirit, transformed to be Christ's Body and Blood—his Real Presence. This transformation is interpreted by some as transubstantiation or metousiosis, by others as consubstantiation or sacramental union.
Penance (also called Confession and Reconciliation) – the first of the two sacraments of healing. It is also called the sacrament of conversion, of forgiveness, and of absolution. It is the sacrament of spiritual healing of a baptized person from the distancing from God involved in actual sins committed. It involves the penitent's contrition for sin (without which the rite does not have its effect), confession (which in highly exceptional circumstances can take the form of a corporate general confession) to a minister who has the faculty to exercise the power to absolve the penitent, and absolution by the minister. In some traditions (such as the Roman Catholic), the rite involves a fourth element – satisfaction – which is defined as signs of repentance imposed by the minister. In early Christian centuries, the fourth element was quite onerous and generally preceded absolution, but now it usually involves a simple task (in some traditions called a "penance") for the penitent to perform, to make some reparation and as a medicinal means of strengthening against further sinning.
Anointing of the Sick (or Unction) – the second sacrament of healing. In it those who are suffering an illness are anointed by a priest with oil consecrated by a bishop specifically for that purpose. In past centuries, when such a restrictive interpretation was customary, the sacrament came to be known as "Extreme Unction", i.e. "Final Anointing", as it still is among traditionalist Catholics. It was then conferred only as one of the "Last Rites". The other "Last Rites" are Penance (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, at least absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given), and the Eucharist, which, when administered to the dying, is known as "Viaticum", a word whose original meaning in Latin was "provision for a journey".
Holy Orders – the sacrament which integrates someone into the Holy Orders of bishops, priests (presbyters), and deacons, the threefold order of "administrators of the mysteries of God" (1 Corinthians 4:1), giving the person the mission to teach, sanctify, and govern. Only a bishop may administer this sacrament, as only a bishop holds the fullness of the Apostolic Ministry. Ordination as a bishop makes one a member of the body that has succeeded to that of the Apostles. Ordination as a priest configures a person to Christ the Head of the Church and the one essential Priest, empowering that person, as the bishops' assistant and vicar, to preside at the celebration of divine worship, and in particular to confect the sacrament of the Eucharist, acting "in persona Christi" (in the person of Christ). Ordination as a deacon configures the person to Christ the Servant of All, placing the deacon at the service of the Church, especially in the fields of the ministry of the Word, service in divine worship, pastoral guidance and charity. Deacons may later be further ordained to the priesthood, but only if they do not have a wife. In some traditions (such as those of the Roman Catholic Church), while married men may be ordained, ordained men may not marry. In others (such as the Anglican-Catholic Church), clerical marriage is permitted. Moreover, some sectors of Anglicanism "in isolation of the whole" have approved the ordination of openly active homosexuals to the priesthood and episcopacy, in spite of the support that Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, spoke for Anglican teaching on homosexuality, which he said the church "could not change simply because of a shift in society's attitude", noting also that those churches blessing same-sex unions and consecrating openingly gay bishops would not be able "to take part as a whole in ecumenical and interfaith dialogue." Thus in ecumenical matters, only if the Roman Catholic as well as Orthodox churches come to an understanding with first tier or primary bishops of the Anglican Communion can those churches (representing 95% of global Catholicism) implement an agreement with second tier or secondary Anglican bishops and their respective Anglican communities.
Holy Matrimony (or Marriage) – is the sacrament of joining a man and a woman (according to the churches' doctrines) for mutual help and love (the unitive purpose), consecrating them for their particular mission of building up the Church and the world, and providing grace for accomplishing that mission. Western tradition sees the sacrament as conferred by the canonically expressed mutual consent of the partners in marriage; Eastern and some recent Western theologians not in communion with the see of Rome view the blessing by a priest as constituting the sacramental action.
Denominational interpretations
Many individual Christians and Christian denominations consider themselves "catholic" on the basis, in particular, of apostolic succession. They may be described as falling into five groups:
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, which sees full communion with the Bishop of Rome as an essential element of Catholicism. Its constituent particular churches, Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches, have distinct and separate jurisdictions, while still being "in union with Rome".
Those, like adherents of Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church and the Church of the East, that claim unbroken apostolic succession from the early church and identify themselves as the Catholic Church.
Those, such as the Old Catholic, Anglican and some Lutheran and other denominations, that claim unbroken apostolic succession from the early church and see themselves as a constituent part of the church.
Those who claim to be spiritual descendants of the Apostles but have no discernible institutional descent from the historic church and normally do not refer to themselves as catholic.
Those who have acknowledged a break in apostolic succession, but have restored it in order to be in full communion with bodies that have maintained the practice. Examples in this category include the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada vis-à-vis their Anglican and Old Catholic counterparts.
For some confessions listed under category 3, the self-affirmation refers to the belief in the ultimate unity of the universal church under one God and one Savior, rather than in one visibly unified institution (as with category 1, above). In this usage, "catholic" is sometimes written with a lower-case "c". The Western Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed, stating "I believe in ... one holy catholic ... church", are recited in worship services. Among some denominations in category 3, "Christian" is substituted for "catholic" in order to denote the doctrine that the Christian Church is, at least ideally, undivided.
Protestant churches each have their own distinctive theological and ecclesiological notions of catholicity.
Catholic Church
In its Letter on Some Aspects of the Church Understood as Communion, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith stressed the belief that the idea of the universal church as a communion of churches must not be presented as meaning that "every particular Church is a subject complete in itself, and that the universal church is the result of a reciprocal recognition on the part of the particular Churches". It insisted that "the universal Church cannot be conceived as the sum of the particular Churches, or as a federation of particular Churches".
The Catholic Church considers only those in full communion with the Holy See in Rome as Catholics. While recognising the valid episcopates and Eucharist of the Eastern Orthodox Church in most cases, it does not consider Protestant denominations such as Lutheran ones to be genuine churches and so uses the term "ecclesial communities" to refer to them. Because the Catholic Church does not consider these denominations to have valid episcopal orders capable of celebrating a valid Eucharist, it does not classify them as churches "in the proper sense".
The Catholic Church's doctrine of infallibility derives from the belief that the authority Jesus gave Peter as head of the church on earth has been passed on to his successors, the popes. Relevant Bible verses include; "And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven."
The Latin and Eastern Catholic Churches together form the "Catholic Church", often called the "Roman Catholic Church", the world's largest single religious body and the largest Christian denomination, as well as its largest Catholic church, comprising over half of all Christians (1.27 billion Christians of 2.1 billion) and nearly one-sixth of the world's population. Richard McBrien would put the proportion even higher, extending it to those who are in communion with the Bishop of Rome only in "degrees". It comprises 24 component "particular Churches" (also called "rites" in the Second Vatican Council's Decree on the Eastern Catholic Churches and in the Code of Canon Law), all of which acknowledge a primacy of jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome and are in full communion with the Holy See and each other.
These particular churches or component parts are the Latin Church (which uses a number of different liturgical rites, of which the Roman Rite is by far prevalent) and the 23 Eastern Catholic Churches. Of the latter particular churches, 14 use the Byzantine Rite for their liturgy. Within the universal Church, each "particular church", whether Eastern or Western, is of equal dignity. Finally, in its official documents, the Catholic Church, though made up of several particular churches, "continues to refer to itself as the 'Catholic Church or, less frequently but consistently, as the 'Roman Catholic Church', owing to its essential link with the Bishop of Rome.
Richard McBrien, in his book Catholicism, disagrees with the synonymous use of "Catholic" and "Roman Catholic": But is 'Catholic' synonymous with 'Roman Catholic'? And is it accurate to refer to the Roman Catholic Church as simply the 'Roman Church'? The answer to both questions is no. The adjective 'Roman' applies more properly to the diocese, or see, of Rome than to the worldwide Communion of Catholic Churches that is in union with the Bishop of Rome. Indeed, it strikes some Catholics as contradictory to call the Church 'Catholic' and 'Roman' at one and the same time. Eastern-rite Catholics, of whom there are more than twenty million, also find the adjective 'Roman' objectionable. In addition to the Latin, or Roman, tradition, there are seven non-Latin, non-Roman ecclesial traditions: Armenian, Byzantine, Coptic, Ethiopian, East Syriac (Chaldean), West Syriac, and Maronite. Each to the Churches with these non-Latin traditions is as Catholic as the Roman Catholic Church. Thus, not all Catholics are Roman Catholic... [T]o be Catholic—whether Roman or non-Roman—in the ecclesiological sense is to be in full communion with the Bishop of Rome and as such to be an integral part of the Catholic Communion of Churches.
McBrien says that, on an official level, what he calls the "Communion of Catholic Churches" always refers to itself as "The Catholic Church". However, counter examples such as seen above of the term "Roman Catholic Church" being used by popes and departments of the Holy See exist. The Latin Archdiocese of Detroit, for example, lists eight Eastern Catholic churches, each with its own bishop, as having one or more parishes in what is also the territory of the Latin archdiocese, yet each is designated as being in "full communion with the Roman Church".
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains the position that it is their communion which actually constitutes the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. Eastern Orthodox Christians consider themselves the heirs of the first-millennium patriarchal structure that developed in the Eastern Church into the model of the pentarchy, recognized by Ecumenical Councils, a theory that "continues to hold sway in official Greek circles to the present day".
Since the theological disputes that occurred from the 9th to 11th centuries, culminating in the final split of 1054, the Eastern Orthodox churches have regarded Rome as a schismatic see that has violated the essential catholicity of the Christian faith by introducing innovations of doctrine (see Filioque). On the other hand, the model of the pentarchy was never fully applied in the Western Church, which preferred the theory of the Primacy of the Bishop of Rome, favoring Ultramontanism over Conciliarism. The title "Patriarch of the West" was rarely used by the popes until the 16th and 17th centuries, and was included in the Annuario Pontificio from 1863 to 2005, being dropped in the following year as never very clear, and having become over history "obsolete and practically unusable".
Oriental Orthodoxy
The Oriental Orthodox churches (Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, Ethiopian, Eritrean, Malankaran) also maintain the position that their communion constitutes the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. In this sense, Oriental Orthodoxy upholds its own ancient ecclesiological traditions of apostolicity (apostolic continuity) and catholicity (universality) of the Church.
Assyrian Church of the East
Similar notion of the catholicity was also maintained in the former Church of the East, with its distinctive theological and ecclesiological characteristics and traditions. That notion was inherited by both of its modern secessions: the Chaldean Catholic Church that is part of the Catholic Church, and the Assyrian Church of the East whose full official name is: The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, along with its off-shot in turn the Ancient Church of the East whose full official name is: The Holy Apostolic Catholic Ancient Church of the East. These churches are using the term catholic in their names in the sense of traditional catholicity. They are not in communion with the Catholic Church.
Lutheranism
The Augsburg Confession found within the Book of Concord, a compendium of belief of the Lutheran Churches, teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church". When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in 1530, they believe to have "showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils".
Following the Reformation, Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland and the Church of Sweden, retained apostolic succession, with former Roman Catholic bishops simply becoming Lutheran and continuing to occupy their chairs. The 20th century movement of High Church Lutheranism championed Evangelical Catholicity, restoring, in some cases, apostolic succession, to Lutheran Churches in Germany where it was lacking.
Anglicanism
Introductory works on Anglicanism, such as The Study of Anglicanism, typically refer to the character of the Anglican tradition as "Catholic and Reformed", which is in keeping with the understanding of Anglicanism articulated in the Elizabethan Settlement of 1559 and in the works of the earliest standard Anglican divines such as Richard Hooker and Lancelot Andrewes. Yet different strains in Anglicanism, dating back to the English Reformation, have emphasized either the Reformed, Catholic, or "Reformed Catholic" nature of the tradition.
Anglican theology and ecclesiology has thus come to be typically expressed in three distinct, yet sometimes overlapping manifestations: Anglo-Catholicism (often called "high church"), Evangelical Anglicanism (often called "low church"), and Latitudinarianism ("broad church"), whose beliefs and practices fall somewhere between the two. Though all elements within the Anglican Communion recite the same creeds, Evangelical Anglicans generally regard the word catholic in the ideal sense given above. In contrast, Anglo-Catholics regard the communion as a component of the whole Catholic Church, in spiritual and historical union with the Roman Catholic, Old Catholic and several Eastern churches. Broad Church Anglicans tend to maintain a mediating view, or consider the matter one of adiaphora. These Anglicans, for example, have agreed in the Porvoo Agreement to interchangeable ministries and full eucharistic communion with Lutherans.
The Catholic nature or strain of the Anglican tradition is expressed doctrinally, ecumenically (chiefly through organizations such as the Anglican—Roman Catholic International Commission), ecclesiologically (through its episcopal governance and maintenance of the historical episcopate), and in liturgy and piety. The 39 Articles hold that "there are two Sacraments ordained of Christ our Lord in the Gospel, that is to say, Baptism and the Supper of the Lord", and that "those five commonly called Sacraments, that is to say, Confirmation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and Extreme Unction, are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel"; some Anglo-Catholics interpret this to mean that there are a total of Seven Sacraments. Many Anglo-Catholics practice Marian devotion, recite the rosary and the angelus, practice eucharistic adoration, and seek the intercession of saints. In terms of liturgy, most Anglicans use candles on the altar or communion table and many churches use incense and bells at the Eucharist, which is amongst the most pronounced Anglo-Catholics referred to by the Latin-derived word "Mass" used in the first prayer book and in the American Prayer Book of 1979. In numerous churches the Eucharist is celebrated facing the altar (often with a tabernacle) by a priest assisted by a deacon and subdeacon. Anglicans believe in the Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, though Anglo-Catholics interpret this to mean a corporeal presence, rather than a pneumatic presence. Different Eucharistic rites or orders contain different, if not necessarily contradictory, understandings of salvation. For this reason, no single strain or manifestation of Anglicanism can speak for the whole, even in ecumenical statements (as issued, for example, by the Anglican – Roman Catholic International Commission).
The growth of Anglo-Catholicism is strongly associated with the Oxford Movement of the 19th century. Two of its leading lights, John Henry Newman and Henry Edward Manning, both priests, ended up joining the Roman Catholic Church, becoming cardinals. Others, like John Keble, Edward Bouverie Pusey, and Charles Gore became influential figures in Anglicanism. The previous Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, is a patron of Affirming Catholicism, a more liberal movement within Catholic Anglicanism. Conservative Catholic groups also exist within the tradition, such as Forward in Faith. There are about 80 million Anglicans in the Anglican Communion, comprising 3.6% of global Christianity.
Methodism
The 1932 Deed of Union of the Methodist Church of Great Britain teaches that:
The theologian Stanley Hauerwas wrote that Methodism "stands centrally in the Catholic tradition" and that "Methodists indeed are even more Catholic than the Anglicans who gave us birth, since Wesley, of blessed memory, held to the Eastern fathers in a more determinative way than did any of the Western churches—Protestant or Catholic."
Reformed
Within Reformed Christianity the word "catholic" is generally taken in the sense of "universal" and in this sense many leading Protestant denominations identify themselves as part of the catholic church. The puritan Westminster Confession of Faith adopted in 1646 (which remains the Confession of the Church of Scotland) states for example that:
The catholic or universal Church, which is invisible, consists of the whole number of the elect, that have been, are, or shall be gathered into one, under Christ the Head thereof; and is the spouse, the body, the fulness of Him that fills all in all.
The London Confession of the Reformed Baptists repeats this with the emendation "which (with respect to the internal work of the Spirit and truth of grace) may be called invisible". The Church of Scotland's Articles Declaratory begin "The Church of Scotland is part of the Holy Catholic or Universal Church".
In Reformed Churches there is a Scoto-Catholic grouping within the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Such groups point to their churches' continuing adherence to the "Catholic" doctrine of the early Church Councils. The Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland of 1921 defines that church legally as "part of the Holy Catholic or Universal Church".
Independent Catholicism
The Old Catholics, the Liberal Catholic Church, the Augustana Catholic Church, the American National Catholic Church, the Apostolic Catholic Church (ACC), the Aglipayans (Philippine Independent Church), the African Orthodox Church, the Polish National Catholic Church of America, and many Independent Catholic churches, which emerged directly or indirectly from and have a theology and practices which are largely similar to Latin Catholicism, regard themselves as "Catholic" without full communion with the Bishop of Rome, because they generally reject his claimed status and authority. Some Independent Catholics believe that, among bishops, the Bishop of Rome is primus inter pares, and they also believe that conciliarism is a necessary check against ultramontanism.
The Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, a division of the People's Republic of China's Religious Affairs Bureau which exercises state supervision of mainland China's Catholics, holds a similar position, while it also attempts, as with Buddhists and Protestants, to indoctrinate them and mobilize them in support of the Communist Party's objectives.
Other views by individual scholars
Richard McBrien considers that the term "Catholicism" refers exclusively and specifically to that "Communion of Catholic Churches" in communion with the Bishop of Rome. According to McBrien, Catholicism is distinguished from other forms of Christianity in its particular understanding and commitment to tradition, the sacraments, the mediation between God, communion, and the See of Rome. According to Bishop Kallistos Ware, the Orthodox Church has these things as well, though the primacy of the See of Rome is only honorific, showing non-jurisdictional respect for the Bishop of Rome as the "first among equals" and "Patriarch of the West". Catholicism, according to McBrien's paradigm, includes a monastic life, religious institutes, a religious appreciation of the arts, a communal understanding of sin and redemption, and missionary activity.
Henry Mills Alden, in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, writes that:
As such, according to this viewpoint, "for those who 'belong to the Church', the term Methodist Catholic, or Presbyterian Catholic, or Baptist Catholic, is as proper as the term Roman Catholic." "It simply means that body of Christian believers over the world who agree in their religious views, and accept the same ecclesiastical forms."
See also
Anti-Catholicism
De fide Catolica
Ecclesiastical differences between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Christian terminology |
4559844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Toronto | Old Toronto | Old Toronto is the part of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, that corresponds to the boundaries of the City of Toronto prior to 1998. It was incorporated as a city in 1834, after being known as the town of York, and being part of York County. Toronto periodically grew in size by annexing adjacent land and municipalities.
In 1954, the City of Toronto and the surrounding suburban towns and townships of York County were joined in a federation known as the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto (Metro). Later, the lower-tier city annexed two towns until it reached its final boundaries in 1967. In 1998, the municipalities of Metro Toronto were amalgamated into the present-day single-tier City of Toronto, which continues legally from the predecessor City of Toronto, although the by-laws of each municipality remained in force.
Historically, "Old Toronto" referred to Toronto's boundaries before the Great Toronto Fire of 1904, when most urban development was to the east of Yonge Street. Since the 1998 amalgamation, however, the 1967–1998 area of the lower-tier city is referred to as "Old Toronto" or the "former city of Toronto". It is sometimes less accurately referred to as "downtown" (Downtown Toronto is located within Old Toronto) or as "the core". Old Toronto has a population density of approximately 8,210 residents per square kilometre, which would rank as Canada’s densest (North America's second-densest) city with a population over 100,000 if it were still a distinct city.
History
The former town of York was incorporated on March 6, 1834, reverting to the name Toronto to distinguish it from New York City, as well as about a dozen other localities named "York" in the province (including the county in which Toronto was situated), and to dissociate itself from the negative connotation of "dirty Little York", a common nickname for the town by its residents. The population was recorded in June 1834 at 9,252.
In 1834, Toronto was incorporated with the boundaries of Bathurst Street to the west, 400 yards north of Lot (today's Queen) Street to the north, and Parliament Street to the east. Outside this formal boundary were the "liberties", land pre-destined to be used for new wards. These boundaries were today's Dufferin Street to the west, Bloor Street to the north, and the Don River to the east, with a section along the lakeshore east of the Don and south of today's Queen Street to the approximate location of today's Maclean Street. The liberties formally became part of the city in 1859 and the wards were remapped.
William Lyon Mackenzie, a Reformer, was Toronto's first mayor, a position he only held for one year, losing to Tory Robert Baldwin Sullivan in 1835. Sullivan was replaced by Dr. Thomas David Morrison in 1836. Another Tory, George Gurnett, was elected in 1837. That year, Toronto was the site of the key events of the Upper Canada Rebellion. Mackenzie would eventually lead an assault on Montgomery's Tavern, beginning the Upper Canada Rebellion. The attacks were ineffectual, as British regulars and the Canadian militia in Toronto went out to the camp at Montgomery's Tavern and dispersed the rebels. Mackenzie and some other Reformers escaped to the United States, while other rebel leaders, such as Samuel Lount and Peter Matthews, were hanged. Toronto would thenceforth elect a succession of Tory or Conservative mayors—it was not until the 1850s that a Reform member would be mayor again. Shortly after the rebellion, Toronto was ravaged by its first great fire in 1849. The fire was one of two great fires to occur in the city, with the other occurring in 1904.
In their efforts to control the city and its citizens, the Tories were willing to turn to extra-governmental tools of social control, such as the Orange Order in Canada. As historian Gregory Kealey concluded, "Following the delegitimation of Reform after the Rebellions were suppressed, the Corporation (of Toronto) developed into an impenetrable bastion of Orange-Tory strength." By 1844, six of Toronto's ten aldermen were Orangemen, and, over the rest of the 19th century, twenty of twenty-three mayors would be as well. A parliamentary committee reporting on the 1841 Orange Riot in Toronto concluded that the powers granted the Corporation made it ripe for Orange abuse. Orange influence dominated the emerging police force, giving it a "monopoly of legal violence, and the power to choose when to enforce the law." Orange Order violence at elections and other political meetings was a staple of the period. Between 1839 and 1866, the Orange Order was involved in 29 riots in Toronto, of which 16 had direct political inspiration.
At its height in 1942, 16 of the 23 members of city council were members of the Orange Order. Every mayor of Toronto in the first half of the 20th century was an Orangeman. This continued until the 1954 election when the Jewish Nathan Phillips defeated radical Orange leader Leslie Howard Saunders.
Annexations and amalgamations
The boundaries of Toronto remained unchanged into the 1880s. Then followed a series of expansions lasting to the 1910s: Toronto expanded to the west by annexing the Town of Brockton in 1884, the Town of Parkdale in 1889, and properties west to Swansea (such as High Park) by 1893; to the north by annexing Yorkville in 1883, The Annex in 1887, Seaton Village in 1888, Rosedale in 1905, Deer Park in 1908, the City of West Toronto, Bracondale, and Wychwood Park in 1909, Dovercourt Park and Earlscourt in 1910, and Moore Park and North Toronto in 1912; and to the east by annexing Riverdale in 1884, a strip east of Greenwood in 1890, Town of East Toronto (including East Danforth and Upper Beaches) in 1908, an extension east to Victoria Park Avenue in 1909, and the Midway (bounded by Danforth Avenue in north, Greenwood Avenue to west, Queen Street to south and East Toronto western boundaries to the east) in 1909. By 1908, the named wards were abolished, replaced by a simple numbering scheme of Ward 1 to Ward 6.
By the 1920s, Toronto stopped annexing suburbs. In 1954, the municipalities in York County south of Steeles Avenue were severed from the county to form the aforementioned Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto (a precursor to later regional municipalities), which included Toronto and numerous suburbs. Metropolitan Toronto operated as an upper-tier municipal government whereas Toronto continued to operate as a lower-tier government within Metropolitan Toronto. In 1967, provincial reform of lower-tier municipalities in Metropolitan Toronto saw Toronto annex the municipalities of Forest Hill and Swansea. The City of Toronto remained this size until 1998, when it was formally dissolved and its area amalgamated into the new single-tier City of Toronto. The new City of Toronto was formed from Old Toronto, the five other dissolved municipalities that made up Metropolitan Toronto, and that upper tier itself in 1997.
Culture
The first Crystal Palace in Toronto, officially named the Palace of Industry, was modelled after the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, England, and was Toronto's first permanent exhibition hall. Completed in 1858, it was located south of the Provincial Lunatic Asylum, northwest of King and Shaw Streets. It was dismantled in 1878, and the ironwork was used to construct a new Crystal Palace on what would later become Exhibition Place. The second Crystal Palace hosted Toronto's first Industrial Exhibition (the predecessor to the Canadian National Exhibition or CNE) in 1879. By the time it was destroyed in 1906 by fire, it was officially known as the CNE Transportation Building. It was replaced by the Horticulture Building in 1907.
Institutions
Health care
Old Toronto was home to a number of hospitals, including Bridgepoint Active Healthcare (originally named House of Refuge, see below), Casey House, Mount Sinai Hospital, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre (originally named Princess Margaret Hospital), St. Joseph's Health Centre, St. Michael's Hospital, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto Grace Health Centre, Toronto Western Hospital and Women's College Hospital. Two health care institutions were also established in 1998 by amalgamating previously separate hospitals: the Toronto Rehabilitation Institute and the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health.
The Toronto General Hospital is the oldest operating hospital established in Toronto. It started as a small shed in the old town and was used as a military hospital during the War of 1812, after which it was founded as a permanent institution, York General Hospital, in 1829, at John and King Streets. In 1853–1856, a new home for the hospital was built on the north side of Gerrard Street, east of Parliament, using a design by architect William Hay, and relocated to University Avenue at College Street in 1913.
The House of Providence on Power Street (between King and Queen Streets) was opened by the Sisters of St. Joseph in 1857 to aid the plight of the desperately poor. It was demolished in 1962 to make way for the Richmond Street exit from the Don Valley Parkway. By that time it was a nursing home, and its residents moved to a new facility at St. Clair and Warden Avenues, known today as Providence Healthcare.
The House of Refuge was built in 1860 as a home for "vagrants, the dissolute, and for idiots". The building became a smallpox hospital during an epidemic during the 1870s. It was demolished in 1894, and a new structure called the Riverdale Isolation Hospital was built on the site in 1904, which evolved into the Rivderdale Hospital and later Bridgepoint Health.
Public library
Toronto has operated the Toronto Public Library system since 1884. Its collection originated from The Mechanics Institute, which was founded in 1830 by reform Alderman James Lesslie to provide technical and adult education. In 1853 the Institute erected a new permanent home at the corner of Church and Adelaide Streets, but it struggled to attract new paying members. In 1883 the Institute was thus transformed into a municipally supported public reference library. The idea was promoted by alderman John Hallam, but it met considerable resistance in city council. No other city in Canada at this time had a completely free public library. Hallam brought the initiative to a public referendum, and the citizens of Toronto voted in its favour on January 1, 1883. The 5,000-book collection of the Mechanics' Institute became the first books of the newly formed Toronto Public Library.
As a result of the 1998 amalgamation of Toronto, the other municipal libraries of Metropolitan Toronto were merged with Toronto Public Library. It also merged with the Metro Toronto Public Library, which operated one branch, the Toronto Reference Library in Old Toronto.
Education
Four public school boards provide primary and secondary education for residents of Old Toronto, (CSCM), (CSV), the Toronto Catholic District School Board (TCDSB), and the Toronto District School Board (TDSB). CSV and TDSB are secular public school boards, operating respectively a French first language institution and English first language institutions. The other two school boards, CSCM and TCDSB, are public separate school boards, operating French first language separate schools and English first language separate schools. Before 1998, the Toronto Board of Education and had operated public secular schools while the Metropolitan Separate School Board () had operated public separate schools. These were reorganized upon the amalgamation into the City of Toronto.
Old Toronto hosts Toronto Metropolitan University, University of Toronto's St. George Campus, OCAD University, George Brown College and several other post-secondary institutions.
Politics
Capital
The first Upper Canada parliament buildings were built in 1796 at Front and Parliament Streets when the capital of the Province was moved from Niagara-on-the-Lake. These were destroyed in 1813 during an attack on the then-City of York during the War of 1812. A second building was constructed on the same site in 1820, only to be lost to fire in 1824. They were replaced by a new structure built between 1829 and 1832 near Front, John, Simcoe, and Wellington Streets, which saw alterations take place in 1849.
With the unification of Upper and Lower Canada in 1840, the building continued to see sporadic periods of usage as the legislature of the Province of Canada until the capital was permanently moved to what is now Ottawa shortly before Confederation in 1867, which saw the formation of the modern-day province of Ontario (the same area as Upper Canada). Upon Confederation, Toronto was selected to be the provincial capital and thus the Front Street building returned to usage as the location of the provincial legislature until the current Legislative Buildings at Queen's Park were completed in 1893. The Front Street building remained vacant until it was demolished in 1903; the Canadian Broadcasting Centre now sits on the site.
Chorley Park, located in the Rosedale neighbourhood, served as the official residence of the Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario from 1915 to 1937. The building was demolished in 1961 after it and the lands around it were purchased by the municipal government.
Municipal politics
City council
In 1833, several prominent reformers had petitioned the House of Assembly to have the town incorporated, which would also have made the position of magistrate elective. The Tory-controlled House struggled to find a means of creating a legitimate electoral system that might nonetheless minimize the chances of reformers being elected. The bill passed on March 6, 1834, proposed two different property qualifications for voting. There was a higher qualification for the election of aldermen (who would also serve as magistrates) and a lower one for common councillors. Two aldermen and two councilmen would be elected from each city ward. This relatively broad electorate was offset by a much higher qualification for election to office, which essentially limited election to the wealthy, much like the old Courts of Quarter Sessions it replaced. The mayor was elected by the aldermen from among their number, and a clear barrier was erected between those of property who served as full magistrates and the rest. Only 230 of the city's 2,929 adult men met this stringent property qualification.
City halls
The second market building replaced the original wooden market building in 1831 and ran from King Street to Front Street (the site of the current St. Lawrence Hall, and the St. Lawrence Market North building). It was selected by the first mayor, William Lyon Mackenzie, as city hall. His newspaper, the Colonial Advocate, rented space in the rear. This building, along with much of the surrounding Market Block, was destroyed by fire in the 1849 Cathedral Fire. The site was rebuilt as St. Lawrence Hall in 1850.
The second city hall, built in 1845 and renovated in 1850, was known as the New Market House. It served as city hall until 1899. In 1904, the current St. Lawrence Market South building was built, incorporating part of the city hall structure. Toronto third city hall began construction in 1889, and was completed a decade later, in 1899. Old City Hall was also used as a court house (assuming the role of the closed Adelaide Street Court House, closed in 1900), and continues to be used as a dedicated court house. The third city hall was used by the Toronto City Council from 1899 to 1965, when they moved to the completed fourth Toronto City Hall.
Ward system
The earliest Toronto neighbourhoods were the five municipal wards that the city was split into in 1834. The wards were named for the patron saints of the four nations of the British Isles (St. George, St. Andrew, St. Patrick, and St. David) and St. Lawrence, a patron saint of Canada (St. Joseph is the principal patron saint of Canada). Today, only St. Lawrence remains a well-known neighbourhood name. The others have attached their names to a variety of still-existing landmarks, including three subway stations. As Toronto grew, more wards were created, still named after prominent saints. St. James Ward is preserved in the modern St. James Town neighbourhood, while the northern ward of St. Paul's has continued to the present as a federal and provincial electoral district.
Demographics
The population of Old Toronto was 797,642 at the 2016 census, living on a land area of . According to the 2001 census, the population was:
70% Caucasian
10% Chinese
5% African-Canadian
5% South Asian
3% Filipino
2% Latin American
2% Southeast Asian
1% Korean
2% Other
See also
Downtown Toronto
References
Bibliography
Notes
External links
City of Toronto
Populated places established in 1834
Populated places disestablished in 1998
Metropolitan Toronto
Former cities in Ontario
Former municipalities in Toronto
Neighbourhoods in Toronto
History of Toronto
1834 establishments in Canada
1998 disestablishments in Ontario |
4560022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20The%20Shield%20characters | List of The Shield characters | The following is a list of character summaries from the FX Networks television series The Shield.
Main characters
Michael Chiklis – Vic Mackey (2002–2008)
Glenn Close – Monica Rawling (2005)
Catherine Dent – Danielle "Danny" Sofer (2002–2008)
Reed Diamond – Terry Crowley (2002, recurring 2003)
Paula Garces – Tina Hanlon (2008, recurring 2006–2007)
Walton Goggins – Shane Vendrell (2002–2008)
Michael Jace – Julien Lowe (2002–2008)
Kenneth Johnson – Curtis "Lem" Lemansky (2002–2006)
Jay Karnes – Holland "Dutch" Wagenbach (2002–2008)
David Marciano – Steve Billings (2008, recurring 2005–2007)
Benito Martinez – David Aceveda (2002–2008)
Cathy Cahlin Ryan – Corrine Mackey (2005–2008, recurring 2002–2004)
David Rees Snell – Ronnie Gardocki (2006–2008, recurring 2002–2005)
CCH Pounder – Claudette Wyms (2002–2008)
Monica Rawling
Captain Monica Rawling is a fictional character from the FX television show The Shield, played by Glenn Close, who received an Emmy nomination as Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her performance, and Golden Globe Award nomination as Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Series - Drama.
Character history
Monica Rawling succeeded David Aceveda as Captain of the Farmington precinct. A morally strong woman, she tried to redeem Vic Mackey and Ronnie Gardocki by involving them in a controversial asset forfeiture program designed to clean up Farmington, by destroying the neighborhood drug trade. The program was extremely unpopular with the local citizens, yet she kept the seizures in place, believing they did more good than harm.
Rawling began her police career in Farmington, where she started as a patrol officer partnered with Rich Nelson. In "Back in the Hole", drug kingpin Antwon Mitchell reveals that Rawling and Nelson had an affair, but the married father Nelson eventually returned to his family. When Mitchell murdered a 14-year-old girl turned police informant, Rawling was determined to take him down. A video recording of him confessing the murder to Shane Vendrell and ordering Vic Mackey's death provided the means to send Mitchell back to jail. However, after finally proving that Mitchell was responsible for ordering the brutal stabbing deaths of two Farmington police officers, Rawling learned that David Aceveda had arranged an immunity deal for the imprisoned drug lord. Learning that the DEA was using Antwon's information to build a case against the Salvadoran drug cartel which had been supplying him with heroin, Captain Rawling ordered Vic and the Strike Team to build a case against the Salvadorans first.
The DEA was enraged and subsequently threatened to cut off all Federal funding to the LA area unless Rawling was fired. Although the Chief immediately complied, Rawling was allowed to remain at the Barn until Mitchell was delivered to the police station and formally arrested for the Farmington cop killings.
Vic informally visited Rawling one last time in her residence in Farmington. She has a small chat with him about the future and asks if he ever thinks about how things would end for him, Vic responds that he will take things as they come. Monica tells him to promise her to be mindful of his actions and to take good care of himself, a subtle warning to Vic unaware that IAD will be investigating him and the Strike Team. Mackey tells her to do the same and wished each other good luck for the future before departing. Right after closing the door, Rawling broke down in tears, visibly devastated by having been fired. She was the only member of the Farmington Police Division to not attend the celebration at the local bar of Mitchell's arrest. Her final scene shows her alone in her house, sitting on the couch drinking a beer, in contrast to the crowded, boisterous, noisy celebration at the bar.
Relationship with Vic Mackey
Before Rawling arrived at the barn, Aceveda disbanded the strike team and wrote a burn notice on Mackey. This made Mackey "untradable" because no other department would take him afterwards. As Rawlings put it, he was the "red-headed stepchild of the barn before (she) came."
Rawling gave Vic more responsibility, and took him on as a sort of right-hand man, despite Aceveda's protests. Despite a few arguments, their relationship was usually cordial. While Mackey serves as a good cop, he was also a political liability.
Early in the season, Rawling opens an investigation into Mackey to prove to Aceveda that Mackey was clean. However, IAD confirmed Monica's suspicions about the Strike Team correct when they found a brick of heroin in Lemansky's car that he confiscated from a drug dealer and never turned in as evidence. Rawling, having lost her job as Captain, said it was someone else's problem now. This eventually leads to IAD Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh's investigation into the Strike Team.
Danielle Sofer
Sergeant Danielle "Danny" Sofer is a fictional Los Angeles Police Department sergeant in the television drama series The Shield. Sofer is played by Catherine Dent.
Danny started the series as a patrol officer who aspires to become a detective. She has an on-again, off-again sexual relationship with Vic Mackey, and a complicated history with Dutch Wagenbach. Captain David Aceveda trusts her, helping her get reinstated after she is fired and arranging for her to be reassigned to Julien Lowe. Sofer becomes a mentor for Lowe, though the two don't see eye to eye on several personal issues and aspects of police work. She is forced to kill an Arab man, and the repercussions haunt her through several episodes as she is continually harassed. In season 5, she is assigned to desk duty as a result of her pregnancy. The identity of the father is unknown and is the subject of an office pool among her co-workers. Even though she is driven to the hospital by Julien, in her hospital bed after giving birth, Vic asks if Danny will tell the baby who the father was and she tells Vic that she will let the baby know, "when he's old enough," implying that Vic is indeed Lee's father. In Season 6, Captain Claudette Wyms promotes Danny to the rank of sergeant; however, since open sergeants positions were filling rapidly, Danny was told she would have to end her maternity leave immediately in order to get a guaranteed full-time position.
Danny is partnered up with Tina Hanlon and the two clash frequently as Danny feels that Tina is too inexperienced to be relied upon while Tina feels that Danny doesn't respect her or her skills. Things escalate when both women fix their eye on Kevin Hiatt, though Danny later admits that it was only to see if she could still "get her girl on." Later on, after hearing a confession, Danny consoles Dutch in the locker room and the pair share a kiss.
Ronnie Gardocki
Detective Ronald Everett "Ronnie" Gardocki, is a fictional character who appears in the FX crime drama The Shield. He is portrayed by David Rees Snell. Ronnie is known for his extremely calm demeanor, well-groomed appearance, and quiet nature.
Background
Little is known about the background of Detective Ronnie Gardocki. His surname is of Polish origin, but no other clues about his past are given. A DVD commentary by Michael Chiklis said that all the show's characters are from where the actors themselves are from, which would mean that Gardocki is from Wichita, Kansas.
Ronnie has very few lines in comparison with the rest of the Strike Team members, and consequently it is difficult for the viewer to ascertain much information about him through what he says. He is trusted implicitly by Vic Mackey, who at times often shields Ronnie from the darker schemes involving the Strike Team. Ronnie, either deliberately or unconsciously, tends to stay in the background, rarely speaking up about anything, though he radiates a manner of unshakable confidence.
Superficially, Gardocki can be described as "geeky" due to his interest in electronic equipment and computers. In episode "Blowback" he comments that he went to California State University, Northridge. Besides this aptitude with computers, he has been shown to enjoy the band Journey, beer, and is an avowed atheist. He has severe allergies (in one episode, he comments that he's allergic to "everything but sheet metal"). He appears to favor the Beretta 8045 Cougar F as his sidearm. He had a thick mustache in the first two seasons for which he was occasionally mocked for, before growing a full beard in the Season Three, to cover up the scarring caused by Mexican drug lord Armadillo Quintero.
Gardocki's personality changes somewhat over the course of the show. Initially he is somewhat of a geek, speaking awkwardly with a woman during a prostitution sting (and being mocked for it by his teammates). After Season Three begins, he takes on more of an extroverted manner, participating in more dangerous, hands-on police work with the Strike Team. This is reflective of his experiences over his time working with Mackey. Over the course of the show he is seen flirting with several women; he is also admired by Officer Tina Hanlon, though the potential relationship never develops, and during Season Seven is shown taking an attractive Asian woman back to his apartment.
His calm and quiet personality sharply contrasts with the more aggressive members of the Strike Team. However, he has also been shown to have a violent side: when the Strike Team tried to break up a riot between a group of black and Hispanic gang members at a funeral home, a black gang member struck Gardocki in the back of the head with a crucifix hanging on a nearby wall. After finding out the identity of the culprit, the Strike Team tracked him down so that Gardocki could beat the man bloody.
Gardocki ultimately distinguishes himself from the other three members of the Strike Team as being the most careful and smart in maintaining his outward image as an upstanding, incorruptible cop. Although he committed and was involved in as many crimes as the other three members, Gardocki manages to evade his superiors and their wrath as an individual, unlike the three other team members who all get caught for individual crimes or questionable actions made separately from the overall Strike Team. This is due to Gardocki being extremely guarded and intelligent in the way he handles not only the team's illegal activities, but his own, and he never leaves evidence or proof of his involvement with the majority of his questionable actions. He was the only member of the Strike Team to escape the majority of the damage of IAD Lieutenant Kavanaugh's investigation due to there being no direct evidence on his use of the Money Train money, his involvement with Terry Crowley's death, and other crimes more visibly committed by Mackey and Vendrell.
Only in the final episodes of the series do Gardocki's crimes become known by his superiors, though his careful personality is not the cause of it. His involvement in crimes is only exposed because of his team leader and best friend Mackey, who revealed the Strike Team's criminal acts—Gardocki's included—in order to gain immunity from ICE, sending Gardocki to prison for life.
Character history
Gardocki appeared in about two-thirds of the first season's episodes, including a brief appearance in the pilot for which Snell went uncredited. To explain why a member of the Strike Team would be missing in action so often, it was established that Mackey often has Gardocki run errands.
After Mackey uses a stove to burn the face of Armadillo, a violent Mexican drug lord, Armadillo retaliates by doing the same to Gardocki (after Gardocki's paranoia, which was ignored by the Strike Team), leaving him on the brink of death. Gardocki survives, but is left permanently disfigured. It is hinted that Gardocki will not return to active duty, and detective Tavon Garris is hired to join the Strike Team. Fellow team member Shane Vendrell is initially resentful towards Garris for taking his spot on the team.
Gardocki returns and decides to take a more active role in the Strike Team, particularly in planning out a means for the Strike Team to hijack the Armenian mob's "Money Train," a convoy used in a money laundering operation. Gardocki, initially interested in the idea, became a much larger advocate for it after his disfigurement, coming up with an alternate method of stealing the money that bypassed the problems within the original plan.
Gardocki later notices that a large sum of the "Money Train" loot is missing, and openly accuses Mackey and Vendrell of stealing the money. When the real thief is revealed as Vendrell's girlfriend, Gardocki states that it is not safe for any member to use the loot, given that the police are still looking for the identity of the people behind the heist.
Lemansky ultimately burns the remaining money from the robbery, fearing that the team's actions will eventually be discovered. When Lemansky's actions cause tension between him and Vendrell, Gardocki attempts to mediate between the two. However, tensions between the team eventually lead to the team's dissolution. Lemansky and Vendrell are transferred to different divisions, but Gardocki remains as Mackey's partner. When suspicions between Mackey, Gardocki, and Lemansky arise regarding Vendrell's involvement with drug kingpin Antwon Mitchell, Gardocki plants a camera in Vendrell's car. The camera captures Mitchell ordering Vendrell to kill Mackey, an act that leads to Mitchell's eventual arrest.
After the Strike Team is re-formed following Mitchell's arrest, Gardocki and the rest of the team are investigated by Internal Affairs Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh due to their suspected involvement in various crimes. Kavanaugh finds discrepancies in some of the team members' finances (a result of their using money from the "Money Train" heist), but Gardocki escapes suspicion due to careful management of his share of the money. Kavanaugh points out that because of the others, Gardocki may go down for "a mistake you were too smart to make", foreshadowing his ultimate fate.
Lemansky later becomes a fugitive after Kavanaugh charges him with stealing heroin from a criminal informant's house. On the way to a covert meeting with Lemansky, Gardocki and Mackey are tailed by Kavanaugh's agents. By the time they escape their pursuers and arrive at the rendezvous point, Vendrell had killed Lemansky with a grenade in order to prevent him from giving up evidence on the other members of the Strike Team.
Gardocki begins to suspect Vendrell's involvement in the murder, but is initially unable to find evidence to justify his suspicions. Eventually, Mackey discovers the truth and threatens to kill Vendrell. Vendrell responds by creating a document detailing the various crimes committed by the Strike Team, informing Mackey that the document—containing enough evidence to put Mackey and Gardocki in prison for the rest of their lives – will find its way to the police if Mackey carries out his plans for revenge.
Vendrell approaches Gardocki with an offer to form an alliance against Mackey. When Gardocki declines, Vendrell informs him of Mackey's involvement in the murder of detective Terry Crowley. Gardocki, unmoved because he had long suspected as much, confronts Mackey to demand why he had been left out of the plot. Mackey refuses to admit to the murder in front of Gardocki.
Mackey and Gardocki later discover that Vendrell has informed the Armenians of their involvement in the Money Train heist. The Armenians have vowed to get revenge by killing Mackey, his family, and Gardocki, so Mackey forges a truce with Vendrell in order to deal with the threat. When Gardocki expresses refusal to work with Vendrell, Mackey promises that they will deal with Vendrell after the threat from the Armenians is resolved. Meanwhile, Gardocki is promoted to lead the Strike Team in light of Mackey's upcoming forced retirement. This is done to marginalize Mackey during his final weeks on the job, as Gardocki would be held responsible for any wrongdoing on Mackey's part.
Mackey and Gardocki craft a plan to simultaneously eliminate both Vendrell and the leadership of the Armenian mob. Their plan succeeds in eliminating the Armenians, but Vendrell escapes and realizes he had been set up. Vendrell responds by attempting to murder both Mackey and Gardocki; this too fails, and he is exposed for conspiring to murder his two teammates.
Vendrell flees, increasing pressure on Mackey and Gardocki to eliminate him before he tells the police of their involvement in various crimes. Mackey begins working with ICE, hoping that in exchange for bringing down a Mexican drug cartel both he and Gardocki will be offered jobs and granted immunity for any crimes committed as members of the Strike Team.
ICE refuses to grant immunity to Gardocki, extending it only to Mackey. In order to secure his own immunity, Mackey is required to confess to the various crimes committed by the Strike Team. Frustrated at her inability to prosecute Mackey for the heinous actions he admits to, ICE agent Olivia Murray tells Mackey that she has enough evidence to send Gardocki to prison for life and will have him arrested after the conclusion of the cartel investigation. Unable to warn Gardocki for fear of voiding his immunity agreement, Mackey lies and tells Gardocki that he successfully secured immunity for both of them.
After the drug cartel is brought down, Gardocki is informed that Vendrell committed suicide and killed his own family in order to avoid arrest. Gardocki is distraught at the news, but relieved that Vendrell will no longer be able to threaten him. Gardocki is shocked shortly thereafter when Claudette gives the signal to Dutch to arrest Ronnie before Vic can alert him himself (the exact charges are never stated, though Detective Wagenbach references both the Armenian Money Train robbery along with his decision not to come forward with the revelation that Mackey had murdered Detective Crowley as Ronnie is being handcuffed). Incredulous that Mackey betrayed and lied to him, Gardocki explodes with anger at Mackey as he condemns his former friend's now hypocritical rhetoric about "protecting the team" as well as his preventing Ronnie from fleeing the country several days earlier. Ronnie's demeanor during this scene contrasts greatly with his overall personality throughout the course of the series. As Ronnie is dragged away, Claudette allows a distraught Vic to finally leave the precinct, having destroyed his relationship with the Barn once and for all.
Relationships
Vic Mackey
One of the few elements of Gardocki's background that has been explored is his close friendship with Mackey. The season two episodes "Partners" and "Co-Pilot" established that Gardocki and Mackey met after Mackey's original partner Joe Clark was fired due to excessive force complaints, but before Mackey met and became partners with Vendrell. It was Mackey who brought Gardocki onto the Strike Team after the anti-gang task force was formed.
Despite being out of the loop on several deeds, Ronnie's loyalty is established during season two when he is disfigured by a pedophile crime boss who Mackey had similarly disfigured earlier in the season. When the crime boss is arrested, he threatens to file a police brutality complaint against Mackey if Gardocki does not recant a statement which identifies the crime boss as his attacker. When Vendrell finds out the details of the situation, Mackey responds that he would turn himself in for his act of police brutality rather than be blackmailed into forcing Gardocki to recant his sworn statement and let the man who disfigured him go free. Mackey is never forced to carry out his vow, as Vendrell arranges for the mob boss to be killed by a disgruntled minion, sparing Vic from having to destroy his career for Ronnie's sake.
Despite his friendship with Mackey, Ronnie has often been kept in dark regarding some of Vic's darker plans. Most notably, Gardocki was not involved in the murder plot against Crowley. In the aftermath of the murder, Mackey and fellow conspirator Vendrell go out of their way to avoid discussing the crime in front of him. After Vendrell's estrangement from the team following his murder of Lemansky, Vendrell reveals the truth about Crowley in order to drive a wedge between the two remaining members of the Strike Team. Gardocki reveals to Mackey that he had long suspected the latter's involvement and that he understood why Mackey did what he did. Furthermore, Gardocki adds that he could have provided Mackey with emotional support after the murder, citing that he would have "looked out for [Mackey] better" than Vendrell did.
At the series' conclusion, Mackey accepts a deal to receive a job with ICE and immunity from any crimes he committed as a member of the Strike Team in exchange for helping to bring down a Mexican drug cartel. He attempts to get Gardocki in on the deal, but ICE refuses. Mackey initially holds out until Gardocki's deal is finalized, but later comes to believe that his ex-wife is in legal trouble for unwittingly assisting Mackey in his illegal actions. Fearful for his ex-wife's immediate future, he agrees to the immunity deal for himself and his ex-wife. As a condition of the deal, he is required to confess to the Strike Team's various illegal actions, implicating Gardocki in a number of them. He lies to Gardocki, telling him that immunity was secured for both of them. In the series finale, Mackey's treachery is revealed when Gardocki is arrested for his crimes, though he does apparently feel guilty for having sold Gardocki out. Despite Gardocki's loyalty, Vic never considered him as close as he did Shane. Ironically, many thought before Vic's betrayal, that Ronnie's low key nature and ability to cover his tracks would allow him to escape the Strike Team's crimes unscathed.
Shane Vendrell
Gardocki's relationship with Vendrell is much more antagonistic. For the first few seasons they were shown to be good friends, albeit not as close as Shane was to the other two. This is evident in a Season One episode when Lem and Shane profit $10000 each from a cockfighting ring, and Vendrell gives $5000 to Mackey, when Lem asks about Gardocki, Vendrell simply says "Screw Ronnie! He is off the clock". Later episodes would reveal that Vendrell considered Gardocki to be Mackey's "whipping boy", due to the fact that Mackey often has Gardocki run errands and leaves him out of major decisions involving the Strike Team. Despite this, Vendrell was visibly annoyed and upset when Tavon Garris momentarily replaced Gardocki after the latter's hospitalization, though in the end Gardocki returned and Garris also stayed.
During the events leading to the Strike Team's temporary dissolution, Gardocki became privy to several of Vendrell's misdeeds. When $7000 of the Money Train cash went missing, Gardocki suspected Vendrell and chastised Mackey for not suspecting Vendrell sooner. He comes to see Vendrell as a liability who must be watched in case he does anything which could implicate the team members in any wrongdoing. When gang leader Antwon Mitchell orders Vendrell to kill Mackey, Gardocki tells Lemansky that he hopes Mackey kills Vendrell during their next meeting.
Their friendship heals to an extent when the Strike Team re-forms. He is more willing to accept Vendrell back into the fold than Lemansky. However, after he discovers that Vendrell killed Lemansky and then drafted up a document detailing the team's crimes as part of his scheme to protect himself from reprisals of Mackey, their friendship ends once and for all. Vendrell tries to lure Gardocki away from Mackey's side, but Gardocki remains angry at Vendrell, refusing to betray Mackey or even engage in small talk with when the two are forced to work together on a stakeout.
Gardocki eventually pushes Mackey to deal with Vendrell "once and for all," culminating in Mackey arranging for Vendrell to be murdered along with the leaders of the Armenian Mob. However, when Vendrell informs Mackey that he would be willing to transfer to a new precinct once they cleared themselves of the problems involving the Armenians, Mackey begins having second thoughts about the murder attempt. Vendrell survives the attempt on his life and realizes that Gardocki and Mackey had tried to kill him, leading to Vendrell arranging for Gardocki to be killed, a scheme that fails as well. When he and his family goes on the run, Gardocki fears that if caught they will testify against him and Vic to receive better deals. Despite their antagonism, Gardocki shows a deal of sadness when he discovers that Vendrell killed himself and his family, but at the same time shows relief thinking he is safe from prosecution, not knowing Vic already gave up Ronnie.
Curtis Lemansky
Gardocki's friendship with Lemansky is noticeably less complicated. Due to Mackey and Vendrell often riding together, he and Lemansky are often tasked to work together in running down leads. "Co-Pilot" established they did not know each other until the formation of the Strike Team. When Lemansky burns most of the Money Train cash, Gardocki is angered, yet willing to move past it to keep Lemansky on the team so the Strike Team can remain in operation. Like the other members of the Strike Team, Gardocki is visibly touched when Lem reveals that he considers the team to be "the only family I got." When the Strike Team does dissolve, they are shown to still have a friendship. Gardocki begins to distrust Lemansky when he is under investigation by IAD, thinking he might sell out the team to save himself, but did not suggest violent retribution, unlike what Shane Vendrell eventually did. Upon Lemansky's death at the hands of Shane, Gardocki, like Mackey, wants to find the culprit and kill him. Gardocki still seeks to kill the murderer when it became clear it was Vendrell, even more so than Mackey. In the final season, Gardocki is unwilling to forgive Shane for what he did to Lem and constantly reminds Vic that Lem must be avenged.
Reception
Gardocki evolves from being a "feature player who maybe [gets] a line or two, to one of the show's aces in the hole." With both Snell and Walton Goggins praised for delivering "some of their best work" in series seven. Salon are especially complimentary of the character's role in the climax of the series, writing "In contrast to impulsive, confused Shane, Ronnie was prepared to stand by Vic to the end. What made Ronnie's downfall so heartbreaking was that it had nothing to do with his own bad decisions. He was following Vic's lead, trusting his longtime partner to protect him. He even had a very rational plan to skip town a few episodes back, but Vic talked him into sticking around, in the hopes of securing an immunity deal for both of them. That's why Ronnie's arrest and realization that Vic had betrayed him constituted the most grueling moment of the whole finale, more grueling even than seeing Shane and his family dead, since Shane's short-sightedness seemed to seal their ugly fate a long time ago. Unlike Shane, Ronnie was smart and practical, but he was done in by his trust in Vic, who finally proved that he was willing to sacrifice almost anyone for his own survival." They summarise the character as "steadfast and patient and trusting." Brandon Nowalk for The A.V. Club remarks, that "Jay Karnes and David Marciano act David Rees Snell into the background [...] Karnes is letting you know Dutch's reaction to every last thing that happens. It's a full performance." Though Grant Nebel describes this as "about as misguided a criticism as you can make." He adds "If Snell gave the kind of busy, expressive, voluble performance that Karnes does [...] his character, would fail completely. [...] Snell plays Ronnie quietly, closed off, giving away so little, because that's who Ronnie is. He's someone who could keep this knowledge secret and no one, including the audience, would suspect anything [...] the one who always counsels the most pragmatic approach, the one who, as Kavanaugh said, leaves no traces or vulnerabilities. That's what makes Ronnie a compelling character, and Snell gives exactly the right performance for that." The Guardian regret that Gardocki remained "underused" until the final two series, initially referring to him as "the other one". Series seven of The Shield has been described as "the finest season of [David Rees Snell's] Shield career as the third Strike Team member, Ronnie Gardocki, and it's a season described in the commentary as the corruption of Ronnie because in several episodes Ronnie is forced to commit acts worse than he has ever done onscreen before. He's an extremely likeable character, and it's nice to see him get more screen time than has been awarded him in the past, and while David's acting might not be as critically praised as that of Michael Chiklis or Walton Goggins, he easily matches their stellar standard and his performance far surpasses simply being believable, making it easy to feel for his character. SubtleTea describe him as "introverted, but effective." NJ.com is complimentary of Snell's performance, writing that he "turned a non-speaking extra part in the pilot into a crucial role as strike team member Ronnie Gardocki. IGN share similar sentiments, adding "For much of the series, David Rees Snell was underused as Ronnie Gardocki, but the last couple of seasons deftly made use of his portrayal as the quiet workhorse of the team, as we saw more of what made Ronnie tick."
Shane Vendrell
Detective Shane Vendrell is a fictional character on the FX Networks police drama television series The Shield. He is portrayed by actor Walton Goggins.
Shane is a police detective who has been heavily involved in the dealings of Vic Mackey's Strike Team, since its formation. He starts out as Vic's best friend and Lem's long-time good friend, but falls out with them multiple times during the course of the series. In season 3, Shane marries Mara Sewell and has a son, Jackson. Shane reveals in season 1 that he originally comes from Atlanta, Georgia. He reveals to Lem in season 5 that Mara is pregnant with the couple's second child.
Terry Crowley's murder
When Terry Crowley—an undercover informant sent by the Justice Department to expose corruption in the Strike Team—was murdered by Vic, Shane was the only witness. The other two members of the Strike Team were unaware that it was Vic, not the drug dealer Two-Time, who had murdered Terry until season 6, when Shane had compiled a list of all their crimes to use as blackmail against Vic. Ronnie Gardocki angrily confronted Shane about the list, it implicated him, and it was at that time that Shane told him about Vic's murdering Terry. Curtis Lemansky had suspicions about Vic's murdering Terry, which Vic denied, until his struggle with Vic in season 5 when Lem disconnected the wire Kavanaugh forced him to wear and learned the truth from Vic. Early in season 1, Shane was clearly distressed about what he and Vic had done. This was most evident at Terry's funeral, where Shane was visibly shaken by seeing Terry's mother. As time passed, he was seemingly able to move past it and accepted the murder as having been necessary. When Vic expressed regret about the murder in season 5, it was Shane who reassured him that he had done it to protect the team.
Racism and recklessness
Shane has behaved in a racist manner throughout the show as he has used derogatory comments like "nigger", "darkie", "wetback", and "beaner" multiple times. Shane also drove away a potential protégé of Vic named Tavon Garris due to their personal differences. Shane also had very friendly relationships with several minority officers, as well as a sexual relationship with a black teenage girl. Walton Goggins said in an interview that he didn't agree with or enjoy saying Shane's bigoted views; coincidentally or not, Shane was less vocal in his prejudices in the latter years of the series.
In Season 4, Shane was partnered with "Army", a Mexican-American detective and veteran of the Iraq War. The two became close friends, with Army notably referring to their pairing as "the hick and the spic". Shane was also the main officer looking to seek a partnership with Antwon Mitchell, a black American heroin czar. Overall, Shane is less hostile to black women than to black men. This is revealed by his friendship with female Detective Trish George, as well as his shock and outrage over the murder of a 14-year-old black girl at the hands of Antwon Mitchell.
Shane committed numerous acts of reckless behavior while part of the Strike Team, as well almost getting their operations blown on several occasions. He once threw down a suspect and urinated on him. He also accidentally had a truck full of cocaine stolen while he visited a nearby woman for sex. He once threatened a woman by locking her in the room with him and suggesting that he would rape her unless she told him where her boyfriend was. Her boyfriend was the man who shot Vic, and if he wasn't found he would have been killed by Joe Clark, Vic's training officer – it was, however, an empty threat.
Shane is the main catalyst for many of the problems the strike team go through during the course of the series due to his recklessness and prejudices. However although he is somewhat of a loose cannon he is savvy and street wise and has bailed Vic out of several tough situations throughout the Team's history. Shane does demonstrate a certain low cunning on multiple occasions but does not possess the level of manipulation or cunning that Vic does. Shane does however have a more loving and gentler side where children are involved. A little girl who saw her father rape and murder her mother would only talk to Shane, and years later when her father came back it was Shane whom she and her family tracked down for protection. Until it was revealed that he had murdered Lem, Shane was Vic's best friend and had proven to be willing to put himself on the line for the Strike Team.
Marriage
Prior to season 3, Shane tried to portray himself as macho and promiscuous. In one instance he shamelessly tried to have sex with a murder victim's widow, who was seeking an emotional release for her grief. In season 3, he began living with a woman named Mara Sewell, who quickly became pregnant with his child after they started seeing each other, and they were quickly married.
The couple first had a young son, Jackson, and had another child on the way (mentioned in "Post Partum"). Despite Shane's marriage and children, he found other women, including an eighteen year old prostitute who was also romantically involved with high-ranking members of the One-Niners gang.
Shane was open with Mara about the ethical conundrums he faced in his police work. Mara had also directly participated in several of these situations. For example, she discovered the storage locker location and key, which she used to take some of the Money Train money to give to her mother. Unbeknownst to her, that money included marked bills the FBI had planted to break up the Armenian Mafia. In another event, Detective Tavon Garris visited Shane's house to reduce tensions with Shane, but the men ended up getting into a fist fight. Mara hit Tavon in the head with an iron, leaving him with impaired judgment and blood loss, which caused him to crash his van and sustain serious injuries. Shane and Mara reached out to Vic, who cleaned the crime scene and worked with Lem to convince Tavon the fight was his fault and thus to remain silent about it.
Shane's break with Vic
After the Strike Team robbed millions from the Armenian mob, authorities began an investigation that continued to build up until Lemansky, unable to handle the tension, burned most of the cash in a furnace. Lem agreed to transfer off the team once the Armenian situation had been resolved. However, when Aceveda told Vic the Strike Team would be disbanded with only three members left, they asked Lem to stay. When an argument among the team breaks out, Shane tells Lem that the only reason they want him to stay is so the team isn't shut down, and Lem takes off in a huff. Ronnie goes after Lem to try to calm him down, leaving Vic and Shane, the two best friends, to air their grievances with each other; Vic's jealousy over Shane's spending so much time with Mara and Shane's issues with Vic's taking the side of other people, despite their being best friends. When Shane calls Vic a bad father, he pushes Vic past the point of no return, and Vic tells him to leave right now, while he restrains himself due to their years of friendship. Shane takes off, and the Strike Team is disbanded.
Antwon Mitchell
Following the breakup of the Strike Team, Shane was reassigned out of "The Barn" to Vice, and was assigned a new partner, Armando "Army" Renta. Shane operates in a similar manner to his role model, Vic, only with less success, and he trains Army to engage in his corrupt practices. Shane offered his services to rising drug lord Antwon Mitchell, who accepted in order to protect his shipments. The arrival of new Farmington Captain Monica Rawling and the revival of the Strike Team caused plans to go awry. Shane attempted to protect his interest in Mitchell's business and rejoined the Team to allow him to stay informed about the seizures. However, Shane's growing arrogance and his failure to report an upcoming raid led to a large loss of drugs, money, and One-Niner gang members.
An enraged Mitchell decided to scrap his deal. Shane and Army were lured to a meeting, severely beaten by Antwon's men, and then were forced to watch as an informant, a 14-year-old named Angie Stubbs, was murdered in front of them using their own weapons. With Angie's body now as a trump card, Shane and Army were released, now with their careers and their freedom at the mercy of Antwon. Shane worked out of fear for several weeks, but was given an opportunity to save himself when Antwon ordered him to murder Vic Mackey, offering him Angie's body in exchange. Fortunately, the conversation was recorded by Ronnie and Lem. Vic angrily confronted Shane in an alley, threatening to kill him. After Shane explained the situation, Vic lowered his weapon and offered his life up to Shane, who refused to take it.
Vic, Ronnie, and a reluctant Lem decided to conduct a search to retrieve Angie's body and destroy Mitchell's leverage. However, as two missing cops from the Barn were found tortured and stabbed to death, Mitchell was immediately suspected. Vic and Shane arrested Mitchell, but struck a deal to watch out for one another and Vic offered to provide Mitchell with another drug supply in a drug crew called the Splash Posse. Capt. Rawling pushed Mitchell much harder than Vic would have expected and soon Antwon leaked orders through his lawyer to let Angie's body surface. In a final effort to seal Army and the Strike Team off from scrutiny, Shane decided to murder Antwon and avenge Angie, thus proving himself to Lem once more; the two reconciled before Shane prepared to confront Antwon. Shane calmly walked into the interrogation room with Antwon, lewdly taunting the drug lord about his son, an imprisoned homosexual. Antwon, although enraged, realizes what Shane was planning and calmly refused to take the bait, leaving Shane to decide whether or not to kill him anyway, but Vic interrupts with a better plan.
Vic revealed the assassination plot to Captain Rawling, along with video footage of Antwon's offer to Shane of "a body for a body." Captain Rawling was suspicious and ordered Shane to take a polygraph. Although he managed to fake his way through, he remained under scrutiny for the duration of her time as captain, which was not helped by Army refusing to take a polygraph test and transferring out of the squad. Mitchell was immediately imprisoned for the murder of Angie and later charged with murdering the two police officers. As a result, Shane was off the hook. He would mend the bridges he burned during the Money Train affair and all seemed well once again.
Six months later, Antwon is once again incarcerated, but comes back to haunt the Strike Team when Kavanaugh makes a deal with Antwon to give him information about the Strike Team. Unbeknownst to Kavanaugh, Antwon also made a deal with Vic to protect Lem in prison if he helps the One-Niners financially. The deal goes sour, however, and Antwon vows to kill Lem no matter which prison he is sent to. Antwon ultimately fails, as Lem going to prison was a lie created by Kavanaugh, and Lem is later killed by Shane.
Internal affairs
As the department began its investigation of the Strike Team, Shane's past was investigated by Lt. Jon Kavanaugh. It was revealed that while Shane and Mara were making their payments on their home legitimately, they were essentially living off of Shane's share of the Money Train. Also Antwon Mitchell disclosed his dealings with Shane to Kavanaugh.
Kavanaugh's case against the Strike Team was almost destroyed when Lem agreed to a plea deal. However, Kavanaugh's investigation into Lompoc Prison resulted in an assurance that Lem would be killed in prison. Afraid for his life, Vic convinced Lem to go on the run.
Lem's murder
Tensions began to rise among the Strike Team the longer Lem remained on the run. As details of their past began to come to light, namely the Money Train heist, it began to seem that Lem had made a deal to give up the team in order to ensure his freedom. Nonetheless, Shane still believed Lem was loyal, even taking some money out of his house payments in order to provide him with a stipend while he was in hiding.
However, when it came time to meet with Lem, the team discovered that they were being trailed in an attempt to arrest them for harboring a fugitive. Shane, the only member of the Strike Team not being trailed, was able to meet with Lem. After some discussion, it was revealed that Lem had no intention of running to Mexico and planned to turn himself in. Fearing that Lem would testify against the team, Shane used a grenade—taken from an earlier raid on the Salvadorans—to murder his team member and friend. Despite the belief that he was acting for the good of the team, Shane was grief-stricken and apologized profusely to Lem as he died. He later met the rest of the team, using the excuse that he too had been tailed.
Aftermath
The remaining Strike Team members attend Lem's funeral where they discuss current leads about Guardo. Shane later meets Ronnie and Vic at Lem's grave site, where they give Lem an improvised "three-volley salute," though there are actually seven volleys as there are only three of them. The next day Shane discovers, along with Vic and Ronnie, that Lem had no intention of "ratting out" the Strike Team. As a result, Shane's justification for Lem's murder was suddenly stripped away.
Shane spends a moment, crying to himself over the fact that he murdered Lem with no justification and appears to be on the verge of committing suicide when he is interrupted by Danny, who has arrived at the Barn to take care of some paperwork and to show off her son. Shane briefly holds the child before reuniting with the team. Shane is completely out of it during a hostage situation and singlehandedly destroys the strategy for dealing with the situation when he abruptly offers himself as a hostage, however, thanks to this, a child is rescued. Vic later chides him after dealing with a gunshot sustained in the rescue, telling Shane to be more careful, as he does not want to lose another friend. Stressed out and racked by guilt, Shane went to have sex with the teenaged black hooker he had met earlier in the day.
When a warrant was issued for Vic's arrest, Shane and Ronnie returned to the Barn on Vic's recommendation in order to not only keep themselves clear of suspicion, but also to gather information on the investigation into the charges. Shane was interviewed by Kavanaugh and Dutch and argued that it was too convenient for Kavanaugh to have discovered the amount of evidence on Vic in a few days considering that his previous investigation of six months had failed to materialize anything. Though the argument was lost on Kavanaugh, it prompted Dutch to begin questioning the validity of Kavanaugh's investigation and corroborating evidence.
Shane briefly thought of possibly creating a story of a grenade being held by Lem accidentally exploding, but it was quickly shot down by Ronnie as being "some bullshit story." Fortunately, the charges were dropped, and Shane, wishing the affair be put behind them, pleaded for Vic to stop his pursuit of Guardo Lima, the Salvadoran drug lord believed to be responsible for Lem's murder. His pleas were ignored and Vic kidnapped, tortured, and brutally murdered Guardo.
Shane became emotionally unstable, especially when children were involved, but children seemed to be his attempt at redemption. Whether putting off his suicide when being shown Danny's baby, or allowing himself to be doused with gasoline to rescue a child in danger from a junkie, or even begging for Guardo's life based on the knowledge that Guardo and his girlfriend would be having a child soon, Shane's guilt and shame showed through most sharply in these circumstances.
Caught red-handed
After learning that Guardo could not have had any involvement in Lem's murder, and clearing Antwon of the same charge, Vic read a dossier on Lem's murder put together by Kavanaugh, revealing that, contrary to his earlier claims, Shane was not followed the night Lem died—giving Vic ample evidence, motive, and a time frame to accuse Shane of the killing. Vic called Shane out at the same location where Lem had been blown apart with the grenade. Shane confessed to his crime, attempting to rationalize it while also speaking of his shame and remorse.
Vic was outraged and screamed, "I had the chance to pull the trigger on you once before; I didn't do it, and Lem lost his life because of it!" He warned Shane that if he ever saw him again, he would kill him. Shane drove off, calling Vic a hypocrite.
In the wind
Believing that Vic might be out to murder him, Shane takes several measures to ensure his survival, beginning with a detailed description of the past crimes of the Strike Team, including names and photos, and threatened to make it public if Vic acted against him.
In addition, Shane also informed Ronnie Gardocki about Vic's murder of Terry Crowley, attempting to drive a wedge between the two and possibly hoping to gain an ally. The news instead has the opposite effect, as Ronnie approached Vic, reproached him for not trusting his loyalty, and even tells Vic that he would have done a better job of keeping the murder secret than Shane ever could have. He then asked Vic how they will be able to put their problems with Shane behind them forever. During their interactions together, Ronnie makes no attempt to hide his disgust and hatred of Shane for what he did to Lem. In one episode, where Shane and Ronnie are on stakeout together, when Shane attempts to make idle conversation, Ronnie bluntly cuts him off, telling Shane "You want to chat up a buddy? Go find one."
Armenian rhapsody
Attempting to find a new source of income, Shane quickly took to moonlighting as an enforcer for Diro Kesakhian (Franka Potente), the young acting-boss for the Armenian mob. After he revealed the names of a three black Americans who had been robbing her stable of Russian hookers, Diro arranged for the trio to be castrated.
Vic tried to sabotage Shane and Diro's partnership by informing her about Shane's history with Mitchell. When Diro attempted to end their arrangement, Shane disclosed Vic's role in the Money Train heist—conveniently concealing his own involvement. Diro took Shane back into the fold, but put out contracts on Vic, Ronnie, and their families. Shane had neither wanted nor expected this outcome.
Shane switched his loyalty to Diro's rival, Ellis Rezian, but not before Diro's hitman threatened Corrine Mackey and her children. Shane kidnapped Vic's family and locked them in a cargo container in East Los Angeles, California, then ambushed and shot the hitman during a struggle at Corrine's house.
Rezian vowed to hold the Money Train heist over Shane's head, threatening to reinstate Diro's contracts on Vic and Ronnie—as well as Shane's own family—if his orders were disobeyed. Meanwhile, Shane convinced Diro to flee to Germany, but not before euthanizing her dying father. As she left her father's bedside, Diro told Shane, "Your sentiment will destroy you."
Downfall
Upon learning of Rezian's threats, Vic grudgingly allied himself with Shane in order to protect his family from both the Armenians and a Mexican drug cartel. As time passed, Vic and Ronnie decided to kill Shane, and arranged for him to be assassinated by the cartel's enforcers. Vic had a change of heart at the last minute, but was unable to warn Shane of the plot. The assassination attempt ended in the deaths of Rezian's crew, but Shane escaped.
Upon realizing the Strike Team's betrayal, Shane blackmailed a pimp into murdering Ronnie while he intended to kill Vic personally. The plan went awry and the pimp was soon identified as the prime suspect in the attempted shooting of Ronnie. When Shane realized the pimp was about to reveal his involvement to Dutch, he fled the Barn and went on the run with Mara and Jackson. He blackmailed Vic into helping them by threatening to testify against him. Vic resigned from the police force and set out to insulate himself from prosecution by killing Shane and Mara.
The end
Shane and Mara's attempted flight soon fell apart. Vic discovered their new names and also noticed that they forgot Jackson's whooping cough medicine, meaning they had to risk taking their son to a hospital. Vic cornered them, but a police car drove past at the crucial moment, allowing Shane and his family to escape. Two gang members robbed them of the $100,000 Shane had stolen from Rezian. Then, while Shane was fighting with a couple of drug dealers he was trying to rob, Mara accidentally shot and killed a woman. Mara was also injured in the process.
Shane was crushed to learn of Vic's immunity deal with ICE (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement) during a cell phone conversation, realizing that his last hope of saving himself and his family had disappeared with it. Holding the upper hand at last, Vic sadistically taunted Shane, saying, "The trouble with you, you're always trying to be as smart as me, but now I'm walking away clean and you're the pathetic asshole headed for Antwon Mitchell-ville." Shane then told Vic that the trouble with him is that he always claimed to be a family man, then reveals to Vic that Corrine has been working with the police to send Vic to prison rather than see him be around their own kids again. Shane says that no matter what happens, he and Jackson and Mara would still be a family, while Vic has nothing. Vic further threatens that after Shane and Mara were sent to prison, he would visit their children in foster care and fill their heads with stories about what their parents were really like. In their final words to each other, a devastated Shane screamed, "You don't even get to look at my kids, EVER!" to which Vic retorted, "I'll send you a postcard from Space Mountain."
To spare his family's fate and because of Vic's threats over the phone, Shane tricked his wife and son into drinking a liquid laced with an overdose of painkiller (likely secobarbital). He sat in the bathroom writing out a suicide confession note. As his former colleagues from the Barn kicked down the doors, Shane shot himself.
The confession is unfinished, due to Shane being interrupted by the police raid. The police found Shane dead with a self-inflicted gunshot wound to his head. They also found Mara and Jackson lifeless on the bed. Although no one in The Barn was fond of Shane anymore, this incident still devastated the whole Barn.
Claudette read this letter out to Vic, who was silent but clearly distraught at the way things turned out between him and his one-time best friend. She then went to watch Vic's breakdown over the cameras but, realizing what she was up to, Vic calmed himself and ripped the camera out of the wall.
In the final moments of the series, Vic is seen placing a photo of the Strike Team on his desk at ICE. However, Shane and Ronnie have been cut from the picture due to the fact that Shane killed Lem and Vic feeling guilty for selling out Ronnie. Leaving only him and Lem in the picture.
Julien Lowe
Detective Julien Lowe is a fictional character in the television drama series The Shield, played by Michael Jace. He is portrayed as a Los Angeles Police Department officer and a new member of the Strike Team, a four-man anti-gang unit.
Rookie
Julien is introduced as a rookie in the series pilot, paired with training officer Danielle "Danny" Sofer. Due to his Pentecostal beliefs and moralistic view of police work, Julien often clashed with his fellow officers.
Early in his career, he observed the Strike Team stealing two bricks of cocaine during a bust and reported this to Captain Aceveda. Danny was enraged that Julien would become a "rat" and told him, "This is a brotherhood." Aceveda warned Julien that the charges were serious and not to pursue them, but Julien went over his head and informed Internal Affairs. Little is known about Julien's life before the series. In the co-Pilot episode, it is shown that Julien's first day as a police officer was working in The Barn before it opened.
Professional life
Julien was partnered with a new officer after Danny was fired from the Barn, and upon her return, he preferred to work with his new partner, enjoying the comradeship. However, his new partner was involved in a tragedy and fired from the force, so Aceveda again paired Julien with Danny.
During Monica Rawling's tenure as captain, Julien became more outspoken and disapproved of her seizure policy to the point that he was going to transfer out of the department, but when the policy was shut down and Rawling was dismissed, Julien decided to remain. He soon became a training officer himself and was very tough on trainee Tina Hanlon. Due to many mistakes and Julien and Danny's recommendations, Tina was about to be dismissed until a possible scandal kept her in the Barn under the mentoring of Holland "Dutch" Wagenbach.
During the formation of a new Strike Team, Captain Claudette Wyms offered Julien to Kevin Hiatt as a possible addition to the team. Claudette made the offer to Julien, who was hesitant, mainly because of the thought of being partnered with Vic on a daily basis. After being assured that Mackey was going to be moved out of the team, Julien accepted the promotion, becoming official member of the Strike Team.
During his tenure on the Strike Team, Julien performed admirably. Due to his reputation for moral integrity, Julien was completely shut out of Vic, Shane, and Ronnie's criminal activities.
After Shane was caught in a botched attempt to murder Vic and Ronnie, a horrified Captain Wyms disbanded the Strike Team permanently. Julien was returned to uniformed patrol but was promised a swift promotion to Detective. He later participated in Captain Wyms's attempt to criminally investigate Vic and Ronnie. At the series' close, he threw Tina a party to celebrate her first year on the job.
Homosexuality
After his contact with IA over the strike team's theft of cocaine, Vic Mackey caught Julien in a homosexual encounter with a small-time hustler named Tomas Motyashik. When Julien said that he would deny the incident, Vic smiled sadistically and said, "I don't have to prove you're gay. In this house, all I have to do is say it with all the gory details!" A terrified Julien reluctantly agreed to recant his story. Mackey afterwards exhibited friendlier behavior towards him, but Lowe never entirely trusted him.
Later, Julien asked his pastor, "What do you do if the man you are isn't the man you want to be?" The pastor retorted, "That's easy. Just give the man you are a good kick in the ass."
Julien's homosexuality placed him at great odds with his devout Christian beliefs, even to the point that he chose not to wear his vest to a bust, hoping the perp would kill him. Through his pastor, he eventually went through conversion therapy at his church and married the mother of a young boy caught spraying gang graffiti. Tomas was eventually arrested and when Julien refused to continue their relationship, he tried to out him to the entire precinct, with some success. Two officers tormented him over his sexuality and when they were later fired, they gave Julien a "blanket party", seriously injuring him. He later confronted one of the officers and broke his arm in retaliation.
Danny was once called to Julien's house after his stepson called the police during a domestic between Julien and his mother, which turned out to be a verbal argument. The argument stemmed from their frustration over their inability to have a child together. Julien went to get his sperm checked, but the results were never shown.
When Julien goes to a sperm bank to deposit his sperm as part of a medical procedure to get his wife pregnant, he uses a gay porn magazine as masturbation material.
At the end of the series, Julien looks longingly at a gay couple, indicating stirring desires that haven't gone away.
David Aceveda
David Segovia Aceveda, played by Benito Martinez, is a character on FX's television crime drama The Shield.
He is the captain of "the Barn", a fictional LAPD precinct in the also-fictional Farmington district of Los Angeles, California and has political ambitions. In Season Three, he is elected to the Los Angeles City Council and finally relinquishes command in the first episode of Season 4. Though he is no longer captain, his responsibilities as the city council representative of the Farmington District often keep him in involved. According to show creator Shawn Ryan's commentary on the Season 1 DVD, the Aceveda character is heavily influenced by former Los Angeles mayor Antonio Villaraigosa.
Personality
Aceveda is a born politician, extremely intelligent, and ambitious. His main reason for taking the captaincy in Farmington is to raise his profile in the community to enable him to run for a seat on city council and eventually, mayor. He is thus a prisoner to his ambition and often places his morals aside to protect it. During his tenure at The Barn, he often turned a blind eye to corruption that occurred, as long as it brought results that would elevate his stature.
Early career
Aceveda grew up in Los Angeles and graduated from University of Southern California with a degree in law. Little about his early police career is known, except that he began as a uniformed officer and quickly made his way up the ranks, aided by both affirmative action and his own talent. Aceveda was appointed Captain of the Farmington District upon its inception.
Farmington
Aceveda arrived in Farmington with high aspirations and was already aware of Vic Mackey's heavy-handed tactics. He initially didn't want Mackey on the Strike Team, but Assistant Chief Ben Gilroy pushed Mackey's position through. Aceveda began efforts to take down Mackey and his often corrupt Strike Team in season 1, but his first attempt resulted in the murder of Detective Terry Crowley. As the cause became increasingly difficult, Aceveda attempted to focus more on controlling the problems within the district.
While captain, Aceveda showed signs of racial prioritizing, getting more involved in cases that involved Latino victims than cases whose victims were of a different race. Farmington's crime rate began to fall as the Strike Team and other detectives from The Barn made progress. As a result, Aceveda began to gain more accolades and praise from the city and community leaders alike. As Aceveda's status became more prominent, he announced that he would be running for Farmington's city council seat. Aceveda's campaign struggled early on, but he ultimately won the primary, and eventually, the election.
City council
Upon his election to city council, Aceveda resigned from the police department, but remained a reserve officer. He volunteered for service, assisting on the search for missing officers Carl Miller and Scooby Haimes. Aceveda still desired to control events at the Barn, as seen by his clashes with his replacement, Captain Monica Rawling.
Aceveda was briefly under investigation for bribery and corruption charges headed by IAD, but the investigation was shelved by Jon Kavanaugh in exchange for his cooperation into the activities of Vic Mackey. Aceveda supplied Vic with false information leaks in order to assist Kavanaugh with his organization. One of these leaks, the false information that Lem had worked out a deal with IAD in exchange for testimony against the Strike Team, inadvertently lead to Lem's death at the hands of Shane Vendrell. As a result, Aceveda is indirectly responsible for his death.
In the aftermath of Lemansky's death, Aceveda made a statement to the media about Lem's heroin theft. Upon learning that Lem had not worked out a deal with the IAD, Vic angrily confronted Aceveda before a press conference, blaming Aceveda for causing Lem to run. Aceveda countered by accusing Vic of not taking responsibility for his actions, but when he saw Vic was angering to the point of physical violence against him, he wisely decided to back off. Later on that evening, Aceveda announced, in a citywide press conference, that the city will be conducting an investigation into the police department in an attempt to rid itself of corrupt officers. He also stated that Lem's death, while regrettable, was a result of his corrupt actions, renewing Vic's anger.
As the events of the charges against Vic progressed, Aceveda stayed in contact with new Captain Claudette Wyms, offering support, in the form of funding for more officers and his influence on other captains to help ease the crime statistics being reported at the Barn, in exchange for information as to how the case was progressing. After the charges against Vic were dropped, Aceveda also arrived with a photographer as part of a campaign to improve the image of the Farmington police department. All of these actions may be viewed in a larger scope of Aceveda attempting to increase his standing within the community.
As time passed, Aceveda continued to push for progress on the San Marcos killings, a massacre of several Mexican immigrants by unknown assailants, mostly at the behest of Mexican real estate developer Cruz Pezuela, who was also financing his investigation committee into a possible run for mayor. Aceveda used his clout behind the scenes to ensure that Mackey was voted out of the force at his hearing. However, events took a wild turn as the image Juan Lozano took of Aceveda performing oral sex on him suddenly reappeared in the hands of Pezuela, who gave the photo to Mackey as a way to save his job.
Vic attempted to use the photo against Aceveda, only to have it denounced as a fake and to have Aceveda's lawyer threaten him with a lawsuit for slander and blackmail. Mackey later returned with the memory card, the background story of the photo, and all the existing copies. Aceveda was stunned to hear about Cruz Pezuela's involvement in the photo and after listening to Mackey's theory, agreed to help him in his investigation into Pezuela's holdings. The scope of the operation stunned the both of them, as the Mexican drug cartels were buying into Farmington and planned on using various businesses as fronts for illegal activities, including laundering money. Aceveda received the memory card as a symbol of trust between him and Mackey and the two decided to investigate Pezuela, in hopes of shutting his operation down. Later that evening, Aceveda met with Vic, who discovered a large box of sensitive material involving several important people in Los Angeles. Vic left with the material, which, when returned to the right people, would be enough to save his job.
Relationship with Vic Mackey
Aceveda has had a tempestuous relationship with Vic Mackey. During the beginning of his captaincy, he sought to take down the Strike Team for corruption in the district and assigned Detective Terry Crowley to the team. When Crowley was killed while in the company of Mackey, Aceveda dedicated himself to bringing him down. However, in a bizarre twist of fate, when Assistant Chief Ben Gilroy attempted to sacrifice both Aceveda and Mackey to save his own career, Mackey and Aceveda realized it was in their best interests to work through the problem together. From that point to the end of Aceveda's captaincy, the two maintained an uneasy alliance.
The alliance was broken when it was revealed that before Aceveda left his post, he submitted a scathing letter about Mackey to administration, notably accusing him of Terry Crowley's murder; effectively killing any possibility of promotion for Vic. Mackey was livid and the two nearly came to blows. Aceveda has since attempted to remain somewhat civil to Vic since his arrival at a scene possibly saved his life. However, it remains no secret that Aceveda wants Mackey imprisoned.
The rape incident, alliance with Vic, and mayoral status
During a gang bust of a home, Aceveda remained behind after uniformed officers left. However, two gang members, Juan Lozano and Ricky, returned to the home and overpowered Aceveda. Restraining him and taking his weapon, Juan threatened to force Aceveda to perform oral sex on him at gunpoint. However, two officers returned and knocked on the door. Juan quickly held his hand over Aceveda's mouth and the gun to his head while Ricky checked to see if the cops would leave. Unable to hear Aceveda's muffled screams for help, they left. Juan then orally raped Aceveda and took a photo using a camera phone for posterity. It appeared that Aceveda was going to be killed, but the arrival of Mackey and the Strike Team scared the two off.
Aceveda followed Ricky over a period of several months, killing him when he robbed a Korean grocery store. He recovered the cell phone with the picture in the process, and eventually caught Juan. Though Juan threatened to go public with the picture if he was not released Aceveda called his bluff, suggesting that Juan was not tech-savvy enough to have copied the picture to a computer before Aceveda deleted it from the phone. Juan's reaction to this suggestion put Aceveda's mind to rest regarding the picture, thinking that all copies had been destroyed. To further put his mind at ease Aceveda threatened Juan's family to dissuade him from even talking about the incident, before putting him in prison. However, the incident scarred Aceveda mentally for months afterward. He became estranged from his family and eventually began having a violent affair with a prostitute, re-enacting rape fantasies with intensifying brutality until he eventually pulled a gun, essentially attempting to re-enact his own rape. Horrified, Aceveda cut off relations with the hooker and seemed to make peace with himself.
Juan, wanting revenge, contacted Aceveda through his girlfriend, who attempted to get Aceveda to acknowledge the rape by taping a conversation of her threatening to go public about the incident. Aceveda predicted this move and claimed ignorance about the event before taking the tape recorder from her. The fact that Juan's girlfriend had tried to gain proof of the event by taping Aceveda's acknowledgement of it emboldened Aceveda in his belief that the photo no longer existed, despite Juan's claims. Despite this setback Juan continued in his threats to go public, claiming that the councilman no longer had any leverage over him as his grandmother had died and his cousin had been deported, both now being outside the realm of Aceveda's influence. Fearing the damage it would do to his image, Aceveda made a deal with imprisoned drug lord Antwon Mitchell to have Juan "intimated"; falsely telling him that Juan opposed the deal with the DEA; in exchange for his freedom (although Antwon's freedom was officially part of a deal with the DEA to inform against Salvadoran drug lord Bonilla). The two did fulfill their own parts of the bargain (and Juan is killed), though Mitchell was imprisoned again after Captain Monica Rawling sacrificed her career to keep Mitchell behind bars. It seems Aceveda has put the incident behind him.
In Season 5, Aceveda worked with IAD Lt. Jon Kavanaugh to put away the Strike Team once and for all. However, after Kavanaugh witnessed several suspicious meetings between Vic and Aceveda, IAD's investigation into the Strike Team spread to the councilman as well. Kavanaugh began to dig into the highly coincidental meetings Aceveda had with Juan and Antwon just before Juan was killed. Kavanaugh's incarceration in Season 6 gave the impression that Aceveda's secret was safe, however, this was not to be. A Mexican real estate developer named Cruz Pezuela provided the camera phone picture to Vic so that he could blackmail Aceveda into keeping his job. Calling Vic's bluff, Aceveda released his lawyer on Vic threatening the loss of his pension and a long legal struggle ahead. Hearing of this, Vic returns to Cruz and gets the memory card and all of the photos for favors down the line once gets his job back. Vic again approaches Aceveda with the new information and Aceveda agrees to try to help Vic keep his job and in turn Vic later gives Aceveda the memory card and all of the original pictures. Vic and Aceveda form an alliance to find out what the corrupt developer was brewing.
The scope of the operation stunned both of them; Pezuela was helping the Mexican drug cartels buy into Farmington, and planned on using various businesses as fronts for money laundering, drug trafficking, and prostitution. Aceveda received the memory card as a symbol of trust between him and Mackey, and the two decided to investigate Pezuela, in hopes of shutting his operation down.
Later, Aceveda met with Vic, who had walked out on a Department Review Board hearing and stolen a car full of blackmail material from one of Pezuela's couriers. Aceveda was shocked to learn the dirty secrets of many of the most influential people in Southern California, including public officials, mayoral aides, and the heads of special interest groups. Vic then asked him, "Is this enough to save my job?" Aceveda responded with a look of assent. Letting David take his own vehicle, Vic taunted Pezuela's courier and drove away.
As the series would come to a close, Aceveda seemed poised to win the Los Angeles mayoral election. In addition, he and Vic continued to collaborate in order to destroy both Pezuela and the drug cartel ruled by his psychopathic boss, Guillermo Beltran. Their friendship ended, when Vic destroyed Aceveda's attempts to blackmail ICE Agent Olivia Murray with information from Pezuela's box.
After Vic arranged an immunity deal with ICE, Aceveda was enraged that Vic could never be prosecuted for any of his crimes. The two collaborated one last time to arrange the arrest of Beltran. While speaking over the phone, Aceveda expressed satisfaction that ICE had realized that, "they have a reptile working for them." Mackey reminded Aceveda about his prior statement about "respecting each other's endgames."
In his final scene, he is back at The Barn in the captain's office with Claudette, explaining to her that the rumors of him setting up the assassination of one of his opponents, who was running for mayor and seemed to be gaining more voters than Aceveda, were completely false. Claudette did not believe them either, but could not turn down the rumors spreading about an attempt on David's life even if it is false. He expressed his disappointment that both of them could not nail Vic, despite how much time and effort spent in The Barn trying to. Claudette congratulates Aceveda about him going to be the Mayor of Los Angeles.
Claudette Wyms
Captain Claudette Wyms is a fictional Los Angeles Police Department captain in the television drama series The Shield. Claudette is played by CCH Pounder.
Personal
Claudette has been divorced twice and raised two daughters, Bonnie (portrayed by Tracie Thoms) and Rebecca (portrayed by Tangi Miller). Claudette's father, Bryce, sometimes refers to her as "Peaches," much to her partner's amusement. Bryce also revealed to Dutch that Claudette had studied ballet, in Paris. Her ex-husband Jeff Franklin was shot and killed by an "E-Park Johnnie" gang member while buying flowers for his fiancée; Bonnie was in the car with him at the time.
Like Ronnie Gardocki, Claudette appears to be an atheist, and challenges Dutch Wagenbach when he suggests that a higher power saved a life in peril, asking why that "higher power" failed to save the other victims or prevented the peril from taking place altogether.
Career
Claudette is a veteran detective who has been on the police force for more than 25 years. She is one of the department's first female black officers.
During her early days at The Barn, she went against the lead detective on a case and ended up solving the crime. This earned the respect of Detective Holland "Dutch" Wagenbach, who requested to be partnered with Claudette. She and Dutch are among the few regular detectives throughout the series who do not fire their sidearms on screen.
Claudette is the self-appointed voice of morality at The Barn and often butts heads with Vic Mackey over his tactics. At the start of season 3, Claudette is supposed to take over as captain of The Barn, but David Aceveda stays throughout the rest of the season and even steals some of Claudette's new ideas. At the end of that season, Claudette is being groomed to take over running The Barn as the new captain but loses the promotion when she charges a public defender with negligence, resulting in countless convictions' being overturned.
In season 5, Claudette admits to Dutch that she has had lupus for 15 years and that it has been flaring up recently. She collapses at the end of season 5 episode 7, following a particularly harrowing interrogation. She returns to The Barn shortly thereafter and is soon promoted to captain after bringing Steve Billings' shortcomings to the attention of the Assistant Chief.
Throughout the final season, Dutch discovers Claudette's lupus has grown progressively worse. He attempts to ease some of her burdens, such as hiring a maid to help her maintain a decent household. In the series finale, Claudette reveals that she is in the terminal stage and "sooner rather than later" will be dead, but she will spend all of her remaining time working in her position.
In the same episode, she leads the team that discovers Shane Vendrell has committed suicide and murdered his family, and she views the scene with a distraught look on her face. Later that night, she calls for Vic and Ronnie Gardocki to return to The Barn. She makes Vic sit on the "perps' side" in the interrogation room and reads him Shane's unfinished suicide note. "You must be pretty proud of yourself with all those arrests and drug busts," she says, adding sarcastically, "This is what the hero left on his way out the door." She leaves pictures of Shane and his family's dead bodies as she gets up and leaves, waiting to see if Vic will crack after seeing the damage he did.
Vic tears the room's surveillance camera off its mooring and tells Claudette to bill him for it; she replies, "First payment is due now." She makes sure Vic watches in horror as Dutch arrests Ronnie for all the crimes Vic sold him out on for the ICE immunity deal, before Vic can alert Ronnie, and Vic stands in shock as Ronnie is taken away in handcuffs screaming about his betrayal while everyone in The Barn looks at Vic with contempt and disgust. Claudette then pointedly tells the ruined Vic, "You can go now."
Dutch Wagenbach
Detective Holland "Dutch" Wagenbach is a fictional character on FX's hit drama The Shield. He is played by actor Jay Karnes. Dutch is the only character besides Vic Mackey who appears in all 89 episodes of the series.
Character overview
Dutch Wagenbach is characterized by many as a socially inept nerd of German descent, even though he is a successful police detective. Assigned to the Farmington district of Los Angeles, Dutch is often the first called to investigate violent crimes due to his specialization in offender profiling and serial killers. Along with his partner, Detective Claudette Wyms, Dutch is widely considered to be the moral center of the show due to his willingness to do the right thing, despite the temptation to engage in illegal police activities.
Dutch is one of the few characters on The Shield who has had details revealed about his personal life. A divorced, middle-aged police detective who was born in the Midwest, Dutch became a police officer mainly as a means to gain the love and approval of his emotionally distant father. The impetus for his divorce was revealed early in Season 1: his wife, an alcoholic, cheated on him and became pregnant by her Alcoholics Anonymous sponsor. Dutch is sexually frustrated, despite his claim that he has been laid "more than a few times" and in season 1 acquires a girlfriend. He is one of two regular detectives throughout the whole series who never fired his weapon; the other is his partner Claudette.
Relationships with his fellow officers
Dutch is not especially popular around his precinct. Many of his fellow officers consider Dutch to be over-educated and egotistical, at best, and a "rube", at worst, because his ex-wife carried on an adulterous affair behind Dutch's back with her Alcoholics Anonymous sponsor that resulted in her becoming pregnant with his child. Despite this, Dutch's detective skills give him a good amount of respect at the Barn, such as in the Season 1 episode "Dragonchasers" in which his questioning of a serial killer is universally lauded by his colleagues.
Vic Mackey
Dutch has a heated rivalry with Detective Vic Mackey. Dutch considers Vic to be nothing more than a brutish thug. This, in turn has led to Vic's taking the rather public stance that he considers Dutch to be an over-educated elitist and calling him "Dutch Boy".
The two engaged in several back-and-forth verbal fights over the course of the show, with Vic mocking Dutch's failure with women and Dutch briefly dating Vic's ex-wife Corrine. They very nearly came to blows in season 4 when Dutch, who had just physically confronted another detective, accidentally hit Vic with a wild punch and was more than willing to throw hands with Vic before Claudette neutralized the entire incident.
However, there are moments of mutual admiration between the two. Towards the end of season 1, Dutch was able to successfully get a serial killer who was targeting local prostitutes to confess after a lengthy interrogation. This resulted in Vic's conceding that Dutch was as smart as he claimed and resulted in a truce between the two that lasted until the end of season 3. Even once their truce was over and their relationship ran cold again, Vic respected Dutch's skills enough to continue consulting with him during emergencies; in a key instance, Dutch's profile of a spree serial rapist enabled Vic to catch up with him before his third victim in a single day, and the final season, Vic helped Dutch on a case involving a shady former cop Vic had previously met.
Dutch may be the only cop in the Barn who truly scares Vic, in terms of his potential to bring the Strike Team down if he ever put his mind towards the goal. This fear of Dutch's going after the Strike Team was most notable during the money train heist arc, when Dutch began to close in on the Strike Team for their part in the heist. Vic openly showed fear that Dutch would not stop until he caught the Strike Team and tried to intimidate Dutch into dropping his investigation by threatening to resume his bullying of him, a move that effectively signaled the end to their truce. Mackey claimed that Dutch would be back to being "a joke" in the Barn. During season 4, the Strike Team secretly bugged Dutch's car and mocked his lack of success on a date with a friend of Claudette's, as well as his singing of Duran Duran's "Hungry Like the Wolf".
Dutch's investigation of the money train ultimately triggered the tragic series of events that led to the death of Vic's close friend, Detective Curtis "Lem" Lemansky. Dutch informed IAD Lt. Jon Kavanaugh about his suspicions, and Kavanaugh later used the information to trick the Strike Team into thinking Lem had turned traitor against them, causing Shane Vendrell to murder his friend using a grenade stolen from a Salvadoran gang.
During Kavanaugh's investigation into the team, Dutch learned from Kavanaugh about his suspicion of Vic's involvement into Lemansky's death. Despite his dislike of Vic, Dutch confided to Claudette that he doubted Vic would ever murder a close friend, no matter the circumstances.
In the seventh and final season, Dutch, as Claudette's trusted man on the case, was instrumental in bringing the members of the Strike Team down and personally arrested Ronnie Gardocki. As a horrified Vic watched the arrest of his last remaining friend, Dutch eyed his former nemesis with unveiled contempt.
Steve Billings
Dutch intensely dislikes his fellow Detective Steve Billings, and the two come to blows at least once. Billings often humiliates Dutch but also turns to him to cover up a mistake or illegal activities (such as purchasing vending machines for the Barn to use inside the precinct in order to turn a profit, which is expressly against department rules). In season 6, the two were partnered up by the newly promoted Captain, Claudette Wyms, because neither of them was currently assigned a partner, much to Dutch's displeasure. Further complicating things was Claudette's openly siding with Billings when Dutch objected to the pairing. The partnership worked well, as Billings' weary pragmatism counterbalanced Dutch's sense of abstraction.
Billings was sick of Dutch's needling about his various illegal actions. He reacted by pulling a prank on Dutch, playing Cupid between Officer Tina Hanlon, Dutch's secret crush, and the new Strike Team leader Kevin Hiatt, and making Dutch an unwilling witness while they were having sex. Before Dutch could confront him, Billings took a short leave from the Barn to pursue a personal injury lawsuit against the department. Dutch was instrumental in proving the biggest charges were bogus, but had to be partnered again with Billings when he was reinstated, and who still decided to put as little effort as possible in his job. After the suicide of a man he had wrongfully suspected, a humbled Dutch turned to Billings and asked him to be more involved, realizing that he was only good at his job when he had somebody to challenge his views.
In the final episodes, Billings had false evidence planted in a former sexual delinquent's house, as his former wife and his daughters were frightened by his living in the vicinity. When Dutch realized that, he confronted Billings. Billings agreed to make the charges against the delinquent drop and in exchange, Dutch half-heartedly wrote a report backing Billings in his ongoing lawsuit. Dutch finally rewrote the report as requested by Steve's attorney (who was played by Jay Karnes' real life wife) who convinced Dutch that her client should not be humiliated and should get a fair settlement. She also gave Dutch her card, hinting that she had more than just a professional interest in him.
Billings made a cameo appearance on the television series S.W.A.T., during the events of "Day of Dread".
Claudette Wyms
For a long time, Dutch's only true friend was his former partner, Claudette Wyms. The two have a rather complex and symbiotic relationship: Claudette uses her empathic touch to counterbalance Dutch's psychological means of solving violent crimes while Dutch is able to keep Claudette grounded emotionally, so as to prevent her from allowing her personal grudges and vendettas keep her from seeing the big picture towards their jobs as detectives.
Though friends, Claudette did share in the criticism of Dutch's ego. Her reaction to this egomania has been a systematic campaign of mean-spirited practical jokes waged against Dutch, including leaving dog manure inside his desk drawer. Dutch has taken upon himself to blame Vic Mackey for the pranks.
Because of Claudette's unwavering determination to do the right thing, no matter the cost, Dutch has at times paid the price for his loyalty. When Claudette pursues the overturning of a myriad of cases because a public defender was high on drugs, the Los Angeles district attorney's office blacklisted both detectives. As a result, the two were demoted to working minor criminal cases for over six months before Dutch struck a deal with ADA Beth Encardi to "control" Claudette in cases she might find morally compromising. When this is revealed Captain Monica Rawling threatened to ruin Encardi's prosecution record and forced the DA's office into removing the blacklisting of the two officers. There was briefly bad blood between Dutch and Claudette but they managed to stay a symbiotic team. At the end of season 4, Dutch turned down a chance to replace Monica Rawling as Captain of the Barn, telling Claudette, to her amusement, that the Chief wanted him "to be the spineless, company yes-man, jellyfish. I told him to shove it."
Since Claudette took over as Captain of the Barn in Season 5, Dutch remains one of the only detectives whose judgment she trusts completely. Dutch asks for a transfer because he can no longer be Claudette's partner. After Lem's murder she denies his request calling Dutch as "my best detective.". In Season 6, the two collaborated in proving that Internal Affairs Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh had planted evidence implicating Vic Mackey in the murder of Lem. Dutch is briefly conflicted, wanting to allow Mackey to go down for his crimes even if the evidence was falsified. Claudette reminded him that in order to make the Barn better they had to do things the right way.
Claudette's battle with lupus created a strain on their relationship during the final two seasons partly due to Dutch wanting to protect Claudette. Dutch eventually arranges for Danny to become Claudette's full time administrative assistant in order to backstop Claudette. Upon learning of Mackey's immunity deal with ICE, Claudette is enraged. Dutch attempts to console her but she has learned about him trying to resolve Billings's latest stupidity, and she uses this as an excuse to unload her anger on him and shout, "You're fired, you sanctimonious son of a bitch!" Dutch calmly tells her that this isn't her and he gets her to leave the ICE building.
In the final episode, Claudette offhandedly tells Dutch, who ignored her furious termination order from earlier, that she fired him and Dutch says "It didn't take." Claudette gets over herself and finally tells Dutch that she is dying and no medicine can help her now. He asks what he can do and she tells him to just keep doing what he's been doing and that it means a lot to her. She says that she will show up every day until the day when she can work no more. They work together to break a teenaged serial killer while also dealing with the fallout from Vic and Shane's final implosions.
Danny Sofer
Dutch was initially attracted to patrol officer Danny Sofer. Taking advantage of his attraction, Danny manipulated him into helping her pass an exam that would have resulted in her promotion. After Danny rejected his advances one night after Dutch visited her home to help her prepare for her exam, Dutch lingered long enough to see his nemesis, Vic Mackey arrive and passionately kiss Danny. Dutch's reaction to this was to mutter, "You've got to be shitting me!"
Dutch would ultimately call Danny out on her manipulation in front of the rest of the Barn, when Danny tried to schedule another study session while Dutch was deep in the middle of an investigation of a recently murdered child. The two would eventually settle their differences and apologize to one another for their mutual bad behavior. The two remained close friends as Dutch has continued to mentor Danny unofficially. After a case in Season 2 where Danny assists Dutch with detective work she tries to kiss him. Dutch backs off surprised and embarrassed stating he was in a relationship. Danny later laughs it off with another officer, essentially admitting it was all because of an emotional high.
In Season 6, after Dutch was tricked into watching his longtime crush, Tina Hanlon, have sex with another man, he leaned on Danny for support. As for Danny, she began to see a more mature side to Dutch, who responded to Tina's apology by telling her in a fatherly way that she had no reason to apologize. Later, as Dutch comforted the nephew of a homeless man who had died alone, despite a family which loved him, Danny realized that she had feelings for him. When Danny later found him in the locker room, sobbing over the homeless man's death, she put her arms around him. The scene ended with them kissing passionately. However, the following day, at the start of Season 7, both claimed it was mainly the product of a moment. Afterward, Dutch's friendship with Danny returned to a more platonic state. Dutch eventually successfully persuaded Claudette to appoint Danny as her assistant. As the series wound to a close, Danny stood at Dutch's side during the arrest of Strike Team Detective Ronnie Gardocki.
Tina Hanlon
Dutch was openly attracted to Tina Hanlon since she began her duty at the Barn, much in the same way he was attracted to Danny. He would come to her defense on several occasions where her inexperience resulted in mistakes and offered his services as a mentor to her. When semi-nude photographs of Tina began circulating around the Barn, Dutch personally began to investigate the source. Much to his surprise, Acting Captain Steve Billings had installed a security camera in the locker room and had carelessly left the photos on his desk where they were stolen and circulated. Billings, who knew of Dutch's attraction to Tina, begged Dutch to help him cover up the potential scandal before Tina could file a possible sexual harassment suit against the department. Ultimately, he pushed a plan to have Dutch begin mentoring Tina, and have Danny and Officer Julien Lowe's attempt have Tina dismissed from the force overruled, in exchange for her silence on the photos. When Claudette found out about the deal upon becoming Captain, she quickly tried to negate the deal Billings had reached. But when she realized that doing so could potentially destroy Dutch's career as well, the arrangement was allowed to continue.
Dutch realized, from a form of "education" he had been given that day, that the deal he had negotiated might make Tina smug. Dutch then told her that she would not be given special treatment, and that she would have to prove she was worth Dutch giving up his time to mentor her. The mentoring was off to a decent start as Dutch began to share some of his knowledge with the young officer.
In the Season 6 episode, "Back to One", Dutch felt envy as Tina admired out Strike Team member Ronnie Gardocki while on a meth case bust. Later in the episode, while Dutch and Tina were driving to Dutch's house to examine his archive of investigations, Dutch suggested ordering Chinese food and opening a bottle of wine. Tina, bewildered, asked, "Is this a date?" Dutch nervously responded with "Do you want it to be?"
Shortly after, Tina transferred out of the Farmington precinct to take part in the department's recruitment campaign. Tina returned to the barn a few weeks later. To Dutch's surprise she soon took a liking to Strike Team Leader Kevin Hiatt. Billings, angry with Dutch for his continued blackmail of Billings's vending machines opportunity, arranged for Tina and Hiatt to meet at Tina's place and for Dutch to "accidentally" walk in on them. The end result was Tina having sex with Hiatt, while Dutch watched through the window. The shock of the meeting results in Dutch finally acknowledging that Tina is essentially lost to him and ending his infatuation with her.
Later, while discussing the incident with Danny, Tina described her encounter with Hiatt as "a big mistake." Speaking of Dutch, she said, "He had a chance, he just never took it." When Dutch approached her, she looked ashamed and told him she never wanted to hurt him. But Dutch responded in a fatherly way, telling her that she had nothing to apologize for. As Dutch walked away, Tina's eyes followed him longingly as he walked towards Danny.
She is last seen at The Barn with Julien and other officers celebrating her one year of graduating from police academy and starting her police career, until they are interrupted by a police call and go back to work.
Corrine Mackey
Dutch also dated Corrine Mackey, Vic's ex-wife, for a short time during season 4. The two dated behind Vic's back and, despite the innocent nature of their relationship, Vic accused Dutch of dating his ex-wife just to spite him. When Corrine confronted Dutch about this accusation, Dutch commented that spiting Vic played a small part in his pursuing her, but he grew to like her. At that revelation, she broke off their relationship, but the two remained friendly, much to Vic's dismay. When Corrine found herself becoming a target of Lt. John Kavanaugh's IAD investigation of the Strike Team, she turned to Dutch for advice. Dutch told her to just tell the truth, which led to Corrine's revealing to Kavanaugh that Vic had given her $65,000 in cash several months prior, to take care of their children's special needs. Dutch also suggested that Corrine curry favor with Kavanaugh, in the belief that her cooperation would lead to Kavanaugh's not following through on his threats to indict Corrine as an accomplice to her husband's crimes. This backfired and led Kavanaugh to freeze Corrine's bank accounts in addition to those of the Strike Team members'. Kavanaugh made it clear to Corrine that she must cooperate with him because she has no choice, due to her status as IAD's leverage over Vic. In response to Kavanaugh's having framed Vic for Lem's murder, an enraged Corinne formally accused Kavanaugh of sexual assault.
In the final season, Corrine turned to Dutch when she had a better grasp of Vic's criminal activities due to Mara Vendrell's revelations about the Strike Team. When Shane and Mara used her as a go-between in their negotiations with Vic, Corrine informed the police through Dutch. When Vic arranged an immunity deal with the Feds, Corrine was horrified that her ex-husband might murder her and the children in retaliation. For this reason, Dutch and Claudette arranged for Corrine and her children to disappear into the Witness Protection Program.
Jon Kavanaugh
Dutch's relationship with IAD Lt. Jon Kavanaugh was also complicated, especially when he forced Dutch to help him investigate the rape of Kavanaugh's ex-wife. In spite of Kavanaugh using bullying tactics to force Dutch to obey his demands; especially after pulling rank on Dutch, Dutch did seem willing to help Kavanaugh's investigation of Vic and the Strike Team. It was Dutch who alerted Kavanaugh towards the money train heist and Vic's involvement in the robbery. He personally offered to hand over to Kavanaugh his personal notes, outlining the evidence he uncovered linking the Strike Team with the heist. However, the relationship soured when Dutch learned that Kavanaugh's ex-wife, Sadie, had a history of mental illness. Kavanaugh reacted violently, throwing Dutch against a bathroom wall, when Dutch casually asked why Kavanaugh had refused to share such important information with him.
When Dutch ultimately realized that Sadie had faked being raped, Kavanaugh refused to believe him and ordered Dutch to continue to investigate a local sex offender Sadie had identified as her attacker. Though Kavanaugh ultimately was forced to realize Dutch was right, Dutch would renege on his offer to assist him after this negative experience.
Upon beginning his investigation into Lemansky's murder, Dutch was surprised to see Kavanaugh appear in the Barn and seemingly setting up shop again. Upon questioning, he discovered that Kavanaugh was looking into an alternate aspect of Lem's murder, mainly Vic's involvement. During his search for information into the Salvadorans, he looks for Emolia Melendez, Vic and Kavanaugh's former informant. As he nears a possible residence that received a call from Kavanaugh, who informed him that Emolia had sought him out in an attempt to sell him information of Vic's involvement, he gave Dutch a false meeting place, and later gave him the excuse that Emolia changed the meeting place and that he was unable to reach Dutch.
After hearing her testimony, Dutch expressed skepticism about the truth into her story and requested highway footage to check the validity of Kavanaugh's story. What he did not know was that Kavanaugh, in an attempt to protect Emolia's credibility, had already requested that Dutch be pulled off of the case, citing that Dutch's relationship with Vic might have resulted in a conflict of interest.
Before any change could be made, Dutch investigated the footage given to him by the city of the apparent meeting place, disproving the validity of Emolia's story. Combined with allegations by Corrine Mackey of Kavanaugh's abuse of power, plus the apparent fact that the evidence appeared to be "too perfect", Dutch attempted to question Emolia himself about the validity of her story. Kavanaugh ended the interview, but Claudette instead took Emolia for her own interview, resulting in Kavanaugh confessing to his crime of framing Vic for the murder of Lem.
The Strike Team
Dutch's communication with the Strike Team beyond Vic rotated between assisting them in gang and homicide-related cases on the street, and regular antagonism, due to their loyalty to Vic, who disliked Dutch for the majority of the series and played pranks on the detective. The Strike Team as a collective held both respect and fear for the detective, as they knew his unorthodox criminal profiling techniques and effective investigation methods were a threat to their various illegal activities. This is most evident when Dutch began establishing links between the Strike Team and the Armenian Money Train heist.
Shane in particular shared Vic's antagonism against Dutch, bullying him solely because Vic did so. Lem was more neutral and playful with Dutch, working together with him with a level of respect as any other fellow police officer. Ronnie hardly interacted with Dutch but when they did it usually involved one of Vic's pranks, such as when Ronnie and Vic planted an unauthorised wire in Dutch's vehicle to watch his mostly unsuccessful attempts to woo his date before he dropped her off while singing "Hungry Like the Wolf".
Dark side
Because of his unhappy childhood and his treatment as a pariah amongst his fellow detectives, Dutch carries around a great deal of bottled up anger that borders on outright rage. Occasionally, when he has been put through a great deal of stress or frustration, Dutch's containment of these emotions is unleashed, sometimes in very public outbursts.
In the first season, Dutch thoroughly interrogated and psychoanalyzed a man he suspected of being a serial killer. The man then did the same to Dutch with great effectiveness, dwelling on Dutch's lonely and awkward nature. Most of the precinct had no opinion of the man and believed Dutch was wasting his time, and some even found amusement in the man's verbal abuse of Dutch. Eventually, and to the astonishment of the precinct, Dutch exposed the man's guilt and even got him to confess. This gained a completely unexpected applause and accolade from the other officers, including Vic. Later that same night, in a private moment Dutch broke down and cried due to the truth of his attacker's words.
On another case, upon discovering that a couple he was defending turned out to be serial killers, Dutch entered one of the Barn's toilet stalls and blamed himself for not saving their victim in time. After contemplating this, moments later Dutch slammed the stall door.
Dutch's dark side became most notable during season three in a controversial sequence where Dutch strangled a stray cat with his bare hands, partly because its caterwauling was constantly keeping him awake, but also to see how it felt to kill another living thing. This act was influenced by Dutch's interrogations of the "cuddler rapist," a serial offender who sexually assaulted senior citizens and eventually graduated to murder.
Season 4 saw another appearance of Dutch's dark side, when he was interrogating another serial killer, in which he described to the suspect, in great detail, what he believed the killer must have felt during the murder.
Later in season 4, Dutch physically confronted Detective Steve Billings about all of the pranks in the barn pulled on the former. After a couple minutes of the Altercation, Dutch got the upper hand. When Vic intervened to break up the altercation, Dutch reactively struck him in the face. After he was tossed into a nearby fence, Dutch was challenging Vic to a fight, with Claudette verbally neutralizing the confrontation altogether.
In the Season 5 premiere "Extraction", Dutch nearly strangles to death a man who tried to push Detective Wyms, his only real friend at the precinct, over the second story railing of the Barn. Dutch has to be physically separated from the attacker by Mackey.
Tenure at "The Barn"
Dutch repeatedly declined promotions to be able to stay partnered with Claudette. He once turned down a chance to replace Captain Monica Rawling as Captain of the Barn because of his loyalty to her. However, Dutch also believed that his superiors only offered the job to him because they felt that Dutch was "a spineless, company yes-man, jellyfish."
He also turned down an offer to transfer to the LAPD's elite "robbery-homicide" division, which Dutch once commented was his dream assignment. He later learned, however, that the offer was arranged by Claudette, who wanted to get rid of Dutch so that he would not have to worry about her terminal lupus, which had recently experienced a debilitating flare-up.
When Claudette fell down a flight of stairs at the Barn and her condition suddenly became public knowledge in the department, Claudette furiously accused Dutch of being the one who told her superiors; however, it was Billings. He requested a transfer a few days later, partly because of his new assignment with Billings, but also because he was no longer with his long-term partner. His transfer was denied in the wake of Lemansky's murder, with Claudette stating, "I need my best detective on this."
The end
As the series wound to a close, it was implied that Dutch planned to stay at the Barn as Claudette's right-hand man. He also met the oft-mentioned but not previously seen Ellen Carmichael, Steve Billings's attorney, who swiftly developed a romantic interest in Dutch. After arranging an end to Steve Billings's lawsuit, Ellen (who is played by Jay Karnes's real life wife) left Dutch her business card, asking him to call her soon.
In popular culture
Jay Karnes later played an Internal Affairs officer also named "Wagenbach" in "For Gedda", an episode of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation.
Curtis Lemansky
Curtis Lemansky, more commonly known as "Lem" or "Lemonhead", is a fictional police detective on the FX original drama The Shield, played by actor Kenny Johnson.
Background and personal life
Little is known about Lemansky outside of his job as a Strike Team member, except that his surname is of Polish origin. In one of the series DVD commentaries, Michael Chiklis mentions that all of the characters are from the same areas the actors are from, implying that Lemansky was originally from New Haven, Connecticut. Lem's tombstone, shown in season 6, indicates he was born in 1963.
In season 1, he has a relationship with Tigre Orozco, the sister of a reformed gangbanger and in season 5, Ronnie Gardocki implies that Lem's parents were "trailer trash" and so poor that the Strike Team didn't even bother asking them to help post bail for Lem after his arrest by Internal Affairs. Lemansky is the go-to member of the Strike Team for providing first aid.
Role in Strike Team
As the "point man" for the Strike Team, Lem is the vanguard during an assault scenario. He leads the team in and clears the room of possible assailants. Due to this role, he is equipped with a compact shotgun as his primary firearm.
Personality
Lem is the moral compass of the Strike Team. A good-natured detective, he was recruited after being vouched for by his good friend, Detective Shane Vendrell. Lem's main mode of transport when off-duty is a low-rider motorcycle ("chopper"), and he is active in arm wrestling tournaments. Well liked by many for his loyal and selfless personality, he is the "muscle" and "point man" of the Strike Team. Lem and his teammate, Detective Ronnie Gardocki, were not included in the plot by the team leader Vic Mackey and team member Shane Vendrell to kill Detective Terry Crowley, due to Lem's conscientious nature. Upon hearing of Terry's death, the visibly distraught Lem shouts, "No!", and punches through a van window, severely lacerating his right fist and surprising Vic.
Lem further shows his strong convictions later in season 1, in the episode "Throwaway", which showcases Lem's strong sense of morality, his willingness to help others, and his need to do the right thing, which causes Lem to frequently get under Vic and Shane's skin.
Lem finds himself increasingly troubled by the Strike Team's illegal activities, which he is constantly getting dragged into. He was the first to object to the plan to rob the Armenian mob's "money train" (money laundering operation). The rest of the team originally planned a three-man assault, excluding Lem, but he reluctantly went along with the decision for the sake of team unity.
Lem is highly empathetic and is spurred into action whenever he sees human or animal suffering. For example, he is often seen performing CPR on blood and vomit covered victims while the rest of his team members look on disgustedly. Highly fond of animals, he's often seen playing with them, whether cockerels saved from a cockfight or a suspect's pet pit bull. Once, when raiding a suspect's house, he was visibly distraught and upset with Shane for shooting and killing a pit bull terrier.
Despite being a "dirty cop", Lem is a genuinely caring person and even joins the Youth Authority to help wayward juveniles after the Strike Team is disbanded at the end of season 3. Even when on the run, the events that led his eventual murder stemmed from his trying to comfort an injured child, which resulted in his cover being blown and the discovery of his hideout.
Lem states on many occasions that he considers the Strike Team to be his family, and it was the sole reason why he put aside his moral objections and joined in on the team's various illegal schemes. In the season 3 finale, he tells Vic, Ronnie, and Shane that they are the closest thing to a family he has ever known; the three men are visibly touched by the revelation.
One example of the above is when Lt. Kavanaugh of Internal Affairs tries to coerce Lem to rat on the Strike Team. Lem replies, "You're asking me to betray my family", and steadfastly refuses to budge from his decision. Kavanaugh expresses admiration for Lem's loyalty and steadfastness.
A day before Lem is to be imprisoned, Kavanaugh shows up at his doorstep to have a final chat with him saying, “...you weren't supposed to get the worst of this thing here”. Kavanaugh voices his regret that Lem is the one who ended up being the most affected by his inquiry into the Strike Team. He merely planned to scare Lem with the threat of jail so he could use it as leverage to get him to rat on the Strike Team.
Regaining his composure, Kavanaugh extends his hand to Lem and says, “...any man'd be lucky to have you in his corner.” After a pregnant pause, Lem reaches out and grasps Kav's hand in a conciliatory manner, but tells Kav to stop pursuing matters further. It ends with him. They shake hands, and Kav leaves after wishing Lem good luck and telling him to take care of himself.
Although his character is morally conflicted, there are numerous examples of Lem's willingness, even eagerness, to bend or break the law in the best interests of the team. His agreement with the decision to kill Margos Dezerian, his involvement in the murder of Armadillo Quintero, and the set-up of Hector Estanza are but a few.
Name contention
Much like fellow character Danielle "Danny" Sofer, there has been debate over the character's name among viewers. While the character's given name is 'Curtis Lemansky', the character is generally referred to as 'Lem' or 'Lemonhead'. This is a play both on the character's last name and the fact that actor Kenny Johnson has blonde hair.
The early episodes heavily use the 'Lemonhead' nickname (also used by the writing staff, who still refer to the character by that name in the shooting scripts). However, in later Season One episodes, the character is referred to by the shorter 'Lem'. Eventually, 'Lem' became the de facto name for the character from Season Two onwards. However, the 'promosode' between seasons 5 and 6 (albeit set some time before the events of season 5) have his fellow officers chanting 'Lemonhead' when he won the arm wrestling championship.
Character history
The case of the dead rapper
Lem was first given the spotlight in the fourth episode of the first season, "Dawg Days". The episode saw Lem and patrol Officer Danielle Sofer moonlighting as security at a local night club where two rappers and their gang-related entourages engage in a brawl. When Sofer is ambushed on the street by one of the entourage members, Lem and Detective Vic Mackey step in to try and defuse the war between the two rappers, culminating in Vic locking the two musicians in a freight container together for the night and telling them to either resolve their differences peacefully or kill each other off. The next morning Vic and Lem arrive to find that one of the rappers has murdered the other. It was at this point that Lem offers to dispose of the body of the slain rapper for Vic.
The money train
Lem was involved in the money train robbery and was the member of the Strike Team most fearful for their safety after the robbery was completed. He began to behave in an extremely paranoid way, particularly after it was discovered that some of the money was not only marked, but had been released back into circulation. Though he did mellow a bit when the money was purged of marked notes and a known criminal named Neil O'Brien given some of the tagged money, Lem's terror reached new heights when O'Brien was found murdered and the team was forced to dispose of his body.
Lem began voicing his concerns to his fellow Strike Team members, which led to a dramatic moment where Lem, without any warning, leaned over and began vomiting blood out of his mouth. Shocked, Lem confessed that the stress of hiding the money train loot and the group's various morally questionable actions had resulted in his developing potentially fatal ulcer problems. While Ronnie and Vic realized the severity of Lem's health problems and wisely backed off from attacking him for his critical comments, Shane refused to show concern for Lem and angrily attacked him for being scared.
However, when it was discovered that the Armenian mob had their identities and photos, Lem stole the remaining cash from the money train and burned most of it, believing that he was protecting the team. Lem, as it turned out, believed that so long as the Strike Team possessed the money, the group would forever be hounded by those parties looking for the stolen loot. Lem's decision ultimately was the breaking point for his friendship with Shane Vendrell.
Shane refused Vic's attempt at a reconciliation with the team and accused Vic and Ronnie of hating Lem as much as he did. Lem quit the group as a direct result and this triggered a confrontation between Shane and Vic that led to the Strike Team dissolving.
Return to the barn
After the team was broken up, Lem transferred to a different agency and began to work with juvenile offenders. However, he soon found himself missing his friends Vic and Ronnie. It was heavily implied that the two had come to a sort of understanding with Lem regarding his departure from the Strike Team after Shane's antics. As a result, Vic and Ronnie contacted Lem and revealed to him that Shane seemed to have developed a relationship with drug and gang lord Antwon Mitchell and that the entire team was at risk if Shane used the team to bargain a deal should he get caught by IAD. Afterwards, Lem began to pass relevant information to Vic that he obtained via his contacts with various juvenile offenders to ensure that Vic could stay informed to Shane's actions. Ultimately Vic convinced Lem to work with him in the newly reformed Strike Team in order to keep closer tabs on Shane, which created conflict with Lem since this meant that he would be unable to transfer back to the Barn due to the animosity still between him and Shane.
Things came to a head when Lem came up with information that led to a massive drug bust, severely crippling Mitchell's business. When his 14-year-old informant Angie suddenly went missing after having provided information that led to the bust, Lem became immediately suspicious of Shane. He openly accused both Shane and Vic of working for Mitchell and being responsible for Angie's death. In order to prove himself, Vic let Lem back into his inner circle and arranged for his transfer back to the Barn. Vic also revealed some incriminating footage from a bug planted in Shane's car; this showed how he knew of an earlier confrontation between Shane and Lem that ended with Shane, once Lem had left camera range, openly lamenting the fact that the two former best friends had turned into mortal enemies.
Theft of heroin
During the search for Angie, who they learn was murdered by Antwon Mitchell, Lem raided a criminal informant's house in search of information. One of the residents of the home had a package of heroin and Lem stole it in order to provide leverage for information concerning Angie's disappearance. However, Lem's theft was seen by Emolia Melendez, a police informant, who subsequently reported it to Internal Affairs. The heroin was confiscated from Lem's car during the night and replaced with a fake bundle. Though this initially caused some trouble, the affair was put behind them and eventually the Strike Team came back together. Shane and Lem both reconciled after Lem was attacked by the hands of a trio of criminals who had intel on the location of a Salvadoran drug kingpin.
Internal affairs
In Season 5, the theft of the heroin would come back to haunt Lem. Using the brick as evidence, IAD Lieutenant Kavanaugh used this evidence as leverage to make Lem wear a listening device, primarily to gather evidence about the Strike Team's role in the death of a police officer, Terry Crowley. Kavanaugh stated he would imprison Lem for not only the drug theft but also for intent to sell the drugs, which would potentially land Lem in jail for 10 years. Kavanaugh also interrogated Lem about the murder of Detective Crowley. To Kavanaugh's amusement, Lem revealed that he was not involved in the plot. Kavanaugh decided to use this knowledge as a way to drive a wedge between Lem and Vic. Lem pretended to go along with Kavanaugh's plan, but managed to secretly tip off his friend Vic by staging a fight between the two that temporarily disabled the listening device and allowed him to inform Vic of what had happened. He also confronted Vic about Terry's death and when Vic hesitated before responding, Lem refused to let Vic answer the question, knowing that the answer would mean that Vic was responsible.
Despite this, Vic worked diligently to save Lem from Kavanaugh's clutches and ultimately convinced Lem that Terry's death was only indirectly Vic's fault due to him accidentally dropping his guard during the raid. With Lem's help, the team tried to outmaneuver Kavanaugh, which successfully resulted in Kavanaugh's humiliation during a botched sting operation. During a raid on a Salvadoran grenade factory, Lem heroically saved Kavanaugh from an active grenade tossed in his direction by rushing to grab the grenade and throwing it away from Kavanaugh seconds before it exploded. Kavanaugh responded to this act of selfless bravery by continuing to pressure Lem into turning against the Strike Team. Lem sharply refused to turn his back on his friends as Vic confronted Kavanaugh's cold treatment towards Lem, who could have easily let Kavanaugh be killed by the grenade but had risked his life to save him.
Arrest
Things came to a head when Vic and Lem entered the security monitor room to have a private conversation only to see via the monitors, a rather private conversation between Kavanaugh and Kavanaugh's distraught, mentally ill ex-wife. Viewing their disturbingly private moment on the closed-circuit television, Vic remarked that they had found Kavanaugh's weakness. Kavanaugh eventually noticed the security camera in the room and the possibility that his conversation with his wife was being observed by his enemies led him to rush out of the interrogation room. While Vic and Lem fled the room before Kavanaugh could catch the two red-handed, the now enraged Kavanaugh ordered that Lem be arrested for possession of heroin with intent to distribute. Lem was handcuffed in front of his shocked fellow officers, placed in lockup with other criminals, processed, and sent to a detention center. Unknown to Lem at the time, Kavanaugh had seemingly arranged for him to serve time at the same prison as gang leader Antwon Mitchell, who wanted to have him murdered while in custody. Lem's bail was set at one-hundred thousand dollars while most of the Strike Team's assets were frozen under suspicion of lawlessness. This led the remaining three Strike Team members to turn to their friend Smitty to bail Lem out, using money they stole from a small-time pot dealer as bail money.
The plea
Lem soon became weary of just not knowing what would happen to the others, and the fears started aggravating his ulcer problem. In a move to seal the rest of the team off from prosecution, he pleaded guilty to theft under color of authority to serve 18 months before parole of a 5-year sentence. Although he and the team came to realize that being sent to the same prison as Antwon Mitchell was an idle threat, they still had to deal with Mitchell's One-Niner gang being spread across almost all California prisons; Lem's life would be at risk either way. Further, even if Lem did manage to survive 18 months, he would have to be dealing with constant conflict with One-Niners, making it unlikely he would qualify for early release. As Vic struck a deal with Mitchell to keep Lem safe, Lem entered the official plea, much to Kavanaugh's dismay. As the investigation came to a close, Kavanaugh paid Lem a final visit to apologize and explained that he had always thought Lem would finally give up Vic; he never wanted Lem to go to prison. He told Lem that, "...any man would be lucky to have you in his corner".
Death
Soon after the plea was entered, however, Vic found that Kavanaugh had played his last card, starting an investigation of Lompoc Federal Penitentiary, which was causing Antwon to lose all the creature comforts he'd enjoyed. Additionally, Kavanaugh told Mitchell that Vic had been bragging about getting the better of Antwon, and a furious Mitchell told Vic that Lem was dead as soon as he came into the system. Desperate to save his friend from certain death, Vic convinced Lem to skip town on the eve of his court date, where he would plead guilty and be sent to prison. Vic prepared to transport the fugitive Lem to Mexico to hide after the group were told that Lem's original deal was now null and void and that the only way for him to receive any break in terms of sentencing would be if he gave up the Strike Team. Meanwhile, Kavanaugh convinced Councilman Aceveda to go to Vic and to lie about Lem agreeing to turn against the Strike Team in exchange for a new plea bargain in order to try and track the Strike Team to Lemansky. Vic refused to accept Aceveda's lie and continued to believe that Lem had not betrayed the Strike Team. Meanwhile, Lem was forced to abandon Vic's original plans for hiding him after he risked his freedom to help out a young child who had been left alone by his parents and had seriously hurt himself in his home's kitchen. Lem ultimately contacted Vic and arranged for a meeting with his friends, with Vic preparing the final details to get Lem across the border and into hiding.
However, Kavanaugh used Aceveda to imply to Vic that Lem had revealed information about the "Money Train." Upon learning this, Shane Vendrell secretly decided to kill his friend using a stolen grenade in order to prevent Lem from implicating the team in any illegal activities. While Vic and Ronnie were occupied with losing the IAD officers tailing their vehicles, Shane, who was not being tailed, was able to meet up with Lem and whisk him away to an abandoned garage.
Shane made one last-ditch effort to convince Lem to go along with Vic's plan to relocate him to Mexico but Lem flat out refused to go into hiding. Lem argued that fleeing to Mexico, cut off from his friends and isolated from the rest of the world would be worse than prison. Shane brought Lem a sandwich to his car and quietly dropped a grenade in the front seat, killing Lemansky. When the smoke cleared from the explosion, Lemansky survived long enough to see Shane break down emotionally and cry for him. After Shane's emotional break a few seconds later, Lem died. He was unmarried without children.
Fallout from death
Upon arriving at the abandoned garage where Lem's body was found, a distraught Vic attempted to touch the dead body of Lem only to be stopped by Dutch, who reminded Vic that touching Lem's body would contaminate the crime scene. Kavanaugh, in a bitter tone, repeatedly asked Vic if he was happy that Lem was dead (since Lem's death effectively closed the IAD investigation of the Strike Team). Vic responded by charging at Kavanaugh and the two men fought for a few seconds before being torn apart by the various patrol officers who had arrived at the crime scene in respect for Lem.
Claudette assigned Dutch, her "best detective", to investigate the murder with it implied that Claudette suspects that Lem was murdered by the Salvadoran mob. Salvadorans had been using grenades to kill their enemies and the Strike Team had successfully shut down several of the syndicate's operations.
As Vic was led away by Ronnie and Shane, Vic vowed to find and kill those responsible. As Vic walks off camera, the shot focuses on a clearly distraught Shane following him.
In the 15 minute "promosode" for Bud.TV it was revealed that Lem did not receive a motorcade or police funeral. Claudette informed Vic that she was told that Lem's lack of a department funeral and motorcade would prevent news headlines about Lem's "dirty dealings". However, the sixth-season premiere showed in fact that the heroin fiasco was featured prominently both in the newspapers and in a televised statement by Councilman David Aceveda, where he assured the public that the department wouldn't tolerate corruption. He eventually got his 21 gun salute from Vic, Ronnie, and Shane.
After finding out Vendrell was the real killer, Mackey and Gardocki sought to avenge Lemansky by setting up Vendrell's murder. Shane survived the attempt, however, and set up both of them to be murdered for revenge. Mackey and Gardocki both survived, and this enmity fueled the rest of the series. Earlier in the season, Mackey appeared willing to let Vendrell walk away from the repercussions, but Gardocki pressed him to end the Shane problem once and for all, saying "I'm sick of walking around half the day smiling at a guy who put a grenade in Lem's lap". When Mackey seeks to call off Shane's assassination, Gardocki uses his position as Strike Team leader to prevent it.
In the series finale, Vic is seen placing a picture of himself and Lem on his new desk at ICE headquarters. Though originally, the picture was of all four members of the Strike Team, Vic seems to have cropped Shane and Ronnie out of the frame, unable to reconcile himself with Shane's betrayal of Lem and subsequent suicide and his own betrayal of Ronnie, leaving his friendship with Lem as the only one "untarnished" in his mind.
Supporting characters
A
Aurora Aceveda (Camillia Sanes)
B
Tom Bankston (Ron Canada)
Guillermo Beltran (Francesco Quinn)
Steve Billings (David Marciano)
Waylon Burke (Gareth Williams)
C
Ray Carlson (Matt Corboy)
Joe Clark (Carl Weathers)
Terry Crowley (Reed Diamond)
D
Margos Dezerian (Kurt Sutter)
Becca Doyle (Laura Harring)
Rita Dressler (Frances Fisher)
E
Alex Eznik (Shaun Duke)
G
Santi Galas
Kleavon Gardner (Ray Campbell)
Tavon Garris (Brian White)
Trish George (Nicki Micheaux)
Ben Gilroy (John Diehl)
H
Wayne "Scooby" Haimes (Robert Wu)
Tina Hanlon (Paula Garces)
Kevin Hiatt (Alex O'Loughlin)
Tommy Hisk (Matt Gerald)
Hagop (David Caprita)
Hrach (Aron Kader)
J
Paul Jackson (Frank Grillo)
Chief Johnson (John Cygan)
K
Jon Kavanaugh (Forest Whitaker)
Sadie Kavanaugh (Gina Torres)
Diro Kesakhian (Franka Potente)
L
Diagur Leyva (Frankie Rodriguez)
Guardo Lima (Luis Antonio Ramos)
Kern Little (Sticky Fingaz)
Juan Lozano (Kurt Caceres)
M
Jorge Machado (Efrain Figueroa)
Cassidy Mackey (Autumn Chiklis)
Corrine Mackey (Cathy Cahlin Ryan)
Matthew Mackey (Joel Rosenthal) and (Jack Weber)
Megan Mackey
Emolia Melendez (Onahoua Rodriguez)
Carl Miller (Jarvis W. George)
Antwon Mitchell (Anthony Anderson)
Moses (L. Michael Burt)
Tomas Motyashik (Brent Roam)
Olivia Murray (Laurie Holden)
O
Theodore "T.O." Osmond (Cedric Pendleton)
P
Cruz Pezuela (F. J. Rio)
Roy Phillips (Nigel Gibbs)
Annie Price (Aisha Hinds)
Q
Armadillo Quintero (Daniel Pino)
R
Armando "Army" Renta (Michael Pena)
Connie Reisler (Jamie Brown)
Ellis Rezian (Ludwig Manukian)
Rickey (Wilmer Calderon)
Rondell Robinson (Walter Emanuel Jones)
S
Kail Saffian (Vahe Bejan)
Mara Sewell-Vendrell (Michele Hicks)
Lee Sofer
W
Halpern White (Laurence Mason)
Z
Ari Zadofian (Raff Anoushian)
Police
Tom Bankston
Portrayed by Ron Canada
Appears in "Coyotes", "Breakpoint", "Dominoes Falling" and "Blood and Water"
Chief Bankston is the former LAPD Chief of Police, who started after the Gilroy scandal. He was eventually replaced by Chief Johnson. Bankston was not happy with Aceveda's performance and planned to fire him if he lost the election for City Council. Aceveda won and Bankston allowed him six months more on the job and suggested to Claudette that she replace Aceveda as captain.
Steve Billings
Portrayed by David Marciano
Appears in "The Cure", "Grave", "Bang", "Tar Baby", "Cut Throat", "String Theory", "A Thousand Deaths", "Judas Priest", "Extraction", "Enemy of Good", "Jailbait", "Tapa Boca", "Trophy", "Rap Payback", "Man Inside", "Kavanaugh", "Smoked", "Of Mice and Lem", "Postpartum", "On the Jones", "Baptism by Fire", "Back to One", "The New Guy", "Haunts", "Chasing Ghosts", "Exiled", "The Math of the Wrath", "Recoil", "Spanish Practices", "Coefficient of Drag", "Snitch", "Money Shot", "Genocide", "Game Face", "Animal Control", "Bitches Brew", "Parricide", "Moving Day", "Party Line", "Petty Cash", "Possible Kill Screen", and "Family Meeting"
Billings is an underhanded detective who routinely takes credit for Dutch and Claudette's detective work in season four, while the two are blacklisted by the DA's office. When Dutch discovers that Billings stood by and watched a murder take place out of cowardice, his attempt at blackmail ends with the two detectives attacking each other. Later, after Monica Rawling is fired, Billings is promoted to acting captain. Despite being a powerless figurehead, Billings is able to maintain a working relationship with Vic, giving him total control of the Strike Team in exchange for fast results and for keeping his fellow officers from revolting against Billings. Near the end of season 5, Billings is removed as captain by the chief of police and is replaced by Claudette Wyms. He becomes a detective once again and is partnered with Dutch. It is also revealed that Billings is the owner of the vending machines, which had been an often-featured subplot during the season. Billings regards his partnership with Dutch to be a mutually beneficial relationship, as he believes that both he and Dutch negate the others weaknesses. Billings also thoroughly enjoyed working with Ronnie Gardocki on a meth distribution bust, even going as far as to comment that he would "like to log in some Strike Team time", much to Dutch's amusement.
Tension between Billings and Dutch began to rise, over Dutch's continuing blackmail over the vending machines, resulting in Billings setting up Tina with Hiatt and arranging for Dutch to meet under the assumption of a dinner date at Tina's house. Billings watched with amusement as the lovestruck Dutch arrived with a bottle of wine, only to witness the pair having sex and being spotted by Hiatt.
At the end of Season 6, Billings informs the department that he is suing the city for over $3.4 million, stating that injuries sustained from hitting a desk during a fight between Vic Mackey and Jon Kavanaugh resulted in headaches and sensitivity to light. In spite of the fact that he has informed Dutch of the headaches, Claudette feels that Billings is merely attempting to defraud the city out of millions and informs him it is a crime to do so.
For all his faults, Billings is portrayed as a devoted family man, especially toward his two young daughters. Billings also shows zero tolerance to those who exploit children, yelling at a father whose late daughter had run away because of her father's molestation: "Your daughter is dead! You molested her, she ran away, and you got her killed!", before storming off in anger. He has also been shown to have better decorum with female victims than Dutch.
Waylon Burke
Portrayed by Gareth Williams
Appears in "Bottom Bitch", "Streaks and Tips", "Safe", "Cracking Ice", "Slipknot" and "Fire in the Hole"
Waylon heads up the Decoy Squad, a team of undercover officers brought in to serve at the Barn under Claudette Wyms. Waylon develops a semi-friendly rivalry with Vic Mackey when they are assigned to the Strike Team's room. When he loses a bet with Vic and is required to streak through the Barn, he is far from modest. He becomes furious with Claudette when she neglects a memo about a mole when ordering a wiretap and puts Waylon's teammate Trish George in danger. Because of this, he requests for his team to be transferred out of the Barn. Waylon still remains a friendly adversary for the Strike Team as he passed information about Antwon Mitchell's whereabouts to Lem in season 4.
Carlos Zamora
Portrayed by Carlos Sanz
Appears in "Pay in Pain"
Carlos was a member of The Toros in his youth. After getting out of the gang, he joined the LAPD and became a detective. Carlos was in charge of the case of the murder at Nacho's gun shop. Assistant Chief Ben Gilroy decided to put Vic Mackey and Shane Vendrell in it as well. After being introduced they walked out of the shop and Carlos started comforting gang member Train Guttierez, whose pregnant girlfriend was one of the victims. Mackey argued with his method of befriending the gang members, but Carlos told him that building trust with them worked. After interrogating one of the gang members, Mackey told Carlos to look for the missing janitor while he went to talk with Wet Willie. After that, a gang member called Carlos and told him where he could find Jaime.
After Mackey talked with Wet Willie, Carlos told him about Jaime and they went to talk with him. After some convincing, Jaime told them that the killer didn't belong to any gang and that he was white. Carlos and Vic went to the Barn and told Gilroy what they had found. They then met with Latino activist Raoul Jimenez who demanded action. Although Vic disagreed, Carlos vouched for the LAPD to release the sketch they had drawn with Jaime's description.
Carlos then received information that the killer had started another shooting in a grocery store. He looked for Vic and they went there. After being briefed by Officer Danny Sofer, they went to talk with the owner of the store, Leon, whose son was among the victims. He told them that he managed to hit the killer with a baseball bat but didn't know which way he left. After they found the killer's car parked outside, they managed to identify him as George Michael Klassen. They then went to his house only to find his in-laws shot to death, but no signs of George or his wife and son. As Vic questioned George's sister, Carlos ordered the officers to canvass the area.
Vic and Carlos returned to the Barn to brief Gilroy on the case. Carlos told him that they had George's name and picture all over the city, and they were watching over his friends to see if he appeared. Vic left alone to try to do something else and returned with all the shop owners to corroborate their stories. As he met with Carlos and Gilroy upstairs, Carlos blasted him for pressing on a grieving father. After a brief verbal fight, Vic went to interrogate Leon while Carlos checked with the other store owners. As he got nothing, he went with Vic to continue pressing Leon. Eventually Leon confessed that he had captured George, and together with the other store owners, they gave him to The Toros for revenge. Vic and Carlos then ran out to see if they could find him before they kill him.
Carlos and Vic went back to Lucas and asked him where they had taken George and his family. He refused to talk and Vic threatened to beat him. Lucas told him that Carlos wouldn't let him be beat, but instead Carlos hit him in the guts and asked him again where George was. After he gave them their location, they went to find Train Guttierez had George tied, while he molested his wife. As they broke in the house, Train took Myra hostage and shot George in the head. After Vic injured him so he could release Myra, Carlos went on top of him and put a gun on his mouth angered by his actions. Vic managed to pull him off as they took care of the family.
Back at the Barn they wondered what would happen to the shop owners. Raoul Jimenez assured them that they wouldn't spend one day in jail, but Vic reminded him that they conspired to commit murder. Carlos then left and Vic offered him a ride, but he politely refused it.
Ray Carlson
Portrayed by Matt Corboy
Appears in "Cherrypoppers", "Dragonchasers", "Carnivores", "Two Days of Blood", "Circles", "Dead Soldiers", "Partners", "Greenlit", "Homewrecker", "Barnstormers", "Coyotes", "Inferno", "Breakpoint", "Dominoes Falling", "Playing Tight", "Wins and Losses", "Coefficient of Drag" and "Money Shot"
A police officer from the Farmington station, who appeared to make immature jokes, and was usually accompanied by his equally childish partner, Officer Paul Jackson (Frank Grillo). After a transvestite bit Danny Sofer and there was concern she could have contracted HIV from it, Carlson and Jackson helped Officer Julien Lowe orchestrate a "blanket party" beating of the transvestite. When Julien was outed as a homosexual by his former lover Tomas, Carlson and Jackson put up posters ridiculing him. The harassment results in their being fired from the department.
Angry over their dismissal, Carlson and Jackson ambush and beat Julian, assisted by several accomplices. When Julien recovers from the attack, he assaults Carlson and breaks his arm.
Carlson returned in the seventh season as a private security specialist whom Vic hires to watch over his family. He seems to be significantly more mature and responsible.
Terry Crowley
Portrayed by Reed Diamond
Appears in "Pilot", "Our Gang", "Co-Pilot" and "Smoked"
As a new detective, Terry Crowley was placed into Vic's unit by Aceveda to be a possible replacement if Vic didn't work out. He was to keep tabs on the team's illegal activities. Ben Gilroy, however, informs Vic of this plan, but didn't expect Vic to take such drastic measures to protect the strike team. To keep Terry from turning them in, Vic murders him with Shane as a witness; the other team members, Lem and Ronnie, are not involved in his murder. When Vic, Shane, and Terry entered a room in the house of a drug dealer, Vic and Shane shot and killed the drug dealer after being fired upon. Vic, as Shane looked on, then picked up the drug dealer's gun and fired at Terry, making it appear to investigators that Terry had been shot by the drug dealer. The bullet impacted Terry's face and exited out the back of his head. Terry remained conscious long enough to look up at Vic Mackey and realize what had happened to him. The injury was fatal, but Terry did not die until shortly after his arrival at the hospital. Mackey would later express remorse on several occasions over Crowley's death.
The actor, Reed Diamond, was advertised as a main cast member in season 1 (and appeared in the pilot's opening credits), to surprise viewers with his death in the first episode. His only subsequent appearances on the show came in a flashback sequence in "Our Gang" and in "Co-Pilot", a flashback episode in Season 2. Although he was killed in the pilot episode, the effects of his murder continue through the series, as Vic's superiors try to pin Crowley's murder on him on more than one occasion (although no one could prove the dirty deed was done by Vic). In the penultimate episode Terry's murder is the first of the crimes Vic confesses to in exchange for an immunity deal.
Tavon Garris
Portrayed by Brian White
Appears in "Coyotes", "Inferno", "Breakpoint", "Dominoes Falling", "Playing Tight", "Blood and Water", "Bottom Bitch", "Streaks and Tips", "Fire in the Hole", "All In" and "Animal Control"
A late addition to the Strike Team, Tavon was made an official fifth member of the team after department and political demands pressured the Barn to transfer over a minority member to be put on the all Caucasian team. Tavon exhibited intelligence and cunning in his undercover and street work, and eventually revealed a tendency for brutality when the case called for it, impressing and surprising Vic. Tavon even participated in an illegal wire tap set up by the Strike Team. Early on, Tavon was approached discreetly by a civilian auditor to try to find dirt on the team. While it initially seemed that Tavon had agreed to do so, he later revealed to the auditor in a sarcastic manner that there was nothing to tell and to find someone else to rat. Although the team mostly kept him in the dark and separate from their illegal activities and regular conversations, Lem and Vic eventually warmed up to him after Tavon continuously proved his effectiveness and loyalty in their street-work. Vic eventually began grooming Tavon to become a potential protege and permanent fifth member of the team, one who could eventually be trusted with the team's illegal side activities.
However, Shane and Tavon soon developed a deep rivalry based on Shane's jealousy and inherent racist beliefs, and Tavon's increasing involvement and partnership with Vic. When Tavon approached Vic to push for more involvement and a more prominent leadership position alongside him in the Strike Team, Vic was visibly contemplating the possibility. However, Tavon brought up the issue of Shane and Vic instructed Tavon to smooth things out with him as to avoid any leadership conflict. The attempted mediation instead turned violent when Tavon went to Shane's apartment and began antagonising each other. Shane eventually insulted Tavon's worth, and Tavon took serious offence when Shane resorted to racial insults, telling him to "know his place". This was further aggravated when Shane called him a 'darkie'. A violent fight then broke out in Shane's apartment, with Tavon kneeing Shane in between the legs and beating him severely to the point of blood. Only because of the intervention of Shane's fiancé, Mara, did the fight turn from violent to extremely dangerous, as she snuck up behind Tavon and hit him in the back of the head with an iron, causing visible head trauma and lack of co-ordination in Tavon's reaction. Tavon barely stumbled away and left in his van, but in his impaired condition he crashed into a parked car, leaving him in a coma. Only Lem expressed concern for Tavon's hospitalisation, and was the only member of the Strike Team to make an effort to visit him. To protect Shane's position, Vic and a reluctant Lem convinced Tavon that he nearly killed Mara in his furious rage. Tavon, in his poor physical and mental state, broke down in tears when Lem pressed the lie. He did not return to the team in the aftermath of the investigation, remaining in and out of hospital for several years.
Tavon's ultimate fate was unknown until the final season. Three years later, Tavon had mostly recovered from his serious bodily injuries, and returned to the police force working out of North Hollywood division. His face and neck still bore the scars from the fight and high-speed car-crash he endured. Tavon met with the Strike Team one final time just before their official demise, to the surprise of Vic, Ronnie and Shane. Tavon offered his condolences for Lem and made peace with Vic and Ronnie. Tavon then asked Shane for assistance regarding a past victim who only trusted Shane. After the case was closed, Tavon aggressively confronted him and revealed that he remembered everything about their fight, and that he never hit Mara, shaming the cowardly Shane and walking away from their violent history for the last time, satisfied and at peace.
Trish George
Portrayed by Nicki Micheaux
Appears in "Bottom Bitch", "Streaks and Tips", "Posse Up", "Safe", "Cracking Ice", "Slipknot" and "Fire in the Hole"
Trish George is a member of the Decoy Squad, a team of undercover officers brought in to serve at the Barn under Claudette Wyms. She was effectively Waylon's second-in-command, as displayed in her involvement with his planning and their undercover operations. Trish was flirtatious with some of the Barn's officers and seemed to be attracted to Vic, with the two exchanging suggestive sexual innuendo and flirtatious conversations in between cases, such as when Trish was required to streak through the Barn when Waylon lost a playful bet with Vic. Their potential relationship never developed because Vic became involved with an old flame.
Trish's undercover work was compromised when Claudette Wyms neglected a memo about a mole when ordering a wiretap and thus put Trish in immediate danger. Waylon became furious and tried to pull her out of the undercover investigation to no avail. In order for her to maintain her cover, she had sex with a would-be killer and was pressured to try cocaine by him. The man also gave her a severe beating, but she took it all in the line of duty. She soon grew to dislike Claudette and gladly transferred out of the Barn with the rest of her team when Waylon requested the end of their co-operation.
Ben Gilroy
Portrayed by John Diehl
Appears in "Our Gang", "Dawg Days", "Pay in Pain", "Cupid & Psycho", "Two Days of Blood", "Circles", "Co-Pilot", "Coyotes" and "Grave"
Assistant Chief Ben Gilroy was a friend and supporter of Vic Mackey. Gilroy often used his power to get Vic out of small jams and helped ensure his position as leader of the Strike Team. The Strike Team was a hard sell to the Chief though, and demanded quick results to allow its existence. This pressure was responsible for Vic and the team taking shortcuts and performing illegal acts to get the job done, which set the path for the Strike Team's corruption. Gilroy protected Vic and his team from new captain, David Aceveda, who disliked Vic from the very beginning. He also informed Vic that Aceveda's addition to the Strike Team, Detective Terry Crowley, was looking to implicate the team in illegal activities, though he didn't expect it to result in Terry's death, for which he became furious with Vic. When Shane Vendrell's Navigator, containing stolen drugs, was stolen, Gilroy told Mackey to let Shane take the fall, since Gilroy couldn't protect the whole team. When Julien Lowe reported the drug theft and Aceveda attempted to bring the team down, Gilroy told Mackey that he didn't have his back anymore. However, Gilroy soon needed Vic's help when he was found to be using his political influence to facilitate an illegal real estate scam, as well as running over a Hispanic gang member and murdering the only witness who could link him to the hit and run. Stripped of his power and facing indictment, pressure and alcoholism led Gilroy to become mentally unstable. When it appeared that Gilroy would offer to testify against the Strike Team in exchange for a reduced sentence, Vic arranged both a new identity for him in Mexico and a hit man in California who would kill him if he ever returned. Gilroy eventually died in Mexico, homeless and destitute, suffering cirrhosis of the liver. He asphyxiated on his own vomit. Vic, Lem and Ronnie attended his funeral but Shane did not.
Wayne "Scooby" Haimes
Portrayed by Robert Wu
Appears in "The Cure", "Grave", "Insurgents", "String Theory" and "Back in the Hole"
Officer Wayne "Scooby" Haimes was first introduced at the scene of a siege where he shot an attacking dog, earning a visit from an angry Assistant Chief Roy Phillips. Vic Mackey helped defuse the situation by saying 'He was reaching...' when the Chief looked at the dog, there was a handgun laying next to its lifeless body. Scooby and his partner Carl Miller were killed by Nigerian thugs organized by Antwon Mitchell's half-brother, Jason Porter.
Tina Hanlon
Portrayed by Paula Garcés
Appears in "Extraction", "Enemy of Good", "Jailbait", "Tapa Boca", "Trophy", "Rap Payback", "Man Inside", "Kavanaugh", "Smoked", "Of Mice and Lem", "Postpartum", "On the Jones", "Chasing Ghosts", "Exiled", "The Math of the Wrath", "Recoil", "Spanish Practices", "Coefficient of Drag", "Snitch", "Money Shot", "Animal Control", "Bitches Brew", "Parricide", "Moving Day", "Party Line", "Petty Cash", "Possible Kill Screen" and "Family Meeting"
Tina arrived at The Barn as a young, attractive, female police officer, and Julien's trainee. She is Spanish and speaks it fluently, and as such is sometimes utilized as an interpreter, but her inability to take her job seriously lead to her making countless mistakes in the field. She posed as a prostitute in order to help the Strike Team take down a sex slavery ring, trying to prove that she can hold her own, but later, back on patrol, she failed to identify an undercover officer and allows the real criminal to escape. She was about to be fired, with both Julien and Dani supporting the move, when photos of her undressing in the locker room begin circulating the barn. Dutch discovers that Billings was responsible for installing the camera, in an effort to catch thieves who were vandalizing the vending machines, so one of Billings' last acts as captain is to offer Tina a deal to remain on the force, overlooking her mistakes to prevent any charges against him. She will remain a patrol officer, but will also work with Dutch for further training. This was done to ensure Dutch's cooperation with Billings in regards to revealing Billing's double dealing as captain and vending machine owner. Dutch had feelings for her and wanted to establish a relationship-an impossible feat were she to be fired. Billing's corruption and incompetence along with Dutch's character testimony would serve as a lifeline for Tina's career. Very early in Season 6, Tina catches on to Dutch's attraction to her and transfers out of Farmington, to take a promotion of sorts with the Department's new public relations campaign. She returned 3 weeks later, with a rather inflated ego, telling Sergeant Dani Sofer that she had met high-ranking people in the Department, and was "not impressed with Sergeant's stripes". Tina also turned her attractive eye on Strike Team Leader Kevin Hiatt, much to Dutch's dismay. In the Season 6 episode "Recoil", Tina had sex with Hiatt after both she and Hiatt were encouraged by Billings to pursue each other. This was orchestrated by Billings as a mental attack on Dutch to make him jealous. However, when news spread of the incident, as well as Hiatt's avoidance of her, Tina deeply regretted sleeping with Hiatt, viewing it as "a big mistake." She also admitted to Danny that Dutch indeed stood a chance with her, but he never took it. She later apologized to Dutch for hurting him. In the series finale, Julien congratulates her on a year of service and throws her a small party in the Barn. However, before they can eat the cake, a siren rings and the officers rush out.
Tommy Hisk
Portrayed by Matt Gerald
Appears in "Playing Tight", "Blood and Water", "Bottom Bitch", "Streaks and Tips", "Mum" "Posse Up", and "Cracking Ice"
Hisk was Julien's partner introduced in season three. The two worked well together until Julien was sent back to work with Danny since the quality of his police work seemed to be affected by his beating at the end of season two. Later on Hisk's ex-wife and son were killed in a robbery. When it was discovered that the murderer was a drug addict Hisk had hired to steal a collection of coins from the house a week earlier Hisk was fired. Hisk later resurfaced to try to get his job back with no success. He committed suicide in the station parking lot.
Kevin Hiatt
Portrayed by Alex O'Loughlin.
Background
Hiatt was originally an INS agent who spent four years on the Mexican border before joining the LAPD, where he was regarded as a rising star within the force. Upon the recommendation of David Aceveda, Hiatt was brought into "The Barn" by Captain Wyms to not only replace the loss of Curtis Lemansky, but to also be the replacement for Detective Vic Mackey, who was being forced out of the department upon his 15th year of duty. He was also giving Captain Wyms information as to what was really going on within the Strike Team, since they've resisted almost all attempts to allow an outsider into the group.
Arrival at the Barn
Hiatt met the Strike Team during a raid on a hostage situation. He was introduced, then told to stay behind while the team entered the building. Not content to sit on the sidelines, Hiatt quickly donned a bulletproof vest, took a shotgun, and assisted the team in securing the shooter. Hiatt was taken to the Barn, where he was filled in on the situation by Mackey, as well as being warned that he was not ready for Farmington's worst citizens.
Hiatt was then met by Wyms, who asked what he knew of Vic Mackey. He replied that despite Mackey's numerous arrests and results, he has had two members of his team "end up dead" and one member not return to active duty. Hiatt was advised to keep his distance from Vic and that soon enough, the Strike Team would be his.
As a team member
Hiatt accompanied Vic through a situation in which several former soldiers of the One Niners were attempting to break loose from the gang, resulting their deaths for their disloyalty. Hiatt got to know the other members of the team back in the Strike Team's clubhouse, but also drew the ire of Shane Vendrell, who viewed Hiatt as an interloper and chastised the other team members for forgetting about deceased team member, Curtis "Lem" Lemansky. Shane was particularly angered when, during a critical incident, Hiatt offered to assist, but used Lem's shotgun to take out a suspect.
After his initial observations, Hiatt advised Wyms that from what he observed, Vic may not have been as dirty as the department made him out to be, but rather a victim of his methods, as seen by his apparent playing of several sides in order to get results. Wyms advised Hiatt to again watch himself and wait for the opportunity to witness Mackey's bad side, which he did when Mackey destroyed a hospital waiting room in anguish over the death of the leader of the rebel One Niner soldiers.
Hiatt also stated a desire to hire his own team members to expand the Strike Team, and was promptly given the dossier of officer Julien Lowe. As time passed, Hiatt began to lean on Vic's experience with Farmington and the gangs in the area. Hiatt even disclosed to Mackey the fact that his hearing was rigged in order to have him pushed out of the force, which caused Vic to confront Claudette over this knowledge.
Relationship with Tina Hanlon
Hiatt drew the attention of Tina Hanlon, who was taken with the young officer and sought to gain his attention with her police work and personal life. Hiatt flirted back in return, but did not pursue Hanlon until Steve Billings informed him that Holland "Dutch" Wagenbach was also interested in Hanlon. Hanlon and Hiatt shared a one-night stand, ruining Hanlon's potential for a more serious romance with Dutch; this situation is manipulated by Billings. Hiatt did not disclose his sexual relationship with Hanlon, a junior officer, to his superiors.
Final days
It became apparent that Hiatt was in over his head as far as what goes on in Farmington. Several mistakes and actions caused Claudette to doubt Hiatt and warnings from Shane about Vic possibly attempting to seize control of the Strike Team again if his hearing turned out in his favor created an uncomfortable situation that Hiatt attempted to work through. However, several blunders by Hiatt, including the arrest of one of Vic's valuable informants, as well as his one-night stand with Tina Hanlon, resulted in Hiatt being reassigned to another department.
Paul Jackson
Portrayed by Frank Grillo
Appears in "Our Gang", "Dragonchasers", "Breakpoint" and "Dominoes Falling"
Carlson's partner and fellow tormentor of Julien Lowe. He was fired with Carlson and also took part in the beatdown of Julien.
Chief Johnson
Portrayed by John Cygan
Appears in "Of Mice and Lem" and "Postpartum"
Johnson was the chief of police for the LAPD and succeeded Chief Bankston. He only physically appeared in two episodes but was heavily involved in the affairs of the Barn. Roy Phillips was his second and was the eyes, ears and voice of Johnson in the street and the Barn. Johnson was responsible for promoting Claudette Wyms to the rank of captain, and he ended but eventually extended Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh's internal affairs investigation. He effectively decided the Strike Team's disbandment from his desk in the final season, sealing Vic and Ronnie's ultimate fates and Julien Lowe back to regular police work.
Jon Kavanaugh
Portrayed by Forest Whitaker
Appears in "Extraction", "Enemy of Good", "Jailbait", "Tapa Boca", "Trophy", "Rap Payback", "Man Inside", "Kavanaugh", "Smoked", "Of Mice and Lem", "Postpartum", "On the Jones", "Baptism by Fire" and "Back to One"
Internal Affairs Lieutenant in charge of the corruption case against the Strike Team. Later sentenced to jail for falsifying evidence against Vic Mackey.
Carl Miller
Portrayed by Jarvis George
Appears in "Bang", "Doghouse" and "String Theory"
Patrol Officer Carl Miller and his partner "Scooby" Haines were kidnapped and stabbed to death by Nigerian drug dealers acting on the orders of the Russian arms dealer on whom they issued a parking ticket. Farmington drug lord Antwon Mitchell and his half-brother, Jason Porter hired the Nigerians at the Russian's request. The two policemen's bodies were dumped in an abandoned house as a deliberate attack on Captain Monica Rawling's asset forfeiture policy. Captain Rawling's obsession with seeing Antwon prosecuted for his part in the murders led her to deliberately sabotage his immunity deal with the DEA, thereby leading Chief Johnson to fire her from the Department.
Olivia Murray
Portrayed by Laurie Holden
Appears in "Coefficient of Drag", "Snitch", "Money Shot", "Genocide", "Game Face", "Animal Control", "Bitches Brew", "Parricide", "Moving Day", "Party Line", "Petty Cash", "Possible Kill Screen" and "Family Meeting"
Murray is a federal agent with U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. After I.C.E. could not make progress with the investigation of the San Marcos murders, Murray's investigation was shut down. A body dragging murder gives her a new angle back into the Mexican cartel investigation and the Los Angeles scene. The dragging also launches a working relationship between her and Vic Mackey, who then repeatedly helps her make cases. When her file shows up in Cruz Pezuela's blackmail box, Mackey works to help retrieve it. She is instrumental in Mackey's relationship with I.C.E. and the key to his efforts to cut a deal granting himself full immunity. After Vic's shocking confession after signing the immunity papers, Olivia was filled with rage and disgust of a man who has up till then been playing her for a fool. While Mackey and Gardocki successfully infiltrate Beltran's drug location, Olivia and ICE agents arrive at the scene, as well as Aceveda. While during the bust the drugs are not at first visible, they are found hidden moments later, completing Mackey's immunity deal. Claudette requests that Olivia place Corrine and Mackey's kids into the witness protection program. With this, Olivia could deliver a personal blow to Vic, for tricking her into giving him the immunity deal. At the end of the finale, Olivia knows who the true Vic Mackey is and sees to it that for his next three years, he would work in a purgatory-like office job, knowing very well he'd always be suffering.
Roy Phillips
Portrayed by Nigel Gibbs
Appears in Playing Tight", "Slipknot", "The Cure", "Hurt", "A Thousand Deaths", "Ain't That a Shame", "Extraction", "Of Mice and Lem", "On the Jones", "Exiled" "Snitch" and "Moving Day
Phillips replaced Ben Gilroy as the Assistant Chief of Police. He's apparently an acquaintance of Vic Mackey's, though their relationship has never been clarified—in a private conversation, Mackey said they "have years" together. He appears to be honest, and prefers to wear a full uniform (as opposed to Gilroy's suits). "The Cure" revealed that he is a dog lover who sent a missive ordering them not to be shot. This led an officer into trouble when he shot a dog that was biting his leg. He has often been the bearer of bad news, such as Monica Rawling's termination and Vic forced retirement.
Armando "Army" Renta
Portrayed by Michael Peña
Appears in "Grave", "Bang", "Doghouse", "Tar Baby", "Insurgents", "Hurt", "Cut Throat", "String Theory", "Back in the Hole" and "A Thousand Deaths"
A former soldier returned from Iraq, Army became Shane's partner when Shane left the Strike Team at the end of Season Three. Army allowed himself to be drawn into an alliance between Shane and drug kingpin Antwon Mitchell. Eventually, both Army and Shane were framed by Mitchell for the murder of a 14-year-old girl. Vic helped Army and Shane get out of trouble, although Army refused to take a lie detector test that would exonerate the two. While Shane and Captain Rawling were livid at Army's refusal to take the test, Vic and Lem both separately told Army that they agreed with his decision and allowed Army to walk away from the Strike Team. Army was never officially on the Strike Team—he worked in Vic's anti-gang unit to head up the seizure policy.
Criminals
Guillermo Beltran
Portrayed by Francesco Quinn
Appears in "Moving Day", "Party Line", "Petty Cash", "Possible Kill Screen" and "Family Meeting"
Cruz Pezuela's higher associate in the Mexican cartel who arrives in Farmington in Season 7 to evaluate Pezuela's progress. ICE has high interest in capturing Beltran along with his cartel. Vic plans to bust Beltran and serve him up to ICE in order to strike a deal to obtain full immunity on his past crimes, including the execution-style slayings of Terry Crowley, Margos Dezerian, Guardo Lima, and many others.
Margos Dezerian
Portrayed by Kurt Sutter
Appears in "Blowback", "All In", and "On Tilt"
Margos Dezerian was a powerful and high-ranking hit man for the Armenian Might. He amputated his victims' feet to satisfy a foot fetish. Margos was first seen with several of his gangster associates during a drug deal. He killed one of the associates just as the Strike Team broke in. He was brought to The Barn for questioning but refused to say a word. Instead, he broke another prisoner's neck and later escaped by jumping out of a moving prison van. After the Strike Team stole millions of dollars from the Armenian Might's "money train" (money laundering operation), Margos' bosses ordered him to find and murder the people responsible. Margos then left a trail of grisly murders, first two Armenian mobsters, then Byz Lats leader Diagur Leyva, and finally Neil O'Brien (who found and was under police surveillance for depositing marked money from the money train), all of whose feet he amputated. Margos also kidnapped Sosi, a young Armenian girl, as leverage to force her older sister to handle the gang's bookkeeping. When he observed the Strike Team narrowing in on him, he stabbed her in the back of the neck and left her for the Team to find. Vic and Lem rushed the girl to the emergency room and left Ronnie and Shane to hunt for Margos, but Margos escaped.
Ultimately, Mackey spreads a false rumor that an Armenian Might lieutenant [named Goma] had given the police information that led to a bust, to lure Margos to Goma's home. When Margos went to Goma's house to kill him, Vic ambushed him at gunpoint. After Margos dropped his gun and surrendered, Vic shot him dead and rigged the crime scene evidence to look like self defense. This was the second person in the series whom Vic murdered in cold blood.
Alex Eznik
Portrayed by Shaun Duke
Appears in "Carte Blanche"
Alex is an Armenian mob boss who owns his own dance bar. He wants an associate, Hrach, to be executed for killing one of his hitmen. Vic promises to kill Hrach, but takes an already dead victim and blows his face away with a shotgun in order to deem him unrecognizable. Once Alex agrees furthermore to go along with Vic's plans, Vic takes down the entire Armenian mob operation in that region. After Vic takes down Eznik and the rest of that Armenian operation down, they discover the money train.
Santi Galas
Portrayed by Benny Hernandez
Appears in "Baptism by Fire", "Exiled", "Recoil", "Petty Cash", and "Family Meeting"
Leader of the Byz Lats in Season 6. He maintains a firm relationship with Vic, although he was pressed for information about Lem's killer and was thrown out of Vic's car in the beginning of Season 6.
Kleavon Gardner
Portrayed by Ray Campbell
Appears in "Insurgents", "Back in the Hole" "Rap Payback", "Man Inside" and "Game Face"
A suspected serial killer, Gardner is adept at concealing any evidence of his alleged crimes. He proves to be a difficult case for Dutch and Claudette, seeing through their false claims of evidence and witness testimony. However, Kleavon's previously protective sister finally begins to believe she may be living with a murderer and agrees to cooperate with the police. She disappears, and the detectives tell him they are adding her murder to his charges. While trying to prove he is innocent of his sister's murder, Kleavon confesses to the other murders. As he is being led away, he finds that his sister is alive and has been aiding the police. Kleavon returned for the final season of The Shield and, acting as his own defense, attempted to discredit Claudette's investigation. He focused on the fact that Claudette was on medication and that she had no other suspects in her and Dutch's investigation. He was able to successfully get his death sentence removed, much to Claudette's dismay, but will spend the rest of his life in prison. In his final scene, Dutch asks him to sit and watch live feed of Lloyd Denton's interrogation, the young man who Dutch suspects of murdering a classmate. Kleavon agrees with Dutch that Lloyd could very well be a psychopath: "This kid's got the look, I've seen it before." When asked where, Kleavon coldly states "When I look into the mirror."
Hagop
Portrayed by David Caprita
Appears in "Carte Blanche"
Hagop is one of Alex Eznik's top associates in the Armenian mob. Hagop follows Vic around while Shane Vendrell is left as insurance in the custody of Alex. Hagop gives Vic some addresses to check out in order for their operations after believing that Hrach was taken out by Vic. However, when Hagop sees Hrach at the station, he is attacked by Vic so that no message is sent to Alex involving Hrach still being alive. Vic manages to take down the entire organization under Alex and pull Vendrell out safely.
Hrach
Portrayed by Aron Kader
Appears in "Carte Blanche"
Hrach was an associate for Alex Eznik's Armenian mob until things went sour and he gunned down another associate. Once Alex decided to have him taken out, Hrach gave himself up to the Strike Team. Vic sets up Alex by assuming the role of a bad cop, which wasn't too hard for him to begin with, and shows the body of an already dead victim to Alex. Alex falls for this, thinking that its Hrach, and this leads to his eventual capture, along with all his men. Although Hrach gave up some details, his most important piece of information was about the Money Train operation. The first actual time that the Money Train operation is mentioned to the Strike Team is by Hrach. After finding out that this operation truly exists, Vic and his team try to pull off the heist themselves, resulting in furthermore problematic situations in upcoming seasons.
Diro Kesakhian
Portrayed by Franka Potente
Appears in "The Math of the Wrath", "Recoil" and "Spanish Practices"
A young college girl and devout Orthodox Christian, turned boss of an Armenian Mafia Family. Went by the alias Garine Essagian. After Shane was booted from the Strike Team by Vic, he took to moonlighting as an enforcer for Diro and her dying father. After Shane uncovered the names of three African-Americans who were robbing the Kesakhians' stable of Russian hookers, Diro arranged for the trio to be abducted and castrated. Vic, however, attempted to drive a wedge between Diro and Shane by revealing his stormy past with Antwon Mitchell. Panicking when Diro attempted to end their arrangement, Shane told her that Vic and Ronnie robbed the Money Train. To his horror, Diro responded by putting out contracts on Vic, Ronnie, and their families. When Shane pleaded with her to leave the families out of it, Diro coldly responded, "We can't separate the ones we love from the choices we make." Shane responded by transferring his allegiance to Ellis Rezian, her main rival. Together they forced Diro to flee to Germany, where she had been attending college, but not before euthanising her father. Before catching her flight, she told Shane, "Your sentimentality will destroy you."
Diagur Leyva
Portrayed by Frankie Rodriguez
Appears in "Playing Tight", "Blood and Water", "Mum", "What Power Is..." and "Fire in the Hole"
Former leader of the Byz Lats gang. Replaced former leader Garza when the Strike Team took him down. Allied with Vic, but was murdered (his feet chopped off) by the Armenian Might, most likely Margos Dezerian, when they connected him, through Vic, to the Money Train Robbery.
Guardo Lima
Portrayed by Luis Antonio Ramos
Appears in "Kavanaugh" and "Back to One"
A Salvadoran drug lord falsely believed by Vic to be responsible for Lemansky's murder. After a kidnapper (in actuality Vic), kidnapped his girlfriend, Guardo came out of hiding and attempted to find the kidnapper. However, no one arrived to take the ransom and Guardo was instead captured by Vic, who followed him to his safe house. Guardo was taken to a secluded area, where, after giving Vic a false lead, he was beaten bloody with chains, and shot in the head by Vic as "retribution" for Lem's death. His body was later burned in order to keep his fate a mystery. Guardo was later revealed to have ordered the grisly murder of 11 Mexicans at the San Marcos apartments.
Kern Little
Portrayed by Sticky Fingaz
Appears in "Dawg Days", "Carnivores", "Inferno", "Playing Tight", "Blood and Water" and "Of Mice and Lem"
Former leader of the One-Niners gang and a rapper. Was assassinated on orders of Antwon Mitchell in a robbery involving the Strike Team, as he posed a threat to Mitchell's leadership of the gang.
Kern Little, an aspiring rapper, was a friend of Detective Vic Mackey's CI (confidential informant) Rondell Robinson. In the Season One episode "Dawg Days", a dispute between Kern and a rival rapper from another gang known as 'T-Bone' is brought to the attention of the Farmington Division after causing a number of fatalities out on the street. After repeated warnings from Mackey and the Strike Team to stop the rivalry before it was in danger of escalating into a full blown gang war, Kern and T-Bone could not stop their dispute. In a dilemma, Mackey and Lem decide to send hoax calls to each rapper, informing each one that the other was unaware of the other's next move. Kern and T-Bone were then instructed by Mackey to meet at a rendezvous point, where it became clear he was leading each one to the other. Mackey and Lem tricked the two rappers into walking into a large storage depot, into which both men were then locked together under the instruction that they would have to settle their differences or finish things once and for all. Mackey opened the door of the storage unit early the next morning, where he was surprised to see Kern emerge looking bemused. As Lem asked Kern what happened to T-Bone, the rapper calmly replied that there was nobody else coming out of that unit, having killed T-Bone during the night. Kern offered to have his associates clean up the mess but Lem volunteered instead.
Kern would work with the Strike Team several times over the next few years. He eventually was killed while Mackey helped Antwon Mitchell's associates break into a police warehouse in exchange for Mitchell's mercy on Lem during his prison stay. Antwon hadn't told Vic that Kern was a threat to his power in the gang, and so Kern was shot dead by the other man Antwon had sent with Vic, much to Vic's shock. A guard was killed as well and Mackey covered up both incidents, though he was very distressed.
Juan Lozano
Portrayed by Kurt Caceres
Appears in "Slipknot", "Mum", "Posse Up", "Safe", "What Power Is...", "Grave", "Doghouse", "Back in the Hole", "Judas Priest" and "Ain't That a Shame"
Juan was a low-level member of the Byz Lats. Vic and the Strike Team sought information about the Byz-Lats who used parts of their stolen money train cash, and to get information, Vic assaulted Juan violently, forcing him to choke on a bong he was smoking. Juan and his accomplice would later be assigned to take the remaining money the Strike Team were after to another location, but not before encountering Aceveda, who stayed alone at the stash house to investigate. Juan proceeded to attack and orally rape Aceveda while his accomplice took a photo of the rape. Aceveda eventually recovered and researched Juan and his crew, eventually tailing them and killing his accomplice and recovering the phone which the photo was taken. Still worried about future embarrassment and humiliation this incident would bring him, as Lozano was threatening to speak publicly of the incident, Aceveda made a DEA immunity deal with Antwon Mitchell in return for Antwon murdering Lozano. Lozano was then murdered by Antwon with a 40-pound weight from a barbell. Unfortunately for Aceveda, Juan made a digital copy of the photo on a USB before his death.
Goma Magar
Portrayed by Michael Benyaer
Appears in "On Tilt"
Goma is one of Margos Dezerian's contacts. He has connections with the Armenian Might. However, once Vic pinpoints him as a traitor to Margos, he fears for his life, as the entire Armenian mob might try to kill him for trying to help Vic. Vic uses this as a method of setting up Margos, who goes to Goma's house to execute him. Vic takes this opportunity to kill Margos.
Antwon Mitchell
Portrayed by Anthony Anderson
Appears in "The Cure", "Grave", "Bang", "Doghouse", "Tar Baby", "Insurgents", "Hurt", "Cut Throat", "String Theory", "Back in the Hole", "Judas Priest", "Ain't That a Shame", "Kavanaugh", "Of Mice and Lem", "Postpartum" and "Chasing Ghosts"
A drug kingpin who, having been released from a lengthy prison sentence, tried to reinvent himself as an upstanding black community leader out to aid the black citizens of Farmington, while secretly flooding those same citizens with black tar heroin. He is currently imprisoned for personally gunning down a 14-year-old police informant, ordering the kidnapping and stabbing deaths of two cops from The Barn, and trying to blackmail Detective Shane Vendrell into murdering Detective Vic Mackey.
Moses
Portrayed by L. Michael Burt
Appears in "Of Mice and Lem", "On the Jones", "The New Guy", "Haunts" and "Snitch"
Leader of the One-Niners on the street in season 6. Very loudspoken and cocky. Moses and Shane had an antagonistic rapport with each other over the teenage girl they were both sleeping with.
Tomas Motyashik
Portrayed by Brent Roam
Appears in "The Spread", "Blowback", "Pay in Pain", "Cupid & Psycho", "Carnivores", "Inferno" and "Breakpoint"
Was briefly Julien's lover and small-time crook. Was arrested by Vic while he and Julien were having an affair in Tomas' apartment. This arrest and sexual encounter is what Vic used to blackmail Julien into getting the drug charges dropped on the strike team. He disappeared into the penal system after season 2 after assaulting Julien's Sexual Reorientation sponsor, following his public outing of Julien.
Theodore "T.O." Osmond
Portrayed by Cedric Pendleton
Appears in "Carnivores", "Circles", "The Quick Fix" and "Dead Soldiers"
T.O. took the place of Rondell Robinson as the Strike Team's way to control the drugs in Farmington, using his comic book store as a front for his operations. His store was burnt down by Armadillo Quintero, but his safe recovered intact by Claudette Wyms during the investigation. The safe contained evidence pointing to a suspected illegal arrangement with Vic Mackey, though T.O. denied any connection when questioned. He was later murdered by Armadillo Quintero, which infuriated Mackey, leading him to beat and torture Armadillo.
Cruz Pezuela
Portrayed by F. J. Rio
Appears in "The New Guy", "Haunts", "Exiled", "The Math of the Wrath", "Recoil", "Spanish Practices", "Coefficient of Drag", "Snitch", "Genocide", "Animal Control", "Moving Day" and "Party Line"
A Mexican real estate developer and diplomat, Pezuela has a great deal of land and construction interests in the Farmington area and is backed by several wealthy investors in Mexico, many of whom hold positions of power in the Mexican Government. Pezuela seeks out David Aceveda, seeking to use him to not only get the feel of the Farmington area, but also to allow him access into the local government and police. It is at Pezuela's behest that Aceveda begins to push for the San Marcos murders to be solved, especially when Pezuela offers to make a generous donation to fund Aceveda's mayoral campaign. As time passes and Pezuela not only begins to appear at the Barn, but also to offer information and leads into the killings, Vic Mackey's curiosity is aroused and he begins to investigate Pezuela's possible involvement in the San Marcos killings. Pezuela realizes the threat Vic poses and attempts to convince Aceveda into testifying on Mackey's behalf in order to keep him employed. When Aceveda declines, Pezuela instead offers Vic another form of compensation to get the detective off of his back: the camera phone picture of Aceveda performing oral sex on a gang-member. Pezuela reveals his secret contempt of Aceveda, telling him that the Councilman "instead of standing up to his attacker like a man, he got on his knees and took another man's dick in his mouth." He gives the picture to Vic to use at his disposal, but advises him to "stop digging." Vic, however, used the picture to build an alliance with Aceveda in an attempt to prevent his own forced retirement. After revealing Pezuela's close ties to the Mexican drug cartels, Vic stole a car containing Pezuela's blackmail material on high-ranking City officials, thereby scuttling the Cartels' attempt to take over the neighborhood and saving his own job. Later in the series, Drug lord Guillermo Beltran grooms Vic for a position in the Cartel in return that Vic kills Pezuela. But in Vic's feigned attempt to do so, Vic revealed to Pezuela he was working undercover for ICE, namely agent Olivia Murray. Briefly after this, Pezuela was given full immunity and witness protection by Agent Murray in cooperation that he gives information on the Cartel. The official news was that Cruz Pezuela committed suicide, in which Vic gave this information to Beltran to get deeper in the Cartel.
Armadillo Quintero
Portrayed by Daniel Pino
Appears in "The Quick Fix", "Dead Soldiers", "Partners", "Greenlit" and "Scar Tissue"
Armadillo was a young, psychopathic drug trafficker who arrived from Mexico hoping to take over Farmington's drug trade. As a child, he was given an IQ test and scored well above the genius level. His criminal record revealed his first crime was the rape of his primary school teacher at the age of 11. Armadillo was known for necklacing his rivals. He was also responsible for the rape of a 12-year-old girl who had offered to testify against him. He would mark his rape victims with a tattoo of a dove on their face, with both the girlfriend of a rival gang member and the 12-year-old girl among the victims of this cruel practice. Although previously mortal enemies, the Farmington street gangs Los Mags and The Toros agreed to unite under Armadillo's violent and ruthless rule.
After Armadillo's crew murdered his drug dealing ally T.O., Vic Mackey became enraged and attempted to intimidate Armadillo into returning to Mexico. When Armadillo refused, Vic, Lem and Shane stormed his home while Ronnie covered the front. Vic then proceeded to brutally beat him with a heavy law book. Eventually, Vic's rage at Armadillo's defiance spurred him to burn Armadillo's face on the kitchen stove in his house. Vic eventually ceased his brutality and left him to leave, but Armadillo, seething with hatred, proceeded to put out contracts on all members of the Strike Team in revenge. Several of his men shadowed the four team members for weeks, with Ronnie being the first to notice and express concern, despite being the only member not present during Armadillo's burning. Unfortunately, Armadillo used this fact to his advantage and had Gardocki's face similarly disfigured as payback when Ronnie went to Vic's apartment to pick up some items.
Armadillo arranged to turn himself over to the police willingly after he realized the Strike Team intended to murder him in retaliation. During his interrogation, Armadillo threatened to ruin Vic's career by revealing to the other detectives that it was Vic who disfigured him unless Vic made Ronnie recant on his statement. Although Vic was willing to admit to the attack to protect Ronnie, Shane and Lem disagreed and secretly convinced one of Armadillo's disgruntled underlings to get himself arrested. Longing to return to the prison he once ruled, the gangster approached Officers Danny Sofer and Julien Lowe and blew marijuana in their faces. After the two officers put him in the same holding cage as his boss, Shane and Lem slipped him a shiv and watched as he stabbed Armadillo to death.
Ellis Rezian
Portrayed by Ludwig Manukian
Appears in "Exiled", "Recoil", "Spanish Practices", "Coefficient of Drag", "Snitch", "Money Shot", "Genocide" and "Animal Control"
A leading figure of the Armenian Mafia. He is set up and arrested by Shane Vendrell. Even from prison, however, he is determined not to allow Diro Kesakhian to become the boss of the Armenian mob. Therefore, he teams with Shane near the end of the sixth season in order to stop Kesakhian from unleashing retribution on Mackey's family. In the aftermath, however, he vowed to hold the Money Train Heist over Shane's head. Rezian said that if Shane didn't do what he was told or if the Armenians received any problems from the police, he would murder Vic, Ronnie, and their families. He coldly added that he would save Shane, Mara, and their children for last.
In the seventh season, Rezian is released from prison, and falls into a trap set up between Vic Mackey and Shane Vendrell, where he is dragged into believing that the Mexicans are after him, led by Pezuela. However, this threat was fictitious and created by Vic himself. As Vic played Rezian and Pezuela against each other, making Pezuela believe that Rezian held the contents of the "box," which supposedly held information on Pezuela, and making Rezian believe that the Mexicans were targeting his gang. In a last-ditch effort to remove Rezian, Mackey sets up a trap, which Shane barely slips out of. Rezian is set up to be murdered by Vic Mackey by two of Pezuela's thugs. Shane barely manages to get out of the crossfire as Rezian is ruthlessly gunned down along with some of his lieutenants. Afterwards, although realizing that the threat of the Armenian mob has been neutralized, Shane also understands that Vic and Ronnie set him up to be murdered along with Rezian as payback for the slaying of Lem.
Rondell Robinson
Portrayed by Walter Jones
Appears in "Dawg Days", "Carnivores" and "Co-Pilot"
A major drug dealer in the Farmington neighborhood with links to the Farmington One-Niners. Rondell was Vic's major supplier of drugs and was used by the Strike Team in order for them to keep track of what was put on the street. However, Rondell's impulsiveness and drug addiction make him increasingly unreliable, especially as he escalates conflicts with both rival dealers and the Nation of Islam. Vic eventually has Rondell murdered and replaced by T.O.
Kail Saffian
Portrayed by Vahe Bejan
Appears in "All in"
Kail Saffian is a high-ranking member of the Armenian mob. He is rather overweight. Meanwhile, Vic needs to take out Margos Dezerian before he takes out the entire Strike Team. Saffian is caught in a parking lot along with many associates, with a ton of drugs being carried in Middle Eastern carpets. Vic tries to interrogate Saffian on the whereabouts of Margos by shoving his face in a container of waste oil. Once Saffian struggles to breathe, Vic realizes that the Strike Team is being watched by Dezerian from afar in a high level building. By the time they get to the top, Margos is gone and Sosi, a young girl whom Margos had kidnapped, was stabbed by him.
Halpern White
Portrayed by Laurence Mason
Appears in "Grave", "Bang", "Doghouse", "Tar Baby", "Insurgents", "Hurt", "Cut Throat", "String Theory", "A Thousand Deaths" and "Smoked"
White is the second in command of the One-Niners gang under Antwon Mitchell. He was a go-between for the gang leader and the cops when Shane and Army started their relationship with Mitchell. When he threatened to report their relationship, Shane and Army badly beat him. White would return the beating when Antwon's thugs jumped them and killed Angie with Shane's and Army's guns. Later, when trying to get White to overthrow Antwon, he was accidentally shot in the shoulder by Army and spent some time in the hospital. He recovered and eventually worked as an informant for the Strike Team.
Ari Zadofian
Portrayed by Raff Anoushian
Appears in "Spanish Practices", "Coefficient of Drag"
Zadofian was one of Diro Kesakian's closest enforcers and had previously worked for her father. After Diro learned of the Strike Team's robbery of the Money Train, Zadofian was sent to murder Vic's family. However, the plan went sour when he was ambushed and shot in the stomach by Shane.
In Season Seven, Vic and Ronnie found him hiding in a hotel, tied him to the bed, and squeezed him for information regarding the contract on Vic's family. Once Zadofian confirmed that he was responsible, Ronnie ordered him to place a cell phone call to Diro. Before Zadofian could answer, Ronnie shot him in cold blood. Shane, who was in the vicinity, entered the hotel and found Zadofian's corpse. In order to make it look like an Armenian Mafia slaying, Shane severed Zadofian's feet and left the scene.
Friends and family
Aurora Aceveda
Portrayed by Camillia Sanes
Appears in "Dawg Days", "Cupid & Psycho", "Dragonchasers", "Carnivores", "Coyotes", "Greenlit", "Homewrecker", "Breakpoint" and "Dominoes Falling", "Posse Up", "Slipknot", "What Power Is...", "The Cure", "Back in the Hole" and "Judas Priest"
Aurora is David Aceveda's wife and supporter of his political campaign. She is certain to remain by his side during his campaign, no matter how their personal relationship is at the time. Their relationship hit a rough patch after David was raped but they eventually moved past it. The Acevedas have a young daughter.
Joe Clark
Portrayed by Carl Weathers
Appears in "Partners" and "Haunts"
Joe Clark was Vic's first partner and training officer. It was Clark who taught Vic how to deal with violent street criminals and how to bend the laws to his advantage. Clark was discharged from the police force for becoming too personally involved in a vendetta against a local drug dealer, who'd assaulted Clark's partner; Clark brutally beat the young man to avenge the assault. The drug dealer subsequently sued him for excessive force and won, forcing Clark's retirement without a pension, ruining his marriage, and causing him to lose his family. Clark's legacy to Vic was the justification that they always "did more good than bad". The "Co-Pilot" episode established that Clark's forced retirement occurred in the same year the Barn and the Strike Team were formed.
Clark made his first appearance visiting Vic at the Barn and asking him for assistance against the same drug and weapons dealer who'd ruined his career and who continued to deal drugs and sell weapons while showing off his wealth from the payout of the court case. Despite disagreeing with him, Vic assisted him in taking the criminal down but paid for it by being shot. Clark remained indebted to Vic, and eventually the pair met up again years later, with Clark becoming an enforcer-for-hire who used his intimidation skills from his days as a cop to earn an income. Vic once again assisted Clark and another enforcer (who proved incompetent and sadistic) in a case against Jamaican drug dealers in an apartment complex. Vic participated in the raid, but realized Clark's type of work was both dangerous and unnecessarily cruel. When Vic saw what Clark had become, he left, and Clark wasn't seen again.
Becca Doyle
Portrayed by Laura Harring
Appears in "Jailbait", "Tapa Boca", "Trophy", "Rap Payback", "Man Inside", "Smoked", "Of Mice and Lem" and "Postpartum"
Becca is a defense attorney who convinces Claudette to take a second look at a case Claudette had closed with Dutch. Becca is initially distrustful of Vic after his testimony caused one of her clients to be convicted, but Vic convinces her to help bring down a sex slave ring. Vic later enlists her to help defend the Strike Team from the Internal Affairs investigation, which assignment she accepts under the impression that Aceveda and IAD are seeking scapegoats for their own misdeeds. When it is revealed that the Strike Team is under investigation for murder, Becca confronts Vic, who admits to certain aspects of his wrongdoing, including embezzlement, but insists that he wants to change and have a fresh start. Becca believes him and continues to work for the team. Vic and Becca get involved romantically, but the next day she discovers, through Lemansky, that the Strike Team did indeed rob the Armenian money train, and people were killed because of it. From that point on, she loses her trust in Vic and refuses to help him. She does, however, try to help Lem, but Lem is hellbent on turning himself in.
Rita Dressler
Portrayed by Frances Fisher
Appears in "Possible Kill Screen", "Moving Day", "Game Face", "Genocide"
The mother of a budding teenage serial killer. She is attracted to and befriended by Dutch. Dutch believes that her son, Lloyd, planned a
burglary of their own home in order to shoot the would-be burglar.
Rita is initially convinced of her son's innocence but later seems to have doubts. Before she can act on her doubts, she mysteriously disappears and is presumed to have been killed by Lloyd.
Sadie Kavanaugh
Portrayed by Gina Torres
Appears in "Kavanaugh" and "Of Mice and Lem"
Sadie is the mentally-troubled ex-wife of the Internal Affairs Lieutenant who investigates the Strike Team during season 5, Jon Kavanaugh. She and Vic engage in a sexual encounter in retaliation against the Lieutenant.
Jorge Machado
Portrayed by Efrain Figueroa
Appears in "Dawg Days", "Cupid & Psycho", "Carnivores", "The Quick Fix", "Coyotes", "Breakpoint" and "Bottom Bitch"
Jorge Machado, the "Kingmaker" becomes Aceveda's political ally and supports him on his bid for city council. He even looks past some of Aceveda's major blunders and eventually leads him to nomination.
Cassidy Mackey
Portrayed by Autumn Chiklis
Appears in "Cupid & Psycho", "Two Days of Blood", "Partners", "Carte Blanche", "Homewrecker", "Scar Tissue", "Breakpoint", "Playing Tight", "Bottom Bitch", "Streaks and Tips", "Mum", "Safe", "Slipknot", "Fire in the Hole", "On Tilt", "Grave", "Doghouse", "Insurgents", "Cut Throat", "Ain't That a Shame", "Extraction", "Trophy", "Rap Payback", "Smoked", "Postpartum", "On the Jones", "Chasing Ghosts", "Spanish Practices", "Coefficient of Drag", "Snitch", "Money Shot" and "Genocide"
In Season 6, "Chasing Ghosts", Vic's older daughter Cassidy confronted Vic about his unethical past, after hearing some vicious stories about him from the father of one of her friends, who is a defense attorney. Vic lied and denied everything, and Corinne intervened by saying Kavanaugh had tried to set Vic up and gone to jail for doing so. Neither Vic nor Corinne could deny the existence of Lee, however; Cassidy had heard Corrine discussing Vic and Danielle's illegitimate child on the phone and was appalled that Vic would keep the boy a secret. In response, Vic introduced Cassidy to her half-brother, Lee Carson Sofer. Cassidy refused to hold Lee and wanted to leave right away. In an argument wherein Cassidy was supposed to watch Matthew but instead went to an alcohol party, Cassidy physically pushed Corrine, and Vic aggressively grabbed Cassidy and started hollering at her.
Matthew Mackey
Portrayed by Joel Rosenthal and Jack Webber
Appears in "Our Gang", "The Spread", "Dawg Days", "Blowback", "Cupid & Psycho", "Throwaway", "Partners", "Carte Blanche", "Homewrecker", "Barnstormers", "Breakpoint", "Playing Tight", "Mum", "Posse Up", "Safe", "Slipknot", "Strays", "Fire in the Hole", "On Tilt", "Grave", "Extraction", "Enemy of Good", "Jailbait", "Rap Payback" and "Spanish Practices"
Vic's son. He is diagnosed with autism, requiring expensive doctors and therapy.
Note: Joel Rosenthal's final episode was "On Tilt"
Megan Mackey
Portrayed by:
Appears in: "Pilot", "Our Gang"
Vic's youngest daughter. Like her brother Matthew, Megan has autism.
Corrine Mackey
Portrayed by Cathy Cahlin Ryan
Vic's estranged wife and mother of his three oldest children. Vic's job, philandering, and other stressful events strain their marriage, eventually causing Corinne and Vic to separate. Corrine then must balance the challenges of being a single mother and an Emergency Room nurse. She had a relationship with Dutch Wagenbach during season 4.
In Season 5, Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh dragged Corinne into the Internal Affairs investigation against Vic. When Kavanaugh interrogated her she told him about the bag containing $65,000.00 of stolen money Vic had given her. Kavanaugh then asked her to turn over the unspent $5000 of that money as evidence for his investigation. On Vic's suggestion Corrine hired an attorney, but Kavanaugh refused to offer her a deal for cooperating and later froze her assets to prevent Vic from using her for money to bail out Lem. He also told Corrine about Danny Sofer's longtime affair with Vic and Danny's pregnancy. Corrine confronted Danny about the child, angrily calling her a whore and the unborn child is a bastard. Later, after Vic slept with Kavanaugh's ex-wife, Kavanaugh tried to follow suit by seducing Corrine. When she rejected him, Kavanaugh tried to rape her but could not bring himself to go through with it.
In Season 6, after Vic was charged with Lemansky's murder, Corrine stormed into The Barn and angrily confronted Kavanaugh in front of the entire station house. She then filed charges of harassment and attempted sexual assault against him.
Viewing all of Kavanaugh's accusations against Vic as completely groundless, Corrine brought her and Vic's three children to appear on his behalf at a Department Review Board in the Season 6 finale. She assured Vic they would always be there for him.
As the series wound to a close, however, Corrine learned from Mara Vendrell the full extent of Vic's crimes. After briefly agreeing to help him, Corinne learned that Vic was trying to kill Shane and Mara. As a result, she approached Dutch Wagenbach and offered to help him build a criminal case against her ex-husband. After learning of Vic's immunity deal with ICE, a horrified Corrine pleaded with Dutch and Claudette to protect her and her children. Claudette responded by arranging for them to disappear into the Witness Protection Program.
Emolia Melendez
Portrayed by Onahoua Rodriguez
Appears in "Back in the Hole", "A Thousand Deaths", "Ain't That a Shame", "Extraction", "Enemy of Good", "Tapa Boca", "Trophy", "Kavanaugh", "Postpartum", "On the Jones", "Baptism by Fire" and "Back to One"
Emolia is a single mother, with a special needs son named Sebastian, and a longtime informant for Vic Mackey. Emolia witnessed Curtis Lemansky steal a kilo of heroin. Captain Monica Rawling (Glenn Close) had originally ordered an IAD investigation into Vic to prove he was clean, and in the last episode of season 4, she visits her IAD assistant, with Emolia in attendance. Emolia reveals Lem took the heroin, and makes a comment revealing she has no real loyalty to any officer, just whoever has the money (this meeting leads to Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh, the assistant's boss, into his season 5 investigation into the Strike Team.)
She remained Vic's informant for six months, giving him information and accepting his favors for her son. Vic became attached to her, expressed a wish for her to leave the informant business, and offered to help her find work elsewhere, but ultimately he discovered she was also serving as an informant for IAD Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh. Vic managed to get her alone and threatened her to not reveal any more information. Emolia was nearly killed in a Salvadoran grenade manufacturing plant during a sting and later expressed regret to Vic for betraying Lem. When Lemansky accepted a deal, Kavanaugh's investigation disintegrated. In the aftermath, Emolia tried to convince Vic to accept her as an informant once again. Vic, however, would not be persuaded and, after using her services one last time to obtain information about the Salvadoran mob's current operations, he cut all ties to her.
In Season 6, Emolia returned to the lives of the Strike Team when Kavanaugh fed her a false story in exchange for witness protection, hoping to frame Vic for Lemansky's murder. However, Dutch disproved Emolia's story, after discovering that Kavanaugh and Emolia had never met at the place they had described. Although Emolia was about to retract her testimony after a lecture from Claudette and a promise of protection, but a guilt ridden Kavanaugh entered the interrogation room and confessed to feeding Emolia the story and to planting evidence in Vic's apartment. Despite this, Emolia was placed in witness protection.
Later in Season 6, Vic commented to Shane that, although Salvadoran drug lord Guardo Lima was aware that Emolia was "snitching", Guardo chose not to kill her in order to stay off the Strike Team's radar.
Connie Reisler
Portrayed by Jamie Anne Allman
Appears in "Pilot", "The Spread", "Cherrypoppers", "Dragonchasers", "Greenlit", "Homewrecker", "Scar Tissue" and "Co-Pilot"
Connie is a crack-addicted prostitute. Vic was very sympathetic to her because she was a single mother with a baby son. Near the end of season 1, Vic helped Connie go through detox for the sake of her son. Despite the process, Connie relapsed, sneaked out to get high, and disappeared. She later returned to the Barn and left her baby, Brian, with Vic to be put into foster care, answering Vic's plea that Brian needs his mother with him: "That's not me." However, Vic checks on Brian repeatedly to make sure the foster family is treating him appropriately.
In season 2, Connie reappeared at the Barn one day completely clean and wanting to scrape up some money by working as a C.I. for Vic. Vic reluctantly agreed. Later, during a fugitive case that the Strike Team was working on, Connie got involved without Vic's consent. A hostage situation ensued, resulting in her being fatally shot. A horrified Vic, unable to help her, was forced to watch Connie die. After the hostile was neutralized, Vic sat down, disturbed and speechless.
As of season 3, Brian was still in the foster care system, where he seemed happier than ever.
Mara Sewell-Vendrell
Portrayed by Michele Hicks
Appears in "Playing Tight", "Blood and Water", "Bottom Bitch", "Streaks and Tips", "Mum", "Safe", "Cracking Ice", "Slipknot", "What Power Is...", "Strays", "All In", "Bang", "Jailbait", "Haunts", "Exiled", "Coefficient of Drag", "Money Shot", "Animal Control", "Parricide", "Moving Day", "Party Line", "Petty Cash", "Possible Kill Screen", and "Family Meeting"
Mara Sewell was introduced at the opening of season 3, though it was not clear how Shane met her. She is very moody and has a foul temper, often demanding a lot of Shane's attention. She doesn't like Vic and is jealous of his close friendship with Shane. Shane and Mara had a rocky relationship at first, with her becoming furious when he thought things were moving too fast until Mara announced very unceremoniously that she was pregnant. Shane, having old-fashioned Southern standards, immediately wanted to get married. Mara agreed, but became angry for reasons unknown to Shane. He later realized the reason for her ire was because he hadn't got her a ring and set out to get one. The two later married near the end of season three.
Things got interesting when Mara discovered the receipt with "Cletus Van Damme" from the storage locker where the Strike Team was storing their money from the Armenian Money Train robbery. Mara helped herself to about $7,000, some of which was marked by the United States Department of Treasury. During an investigation by Dutch, it was discovered that some of the marked money was spent it Indio, California and that the Feds were on the way to investigate. Upon hearing of Indio, Shane's curiosity was piqued. Later in the evening, Shane was on the phone with Mara's mother, where she revealed that Mara had sent her the missing $7,000. At this point, the Strike Team moved the money to another storage locker, without telling Shane the location, fearing Mara would discover it again. The circumstances of the Armenian Money Train Robbery were not revealed to Mara or her mother; they bought Shane's story of just "skimming it off of drug dealers"
Mara put herself on the line for Shane when Tavon Garris and Shane had a physical altercation in Shane's apartment. Tavon had come over to clear up any bad feelings between him and Shane. Shane then called Tavon a racial slur ("darkie") and the fight broke out. Tavon kneed Shane in the groin, causing Shane to practically paralyze. Mara entered the apartment to see Tavon on top dominating Shane, and she picked up a laundry iron, and smashed him across the back of the head with it. Tavon then left the apartment to drive back to the Barn, however, due to his head injury from the iron, he crashed his vehicle into another, and was in grave condition for the remainder of the season. He would not be seen again until the season 7 episode, Animal Control. This incident with Tavon, in addition to Mara taking the $7,000 from the Money Train, is what began the tension that eventually led to the Strike Team's collapse at the end of Season 3.
Mara played a lesser role through seasons 4 and 5, but she was featured more heavily in season 6. When Mara discovers that Shane was having an affair with a girl who was barely eighteen, she is enraged and throws him out of the house. In an attempt to come back home, Shane confessed to Mara that he, not Guardo, was in fact the one who murdered Curtis Lemansky. Mara, seeing how badly Shane's guilt was tearing him up inside, took him back.
Mara and Shane's love grew to be very strong and she even killed someone while trying to save Shane from two drug addicts that he was in a fight with, injuring herself in the process. When things look bleak, Shane poisons Mara and their young son so that they can "always be a family" and to save her from doing time in prison.
Lee Carson Sofer
Vic and Danny's illegitimate son, and half-brother of Vic's children with Corrine.
Ursula Hayes' nurse
Portrayed by Talmadge Ragan
Appears in "Inferno"
A nurse who works at Mission Cross Hospital. She is in charged of taking care Ursula Hayes.
Gangs
In season 7 episode 2: "Snitch", the Mayor's office released a list of the top 10 most wanted gangs.
African-American
Athens: A black gang mentioned in season 7 episode 2: "Snitch" as possibly being responsible for a recent murder.
Compton Crowns: A Black gang founded in Los Angeles by Dante Fell, among others. Dante left Los Angeles and spent four years opening franchises of his gang in Wichita, San Antonio, and Oklahoma City.
E-Park Johnnies: A small-time Farmington gang, notorious for their "April Fool's parties", where after tallying up the number of gang members killed the previous year, the remaining members pick dominoes. Whoever draws a domino whose number is double the number of dead members must approach a random individual, say "Johnny says April Fool's", and murder them. Claudette Wyms' ex-husband was murdered in this fashion in the season 2 episode 13: "Dominoes Falling".
Farmtown 12: A Black gang that was very powerful in Farmington until its neighborhoods were overrun with Latino immigrants.
Ghost Town Pirus: A Black gang involved in carjackings and sexual assaults in season 7 episode 5: "Game Face". Also mentioned by Moses, leader of the One-Niners in season 7 episode 2: "Snitch". The Ghost Town Pirus were #7 on the "Top 10 Most Wanted Gangs List".
Nation of Islam: Appearing primarily in season 1 episode 11: "Carnivores", the Nation of Islam had a dispute with Rondell Robinson & the One-Niners.
One-Niners: The most powerful black gang in Farmington. Notable members include Antwon Mitchell and Kern Little. Their gang color is purple. They also appear to be in the same fictional universe as the television program Sons of Anarchy, which was created by The Shield writer-executive producer Kurt Sutter. Additionally, a member of the One-Niners appears on S.W.A.T.. The One-Niners were #5 on the "Top 10 Most Wanted Gangs List".
Splash Posse: A Jamaican gang from Miami. Vic offered to broker a deal between them and Antwon in exchange for a little girl's body.
Spookstreet Souljahs: A Black gang that becomes a target for both the Decoy Squad and the Strike Team in season 3. In season 3 episode 13: "Fire in the Hole", Detective Claudette Wyms partners with the Decoy Squad member Trish George in an undercover sting to arrest a high ranking leader of the gang, who is a pedophile. The gang's color is gray. Spookstreet did not make the "Top 10 Most Wanted Gangs List" as confirmed in season 7 episode 2: "Snitch".
Asian-American
K-Town Killers: A Korean gang. The K-Town Killers were #3 on the "Top 10 Most Wanted Gangs List".
Hispanic
25th Street Coronas: A Latino gang active in Farmington. Miguel Esteana was one of its members.
Aztecs: a Mexican gang.
Baja Diablo Cartel: A Mexican drug cartel based in Baja California, Mexico. Mentioned once by Vic in season 2 episode 13: "Dominoes Falling".
Byzantine Latinos (or "Byz Lats"): A Mexican gang. They are the local satellite for the Mexican Cartel. Members of the Byz Lats also appear in an episode ("Binary Explosion") in the third season of The Unit, which shares executive producer Shawn Ryan with The Shield, and there is a Byz Lats set in Stockton, California, featured in Sons of Anarchy.
Farmtown Mijos: A Mexican gang based in Farmington that is never seen in the series, but is once mentioned by Vic Mackey.
Los Magnificos (or "Los Mags"): A Mexican gang. The Los Mags were on the "Top 10 Most Wanted Gangs List", although their rank was never specified.
Los Profetas: A Mexican gang with a strong religious bent; Vic calls them killers with conscience. They keep to their own small piece of street but were suspected of lynching a black mural artist in season 3, just prior to the murder of their religious leader. After it was discovered a member of the One-Niners was behind it all, they got a member in County jail to (presumably) kill him. They seem to be on peaceful terms with Vic.
El Salvadorans: Involved in drug trafficking, extortion, and murder. Guardo Lima is a known member.
Los Toros: A Mexican gang.
Torrucos: A unification of Los Mags and Los Toros formed by Armadillo Quintero. Despite Armadillo's death they stay together, although Los Mags become an entity again.
White
Armenian Might: Armenian organized crime syndicate. Members and affiliates include Margos Dezerian, Diro Kesakhian, Goma Magar, Ellis Rezian, Ari Zadofian, and Kail Saffian. Widely feared throughout Farmington due to brutal murder/torture practices carried out by known members, such as foot severing, body mutilation, threats to kill children and wives, and connections (a "mole") to U.S. Treasury Department. The Strike Team stole millions from their money train, setting up most of the events of season 3. In later seasons, the Armenian Might is placed in between a war between the Mexican drug cartels.
The Horde MC: A national biker gang with a reputation for extreme violence and racial bigotry. One visit to Farmington was a robbery that ended with the culprits arrested by the Strike Team. In season 6, the Horde are mentioned as buying a large shipment of meth. Ronnie goes undercover, and this results in the arrest of three of the Horde bikers.
Russian Mafia: Frequently referred to as "R.O.C." (Russian Organized Crime). Very powerful and the main conduit for any other gang wanting to work outside Farmington. Usually known to be in friendly cahoots with the Armenian Might.
Mixed
Fourth Street Clown Posse: Appeared in the series.
The Local Businessmen: A mixed race gang of Los Angeles crooked businessmen and mafia members.
The Tuesday Afternoon Crew: A gang of local sub par strippers who carry out robberies of pharmacies.
References
Shield, The
Shield, The |
4560129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELTon%20awards | ELTon awards | The ELTons (English Language Teaching Innovation Awards) are international awards given annually by the British Council that recognise and celebrate innovation in the field of English language teaching. They reward educational resources that help English language learners and teachers to achieve their goals using innovative content, methods or media. The ELTons date from 2003 and the 2018 sponsors of the awards are Cambridge English Language Assessment and IELTS. Applications are submitted by the end of November each year and they are judged by an independent panel of ELT experts, using the Delphi Technique. The shortlist is published in March and the winners announced at a ceremony in London in June. The 2018 awards were held in a new venue, Savoy Place, Institute of Engineering and Technology, London, UK.
2003 winners
Tim Kelly and Hilary Nesi — University of Warwick
Fiona Joseph and Peter Travis — Flo-Joe
Martin Mulloy — BBC Worldwide
2004 winners
Richard Cauldwell — speechinaction (CD-ROM)
Macmillan Education Dictionaries Team — Macmillan Education, range of products (book, CD-ROM and online editions)
Scott Thornbury, Oxford University Press — Natural Grammar
2005 winners
Vanessa Reilly, Oxford University Press — Three in a tree (book and multimedia package)
Simon Mellor-Clark and Yvonne Baker de Altamirano, Macmillan Education — Campaign 1 coursebooks
Sophie Ioannou-Georgiou and Pavlos Pavlou, Oxford University Press — Assessing Young Learners
2006 winners
Corony Edwards and Jane Willis, University of Birmingham and Aston University — Teachers Exploring Tasks
Carol Read, Ana Soberon, Maria Toth and Elisenda Papiol, Macmillan Education — Bugs (multimedia course)
Stuart Rubenstein, Greta Grinfeld, Sally McCrae, Emma Fisher, Camden College of English— "English Language Cultural Experience"
2007 winners
Alison Sharpe, Professor Ronald Carter and Professor Michael McCarthy, Cambridge University Press — The Cambridge Grammar of English (CD-ROM and book)
David Warr, Language Garden — Language Gardening (CD-ROM)
Nicky Hockly and Gavin Dudeney, The Consultants-E, ICT in the Classroom (online course)
2008 winners
Paul Scott, BBC Learning English - Learning English Blogs
Mark Furr, Jenny Bassett and Nicole Irving, Oxford University Press- Bookworms Club Reading Circles
Nuala O’Sullivan, BBC Learning English- The Flatmates
Emma Pathare, Dubai Women’s College, U.A.E - The Vocabulary Course
2009 winners
Sarah Bromley, Sarah Johnson, Helen Cunningham, Gordon Knowles — 'Magazines Plus', Mary Glasgow Magazines
2010 winners
Russell Stanard — www.teachertrainingvideos.com
Mary Slattery, Catherine Kneafsey, Lucy Allen, Julia Bell — Teaching with Bear: Using puppets in the language classroom with young learners, Oxford University Press
Scott Thornbury, Luke Meddings, Lindsay Clandfield, Mike Burghall — Teaching Unplugged, Delta Publishing
James Thomas, Martina Pavlickova and Martina Sindelarova Skupenova — Global Issues in the ELT Classroom, Spolecnost pro Fair Trade
Stuart Wiffin and Helen Gibbons — Award For Innovative Writing
2011 winners
Neil Edgeller, Senjuti Masud, Sharif Sadique — Rinku's World, BBC Learning English
Ben Glynne, Dan Humm Soriano, David Wilkins — Communication Station, United International College
Rob Carter, Alice Castle, Abeer Hassan, Sean Keegan, Karim Kouchouk, Abigail Wincott — BBCe!, BBC Learning English
Marcos Benevides, Adam Gray — Fiction in Action: Whodunit, ABAX ELT
Simona Petrescu — Macmillan Education Award For Innovative Writing
Brian Abbs and Ingrid Freebairn — Lifetime Achievement Award
2012 winners
Kate Khoury, Sarah Raybould and Louise Salim — Sensing Humour in English
Nik Peachey — Bell Blended Learning for ELT, Bell
Macmillan Education— Sounds: The Pronunciation App, Macmillan Education
Kyle Mawer, Graham Stanley — Digital Play: Computer games and language aims, Delta Publishing
L2 — Wordready Academic English, L2
Colour Trick — The Colour of Words, Colour Trick S.l.
Alan Maley — Lifetime Achievement Award
2013 winners
Mary Glasgow Scholastic — Mary Glasgow
Y. L. Teresa Ting — CLIL - Biology Towards IGCSE
Herbert Puchta and Günter Gerngross — Hooray! Let’s play! Helbling Languages
Kieran Donaghy — "Film English"
Richard Cauldwell — Cool Speech: Hot Listening, Cool Pronunciation, Speech in Action/Firsty Group
English in Action — English in Action, Bangladesh
Brita Haycraft — Lifetime Achievement Award
2014 winners
Excellence in Course Innovation – Dyslexia for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (Dystefl) by Dystefl Project
Innovation in Learner Resources – Academic Skills Series by Collins
Innovation in Teacher Resources – The Disabled Access Friendly campaign by Katie Quartano and Paul Shaw
Digital Innovation – Doctors Speak Up: Communication and Language Skills for International Medical Graduates by R. Woodward-Kron, C. Bow, C. Fraser, J. Pill, E. Flynn
Local Innovation – P.A.L.S Scheme, (Promoting Acceptance of Language Students) – Country Cousins Ltd
The Macmillan Education Award for New Talent in Writing -Compass (Upper Intermediate) by Elizabeth (Lizzie) Pinard
British Council The Lifetime Achievement Award – Michael Swan
Described at the ceremony as a name synonymous with “must-have texts” and “an influence on a generation of students”, influential writer and award-winning poet, Michael Swan was announced as the winner of the lifetime achievement award for his contribution to English language teaching.
2015 winners
Excellence in Course Innovation – Oxford Discover by Oxford University Press
Innovation in Learner Resources – Oxford Learner’s Dictionary of Academic English by Oxford University Press, with Paragon Software GmbH (app)
Innovation in Teacher Resources – "Life Skills" by Macmillan Education
Digital Innovation – Little Bridge by Little Bridge
Local Innovation -Talk English by Manchester Adult Education Service, Manchester City Council with The Department for Communities and Local Government (UK)
The Macmillan Education Award for New Talent in Writing – EAP Shakespeare Dr Chris Lima
The British Council Lifetime Achievement Award – Henry Widdowson
The 2015 British Council Lifetime Achievement Award winner, Henry Widdowson, is a leading authority in applied linguistics and in communicative language teaching, an approach which stresses the importance of interaction, authentic, natural language, a focus on the learning process, and on the student's personal experiences both inside and outside the classroom.
2016 winners
Excellence in Course Innovation – Keynote by National Geographic Learning with Cengage Learning
Innovation in Learner Resources – Literacy for Active Citizenship by Learning Unlimited LTD
Innovation in Teacher Resources – Digital Video – A Manual for Language Teachers by PeacheyPublications.com
Digital Innovation – Movies: Enjoy Language by Archimedes Inspiration, a.s.
Local Innovation – Teaching English in Africa by East African Educational Publishers Ltd.
The Macmillan Education Award for New Talent in Writing – "Academic English for the 21st Century Learner" by Aylin Graves
The British Council Lifetime Achievement Award – "Catherine Walter"
Catherine Walter is known by many thousands of teachers and students worldwide as a teacher, lecturer and researcher, most recently as University lecturer in Applied Linguistics at the Department of Education and Fellow of Linacre College, University of Oxford and Vice-Principal of Linacre College (until 2015), as well as senior lecturer at the Institute of Education, University of London, and at academic and teachers’ conferences in over 30 countries worldwide. She is perhaps most renowned by the global ELT community, as the writer of many significant resources on the bookshelves of classrooms worldwide. These include: The Cambridge English Course, The New Cambridge English Course, The Good Grammar Book and How English Works (co-written with Michael Swan). Over the years, her expertise has been sought by the Bell Educational Trust, the British Publishers Association, the University Council for General and Applied Linguistics and the British Council. Catherine Walter has a passion for equality, holding welfare, equality and equal opportunities positions at the University of Oxford and the Institute of Education. Catherine Walter was also the first female chair of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) and then president.
2017 Winners
Excellence in Course Innovation – Students for Peace by Richmond
Innovation in Learner Resources – Develop EAP: A Sustainable Academic English Skills Course by Averil Bolster & Peter Levrai
Innovation in Teacher Resources – Tigtag CLIL by Twig World
Digital Innovation – www.textinspector.com by Stephen Bax with Versantus IT Services and Web design
Local Innovation in partnership with Cambridge Assessment English – Hausa-to-English Talking Book 1 by Dr Bilkisu Yusuf Hassan, Prof. AH Amfani, Mallam Mohammed Awwal Umar, Lucy Bella Earl and Mavis Computel Limited
The British Council Lifetime Achievement Award – Professor Ronald Carter MBE
Professor Carter (University of Nottingham, MBE for services to education) has been a major positive influence in English Language Teaching, with a service spanning several decades. He has written and edited over forty books and over one hundred articles, including the very influential Cambridge Grammar of English (CUP, 2006), co-written with Michael McCarthy, which won the 2007 British Council English Language Innovation Award. Ron has been a pioneer in the application of corpora (especially spoken ones) to the development of pedagogical materials and teacher resources. Professor Ron Carter has been at Nottingham University since 1979 and has been director of the Centre for English Language Education and head of the School of English. He was a founder member of PALA (Poetics and Linguistics Association) in the 1980s and one of its first chairs. From 1989 to 1992 he directed nationwide the Language in the National Curriculum (LINC) Project. He was elected a life member of NATE (National Association for the Teaching of English) in 2007. He is on the editorial boards of numerous international academic and professional journals. He has lectured in over 40 countries worldwide. He was also chair of BAAL (British Association for Applied Linguistics) from 2003 to 2006 and was recently elected a fellow of the British Academy for Social Sciences. He received an MBE for services to local and national higher education in the 2009 New Year's Honours list and in 2013 was awarded an honorary doctorate (DUniv) from the Open University for his contributions to the field of applied linguistics. He is currently closely involved with the work of Cambridge University Press Syndicates as a member of the Operating Board of the Press and as chair of the Education and ELT Publishing Committee. He also holds an affiliated lectureship in the Faculty of Medieval and Modern Languages at the University of Cambridge.
2018 Winners
Excellence in Course Innovation – Get Set, Go! Phonics by Oxford University Press
Innovation in Learner Resources – Tim's Pronunciation Workshop by BBC Learning English
Innovation in Teacher Resources – PronPack 1-4 by Mark Hancock
Digital Innovation – Learn Languages with Ruby Rei by Wibbu
Local Innovation in partnership with Cambridge Assessment English – EAL Assessment Framework for Schools by The Bell Foundation with Prof. Constant Leung, King's College London; Dr. Michael Evans and Dr. Yongcan Liu, Cambridge University (Cambridge University Technical Services Limited)
The British Council Lifetime Achievement Award – "Tessa Woodward"
Tessa Woodward is an ELT consultant, a teacher, teacher trainer, and for many years was the Professional Development Co-ordinator at Hilderstone College, Broadstairs, Kent, UK. She has trained teachers in Japan, Switzerland, the UK, USA, and, for short stints, in many European countries. She regularly gives presentations at ELT conferences. She is the founder editor of The Teacher Trainer journal, now in its 31st volume, for Pilgrims, Canterbury, UK. She is a past president and International Ambassador of IATEFL and founded the IATEFL Special Interest Group for Teacher Trainers (now the SIG T Ed/TT). She is the author of many books and articles for language teachers and for teacher trainers. Tessa is also the founder of The Fair List. Her qualifications include an RSA Diploma in TEFL, and an M. Phil in Education from Exeter University.
2019 Winners
Excellence in Course Innovation – Widgets Inc.: A task-based course in workplace English by Atama-ii Books
Innovation in Learner Resources – Ready to Run: Authentic ELT video for language schools and teachers by Digital Learning Associates ltd.
Innovation in Teacher Resources – Teaching English Online by Cambridge Assessment English
Digital Innovation – Go Correct by Big Languages
Local innovation in partnership with Cambridge Assessment English - Hands Up Project playwriting competition by The Hands Up Project with UNRWA
The British Council Outstanding Achievement Award (formerly known as the Lifetime Achievement Award)–Professor David Crystal OBE
Professor David Crystal is one of the world’s foremost experts on the English language.
Professor Crystal’s work, spanning writing, research, talks, lectures, and radio and television broadcasts, have had an enormous influence on those with an interest in language worldwide. His clear, eloquent and often humorous explanations of English grammar, spelling, punctuation and pronunciation, as well as his works on Shakespeare, have inspired generations to understand how language works.
His books can be found in schools, universities and homes around the world, treasured by English language educators and students young and old. Professor Crystal has a global influence. Nominations for the award were received as far and wide as Russia, Ethiopia and New Zealand.
His influence on the world of English extends to its institutions, through his patronage of the UK National Literacy Association, the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists, the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language, and the British Council, to name but a few.
As the UK’s national treasure of linguistics, the British Council is honoured to present Professor Crystal with the ELTons award for Outstanding Contribution 2019.
2020 Winners
Excellence in Course Innovation – New Magic Minds! by Learning Factory (Brazil)
Innovation in Learner Resources – Pearson and BBC Live Classes by Pearson English (UK)
Innovation in Teacher Resources – The ELT Footprint Community by ELT Footprint Community (Spain)
Digital Innovation – Busuu English Smart Review by Busuu (UK/Spain)
Local innovation in partnership with Cambridge Assessment English - The Garden Project – Brazilian Edition by Angelica Manca, Hoopla Education Pte. Ltd. With Macmillan Do Brasil Editora, Comercializadora, and Importadora E Distribudora (Singapore / Brazil)
The British Council Outstanding Achievement Award (formerly known as the Lifetime Achievement Award)– Opal Dunn
Opal Dunn is responsible for the enthusiasm of many teachers around the world for using picture books as a flexible resource and to provide children around the world – girls and boys – with exposure to rich, authentic language. Opal wrote many children’s picture books, which were translated into multiple languages and donated hundreds of picture books worldwide. In Japan, in 1977, she pioneered the creation of mother and child groups (the International Children’s Bunko) to support bilingual, bicultural families. Opal was honoured by the Japanese Presidency in 2010 for services to Japanese families. The judges commented she was ahead of her time, in a world where now, more and more children grow up with multiple languages. The judges were quoted as saying ‘nobody has done more, for longer for teaching English to young learners than Opal, and your impact continues’.
ELTons Judges’ Commendations for Equality, Diversity and Inclusion
Dyslexia Bytes by Martin Bloomfield
I am not naughty – I really, really mean it! by Basirat Razaq-Shuaib with The Winford Centre for Children and Women, Nigeria
Journey 2 Basic Skills by Klik2learn with City College Glasgow
Kids’ Web by Richmond
REAL LIVES Series by ELI Publishing and partners
The NO Project by The NO Project with The Rights Lab, Nottingham University
2021 Winners
Excellence in Course Innovation – Our Languages by StandFor / FTD Educação
Innovation in Learner Resources – Fiction Express by Fiction Express (Boolino SL)
Innovation in Teacher Resources –Teaching English to Pre-Primary Children by DELTA Publishing
Digital Innovation – CIELL-Comics for Inclusive English Language Learning by Lancaster University with AKTO Art & Design College, Innovation in Learning Institute, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Language Centre, University of Cyprus
Local innovation - Facebook Live Team Teaching for the Palestinian English Curriculum by The Hands Up Project with UNRWA (Gaza)
The British Council Outstanding Achievement Award (formerly known as the Lifetime Achievement Award)– Prof. N S Prabhu
The British Council ELTons Outstanding Achievement Award for an organisation or collective - The A S Hornby Educational Trust
A.S. Hornby (1898-1978) was a distinguished English language specialist who began his career as a teacher in Japan. He then worked for the British Council and helped found ELT Journal, and, later, IATEFL. While teaching in Japan, Hornby and colleagues compiled an innovative dictionary for learners of English, which became the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, one of OUP’s best-selling titles ever. Hornby donated a substantial part of his royalties to create the A.S. Hornby Educational Trust in 1961.
In partnership with the British Council, during the 60 years since then the Trust has supported over 470 ELT professionals from around the world via Hornby Scholarships, and thousands more via regional schools, an alumni network and Teacher Association project awards. The Trust also supports dictionary-related research and research into the history of ELT.
ELTons Judges’ Commendations for Equality, Diversity and Inclusion
Para Powerlifting English Competency Course (World Para Powerlifting; Germany with International Paralympic Committee)
Sensations English (UK)
Communicating Identities (Routledge; UK / New Zealand)
Teaching in Challenging Circumstances (Cambridge University Press; UK)
Booklet of basics grammar in ASL and pictures for deaf and hard hearing (General Directorate for special education and continuous education, Ministry of education in Sultanate of Oman with AI ROYAA NEWSPAPER; Sultanate of Oman)
Facebook Live Team Teaching for the Palestinian English Curriculum (The Hands Up Project; UK and UNRWA; Gaza)
Mosaik Dogme Toolkit (Mosaik Education with Scott Thornbury; UK)
Our Languages (StandFor / FTD Educação; Brazil)
CIELL-Comics for Inclusive English Language Learning (Lancaster University; UK, AKTO Art & Design College; Greece, Innovation in Learning Institute, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität, Erlangen-Nürnberg; Germany and Language Centre, University of Cyprus; Cyprus)
Vlogger Academy (Digital Learning Associated Limited with The Weirdos and Creatives Collective; UK)
ELTons Judges’ Commendations for Environmental Sustainability and Climate Action
Sensations English (UK) - Global news-based video and article lessons with subtitles, transcripts and interactive activities to extend the learning experience.
2022 Winners
References
External links
Official site of the British Council
British Council ELT innovation awards
2018 ELTons Awards video
British awards |
4560168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherish%20%28group%29 | Cherish (group) | Cherish is an American R&B music group consisting of sisters Fallon, Felisha, Farrah, and Neosha King. Originating from Atlanta, Georgia, both their parents are musicians, their father having been in the band Professions of Sounds, who frequently toured with acts such as the Emotions and Earth, Wind & Fire. The group was signed to Capitol Records and Sho'nuff Records. They experienced chart success with the hit song "Do It to It".
The group first rose to fame when they were featured on the single "In Love wit Chu", by Da Brat. They quickly followed up with their official debut single, "Miss P.", which had minor success on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in the US. After the failure of the single, their initial debut album was cancelled. However, they continued recording music, and lent their vocals to a soundtrack for The Powerpuff Girls. In 2006, they released their second official single, "Do It to It". The single was met with critical and commercial success, and was followed up with their debut album, Unappreciated, which reached number 4 on the Billboard 200 albums chart in the US. 2008 saw the release of the group's second studio album, The Truth. The album didn't fare as well as their previous, failing to reach the top 20 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. It was, however, preceded by the release of their second Top 40 hit, "Killa", which peaked at number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Fallon and Felisha also compose music for other artists. Felisha wrote songs for Tamar Braxton and Sevyn Streeter, and co-wrote Jacob Latimore's song "Climb" together with Fallon.
Biography
Early life and career beginnings
The group originally consisted of four sisters. Farrah King (born February 17, 1984), Neosha King (born January 26, 1986) and twins Fallon and Felisha King (born June 5, 1988). Originally from Maywood, Illinois, the four sisters moved to Atlanta, Georgia to begin their musical career. The girls stated that they have been a group since the oldest, Farrah, was two years old. The girls were also quick to start singing professionally, starting when Farrah was only seven years old. The group also stated, in an interview with MTV, that their father was the one that brought them together, as their parents were singers as well. When asked about where their name came from, the girls stated, "It's funny because we were sitting in the hotel room trying to come up with a name for the group. My father, which is our manager asked us "well what do you cherish?" Do you cherish what you do? We said yes and that's how the name Cherish came about."
Cherish first rose to fame when they teamed up with female hip hop artist Da Brat to record a duet with her. The finished track, titled "In Love wit Chu", was released on March 3, 2003. The song became a commercial success in the United States, charting on many charts in the country. The single reached the top 10 of the Billboard Rhythmic Top 40 chart, peaking at number 9. The single also became a success on the Hot Rap Songs chart, peaking at number 12. On the Billboard Hot 100, the single narrowly missed the top 40, peaking at number 44.
2003–2004: The Moment
Cherish's first solo single, titled "Miss P.", was produced by Jermaine Dupri, written by Kandi and featured Da Brat. They had been signed to Warner Bros.' imprint Reprise Records. After the success of their collaboration with Da Brat, the single was expected to be a hit. However, the single failed to chart on any major charts in the U.S. or countries other than the girl's own. It did, however, have minor success on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in the United States, where it peaked at number 87. Other than a performance of the song on Soul Train in May 2003, the single received little promotion, which can be attributed to its commercial failure. Due to the commercial failure of its lead single, the group's debut album, titled The Moment, was shelved a few months later. After their album was dropped, the group recorded three songs for The Powerpuff Girls: Power Pop soundtrack, called "Chemical X", "Power of a Female", and "Me and My Girls". A music video for "Power of the Female" was released as a promotional single on Cartoon Network in mid-2003.
2005–2007: Unappreciated
In 2005, the girls began work on another album, since their previous album had been shelved. They wrote almost the entire album and said this work is so much more mature and themselves than their unreleased previous work. The album had productions from Jermaine Dupri, Don Vito, and Jazze Pha. On March 21, 2006, Cherish released their first single in three years, titled Do It to It. The single featured Sean P on guest vocals. The single was met to a positive critical reception, as well as a strong commercial reception. The single was met with a large amount of success in the US, charting on several Billboard charts. The single became their first to reach the top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100, when it peaked at number 12. The single was also success on the Pop 100 chart, where it peaked at number 2, as well as the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, reaching a peak of number 10 on that chart. The single also was a major hit in New Zealand, peaking at number 3 on the official singles chart. The song also climbed to the top 40 in the United Kingdom and Ireland, peaking at number 30 and 34 respectively. The song also charted in countries such as Australia, peaking at number 67, Germany, peaking at number 87, and France, reaching a peak of number 48.
After the success of "Do It to It", their debut album was released on August 15, 2006, on Capitol Records and was named Unappreciated. It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 selling 91,000 copies making it one of only a few R&B girl group projects to hit the top five on the chart in almost a year. The album also charted in Japan where it reached number 62 on the Oricon chart. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number 80, and has since sold 30,000 copies in that country. As of September 21, 2006, the album has been certified Gold by the RIAA. On January 12, Cherish released the album's second single, the title track "Unappreciated". The single was received warmly by critics, however, it failed to achieve the commercial success that its predecessor had. In the US, the single peaked just outside the Top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 at number 41. It did have success on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, peaking at number 20. In the UK, the single spent one week on the single's chart, when it debuted and peaked at 187. A third single titled "Chevy" was supposed to be released, however the song was only released as a promo single because in late 2006/early 2007 their label Capitol was merging with another record label which stopped all promotion and prevented Chingy, LeToya Luckett, Janet Jackson, Brooke Valentine & Cherish from releasing their next singles. By April 29, 2007, the album had sold over 600,000 copies in the United States.
During this time Cherish was the only female group on select dates, as the opening act for Chris Brown's Up Close & Personal Tour, along with Ne-Yo, Lil Wayne, Julez Santana and Dem Franchize Boyz, which ran from August to October. Cherish ended up cancelling a handful of their live shows, mainly their Californian concerts, due to rumors the group was very unorganized; it was stated that Neosha was the only member in the group who was committed. Farrah's son Jayden being sick caused the group to either cancel shows or shorten their live set when she was absent. However, Cherish then embarked on a European promotional tour in November, and finished up the year with a few Jingle Jam shows in December.
2007–2010: The Truth, lineup change and F&F
In 2007, the girls confirmed that they were back in the studio recording for a new album. They later confirmed that the album would feature production from artist such as Don Vito, Blade, Jazze Pha and Tricky Stewart. In the Summer of 2007, a song titled "Bat to the Range", produced by the Clutch was leaked online. However, it was later decided that the song would not appear on the girls' second album. In October 2007, Cherish revealed the lead single from their second album would be released the following month. It was later confirmed that the single was called Killa, and would feature Yung Joc on guest vocals. The single was released for airplay and digital download on November 27, 2007. The video premiered via BET's Access Granted on December 12, featuring some scenes of the film Step Up 2: The Streets. The video was directed by Canadian Little X. In the US, the single became another hit for the group. It became their second top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100, reaching a peak of number 39. It also reached the top 40 of the Pop 100, peaking at number 23. The single has become one of the group's poorest performing singles on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, only reaching a peak of 53. On the UK Singles Chart, the single climbed to a peak of 52, making it their second highest charting single to date. The single did become their first to chart in the Czech Republic, where it peaked at number 10. It also became their second top 20 hit in New Zealand, reaching a peak of number 18.
Their second album titled The Truth was released on May 13, 2008. In a promotional interview, member Fallon said of the album, "The biggest difference to me is the fact that you grow artistically whenever you're being creative and we've been creative for the past couple of years. Our artistry has grown. When we wrote The Truth, we named the album The Truth because basically every song on the album is from personal experiences and we wanted to get personal with our fans. We want everybody to know that they're not alone going through these things and we're here." The album was released in the UK on May 12, while the Japanese release is on May 14 and featured two bonus tracks, "Do It to It" (Rap Remix) and "Silly". In the US, the album only sold 13,000 copies in the first week of release, which led to it debuting at number 40 on the Billboard 200. In Japan, the album debuted at number 98 on the official album chart, and has sold only 2,300 copies in that country to date. As of 2011, the album has sold only 30,000 copies in the United States. A second single from the album was released, titled "Amnesia". The single failed to make an impact, however, missing the Billboard Hot 100 entirely. It did peak at number 61 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, though.
In Spring 2008, Fallon and Felisha confirmed that they were working on a side project that didn't involve the other two members of the group. Under the name F+F, the girls began recording an album separate from Cherish. The fact they were working on solo projects made many fans speculate that the group was breaking up. In early 2009, a track by F+F called "Infected" was leaked online by an unknown source. This fueled the rumors of the band breaking up even more. Soon after, both Farrah and Neosha left the group, leaving just the duo of Fallon and Felisha. Not much was heard from Cherish until 2010 when Cherish released a tribute song to Haiti called The Voices Beyond. A few weeks later, the duo filmed a music video for the song "Don't Let Him Get Away" by Rasheeda, as the girls are featured on the track. On September 28, 2010, another track by F+F titled "Lights Out" was leaked online. Later in 2010, Capitol Records confirmed that the remaining members of Cherish would be releasing a new album, titled "The Breakthrough". On October 27, 2010, Fallon & Felisha did an exclusive interview with AceShowBiz, where they were asked on the status of Cherish as a group. Fallon responded by saying "Cherish is a brand and a bond that is unbreakable. We plan on having a very long career in the music industry and to definitely release more albums as a group in the near future". In mid-November 2010, music videos for both "Infected" and "Lights Out" were filmed but have yet to be released.
2011–2020: New album and music
On May 10, 2011, it was announced on Cherish's official Facebook that they would be working on a new album. On September 20, 2011, Cherish stated on their Facebook that they have reunited as a foursome and would be releasing new music in November.
A song called "Like That" by Fallon and Felisha featured in the 2011 film S.W.A.T.: Firefight (sequel to 2003's S.W.A.T.) and on the film's soundtrack.
Fallon and Felisha announced on their Twitter account that their next single would be "Young Forever"; however, plans for the single's release became uncertain following the announcement of Cherish's return in May 2011.
On November 18, 2011, Cherish confirmed that their EP had been pushed back and would not be released in November, as previously stated in September 2011. The release date was then set for February 2012.
In December 2011, two new songs marked as Cherish tracks, "Invader" and "Secretary", leaked online. On January 14, 2012, Cherish announced a possible reality series based on the band, and that they were filming the pilot. On February 22, 2013, Cherish announced via their official Facebook that a single titled "Get That Boy" would be released on March 1, 2013. A promotional video was also made and uploaded onto the band's YouTube page. However, it was later revealed that the single would be pushed back until March 15, 2013, in favor of "Going in Circles", which was released on March 2, 2013, via YouTube.
On December 19, 2016, sisters Fallon and Felisha King announced during a Facebook live video they were reuniting as Cherish once again working on new music as a duo and that Farrah and Noesha would feature on a lot of music but the group will remain as a two-piece.
On February 5, 2017, Fallon and Felisha King announced their excitement for their upcoming album and that they would be releasing four singles back-to-back and announcing a new tour would be coming and the first single "One Time" would be released on February 24, 2017, through their Facebook page. "One Time" was released on February 24, 2017, as the first single from their upcoming album.
2020–present: Remix success
In 2021, Fallon and Felisha starred in BET Presents: The Encore, which documented the formation of R&B supergroup BluPrint alongside Shamari Devoe of Blaque and Kiely Williams of 3LW. Their eponymous debut EP was released August 11, 2021.
In 2021, Staten Island-born, Orlando-based DJ and producer Charlie Duncker (Acraze) remixed their 2006 single "Do It to It". Originally a UK Top 40 hit featuring 'Sean Paul of YoungBloodZ' (Sean P.), the new version was credited to "Acraze featuring Cherish" and was released on August 20, 2021. On November 12, the track (as issued by Thrive Music) entered the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart for the first time, arriving at number 36 (up from number 60). It was also a top 40 hit in Germany and on the Official Irish Singles Chart. On the chart of December 7, 2021, "Do It to It" reached to UK Top 10 for the first time when it climbed up from number 43 to number 9 in its tenth week on the chart. The single also reached the Official Irish Singles Chart Top 3 on this date. In the United States, it reached number three on the Billboard Hot Dance/Electronic Songs chart, and in Australia, it reached number 13 on the ARIA Club Tracks chart.
Artistry
Unappreciated features mainly hip hop and R&B tracks. During an interview about the album, when asked about its composition, the group said: "You can expect a lot of realness, [and] we're trying to bring real R&B back to the world. Right now, R&B is not a genre anymore. It's pop, it's hip-hop, it's other things. I wanna bring back rhythm and blues." During a different interview, the girls talked about how different this album was from their shelved debut: "Well it's very different coming out now because with this album we have more creative control. When we came out in 2003, we were young and we didn't have much of a say in what went down. But this time around, we were able to write every song on the album, which makes this album very personal for all of us." They later added on, "From this album you can expect realness. Expect to hear all of our individual voices. A lot of crunk tracks like our first single 'Do It to It'. Also expect a lot of a cappella singing."
Discography
Albums
Production discography
Singles
Featured singles
Other appearances
References
External links
Cherish - MySpace
African-American girl groups
American contemporary R&B musical groups
Capitol Records artists
Sibling quartets
Musical groups established in 2002
Musical groups from Atlanta
American musical quartets
Southern hip hop groups |
4560639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park%20View%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29 | Park View (Washington, D.C.) | Park View is a neighborhood in central Washington, D.C., immediately north of Howard University.
The name of the neighborhood comes from its views east over the campus of the Old Soldiers' Home. At the time Park View was developed, and well into the 1960s, the Home's grounds were open to the public as a park. Those grounds were a designed urban landscape, including pedestrian paths and ponds, modeled along the principles of New York City's Central Park. Indeed, when the Home's campus was developed into a public park in the later 1880s, it often was compared to Central Park.
A solidly residential community, Park View is a quiet corner of the city, one in which the trend toward gentrification has only recently found a foothold. Its one commercial corridor, Georgia Avenue, has its share of liquor stores and empty store fronts, but increasing interest in the corridor has attracted other goods and services to the area. The revitalization of the corridor began with the E.L. Haynes Public Charter School (3600 Georgia), founded in 2004, and Temperance Hall (3634 Georgia, now the Looking Glass Lounge) in 2006. Since then, a number of new restaurants and taverns have opened and, along with decades old businesses, continue the commercial revitalization of the community.
Geography
Park View is situated in the Northwest quadrant of the city. The territory that defines the Park View neighborhood extends from Gresham Place north to Rock Creek Church Road, and from Georgia Avenue to the Soldiers' Home grounds. The additional area bounded by Park Road, New Hampshire Avenue, and Georgia Avenue completes the neighborhood's boundaries. The southern border of the Park View Citizens' Association was Columbia Road.
Demographics
The majority of Park View falls within Tract 32 of the 188 Census Tracts in the District of Columbia, which counted 5,099 residents in 2020 vs. 4,913 in 2010, an increase of 3.8%. Previous to there was a 9.7% increase in population from 2000 to 2010.
Ethnically and racially, the area has become less Black and more White and multi-racial from 2010 to 2020. In 2020 there were 35% fewer non-Hispanic Blacks than in 2010, dropping from 2,836 to 1,834 and they formed the plurality of residents, but no longer the majority. The Non-Hispanic White population increased 118% from 723 to 1,576 and they became the second-largest group, taking that position from Hispanics and Latinos. The neighborhood's population was in 2020 was 36.0% non-Hispanic (NH) Black (vs. 57.7% in 2010), 30.9% NH White (up from 14.7% in 2010), 23.5% Hispanic or Latino (vs. 24.2% in 2010), 4.1% NH Asian vs. 1.9% in 2010; 0.08% NH American Indian and Alaska Native vs. 0.28% in 2010; 1.0% NH some other race vs. 0.2% in 2010, and 4.5% NH multiracial vs. 1.0% who identified as such in 2010.
According to the Census Bureau's American Community Survey (2005–09), the average family income was $70,231. This was up 22% from the 2000 census numbers. The same survey reported the unemployment rate in Park View to be 9.6%. Employment for residents 16 years of age or older was 63% at that time.
Political representation
Politically, Park View is in D.C.'s Ward 1 and falls within Advisory Neighborhood Commission 1A (ANC1A). Three ANC1A Single Member Districts represent the neighborhood. ANC 1A08 represents the northern section, central Park View is represented by ANC 1A09, and ANC 1A10 serves the southern third of the neighborhood.
History
The transition of the rural community to the west of the Soldiers' Home into Washington's Park View neighborhood dates to June 4, 1886. On that date, the heirs of Catherine M. Whitney sold the former estate of Asa Whitney, known as Whitney Close, to Benjamin H. Warder of Ohio for the sum of $60,024. Warder immediately set about subdividing the 43-acre tract of land into building lots for a new community. This was followed by the subdivision and development of other country properties in the area. These subdivisions—including Whitney Close, Schuetzen Park, and Bellevue—were organized into a single neighborhood known as Park View in 1908. Park View eventually included the subdivision of Princeton Heights to the north to round out the neighborhood boundaries. Since the neighborhood abutted the grounds of the Soldiers' Home, and as the grounds were open to the public as a courtesy, the name Park View was chosen to signify the close relationship between these two communities.
The Soldiers' Home Grounds were important in the early life of Park View. The Soldiers' Home granted permission to the neighborhood to hold their Fourth of July celebrations there in 1917 and 1918. Neighborhood children would play on the grounds and sail toy boats on the ponds. Picnics and long walks were also frequent pastimes, with the view of the city and the Capitol being unparalleled.
Reflecting the social changes occurring in the entire city of Washington, Park View desegregated at the end of the 1940s. Black families began to move into the northern part of the neighborhood around 1946. Eventually, the neighborhood became a solidly African American community and remained this way for a period of over 30 years. Following the Georgia Avenue-Petworth Metro Station opening in 1999 the neighborhood began to change yet again and today can be considered truly multicultural.
The relationship between the neighborhood and the Soldiers' Home began to change during the early 1950s. In response to losing part of its property to the south for the Washington Hospital Center, the Soldiers' home began closing its southern gates from 1953 to 1955. Eventually, its grounds were officially closed to residents of the neighborhoods entirely in November 1968, thus depriving the community of the only real green space it had ever known.
Georgia Avenue
Georgia Avenue is the commercial artery of Park View. It was built in 1810 which makes it one of Washington's oldest thoroughfares connecting the city of Washington with nearby communities. It was originally known as the 7th Street Turnpike and connected Washington with Rockville, Md., leaving the city from its northern boundary where 7th Street crosses today's Florida Avenue. It was renamed Georgia Avenue in 1908 after Georgia Senator Augustus Octavius Bacon pushed an amendment through Congress for that purpose.
Architectural and cultural sites of interest
Tenth Precinct Station House
The Tenth Precinct Station House, located at 750 Park Road, was designed by A.B. Mullett and Company and built in 1901. It is significant for its architectural character and its historical association with the police department of the District of Columbia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The designation of the Tenth Precinct and the construction of the police station in 1901 were responses to the expansion of the city limits and urban population into this area. Reforms in the D.C. police department in the latter decades of the nineteenth century had led to the enlargement of the force and creation of new precincts.
The street system in the area north of Florida Avenue (formerly Boundary Street) had been surveyed by 1901, but few buildings had been constructed. By 1910, the block from Sherman Avenue to Georgia Avenue, in which the station house is located, was almost fully occupied by tradesmen and workers. The station house, assessed at $13,000, was by far the most imposing building on the block in which most of the properties were assessed at less than $1,000. Its imposing character in relation to the residential environs as well as its architectural quality suggested the importance of symbolic expression of authority. This expression is characteristic of the City Beautiful movement, a growing belief at the turn of the century that public structures should be imposing, monumental and of classical style.
Until 1886, the D.C. police department had been charged with corruption, political partisanship and venality. Subsequent reforms led to the enlargement of the force and creation of new precincts. Each station house was staffed by a captain, a lieutenant and several sergeants. The station house was the first facility to which an arrested man or woman was brought. At the station house, the arrest was recorded, and the prisoner was confined there until released on bail or removed, to police court for trial or to jail to await grand jury testimony. Misdemeanors were handled at the station house; felonies were dealt with in D.C. Supreme or Police Court.
Today, it houses the Metropolitan Police Department's Fourth District substation. The structure is listed on the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites and the National Register of Historic Places.
Park View Christian Church
The old Whitney Avenue Christian Church which had been built in 1877 was replaced in 1920. At that time, it was among the oldest landmarks in Park View. The church, located at 625 Park Road, was the location of the earliest efforts to form the Park View community and build the new school on Warder.
In 1920, the old church was replaced with the building that is there now. The new building was renamed the Park View Christian Church and built at a cost of $30,000.
The congregation of the Park View Christian Church eventually moved to Shepherd Park, and the Trinity A.M.E. Zion Church moved to 625–627 Park Rd. in 1944. The structure supported Trinity's congregation until 1983, when Trinity moved to its current location on 16th Street.
The church currently supports the New Commandment Baptist Church. New Commandment purchased 625 Park Rd in 1995 for $600,000.
Park View School
The school located at the intersection of Warder and Newton streets was built in 1916 to designs by Snowden Ashford. The origin of the school can be traced back to the efforts of the Park View Citizens' Association and their persistent appeal to Congress for funds to purchase the land and build the school. Ashford designed the school in his preferred style of Collegiate Gothic. The interior is notable for the wooden truss that supports the auditorium roof.
It is constructed of red tapestry brick with trimmings of Bedford limestone and was built on some of the highest ground in the city. Originally a 16-room structure, the school quickly became too small for the needs of the community. In 1920 the progressive platoon school model was adopted which helped address the school's space problem. Two wings were finally added to the building and ready for use by 1931.
By the late 1940s, the racial makeup of the neighborhood had changed from predominantly white to predominantly black. As black schools were overcrowded and white schools were under-enrolled, Park View was transferred to the black division in 1949.
The school is still in use today as a District of Columbia Public Elementary School.
Princeton Heights Development
The section of Park View north of Otis, south of Rock Creek Church Road, and between Georgia Avenue and the Soldiers' Home was first developed as Princeton Heights. This area was originally the estate of the Cammack family, which was sold by the heirs in 1908 to builder Edgar S. Kennedy, who would eventually be associated with the Kennedy–Warren. Between 1909 and 1919, Kennedy subdivided the estate, put in roads, and built 162 contiguous homes in 20 separate rows. Kennedy's homes were known for their quality, non-static facades, and inclusion of progressive features. In 1919, Kennedy sold the unimproved land between Princeton Place and Otis Place to Herman R. Howenstein, who completed the development.
York Theater
The York Theater, located at 3635–3641 Georgia Avenue, was designed by Reginald W. Geare as one of Harry Crandall's chain of theaters. Kennedy Brothers were hired as the builders, and it was one of the last two structures built by Kennedy in the Princeton Heights development. While newspaper accounts reported the theater to cost $100,000 to build, the estimate on the building permit valued the project at $50,000. The front of the structure was constructed of tapestry brick and trimmed with white stone and marble. Inside, the proscenium hangings were of rich gold velour enlivened with blue medallions and white figures in relief. Newspaper accounts also described the lighting system as unique.
The structure was in use as a theater as late as May 1954. It was purchased by the National Evangelistic Center in May 1957 and has been used as a church since them. Today, it is home of the Fishermen of Men Church.
Development
Despite the early promise of development coming to Park View's section of Georgia Avenue when Temperance Hall opened at 3634 Georgia Avenue in January, 2006, it was not until 2009 that significant development began to take hold. Temperance Hall changed hands in early 2008 becoming the Looking Glass Lounge. In stark contrast, 2009 witnessed the groundbreaking of three major projects and the selection of a developer for a fourth.
Starting on August 10, 2009, the district began to demolish the 37-year-old Bruce-Monroe school with the goal of replacing it with a modern facility. Financing for a new school building continued to be difficult and the district's hope to develop the site as a mixed use public/private venture fell apart late in 2010. During this time, the site was transformed into an interim park that opened to the community at the end of July, 2010. With building a new school no longer an option, the district decided to move forward with modernizing the historic Park View School to meet the area's elementary school needs.
The Bernice E. Fonteneau Senior Wellness Center (Ward One Senior Wellness Center), located at 3531 Georgia Avenue, broke ground on October 14, 2009. The $5.2 million facility, containing of space on three floors, had its official ribbon cutting on September 10, 2010, and was officially open for business on February 28, 2011, and dedicated in honor of Bernice E. Fonteneau on May 25, 2011.
The last building to break ground in 2009 was the CVS located on the southwest corner of Georgia and New Hampshire Avenues, which broke ground on November 12.
The CVS was completed and open for business on July 25, 2010, with an official ribbon cutting ceremony attended by Mayor Adrian Fenty, councilmembers Jim Graham and Murial Bowser, deputy mayor for planning and economic development Valerie Santos, and other representatives from CVS and the developer LaKritz/Adler on July 27, 2010.
Building projects in Washington, including Georgia Avenue, stalled in 2010 due to the economy, but picked up again in 2011. In Park View, the resumption of development included Landex Corporation's The Avenue and Neighborhood Development Company's The Heights. The Avenue broke ground in April 2011 and was hailed as the first phase of the new Park Morton housing community. The Avenue was designed as an 83-unit mixed-use apartment building. Located at 3506 Georgia Avenue, NW, the building contains 81,044 square feet of residential space and of ground floor retail. It also includes a mix of one and two-bedroom apartment units. Residential space features a lounge, a fitness center, meeting rooms, and underground parking. The building opened with an official ribbon cutting on September 21, 2012.
The Heights broke ground in January 2012. The Heights, located at 3232 Georgia Avenue was designed as a mixed use development designed to contain 69 units with of ground floor retail. The project was completed in May 2013 and opened with a ribbon cutting on May 8, 2013.
Ground was also broken at the vacant lot at 3205 Georgia Avenue in April 2013. Currently under construction, the building is planned to have five floors and 31 1- and 2-bedroom rental units. Floors two through five will each have seven apartments. The first floor will have three.
Another major development planned for Georgia Avenue is the redevelopment of the Park Morton housing complex. Mayor Fenty announced the selection of Landex Corp. to redevelop the Park Morton complex on October 7, 2009. The first phase of the development, at 3506 Georgia, was completed in September 2012.
Two additional project are also in the works: The Vue by Neighborhood Development Company and The V by Velocity Capital. The Vue, at 3333 Georgia Avenue, is planned to rise seven-stories above the ground floor retail and offer 112 residences. Forty-nine parking spaces will be provided below grade.
The V, located at 3557 Georgia, is a six-story mixed-use project that consists of ground floor retail and twenty dwelling units above. The proposed retail space would contain approximately and would be appropriate for a café. The Otis Place side of the property could also support of outdoor seating should a future tenant apply for a public space permit. The residential units would consist of ten one-bedroom and ten two-bedroom units. The exact number that will be dedicated for affordable housing is not known, but the developer has indicated it would be more than the city required minimum.
Real estate
According to Housing Market (Single-Family Homes) statistics for 2011, 46 homes sold in Park View (census Tract 32). The median sales price for a home was $430,000, below the district average of $527,000.
Transportation
The community is well served by two Metrorail stations. Both stations are on the Yellow and Green lines. The most convenient for northern Park View is the Georgia Avenue–Petworth station which is situated at the northeast corner of Georgia and New Hampshire Avenues and just over the Park View border in Petworth. Central Park View is best served by the Columbia Heights station located at the intersection of Irving and 14th Streets—three blocks west of the neighborhood. The area is also served by a number of WMATA Metrobus lines.
In late October, 2009, DDOT held its first of the series of eight meetings focused on DC's transit future. At these meetings DDOT presented its plans for an extensive streetcar system it is planning to build in the city. Two of these planned lines would serve Park View. The first line would travel along Georgia Avenue and is included in DDOT's first phase plans. The second line would travel through the neighborhood along Irving Street and Columbia Road and is included in DDOT's third phase of the plan. Detailed plans for the streetcar system are yet to be completed.
Education
Residents of Park View are served by the following schools in the District of Columbia Public Schools system.
Elementary schools
Bruce-Monroe Elementary School at Park View
Tubman Elementary School
Raymond Education Campus (for residents north of Park Rd. & west of Georgia Ave.)
Middle schools
MacFarland Middle School
Columbia Heights Education Campus (for residents west of Georgia Ave.)
High school (primary)
Cardozo Senior High School
Public Charter schools
There are several Public Charter schools in the area. These include:
E.L. Haynes Public Charter School
Further reading
Boese, Kent C., edited by Mara Cherkasky and designed by Janice Olson. Historic Park View: A Walking Tour. Washington, DC: Park View United Neighborhood Coalition, 2012.
Boese, Kent C., Lauri Hafvenstein. Park View. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub., 2011.
Levitz, Dena. Park View: It’s Not Petworth. Urban Turf blog, August 3, 2012.
Siegal, Ann Cameron. "Park View neighborhood in District is pleasantly walkable", The Washington Post, May 1, 2010. p. 1F.
References
External links
ANC 1A, Advisory Neighborhood Commission serving Columbia Heights and Park View
District of Columbia Public Schools
1886 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Neighborhoods in Northwest (Washington, D.C.) |
4560757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monowitz%20concentration%20camp | Monowitz concentration camp | Monowitz (also known as Monowitz-Buna, Buna and Auschwitz III) was a Nazi concentration camp and labor camp (Arbeitslager) run by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland from 1942–1945, during World War II and the Holocaust. For most of its existence, Monowitz was a subcamp of the Auschwitz concentration camp; from November 1943 it and other Nazi subcamps in the area were jointly known as "Auschwitz III-subcamps" (KL Auschwitz III-Aussenlager). In November 1944 the Germans renamed it Monowitz concentration camp, after the village of Monowice (German: Monowitz) where it was built, in the annexed portion of Poland. SS Hauptsturmführer (Captain) Heinrich Schwarz was commandant from November 1943 to January 1945.
The SS established the camp in October 1942 at the behest of IG Farben executives to provide slave labor for their Buna Werke (Buna Works) industrial complex. The name Buna was derived from the butadiene-based synthetic rubber and the chemical symbol for sodium (Na), a process of synthetic rubber production developed in Germany. Other German industrial enterprises built factories with their own subcamps, such as Siemens-Schuckert's Bobrek subcamp, close to Monowitz, to profit from the use of slave labor. The German armaments manufacturer Krupp, headed by SS member Alfried Krupp, also built their own manufacturing facilities near Monowitz.
Monowitz held around 12,000 prisoners, the great majority of whom were Jews, in addition to non-Jewish criminals and political prisoners. The SS charged IG Farben three Reichsmarks (RM) per day for unskilled workers, four (RM) per hour for skilled workers, and one and one-half (RM) for children. The camp contained an "Arbeitsausbildungslager" (labor education camp) for non-Jewish prisoners viewed as not up to par with German work standards. The life expectancy of Jewish workers at Buna Werke was three to four months; for those working in the outlying mines, only one month. Those deemed unfit for work were gassed at Auschwitz II-Birkenau.
Primo Levi, author of If This Is a Man (1947), survived Monowitz, as did Elie Wiesel, author of the Pulitzer Prize–winning book Night (1960), who was a teenage inmate there along with his father.
History
The creation of the camp was a result of an initiative by the German chemical company IG Farben to build the third-largest synthetic rubber and liquid fuels plant. The camp was supposed to be located in Silesia, out of range of Allied bombers. Among the sites proposed between December 1940 and January 1942 the chosen location was the flat land between the eastern part of Oświęcim and the villages of Dwory and Monowice, justified by good geological conditions, access to transport routes, water supply, and the availability of raw materials such as: coal from mines in Libiąż, Jawiszowice, and Jaworzno, limestone from Krzeszowice, and salt from Wieliczka. However, the primary reason for building the industrial complex in that location was the immediate access to the slave work-force from the nearby Auschwitz camps.
IG Farben made the preparations and reached an agreement with the Nazis between February and April 1941. The company bought the land from the treasury for a low price, after it had been seized from Polish owners without compensation and their houses were vacated and demolished. Meanwhile, German authorities removed Jews from their homes in Oświęcim and placed them in Sosnowiec or Chrzanów and sold their homes to IG Farben as housing for company employees brought from Germany. This also happened to some local Polish residents. The IG Farben officials came to an agreement with the concentration camp commandant to hire prisoners at a rate of 3 to 4 marks per day for labor of auxiliary and skilled labor workers.
Trucks began bringing in the first KL prisoners to work at the plant's construction site in mid-April 1941. Starting in May the workers had to walk 6 to 7 km from the camp to the factory site. At the end of July, with the laborers numbering over a thousand, they began taking the train to Dwory station. Their work included leveling the ground, digging drainage ditches, laying cables, and building roads.
The prisoners returned to the construction site in May 1942 and worked there until 21 July, when an outbreak of typhus in the main camp and Birkenau stopped their trips to work. Worried over losing the laborers, factory management decided to turn the barracks camp being built in Monowice for civilians over to the SS, to house prisoners. Because of delays in the supply of barbed wire there were several postponements in opening the camp. The first prisoners arrived on 26 October and by early November there were approximately two thousand prisoners.
Administration and name
For most of its existence, Monowitz was a subcamp of the Auschwitz concentration camp. After an administrative restructuring by the SS in November 1943, it became the third of the three main camps in the Auschwitz complex: KL Auschwitz I-Stammlager (Auschwitz I-main camp); Auschwitz II-Birkenau; and KL Auschwitz III-Aussenlager (Auschwitz III-subcamps). In November 1944, there was another reorganization: Auschwitz II became part of the main camp, and Auschwitz III was renamed Monowitz concentration camp.
Buna Werke
The new Buna Werke or Monowitz Buna-Werke factory was located on the outskirts of Oświęcim. The plant construction was commissioned by the Italian State interested in importing nitrile rubber (Buna-N) from IG Farben after the collapse of its own synthetic oil production. The 29 page-long contract signed by the Confederazione Fascista degli Industriali and printed on 2 March 1942 secured the arrival of 8,636 workers from Italy tasked with erecting the installations with the investment of 700 million Reichsmarks (equivalent to billion €) by IG Farben (Farben was the producer of nearly all explosives for the German army, with its subsidiary also producing Zyklon-B). The synthetic rubber was to be made virtually for free in occupied Poland using slave labor from among prisoners of Auschwitz, and raw materials from the formerly Polish coalfields. The Buna factory had a workforce of an estimated 80,000 slave laborers by 1944.
According to Joseph Borkin in his book entitled The Crimes and Punishment of IG Farben, IG Farben was the majority financier for Auschwitz III, a camp that contained a production site for production of Buna rubber. Borkin wrote, wrongly, that an Italian Jewish chemist, Primo Levi, was one of the upper level specialists at the Buna plant, and was able to keep some prisoners alive with the assistance of his colleagues, allegedly not producing Buna rubber at a viable production rate. In fact Levi was only an inmate there who, in the last two months of his captivity, was sent to a chemical lab due to his former studies as a chemist. Buna Rubber was named by BASF A.G., and through 1988 Buna was a remaining trade name of nitrile rubber held by BASF.
Auschwitz III concentration camp
By 1942 the new labour camp complex occupied about half of its projected area, the expansion was for the most part finished in the summer of 1943. The last four barracks were built a year later. The labor camp's population grew from 3,500 in December 1942 to over 6,000 by the first half of 1943. By July 1944 the prisoner population was over 11,000, most of whom were Jews. Despite the growing death-rate from slave labor, starvation, executions or other forms of murder, the demand for labor was growing, and more prisoners were brought in. Because the factory management insisted on removing sick and exhausted prisoners from Monowice, people incapable of continuing their work were murdered. The company argued that they had not spent large amounts of money building barracks for prisoners unfit to work.
On 10 February 1943 SS-Obersturmbannführer Gerhard Maurer, responsible for the employment of concentration camp prisoners went to Oświęcim; he promised IG Farben the arrival of another thousand prisoners, in exchange for the incapable factory workers. More than 10,000 prisoners were victims of the selection during the period in which the camp operated. Taken to the main camp's hospital, most victims were killed by a lethal injection of phenol to the heart.
Some were sent to Birkenau where they were liquidated after "re-selection" in the Bllf prison hospital or in most cases murdered in the gas chambers. More than 1,600 other prisoners died in the hospital at Monowice, and many were shot at the construction site or hanged at the camp. An estimated 10,000 Auschwitz concentration camp prisoners lost their lives because of working for IG Farben.
Productivity of prisoners
The barracks at Auschwitz III were overcrowded like those in Birkenau; however, those in Monowice had windows and heating during the winter when needed. "Buna-Suppe", a watery soup, was served, along with extremely low food rations. The foremen were in charge of laborers and demanded the capos and SS-men enforce higher productivity, beating prisoners. In reports sent from Monowice to the corporate headquarters in Frankfurt am Main, Maximilian Faust, an engineer in charge of construction stated in these reports that the only way to keep the prisoners' productivity at a satisfactory level was through violence and corporal punishment. While declaring his own opposition to "flogging and mistreating prisoners to death", Faust nevertheless added that "achieving the appropriate productivity is out of the question without the stick."
Prisoners worked more slowly than the German construction workers, even with being beaten. This was a source of anger and dissatisfaction to factory management, and led to repeated requests that camp authorities increase the numbers of SS men and energetic capos to supervise the prisoners. A group of specially chosen German common criminal capos were sent to Monowice. When these steps seemed to fail, IG Farben officials suggested the introduction of a rudimentary piecework system and a motivational scheme including the right to wear watches, have longer hair (rejected in practice), the payment of scrip that could be used in the camp canteen (which offered cigarettes and other low-value trifles for sale), and free visits to the camp bordello (which opened in the Monowice camp in 1943).
These steps hardly had an effect on prisoner productivity. In December 1944, at conferences in Katowice, it was brought to attention that the real cause of prisoners' low productivity: the motivational system was characterized as ineffective and the capos as "good", but it was admitted that the prisoners worked slowly simply because they were hungry.
Overseers
To a large degree, the SS men from the garrison in Monowice were responsible for the conditions that prevailed in the camp. SS-Obersturmführer Vinzenz Schöttl held the post of Lagerführer during the period when Monowice functioned as one of the many Auschwitz sub-camps. In November 1943, after the reorganization of the administrative system and the division of Auschwitz into three quasi-autonomous components, the camp in Monowice received a commandant of its own. This was SS-Hauptsturmführer Heinrich Schwarz, who until then had been the head of the labor department and Lagerführer in the main camp. At Monowice, he was given authority over the Jawischowitz, Neu-Dachs in Jaworzno, Fürstengrube, Janinagrube in Libiąż, Golleschau in Goleszów, Eintrachthütte in Świętochłowice, Sosnowitz, Lagischa, and Brünn (in Bohemia) sub-camps. Later, the directors of new sub-camps opened at industrial facilities in Silesia and Bohemia answered to him. Rudolf Wilhelm Buchholz and Richard Stolten were SS men there. Also present were: Dr. Bruno Kitt from December 1942 to January 1943 or March 1943, SS-Hauptsturmführer Dr. Helmuth Vetter; from March 1943 to 20 October 1943, SS-Obersturmführer Dr. Friedrich Entress. From October 1943 to November 1943, there followed SS-Obersturmführer Dr. Werner Rohde; from November 1943 to September 1944, SS-Hauptsturmführer Dr. Horst Fischer; and finally, from September 1944 to January 1945, SS-Obersturmführer Dr. Hans Wilhelm König.
Bernhard Rakers was Kommandoführer in 1943, then roll-call leader in Buna/Monowitz concentration camp, sentenced to life in prison in 1953 for murder of prisoners (pardoned in 1971, died in 1980).
Fritz Löhner-Beda (prisoner number 68561) was a popular song lyricist who was murdered in Monowitz-Buna at the behest of an IG Farben executive, as his friend Raymond van den Straaten testified at the Nuremberg trial of 24 IG Farben executives:
In May 1944, the command center of a separate guard battalion (SS-Totenkopfsturmbann KL Auschwitz III) was established in Monowice. It consisted of seven companies, which were assigned to the following sub-camps: the 1st Company to Monowitz, the 2nd Company to Golleschau in Goleszów, and Jawischowitz in Jawiszowice, the 3rd Company to Bobrek, Fürstengrube, Günthergrube, and Janinagrube in Libiąż, the 4th Company to Neu-Dachs in Jaworzno, the 5th Company to Eintrachthütte, Lagischa, Laurahütte, and Sosnowitz II in Sosnowiec, the 6th Company to Gleiwitz I, II and III in Gliwice, and the 7th Company to Blechhammer in Blachownia.
In September 1944, a total of 1,315 SS men served in these companies. The 439 of them who made up 1 Company were stationed at Monowice, and included not only guards but also the staff of the offices and stores that saw to the needs of the remaining sub-camps.
Monowitz/Buna-Werke bombed
The Allies bombed the I.G. Farben factories at Monowitz four times, all of them during the last year of the war.
The first raid was conducted 20 August 1944 by 127 B-17 Flying Fortresses of the 15th U.S. Army Air Force based in Foggia Italy. The first bombing started at 10:32 p.m. and lasted for 28 minutes. A total of 1,336 500 lb. high explosive bombs were dropped from an altitude of between 26,000 and 29,000 feet.
On 13 September, 1944 96 B-24 Liberators bombed Monowitz in an air raid that lasted 13 minutes.
The third attack occurred on 18 December 1944 by two B-17s and 47 B-24s, 436 500 lb. bombs were dropped.
The fourth and last attack was on 26 December 1944 by 95 B-24s; a total of 679 500 lb. bombs were dropped.
Liberation of the camp
On 18 January 1945, all prisoners in Monowitz whom the Nazis deemed healthy enough to walk were evacuated from the camp and sent on a death march to the Gleiwitz (Gliwice) subcamp near the Czech border. Victor "Young" Perez, a professional boxer of Jewish heritage from French Tunisia died on the death march on 22 January 1945; Paul Steinberg, who would chronicle his experiences in a 1996 book, was among those on the march. He was later liberated by the American Army at Buchenwald. The remaining prisoners were liberated on 27 January 1945 by the Red Army along with others in the Auschwitz camp complex, among them was the renowned writer Primo Levi.
Beginning mid-February 1945 the Red Army shipped much equipment and machinery from the Buna Werke factory to western Siberia using captured German specialists who helped dismantle it bit by bit. However, many of the original buildings remained, and the chemical industry was rebuilt on the site after the war. At the grounds of the former factory are the two Polish companies: Chemoservis-Dwory S.A., which produces metal structures, parts, metal building elements, tanks and reservoirs etc., and Synthos Dwory Sp. a subsidiary of the Synthos S.A. Group which manufactures synthetic rubbers, latex and polystyrene among other chemical products. Both are based in Oświęcim. Extant structures and visible remains of the Monowitz camp itself include the original camp smithy, part of the prisoner kitchen building, a ruined building of the SS Barracks, a large concrete air raid shelter for the SS guard force (type "Salzgitter/Geilenberg"), and small one-man SS air raid shelters (these can also be found on the grounds of the Buna Werke factory, along with larger concrete air raid shelters for the factory workers).
British POW camp
Several hundred meters west of the Buna/Monowitz concentration camp, there was a work subcamp, E715, of the main camp (Stalag VIII-B) in Lamsdorf (after November 1943, in Teschen). British and other Commonwealth POWs were held there and the camp was administered by Wehrmacht, not SS. Most of these POWs had been captured in North Africa, initially by Italian troops. After Italy’s change of sides in 1943, the German Army took them to prisoner of war camps in Silesia and finally to Auschwitz. The first 200 British POWs reached Auschwitz in early September 1943. In winter 1943/44, about 1,400 British POWs were interned in E715. In February and March 1944, around 800 of them were moved to Blechhammer and Heydebreck. After that time, the number of British prisoners of war in Auschwitz remained constant, at around 600.
British POWs in Auschwitz occasionally received Red Cross parcels. However, on 23 February 1944 a soldier named Corporal L.V. Reynolds, from the Royal Army Service Corps, was shot dead on the spot after refusing to climb up to a high ice-covered gantry because he was ill-equipped and thought it too dangerous.
The British POWs could see what was going on in the Monowitz concentration camp; they could hear shots at night and see the bodies of men who had been hanged. At the Monowitz construction site the POWs came in contact with the concentration camp inmates. British POW Denis Avey worked at camp E715 and wrote a personal account of it.
As the Red Army was approaching Auschwitz in January 1945, the Wehrmacht closed E715 on 21 January 1945, and made the British prisoners of war march through Poland and Czechoslovakia in the direction of Bavaria. In April 1945, the U.S. Army freed the British prisoners of war from Auschwitz in Stalag VII A in Moosburg.
See also
Charles Coward
List of concentration camps of Nazi Germany
Arthur Dodd (Auschwitz survivor)
IG Farben trial
Heinrich Bütefisch
List of subcamps of Auschwitz
The Man Who Broke into Auschwitz
References
Bibliography
The Crime and Punishment of I.G. Farben by Joseph Borkin (New York: Free Press, 1978). , .
Industry and Ideology by Peter Hayes. Cambridge University Press; 2nd edition (13 November 2000). , .
If This Is a Man, Primo Levi
External links
Holocaust History.Org
Search "Monowitz" in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Website
Wollheim Memorial
Dwory S.A. at Wikimapia
Guide to the Concentration Camps Collection at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York, New York. Contains materials on survivors of Buna-Monowitz (Auschwitz III).
Auschwitz concentration camp
IG Farben
BASF
Nazi concentration camps in Poland |
4560910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Sri%20Lanka | Education in Sri Lanka | Education in Sri Lanka has a long history that dates back two millennia. While the Constitution of Sri Lanka does not provide free education as a fundamental right, the constitution mentions that 'the complete eradication of illiteracy and the assurance to all persons of the right to universal and equal access to education at all levels" in its section on directive principles of state policy at (27(2)(H). Sri Lanka's population had an adult literacy rate of 96.3% in 2015, which is above average by world and regional standards. Computer literacy in 2017
28.3% and phone users in 2017 105%, website users 32% in 2017. Education plays a major part in the life and culture of the country, which dates back to 543 BC. Sri Lanka's modern educational system modeled after Christian missionary system was brought about by its integration into the British Empire in the 19th century. Education currently falls under the control of both the Central Government and the Provincial Councils, with some responsibilities lying with the Central Government and the Provincial Council having autonomy for others. Education institutions with a tradition dating back to 5 BC are largely ignored by the state.
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) finds that Sri Lanka is fulfilling 95.5% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income. HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education. While taking into consideration Sri Lanka's income level, the nation is achieving 97.7% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education and 93.3% for secondary education.
Administration of the system
Primary school to higher education are primarily funded and overseen by three governmental ministries.
Ministry of Education: for schools, pirivenas (schools for Buddhist priests), teachers training colleges and colleges of education
Department of Examinations: National examination service
Ministry of Higher Education: for universities
Ministry of Education Services: for supplying the physical facilities required for general education
Ministry of Skills Development and Vocational Training: for vocational education and technical colleges
Exceptions to this system exist — mostly when it comes to tertiary with several public universities and institutes coming under the purview of different ministries. These divisions have led to a high degree of mismanagement and inefficiency over the years.
History
Education in Sri Lanka has a history of over 2300 years. It is believed that the Sanskrit language was brought to the island from North India as a result of the establishment of the Buddhism in the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa from the Buddhist monks sent by Emperor Asoka of India. Since then an education system evolved based around the Buddhist temples and pirivenas (monastic colleges), the latter primarily intended for clergy (even to this day) and higher education. Evidence of this system is found on the Mahawamsa and Dipavamsa, the Chronicle of Lanka that deals with the history of the island from the arrival of Prince Vijaya and his followers in the 6th century BC.
With the outset of the colonial expansion on the island, first in the coastal provinces and then interior, Christian missionary societies become active in education. The monopoly of Christian missionaries in education ended following the Colebrooke Commission set up by the British administration.
The National Institute of Education (NIE), Sri Lanka, based in Maharagama, was established in 1986 under the provisions of the National Institute of Education Act No. 28 of 1985. The aim of the institute is to "provide leadership for the development of general education with quality, equity and relevance in a pluralistic society".
Primary and secondary schools
A standard system of colonial schools were begun by the British based on the recommendations of the Colebrooke Commission in 1836. This is regarded as the beginning of the government's schooling system in the island. It started with the establishment of the Royal College in Colombo (formerly the Colombo Academy) and lead to the formation of several single sex schools constructed during the colonial period, by the British. Some of these schools were affiliated to the Anglican Church. These included S.Thomas' College Mount Lavinia and Trinity College Kandy. The education in vernacular schools was largely free due to government grants to cover the cost of teaching and local philanthropists providing the buildings, equipment and the books. Colebrooke decreed that all government schools be discontinued. The order did not apply to denominational Missionary schools and they continued to function unceasingly.
In 1938 the education system in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) was made formally free following the granting of universal franchise in 1931. The Minister of Education, late Hon. Dr. C.W.W. Kannangara, and the Executive Committee of Education which included members such as H. W. Amarasuriya took the initiative in establishing free education. Under this initiative the government established Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (MMV, Central Colleges) that were scattered around the island to provide education to all. The medium was either Sinhala or Tamil.
In 1942 a special committee was appointed to observe the education system and, among the suggestions that followed, the following play an important role:
i. Make available to all children a good education free of charge, so that education ceases to be a commodity purchasable only by the urban affluent.
ii. Make national languages the media of instruction in place of English so that opportunities for higher education, lucrative employment open only to small number of the urban affluent, would become available to others as well.
iii. Rationalize the school system so that educational provision is adequate, efficient and economical.
iv. Ensure that every child is provided with instruction in the religion of his/her parents.
v. Protect teachers from exploitation by managers of schools.
vi. Make adequate provision for adult education.
After independence, the number of schools and the literacy rate substantially increased. According to the Ministry of Statistics, today there are approximately 10,012 public schools serving close to 4,037,157 students, all around the island.
During the colonial times, late national heroes like Anagarika Dharmapala with foreigners like Colonel Henry Steel Olcott and Madame Blavatsky of the Buddhist Theosophical Society installed Buddhist schools to foster Sinhala students with an English education rich in Buddhist values and to bring Buddhism to life, at a time when it was slowly fading away. Most of these schools were established in the capitals of the major provinces of Sri Lanka. The first of these were Ananda College, Colombo (formerly English Buddhist School); Dharmaraja College, Kandy (formerly Kandy Buddhist High School); Maliyadeva College, Kurunegala (formerly Kurunegala Buddhist Institution); Musaeus College, Colombo and Mahinda College, Galle (formerly Galle Buddhist Theosophical Society School); which were followed decades later by Visakha Vidyalaya, Colombo (formerly Buddhist Girls College), Nalanda College, Colombo and Mahamaya Vidyalaya, Kandy.
Sri Lanka also has many Catholic schools such as St. Joseph's College, St Bridget's Convent, Good Shepherd Convent, St Peter's College, St. Anthony's College, Kandy and the Joseph Vaz College named after the Sri Lankan saint Joseph Vaz. The earliest schools such as Richmond College, Galle, Jaffna Central College, Wesley College, Colombo, Kingswood College, Kandy(formerly Boys' High School, Kandy); Girls' High School, Kandy and Methodist College, Colombo were started by the Methodist Church. Many schools were built in the post-colonial era. However, the established schools who had their origins in the colonial era dominate social life in Sri Lanka mainly due networks of old boys and old girls.
Several superficial changers to the school system took place in the post-independence era. These include the change of the primary medium of education to the national languages, nationalization of private schools and the introduction of national/provisional school system.
There are 749 Muslim schools in Sri Lanka, 205 madrasas which teach Islamic education, and an Islamic university in Beruwala (Jamiya Naleemiya). Zahira College, Colombo is considered to be one of the oldest and the most prominent Muslim school in the country initiated by M. C. Siddi Lebbe, while Al Iman Schools in Colombo was the first Islamic to teach an integrated Islamic curriculum since 2008.
University
Higher education in Sri Lanka has been based on the many prominent pirivenas during the pre colonial times. The origins of the modern colonial university system in Sri Lanka dates back to 1921 when a University College, the Ceylon University College was established at the former premises of Royal College Colombo affiliated to the University of London. However, the beginning of modern higher education in colonial government of Ceylon was in 1870 when the Ceylon Medical School was established followed by Colombo Law College (1875), School of Agriculture (1884) and the Government Technical College (1893).
The University of Ceylon was established on 1 July 1942 by the Ceylon University Ordinance No. 20 of 1942 which was to be unitary, residential and autonomous. The university was in Colombo. Several years later a second campus was built in Peradeniya. The University of Ceylon became the University of Sri Lanka follow in the University of Ceylon Act No. 1 of 1972 resulting in a more centralized administration and more direct government control. This gave way for creation of separate universities after the Universities Act No. 16 of 1978. Even though new universities of independent identities were created, the government maintained its direct control and centralized administration though the University Grants Commission. Late Hon. Lalith Athulathmudali as Minister of Education developed an initiative to develop the higher education of the country in the 1980s, the Mahapola Fund, established by him provided scholarship and much-needed founding to higher education institution to this day. Until amendments to the University Act were made in 1999 only state universities were allowed to grant undergraduate degrees; this has since changed.
Primary and secondary education
Structure
Sri Lanka's education structure is divided into five parts: primary, junior secondary, senior secondary, collegiate, and tertiary. Primary education lasts five years (Grade 1 to Grade 5) and at the end of this period, the students may elect to write a national exam called the Scholarship exam. This exam allows students with exceptional skills to move on to better schools. After primary education, the junior secondary level (referred to as middle school in some schools) lasts for 4 years (Grades 6-9) followed by 2 years (Grades 10-11) of the senior secondary level which is the preparation for the General Certificate of Education (G.C.E) Ordinary Level (O/Ls).
According to the Sri Lankan law, it is compulsory that all children go to school till grade 9 (age 14) at which point they can choose to continue their education or drop out and engage in apprenticeship for a job or farming. However, the Ministry of Education strongly advises all students to continue with their studies at least till the G.C.E Ordinary Level.
Students who are pursuing tertiary education must pass the G.C.E O/Ls in order to enter the collegiate level to study for another 2 years (grades 12-13) to sit for the G.C.E Advanced Level. On successful completion of this exam, students can move on to tertiary education, therefore the GCE A/Ls is the university entrance exam in Sri Lanka.
Normal ages
Primary
Kindergarten: 3-5 year olds
Grade 1: 5-6 year olds
Grade 2: 6-7 year olds
Grade 3: 7-8 year olds
Grade 4: 8-9 year olds
Grade 5: 9-10 year olds - Scholarship Examination
Secondary
Junior secondary
Grade 6: 10-11 year olds
Grade 7: 11-12 year olds
Grade 8: 12-13 year olds
Grade 9: 13-14 year olds
Senior secondary
Grade 10: 14-15 year olds
Grade 11: 15-16 year olds - G.C.E Ordinary Level Examination
Collegiate
Grade 12: 16-17 year olds
Grade 13: 17-18 year olds - G.C.E Advanced Level Examination
NB: In some cases, students may be slightly younger.
Government schools
Most of the schools in Sri Lanka are maintained by the government as a part of the free education. Currently (as of 2021) there are 10,155 government schools (373 national schools and 9,782 provincial schools) with a student population of 4.2 million and 235,924 teachers, 736 Pirivenas and also 104 private schools with 127,968 students. With the establishment if the provincial council system in the 1980s the central government handed control of most schools to local governments. However the old schools which had been around since the colonial times were retained by the central government, this creating three types of government schools;
National Schools
Provincial Schools
Pirivenas-Schools for Buddhist priests
National schools
National schools come under the direct control of the Ministry of Education and therefore have direct funding from the ministry. Most of these schools were established during the colonial period and therefore are established institutions. These few are referred to as famous schools or elite schools since they have a rich history and better maintained facilities than the average public school. This is mainly due to the support of their alumni. In recent years newer schools and several central colleges have been upgraded to national schools from time to time, thereby making the total number of national schools 373 (as of 2021).
Provincial schools
Provincial Schools consists of the vast majority of schools in Sri Lanka, which number 9,782 (as of 2021). Funded and controlled by the local governments many suffer from poor facilities and a shortage of teachers.
Piriven
Piriven are monastic colleges (similar to a seminary) for the education of Buddhist priests. These have been the centers of secondary and higher education in ancient times for lay people as well. Today 561 Piriven are funded and maintained by the Ministry of Education under the Pirivena Education Act, No, 64 of 1979. Young priests undergo training at these pirivenas prior to being their Ordination and study for GCE O/L and A/L examinations. They may gain entrance to State Universities for higher religious studies.
Non-government schools
Private schools
There has been a considerable increase in the number of private schools in Sri Lanka, due to the emergence of the upper-middle class during the colonial era. These private schools follow the local curriculum set up by the Ministry of Education in the local language mediums of Sinhala, Tamil or English. Many of the private schools have access to newer facilities than state run schools. Currently there are 66 Private schools (registered before 1960 and not since then) of these, 33 non-fee-levying Assisted Private Schools (also known as semi-government schools) and 33 fee levying autonomous Private Schools, in addition to the Government Schools.
International schools
International schools in Sri Lanka are not restricted to the expatriate community, anyone with the ability and willingness to pay can join these schools. Starting in the late 1980s these schools have no regulation or control by the Ministry of Education as it comes under the Board of Investment (BOI), due to this the standard of education varies greatly between schools. The schools are mainly for the children of the expatriate community, charge high tuition fees and can therefore provide good facilities and high standards.
The majority of International schools prepares students for the Edexcel General Certificate of Education (IGCSE) Ordinary, Advanced Subsidiary (AS) and Advanced (A2) Level examinations, which is the most popular qualification. Preparation for Cambridge International Examinations is also offered by a few schools but it is less popular. Both exams are offered under the supervision of the British Council, whereas some schools offer a direct partnership with the examination body in order to improve standards.
Madrasas
As of 2013, there are 205 madrasas registered under the Department of Muslim Religious and Cultural Affairs providing Islamic education in Sri Lanka. These have been built and maintained by independent Islamic foundations such as All Ceylon Jamiyyathul Ulama and the Thareeqathul Aroosiyyathil Qaadhiriyyah Association in Sri Lanka which propagate Sunnah wal Jamaah. This is in addition to the 749 Muslim Schools in Sri Lanka.
Semi Government Schools
There are quite a few semi-government schools in Sri Lanka that are run as a government-private collaboration, where the government provides the textbooks, uniforms, and other facilities such as the ability to sit for national exams and the government-paid teachers.
The prominent semi-government schools are Zahira College, Colombo, Wesley College, Colombo, St. Joseph's College, Colombo and St. Peter's College, Colombo.
Tuition
Due to the high competitive nature of exams such as year 5, GCE O/L and GCE A/L as well as London O/Ls and A/Ls; parents seek additional help at home and at group/mass classes to improve their children's grades and performance. In recent years this has become a lucrative enterprise, which has resulted in successive governments attempting to regulate it. Many scholars have also accused tuition classes of robbing the childhood and having a negative impact on the child's health.
These Private Educational Institutes or Tuition Centers are concentrated in Major cities of Sri Lanka: Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara, Negombo, Kurunegala, Kandy, Galle, Matara, Tangalle, Kegalle, Badulla and Ratnapura.
Tertiary education
Undergraduate education in state universities is free but extremely competitive, limited and standardized. Fewer than 16% (less than 16,000 students) of those who qualify get admission to state universities and of that only half graduate. Admission to the university system is based on the highly competitive GCE Advanced Level examination. Selection of students is done on the basis of rank order on average Z Scores obtained by candidates at the GCE Advanced Level under a transparent national policy to replicate a district basis representation. Only the top students from each district get admissions.
The top students from urban and rural districts get the chances of having tertiary education. However, top students who got qualified under the minimum Z Scores requirements for admissions from remote districts may get in with relatively lower marks than those from urban districts. As a result, many students who are not granted admission find other means of higher education. Around 8% those qualified but could not get admission for higher education go abroad to pursue their studies, others enroll themselves at the Open University of Sri Lanka
Some study for entrance/membership for professional bodies both foreign (such as CIMA, BCS, ACCA, etc.) and local (such as ICASL, SLIM) or do studies at vocational technical colleges that specialize in mechanical and electronic subjects. Government has schemes to provides financial aid in addition to free education to financially support to those qualified to get admission to state universities.
There are only 15 state universities in Sri Lanka. The prominent ones are University of Colombo, University of Peradeniya, University of Kelaniya, University of Sri Jayawardhenapura , University of Moratuwa and University of Ruhuna. In recent years, with changes to the University Act, a few institutes have been given permission to grant their own degrees: The most prominent is the government-owned Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology.
Still, there are unemployed graduates in Sri Lanka, except in the fields of medicine, information technology, commerce, law and engineering disciplines. Many claim that if state university graduates are unemployed or causes brain drain that is because of limited exposure in the country for the degrees they have.
Many intellectuals express the need for private universities in the country, where students who chose not to attend or do not gain admission to state universities could study in their home country at a lower cost. The North Colombo Medical College (NCMC) was one such institute. But efforts to establish private universities have been blocked due to protests conducted by many parties claiming that it would create more competition for state university students. In recent years this has become a reason for students who do not attend state universities to prefer going abroad or study at other institutes and professional bodies.
There are three types of Degree Awarding Private Higher Education Institutes in Sri Lanka
Private Institutes which offer Sri Lankan degrees recognized by University Grants Commission
Private Institutes which offer Foreign Degrees in affiliation with Foreign Universities
Professional Institutes which offer Degree Equivalent Professional Qualifications
For a complete list, see Sri Lankan universities
Classification of tertiary qualifications
Certificate: 1 year or less than 1 year of study.
Diploma: 1–2 years of study.
Bachelor's degree:
General degree: 3 years of coursework without a major.
Honours/Special degree: 4 years of coursework and research with a major/specialization in a field.
Master's degree: undertaken after the completion of one or more bachelor's degrees. Master's degrees deal with a subject at a more advanced level than bachelor's degrees and can consist either of research, coursework, or a mixture of the two.
Doctorate: most famously Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which are undertaken after an honours bachelor's or master's degree, by an original research project resulting in a thesis or dissertation.
Vocational education and training
Vocational education and training in Sri Lanka is managed by the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission of the Ministry of Vocational & Technical Training. Training includes course based curriculum at vocational technical training centres and apprenticeship at private or public organisations. Higher education in vocational fields could be archived though several universities. The National Vocational Qualifications Systems in Sri Lanka (NVQSL) provides a structured seven levels of qualifications from Level 1 to Level 7. Vocational education and training is carried out for degree level at the Open University, Sri Lanka and the University of Vocational Technology, as well as at diploma level at 37 technical colleges, Sri Lanka Institute of Advanced Technological Education and the Sri Lanka School of Agriculture.
Apart from these, the Ministry of Education has launched a non-formal vocational education program which allows school drop-outs and adults who did not complete their school education, to earn a living, through self-employment. Most of these courses are held at community centres and they cover a wide range of fields such as dressmaking, beauty culture, hairdressing, stitching, carpentry, plumbing, painting and so on.
Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission monitors the registration of private course providers in the development of the sector. A number of private course providers have propped up in this qualification segment. Hospitality courses, basic accounting and management courses has been offered.
Criticisms
Critics of the education system, including academics and parents, state that the education system is too competitive and rigid unlike education systems in other societies.
Efforts to establish private universities have been blocked, resulting in only state universities awarding local degrees. Opponents of private universities claim that private universities as privatization of education and damaging the standard of the education. However the demand for higher education has created several private institutions that conduct courses for degrees in foreign universities, these are not regulated or evaluated for proper standards by the government or independent organizations.
Compulsory leadership training for undergraduates
In 2011, the government made it mandatory for all students selected for undergraduate courses in state universities to undergo Compulsory leadership training for undergraduates at military and police bases. The government sited the need for residential three-week training to increase employability thus reducing the high graduate unemployment in state universities. This move has drawn criticisms from the opposition, student groups and human rights groups as the nature of compulsory military type training seen in conscription. However, shortly after the 2015 presidential election, the president at the time, Maithripala Sirisena along with the Sri Lankan Parliament put an end to this training in 2015.
Notes
References
External links
Official Website of the Ministry of Education, Sri Lanka
Official Website of the Ministry of Higher Education, Sri Lanka
Department of Examinations, Sri Lanka |
4561201 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20United%20States%20Senate%20election%20in%20Connecticut | 2006 United States Senate election in Connecticut | The 2006 United States Senate election in Connecticut was held November 7, 2006. Incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman won his fourth and final term in the Senate, under the Connecticut for Lieberman party banner.
Lieberman originally ran as a Democrat, but lost the August 8 Democratic primary to former Greenwich selectman and businessman Ned Lamont. Lieberman had been seen as vulnerable to a primary challenge due to his conservative positions and support for the Iraq War, and Lamont ran as an antiwar challenger, receiving support from the left of the party. The Republicans nominated Alan Schlesinger, the former mayor of Derby, whose campaign was marred by allegations of inappropriate gambling activities.
After losing the primary, Lieberman ran as a third-party candidate with the newly formed Connecticut for Lieberman party. He was not a member of this party, remaining a registered Democrat throughout the campaign.
Most polls had Lieberman defeating Lamont. Lieberman raised more than double what Lamont did during the campaign, and won the general election. He continued to caucus with the Democrats, and was listed in the Senate records as an Independent Democrat.
Lamont ran for governor in 2010, losing in the primary to eventual two-term governor Dannel Malloy. He ran again in 2018, winning both the primary election and the general election.
Democratic primary
The primary elections were held on August 8. The Democratic Party primary pitted Lieberman against Lamont.
Candidates
Joe Lieberman, incumbent U.S. Senator and Democratic nominee for vice president in 2000
Ned Lamont, former Greenwich selectman
Campaign
Because Connecticut was believed to be a Democratic stronghold, political analysts considered its Senate seat safe to remain Democratic, but Lieberman's continued support for conservative and Bush administration policies made him vulnerable to a Democratic primary challenger. Lieberman was criticized for a lack of commitment to the Democratic Party, opposition to affirmative action; his opposition to a Connecticut state law that would require Catholic hospitals to provide emergency contraception to rape victims, his membership in the bipartisan Gang of 14, his support of Florida Governor Jeb Bush's involvement in the Terri Schiavo case, his initial willingness to compromise on Social Security privatization, alliances with Republicans; and his attacks on other Democrats.
On March 13, 2006, Lamont announced his candidacy. He was more liberal than Lieberman, but he was not immune to criticism from within his party. The New Republic senior editor and "liberal hawk" Jonathan Chait, who was critical of Lieberman on a variety of issues, wrote:
I can't quite root for Lieberman to lose his primary. What's holding me back is that the anti-Lieberman campaign has come to stand for much more than Lieberman's sins. It's a test of strength for the new breed of left-wing activists who are flexing their muscles within the party. These are exactly the sorts of fanatics who tore the party apart in the late 1960s and early 1970s. They think in simple slogans and refuse to tolerate any ideological dissent.
Early polling showed Lieberman with as much as a 46-point lead, but subsequent polls showed Lamont gaining until he took the lead just weeks before the primary. A controversy about a "kiss" Lieberman supposedly received from Bush during the 2005 State of the Union address highlighted concerns that he was too close to Bush to be a credible Democratic nominee. Lieberman released several campaign advertisements over the summer seeking to connect himself to former President Bill Clinton and to portray Lamont as standing for little more than opposition to Lieberman. Lamont struck back with an ad produced by political consultant Bill Hillsman, in which a narrator says, "Meet Ned Lamont. He can't make a decent cup of coffee, he's a bad karaoke singer, and he has a messy desk." Lamont then chimes in, "Aren't you sick of political attack ads that insult your intelligence? Senator Lieberman, let's stick to issues and pledge to support whoever wins the Democratic primary."
From mid-morning August 7 to well past August 9, Lieberman's official campaign site was taken offline; officials from Lieberman's campaign claimed "dirty politics" and "Rovian tactics" by Lamont's supporters, and more specifically, a sustained Distributed Denial of Service attack that, according to the Lieberman campaign, had left the site down for several days.
Tim Tagaris, Lamont's Internet communications director, denied the charge and attributed the downtime to the fact that the Lieberman campaign had chosen an inferior web host, or ISP, paying $15/month to operate its site (as opposed to the $1,500/month the Lamont campaign spent). On December 20, 2006, a joint investigation by Connecticut Attorney General Richard Blumenthal's office and the U.S. attorney's office cleared the Lamont campaign of the hacking accusations. A spokesman for Kevin O'Connor, the U.S. Attorney for Connecticut, said, "The investigation has revealed no evidence the problems the website experienced were the result of criminal conduct."
Lieberman was backed by the Human Rights Campaign, the United States Chamber of Commerce, the Defenders of Wildlife, and Planned Parenthood; he was endorsed by The Hartford Courant, The New Haven Register, and the Connecticut Post. Lamont was backed by the National Organization for Women, MoveOn.org, and Democracy for America; he was endorsed by The New York Times.
Lamont won the primary with 51.79% of the vote to Lieberman's 48.21%. In his concession speech, Lieberman announced that he would keep his promise to run as an independent if he lost the Democratic primary.
In the Republican primary, Alan Schlesinger drew fire in July when it was revealed that he had been gambling under an alias in order to avoid detection as a card counter. Schlesinger remained in the race despite calls to withdraw, ultimately becoming the Republican nominee when no other candidates entered the race.
Debate
On July 6, 2006, Lamont and Lieberman met in a televised debate held by a Connecticut NBC-TV affiliate and carried live nationally by C-SPAN. Journalists in the studio asked questions, with several videotaped questions by voters also included. The debate largely centered on the Iraq war and the candidates' records and experience.
Results
General election
Candidates
Ned Lamont (D): On August 8, Greenwich businessman Ned Lamont received 52% of the vote in the Democratic primary for one of Connecticut's seats in the United States Senate, defeating incumbent Senator Joe Lieberman, who ran in the November election as a petitioning candidate of the Connecticut for Lieberman party line. To get on the primary ballot on May 19, 2006, Lamont received 33% of the vote at the Democratic State Convention, well above the 15% threshold needed to appear on the ballot without having to collect signatures. Sean Smith, Lieberman's campaign manager at the time, dismissed his performance, claiming that many delegates at the convention saw the endorsement question as a "free vote" to "register displeasure with Lieberman without it costing them anything", and speculated that they would return to Lieberman in the primary. Lieberman dismissed Smith as his campaign manager the morning after his primary defeat on August 8. Lamont differed from Lieberman on various issues. He opposed the Iraq War and the USA Patriot Act, opposed the creditor-friendly changes to U.S. bankruptcy law, opposed federal intervention in cases such as the Terri Schiavo case, opposed the federal earmark system, and said he would have been much more aggressive than Lieberman against the Samuel Alito nomination.
Alan Schlesinger (R): On May 20, 2006, Connecticut Republicans nominated former Derby Mayor Alan Schlesinger. In July, it was revealed that he was involved in inappropriate gambling activities: he gambled under the alias "Alan Gold" to avoid detection as a card counter. On July 21, the Hartford Courant reported that Schlesinger had been sued by two New Jersey casinos for gambling debts. He quickly faced flak from state party officials and some, including Connecticut Governor Jodi Rell, called on him to withdraw. Connecticut GOP chairman George Gallo had considered previous Republican Senate candidate Jack Orchulli as a possible replacement if Schlesinger had withdrawn. On July 24, Courant columnist Kevin Rennie suggested former State Senator Bill Aniskovich of Branford—who was defeated in 2004 while seeking his eighth term—would replace Schlesinger if he withdrew. Other possible replacements included U.S. Attorney Kevin O'Connor, State Senator John McKinney of Fairfield and Derby state representative Themis Klarides.
Joe Lieberman (I), the incumbent three-term senator, was running for his fourth term. Lieberman was Al Gore's vice presidential running mate in the 2000 election. Gore lost the election to George W. Bush. After a heated primary, Lieberman lost to Lamont, 52% to 48%. Soon after his defeat, his campaign submitted the required signatures to run under the new Connecticut for Lieberman Party. While many of his Democratic colleagues tried to convince him not to run, he stood firm. The day after losing in the primary, Lieberman fired most of his campaign staff, including his campaign manager.
Ralph Ferrucci (G): Connecticut Green Party nominee, artist, truck driver, 2004 congressional candidate, and 2003 "Guilty Party" New Haven mayoral candidate. Ferrucci received more than 15% of the vote when he challenged New Haven mayor John DeStefano Jr. in 2003. He had the least amount of money on hand of all the candidates and claimed to be the only candidate to publicly state his disapproval over Israel's invasion of Lebanon.
Timothy Knibbs (CC) ran as the nominee of the Concerned Citizens Party. He also ran for the state's other senate seat in 2004.
Campaign
Connecticut for Lieberman party
On June 12, Lamont began running radio ads promising if he lost the primary to endorse Lieberman and challenging Lieberman to make a similar pledge. Lieberman refused; his campaign manager, Sean Smith said, "Are we going to support Ned Lamont? Uh, no!"
On July 3 in Hartford, Lieberman announced that he would collect signatures to guarantee himself a position on the November ballot. Lieberman and Smith said that Lieberman would run as a "petitioning Democrat" and caucus with Senate Democrats if elected. On July 10, the Lieberman campaign officially filed paperwork allowing him to collect signatures to form a new political party, the Connecticut for Lieberman party.
After Lieberman's announcement, independent polls showed him favored to win a plurality or outright majority of the vote in a three-way general election. The petition issue led to charges against the Lieberman campaign of political opportunism and lack of respect for the political process. Lieberman received strong support from many prominent conservative pundits and publications. "[H]is most vocal support came from places like The Weekly Standard, National Review, and Commentary Magazine; Sean Hannity, Bill Kristol and right-wing radio hosts cheered for his victory." Thus "Lieberman was able to run in the general election as the de facto Republican candidate—every major Republican office-holder in the state endorsed him—and to supplement that GOP base with strong support from independents."
On August 29, Lieberman began airing an ad, "Soothing", featuring images of a sunset over an ocean beach, while a female narrator says "you might enjoy a break from Ned Lamont's negative advertising. So just sit back and think about—good stuff." The Lamont campaign stood by its ads.
There was some debate over what impact Lieberman's campaign would have on several tight House races in Connecticut. Some argued that Lieberman would bring out Republican supporters, who would vote for Lieberman and then cross over to support the Republican House candidates. Of those candidates, incumbents Nancy Johnson and Rob Simmons lost their bids for reelection while Chris Shays was reelected.
Democratic reaction
On August 9, Democratic Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid and DSCC Chair Chuck Schumer issued the following joint statement on the Connecticut Senate race:
According to The Hill, a Democratic aide to a high-ranking senator commented that Lieberman might be stripped of his Democratic privileges in the Senate. "At this point Lieberman cannot expect to just keep his seniority," said the aide. "He can't run against a Democrat and expect to waltz back to the caucus with the same seniority as before. It would give the view that the Senate is a country club rather than representative of a political party and political movement."
On August 21, a group of New Haven Democrats cited Connecticut General Statutes section 9–61 in a complaint filed with the New Haven Democratic Registrar of Voters, Sharon Ferrucci, demanding that she purge Lieberman from the Democratic voter rolls. The statute reads in part: "Knowingly becoming a candidate for office on ticket of a new party automatically separates voter from his former party." Lieberman's campaign manager called it a "dirty political trick". Ferrucci rejected the complaint.
Waterbury statement controversy
Lamont campaign manager Tom Swan criticized the strongly pro-Lieberman city of Waterbury for alleged corruption, calling it a meeting place for "forces of evil". Waterbury's mayor, Michael Jarjura, endorsed Lieberman after the primary. Swan later apologized for the comment, saying it was aimed at former mayor Philip Giordano, who was arrested for sexual crimes with a minor, and former Governor John G. Rowland, a Waterbury native, who was indicted for corruption. Giordano and Rowland were forced to resign from their positions due to criminal activities. Jarjura failed to accept Swan's apology, so Lamont himself apologized for the comments. On August 22 Lamont announced former Democratic state chairman George Jepsen would be chair his general election campaign. He denied this was a demotion of Swan.
"Al-Qaeda candidate"
On August 11, CNN Headline News anchor Chuck Roberts asked Hotline senior editor John Mercurio about the effects of the recent London terrorist plot on the 2006 Connecticut Senate race:
Roberts later apologized personally to Lamont on the air:
Impact of Lamont allies
Opinion columnist Robert Novak stated that Democratic leaders feared the visible role black activists Al Sharpton and Jesse Jackson had at Lamont's primary night rally "might drive Republican, independent and even some Democratic voters into support of Lieberman's independent candidacy."
Vets for Freedom
On August 15, 2006, the Stamford Advocate reported that an organization called Vets For Freedom had run full-page ads in the Hartford Courant in support of Lieberman. Lamont supporters claimed that Vets for Freedom was a de facto Republican organization and pointed out the similarities between it and the Swift Vets, who had connections to Republican officials.
Email controversy
In early September, Lamont attacked Lieberman's response to the 1998 scandal involving President Clinton's affair with intern Monica Lewinsky, claiming Lieberman had created a "media spectacle". Lieberman responded by releasing an email Lamont sent him at the time, in which Lamont wrote he reluctantly supported Lieberman's stance critical of Clinton.
Lamont then called for Lieberman to "move on" from publicly criticizing Clinton:
Lieberman's speech in 1998 had occurred after the President had gone on prime time television to admit his relationship with Lewinsky. Lieberman believes his speech defused partisan tension over a "media spectacle" already present prior to the senator's speech.
Turncoat ads
In late September, Lamont's campaign aired a controversial television ad that depicted various actors portraying Connecticut voters calling Lieberman a turncoat. One ad suggested that voters should wear their coats inside out to protest Lieberman's campaign as an independent candidate.
Lieberman responded with the "Blackboard" ad, where the words "Democrat" and "Republican" are separated by a line and Lieberman erased it, stressing his appeal was primarily to the state's largest voter bloc, unaffiliated voters.
Finances
Lieberman and Lamont fought a hotly contested and expensive primary battle for the Democratic nomination. Schlesinger won the Republican nomination at the Republican convention and raised and spent relatively little. Minor candidates' fundraising was almost nonexistent.
According to OpenSecrets, fundraising and cash on hand (as of dates specified) are as follows:
In the days before the Democratic primary, the Lieberman campaign invoked the "millionaire rule", alleging that Lamont's personal campaign contributions had exceeded federal limits. Despite having more than double Lamont's funding, Lieberman accepted contributions up to a higher $6,300 limit per individual. The normal limit was $2,300. Between the primary and the general election, Lamont added over $2 million of his own money to his campaign effort. According to published reports, as of late October, Lamont had spent over $12.7 million of personal funds on his campaign, while Lieberman had raised over $14 million.
Endorsements
Debates
Complete video of debate, October 16, 2006
Complete video of debate, October 18, 2006
Complete video of debate, October 23, 2006
Predictions
Polling
Results
Lieberman won with approximately 50% of the vote, and served a six-year term from January 3, 2007, to January 3, 2013. Exit polls showed that Lieberman won the vote of 33% of Democrats, 54% of independents and 70% of Republicans.
Counties that flipped from Democratic to Independent
Fairfield (largest town: Bridgeport)
Hartford (largest town: Hartford)
Litchfield (largest city: Torrington)
Middlesex (largest town: Middletown)
New Haven (largest town: New Haven)
New London (largest town: Norwich)
Tolland (largest town: Vernon)
Windham (largest town: Windham)
Notes
See also
2006 United States Senate elections
References
External links
State of Connecticut Secretary of State: 2006 Primary and Election Information
State of Connecticut Secretary of State: Statement of Vote
Debate, October 23, 2006
2006 Connecticut elections
2006
2006
Connecticut
Joe Lieberman |
4561524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Warne%20Gates | John Warne Gates | John Warne Gates (May 18, 1855 – August 9, 1911), also known as "Bet-a-Million" Gates, was an American Gilded Age industrialist and gambler. He was a pioneer promoter of barbed wire. He was born and raised in what is now West Chicago, Illinois. He did not enjoy farm life and began offering neighbors various business propositions at an early age, including the sale of firewood to homes and to the local railroad. When he started a local grain brokerage that failed, Gates began spending time at the local railroad station and became reacquainted with the men he previously sold firewood to. He was invited to join their poker games and through this, Gates' aptitude for cards and other games of chance was developed.
After studying penmanship, bookkeeping and business law in North Central College (by then Northwestern College), he failed as an owner of a local hardware store. Gates became interested in barbed wire and became a salesman for the Washburn-Moen Company. When he was assigned to the Texas sales territory, he learned that ranchers were adamant about not buying his product. Gates staged a demonstration of the wire in San Antonio's Military Plaza with charging cattle failing to break the barbed wire fences he had set up. He then proved very successful in selling the company's product, and went on to start his own barbed wire manufacturing business, which eventually led to the production of steel. In the process, his company was purchased by J. P. Morgan's U. S. Steel. Gates was not invited to become part of the company, and he fought back at Morgan for many years through a series of business acquisitions and sales; both men were key figures in the Panic of 1907.
Gates was the president of Republic Steel and of the Texas Company, later known as Texaco. He was instrumental in changing the steel industry's production methods from the Bessemer process to the open hearth process and in building the city of Port Arthur, Texas.
Biography
Early years
Gates was born in West Chicago, Illinois (then known as Turner Junction) on May 18, 1855. He was the son of Asel A. and Mary Warne Gates. Gates had two older brothers, George and Gilbert, but both had died by the time he was 15 years old. While Gates was raised in a religious household, his mother, Mary, became more religious after the deaths of her two older sons. Because he had been involved in some harmless childhood mischief in both grammar and Sunday School, he was accused of stealing a collection at the Sunday School. He was barred from attending church as a result.
Gates was raised on the family's farm, but did not care for farm life. At an early age, he entered into his first business proposition: to husk a neighbor's corn. His next business venture was to clear some land of timber for another neighbor. Gates earned US$1,000 for this job, selling the timber as firewood to homes and to the railroad. Gates then took the money from this labor and bought a half interest in a threshing machine. As this type of equipment was very new at the time, few farms owned one, so Gates and his partner hired themselves out to work with it at various local farms. After one season, Gates tired of this type of work and he sold his interest in the threshing machine to his partner and another friend. Gates then set himself up as a local grain broker, doing business from the family's home. This business venture was a failure; in an effort to escape farm work, he took to spending time at the railroad depot where he had previously sold firewood. The railroad men remembered him and now asked him to join their poker games. Gates found he had an aptitude for the game and for anticipating the cards men held and how they would play them. With the grain brokerage now forgotten, he was able to make up the losses at the card table.
While attending a house party near St. Charles, he met and fell in love with a farmer's daughter, Dellora Baker. Gates proposed to her at one of the house parties. Dellora was willing to accept Gates' proposal, but wondered how he would be able to provide for a wife, as his only income came from winning at the railroad poker games. When his father discovered Gates in a poker game with some railroad men in the family's barn, Asel told his son he was no good and would never be any good. Only Mary's mediation stopped her son from leaving home. With the realization that he needed more education than grammar school had provided, he announced to his parents that he would be enrolling in some local college classes. Gates attended some courses at nearby Wheaton College and graduated from North Central College in 1876. He had little opportunity to put his new business education to work, as the financial Panic of 1873 began just as he was completing his college work. In order to be able to marry Dellora, Gates accepted every type of job he could get for the next year; most of them were for farm work. Gates and Dellora were married on February 25, 1874.
Marriage and early business ventures
Gates tried to revive his grain brokerage business but lost all his savings through it. When the couple's first child was stillborn, Gates returned to his old pattern of playing poker and thought seriously about leaving town with Dellora. With this knowledge, Mary Gates told her husband he needed to help his son financially so he could start a new business. Gates' father-in-law, Ed Baker, had already offered to help his daughter and son in law in this way. Asel purchased a two-story brick building and Ed Baker provided the capital for stock to open a hardware store in Turner Junction. At first the business went well; Gates and Dellora were able to move into their own home. Gates began taking time away from the hardware store and while his partner tried to handle all the business, he was not able to. A son, Charles Gilbert Gates, was born to Gates and Dellora on May 21, 1876. Gates began to complain of various ailments soon after the baby's birth; at times, he would take to his bed for some days with them. Business at the hardware store had become so bad, Gates was not able to afford the rent on the family's home. They had to move into two rooms above the hardware store, with Gates saying he was too ill to help with the moving and packing.
While at the hardware store, Gates met a salesman who was in the barbed wire business. As a result, Gates became interested in the relatively new product. When he announced his intentions to sell his interest in the hardware store and become a traveling salesman for the product, his wife and mother were both in favor of the plan. He made a trip to San Antonio, Texas, in 1876, where Isaac Ellwood hired him as a salesman for the Washburn-Moen barbed wire company. After being assigned to work in Texas, Gates quickly learned that while he found friends and poker playing companions, when it came to selling barbed wire, ranchers were not buying. After watching a medicine show proprietor stage an elaborate presentation for his wires and noting that people fought to buy the products sold, Gates decided to have a similar production to demonstrate the merits of barbed wire. In San Antonio's Military Plaza, Gates provoked cattle into charging into a barbed wire fence which did not break. Gates went from not being able to sell his product to not being able to fill orders quickly enough after the demonstration.
The barbed wire and steel business
Upon Ellwood's refusal to grant him a partnership in the company. Gates traveled to St. Louis, Missouri, where in partnership with Alfred Clifford, he started the Southern Wire Company to compete with Washburn-Moen. Clifford's equipment to manufacture barbed wire had come from George C. Baker, who had invented a machine for producing barbed wire which was similar but not identical to the one made by Isaac Ellwood. Baker had resisted all attempts by Ellwood and Washburn-Moen to buy him out. Gates and Clifford sold their product at a cheaper price than Washburn-Moen. Before long, Washburn-Moen was losing substantial business to Gates and Clifford's Southern Wire Company.
In an effort to stop the success of the former company salesman, Ellwood and Washburn-Moen filed for an injunction to stop the business of Southern Wire Company. The suit, filed in U. S. District Court, claimed the machines Gates and Clifford used in the production of their product were a direct copy of those used by Washburn-Moen. The suit also called for Gates and Clifford to pay US$100,000 in damages to the company. As they avoided process servers, Gates and Clifford made a plan to save their company. They were able to rent a building in East St. Louis, Illinois, and moved their equipment out of the factory and onto a ferryboat after dark. After they crossed the Mississippi River, the machines were out of the jurisdiction of the St. Louis U. S. District Court and were back in business the next day. When Clifford and Gates hired an attorney to answer the charges made against them in court, the judge ruled that the manufacturing process used by Southern Wire Company was not an infringement on any patents or machinery owned by Ellwood and Washburn-Moen.
After a fire destroyed the Southern Wire Company, Gates gambled on the idea that William C. Edenborn had not heard the news and approached him for a merger with the idea that Southern Wire would manufacture in Edenborn's now idle barbed wire plant. The new company was known as St. Louis Wire Mill Company. They continued to buy other wire companies and had strong sales. Washburn-Moen went back into court, this time in Des Moines, Iowa, where a federal judge ruled that the machinery created by Baker was an infringement of Washburn-Moen's patents. By this time, Gates had created a syndicate of barbed wire manufacturers who did not produce their wires using Washburn-Moen's methods; the ruling in favor of Washburn-Moen only applied to areas in the jurisdiction of the U. S. Federal Court in Des Moines. Washburn-Moen continued to falter; Isaac Ellwood sent word asking for a meeting with Gates. Ellwood and another key figure with Washburn-Moen, John Lambert, now accepted offers from Gates. The barbed wire legal issues ended with Washburn-Moen selling their patent rights to Gates and his syndicate of wire manufacturers.
Through a series of mergers and acquisitions the company went through various name changes, finally settling on American Steel and Wire Company. Gates and his family moved to Chicago, where they lived for a period of ten years. Chicago attorney Elbert Henry Gary had helped Gates form the syndicate which led to the defeat of Washburn-Moen. Gary was called on again in 1901 to negotiate a merger with J. P. Morgan's U. S. Steel. Though he had provided Gates with some loans and advice in the past, Morgan did not want Gates to be a part of the merged company, saying that there was only a deal without Gates. Morgan made an offer to Gates for the American Steel and Wire Company, telling him that he was not welcome to take part in the business of U. S. Steel-either as part of management or on the company's board of directors. Morgan continued by saying that if Gates did not accept his offer, U. S. Steel intended to build its own wire production plant.
Railroads, oil and Port Arthur, Texas
Gates never forgot J. P. Morgan's snub at the U. S. Steel merger. One month after the deal was completed, he became involved in a struggle between E. H. Harriman of the Union Pacific Railroad and James J. Hill of the Northern Pacific Railway. Both men sought control of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. Hill, who was financed by J. P. Morgan, needed access to Chicago; Harriman was interested in stopping Hill from obtaining it. Gates saw this as an opportunity to get back at Morgan for his refusal to seat him on the board of U. S. Steel. Along with Harriman, he began buying shares of Northern Pacific stock. When James Hill noted a sudden rise in Northern Pacific stock prices, he traveled to New York to consult with Morgan. Morgan and Hill stopped the sales of the Northern Pacific stock, which remained high while other stocks took steep drops. Those who had been selling short could not obtain enough stock to cover themselves and were faced with large financial losses. It was rumored that Gates was short 60,000 shares of Northern Pacific stock. Gates did not confirm or deny any of the rumors about the railroad stock and would only say that he was doing well.
As Gates continued to search for a way to get back at Morgan for cutting him out of U. S. Steel, he found a vulnerability in Morgan's railroad holdings in 1902 and began buying large numbers of shares in Morgan's Louisville and Nashville Railroad. When it was decided to add another short line to the L&N system, its board of directors voted to issue 50,000 new shares of stock to finance the new line. A clerical error offered the stock for sale before it could be listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Gates saw the offering and purchased the shares prior to their listing; he also continued buying all the Louisville and Nashville stock he was able to. Gates had enough shares of the railroad to duplicate the panic that ensued the year before with the Great Northern Railway shares. J. P. Morgan learned of the events in April 1902 and found that Gates now owned more than 51 percent of the Louisville and Nashville's stock. Morgan decided to act to stop another Wall Street panic, and asked what Gates' terms of sale would be. Gates wanted US$150 per share of stock, an offer which Morgan initially rejected. He then dispatched his aide, George Walbridge Perkins, to talk to Gates and make the best possible arrangements. Perkins called on Gates in his Waldorf-Astoria suite at 1:30 am. The deal for the Louisville and Nashville cost Morgan US$43 million, with Gates making a more than US$15 million profit from the transaction.
After the Louisville and Nashville Railroad incident, Gates found that public opinion had turned against him as a result of it. Gates talked some associates into submitting his son's name for membership in the New York Yacht Club and New York's Union League Club. The application for Charlie Gates went from one desk to another for a number of weeks. When young Gates' name was brought up for a vote, the members of the admissions committee were unanimous in their "no" decision. Gates threatened to sue the club and the members denied his charges of Morgan being behind Charlie Gates' refusal. Gates withdrew Charlie's Yacht Club and Union League Club applications, apparently resigned that his son would not be a member of either society. When he and Dellora traveled to England, the couple wanted to stay at Claridge's, as they had done in 1900. Claridge's refused to accept their registration as Gates was now on the hotel's list of undesirables.
Pattillo Higgins had begun a well on Spindletop in 1900, but ran out of money to continue drilling for oil. Higgins went to Gates for funds to continue; Gates obliged. The Texas Fuel Company, founded by Joseph S. Cullinan, had little experience in drilling wells and producing crude oil. As such, they founded the Producers Oil Company on January 17, 1902, as an affiliate of The Texas Fuel Company. Investors like Gates invested "certificates of interest" to the sum of around $90,000 and Gates would invest another $590,000 in the company prior to it becoming known as Texaco. His investment entitled Gates to 46 percent of the company's stock. When Spindletop came in the next year, Gates was already in control of Port Arthur's docks, its refinery and the railroad needed to get the oil to market.
Port Arthur
Gates became influential in the development of the city of Port Arthur, Texas, when he took over the Kansas City, Pittsburgh and Gulf Railroad in December 1899 after he forced it into bankruptcy along with its previous owner and Port Arthur founder Arthur Edward Stilwell. Gates built a winter home in the city and contributed much to its development. After Gates became the owner of the Port Arthur Canal and Dock Company, he held the asset for a time; in 1906 he gave the canal to the US government under the condition that Port Arthur would be named an international port of entry. Gates founded the first bank, built a rice mill and established the Port Arthur Light, Power and Ice Company. When he decided to make Port Arthur his permanent residence in 1908, the town held a celebration. After Mary Gates died while on a visit to her son and his family in December 1908, Gates built Mary Gates Hospital to honor her memory. He was also a large contributor to Port Arthur Business College, and built a model farm to give the city a source of fresh dairy products.
After Port Arthur's Hotel Sabine burned to the ground in 1904, Gates decided that the city needed a good hotel to replace it. In 1909, he proposed to build another, called the Plaza, on the site the Hotel Sabine had once occupied. Gates could have easily afforded to finance the entire cost of the new hotel, but he wanted Port Arthur's residents to have an equal share in the venture. Gates held local meetings and was happy to discuss the project or take pledges for the building fund at any time. After the pledges of local businessmen had reached US$150,000, Gates donated the remaining US$150,000, and the project began to be built by United States Realty Company.
Gates took great pleasure in watching the Plaza Hotel take shape. He was a daily visitor to the construction site as the Spanish mission style building was erected. When the hotel was opened, Gates held a special "billion dollar banquet" on November 15, 1909; his guests were men who owned railroads, Texas Company board members, and other successful men in business. Port Arthur had never seen so many wealthy and powerful men and residents were impressed by the sight of them. Gates served as the hotel's manager in the first few weeks it was in operation. He hired African-Americans as waiters; this was considered to be very bold, as African-Americans were barred from living and working in the city at the time.
The steel industry and dashed hopes
Gates continued to have hopes of being able to take on J. P. Morgan again-this time with a rival steel trust. After the sale of his Louisville and Nashville Railroad stocks to Morgan in 1902, Gates quietly began buying shares of Colorado Fuel and Iron Company. He and his associates easily owned more than 50 percent of the company's stock shares, but the company's owner and founder, John C. Osgood, claimed the shares were not valid. Osgood said that while the company was listed on the New York Stock Exchange, any transfer of the shares without his signature and approval, made them invalid. He went on to say that because of their invalidity, those who held shares of the company's stock without them, were not eligible to attend the annual stockholders' meeting. Osgood was upheld in this opinion by the company's board of directors.
Determined to attend the meeting, Gates hired a special train to get to the meeting in Denver. John Osgood was prepared for Gates' arrival. He had obtained a Circuit Court injunction barring Gates and his associates from attending the meeting; the doors of Colorado Fuel and Iron were guarded by sheriff's deputies armed with shotguns. Gates was angry about being refused entry to the meeting, but he became enraged when he learned he was described in the local Circuit Court as a "high roller and a gambler". Gates returned to New York to try utilizing the Federal Court system there. As the legal wrangles continued, the stock of the company began dropping in value; during this time Gates lost US$3 million, but still was unsure of his legal status with Colorado Fuel and Iron. Osgood announced he was willing to meet Gates halfway, but Gates declined the offer. He accused Osgood of tampering with the courts and claimed that he would receive the legal ownership of the company he was due. Apparently feeling that a long battle was not worth it, Gates gave up the fight some weeks later and sold the shares, which eventually wound up with the Rockefeller family.
Once more, Gates planned to get back into the steel industry. In 1903, he began buying shares of Republic Steel. Its two main competitors were in the US South-Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company, and the Sloss-Sheffield Iron and Steel Company in Alabama. All three were able to use inexpensive Southern iron ore to produce quality steel with the open hearth process, making the price of the steel produced with it cheaper. The minerals needed for the open hearth process were readily found in Alabama. Gates envisioned bringing Republic, Tennessee Coal and Iron and Sloss-Sheffield together into a steel trust to challenge J. P. Morgan's U. S. Steel. When August Belmont Jr. resigned his seat on Republic's board to concentrate on consolidating the New York transit system, Gates was elected to fill Belmont's seat.
Gates found two like-minded members of the board when he began talking about consolidating the three steel companies. One was L. C. Hanna, the brother of Mark Hanna; the other was Grant Schley, who had a Wall Street brokerage. Gates now began purchasing shares of Tennessee Coal and Iron in preparation of the consolidation. In January 1905 he was ready to outline his plan to potential members of the trust, with the exception of Republic's president, A. W. Thompson. When Thompson was advised of the scheme, he declared there would be no such trust with Republic as a member; when put to a formal vote, Republic's board members voted down the idea of joining a trust. During this time, Gates was able to purchase enough shares of Tennessee Coal and Iron to give him a controlling interest in the company.
Gates was riding high with both Republic and Tennessee Coal and Iron doing well with more orders that both could fill. His assessment of the open-hearth process for steel production was confirmed by a report from the US Bureau of Corporations. The report stated that an agent for U. S. Steel and a large railroad affiliated with J. P. Morgan pronounced the rails produced by the open-hearth process to be twice as good at those made by the Bessemer process, which was used by U. S. Steel. The report went on to praise Gates and his competitiveness.
The Panic of 1907
In 1907, Gates took his usual summer holiday in Europe. Upon arriving in Paris, he was met with an urgent cablegram from Grant Schley. Schley, the owner of a brokerage and a board member of Republic Steel and Tennessee Coal and Iron, advised Gates of serious business trouble and asked him to return to the US at once. As the Panic of 1907 began, Schley's brokerage had become short of money and it was necessary for him to obtain large loans to try to keep the brokerage solvent. Schley offered some US$6 million shares of Tennessee Coal and Iron Company as part of the collateral for the loans. Oakleigh Thorne was the president of the Trust Company of America bank and also a member of the Gates coalition. Thorne believed his bank was in sound financial condition until a New York Times article stated otherwise. Thorne told reporters that if he paid off every depositor, he would still have US$4 million in assets. When the clearing house run by J. P. Morgan audited the bank's books, they found the bank was sound, but were quite interested in the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company stock they found and indicated that the stock was not acceptable to them as security.
Morgan proposed to buy Tennessee Coal and Iron to "rescue" all involved with the company. He outlined a plan whereby U. S. Steel would change its second mortgage bonds for Tennessee Coal and Iron stock. Because the U. S. Steel bonds were acceptable to the clearing house, they would be able to be used for the debts. It was suggested that President Theodore Roosevelt be consulted before such action was taken. Roosevelt was given only an outline of the issue; he was never told which institution would fail without U. S. Steel's takeover of Tennessee Coal and Iron. Roosevelt wrote a note to his Attorney General stating he had not learned the name of the troubled business, but felt that he should not object to this occurrence.
The New York Times, however, printed its amazement that Tennessee Coal and Iron stocks were not acceptable to the clearing house and that the Trust Company of America was deemed insolvent when it had more than enough assets to cover all deposits. The newspaper concluded that U. S. Steel wanted to take over a serious business competitor and the company was only worried about the Sherman Antitrust Act. All of this had taken place before Gates was able to return to New York; when he was briefed on the situation, he was told that all other members of the coalition had agreed to Morgan's terms. While Gates realized he had no choice but to submit his shares of stock, he insisted that all stockholders were to be treated equally with regard to the rate of exchange of their shares. Though this was promised, those holding smaller amounts of stock were said to have received less compensation for them.
Aftermath
Gates involved himself in bettering Port Arthur after losing Tennessee Coal and Iron. He was suffering from a kidney ailment and diabetes and needed to take time away from the town's business when either flared up. He still had control of the Texas Company and was able to successfully battle Rockefeller's Standard Oil, who would have liked to take over his company's land. In 1909, he was taking his usual summer holiday in Europe when members of the Republican party from the Eastern District of Texas nominated him for Congress. He wired the convention to refuse the nomination, saying that he preferred to participate through his financial contributions. Gates had purchased an animal show and a stable of performing horses with the idea of creating a circus for himself and Port Arthur, when in early 1911, he found a growth in his throat. The growth was malignant and there were times Gates was hardly able to speak.
The US Congress was beset with requests to deal with the U. S. Steel Trust as they had done with the Tobacco Trust and Standard Oil. The House of Representatives formed a committee to examine the dealings of Morgan's company. Congressman Augustus Owsley Stanley of Kentucky, was named chairman of the committee; in his long list of persons to subpoena for their testimony the first was John Gates. Gates appeared to give his testimony on May 28, 1911; he was seriously ill and this was evident by how thin and pale he had become. He planned a trip to Paris to consult with doctors there after his testimony. Gates spoke of all of his dealings with J. P. Morgan, from the American Steel and Wire Company to the Louisville and Nashville Railroad and to the time when control of Tennessee Coal and Iron Company was wrested from him forcibly. He left for Paris while the committee was still in session. The result of the hearings was an investigation of U. S. Steel and its practices which would last for almost ten years. J. P. Morgan, who held the belief that he had "saved" the country from the Panic of 1907, was disgusted at the "ingratitude" of both the government and the nation's citizens.
Bet A Million
Gates maintained a suite at the Waldorf-Astoria of New York City from 1894 onwards. Though he paid US$30,000 yearly for it, his visits pained the hotel's manager, George Boldt, at times. Gates and his guests were often loud and boisterous. He had a private entrance and elevator, but Gates had a habit of banging on the elevator doors and shouting for service. Boldt instructed his elevator operators to take their time when serving his floor, as it allowed Gates to make as much noise as he wished for a few minutes. Gates' suite was often home to high-stakes poker parties and Baccarat games. Many poker games began on the train from Chicago to New York and were continued at the Waldorf. One poker game lasted for five days and nights; when it was done at least US$2 million had changed hands. Dellora Gates had long since resigned herself to her husband's all-night poker games, but many times became upset about them. Gates made it a practice to keep some unset diamonds in his vest pocket for the times when Dellora became angry about the late hours at cards. He would then present a gem to his wife, who would suddenly forget her anger with him. Dellora would take the diamond to Tiffany & Co. to be set in a piece of jewelry of her choice.
In 1900, Gates won $600,000 on a $70,000 bet on a horse race in England, exaggerated at over $1 million, which conferred on him the nickname "Bet-A-Million". The Waldorf's Oscar Tschirky recalled that Gates did not like the nickname, but did little to repudiate the claims as he would bet on practically everything. Oscar recalled a rainy afternoon in the Waldorf's Oak Room as Gates and two associates watched raindrops trickle down the windows. Gates remarked that the drops did not move down the window at the same speed. One of Gates' associates spotted two raindrops that were moving at the same rate and pointed them out to him. Gates selected a raindrop and bet his associate that it would reach the bottom of the window first. His associate took him up on the bet and before Gates' raindrop had won the race, the bets had changed from hundreds of dollars to thousands. Gates believed that all life was a gamble; a farmer gambled that he would have a successful harvest when planting crops, a merchant gambled that customers would buy items when ordering stock and a traveler gambled on arriving safely when setting out on a journey.
Gates continued his heavy betting on horse races when in the United States. In 1902, he attended the American Derby at Chicago's Washington Park Race Track, favoring Wyeth, the horse of an associate. When Wyeth won, Gates had profited close to US$100,000. At yet another race, Gates won US$650,000 from his large bets. The Jockey Club president, August Belmont, Jr., asked Gates to limit his bets to US$10,000, as such large wagers gave the impression that the races were not honest ones. Outside of his own hotel suite, Gates' favorite spot in New York City was the gambling establishment opened by Richard Canfield in 1898. The club was at 5 East 44th Street. Delmonico's was next door and provided catering to the club's guests. When there or at Canfield's Saratoga clubhouse, Gates' favored game was faro which he had learned while selling barbed wire in Texas.
Gates set up a brokerage office in the hotel's main lobby for his son, Charlie, and an experienced stockbroker. He speculated on Wall Street from there. In early 1907, when Gates realized that the market would be headed for a sharp downturn, he closed the offices of Charles G. Gates and Company, announcing he was done with Wall Street for good. Gates also changed his New York residence in May of the same year. He had purchased a substantial number of shares in the United States Realty Company, which had built New York's Plaza Hotel and was able to design his own 16 room apartment at the Plaza.
Death and legacy
Gates died in Paris, France, on August 9, 1911, following an unsuccessful operation to remove a throat tumor. His funeral was held on August 23, 1911, in the ballroom of the Plaza Hotel in New York; Gates had provided the funding for the construction of the hotel. Gates' mourners had come from all parts of the country; three floors of the Plaza Hotel were reserved for those attending his services. A large delegation arrived from Texas, where Gates had done much for the city of Port Arthur.
The city of Port Arthur held its own memorial service on the same day Gates was buried. Flags were lowered to half staff and from noon until 6 pm all businesses in Port Arthur were closed; the city's docks and refineries also stopped their operations during this time to honor Port Arthur's benefactor. While Gates left the bulk of his estate to his wife and son, he inserted a clause in his will that prohibited his family from selling any of his securities until ten years after his death. Gates is said to have included the clause in his will to protect friends who had invested with him from these securities being sold soon after his death. Gates' estate was valued at between US$40 and US$50 million. He was buried in the family mausoleum at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City. The mausoleum is featured in one of the opening scenes in the film Once Upon a Time in America.
The Gates Memorial Library in Port Arthur was funded by his widow and donated to the city in 1918. Originally the city's public library, Gates Memorial now serves as the campus library for Lamar State College–Port Arthur. It was entered into the National Register of Historic Places in 1981. In 1971, Gates was honored with a state historical marker at the site of his Military Plaza barbed wire demonstration in San Antonio.
In 1972, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
1940 biography of John W. Gates, accessed April 1, 2006
1855 births
1911 deaths
19th-century American businesspeople
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
Businesspeople from Chicago
North Central College alumni
Gates, John Wayne
People from West Chicago, Illinois
People from Winfield, Illinois
Texaco people
Texas Republicans |
4561898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back%20to%20Basics%20%28Christina%20Aguilera%20album%29 | Back to Basics (Christina Aguilera album) | Back to Basics is the fifth studio album by American singer Christina Aguilera. It was released on August 9, 2006, in the United States by RCA Records as a double album. Serving as executive producer, she enlisted a wide range of producers, including DJ Premier, Rich Harrison, Rob Lewis, Mark Ronson, and Linda Perry. Recording sessions took place between February 2005 and April 2006 at several studios in the United States and the United Kingdom.
Inspired by Aguilera's 1920s–1950s idols, including Billie Holiday, Otis Redding, Etta James, and Ella Fitzgerald, Back to Basics was described by Aguilera herself as a fusion of old-school jazz and soul inspirations with a modernized style. Primarily a pop and R&B record, its first disc juxtaposes rhythm and blues with hip hop and urban elements with most songs employing samples, while the second contains all original tracks with the exception of "Candyman", which samples "Tarzan & Jane Swingin' on a Vine". Lyrically, the album is inspired by Aguilera's previous life events including her marriage with Jordan Bratman in 2005.
To portray a new persona, Aguilera adopted her new alter ego Baby Jane and made several changes to her public appearance, inspired by classic Hollywood actresses. She promoted the album by performing at events like the 2006 MTV Movie Awards, the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards and the 49th Annual Grammy Awards. It was further promoted with Back to Basics Tour, which visited countries in North America, Asia, Europe, Australia and Middle East from late 2006 until late 2008. Back to Basics spawned three international singles: "Ain't No Other Man", "Hurt" and "Candyman"; "Slow Down Baby" was only released as a single in Australia, while "Oh Mother" was only released as a single in several European countries.
Back to Basics received favorable reviews from music critics, who complimented its musical diversity from Aguilera's previous albums while there were others who criticized its length. The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album, and its lead single "Ain't No Other Man" won Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards (2007). It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 346,000 copies. Back to Basics achieved similar success internationally, reaching the top of the charts in over fifteen countries including Australia, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Switzerland and United Kingdom. The album has sold 1.7 million copies in the United States, and over 5 million worldwide, as of November 2013.
Background and development
At the 46th Annual Grammy Awards on February 8, 2004, Aguilera announced that she was going to work on a follow-up album to Stripped (2002). She stated her main idea for the project was to "evolve as an artist and a visionary", which was taken from a poem she wrote during The Stripped Tour (2003). In an interview with Billboard magazine, Aguilera expressed dissatisfaction with contemporary music, as technology "has advanced itself so anybody can be a singer". Thus, Aguilera took musical inspirations from old-school jazz, blues and soul records performed by her 1920s–1950s idols, including Billie Holiday, Otis Redding, Etta James and Ella Fitzgerald, which she viewed as "music that really had heart". The singer stated that her love for retro music was born when she was a child—her mother and grandmother took her to the old vinyl stores in Pittsburgh. According to Aguilera, Back to Basics was meant to pay "homage and utmost respect" to some of her favorite musicians.
Recording and production
To create a "throwback" with elements of old-school genres combined with "a modern-day twist", Aguilera sent letters to different producers that she hoped could help her with the direction she was taking for the project, encouraging them to experiment, reinvent and create a modern soul feel. She initially planned to condense the album into a single, more "affordable" disc, however, she expanded Back to Basics as a double album. For the first disc, Aguilera collaborated with hip hop producers including DJ Premier, Rich Harrison, Kwamé, and Mark Ronson for the first time. Most songs from the first half incorporate horn samples to create "gritty and old" sounds. DJ Premier questioned if Aguilera was familiar with his work, though she had known of his jazz-influenced work with Gang Starr in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In response, Aguilera wanted her album to draw inspirations from Premier's song "Jazz Thing" and noted that their collaboration became his first time "venturing into the 'pop' world". For the "1920s and 1930s-era vibe"-influenced second disc, Aguilera teamed up with longtime producer Linda Perry, who produced on Aguilera's previous album Stripped. In contrast to the first disc, the second one consists of all live recordings without using samples (with the exception of "Candyman" featuring a sample of "Tarzan & Jane Swingin' on a Vine").
Recording sessions of the project took place between February 2005 and April 2006 at various studios in the United States and the United Kingdom, including the Chalice Recording Studios and The Record Plant in Los Angeles, California. All songs from Back to Basics were recorded using Pro Tools HD3 program and done with a SSL J9000 console with ninety-six inputs. Aguilera's vocals were recorded using a Telefunken ELAM 251 microphone, possibly in conjunction with an Avalon M-5 pre-amp. Producer Scott Storch, who contributed to Aguilera's previous studio album Stripped, was asked to return for the production of Back to Basics. However, he refused the offer when Aguilera declined to pay airfare for him and his entourage to fly out to Los Angeles, which led to a breakdown of their relationship. Subsequently, Aguilera included the song "F.U.S.S." (an abbreviation to "Fuck You Scott Storch") on the album, which Storch viewed as "pathetic".
Aguilera also recorded a song about oral sex titled "Fuck You, Suck You" during a studio session with Linda Perry. It was supposedly meant for the Back to Basics album.
Music and lyrics
According to Aguilera and the production team, Back to Basics draws influences from 1920s–1940s jazz and soul music. However, music critics identified the record as a pop, and R&B album with similarities to 1960s, 1970s and 1980s albums. Dorian Lyskey writing for The Guardian thought that the album's concept "is so wide as to be meaningless", while Serene Dominic from Phoenix New Times compared Back to Basics musical style to rock band The Beatles' self-titled album (1968).
The first half disc incorporates strong elements from hip hop, urban, blending traditional and contemporary R&B. It features horn samples and gospel choirs, making it sound like "a dusty old vinyl album", according to Jenny Eliscu from Rolling Stone. Most songs from the disc employ samples, with the exception of "Without You", "Still Dirrty" and "F.U.S.S." "Makes Me Wanna Pray" featuring Steve Winwood features a gospel choir in its arrangement, while the pop/R&B and funk number "Ain't No Other Man" features "aerobic oomph" that is similar to Beyoncé's "Crazy in Love". "Understand" is an R&B ballad, featuring soul influences that are similar to ballads done by Gladys Knight, while "Slow Down Baby" blends traditional and contemporary R&B with hip hop and soul elements. The three follow-ups "Oh Mother", "On Our Way", and "Without You" are piano ballads. "Still Dirrty" was described as a "filthy... strut" with hip hop elements.
The second disc of Back to Basics opens with "Enter the Circus", described as a "carnival-creepy orchestration that sounds like Danny Elfman soundtracking Cabaret" by Tampa Bay Times, and followed by the soft rock-inspired "Welcome". "Candyman" draws inspirations from jazz, blues and swing, and was musically inspired by The Andrews Sisters' song "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy" (1941). Similarly, "Nasty Naughty Boy" also contains elements of jazz and blues and features "blaring horn section" in its arrangement. On "I Got Trouble", Aguilera sings over a blues-inspired theme that is reminiscent of songs by Bessie Smith. "Mercy on Me" features gospel elements, while the acoustic track "Save Me from Myself" is inspired by country rock, different from other tracks on Back to Basics.
Most songs from Back to Basics were inspired by real-life events that Aguilera had experienced. The track "Oh Mother" talks about Aguilera's childhood with her abusive father; its lyrical theme was compared to Madonna's "Oh Father" (1989). Her marriage with Jordan Bratman was the main theme of the album, with tracks inspired by the event including "Makes Me Wanna Pray", "Ain't No Other Man", "On Our Way", "Without You", "Mercy on Me", "Save Me from Myself" and "The Right Man". On "The Right Man", Aguilera expresses that she has found "the right man" for her imagined daughter as she hopes that the child would not have to experience an abusive childhood like her, singing: "One day, My little girl will reach out her hand and she'll know I found the right man".
Aguilera expresses excitement toward old-school music on "Back in the Day", where she names classic artists including Etta James, Marvin Gaye, Coltrane and Aretha Franklin. "F.U.S.S." (which stands for "Fuck You Scott Storch"), is directed toward producer Scott Storch, who didn't accept Aguilera's offer to produce Back to Basics, containing lyrics such as: "Looks like I didn't need you / Still got the album out". In the lyrics of "Slow Down Baby", Aguilera tells a "lusty" man to leave her alone as she sings: "If you knew anything you'd realize I'm wearing a ring". "Still Dirrty" was described as a sequel to Aguilera's song "Dirrty" (2002), in which Aguilera sings about her "sexual independence": "Why is a woman's sexuality always under so much scrutiny / Why can't she do exactly as she please" and claims that she's "still got the nasty" in her. "Here to Stay" tells how Aguilera is "not just a flash in the pan pop starlet", while "Thank You (Dedication to Fans...)" features voice mails from Aguilera's fans, such as "You're so amazing" or "You inspired me to carry on living..."
Artwork and release
For Back to Basics, Aguilera decided to portray her different image and persona from her previous stage name Xtina by adopting a new alter ego called Baby Jane, named after a character of the film What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962). She also changed her public appearance as she removed her piercings, and dyed her hair platinum blonde, inspired by classic Hollywood movie stars such as Marilyn Monroe, Marlene Dietrich, Carole Lombard and Greta Garbo.
The album's cover artwork was taken by German photographer Ellen von Unwerth during three days; on the first and second days, the photos were shot at the Hollywood Dell hotel. Aguilera and von Unwerth moved to Forty Deuce in Hollywood to take images inspired by 1920s burlesque clubs on the last day of the session. The album's cover artwork was revealed in late June 2006, featuring Aguilera with bright red lipstick and curly blonde hair dressed in white and lounging on a bed. Greg Kot from The Baltimore Sun labelled the cover artwork as "a classy retro look, a sign that [Aguilera] is ready for her close-up as the leading lady of the teen brat pack that emerged in the late '90s". It also received criticism for being too similar to the artwork of Madonna's sixth studio album, Bedtime Stories (1994).
In mid-2006, Virgin Media reported that Back to Basics would be released on August 14, 2006. TMZ later reported that Back to Basics was planned to be released on August 15, 2006, in the United States. The album was leaked in full on August 3.
Promotion
Live performances and tour
Aguilera began her promotion of Back to Basics with a live performance of "Ain't No Other Man" at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards on June 8, 2006. On July 20, Aguilera held a forty-minute concert at Camden Palace Theatre in London, where she performed five songs from her then-upcoming album and two previous singles. On August 16, Aguilera held a release party for the album in New York City, New York. Aguilera performed "Hurt" at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards on August 31. On September 8, she performed "Candyman" and "Bennie and the Jets" at the Fashion Rocks charity event; the latter was a duet with Elton John. Aguilera also sang "Ain't No Other Man", "Hurt" and "Steppin' Out with My Baby" with Tony Bennett on Saturday Night Live on November 11, 2006. "Hurt" was also sung on the NBC Christmas Thanksgiving Special in November, and the German television series Wetten, dass..? in December 2006. On December 31, 2006, Aguilera appeared on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve and performed "Candyman" and "Fighter".
On February 10, 2007, Aguilera sang "Makes Me Wanna Pray" and "Candyman" at the Clive Davis' Pre-Grammy Awards Party. She also performed "Candyman" on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Between late 2006 and late 2008, Aguilera visited North America, Asia, Europe, Oceania and the Middle East during her Back to Basics Tour. It was promoted by the telecommunications companies Orange and Sony Ericsson. The eighty-one-show tour received positive reviews from critics, who complimented it as the strongest of her career. Grossing over $90 million worldwide, it became the ninth highest-grossing tour ever for a female artist and the most profitable world tour by a female artist in 2007. In February 2008, the live video album Back to Basics: Live and Down Under was released.
Singles
The first track from the album to be made available to the public was "Ain't No Other Man", which was released as the lead single to contemporary hit radio in the United States on June 6, 2006. Aguilera was featured in Pepsi's commercial advertisement, which used "Here to Stay", a track from Back to Basics as its main theme. Shot in multiple territories around the world, including Saudi Arabia, Prague, Rio de Janeiro, Tokyo, and India, the sixty-second advertisement premiered worldwide on July 14, 2006. Alongside the commercial, "Here to Stay" was made available for digital download on mobile phones as a promotional record to then-upcoming Back to Basics. "Hurt" and "Candyman" were serviced as the album's second and third international singles on September 17, 2006, and February 20, 2007, respectively. "Slow Down Baby" was released exclusively in Australia on July 28, 2007, while "Oh Mother" was released in several European countries in late 2007. In January 2008, Aguilera released a music video for the track "Save Me from Myself", following giving birth to her son Max Bratman.
Critical reception
On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Back to Basics received an average score of 69, which indicates "generally favorable reviews", based on 17 reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic appreciated the album's production, commenting that the project was "all the more impressive" coming after the "near career suicide of Stripped". Entertainment Weeklys Jody Rosen opined that Aguilera "can make her own glorious kind of 21st-century noise" and compared Aguilera's vocal ability on the album to that of Mariah Carey. Mike Joseph of PopMatters felt that Aguilera "still shouts at times when a coo will do", but felt that her choice in collaborators made for an "ultimately rewarding listen". Sputnikmusic's Amanda Murray noted Back to Basics as another "transitional" and "innovative" record for Aguilera. Lucy Davies from BBC Music said that Aguilera has a "stunning voice", but stated that she could be more varied by cutting out some of the "y-e-e-eeeh, woah yeh's" on the second album.
Thomas Innskeep from Stylus Magazine preferred the first disc of the album over the "ridiculously overblown ballads" on the second disc, adding that Back to Basics was "one of 2006's best when Linda Perry's fingerprints aren't present". Similarly, Yahoo! Music's Dan Gennoe described the first disc as a "low-down and dirty masterpiece", but said the second disc found Aguilera "crashing straight back down again". Paul Flynn from The Observer provided a mixed review, saying that the beginning of the album was "all craft and very little heart"; however, he found the collaborations between her and Perry to be "deeply cinematic". Rolling Stones Jenny Eliscu opined that the release was "overindulgent and self-important", but would have been "masterful" had it been condensed into a single disc. Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times gave a mixed review, stating that it "contains a roughly even number of great songs and lousy ones", and sait that "her homages to World War II-era pop music resemble skits more than songs". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine criticized Aguilera for using a sexual image to overshadow her vocals, but commented that Back to Basics was more "cohesive" than Stripped. Robert Christgau provided a negative review, classifying the album as a "dud" ().
The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery.
Retrospective reception
Various publications published articles about Back to Basics to celebrate its tenth anniversary of release, including Idolator and Fuse. In an article published on August 9, 2016, Katherine Barner of Idolator wrote that the album "put [Aguilera's] talent and musical diversity at the forefront" and that it "set Aguilera apart from her pop peers" such as Britney Spears, Pink, Janet Jackson, Christina Milian and Paris Hilton. On August 15, 2016, Jeff Benjamin of Fuse called Back to Basics Aguilera's "riskiest album", and stated: "While Aguilera shows the world who she truly was on Stripped, BTB appeared to be the first time Xtina got to truly create her own universe."
Accolades
Back to Basics received a nomination for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards (2007) and won Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for "Ain't No Other Man". At the 50th Annual Grammy Awards the following year, "Candyman" was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. Back to Basics was named the best pop album of 2006 by iTunes. On June 17, 2008, Entertainment Weekly listed the album at number eighty of the hundred best albums of the last twenty-five years.
Commercial performance
Upon its release, Back to Basics reached number one in over fifteen countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. With 346,000 copies sold in its first week, the album debuted atop the US Billboard 200, being Aguilera's second number-one album after her self-titled debut album (1999) and her highest debut-week sales. It remained on the chart for forty-four weeks, falling off after a final position of number 164. The album was ranked at numbers fifty-nine and seventy-three on the Billboard 200 year-end charts in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Additionally, Back to Basics debuted at number two on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, spending forty-six weeks on the chart. The album went on to be certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of two million units in the United States. As of 2014, it has sold 1,712,000 copies in the country. With first-week sales of 24,000, Back to Basics also debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart. It was certified triple platinum in the country, selling over 300,000 copies.
Back to Basics achieved similar success in Europe, peaking at number one on the European Top 100 Albums. In the United Kingdom, it became Aguilera's first album to debut atop the UK Albums Chart. It charted for thirty-three weeks within the top seventy-five, and was eventually certified platinum in the country by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). The album placed at numbers fifty-six and one-hundred-and-twenty-seven on the year-end UK Albums Chart in 2006 and 2007, respectively. In Finland, Back to Basics charted for eighteen weeks on the Suomen virallinen lista, peaking at number six. It debuted at number ten on the French Albums Chart, where it spent fifty-two weeks. The album proved be less successful in Portugal, where it peaked at number twenty-six and charted for two weeks.
The album achieved success in major markets in Oceania. It debuted at number one on the Australian Albums Chart and charted for forty weeks, while debuting at number two on the New Zealand Albums Chart and charting for twenty-seven weeks. The album reached numbers forty-five and thirty-four on Australian year-end charts in 2006 and 2007, respectively; while charting at number forty-three in New Zealand in 2007. Back to Basics went on the reach double platinum certification in the former and platinum in the latter. Back to Basics debuted at number seven on the Oricon Albums Chart in Japan with first-week sales of 32,241 units. It was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for shipments of 100,000 copies. According to RCA Records frontman Clive Davis, the album has sold approximately five million copies worldwide as of November 2013.
Track listing
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Back to Basics.Notes signifies an additional producer
signifies a co-producer
signifies a vocal producerSampling credits'''
"Intro (Back to Basics)" contains a sample of "The Thrill Is Gone (Live)", as performed by B.B. King, The Crusaders and The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.
"Makes Me Wanna Pray" contains a sample from "Glad", as performed by Traffic.
"Back in the Day" contains samples from "Charley", as performed by Don Costa Orchestra, and "Troglodyte", as performed by The Jimmy Castor Bunch.
"Ain't No Other Man" contains samples from "Happy Skippy Moon Strut", as performed by Moon People, and "The Cissy's Thang", as performed by The Soul Seven.
"Understand" contains a sample from "Nearer to You", as performed by Betty Harris.
"Slow Down Baby" contains samples from "Window Raisin' Granny", as performed by Gladys Knight & the Pips and "So Seductive", as performed by Tony Yayo.
"Oh Mother" contains a sample from "Vois Sur Ton Chemin", written by Bruno Coulais and Christopher Barratler.
"On Our Way" contains a sample from "Sentimentale", as performed by Claude Bolling.
"Here to Stay" contains a sample from "The Best Thing You Ever Had", as performed by Candi Staton.
"Thank You (Dedication to Fans...)" contains samples from "Can't Hold Us Down" and "Genie in a Bottle", as performed by Aguilera, and "Think Big", as performed by Pudgie the Fat Bastard featuring The Notorious B.I.G. The track also features fan club recordings by Shane Burrows, Jessica Cavanaugh, She-Tara Franklin, Michael Holmin, Warren Keller, Antoinette Litte, Gustavo Medina, Sarah Anne Moore, Joshua Pospisil, Cory Steale, Durant Searcy, Samantha Silver, Tammy Simpson and Shanna Nicole Wiles.
"Candyman" contains a sample from "Tarzan & Jane Swingin' on a Vine" from Run to Cadence with U.S. Marines''.
Personnel
Credits adapted from AllMusic.
Christina Aguilera – vocals, background vocals, songwriting, executive producer
Jim McMillen – trombone
Chris Tedesco – trumpet, horn contractor
Ray Herrmann – saxophone
Glen Berger – saxophone
Tracie Burton – vocal scratches
Kara DioGuardi – vocal scratches
DJ Premier – vocal scratches , management of production of sound, engineer
Paul Ill – bass
Rob Lewis – guitar, bass, vocal producer
Linda Perry – piano, guitar, bass, mellotron, songwriting, engineer, art direction and design, management of production of sound
Tony Reyes – bass, keyboards
Mark Ronson – guitar, bass, keyboards
Francis Senger – double bass
Jason Torreano – double bass
Bill Bottrell – guitar
Eric Schermerhorn – guitar
Jordan Laws – mixing assistant
Brian Gardner – mastering
Oscar Ramirez – engineer
Charles Martin Roane – engineer
Kristofer Kaufman – assistant engineer
Alan Mason – assistant engineer
Chris Wonzer – assistant engineer
Kwamé – management of production of sound
Rich Harrison – management of production of sound
Mark Ronson – management of production of sound, engineer
Big Tank – management of production of sound
Q – management of production of sound
Ellen von Unwerth – photography
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
Release history
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Back to Basics at Metacritic
Back to Basics at Discogs (list of releases)
2006 albums
Christina Aguilera albums
Albums produced by DJ Premier
Albums produced by Linda Perry
Albums produced by Mark Ronson
Albums produced by Rich Harrison
Albums recorded at Record Plant (Los Angeles)
RCA Records albums |
4562088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20National%20Guard | Minnesota National Guard | The Minnesota National Guard is a state-based military force of more than 13,000 soldiers and airmen, serving in 61 communities across the state. Operated in the U.S. state of Minnesota, it is reserve component of the National Guard.
The Constitution of the United States specifically charges the National Guard with dual federal and state missions. The National Guard is the only United States military force empowered to function in a state status. Those functions range from limited actions during non-emergency situations to full scale law enforcement of martial law when local law enforcement officials can no longer maintain civil control. The National Guard may be called into federal service in response to a call by the President or Congress.
When National Guard troops are called to federal service, the President serves as Commander-in-Chief. The federal mission assigned to the National Guard is: "To provide properly trained and equipped units for prompt mobilization for war, National emergency or as otherwise needed."
The Governor may call individuals or units of the Minnesota National Guard into state service during emergencies or to assist in special situations which lend themselves to use of the National Guard. The state mission assigned to the National Guard is: "To provide trained and disciplined forces for domestic emergencies or as otherwise provided by state law."
Major units
Minnesota National Guard Joint Force Headquarters
The Minnesota National Guard has units in sixty-two communities statewide. The Minnesota National Guard Joint Force Headquarters is located in the St. Paul Capitol complex.
34th Infantry Division
The Rosemount-based 34th Infantry Division oversees the training and operations of eight National Guard brigades in six different states. Known as the Red Bulls, the 34th Infantry Division is capable of deploying its Main Command Post, Tactical Command Post and Special Troops Battalion in order to provide command and control for Army brigades.
The 34th Infantry Division fought in World War II and continued the legacy when the division assumed control of U.S. Division – South, Iraq, in May 2009.
The Red Bulls provided command and control of military forces in the southern third of Iraq. The area, known as US Division-South, is geographically about the size of Minnesota and is the largest sector in Iraq. Headquartered at Contingency Operating Base Basra, more than 1,200 Minnesota Citizen-Soldiers led a force of approximately 14,000 U.S. Service members throughout nine of Iraq’s 18 provinces.
1st Armored Brigade Combat Team
The Bloomington-based 1st Armored Brigade Combat Team of the 34th Infantry Division consists of eight major subordinate commands. More than 5,000 Soldiers make up the brigade's combined arms, cavalry, artillery, engineer and brigade support battalions.
Combat Aviation Brigade
The St. Paul-based 34th Combat Aviation Brigade is an Army National Guard unit that supports the 34th Infantry Division and the state of Minnesota by providing aviation capabilities - both UH-60 Black Hawk and CH-47 Chinook helicopters and the C-12 Huron fixed-wing aircraft - for federal and state missions.
The Minnesota-based subordinate units of the 34th CAB are the 2nd Battalion, 147th Assault Helicopter Battalion, the 834th Aviation Support Battalion, C Company, 1st General Support Aviation Battalion, 171st Aviation Regiment, B Company and C Company of the 2nd Battalion, 211th General Support Aviation Battalion, and F Company, 1-189 Aviation Regt., General Support Aviation Battalion.
Outside Minnesota, the 34th CAB provides training and operational guidance to the 1st Battalion, 112th Aviation Regiment of the N.D., the 1st Battalion, 189th Aviation of the Montana and Missouri National Guard and the 1st Battalion, 183rd Aviation Regiment of the Idaho National Guard.
133rd Airlift Wing
The 133rd Airlift Wing is a Minnesota National Guard flying wing headquartered at the Minneapolis - St. Paul International Airport. Utilizing the C-130H Hercules, the wing provides the U.S. Air Force with tactical airlift capability to transport troops, cargo and medical patients across the globe, in addition to providing the citizens of Minnesota with domestic operations and disaster response support. Established in 1921, the 133rd is known as the first federally recognized National Guard flying unit in the country.
148th Fighter Wing
The 148th Fighter Wing, headquartered in Duluth, operates the F-16C Block 50 Fighting Falcon. The full wing structure, which includes the headquarters, communications, logistics, civil engineer, maintenance and security sections, is composed of airmen prepared to rapidly respond to support federal and state missions and community needs.
There are five major units in the 148th FW: Headquarters Group; Maintenance Group; Operations Group; Medical Group; and Mission Support Group.
84th Troop Command
The 84th Troop Command, headquartered in Minneapolis, maintains control of field artillery, military police, engineer and civil support forces, providing a force capable of performing a wide variety of missions. A specialized command with a unique mission, the 84th Troop Command maintains traditional training standards to remain ready to support federal missions in addition to being challenged with the responsibility of conducting domestic operations throughout the state.
A large portion of the 84th Troop Command's domestic operations are the responsibility of the very specific Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear response capabilities within the 55th Civil Support Team and the CBRN Enhanced Response Force Package.
347th Regional Support Group
The 347th Regional Support Group (RSG) is an Army National Guard brigade headquartered in Roseville that is capable of providing trained and ready combat forces. Additionally, the 347th RSG is prepared to support the State of Minnesota with troops capable of assisting in a disaster.
The mission of the 347th Regional Support Group is to deploy and provide contingency and expeditionary base operations, with responsibilities for managing facilities, providing administrative and logistical support for troop services and ensuring the security of personnel and facilities on a base camp. The brigade provides command and control of assigned units during homeland security, homeland defense and other civil support missions within the U.S. to include managing the reception, staging, onward movement and integration of supporting forces.
175th Regiment (Regional Training Institute)
The Camp Ripley-based 175th Regiment Regional Training Institute provides combat arms, Military Occupational Specialty and leadership training to prepare soldiers and units for deployment at maximum combat readiness levels.
175th Regiment consists of headquarters and two battalions: the 1st Battalion (Officer Candidate School), and the 2nd Battalion (General Studies).
Each year hundreds of Soldiers from across the country travel to the Camp Ripley Training Center to attend one of 31 courses offered by the 175th RTI. The courses offered qualify soldiers as infantrymen, cavalry scouts, health care specialists, wheeled vehicle mechanics and tracked vehicle repairers.
Camp Ripley Training Center
Camp Ripley Training Center, located near Little Falls, Minn., is a regional training installation featuring ranges and facilities to support military and civilian agency training requirements.
See detailed list of Minnesota National Guard units.
History
1636–1849
The idea of a militia, or body of citizen Soldiers as distinct from career soldiers, was borrowed from England and dates in this country from 1636, when three militia regiments were organized for the common defense in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Militia companies were eventually organized throughout colonial America, and they provided its principal defense force.
In spite of shortcomings, the various colonial militias became indispensable to the cause of American independence. They were the back-up for General Washington's Continental Army, providing large numbers of armed men when needed on short notice, and they assured the authority of colonial governors against British sympathizers. Later, the United States Constitution and Militia Act of 1792 provided for continuation of a state-based militia system. The federal government could employ the militia for purposes of national security, but its organization was left with the individual states.
1850–1860
Minnesota formed a Territorial Enrolled Militia in 1850, but it only existed on paper until April 1856 when the first uniformed, volunteer company was formed in St. Paul. Called the Minnesota Pioneer Guards, it was a source of such civic pride that soon nine other companies were formed in St. Paul, St. Anthony (Minneapolis) and in river towns from Stillwater to Winona. Minnesota's National Guard traces its beginning to these early militia companies.
1861–1865
When Civil War broke out in April 1861, volunteers from Minnesota's militia formed a nucleus for the first three companies of the First Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment. Both sides in the war had to rely on volunteer regiments, battalions and separate companies recruited by the states. The "First Minnesota" is officially recognized as the senior such regiment in the Union Army because Alexander Ramsey was the first governor to offer state troops to President Lincoln.
The regiment went on to serve with distinction in the Army of the Potomac and became legend as a result of its gallant counter-charge at Gettysburg on July 2, 1863.
During that charge the First Minnesota was ordered to attack. Having run out of ammunition, the Minnesotans, numbering only 262 charged into the leading Confederate brigade, facing overwhelming odds and roughly 1,600 Confederate troops. The fighting was bloody and hand to hand. The Minnesotans gained the time necessary for the Union line to reform, thoroughly demoralising the Confederates. But the cost was great. Of the 262 members of the regiment present for duty that morning, only 47 answered the roll that evening. The regiment incurred the highest casualty rate of any unit in the Civil War, a record still held to this day for any U.S. unit.
On July 3, while rebounding from the horrendous casualties of the previous day, the 47 survivors were reinforced by detached Company F, and the reunited regiment was moved slightly northward on Cemetery Ridge. Destiny placed the remaining Minnesotans at one of the few places where Union lines were breached during Pickett's Charge and required them to charge advancing Confederate troops once again. It is here that Capt. Messick was killed, Capt. W. B. Farrell mortally wounded, and then command fell to Capt. Henry C. Coates.
During the desperate and chaotic fighting, Private Marshall Sherman of Company C captured the colors of the 28th Virginia Infantry and received the Medal of Honor for this exploit. The Confederate flag was taken back to Minnesota as a prize of war and is kept and seldom publicly displayed at the Minnesota Historical Society.
In the mid-1990s, several groups of Virginians threatened to sue the Society to return the 28th Virginia's battle flag to the Old Dominion. The Minnesota Attorney General advised that such threats were without a legal basis, and the flag remains in the possession of the Society.
After being knocked out by a bullet to the head and later shot in the hand, Corporal Henry O'Brien repeatedly picked up the fallen colors of the 1st Minnesota and carried a wounded comrade back to the Union lines. He was also awarded a Medal of Honor for his heroism.
Minnesota eventually organized and recruited volunteers for 11 infantry regiments, two cavalry regiments, a heavy artillery regiment, three light artillery batteries and two sharpshooter companies, totaling 22,000 men. Many of these Soldiers also served on Minnesota's frontier; in fact, hastily organized local militias and detached companies from several volunteer regiments were the only line of defense during Minnesota's Dakota (Sioux) War of 1862.
After the Civil War, the Minnesota Militia re-emerged to become officially known as the Minnesota National Guard. These organizations became a colorful part of community social life but when called upon never failed to deal with civil disturbances and other state emergencies requiring military aid. Annual summer encampments were held at Camp Lakeview on Lake Pepin near Lake City. Control was vested with the state and funding came largely from modest state appropriations and from the members themselves.
1866–1915: The Spanish–American War and Beginnings of Federal Control
Minnesota's National Guard was converted to four U.S. Volunteer Regiments when the war with Spain began in April 1898. Only the Thirteenth Minnesota Volunteer Regiment, however, was destined to see foreign service. The 13th fought Spanish troops and Filipino revolutionaries in the Philippines from 1898 to 1899. During the Battle of Manila, the Thirteenth Minnesota Volunteer Regiment, under the command of Major General Arthur MacArthur, were to take the right flank during the battle of Manila. When it came time to advance on Manila, it was a battalion from the 13th which led the way. Of all the fighting that day, the most intense combat took place on the right flank with the Minnesotans in the worst of it. The 13th saw the heaviest fighting during the battle.
The 13th also had the greatest number of casualties, more than all of McArthur’s regiments combined.
The U.S. gained status as a world power as a result of its war with Spain, but the war also called attention to serious military deficiencies. Among them was the nature of the National Guard, which had been functioning, more or less, as a group of autonomous "state armies." Landmark federal legislation in 1903, 1908 and 1916 resulted in federal controls that brought standardization and affirmed the National Guard as the Army's primary organized reserve.
1916–1918
In July 1916, because of border raids conducted by Pancho Villa and the courting of an unstable Mexican government by Germany, President Woodrow Wilson used his new legal authority to mobilize the nation's entire National Guard for patrol duty on the U.S.- Mexican border. The Minnesota Guard was sent to Camp Llano Grande near Mercedes, Texas. Although they never saw fighting, their border duty helped prepare them for a much bigger challenge: World War I.
Barely home from Texas, Minnesota Guardsmen were again mobilized when the United States entered the war against Germany in April 1917. Most went directly to Camp Cody near Deming, New Mexico, for training with a newly organized 34th "Sandstorm" Infantry Division. The 34th consisted of Guardsmen from Minnesota, the Dakotas, Iowa and Nebraska.
The 34th was eventually named as a depot division and broken up. Minnesotans were reassigned and sent to France as individual replacement troops while the division was reorganized and filled with new draftees from the southwest. Fortunately, Minnesota's field artillery regiment remained intact. Redesignated as the 151st Field Artillery, it became part of the 42nd "Rainbow" Division where it fought with great distinction in France.
1919–1940
In the years following World War I, the Minnesota National Guard was preoccupied with reorganization, recruitment and armory construction. Minnesota's 109th Observation Squadron became the first federally recognized air unit in the National Guard in January 1921. In June 1931, a new field training site was opened to troops at Camp Ripley north of Little Falls. It took its name from Fort Ripley, a long-abandoned 19th century army post which, coincidentally, had been located on land purchased for the new National Guard training camp.
The first Air National Guard unit in the nation was the 109th Airlift Squadron, Minnesota National Guard, passing muster inspection on January 17, 1921.
1941–1945
With war threatening in Europe and the Far East, the Minnesota National Guard was mobilized again in February 1941. Most troops went to Camp Hahn, near Riverside, California, for coastal anti-aircraft artillery training or to Camp Claiborne, Louisiana, for training with the 34th Infantry Division.
The 34th (soon to be re-nicknamed as the "Red Bull" Division) became the first American Division to ship for Europe in January 1942. It fought through North Africa (where men of Minnesota's 175th Field Artillery fired the first American shells against the Nazis), and Italy. Brainerd's tank company, after training with its newly organized 194th Tank Battalion at Fort Lewis, Washington, was shipped to the Philippines in September 1941 to shore up American defenses there.
When war broke out in December it fought the Japanese into the Bataan Peninsula and endured the Bataan Death March. The 109th Observation Squadron ended up in Europe where it initially flew Mark V "Spitfires" with the Royal Air Force and, later, reconnaissance missions with P-51 "Mustangs."
The Minnesota National Guard became part of a newly organized 47th "Viking" Infantry Division following World War II, and its Airmen became part of a new Air National Guard.
1946–1953
America again found itself at war in 1950-this time in Korea. In January 1951, as a result of the massive and sudden reinforcement of North Korean forces by Soldiers from Communist China, the Minnesota Guard was again called up. Many of its members were seasoned World War II vets and the 47th Division was selected to serve as a training division for two years during the Korean War. Most of its personnel were eventually reassigned as replacement troops in Korea or Germany. Minnesota's Air Guard was also activated, contributing pilots to Korea's "Mig Alley."
1954–1969
Threats by the Soviet Union to oust Western troops from West Berlin in 1961 prompted the Berlin Crisis and a call-up of selected National Guard forces throughout the nation. Included in this mobilization were members of the 133rd Air Transport Wing, Minnesota Air National Guard, who served in federal active service for 11 months while operating out of their home station at the Minneapolis-St. Paul Airport.
During the Vietnam War, although never officially mobilized, the Air Guard flew hundreds of supply and transport missions to Southeast Asia.
In the 1950s and early 1960 both units of the 179th Fighter Interceptor Squadron in Duluth and 109th Fighter Interceptor Squadron in St. Paul were providing active air defense commitments with 24-hour alert status.
1970–1989
The transition from a Vietnam-era draft to an all-volunteer force had a tremendous impact on the Minnesota National Guard.
1990–1999
Growing tensions in the Persian Gulf erupted in August 1990 when Iraq invaded its neighbor, Kuwait. Within months this oil-rich region experienced the largest deployment of American combat forces since World War II. "Operation Desert Shield," intended to protect Saudi Arabia, became "Operation Desert Storm," when a US-led international coalition used its military to liberate Kuwait and destroy Iraq's army and air force.
Unlike the war in Vietnam, Desert Shield/Desert Storm made heavy use of reservists. About a fourth of all U.S. military personnel called into active duty during the Gulf War were from the National Guard and Reserves. Over 600 Minnesota Guard members volunteered or were activated with their units, including the 109th Aeromedical Evacuation Flight, 109th Light Equipment Maintenance Company, the 1187th Medical Company, and the 257th Military Police Company. The war was over by April 1991, and soon Minnesota's troops headed home.
The 135th Public Affairs Detachment left in June 1996 for Germany to support Operation Joint Endeavor. Originally stationed in Heidelberg, Germany the Minnesota element of the 135th traveled to Eagle Base just outside Tuzla, Bosnia to cover the first free elections since the ending of the war. Later the team moved to "tent city" Steel Castle to support the 1st Armored Division Engineers by reporting stories of maintaining roads, de-mining inhabited areas and providing American military forces with living conditions to allow Soldiers to maintain health and spirit, all contributing to the success of the Balkan mission.
The worst flooding in the state’s history occurred in 1997, and Minnesota National Guard troops were there to assist the citizens of the state. The Guard helped lead and organize search and rescue, security, shelters, medical support, and logistics efforts.
2000–2011
The Minnesota National Guard has been involved in the Global War On Terror since the September 11 attacks in 2001. Immediately after the attack on New York City and Washington, D.C., Minnesota National Guard F-16 Fighter Jets from the 148th Fighter Wing were providing combat air patrols over key locations. Minnesota Army National Guard troops mobilized to ensure that Minnesota airports were safeguarded.
In January of 2003 Charlie Company 142d Engineers from Camp Ripley were called to deploy to Iraq with their Battalion Headquarters and sister companies from North Dakota. Charlie Company operated primarily at LSA Anaconda north of Baghdad, and returned home in March of 2004.
In addition to being called upon for the Global War on Terror, the Minnesota National Guard was called upon to provide stability and peace in the Balkans. Minnesota National Guard troops executed the Bosnia Security Force (SFOR-14) mission 2003-04 and the Kosovo Force (KFOR-5) mission in 2004.
2006 marked the 150th anniversary of the Minnesota National Guard. On April 17, 2006 the House of Representatives of the State of Minnesota congratulated the Minnesota National Guard and honored all the men and women, past and present, who have ever served in the Minnesota National Guard.
Minnesota National Guard forces are heavily involved in the “Long War” to this day. Current operations have troops deployed for Operation Noble Eagle (Homeland Security) and Operation Enduring Freedom (Afghanistan).
Minnesota National Guard in Iraq (2003–2011)
The Minnesota National Guard has played a significant role in the war in Iraq. Since 2003, more than 8,000 Minnesota National Guard Citizen-Soldiers and -Airmen have been deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation New Dawn.
More than 8,000 Minnesota National Guard Citizen-Soldiers and -Airmen deployed to Iraq from 2003 to 2011.
Sixteen Minnesota National Guard Soldiers died in Iraq, and 79 earned Purple Heart Medals due to injuries received in combat.
Sustained military operations in Iraq inspired the Minnesota National Guard to begin the Beyond the Yellow Ribbon program, a ground-breaking process to reintegrate returning Service members back from deployments.
The Minnesota National Guard’s 1st Brigade Combat Team, 34th Infantry Division was an important part of the 2007 “surge.” As a result of the extension of their tour to 16 months in Iraq, and 22 months overall, the Red Bulls are recognized as having served the second longest tour of duty in Iraq of any military unit, active or reserve.
The Duluth-based 148th Fighter Wing expertly provided real-time surveillance for ground commanders using their Theater Aerial Reconnaissance System.
St. Paul’s 34th Combat Aviation Brigade was responsible for corps-level helicopter support from 2008 to 2009.
In 2009-2010, the 34th Red Bull Infantry Division Headquarters provided command and control for 16,000 U.S. military Service members operating in nine of Iraq’s 18 provinces.
With the prevalence of improvised explosive devices on the roadways in Iraq, the St. Paul-based 133rd Airlift Wing provided critical aerial transportation of people, equipment and materiel throughout the region.
In 2011, the 1st Armored Brigade Combat Team, 34th Infantry Division mission in Kuwait was the largest deployment of Minnesota Guardsmen since World War II. The brigade's mission included base management, convoy security, reaction forces, and management of specialized units from the Army, Navy and Coast Guard. The brigade drove 1.35 million miles and escorted 25,970 trucks during 480 missions prior to the last U.S. military convoy departing Iraq.
2012-2019
2020–present
George Floyd protests (2020)
In mid 2020, the Minnesota National Guard was mobilized in full in response to the George Floyd protests in Minneapolis–Saint Paul. However, the Minnesota National Guard delayed its arrival to areas were unrest was occurring and afterwards received criticism for "lagging" in its response to the riots. After being activated, Minnesota National Guard adjutant general Maj. Gen. Jon A. Jensen claimed he and other guardsman were not provided clear directions by Minnesota Governor Tim Walz on how to respond to the protests and riots. It was noted that no Minnesota National Guardsmen were present during the May 29, 2020 riot which destroyed numerous businesses in Minneapolis and did not clear streets until the next day.
The Minnesota National Guard conducted a security mission alongside local law enforcement as street protests turned violent over the murder of George Floyd. A soldier from the Minnesota National Guard fired his weapon at a vehicle that was speeding towards police officers and National Guard soldiers in Minneapolis. The driver of the vehicle was given several verbal commands, and nonverbal signals in an attempt to slow the driver down. After the driver refused to stop, a soldier fired 3 rounds towards the speeding vehicle. Minnesota National Guard Major General Jon Jensen said "Our soldier fired 3 rounds from his rifle in response to a perceived and legitimate threat to him and the Minnesota police officers he was in direct support of."
By June 7, when the troops demobilized, 7,123 members of the Minnesota National Guard into duty in the largest deployment in the state's history since World War II.
Trial of Derek Chauvin and Daunte Wright protests (2021)
In early 2021, the Minnesota National Guard was proactively mobilized for protests in Minneapolis regarding the trial of Derek Chauvin that began in March and concurrently responded to protests and unrest over the police-involved killing of Daunte Wright on April 11. Two National Guard soldiers sustained minor injuries after being shot at while sitting in a military vehicle. The two soldiers suffered injuries that included glass fragments in an eye and facial cuts caused by the shattering glass. One soldier was transported to a hospital for treatment. Hennepin County officials charged Andrew Thomas, a 28-year-old man with home address in Minneapolis and Chicago, with first-degree and second-degree assault with a dangerous weapon and illegal weapons possession. In July 2021, Thomas pleaded guilty in Hennepin County court to charges related to the drive-by shooting and illegal possession of a firearm. He received an eight-year sentence that included five years in jail and three years under supervised release.
Adjutants General
List of Adjutants General in Minnesota:
See also
Minnesota Naval Militia
Minnesota State Guard
Minnesota Wing Civil Air Patrol
References
External links
Camp Cody - Minnesota National Guard WW1
Bibliography of Minnesota Army National Guard History compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
GlobalSecurity.org
National Guard (United States)
Military in Minnesota |
4562132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada%20National%20Guard | Nevada National Guard | The Nevada National Guard is the component of the United States National Guard in Nevada. The governor of Nevada may call individuals or units of the Nevada National Guard into state service. The Constitution of the United States charges the National Guard of each state to support its dual federal and state missions.
The Nevada National Guard includes a total force of about 4,300 uniformed personnel with more than 3,000 Soldiers and about 1,200 Airmen. About 80 percent of Nevada National Guardsmen serve as so-called “traditional Guardsmen” who commit to participate in military training one weekend a month and 15 days each year in their respective military occupations and career fields. They are supported by full-time personnel, including about 480 federal technicians and 460 Active Guard and Reserve members.
The Nevada National Guard includes armories and facilities in eight of the state’s 16 counties and state capital with 16 primary facilities. In addition to headquarters’ Soldiers, the Nevada Army Guard includes the 17th Sustainment Brigade, the 991st Aviation Troop Command and the Recruiting and Retention Battalion. The Nevada Air Guard is composed of the 152nd Airlift Wing and 152nd Intelligence Squadron in Reno and the 232nd Operations Squadron in Indian Springs.
The governor is the commander-in-chief of the Nevada National Guard and appoints the adjutant general. Brig. Gen. Ondra Berry was appointed Nevada's adjutant general in September 2019.
History
English and American militia tradition provided the blueprint for the origins of Nevada’s state militia, eventually called the National Guard. This tradition served the patriot cause in the American Revolution. After the war, the 1792 Militia Act, under the new Constitution, provided for the president to call out state militias during invasion or emergency but failed to establish a national militia system, as many Federalists sought. During the antebellum period, compulsory military training of state militias was not enforced and almost completely ceased. In their place came volunteer and fraternal-like organizations that practiced marksmanship along with drills and ceremonies.
In Nevada, the same occurred in response to strained Native American relations and fear of secessionists before and during the Civil War. In the winter of 1859–60, the discovery of the Comstock Lode brought a “Rush to Washoe” that increased friction with the Native population in what was then still far-western Utah Territory. A loosely organized militia attacked Pyramid Lake Paiutes in retaliation for perceived crimes against white settlers. Ambushed by the Paiutes on their march to Pyramid Lake, the militia met disaster, with 76 killed. Union regulars and citizen militias from California mining towns quickly responded, defeating and dispersing the Paiutes by June 1860. In July, the War Department began construction of Fort Churchill and other federal posts in Nevada to maintain peace and protect the Overland Trail.
After Comstock Boom
From 1880 to 1900, the Comstock mines dried up and the Silver State’s population plummeted. During this time, the Nevada Guard struggled to meet national standards suggested by larger states. Still, in 1892, with fewer than 50,000 people living in the state — the smallest in the nation by population, but fifth largest in area — Nevada Guardsmen held their first summer encampment in Carson City. Volunteer soldiers, many of them miners, came from as far away as Tuscarora in Elko County and Yerington in the Mason Valley. The encampment included rifle practice and a 3 a.m. “sham” attack. Nevada’s budget constraints only allowed guardsmen to receive $10 per encampment, compared to $33 per encampment for soldiers in New York. In 1896, Carson City Guard, Company F, earned the national marksmanship championship with Springfield rifles, even though “companies in the eastern States have been prone to deny this” and “did not believe the published records of the Carson Company to be correct.” After President William McKinley called on the states during the Spanish-American War, nearly every Nevada Guard unit disbanded as military men left for war.
In 1906, the final two units of infantry in the Nevada Guard disbanded after a federal inspector questioned their loyalty to the state. According to the federal officer from the Presidio in California: “The replies of both were that not a man could be relied upon to obey the order of the Governor, and I wish to add that in my opinion both captains and all company officers, as well as the enlisted men, would not only refuse to obey orders of the Governor, but would be arrayed on the other side [of labor violence].”
The Nevada Guard’s disbandment occurred simultaneously with the rise of labor radicalism, especially in Goldfield, Nevada, the state’s population center at the time, which included the Industrial Workers of the World. Even after the fall of Goldfield in the 1910s, labor groups repeatedly blocked the reorganization of the National Guard at the state legislature. Efforts stalled during World War I as most able-bodied men entered conscription instead of the state Guard.
In 1927, Nevada Governor Fred Balzar named Mineral County District Attorney Jay White state adjutant general, with the goal of reorganization. In 1928, the 40th Division established the 40th Military Police Company in Reno with 60 soldiers. White, who enthusiastically embraced his role as adjutant general, remained Nevada’s adjutant general even after Balzar’s death in 1934. He helped reorganize the Nevada National Guard again after the state force was federalized during World War II. During the war, the Nevada Guard deployed around the world and saw action in the Pacific Theater.
Cold War
As the Iron Curtain fell across Eastern Europe with the beginning of the Cold War, and a hot war occurred in Korea (1950–53), major federal funds poured into the state for the reorganization of the Nevada National Guard. In 1948, the Nevada Army Guard reorganized with the 421st Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalion. With the creation of the U.S. Air Force in 1947, Nevada received an Air National Guard unit with the 192nd Fighter Squadron, established in 1948. The 192nd operated out of the old Army Air Base north of Reno in present-day Stead. In 1951, the 192nd entered a 21-month deployment flying P-51 Mustang aircraft in the Korean War. During the war, the Nevada Air Guard suffered its only combat fatality in its history: Lt. Frank Salazar. After the war, the Nevada Air Guard entered a lease agreement with the city of Reno for land south of the airport, at Hubbard Field, present-day Reno-Tahoe International Airport. The 152nd Airlift Wing remains there today. In the 1950s, the Nevada Air Guard received massive sums of federal support, along with the Nevada Army Guard, for base improvements and the construction of armories. This was also true for other western states, especially California, as the federal government with its burgeoning defense establishments during the Cold War emerged as a major economic multiplier in the growth of the American West during the 20th century.
In 1967, the Nevada legislature re-wrote the state’s militia code, which provided for the expansion of the state’s military department, including a code of military justice and the creation of a full-time adjutant general position. In 1968, the Nevada Army Guard changed its mission from artillery to armored cavalry, and it also acquired its first helicopter (OH23B), the initial step toward bringing Army aviation assets to the state. Also that year, the Nevada Air Guard answered President Lyndon B. Johnson’s call-up in response to North Korea’s capture of the USS Pueblo, a naval intelligence vessel. While no direct military retaliation was initiated, more than 600 Nevada Air Guardsmen were activated on one-day notice for service in South Korea and various places around the United States.
The Nevada Air and Army Guard garnered numerous trophies for excellence in the late 1970s and 1980s. The Nevada Air Guard won the aerial reconnaissance championship, Photo Finish, against international competition in 1978 and Reconnaissance Air Meet championships in 1986 and 1990. Airman Magazine noted the “High Rollers of Reno” are the “best at what they do” — aerial reconnaissance. In 1980, the Nevada Army Guard’s 3rd Squadron, 116th Armored Cavalry re-designated as the 1st Squadron, 221st Cavalry. The 221st won two Goodrich Riding Trophies, 1984 and 1986, a highly-coveted armor trophy. In 1985, it gained national attention after it completed a 135-mile tank march from southern Nevada to Fort Irwin, California, commonly referred to as the “Death March,” with 71 tracked vehicles and 109 wheeled vehicles. The convoy stretched as long as 25 miles and included 420 soldiers. In 1986, the Nevada Army National Guard gained its first aviation battalion, the 1st Battalion, 113th Aviation, which operated CH-54 Skycranes, eventually receiving UH-60 Blackhawks and CH-47 Chinooks in the 1990s.
Total Force Concept
After the Vietnam War and the draft, the Department of Defense adopted its total force concept, using the National Guard of the states more during federal missions. In the 1980s and 1990s, the Nevada Army National Guard expanded with various support missions, assisting the warfighter overseas and citizens at home during natural disaster. Both the Nevada Army and Air Guard deployed units during Operation Desert Storm and Desert Shield. In 1991, the then-152nd Reconnaissance Group was among the first aircrew to fly missions over Kuwait and Iraq. They dodged anti-aircraft artillery, obtained photos of burning wellheads, spotted strategic targets and conducted assessments on the first morning of the war. Thirteen airmen of the unit received the Distinguished Flying Cross. Additionally, the 72nd Military Police deployed to Saudi Arabia where they operated and maintained prisoner of war camps. In 1995, the U.S. Air Force moved away from manned reconnaissance, and the 152nd re-designated as the 152nd Airlift Wing operating C-130 aircraft.
In the Post-9/11 Era, the Nevada Air and Army Guard entered an unprecedented operations tempo. This deployment cycle has become the standard for the Nevada National Guard, and it has come with a cost. During the 1864th Transportation Company’s deployment to Iraq in 2005, Spc. Anthony Cometa, of Las Vegas, was manning a HMMWV machine gun turret when his vehicle lost control and flipped. One day after his 21st birthday, Cometa died in the accident. Two months after Cometa's death, a rocket-propelled grenade struck the fuel tank of a Chinook helicopter in Afghanistan, killing Chief Warrant Officer 3 John M. Flynn, of Sparks, and Sgt. Patrick D. Stewart, of Fernley. Also killed in the crash were two Oregon Army National Guardsman and an active duty Soldier. In 2013, the Nevada Guard named the field maintenance complex at the Las Vegas Readiness Center after Cometa. Additionally, a memorial to the five Army aircrew killed stands at the Army Aviation Support Facility in Stead, Nevada.
Additionally, the Nevada Guard’s role in emergency response in the U.S. increased. In 2016, the 152nd Airlift Wing was named the newest unit to operate the U.S. Forest Service’s Modular Airborne Fire Fighting System, or MAFFS. One of four military C-130 units nationwide operating the mission, the 152nd can be called to fight wildland fires around the nation. In 2017, the Nevada Army Guard and Air Guard responded to more domestic response activations than any year in its history, including floods in northern Nevada and support of hurricane response efforts in Texas, Florida and Puerto Rico.
Nevada Army National Guard Units
The Nevada Army Guard is composed of a Joint Force Headquarters, the 17th Sustainment Brigade, the 991st Aviation Troop Command, the Medical Detachment, Recruiting and Retention Battalion and the 92nd Civil Support Team:
Joint Force Headquarters (HQ at Carson City)
106th Public Affairs Detachment
3600th Senior Trial Defense Unit
17th Sustainment Brigade (HQ at Las Vegas)
Special Troops Battalion
72d Military Police Company
100th Quartermaster Company
593d Transportation Company
1864th Transportation Company
3665th Ordnance Company (EOD)
240th Engineer Company
777th Engineer Detachment
757th Combat Sustainment Support Battalion (HQ at Stead)
137th Military Police Company
150th Maintenance Company
485th Military Police Company
609th Engineer Company
1859th Transportation Company
991st Multi-Functional Brigade (HQ at Stead)
Aviation Troop Command (HQ at Army Aviation Support Facility (AASF) & Harry Reid Readiness Center, Reno)
45th Operational Support Airlift (C-12) at AASF, Reno
Detachment 1, Company B, 3d Battalion (Security and Support), 140th Aviation Regiment (UH-72A) at Cheyenne Air Center, North Las Vegas
Detachment 1, Company D, 3d Battalion (Security and Support), 140th Aviation Regiment (UH-72A) at Cheyenne Air Center, North Las Vegas
Company B, 1st Battalion (General Support), 189th Aviation Regiment (CH-47F) At AASF, Reno
Detachment 1, Company G, 2d Battalion (General Support), 238th Aviation Regiment (MEDEVAC) (UH-60L) at AASF, Reno
Detachment 3, Company B, 2d Battalion, 641st Aviation Regiment (C-12) at AASF, Reno
1st Squadron, 221st Cavalry Regiment (HQ at Las Vegas)
422d Signal Battalion (Expeditionary)
421st Regional Training Institute (HQ at Las Vegas)
Medical Detachment (HQ at Reno)
92d Civil Support Team (HQ at Carson City)
Nevada Air National Guard
152nd Airlift Wing
152nd Operations Group
192nd Airlift Squadron
152nd Operations Squadron
152nd Maintenance Group
152nd Maintenance Squadron
152nd Maintenance Operations Flight
152nd Mission Support Group
152nd Civil Engineer Squadron
152nd Communications Flight
152nd Force Support Squadron
152nd Security Forces Squadron
152nd Logistics Readiness Squadron
152nd Medical Group
Detachment 1 (CERFP)
152nd Intelligence Squadron
232nd Combat Training Squadron
Funding
Under the direction of two state employees — the governor and the adjutant general — the Nevada Military Department oversees and manages the Nevada National Guard’s missions, facilities and training. State of Nevada employees provide administrative, accounting, personnel, firefighting, security, maintenance and custodial support for all facilities assigned to the Nevada Military Department. Not all funds used to pay personnel come from state coffers; in fact, more than 80 percent of personnel expenditures for military department state employees are from federal funds.
Adjutant General
The Adjutant General of Nevada is the senior officer of the Nevada National Guard overseeing command of more than 4,000 Nevada Army and Air National Guard personnel and responsible for both the federal and state missions of the Nevada National Guard. The adjutant general is appointed by the governor of Nevada. The position of adjutant general in Nevada was created following the state's Organic Act in 1861.
In accordance with federal law, the Territorial Legislature defined the "enrolled" militia as "every free, able-bodied white male inhabitant...between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years" except those exempted by law. Similar legislation was established following Nevada's entrance into statehood in 1864. Under Nevada law, the adjutant general serves as the senior military officer. Throughout the state's first century, though, the obligations were ex-officio positions of other offices, including lieutenant governor and secretary of state.
In 1948, the Nevada National Guard re-organized after it federalized for service in World War II. This new force included both the Nevada Army National Guard and the emergence of the Nevada Air National Guard.
In 1967, Nevada changed its militia law to create a full-time adjutant general position in the state. Since 2002, the adjutant general has worked out of the Office of the Adjutant General in Carson City, Nev.
References
External links
Bibliography of Nevada Army National Guard History compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
Nevada National Guard Magazine – Battle Born printed by AQP Publishing, Inc
Nevada National Guard
92nd Weapons of Mass Destruction - Civil Support Team
National Guard (United States)
Military in Nevada |
4562230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma%20National%20Guard | Oklahoma National Guard | The Oklahoma National Guard, a division of the Oklahoma Military Department, is the component of the United States National Guard in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. It comprises both Army (OKARNG) and Air (OKANG) National Guard components. The Governor of Oklahoma is Commander-in-Chief of the Oklahoma National Guard when not on federal active duty. The state's highest-ranking military commander, the Adjutant General of Oklahoma (TAG), serves as the military head of the Guard and is second only to the Governor. The TAG is served by Assistant Adjutants General, all brigadier generals, from the OKARNG and OKANG. The two components each have a senior noncommissioned officer, State Command Sergeant Major for Army and State Command Chief Master Sergeant for Air. The TAG is also served by his Director of the Joint Staff or Chief of Staff, who has direct oversight of the state's full-time National Guard military personnel and civilian employees.
The Governor may call individuals or units of the Guard into state service during emergencies or to assist in special situations which require the Guard. In its state role, the Guard serves to execute state laws, protect the public health, suppress insurrection, and repel invasion.
The National Guard may be called into federal service in response to a call by the President of the United States or U.S. Congress. When National Guard troops are called to federal service, the President serves as Commander-in-Chief.
Mission
The National Guard has two missions, a Title 10 federal mission and the other a Title 32 state controlled mission.
Federal mission statement:
During peacetime each state National Guard answers to the leadership in the 50 states, three territories and the District of Columbia. During national emergencies, however, the President reserves the right to mobilize the National Guard, putting them in federal duty status. While federalized, the units answer to the combatant commander of the theatre in which they are operating and, ultimately, to the President. Even when not federalized, the Army National Guard has a federal obligation (or mission.) That mission is to maintain properly trained and equipped units, available for prompt mobilization for war, national emergency, or as otherwise needed. The Army National Guard is a partner with the Active Army and the Army Reserves in fulfilling the country's military needs.
State mission statement:
The Army National Guard exists in all 50 states, three territories and the District of Columbia. The state, territory or district leadership are the commanders in chief for each Guard. Their adjutants general are answerable to them for the training and readiness of the units. At the state level, the governors reserve the ability, under the Constitution of the United States, to call up members of the National Guard in time of domestic emergencies or need.
Current units
Oklahoma National Guard, Joint Forces Headquarters
Oklahoma Army National Guard
90th Troop Command
120th Engineer Battalion
345th Combat Sustainment Support Battalion
63rd Civil Support Team (WMD)
145th Army Band
145th Mobile Public Affairs Detachment
45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team
1-180th Cavalry Squadron
1-179th Infantry Battalion
1-279th Infantry Battalion
1-160th Field Artillery Battalion
700th Brigade Support Battalion
545th Brigade Engineer Battalion
45th Field Artillery Brigade
B Battery, 171st Field Artillery (Target Acquisition)
1-158th Field Artillery Battalion (HIMARS)
205th Signal Company (Network Support Company)
271st Brigade Support Battalion
120th Forward Support Company (HIMARS)
189th Regiment - Oklahoma Regional Training Institute
1-189th Field Artillery Battalion
2-189th (General Services) Field Artillery Battalion
Camp Gruber Training Center
Oklahoma Air National Guard
137th Special Operations Wing
137th Operations Group
137th Mission Support Group
137th Medical Group
138th Fighter Wing
124th Space Superiority Squadron
125th Fighter Squadron (F-16)
125th Mobile Oppression Squadron
125th Weather Flight
219th Electronics Engineering and Radar Installation Squadron
History
One of the first accomplishments of the Oklahoma Territorial Legislature was the creation of the Oklahoma Territorial Militia in 1890 The militia was officially renamed the Oklahoma Territorial National Guard on March 8, 1895. This first National Guard in what would become Oklahoma consisted of separate infantry companies, cavalry troops and artillery batteries and total strength was limited to 500 men.
Between 1864 and 1895 the militias of the State of Colorado and the Territories of New Mexico, Oklahoma and Arizona grew more organized as they continued to counter incursions and harassing attacks by Native Americans against white settlers. These militias would eventually organize into most of the National Guard units which would make up the 45th Infantry Division. In 1890 the Militia of the Territory of Oklahoma was formed. The four militias were mobilized in 1898 during the Spanish–American War but only forces in Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico were deployed, and fought in Cuba and the Philippines. In the early 1900s the National Guard was employed putting down various labor disputes.
With no pay or benefits for members, and officers required to furnish their own uniforms and horses, nevertheless, these militia forces maintained peace and assisted in emergencies in their territories. They also stood ready to serve the nation if wars were to come.
Spanish–American War
After the sinking of the Battleship Maine on February 15, 1898, war was declared between the United States and Spain. Congress passed a volunteer bill allowing National Guard units to serve in the regular army as state units, with the approval of their governors. The Oklahoma National Guard was not federalized during the Spanish–American War, but numerous officers and enlisted men served with the Rough Riders and with the First Territorial Volunteer Infantry Regiment, the latter, (predecessor to today's 1-180th Cavalry Squadron) was mobilized, but not deployed before the war ended. Many of those early Guardsmen who served could not be recognized by the federal Army at their ranks and positions, especially the officers, and so they enlisted as privates, with many swiftly demonstrating their abilities and being promoted accordingly.
In 1899, the Oklahoma National Guard was reorganized as the First Oklahoma Infantry Regiment, supported by a signal company. In 1903, an engineer company was added. Federal allotments to support the troops would later double and the Territorial legislature voted to expand support in money and men. With statehood, in 1907, the Territorial status of the Oklahoma National Guard came to an end. Units were moved from western Oklahoma (former Oklahoma Territory) to eastern Oklahoma (former Indian Territory), and a hospital unit and two cavalry troops were added. Before World War I the guardsmen were used by Gov. Lee Cruce (pictured left) to combat illegal boxing and horse racing operations and liquor- and blue-law violations.
Mexican border duty
The National Defense Act (The Dick Act) passed on June 3, 1916 which formally created the National Guard as a reserve component of the US Army, and fifteen days later the Oklahoma National Guard was called into federal service for duty along the Mexican border. After mobilization in Oklahoma City, the guardsmen moved to San Benito and Donna, Texas. They returned home after guarding the border, tedious duty, but one which gave them valuable field experience, and were mustered out on March 12, 1917. Colonel Roy Hoffman commanded the regiment, and Captain William S. Key was in charge of a company from Wewoka. Both were later to be commanders of the 45th Division. They returned to Oklahoma to be discharged just in time to be called up for World War I.
World War One
The First Oklahoma Infantry was mobilized for service in World War I on March 31, 1917. At Camp Bowie, Texas, the First Oklahoma combined with the Seventh Texas Infantry to form the 142d Regiment of the Thirty-sixth Infantry Division. The guardsmen arrived in France on July 31, 1918, and in October served around Blanc Mont Ridge and in the Ferme Forest. One of the machine gun companies was commanded by Captain Raymond S. McLain, who in World War II would attain the highest combat command position ever to be reached by a National Guardsman. This was as commanding general of the XIX U. S. Army Corps. The 142nd Regiment was part of the capture of St. Etienne on October 9, 1918. They were in reserve when the war ended on November 11, 1918. The troops were discharged in July 1919.
One of the more significant contributions was the origination of the Native American "Code Talkers." The 142nd had a company of Indians who spoke 26 languages and dialects. Two Indian officers were selected to supervise a communications system staffed by 18 Choctaw. The team transmitted messages relating to troop movements and their own tactical plans in their native tongue. Soldiers from other tribes, including the Cheyenne, Comanche, Cherokee, Osage and Yankton Sioux also were enlisted to communicate as code talkers. Previous to their arrival in France, the Germans had broken every American code used, resulting in the deaths of many Soldiers. However, the Germans never broke the Indians' "code," and these Soldiers became affectionately known as "code talkers."
Other Oklahoma units, smaller than regiment, several of which would later be combined to form today's 700th Support Battalion, the element of today's Brigade with the most combat credit, became part of the Rainbow, or 42nd Infantry Division, and conscripts went to the 90th Texas-Oklahoma Infantry Division. All three of these divisions saw combat in France.
Homefront between the wars
To replace the guardsmen on active duty, in 1918 the Second and Third Oklahoma Infantry Regiments (the future 1-179th Infantry Battalion) and a separate infantry battalion were recruited. These units later combined and constituted the Oklahoma National Guard until 1920. In 1919 these troops were sent to Drumright, Henryetta, Coalgate, and Haileyville during a labor disturbance.
In 1920, William S. Key, having attained the rank of Lieutenant Colonel, was discharged from the US Army after World War I to resume his commission in the Guard. He was appointed Captain, Field Artillery, Oklahoma Army National Guard and assigned to organize a tight artillery battery at Wewoka, Oklahoma. This horse drawn 75mm battery was federally recognized as Battery A, 1st Oklahoma Field Artillery on July 28, 1920. As white horses served as artillery animals, Battery "A" became known as the "White Horse Battery". Other artillery elements were organized in the Oklahoma National Guard, and on 18 July 1921, the 1st Oklahoma Field Artillery Regiment, consisting of a Regimental Headquarters and two firing battalions was federally recognized. In October 1921, the 1st Oklahoma Field Artillery became the 160th Field Artillery Regiment, consisting of the 1st and 2nd Battalions.
Between the World Wars the Oklahoma National Guard was frequently called to state duty. In 1921 the guardsmen were rushed to the Tulsa Race Massacre. Gov. Jack C. Walton used the troops to prevent the legislature from convening during his impeachment. Gov. William H. Murray dispatched the National Guard thirty-four times during his administration, and Gov. Ernest W. Marland used guardsmen to allow the drilling of oil wells on the Capitol grounds in Oklahoma City.
World War II and Korea
The history of the Oklahoma National Guard is largely the history of the 45th Infantry Division. The division was activated under the command of Major general William S. Key in 1940 and sent to Fort Sill, then to Camp Barkeley, Texas, where it was enlarged, then divided. The 158th Regiment and the Second Battalion of the 158th Artillery, were separated to form the 158th Regimental Combat Team (RCT), which served in the Panama Canal Zone and in the Southwest Pacific. Another battalion deployed to Alaska to help build the Alcan Highway and participate in the invasion of Okinawa, and another was posted to Asia to help construct the Burma Road. The remaining components of the 45th Division were sent to Sicily in 1943, where they fought in the campaigns of Naples-Foggia, Rome-Arno, Southern France, Rhineland, and Central Europe. After returning from Europe, the unit was deactivated on December 7, 1945.
The New Millennium
Hurricanes Katrina and Rita struck the US Gulf Coast in September 2005. Soon after returning from Afghanistan, the 180th Infantry Regiment sent 200 soldiers to Louisiana in support of relief operations immediately following Katrina. Oklahoma's response to Katrina was so rapid and so well prepared that the commander of the Oklahoma contingent was made the commander of the 13,000 person multi state and service task force on the ground. In support of relief operations the 180th saved many lives and received numerous awards.
In late 2005 the 180th was notified of an upcoming deployment to Afghanistan in support of Task Force Phoenix V, as the security force for the Oregon Army National Guard's 41st Infantry Brigade. Companies C, D, and Headquarters Company deployed in March 2006. Members of other companies accompanied the battalion to provide needed critical skills. While in Afghanistan the 1-180th received eight Purple Hearts and several citations for valor. The 180th lost its first combat casualty in the conflict in Afghanistan when Sergeant Buddie Hughie of Poteau was killed in action while performing duties as a combat medic on 19 February 2007.
Adjutants General of Oklahoma
Territorial government
State government
BG Frank M. Canton 17 NOV 1907 to 30 JUN 1916
BG Ancil Earp 1 JUL 1916 to 30 JAN 1918
BG E.P. Gipson 1 FEB 1918 to 30 JAN 1919
MG Charles F. Barrett 1 FEB 1919 to 28 JAN 1923
MG Baird H. Markham 28 JAN 1923 to 30 JUN 1925
MG Charles F. Barrett 1 JUL 1925 to 19 SEP 1939
BG Louis A. Ledbetter 20 SEP 1939 to 13 SEP 1940
MG George A. Davis 14 SEP 1940 to 6 MAY 1947
MG Roy W. Kenny 7 MAY 1947 to 7 MAR 1965
MG LaVern E. Weber 8 MAR 1965 to 30 SEP 1971
MG David C. Matthews 2 OCT 1971 to 12 JAN 1975
MG John Coffey Jr. 13 JAN 1975 to 19 NOV 1978
MG Robert M. Morgan 20 NOV 1978 to 11 JAN 1987
MG Fonald F. Ferrell (ANG) 12 JAN 1987 to 13 JAN 1991
MG Tommy G. Alsip 14 JAN 1991 to 19 JUN 1992
MG Gary D. Maynard 20 JUN 1992 to 31 MAR 1995
MG Stephen P. Cortright (ANG) 1 APR 1995 to 21 OCT 2002
MG Harry M. Wyatt III (ANG) 22 OCT 2002 to 12 JAN 2003 (Acting)
MG Harry M. Wyatt III (ANG) 13 JAN 2003 to 3 FEB 2009
MG Myles L. Deering 3 FEB 2009 to 1 FEB 2015
MG Robbie L. Asher 1 FEB 2015 to 7 AUG 2017
BG Louis W. Wilham 8 AUG 2017 to 15 NOV 2017 (Interim)
MG Michael C. Thompson 16 NOV 2017 to 10 NOV 2021
Command Sergeants Major of Oklahoma
CSM Billy J. Ferguson 1 AUG 1969 to 30 NOV 1971
CSM John C. Marcy 1 DEC 1971 to 30 JUN 1972
CSM William E. Nichols 31 JUL 1972 to 11 JUN 1976
CSM Edgar A. Siewert 1 AUG 1976 to 30 OCT 1977
CSM Sam Cluck 1 NOV 1977 to 30 JUN 1980
CSM William G. "Bill" Evans 1 JUL 1980 to 20 AUG 1988
CSM Carmon L. Allen 21 AUG 1988 to 9 NOV 1992
CSM David J. Willingham 10 NOV 1992 to 30 NOC 1993
CSM Gerald S. Plaster 1 DEC 1993 to 31 JAN 1995
CSM Marvin L. Barbee 1 APR 1995 to 30 SEP 2002
CSM David Keating 1 OCT 2002 to 14 NOV 2008
CSM Stephen P. Jensen 14 NOV 2008 to 1 FEB 2015
CSM Tony Riggs 1 FEB 2015 to Present
Oklahoma National Guard state awards
Oklahoma Distinguished Service Cross: The Oklahoma Distinguished Service Cross may be awarded to any eligible person who shall perform at great personal danger and risk of life or limb in the line of military duty any act of heroism designed to protect life or property or who while on active state duty during a period of martial law shall perform such acts over and beyond the call of duty which act, danger or risk he could have failed to perform or incur without being subject to censure for neglect of duty.
Oklahoma Star of Valor: An Oklahoma Star of Valor Medal may be awarded to any eligible person who, while a member of the Oklahoma National Guard, performs an act of heroism involving voluntary risk of life or limb designed to protect the life of another person under conditions other than those of conflict with an armed enemy, the saving of a life or the success of the act not being essential.
Oklahoma Distinguished Service Medal: The Oklahoma Distinguished Service Medal may be awarded to any eligible person who, as a member of the Oklahoma National Guard, shall perform unusually distinguished and meritorious service which to a marked degree is reflected in the increased efficiency and growth of the Oklahoma National Guard or which brings exceptional honor and credit to the Oklahoma National Guard and commands the attention and respect of the citizens of the state and of members of the military establishment of the United States.
Oklahoma Meritorious Service Medal: The Oklahoma Meritorious Service Medal may be awarded to any eligible person who, while as a member of the Oklahoma National Guard, shall perform outstanding meritorious service which to a marked degree is reflected in the increased efficiency and growth of that branch of the Oklahoma National Guard to which he belongs or which brings credit to the Oklahoma National Guard over and above that which would occur by reason of the superior performance of assigned duties.
Oklahoma Commendation Medal: The Oklahoma Commendation Medal may be awarded to any eligible person who, as a member of the Oklahoma National Guard, influenced the success and recognition of that branch of the Oklahoma National Guard to which he belongs through performance of conspicuous military duty, distinct achievement, or an act of courage.
Oklahoma Exceptional Service Medal: The Oklahoma Exceptional Service Medal may be awarded to a present or former employee of the Oklahoma Military Department who has contributed to the efficiency and improvement of the Oklahoma National Guard through sustained loyal and dedicated service, demonstration of outstanding ability, or a specific noteworthy accomplishment, with subsequent awards being denoted by numeral devices affixed thereto.
Oklahoma Guardsman Medal: The Oklahoma Guardsman Medal may be awarded to any eligible person who, as a member of the National Guard having more than fifteen (15) years total service, has contributed to the efficiency and growth of the Oklahoma National Guard by an unusually high character of performance of duty and, by the contribution of extra time and effort, has made himself known as an outstanding member of the Oklahoma National Guard.
Oklahoma Senior Enlisted Leadership Ribbon: The Oklahoma Senior Enlisted Leadership Ribbon recognizes Oklahoma National Guard senior enlisted Soldiers and Airmen who have served or are serving in First Sergeant (1SG) or Command Sergeant Major (CSM)/Command Chief Master Sergeant (CCM) positions.
Oklahoma Desert Storm Service Medal: The Oklahoma Desert Storm Service Medal and Ribbon may be awarded to any member of the Oklahoma National Guard who was called into active federal service during the Persian Gulf Crisis.
Oklahoma Selective Reserve Medal: Selected Reserve Force Medal may be awarded to any individual who served honorably as a member of an Oklahoma National Guard unit designated as a Selected Reserve Force (SRF) by the Department of the Army.
Oklahoma Alfred P. Murrah Service Medal (Oklahoma Bombing): The Oklahoma Alfred P. Murrah Service Medal may be awarded to any member of the Oklahoma National Guard, to nonuniformed employees of the Oklahoma Military Department and to other persons deemed appropriate by the Adjutant General who served in support of disaster relief operations in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, following the April 19, 1995, bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building.
Oklahoma Recruiting Ribbon: At the discretion of the Adjutant General, an Oklahoma Recruiting Medal may be awarded to any member of the Oklahoma National Guard who, in any one calendar year, is personally and solely responsible for obtaining five (5) accessions to the strength of the Oklahoma National Guard.
Oklahoma Active Duty Service Medal: Oklahoma Active Duty Service Medal may be awarded to any eligible person who was a member of the Oklahoma National Guard on state active duty for state disaster or civil disturbance for a period of time of not less than twenty-four (24) hours and who has contributed to the success and recognition of his/her unit during their state mission, with subsequent awards being denoted by numeral devices affixed thereto.
Oklahoma Military Funeral Honors Ribbon: This ribbon will recognize Oklahoma National Guard Soldiers and Airmen that are responsible for conducting Military Funeral Honors.
Oklahoma Long Service Ribbon 5 years: The Long Service Medal shall be awarded for honest and faithful service in the Oklahoma National Guard for a period of five (5) years.
Oklahoma Long Service Ribbon 10 years: The Long Service Medal shall be awarded for honest and faithful service in the Oklahoma National Guard for a period of ten (10) years.
Oklahoma Long Service Ribbon 15 years: The Long Service Medal shall be awarded for honest and faithful service in the Oklahoma National Guard for a period of fifteen (15) years.
Oklahoma Long Service Ribbon 20 years: The Long Service Medal shall be awarded for honest and faithful service in the Oklahoma National Guard for a period of twenty (20) years.
Oklahoma Long Service Ribbon 25 years: The Long Service Medal shall be awarded for honest and faithful service in the Oklahoma National Guard for a period of twenty-five (25) years.
Oklahoma Long Service Ribbon 30 years: The Long Service Medal shall be awarded for honest and faithful service in the Oklahoma National Guard for a period of thirty (30) years.
Oklahoma Long Service Ribbon 35 years: The Long Service Medal shall be awarded for honest and faithful service in the Oklahoma National Guard for a period of thirty-five (35) years.
Oklahoma Good Conduct Ribbon: An Oklahoma Good Conduct Ribbon may be awarded to any member of the Oklahoma National Guard for exemplary behavior, efficiency, and fidelity while performing a continuous year of military service in an enlisted status, subsequent to enactment.
Oklahoma Governor's Distinguished Unit Award: The Governor's Distinguished Unit Award shall be awarded annually to the outstanding Army and Air National Guard unit, selected by committees appointed by the Adjutant General, such units to be presented the Governor's Trophy, Army, and the Governor's Trophy, Air, respectively. This award is not being issued as criteria are out of date.
Oklahoma Commander's Trophy Award Ribbon The Commander's Trophy Ribbon is awarded for outstanding performance based on the previous calendar year, related to flying safety records, aircrews and aircraft operationally-ready and utilization rates. Any Oklahoma Air National Guard operational flying squadron is eligible.
References
External links
Oklahoma National Guard Official Website
Bibliography of Oklahoma Army National Guard History compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
National Guard (United States)
Military in Oklahoma |
4562241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania%20National%20Guard | Pennsylvania National Guard | The Pennsylvania National Guard is one of the oldest and largest National Guards in the United States Department of Defense. It traces its roots to 1747 when Benjamin Franklin established the Associators in Philadelphia.
With more than 18,000 personnel, the Pennsylvania National Guard is the second-largest of all of the state National Guards. It has the second-largest Army National Guard and the fourth-largest Air National Guard. These forces are respective components of the United States Army and Air Force.
The Pennsylvania National Guard is also part of the Pennsylvania Department of Military and Veterans Affairs, which is headed by Pennsylvania Adjutant General Major General Mark J. Schindler. It is headquartered at Fort Indiantown Gap in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania and has facilities in more than eighty locations across the state.
History
1700s
The Pennsylvania National Guard dates back to 1747 when Ben Franklin created the Associators in Philadelphia. Having overcome the long pacifist tradition of Pennsylvania's founding Quakers, Benjamin Franklin lead approximately 600 "gentlemen and merchants" of Philadelphia in signing the Articles of Association to provide for a common defense against Indian raiders and French privateers. These "Associators" (today's 111th Infantry Regiment and 103rd Brigade Engineer Battalion) are recognized as the foundation of the Pennsylvania National Guard. Within months, the Philadelphia Associators had brother units throughout the commonwealth. In 1755, the Pennsylvania Assembly passed the first Militia Act, formally authorizing a volunteer militia.
Shortly after the start of the American Revolutionary War, the First Troop, Philadelphia City Cavalry escorted General George Washington to New York to take command of the Continental Army after it was created by an act of the Second Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. The Army's first units included a regiment of rifle companies from Pennsylvania. During the American Revolution, Pennsylvania supplied 6,000 troops—4,500 of them Associators—for military operations in New York. In all, tens of thousands of Pennsylvania soldiers were called to service over the next seven years.
After the American Revolution, the nation was put to the test when the militia in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was called upon to put down fellow citizens in the western part of the state during the Whiskey Rebellion. More than 4,000 militiamen from Pennsylvania served.
1800s
During the War of 1812, Pennsylvania forces again volunteered to defend the nation and the Commonwealth. Altogether, more than 14,000 Pennsylvanians actively served. During the Battle of Lake Erie, an artillery company provided volunteers to serve as cannoneers on Commodore Perry's fleet. That unit is known today as Wilkes-Barre's 109th Field Artillery Regiment. Future president James Buchanan was a private in the Pennsylvania militia during the defense of Baltimore.
During the Mexican War, Pennsylvania provided two regiments of volunteer militiamen from across the Commonwealth. Many of these companies that answered the call were already formed from existing regiments within Pennsylvania's militia structure.
During the Civil War, after President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to fight for the union, five units from the Lehigh Valley and Lewistown (Logan Guards) were quickly assembled and sent for protection. Lincoln called them “The First Defenders.” These units, from the Lehigh Valley, are the predecessors of today's 213th Regional Support Group (RSG) based out of Allentown. More than 200 Pennsylvania Regiments took part in the American Civil War in 24 major campaigns.
On April 7, 1870, the term “militia” was replaced with the “National Guard of Pennsylvania."
In 1877, thousands of Pennsylvania Guardsman were called up to restore order during the Railroad Strike of 1877. The rioting was worst in Pittsburgh. Five Guardsman and 20 civilians were killed in the violence.
In 1898, the entire Pennsylvania division was mobilized and mustered into federal service at Mount Gretna for the Spanish-American War. Pennsylvania Guard units saw action in Puerto Rico and the Philippines.
1900s
In 1916, mobilization of the Commonwealth citizens occurred at Mt. Gretna for service on the Mexican Border. As troops began to come home, their mobilizations continued into the Great War, known today as World War I. The Pennsylvania division, now known as the 28th Division, was called up in the wake of America's entry into World War I. The division took part in six major campaigns in France and Belgium resulting in more than 14,000 battle casualties. With its entry into the war, the American forces helped turn the tide to the Allied victory. The 28th Division's ferocity in combat earned it the title "Iron Division" from General John “Black Jack” Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Force.
In 1924, the 103rd Observation Squadron was organized at the Philadelphia Airport under the 28th Division. After World War II, the unit became the forerunner of today's Pennsylvania Air National Guard.
By 1939, the world was once again at war. Ten months before the Attack on Pearl Harbor, the 28th Division was ordered into federal service. After America entered World War II, the division trained extensively, both in the homeland and abroad in England and Wales. Landing in France after D-Day, the division fought through Normandy, helped liberate Paris, and ended up bitterly engaged along the "West Wall" of Germany in November 1944. One month later, during the Battle of the Bulge, the division proved instrumental in stalling the last German offensive of the war. The German High Command nicknamed the division "Bloody Bucket" following the fierce battles of the Hurtgen Forest and the Bulge. The unit suffered more than 25,000 casualties of which 2,000 were killed in action. Elsewhere in the war, the division's 111th Regiment was detached to serve in the Pacific; Pennsylvania's 213th Regiment saw action in North Africa and Italy, while other units served across the globe.
In 1947, The Pennsylvania Air National Guard was formally established.
For its efforts during the Korean War, the 28th Infantry Division was mobilized to reinforce NATO forces and was sent to Germany. Several other Pennsylvania National Guard units saw active service in Korea.
On September 11, 1950, in route to Camp Atterbury, Indiana, the 109th Field Artillery was involved in a train wreck in which another train on the same track ran into the rear of the troop train, killing 33 service members from two different batteries. More than 1,000 National Guardsmen from various sections of the state, who had not been summoned for federal service, acted as a guard of honor for the bodies.
Pennsylvania Air National Guard airlift units flew 134 supply missions to Vietnam during 1966–1967, becoming the first reserve air force to ever enter a combat zone without being mobilized.
In 1972, the worst natural disaster to-date struck the Commonwealth occurred, Tropical Storm Agnes. As a result of the extensive damage caused by storms and flooding, the Pennsylvania National Guard was engaged in relief operations. The storm hit June 21, 1972. Guard units began relief operations from June 22 through August 6, 1972. It affected 122 communities in 35 out of the 67 Pennsylvania counties, with the hardest hit area being the Wyoming Valley region (Wilkes-Barre in Luzerne County). More than 55,000 homes were completely destroyed, thousands of additional homes damaged, and 126 bridges destroyed. There were more than $35 million in crop damages, more than 200,000 telephones out of service, 49 deaths, and property damages well over $3 billion. For the National Guard, a major call up was ordered. There were 12,036 Army National Guard and 644 Air National Guard members, for a total of 12,680 Pennsylvania National Guard personnel on duty during the flood.
During the invasion of Grenada the Pennsylvania Air Guard's 193d Special Operations Group (today's 193d Special Operations Wing) provided airborne broadcasting and surveillance during the U.S. invasion. Later missions in Panama, Haiti and elsewhere earned the 193rd the distinction of being the most-deployed unit in the entire Air Force.
After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, eight Army and Air Guard units from Pennsylvania were mobilized for duty during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Among ANG units involved were the 193rd Special Operations Wing, flying C-130s modified to transmit radio and television signals, and the 171st Air Refueling Wing. Seemingly the four Army units were scheduled to all return home by May 1991. Every member returned home safely.
Following the end of the Cold War, National Guard State Partnership Programs were established across Europe. The Pennsylvania–Lithuania National Guard Partnership was initiated in 1993 as part of a U.S. initiative to promote the growth of democratic institutions among the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union.
2000s
Approximately 1,100 28th Infantry Division Soldiers became the command element of NATO peacekeeping operations in Bosnia from 2002 to 2003.
28th Infantry Division units become the first Guard command element for peacekeeping operations in eastern Kosovo from 2003 to 2004. The 213th Area Support Group, Co. G, 104th Aviation and several smaller support units deployed in support of Operations Enduring and Iraqi Freedom.
Approximately 2,000 Pennsylvania Soldiers and Airmen were deployed in 2004 in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom to search for weapons of mass destruction, provide convoy security, rebuild infrastructure, and protect senior officials.
Approximately 750 Soldiers assigned to Task Force Dragoon helped to protect 29 polling locations during Iraq's first free election in 2005. Task Force Dragoon units returned home in November. An additional 2,100 Soldiers from the 28th Infantry Division's 2d Brigade Combat Team, augmented by 2,000 Soldiers from 30 other states, touched down in Iraq in June. Known as the "Iron Brigade," Soldiers conducted convoy escorts and patrols, and provided training for Iraqi civil defense forces.
On September 1, 2005, Governor Edward G. Rendell mobilized 2,500 Pennsylvania Army and Air National Guard members to support hurricane disaster relief efforts along the Gulf Coast. Pennsylvania National Guard personnel arrived over the weekend of September 3–5. The relief mission lasted approximately 30 days.
2007 was a major year for the Pennsylvania National Guard. About 380 Soldiers from 3rd Battalion, 103rd Armored Regiment deployed to Afghanistan. At the same time, approximately 400 Soldiers of the 104th Cavalry departed for a deployment to the Sinai Peninsula. Members of these troops stood watch along the border between Egypt and Israel to ensure that the 1978 Camp David Accords peace agreement was upheld. Units from the 213th Air Defense Artillery Battalion, 131st Transportation Company, 104th Aviation, 228th Brigade Support Battalion, 107th Field Artillery, and 28th Division Support Command returned from their overseas deployments. Both Army and Air National Guard members deployed to the Mexican Border. Members of the 201st Red Horse Squadron helped construct new roads and border wall sections.
In 2010 the governor of Pennsylvania mobilized members of the 193rd Special Operations Wing to take part in a humanitarian assistance mission in Haiti, which was impacted by a major earthquake.
Several hundred Soldiers from the 3rd Squadron, 278th Armored Cavalry Regiment deployed to Poland in 2019 for a NATO mission.
In September 2020, about 1,000 Soldiers from the 28th Expeditionary Combat Aviation Brigade deployed to the Middle East, where they provided aviation assets at several locations for United States Central Command. Prior to deploying, the brigade completed pre-deployment training at Fort Hood, Texas.
In January 2021, following the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, over 2,000 Pennsylvania National Guard members were activated and deployed to Washington, D.C., to provide support to the District of Columbia National Guard and federal law-enforcement agencies. About 450 additional Pa. Guard members were activated to help provide security at the Pennsylvania capital in Harrisburg and other locations in the state. After those missions concluded, about 450 other Pa. Guard members were activated and deployed to Washington, D.C., in February 2021 to support federal law-enforcement agencies for several weeks.
Major Units
Army
28th Infantry Division (Harrisburg)
2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Washington, Pa.)
28th Expeditionary Combat Aviation Brigade (Fort Indiantown Gap)
55th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade (Scranton)
56th Stryker Brigade Combat Team (Willow Grove)
213th Regional Support Group (Allentown)
Fort Indiantown Gap Training Center
Eastern Army National Guard Aviation Training Site (Fort Indiantown Gap)
166th Regiment Regional Training Institute (Fort Indiantown Gap)
Pennsylvania Army National Guard Recruiting and Retention Battalion (Fort Indiantown Gap)
Air
111th Attack Wing (Willow Grove)
171st Air Refueling Wing (Pittsburgh)
193rd Special Operations Wing (Middletown)
Leadership
The command element of the Pennsylvania National Guard is the Joint Staff.
Commander-in-Chief: Governor Josh Shapiro
Adjutant General: Army Major General Mark J. Schindler
Deputy Adjutant General - Army: Army Brigadier General Laura A. McHugh
Deputy Adjutant General - Air: Air Force Brigadier General Michael J. Regan Jr.
Director of the Joint Staff: Air Force Brigadier General Terrence Koudelka
Senior Enlisted Leader: Army Command Sergeant Major Shawn Phillips
Adjutants General of Pennsylvania
Brigadier General Josiah Harmar - 1793 to February 27, 1799
Brigadier General Peter Baynton - February 27, 1799 to 1802
Brigadier General Richard Humpton - 1802 to January 1, 1805
Brigadier General Mahlon Dickerson - January 1, 1805 to July 22, 1808
Brigadier General Thomas McKean, Jr. - July 22, 1808 to August 3, 1811
Brigadier General William Reed - August 3, 1811 to June 15, 1813 (died in office)
Brigadier General William N. Irvine - July 6, 1813 to September 20, 1813
Brigadier General William Duncan - September 20, 1813 to August 1, 1814
Brigadier General John N. Hyneman - August 1, 1814 to March 21, 1816
Brigadier General Nathaniel B. Boileau - March 21, 1816 to October 1, 1816
Brigadier General William N. Irvine - October 1, 1816 to August 23, 1821
Brigadier General Robert Carr - August 23, 1821 to August 4, 1824
Brigadier General George B. Porter - August 4, 1824 to August 19, 1829
Brigadier General Simon Cameron - August 19, 1829 to May 3, 1830
Brigadier General Samuel Power - May 3, 1830 to August 3, 1836
Brigadier General William Piper - August 3, 1836 to August 3, 1839
Brigadier General James K. Moorehead - August 3, 1839 to August 12, 1839 (declined after appointed)
Brigadier General Adam Diller - August 12, 1839 to July 15, 1845
Brigadier General George W. Bowman - July 15, 1845 to November 21, 1848
Brigadier General William H. Irwin - November 21, 1848 to February 2, 1852
Brigadier General James Keenan - February 2, 1852 to October 18, 1852
Brigadier General George W. Bowman - October 18, 1852 to October 25, 1856
Brigadier General Thomas J. Power - October 25, 1856 to February 5, 1858
Brigadier General Edwin C. Wilson - February 5, 1858 to April 17, 1861
Brigadier General Edward M. Biddle - April 17, 1861 to January 9, 1862
Brigadier General Alexander L. Russell - January 9, 1862 to October 11, 1867
Brigadier General David B. McCreary - October 11, 1867 to January 4, 1870
Brigadier General Alexander L. Russell - January 4, 1870 to June 1, 1873
Brigadier General James W. Latta - June 1, 1873 to January 16, 1883
Brigadier General Presley N. Guthrie - January 16, 1883 to January 18, 1887
Brigadier General Daniel H. Hastings - January 18, 1887 to January 20, 1891
Brigadier General William McClelland - January 20, 1891 to February 7, 1892 (died in office)
Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Krumbhaar - February 7, 1892 to March 8, 1892
Brigadier General Walter W. Greenland - March 8, 1892 to January 15, 1895
Brigadier General Thomas J. Stewart - January 15, 1895 to September 11, 1917 (died in office)
Colonel Frank D. Beary September 11, 1917 to October 4, 1917
Brigadier General Frank D. Beary October 4, 1917 to January 20, 1931
Brigadier General David J. Davis - January 20, 1931 to January 15, 1935
Brigadier General Frederick Blair Kerr - January 15, 1935 to January 17, 1939
Major General Edward Martin - January 17, 1939 to January 20, 1943
Brigadier General Robert M. Vail - January 20, 1943 to April 19, 1955
Major General A. J. Drexel Biddle Jr. - April 19, 1955 to April 4, 1961
Major General Malcolm Hay - April 11, 1961 to January 15, 1963
Major General Thomas R. White Jr. - January 15, 1963 to February 20, 1968 (died in office)
Major General Richard Snyder - May 6, 1968 to April 19, 1972
Major General Harry J. Mier Jr. - April 19, 1972 to April 28, 1977
Major General Nicholas P. Kafkalas - April 28, 1977 to February 16, 1979
Major General Richard M. Scott - February 16, 1979 to January 20, 1987
Major General Gerald T. Sajer - January 20, 1987 to April 15, 1995
Major General James W. Mac Vay - April 15, 1995 to March 23, 1999
Major General William B. Lynch - March 23, 1999 to March 5, 2004
Major General Jessica L. Wright - March 5, 2004 to November 7, 2010
Major General Stephen M. Sischo - November 7, 2010 to February 3, 2011
Major General Wesley E. Craig - February 3, 2011 to January 20, 2015
Major General James R. Joseph - January 20, 2015 to March 11, 2016
Major General Anthony J. Carrelli - March 11, 2016 to December 5, 2020
Major General Mark J. Schindler - December 5, 2020 to present
State Partnership Program
As part of the National Guard's State Partnership Program, the Pennsylvania National Guard has had a partnership with Lithuania since 1993. Since the beginning of the partnership the two sides have had over 700 total engagements, including military exercises, senior leader exchanges, strategic planning, professional development and defense support to civil authorities training.
Gallery
See also
Associators
Pennsylvania National Guard awards and decorations
List of Pennsylvania state agencies
Media Armory
Pennsylvania State Guard
References
External links
PA Department of Military and Veterans Affairs official website
Pennsylvania National Guard Associations
Pennsylvania National Guard Quarterly Magazine - Guardians |
4562275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermont%20National%20Guard | Vermont National Guard | The Vermont National Guard is composed of the Vermont Army National Guard and the Vermont Air National Guard. Together, they are collectively known as the Green Mountain Boys. Both units use the original Revolutionary War-era Flag of the Green Mountain Boys as their banner. In 2009, they had 2,600 members.
History
Colonial
Settlers relied on the militia almost from the moment they began moving into Vermont in the mid-1700s. Units were often formed as needed, and usually for brief periods of time. Since most Vermonters had obtained land grants from New Hampshire's governor, they relied on the militia to resist attempts by the government of New York to exert control over the grants. However, Vermonters were also willing to work with the British colonies when it suited them, and several early Vermont settlers served as militia in the French and Indian War.
In the late 1760s and early 1770s, the militia took on a more organized structure and formalized its name, the Green Mountain Boys, with Ethan Allen appointed as Colonel and commandant, and Seth Warner and Remember Baker as company commanders with the rank of Captain. In Vermont's pre-Revolutionary War days, the legislature or committee of safety would generally call out the militia as needed, its members would elect their leaders, and the legislature or committee of safety would confirm them. On occasion, the elections by members were not ratified. Perhaps the most noteworthy example of this occurred in 1775, when the Green Mountain Boys became part of the Continental Army, and the committee of safety selected Warner over Allen as colonel and commander.
Since Vermont was not part of the British colonies that declared independence, the Continental Congress did not automatically accept Allen's and Warner's request for the Green Mountain Boys to be directly accessed into the army. Instead, they asked Allen and Warner to work through New York's Provincial Congress to facilitate the process. New York agreed and provided uniforms, equipment and pay, as well as authorizing officer's commissions. When Allen was denied the command, he met with Major General Philip Schuyler and offered to serve in any capacity—with a commission or without, with pay or without. Overcoming his previous misgivings about Allen, Schuyler accepted, and Allen was appointed a Lieutenant Colonel in the Continental Army.
When Schuyler gave up command temporarily because of illness he was succeeded by Richard Montgomery. Montgomery allowed Allen to attempt to raise troops for an invasion of Canada. Allen was captured at the Battle of Longue-Pointe and spent over two years as a prisoner of war.
With the Green Mountain Boys called to active duty, Vermont reorganized its militia to defend the border with Canada and protect Vermont from invasion. After Allen's release, he returned to Vermont and was appointed commander of the reorganized militia. Roger Enos, the father-in-law of Ira Allen, and a veteran of over twenty years in the Connecticut and Vermont militias, was later appointed commander with the rank of Brigadier General, and he was later promoted to Major General.
Statehood
After Vermont attained statehood, its militia was organized into several divisions. The governor served as head of the militia, with the title “Captain General and Commander in Chief”, and the division commanders, who held the rank of major general, reported to the adjutant general, who reported to the governor. Noteworthy among the individuals who commanded divisions during this period was Martin Chittenden, the son of Thomas Chittenden, Vermont's first governor.
Though most Vermonters did not support fighting the British in the War of 1812, preferring the economic prosperity they derived from trade with the British dominion of Canada, units of the state militia were mobilized after the British invaded upstate New York, with General Samuel Strong of Vergennes leading a successful Vermont Militia attack at Plattsburgh as part of an American effort that resulted in a British retreat.
Martin Chittenden served in the U.S. House from 1803 to 1813, and as governor from 1813 to 1815. As one of the majority of Vermonters who opposed U.S. involvement in the War of 1812, in November, 1813 he issued an order for Vermont Militia units that had been mobilized and sent to New York to return immediately to Vermont, arguing that the federal government had no right to command state militia troops, and that the militia was needed to guard Vermont's border with Canada. The commander in Plattsburgh, General Jacob Davis of Milton, positively refused, countering that once the militia was ordered into federal service, it was no longer subject to the governor's orders.
U.S. forces, including the Vermont Militia, remained encamped near Plattsburgh until they returned home in December, and Chittenden took no action against Davis. U.S. House members from Kentucky who supported the War of 1812 introduced resolutions calling for criminal charges to be pursued against Chittenden, which were never acted on, but Vermont public opinion on the war had changed and Vermonters demonstrated their displeasure with Chittenden's stance by defeating his bid for a third one-year term in 1815.
In the wake of the War of 1812, the federal government attempted to standardize training and laws governing call up and mobilization for militia organizations throughout the United States. As a result, state governors were no longer in direct command with military rank, but appointed an adjutant general who reported directly to the governor and served as commander of the state militia. As with other states, Vermont's adjutant general was originally appointed by the governor. Subsequent changes to Vermont law conferred this appointment power on the state legislature, which still elects the adjutant general every two years. (A few other states also modified their selection process. As one example, until 2014 the adjutant general in South Carolina was elected statewide directly by the voters.)
The Vermont adjutant general's office was marked in the 1820s and 1830s by efforts to reenergize the militia after interest started to lapse following the War of 1812.
In the 1830s and 1840s militia activity nationwide was on the wane, largely the result of the long period of relative peace that followed the War of 1812. Militia membership, once compulsory, was rife with exemptions. Regular drills were replaced by once a year “muster days” that were more picnic than military formation. Vermont was no exception, and its militia records for this era are incomplete.
In the late 1830s the Vermont Legislature began to reenergize its military.
From the late 1830s on, the office worked in conjunction with the faculty of Norwich University to reorganize and obtain funding for the militia, and convened annual meetings of like-minded individuals to plan ways to increase participation.
Civil War
H. H. Baxter, Vermont's adjutant general in the late 1850s and early 1860s, was commended for taking measures to prepare the militia for mobilization in anticipation of the Civil War. At the outbreak of hostilities his office oversaw recruiting, equipping and training of federal volunteers, and mustered in the first Vermonters activated for wartime service, the 1st Vermont Infantry Regiment.
During the Civil War Peter T. Washburn, Baxter's successor, earned accolades for bringing order to the process of recruiting, equipping, training and transporting recruits for the Union Army, working with Norwich University to develop a process that was later adopted by other Union states.
During the Civil War, the Vermont militia was formed into the 1st Vermont Brigade and 2nd Vermont Brigade and served most notably in the battles of Gettysburg (July 1863), Wilderness (May 1864), and Cedar Creek (October 1864).
Post Civil War
After the Civil War, successive Vermont Adjutants General initiated efforts to obtain benefits for Vermont's Civil War veterans, including establishment of the Vermont Soldiers' Home.
In the late 1890s, the Adjutant General of Vermont was responsible for preparing Vermont units to take part in the Spanish–American War (1898).
20th century
In the early 1900s a major project undertaken by Vermont's adjutants general was a renovation and cataloging of the Vermont National Guard's archives, including muster rolls, payrolls and unit rosters dating back to the Revolution.
Two World Wars
Herbert Johnson became acting adjutant general in 1917 when the incumbent resigned to join the regular army for World War I; then adjutant general in 1919. He served for 24 years, and remained Vermont's longest-serving adjutant general.
During World War I (1917–1918), Vermont National Guard units served with the 26th Infantry Division (a.k.a. the "Yankee" Division).
Johnson and his staff oversaw the construction of 12 new armories and the modernizing and reorganizing of the Vermont National Guard after World War I. Johnson also advocated improved relations between the regular army and the National Guard, including the standardization of training and unit organizations.
During the Flood of 1927, the Vermont National Guard overcame the downing of telephone and telegraph lines by following Johnson's directive to operate on their own initiative during recovery efforts, and the National Guard took part in evacuations of people from flooded areas, clearing roads, and providing food, water and other emergency aid.
In the early to mid-1930s Johnson worked to maintain funding for the National Guard while states and the federal government struggled with the loss of revenue caused by the Great Depression. These efforts to preserve the Guard's readiness and force structure were later acknowledged by historians to have played an important part in the Army's rapid response after the US entered World War II.
World War II and the Korean War
Johnson and his successor, Murdoch Campbell, received accolades for organizing the volunteer Vermont State Guard that performed many state duties while National Guard soldiers were deployed in the European and Pacific Theaters during World War II.
During World War II (1941–1945), Vermont National Guard units served with the 43rd Infantry Division (a.k.a. the "Winged Victory" Division) in the Pacific Theater of War, notably in the Solomons and on Luzon in the Philippines. The 2nd Battalion of the 172nd Infantry Regiment earned a Presidential Unit Citation for combat actions during the Battle of the Ipo Dam, Luzon in mid May 1945.
Campbell also received credit for successfully deploying the Vermont National Guard during the Korean War, organizing the Vermont Air National Guard, modernizing armories, and converting Vermont units from Infantry to Armor.
Vermont National Guard units were deployed to Germany during the Korean War.
Cold War era
In 1964 the 86th Armored Brigade was established as a separate brigade of the Vermont Army National Guard.
In September 1966 Adjutant General Francis W. Billado died. From September until December Deputy Adjutant General Reginald Cram acted as adjutant general. In December, 1966 Democratic Governor Philip Hoff named Brigadier General Wayne Page, commander of the 86th Armored Brigade, business executive and chairman of the Lamoille County Republican Party, to temporarily fill the adjutant general's position. Cram resigned as deputy adjutant general when Page was sworn in, and then campaigned against Page in the Republican-controlled Vermont General Assembly for a full term as adjutant general. In an upset, Cram defeated Page in the legislature's February, 1967 secret ballot election, ending Page's three-month tenure. Cram served until 1981, while Page retired from the military.
Subsequent reorganizations of the National Guard resulted in the 86th Armored Brigade, which had been a separate organization, becoming part of the 50th Armored Division, then the 26th Infantry Division, and later the 42nd Infantry Division.
On 1 September 1982, the 3rd Battalion, 172nd Infantry Regiment was activated as a mountain warfare unit, a unique unit in the army.
Several Vermont National Guard organizations were activated for Operation Desert Storm, including the 131st Engineer Company, which served in Southwest Asia. The 131st Engineer Company had also been activated for federal service during the Vietnam War.
In 1997 the Vermont National Guard made history when Martha Rainville became the first woman to ever serve as a state adjutant general.
The Vermont National Guard also continued to perform its state mission, including responding after a massive ice storm in 1998.
21st century
Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, Vermont Army and Air National Guard members performed missions in support of Operations Noble Eagle, Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Iraq.
1st Battalion, 86th Field Artillery was inactivated in 2010. 1st Battalion, 101st Field Artillery is now the artillery battalion assigned to the 86th Brigade, and the battalion includes one battery in Vermont.
1st Battalion, 172nd Armor and 2nd Battalion, 172nd Armor were both inactivated as the result of the 86th Brigade's conversion to Infantry. Most units were reconfigured as parts of 1-172 Cavalry or the 86th Brigade Special Troops Battalion.
In July 2023, Tracey Poirier, the Vermont National Guard's director of the joint staff, was promoted to brigadier general, the first female to attain general officer's rank in the Vermont Army National Guard.
Adjutants general
In the 1790s Vermont created the positions of adjutant general, inspector general and quartermaster general. Sometimes one individual filled all three positions, and sometimes they were filled separately. The adjutant general (sometimes abbreviated AG for adjutant general or TAG for "the adjutant general") is the senior uniformed military officer in the state, and is responsible for the recruiting, administration, equipping, training, maintenance and readiness of the National Guard. The adjutant general oversees preparations for out-of-state deployments when the National Guard is federally mobilized. The AG also directs the Guard's activities within the state when on state active duty.
In Vermont the adjutant general is elected to a two-year term by the Vermont General Assembly. In the event of a vacancy when the legislature is not in session, the governor is authorized to make a temporary appointment. The election previously took place in February of odd-numbered years, and the term started in March. In 2022, the General Assembly passed legislation moving the election of the adjutant general to February of each even-numbered year beginning in 2024, with the two-year term to begin in March. In addition, the legislation details qualifications candidates for the position must possess, including: having attained the rank of colonel; be a currently serving member of the U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army Reserve, U.S. Air Force Reserve, Army National Guard, or Air National Guard, or be eligible to return to service in the Army or Air National Guard; be a graduate of a Senior Service College; and be eligible for federal recognition as a general officer.
The individuals who have served as Vermont's adjutant general include:
Naming of Vermont National Guard State Headquarters
The Vermont National Guard's main site is Camp Johnson in Colchester. In 1894 the Vermont General Assembly authorized purchase of a portion of Fort Ethan Allen for use as a National Guard training site. In 1898 the 1st Vermont Infantry Regiment mustered there for the Spanish–American War. In 1900 the Vermont National Guard took possession. This site, christened the State Military Reservation, was named Camp Olympia for the flagship of George Dewey, a native Vermonter. It was later named for successive Governors, and used for both individual and unit training and as a staging area for mobilizations. In 1945 the State Reservation was permanently renamed Camp Johnson to honor Herbert T. Johnson, the adjutant general who led Vermont's military during and in between the world wars, and Vermont's second longest-serving adjutant general.
Units
86th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Mountain)(formerly the 86th Infantry Brigade and 86th Armored Brigade (1925–2007, motto "Ready to Go")) is the primary army force in the VT NG.
1st Squadron,172d Cavalry Regiment (Vermont)
A Troop (Newport, Vermont)
B Troop (Bennington, Vermont)
C Troop (Lyndonville, Vermont)
Headquarters and Headquarters Troop (St. Albans, Vermont)
Company D, 186th Brigade Support Battalion (attached) (Swanton, Vermont)
1st Battalion, 102d Infantry Regiment (Connecticut)
A Company (Norwalk)
B Company (Middletown)
C Company (New Britain)
D Company (Middletown)
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (New Haven)
F Company, 186th Brigade Support Battalion (attached) (Southington)
3d Battalion, 172d Infantry Regiment (Mountain)
A Company (Jericho, Vermont)
B Company (Brewer, Maine)
C Company (Milford, New Hampshire)
HHC, Ethan Allen Firing Range (Jericho, Vermont)
Company G, 186th Brigade Support Battalion (attached) (Morrisville, Vermont)
1st Battalion, 101st Field Artillery Regiment (United States)
Headquarters & Headquarters Battery (MA)
A Battery (MA)
B Battery (VT)
186th Brigade Support Battalion
A Company (Berlin, Vermont)
B Company (Winooski, Vermont)
C Company (Winooski, Vermont)
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (Northfield, Vermont)
Garrison Support Command
86th Troop Command
131st Engineer Company (HO)
40th Army Band
172d Public Affairs Detachment
Company C, 3d Battalion, 126th Aviation Regiment (Air Ambulance)
Detachment 27, Operational Support Airlift Command
172d Military Police Detachment
15th Civil Support Team (WMD)
124th Regiment (Regional Training Institute). The 124th Regiment (RTI)'s designation recognizes a former Vermont Army National Guard unit, the 124th Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion.
U.S. Army Mountain Warfare School
2d Battalion (Modular Training)
3d Battalion (Information Operations)
Vermont Air National Guard
The 158th Fighter Wing was formed in 1946. From 1989 to 1997, the wing was an Air Defense Unit, with aircraft on 5-minute alert, seven days a week, 24 hours a day.
Other components of the Vermont Air Guard include:
134th Fighter Squadron
158th Aircraft Generation Squadron
158th Civil Engineering Squadron
158th Communications Flight
158th Logistics Group
158th Medical Squadron
158th Operations Group
158th Operations Support Flight
158th Security Forces Squadron
158th Student Flight
158th Support Group
229th Cyber Operations Squadron
F-16 use
The Vermont Air Guard has used F-16s since 1986. On Friday November 14, 2008, they retired the longest flying Block 25 F-16C in the United States, tail number 83-1165, which will go on display in Vermont before eventually being moved to the Smithsonian Air & Space Museum.
See also
List of United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War
References
External links
Vermont Air National Guard
Bibliography of Vermont Army National Guard History compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
Major Tom Slear, 'The Vermont Guard's Tough Mountain Warfare School', ARMY Magazine, Vol. 39, No. 11, 1989
National Guard (United States)
Military units and formations in Vermont |
4562362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry%20Hill%20High%20School%20East | Cherry Hill High School East | Cherry Hill High School East (also known as Cherry Hill East or CHE) is a four-year comprehensive public high school serving students in ninth through twelfth grades in Cherry Hill, in Camden County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey, operating as part of the Cherry Hill Public Schools. Cherry Hill East is one of three high schools in the district; the others are Cherry Hill High School West and Cherry Hill Alternative High School.
As of the 2021–22 school year, the school had an enrollment of 2,076 students and 144.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 14.4:1. There were 166 students (8.0% of enrollment) eligible for free lunch and 39 (1.9% of students) eligible for reduced-cost lunch.
History
Due to delays in the construction of the new school building, the entering class of 450 students at Cherry Hill East began the 1966–67 school year attending split sessions at the original Cherry Hill High School building.
Constructed at a cost of $4 million (equivalent to $ million in ), the school building opened in January 1967 as the township's second high school facility. What then became known as Cherry Hill High School West was the first public high school in Cherry Hill. The first class graduated in June 1970, having started their freshman year in the Fall of 1966 in the West building doing split sessions until the East building was ready for occupancy in January 1967. The class of 1970 was the only class in the new building until the class of 1971 arrived in Fall 1967. By Fall 1969, the building housed all four grades.
Social activism
Student demonstrations for school security
On February 26, 2018, in the wake of the Stoneman Douglas high school shooting and the March for Our Lives Movement, student leaders staged an auditorium protest against the suspension of a popular history teacher after the teacher claimed that a school shooting was imminent at Cherry Hill East, stating "I have the gun". The following day, hundreds of students staged a school walkout. They walked through the school's sidewalks and 17 laps around the track field in honor of the 17 victims of the Stoneman Douglas shooting. The walkout lasted around an hour before students returned to class. A petition urging the teacher's reinstatement was signed by 500 students. During a school board meeting with Cherry Hill Public Schools Superintendent Joseph Meloche that night, frustrated parents and students voiced their grievances about the school's security and the teacher's suspension.
Student advocacy for mandatory African-American history course
A group of East students from the Cherry Hill East African American Culture Club advocated for a mandatory African American history course in order to graduate. After impassioned speeches by student activists from a variety of backgrounds at a virtual board meeting for Cherry Hill Public Schools in February 2021, the board voted 8–0 to make the course a requirement for graduation. This mandate, the first of its kind in the state, has been in effect since the 2021–2022 school year course.
Awards, recognition and rankings
For the 2001–02 school year, Cherry Hill High School East received the National Blue Ribbon Award of Excellence from the United States Department of Education, the highest honor that an American school can achieve.
In 2015, Newsweek ranked Cherry Hill High School East the 85th best high school in the nation out of 22,000 schools.
In its 2013 report on "America's Best High Schools", The Daily Beast ranked the school 354th in the nation among participating public high schools and 29th among schools in New Jersey.
In the 2011 "Ranking America's High Schools" issue by The Washington Post, the school was ranked 65th in New Jersey and 1,833rd nationwide. The school was ranked 1,664th nationwide, the 66th-highest in New Jersey, in Newsweek magazine's 2010 rankings of America's Best High Schools. In Newsweek's 2007 edition of "America's Top Public High Schools" ranked Cherry Hill High School East in 1,258th place, the 38th-highest ranked school in New Jersey.
The school was the 40th-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 339 schools statewide in New Jersey Monthly magazine's September 2014 cover story on the state's "Top Public High Schools", using a new ranking methodology. The school had been ranked 98th in the state of 328 schools in 2012, after being ranked 57th in 2010 out of 322 schools listed. The magazine ranked the school 61st in 2008 out of 316 schools. The school was ranked 42nd in the magazine's September 2006 issue, which included 316 schools across the state. Schooldigger.com ranked the school tied for 36th out of 381 public high schools statewide in its 2011 rankings (an increase of 16 positions from the 2010 ranking) which were based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the mathematics (93.3%) and language arts literacy (98.3%) components of the High School Proficiency Assessment (HSPA).
Cherry Hill High School East won the 1998 National High School Mock Trial Championship, held in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
The American Scholastic Press Association named Cherry Hill High School East's newspaper Eastside number one in the country in 2005, 2017, and 2019, and number one in the state from 2007 to 2019.
In 2009, the team representing Cherry Hill High School East produced a documentary that placed nationally in the Senior Group Documentary division of the National History Day competition in College Park, Maryland.
In 2021, a team of 3 students from Cherry Hill High School East was recognized for their app "Apollo" in the Congressional App Challenge.
Grade-fixing scandal
In 2007, the school received coverage for a grade-fixing incident after two students were found to have used a teacher's password to hack into the board of education's database and change at least six other students' grades. In September 2006, during a routine check, the school became aware of the changes and began an investigation with the police. In January 2007, two students were arrested for the crime and charged with third degree computer theft. One was a freshman at Drexel University while the other was still a senior at East. The students received probation after pleading guilty. Four more students were disciplined by the school for paying the two hackers to change their grades.
2018 STOPit school shooting threats
In 2018, in the aftermath of the Parkland school shooting, the school district had adopted the STOPit app to enable students to report safety concerns to guidance counselors and school administrators. On September 7, 2018, an incident was reported on STOPit about a student who had made remarks about plotting a school shooting at Cherry Hill East. This report had included details about this particular student's remarks in person and on social media, discussing potential targets, and this person's alleged goals to kill as many students as possible and to make national headlines. A "shelter-in-place" was called because the student allegedly making these threats could not be located. The student was located and questioned by the police. This student convinced school officials and the police they never made threats against Cherry Hill East and identified a possible suspect. The suspect sparred evenly with questioning by school officials, but eventually confessed. Assistant Principal Louis C. Papa called this "a criminal act" and stated that appropriate actions were taken by the school district and the police against this student
Robotics
The Cherry Hill High School East Robotics club is one of the top programs in the state, consistently sending at least one team to the Vex Robotics World Championship since 2009. The teams have received numerous awards and acknowledgements both within the state and the world. The school has hosted the New Jersey state championship, at which the 2616B team has won the New Jersey state championship for the last three years. The 2616F team (Frightening Lightning) qualified for the World Championship in their rookie year (2013) and won the Teamwork award there. In the 2014 season they won multiple awards and competed at the World Championship again, along with 2616B and 2616D.
Athletics
The Cherry Hill High School East Cougars compete in the Olympic Conference, which is comprised of public and private high schools located in Burlington, Camden and Gloucester counties, and is overseen by the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA). With 1,649 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group IV for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 1,060 to 5,049 students in that grade range. The football team competes in the Classic Division of the 94-team West Jersey Football League superconference and was classified by the NJSIAA as Group V South for football for 2022–2024, which included schools with 1,315 to 2,466 students.
Baseball
The varsity boys' baseball team won the 2014 Mingo Bay Classic in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. They also won the 1986 and 1998 Olympic Conference Championship. In 2019, the team won the Olympic Conference American Division title and reached the South Jersey, Group 4 sectional final and won the South Jersey Group IV Title in 1998.
Cross country
The varsity boys' cross country team won the South Jersey Group IV boys' NJSIAA sectional championships in 2013 and 2014. They won their first ever state Group IV boys' NJSIAA championship in 2014.
Basketball
East basketball teams are consistently ranked in the Top Ten in South Jersey. The team won its first ever South Jersey Group IV boys' NJSIAA championship in 2014, defeating Cherokee High School by a score of 54–41. They retained their South Jersey Group IV title in 2015 with a 48–39 win against Cherokee High School in double overtime. The team is coached by David Allen.
Field hockey
In 1971, the field hockey team won the initial South I sectional championship.
Football
The Cougars used to play their home games at the township stadium, Jonas C. Morris Stadium, which they shared with Cherry Hill High School West, however the team now plays its home games at Cherry Hill East. Annually, the Cougars face cross town rival Cherry Hill West on the night before Thanksgiving, a rivalry described by The Philadelphia Inquirer as "one of the best in South Jersey", in which the winner of the contest receives the Al DiBart Memorial Trophy, also known as "The Boot." In the most recent meeting between the two teams, the Cherry Hill West Lions defeated the Cougars 19–7. Cherry Hill West leads the series 36–15. The Cougars have not won "The Boot" in seven years, last beating West in 2012.
The 1988 football team finished the season with a record of 11-0 after winning the South Jersey Group IV state sectional title by defeating Brick Township High School by a score of 36–14 in the championship game.
Volleyball
The girls' volleyball team won its first New Jersey Group IV state championship in 2005, defeating Hunterdon Central Regional High School in the final game of the playoff tournament.
The boys' volleyball team won New Jersey Group IV state championships in 1996 (vs. Fair Lawn High School), 1997 (vs. West New York Memorial High School) and 1998 (vs. East Brunswick High School). The 1996 team ran their record to 22-0 after defeating defending-champion Fair Lawn in three games (16-14, 11-15 and 15–10) in the finals to win the Group III tournament. The 1998 team finished the season at 21-2 after defeating East Brunswick in two games (15–5 and 15–9) in the finals.
Tennis
The girls tennis team won the South state championship in 1973 and 1975. The team won the Group IV state championship in 1982 (vs. Ridgewood High School in the final match of the tournament), 1983, 1989 (vs. Marlboro High School), 1995 (vs. Middletown High School South), 1997 (vs. Hillsborough High School), 2001 (vs. Livingston High School), 2002 (vs. Watchung Hills Regional High School), 2003 (vs. Bridgewater-Raritan High School) and 2004 (vs. Marlboro HS). The team won the 2003 Tournament of Champions, defeating runner-up Montclair Kimberley Academy. The team's 9 group titles are the sixth-most of any school in the state In 2007, the girls' tennis team won the South Jersey, Group IV state sectional championship with a 4–1 win over Washington Township High School in the tournament final. In 2016, the girls' team repeated as South Jersey, Group IV state sectional champion with a 5–0 win over Egg Harbor Township High School.
The boys tennis team won the Group IV state championship in 1979 (defeating Ridgewood High School in the finals), 1980 (vs. Ridgewood), 1983 (vs. Ridgewood), 1990 (vs. East Brunswick High School), 1991 (vs. East Brunswick), 1993 (vs. Livingston High School), 1994 (vs. Bridgewater-Raritan High School) and 1995 (vs. Westfield High School). The team won the 1991 public school state championship against Haddonfield Memorial High School and then the overall state title, defeating Christian Brothers Academy in the public vs. non-public finals. The program's nine state titles are tied for tenth-most in the state. The team won the public school title in 1979 and ran their season record to 22–0 with a 3–2 win against Glen Ridge High School in the finals played at Princeton University's Jadwin Gymnasium. The 1980 team won the Group IV title with a 5–0 win against a Ridgewood squad that came into the finals with a 23-match winning streak. The team won the 2007 South, Group IV state sectional championship with a string of 5–0 wins over Washington Township High School, Toms River High School North, and ultimately Egg Harbor Township High School in the tournament final.
In 2008, the boys tennis team won the South Group IV championship with a win over Lenape. They advanced to the state Group IV tournament where they beat Ridgewood in the semifinal round before losing to defending champion Westfield by a score of 3–2 in the final. In 2019, the team won the South Jersey Group IV title for the first time since 2008, with a win over Lenape. They advanced to the State Group IV tournament where they suffered a 5–0 loss to top-seeded Montgomery in the first round. The boys tennis team also won the South Jersey Group IV title in 2021 (vs. Cherokee), 2022 (vs. Toms River North), and 2023 (vs. Lenape) making the Cougars South Group IV champions four years in a row (the 2020 tennis season was cancelled due to Covid-19).
Bowling
The boys' bowling team won the overall state championship in 1979. The team won the Group III title in 2007 and went on to win the sport's first Tournament of Champions.
Ice hockey
Cherry Hill High School East has a separate club ice hockey team as a member of the South Jersey High School Ice Hockey League. The team won four consecutive Varsity-Tier II championships in 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020.
Swimming
The boys swim team won the public school state championship in 1971, 1972 and 1973, won the Division A title in 1974 and 1976–1979, won the Public A title in 2002, 2015, 2017 and 2019; the 14 state titles are tied for sixth most in the state. The girls team won the Division A title in 1975, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1997, 1998 and 1999; the ten state titles are the third-most in the state.
As of 2019, the boys' team has had 11 consecutive Central and South Jersey Group A sectional title wins, eight state Group A championship appearances and three state championship wins.
In 2015, the Cougars won their first state title in 13 years. In 2016, East would again lose to Westfield. In the 2017 championship, a rivalry was reborn between East and Bridgewater-Raritan High School. Their first bout led to East winning its second state title in three years. In the 2018 championship, the Cougars were bested by a strong Bridgewater-Raritan team. The two teams faced off again in the 2019 state championship, where East won the match-up. This was the team's third state title in five years.
Track and field
Cherry Hill East had not had a winning season in almost 30 years until the team of 2009–10 finished their season 3–2. In 2012, the boys' spring track team went undefeated and won the Group IV title, Olympic Conference title, and New Jersey state title. They went on to win conference champs again in the 2014 and 2015 outdoor seasons.
Lacrosse
Cherry Hill East added men's lacrosse to their spring athletics program in 2005. In 2011, they won for the first time the "Lacrosse Head", the trophy given to the team that wins the annual Cherry Hill East vs. Cherry Hill West game.
Clubs, intramural sports, and other extracurriculars
As of the 2022–23 school year, Cherry Hill High School East has more than 100 student led clubs, intramural sports, and other extracurriculars.
For example, Cherry Hill High School East has a Book Club, Chemistry Club, Paranormal Club, Culinary Club, Crochet Club, Fashion Club, Frisbee Club, Interact Club, Hospital Support Club, Photography Club, Reptile Club, and History Club. Cherry Hill High School East also has multiple cultural and linguistic clubs, including American Sign Language Club, African-American Culture Club, the Chinese Student Association, the Jewish Student Union, the French National Honor Society, the Indian Cultural Society, the Latin National Honor Society, Multi-Cultural Day Club, and the Latinos & Amigos Club, among others.
Additionally, the school has a number of team-competition based clubs, such as its Robotics Club, World Affairs Council (which includes Model United Nations), Science Olympiad Team, Debate Team, DECA Club, Cheerleading Team, Badminton Team, and Science Olympiad Team.
Notably, the Cherry Hill High School East Robotics Club offers one of the top high school robotics programs in the world. In the virtual 2020 VEX Robotics World Championship, one of the Robotics Club's teams, dubbed the "Jersey Devils", proved victorious in the playoffs with their robot 2616J. Some media sources classify the Robotics Club as the best Robotics Club in the state of New Jersey.
In November 2022, the History Club hosted United States Deputy Secretary of State for Management and Resources Brian P. McKeon for a discussion about the role of the State Department and the country's involvement in global affairs.
Cherry Hill High School East's newspaper, Eastside, produces a 24 page monthly publication and has won the New Jersey Distinguished Journalism Award for the past ten years. Eastside's digital counterpart, Eastside Online, was a 2016 National Online Pacemaker Award winner and has won dozens of Best of SNO awards.
Arts
The Cherry Hill East Music Department is award-winning. In 2007, the Cherry Hill East "East Singers" received a Superior Rating and Best Overall Mixed Ensemble from a Boston Choir Competition.
The East Choral program consists of seven performing groups:
Vocal Workshop: Entry-level choir. Consists of grades 9–12.
Chansons: Women's choir comprised of 10th through 12th-grade women. Auditioned group.
Concert Choir: An auditioned mixed choir consisting of 10th through 12th-grade men and women.
East Singers: An Advanced auditioned mixed choir consisting of 10th through 12th-grade men and women. In addition to school concerts, East Singers performs off-campus in select concerts. They made their Carnegie Hall debut in 1997. They performed Carmina Burana at the Kimmel Center in May 2005 as a Concert for Hope to benefit breast cancer research at City of Hope. The concert raised $40,000. In 2006, they hosted the first East Coffee House that raised $8319.00 for Alex's Lemonade Stand.
Belles of East: Auditioned group of young women who sing and accompany themselves on English hand bells.
Vocé (known as Madrigal Singers until 2014): Auditioned group of young men and women who represent the Renaissance era in both music and costume. The group has competed at the Pennsylvania Renaissance Faire where they have won the Highest Accolades Award.
Stay Tuned: An auditioned group of around young men and women (usually composed of members of The Key of She and Casual Harmony) who compete in a cappella competitions around the state and the country with current hits. In 2016, Stay Tuned starred on a Lifetime docuseries, called Pitch Slapped, following their work with Deke Sharon. Stay Tuned regularly competes in the ICHSA (International Championship for High School A Cappella)
No Longer in East's Music Program
Celebrations: An auditioned group of traditional handbell players. Celebrations performed bell arrangements from Classical music to show tunes.
The Key of She: Key of She was an a cappella group in East's music program of 13 young women who, like Casual Harmony, performed popular tunes.
Casual Harmony: An auditioned group of 11 young men who performed everything from ballads to pop tunes. They performed throughout the New Jersey area and have also performed in the Cosmic Rays Cafe in Disney World. Casual Harmony was featured on the NBC morning show, 10!
The Cherry Hill East Instrumental Department comprises various performing groups:
Freshman Wind Ensemble: An entry-level instrumental group featuring primarily Freshman students.
Symphonic Band: An entry-level group consisting of students grades 10–12.
Wind Ensemble: An advanced audition group consisting of students grades 10–12.
String Ensemble: An entry-level instrumental group featuring string musicians primarily grades 9 and 10.
Symphonic Orchestra: An advanced full orchestra. This ensemble has been invited to perform at Lincoln Center (2009, 2011, 2012), the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts (2017, 2020) and Carnegie Hall (2019). In 2013 they won a NJ state-wide festival competition which included both the full Symphony Orchestra and the select string quartet opening in concert for the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra.
Jazz Band: An auditioned group of about 20 students, grades 9–12, who perform classic big band jazz music. This ensemble has won consistent superior and gold ratings, many solo and section awards at festivals around the Delaware Valley. They are past Cavalcade of Bands division winners, and section and solo winners at the Jazz at Lincoln Center Regional Festival at Temple University, Philadelphia.
Jazz Standards Group: An auditioned group of about 5–7 students, who perform straight-ahead, classic small group jazz music.
Lab Band: An auditioned group of students, grades 9–12. They experiment with different genres including funk, vocal, and big band charts. The saxophone section won an award for Best Saxophone Section, and the band as a whole got a superior rating at the Deptford High School Jazz Festival in 2019.
Marching band: Cherry Hill East's Marching Band is a non-audition group comprised of students grades 9–12. The band is accompanied by the Cherry Hill East Color Guard. The Marching Band performs their field-show at all of the home football games during half-time and in the stands during the game. They also travel to away football games, playing their field-show before the start of the game and also playing during the game. They have won multiple awards at Marching Band Festival Competitions around the Delaware Valley.
Small Chamber Groups: Cherry Hill East has some small chamber groups which consist of students grades 9–12. These groups include a Saxophones Quartet, a Brass Quintet, a Clarinet ensemble and some other string ensembles.
East's past dramatic shows include Ragtime, Beauty and the Beast, The Music Man, Fiddler on the Roof and, most recently, Legally Blonde. The Cherry Hill East Drama Department perform four shows a year; Lab Theatre, Fall Show, Spring Musical, and the One-Acts Competition.
Administrators
The school's principal is Dennis Perry. His administration team includes five assistant principals.
Notable alumni
Brad Ascalon (born 1977), industrial designer known for his contemporary furniture lines produced by companies including "Design Within Reach" and Ligne Roset.
Andrew Barroway, hedge fund manager, who has been the minority owner of the Arizona Coyotes of the National Hockey League
Lawrence Bender (born 1957), Academy Award-winning producer for film and television whose credits include Reservoir Dogs, Pulp Fiction, Good Will Hunting and An Inconvenient Truth.
James Berardinelli (born 1967), film critic.
Matt Bush (born 1986), actor mostly known for his role as the teenager who throws away his minutes in the AT&T commercials.
Stan Clayton (born 1965), former American football guard and tackle who played in the NFL for the Atlanta Falcons and New England Patriots in 1990 and 1991.
Andy Coen (born 1964), head football coach of the Lehigh Mountain Hawks football team.
Angela Duckworth (born 1970), 2013 MacArthur Grant Recipient and professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania.
Bill "Stink" Fisher (born 1970), former National Football League player and actor.
Ed Foley (born 1967), Temple Owls football tight ends coach, assistant offensive line coach and recruiting coordinator.
Glenn Foley (born 1970), former NFL quarterback who played for the New York Jets from 1994 to 1998.
Eric Goldberg (born 1955), animator and film director best known for his work at Walt Disney Animation Studios.
Adam Goldworm (born 1978, class of 1994), producer of several films and television anthologies including Showtime's Masters of Horror and NBC's Fear Itself.
Bob Greene (born 1958), personal trainer, frequent guest on The Oprah Winfrey Show.
Louis Greenwald (born 1967), politician who represents the 6th Legislative District in the New Jersey General Assembly.
Orel Hershiser (born 1958), former professional baseball pitcher who played most of his career with the Los Angeles Dodgers.
Tom Hessert III (born 1986), stock car racing driver who competes in the ARCA Menards Series.
Elie Honig (class of 1993), attorney and CNN senior legal analyst
Nick Katsikis (born 1967), former professional basketball player.
Tom Katsikis (born 1967), former professional basketball player.
Sean Killion (born 1967, class of 1986), former competition swimmer and Pan American Games gold medalist, who represented the United States at the 1992 Summer Olympics.
Andy Kim (born 1982), Democratic politician who currently represents New Jersey's 3rd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives and formerly served as an adviser to President Obama on national security.
Pete Kugler (born 1959), defensive lineman who played 10 seasons in the National Football League for the San Francisco 49ers.
Rick Lancellotti (born 1956), former Major league Baseball player.
Jamie Leach (born 1969), former professional right wing who played in the NHL for the Pittsburgh Penguins, Hartford Whalers and Florida Panthers.
Amos Lee (born 1978), singer/songwriter.
Toby Lightman (born 1978, class of 1996), singer/songwriter.
Michael Lisicky (born 1964, class of 1982), non-fiction writer and oboist with the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra.
Jim McGorman (born , class of 1992), musician, songwriter/producer and multi-instrumentalist.
Cristin Milioti (born 1985, class of 2003), Broadway and film actress, who received a 2012 Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Musical for her work in Once.
Nate Mulberg, assistant coach of the Richmond Spiders baseball team and of the Israel national baseball team.
Erik Peterson (born 1966), politician who serves in the New Jersey General Assembly representing the 23rd Legislative District.
Leon Rose (born ), lawyer and sports agent for NBA players, including Allen Iverson and LeBron James.
J. D. Roth (born 1968, class of 1986), host of Endurance.
Gary Wang (class of 2011), co-founder and former CTO of cryptocurrency exchange FTX.
Evan Weiss, musician, of Into It. Over It., Their / They're / There and Pet Symmetry.
Yang Jin-mo, South Korean film editor, nominated for Academy Award for his work on Parasite
References
External links
Official website
Eastside Online, the school newspaper
Article on removal and reinstatement of 2006 valedictorian Steven Gao and an image of the ad in question
South Jersey Sports: Cherry Hill East HS
1966 establishments in New Jersey
Cherry Hill, New Jersey
Educational institutions established in 1966
Public high schools in Camden County, New Jersey |
4562679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crispus%20Attucks%20High%20School | Crispus Attucks High School | Crispus Attucks High School (also known as Crispus Attucks Medical Magnet High School) is a public high school of Indianapolis Public Schools in Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S. Its namesake, Crispus Attucks (c.1723 – March 5, 1770), was an African American patriot killed during the Boston Massacre. The school was built northwest of downtown Indianapolis near Indiana Avenue (the business and cultural hub of the city's African American community) and opened on September 12, 1927, when it was the only public high school in the city designated specifically for African Americans.
Despite the passage of federal and state school desegregation laws, Attucks was the city's only high school with a single-race student body in 1953, largely due to residential segregation, and remained a segregated school until 1971 (although some historians suggest that its desegregation occurred in 1968). Due to declining enrollment, Attucks was converted to a junior high school in 1986, and a middle school in 1993. It became a medical magnet high school in 2006, partially due to the school's proximity to the campus of the Indiana University School of Medicine and its associated hospitals.
The red brick building with terra-cotta and limestone detailing covers a two-square-block area and was built in three phases. A three-story main building, designed by local architects Merritt Harrison and Llewellyn A. Turnock, was constructed in 1927. A three-story addition and a two-story gymnasium were built in 1938. A newer, two-story gymnasium was constructed in 1966. The main building and the 1938 addition reflect Collegiate Gothic (or Tudor Revival) and Classical Revival styles of architecture. The high school was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.
During its early years, Attucks was known for its excellence in academics, in addition to its successful athletic teams, especially its basketball program. The high school also became a gathering place and a source of pride for the city's African American community. In 1955, the Attucks Tigers won the Indiana High School Athletic Association's state basketball championship, becoming the first all-black school in the nation to win a state title. In 1956, the team became the first state champions in IHSAA history to complete a season undefeated since the Indiana High School Boys Basketball Tournament began in 1911. Attucks also won the IHSAA state basketball championship in 1959 and in 2017 (Class 3A). The school contains the Crispus Attucks Museum, which opened in 1998.
History
Early 1920s
Indianapolis was a largely segregated city in the early twentieth century, although three of its public high schools enrolled black students: Emmerich Manual High School, Arsenal Technical High School, and Shortridge High School. Overcrowding, especially at Shortridge, led Indianapolis Public Schools' board members to begin discussions on the construction of a new high school. In 1922, as interest in building an all-black public high school increased, the IPS board decided to pursue the idea and began to move ahead with its plans.
Some white residents of the city, not wanting their children to attend an integrated high school, urged the school board to build a new public high school specifically for African American students. However, some African Americans in the community adamantly opposed the establishment of an all-black high school and preferred an integrated public school system. Despite the differing viewpoints, the IPS board decided that all of the city's African American high school students would attend the new school.
Early years
Crispus Attucks High School was built northwest of downtown Indianapolis, in the area that was known as the Bottoms, near the Indiana Central Canal and Indiana Avenue, which was the African American community's business and cultural hub. The Bottoms was also the largest and best-known area of the city's African American community.
The IPS board initially chose Thomas Jefferson High School as the name for the new school, but some members of the community objected to the choice and circulated petitions to have the name changed to Crispus Attucks High School. The school board reversed its decision and named the school in honor of Crispus Attucks. His ethnicity is now uncertain, but at the time the new school was named, it was believed he was a black man who was killed in the attack on British soldiers in Boston, Massachusetts, in March 1770 during what became known as the Boston Massacre.
All the African American teenagers enrolled at the city's other public high schools, such as Arsenal Technical High School, George Washington Community High School, and Shortridge High School, were moved to Crispus Attucks when it opened in 1927 with the promise that the Attucks students would receive a "separate but equal" education. After Attucks opened, IPS administrators prohibited African American students from attending any other public high school in the city until integration of the schools was mandated by law. Community activists who opposed the decision challenged the local school board through the legal justice system, but efforts to desegregate the city's schools continued for several decades after the school opened.
Students and faculty
In addition to its students, Attucks's first principal, Matthias Nolcox, and its initial faculty were African Americans, making it the only all-black high school in Indianapolis. Nolcox recruited well-educated teachers for the new school from the traditionally black colleges in the South, as well as from high schools in other areas of the country. While black students were allowed to attend colleges and universities, the schools of higher learning did not hire black educators for their faculties leaving a large group of overqualified teachers forced to teach at the high school level.
Indianapolis's new high school was originally planned for 1,000 students; however, the estimate soon increased to 1,200 students, requiring Nolcox to hire additional staff to accommodate the projected increase in enrollment. The school opened on September 12, 1927, with 42 faculty and 1,345 students. Formal dedication ceremonies took place on October 28, 1927. After Attucks, Indiana had two other all-black public high schools opened in the state: Gary's Roosevelt High School and Evansville's Lincoln High School.
From the beginning, overcrowding was a persistent problem at Attucks. The IPS board authorized the remodeling of IPS Number 17, a school building adjacent to Attucks, to house the overflow of students. Nolcox served as principal of both facilities. Thomas J. Anderson replaced Nolcox as the school's second principal from July to September 1930. An interim principal briefly assumed Anderson's duties until Russell A. Lane, who was hired as one of the school's original English teachers, was named the new principal later that fall.
Lane continued to hire well-educated faculty for the school. At a time when most other high schools in the city had teachers with undergraduate bachelor's degrees, several of Attucks's teachers had master's degrees or PhDs. During these early years, Attucks's percentage of teachers with advanced degrees was higher than any other school in the area. By 1934, Attucks had 62 faculty members; 17 of them had master's degrees and two had doctorate degrees. In 1935–36, the school had grown to include 68 faculty and 2,327 students. A freshman center was added to the high school in 1938 to alleviate overcrowding.
Curriculum and events
Attucks offered an extensive curriculum, including general education courses such as math, sciences, language arts, art, music, and physical education, as well as home economics and industrial arts courses to provide vocational training. Because of its faculty and varied curriculum, Attucks became known for its excellence in academics, in addition to its successful athletic programs.
The Indianapolis Recorder, the local newspaper for the African American community, publicized school events, which helped to bring Attucks's various activities to the public's attention. The school became a gathering place and a source of pride for the city's African American community. The school's athletic teams, especially its basketball program, "represented the African American community in Indianapolis."
To encourage the students and show support for the school, several celebrities made visits to the school and addressed gatherings of the student body. Notable visitors included Jesse Owens, Langston Hughes, Thurgood Marshall, George Washington Carver, and Floyd Patterson, as well as other notable athletes, authors, scientists, politicians, and civil rights activists who came to the city to speak the previous Sunday at the nearby Senate Avenue Young Men's Christian Association's speakers' series, called "Monster Meetings".
1940s and 1950s
Desegregation of the city's schools became a major issue in the late-1940s and during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Despite the state legislature's passage of mandatory desegregation laws in 1949, the IPS board approved a gradual desegregation plan and Attucks remained an all-black high school, largely due to residential segregation. During this period, the high school's enrollment began to decline from 2,364 students in 1949 to 1,612 in 1953. Attucks had two white educators on its faculty in 1956 and continued to remain the only "high school in the city with a single-race student body."
1950s basketball team state championships
The Indiana High School Athletic Association (IHSAA) refused full membership to private, parochial, and all-black high schools until 1942 when full membership opened to include all of the state's three- and four-year high schools. The change in membership allowed Attucks and the state's other all-black high schools, as well as Indiana's Catholic high schools, to participate for the first time in IHSAA-sanctioned basketball tournaments. Attucks had good success in basketball during the 1950s, producing two Indiana Mr. Basketballs: Hallie Bryant and Oscar Robertson. In addition to Bryant and Robertson, several other Attucks players and coaches have been inducted into the Indiana Basketball Hall of Fame.
The Attucks Tigers made it to the Indiana High School Boys Basketball Tournament championship game for the first time in 1951 but lost to Evansville's Reitz Memorial High School, 66–59. On March 19, 1955, the Attucks team, led by future professional star and National Basketball Association Hall of Famer Oscar Robertson, won the IHSAA's state championship, beating Gary's Roosevelt High School, 97–64, and becoming the first all-black school in the nation to win a state title. Robertson led Attucks to another championship in 1956, beating Lafayette's Jefferson High School, 79–57, and becoming the first state champion team in IHSAA history to complete a season undefeated since the state tournament began in 1911. The program won its third IHSAA state basketball championship in 1959. Because the school's black student-athletes played and won contests with predominately white teams, historians have pointed out that Attucks's successful basketball program also "mobilized the black community" and served as "role models for black youths".
1960s–1990s
By the 1960s Indianapolis's racial and class segregation led to changes at Attucks. As the city's black middle class moved to other neighborhoods, some of their children were enrolled at Shortridge and Arsenal Tech high schools, while the children of poorer African Americans continued to attend Attucks. In addition, the IPS board continued to ignore the federal government's suggestions for integration of its schools. In 1970, U.S. District Court Judge Samuel Hugh Dillin "found IPS guilty of operating a segregated school system." Although IPS opened an integrated secondary campus on Cold Springs Road in 1970 to help ease some of the overcrowding at Attucks, the main high school building remained a segregated school while appeals of the federal court's decision continued. As a result of the lengthy appeals process, sources indicate that it is difficult to specify an exact date for Attucks's formal desegregation. School historians believe that the first white students enrolled at Attucks's main campus in 1971, although others have suggested that it occurred in 1968.
In 1981, IPS administrators considered closing the high school due to rapidly declining enrollment. Attucks's student body was 973 in 1980, but enrollment had fallen to 885 in 1985. Although many opposed the idea, Attucks was converted from a high school to a junior high school in 1986 and became a middle school in 1993. The building was placed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 and the Indiana Historical Bureau erected a state historical marker at the school in 1992.
2000s–present
Attucks reverted to a high school in 2006, when IPS superintendent Eugene White announced the formation of the Crispus Attucks Medical Magnet, changing the school from a middle school to a medical preparatory school for grades 6–12. The designation as a medical magnet school is partially due to the school's proximity to the campus of the Indiana University School of Medicine and its associated hospitals. The change was made by adding one grade each year. The magnet school's first class graduated in 2010; its first class to complete the full medical magnet program graduated in 2013. Attucks restored its basketball program in 2008 as an IHSAA Class 3A school. The team won the Class 3A title on March 25, 2017, its first state basketball championship since 1959.
Building description
Exterior
The school covers a two-square-block area and was built in three phases: a three-story, flat-roofed main building with an E-shaped plan on the east, constructed in 1927; a three-story addition to the west of the main building and a two-story gymnasium, built in 1938; and a newer, two-story gymnasium constructed in 1966. The main building, designed by local architects Merritt Harrison and Llewellyn A. Turnock, as well as the 1938 addition, reflect Collegiate Gothic (or Tudor Revival) and Classical Revival styles of architecture. The main building is constructed primarily of red brick and includes buff-colored glazed architectural terra-cotta detailing. The red brick addition built in 1938 has similar architectural detailing but uses limestone instead of terra-cotta. The newer red brick gymnasium built in 1966 has concrete vertical and horizontal bands.
The main façade, facing east, dates to 1927 and has a center section and nearly identical projecting sections at each end. The center section's one-story entrance foyer has three pairs of entry doors with fanlights and a terra-cotta belt course separating a terra-cotta balustrade, above, from a round-arched, terra-cotta arcade, below. Each of the center section's two upper stories contains panels with terra-cotta detailing around a grouping of three windows. Terra-cotta panels on the second include a lyre, laurel leaves, and violins in bas-relief. Terra-cotta panels above the third-floor windows contain the words Attucks High School inscribed in Old English typeface. Windows along the main façade are grouped in threes (a pair of smaller windows on either side of a double window). A belt course runs across the entire main façade above the first-floor lintels and windows. Upper-story windows have terra-cotta molding above the lintels and windows.
The north façade shows the original, three-story section on the east with two wings flanking a center section. There are entrances in each wing and nine windows on each floor of the center section. The two upper stories of the original building have windows set in three terra-cotta panels. Oil lamps and other decorations in bas-relief decorate the panels separating the first and second floors. Each story of the 1938 red-brick and limestone addition has four groupings of windows, each one with four windows, and limestone details. The three-story addition rests on a limestone foundation. The two-story gymnasium, built to the west of the 1938 addition, has an entry framed with a limestone arch. The word Gymnasium is inscribed in Old English typeface on a stone tablet above the arch. A newer gymnasium, constructed of brick with concrete bands, was added to the west of the older gymnasium in 1966. The main entrance to the new gymnasium is on the north side. A side entry is on the building's south elevation. The south façade contains the main building constructed in 1927 (similar in appearance to the north façade) and a one-story greenhouse, also original to the building. Interconnected additions on the south façade include the 1938 addition, service areas, and loading docks constructed at various times. There is also a five-story, red brick smokestack.
Interior
The original 1927 school building has classrooms with double-loaded corridors arranged in a square around the auditorium. Notable features of the original interior include the main entry foyer with its terrazzo floors and a triple-arched arcade with terra-cotta columns. The plastered ceilings of the foyer and auditorium have exposed beams. The Crispus Attucks museum was also established in another section of the building.
Museum
After several years of development, the Crispus Attucks Museum opened in the school's former auxiliary gym in 1998. The museum houses four galleries and 38 exhibits recalling local, state, national, and international African American history. Indiana Black Expo, Indiana University, and the Madam Walker Legacy Center are frequent collaborators. The museum underwent a renovation in 2009.
It is open to guests by appointment only, Monday through Friday (9 a.m. to 6 p.m.) and Saturday through Sunday (10 a.m. to 3 p.m.).
Notable alumni
Harriette Bailey Conn, politician, lawyer, and Indiana public defender
David Baker, jazz musician and composer; founder and chair of Indiana University Bloomington's jazz studies program
Nerissa Brokenburr Stickney, pianist and music educator
Angela Brown, dramatic soprano
Harry W. Brooks Jr., Major General, U.S. Army
Hallie Bryant, professional basketball player
Julia Carson, politician
The Counts, rhythm and blues and "doo-wop" band
Bobby Edmonds, professional basketball player
"Wee" Willie Gardner, professional basketball player
Felrath Hines (1913-1993), visual artist and art conservator
J. J. Johnson, jazz musician and composer
Janet Langhart-Cohen, writer
Wes Montgomery, jazz musician
Bernard Parham, chess master and chess teacher and originator of the Parham Attack chess opening
Paul Parks, civil engineer and public servant
Bailey "Flap" Robertson, professional basketball player
Oscar Robertson, professional basketball player
James Spaulding, jazz musician
Meshach Taylor, actor
JoAnne Terry, Olympic Hurdler
Notable administrators and faculty
Principals
Matthias Nolcox, first high school principal (1927–1930)
Thomas J. Anderson, second high school principal (1930)
Russell A. Lane, third high school principal (1930–1957); became Indianapolis Public Schools administrator in 1957
Dr. Alexander M. Moor, fourth high school principal (1957–1968); became Indianapolis Public Schools assistant superintendent in 1968
Earl Donalson, fifth high school principal (1969–1983)
Dr. Charles David Robinson, sixth high school principal (1983–1986)
Notable faculty
Ray Crowe, Attucks's boys' basketball coach (1950–1957); coached the Attucks team to back-to-back IHSAA high school basketball championship titles in 1955 and 1956; Attucks's athletic director (1957–1967); member of Indiana House of Representatives (1967–1975); director of Indianapolis Parks Department (1976–1979); member of Indianapolis City-County Council (1983–1987)
Bill Garrett, Attucks's boys' basketball coach (1957–1968); coached the team to an IHSAA high school basketball championship title in 1959; athletic director (1969–1971); director of continuing education, Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana (1971–1973); assistant dean for student services, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis (1973–1974)
John Morton-Finney, an original faculty member; head of foreign languages department, 1920s–1950s
George Roddy, industrial arts teacher, and boys' golf coach; winner of the National Negro Championship of the United Golf Association in 1930 and 1937
Merze Tate, an original faculty member; later became a faculty member at Howard University and a Fulbright scholar
Letty M. Wickliffe, head of special and gifted education programs, 1930s–1960s
See also
List of high schools in Indiana
List of schools in Indianapolis
List of attractions and events in Indianapolis
References
External links
Official site
"Indianapolis", a Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior
"Crispus Attucks Museum Collection" at the University Library, Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis
Crispus Attucks High School-related materials in the digital collections of the Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis
African-American history of Indianapolis
School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana
Schools in Indianapolis
National Register of Historic Places in Indianapolis
Educational institutions established in 1927
IHSAA Conference-Independent Schools
Public high schools in Indiana
Magnet schools in Indiana
1927 establishments in Indiana
Museums in Indianapolis |
4562875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion%20planning | Motion planning | Motion planning, also path planning (also known as the navigation problem or the piano mover's problem) is a computational problem to find a sequence of valid configurations that moves the object from the source to destination. The term is used in computational geometry, computer animation, robotics and computer games.
For example, consider navigating a mobile robot inside a building to a distant waypoint. It should execute this task while avoiding walls and not falling down stairs. A motion planning algorithm would take a description of these tasks as input, and produce the speed and turning commands sent to the robot's wheels. Motion planning algorithms might address robots with a larger number of joints (e.g., industrial manipulators), more complex tasks (e.g. manipulation of objects), different constraints (e.g., a car that can only drive forward), and uncertainty (e.g. imperfect models of the environment or robot).
Motion planning has several robotics applications, such as autonomy, automation, and robot design in CAD software, as well as applications in other fields, such as animating digital characters, video game, architectural design, robotic surgery, and the study of biological molecules.
Concepts
A basic motion planning problem is to compute a continuous path that connects a start configuration S and a goal configuration G, while avoiding collision with known obstacles. The robot and obstacle geometry is described in a 2D or 3D workspace, while the motion is represented as a path in (possibly higher-dimensional) configuration space.
Configuration space
A configuration describes the pose of the robot, and the configuration space C is the set of all possible configurations. For example:
If the robot is a single point (zero-sized) translating in a 2-dimensional plane (the workspace), C is a plane, and a configuration can be represented using two parameters (x, y).
If the robot is a 2D shape that can translate and rotate, the workspace is still 2-dimensional. However, C is the special Euclidean group SE(2) = R2 SO(2) (where SO(2) is the special orthogonal group of 2D rotations), and a configuration can be represented using 3 parameters (x, y, θ).
If the robot is a solid 3D shape that can translate and rotate, the workspace is 3-dimensional, but C is the special Euclidean group SE(3) = R3 SO(3), and a configuration requires 6 parameters: (x, y, z) for translation, and Euler angles (α, β, γ).
If the robot is a fixed-base manipulator with N revolute joints (and no closed-loops), C is N-dimensional.
Free space
The set of configurations that avoids collision with obstacles is called the free space Cfree. The complement of Cfree in C is called the obstacle or forbidden region.
Often, it is prohibitively difficult to explicitly compute the shape of Cfree. However, testing whether a given configuration is in Cfree is efficient. First, forward kinematics determine the position of the robot's geometry, and collision detection tests if the robot's geometry collides with the environment's geometry.
Target space
Target space is a subspace of free space which denotes where we want the robot to move to. In global motion planning, target space is observable by the robot's sensors. However, in local motion planning, the robot cannot observe the target space in some states. To solve this problem, the robot goes through several virtual target spaces, each of which is located within the observable area (around the robot). A virtual target space is called a sub-goal.
Obstacle space
Obstacle space is a space that the robot can not move to. Obstacle space is not opposite of free space.
Algorithms
Low-dimensional problems can be solved with grid-based algorithms that overlay a grid on top of configuration space, or geometric algorithms that compute the shape and connectivity of Cfree.
Exact motion planning for high-dimensional systems under complex constraints is computationally intractable. Potential-field algorithms are efficient, but fall prey to local minima (an exception is the harmonic potential fields). Sampling-based algorithms avoid the problem of local minima, and solve many problems quite quickly.
They are unable to determine that no path exists, but they have a probability of failure that decreases to zero as more time is spent.
Sampling-based algorithms are currently considered state-of-the-art for motion planning in high-dimensional spaces, and have been applied to problems which have dozens or even hundreds of dimensions (robotic manipulators, biological molecules, animated digital characters, and legged robots).
Grid-based search
Grid-based approaches overlay a grid on configuration space and assume each configuration is identified with a grid point. At each grid point, the robot is allowed to move to adjacent grid points as long as the line between them is completely contained within Cfree (this is tested with collision detection). This discretizes the set of actions, and search algorithms (like A*) are used to find a path from the start to the goal.
These approaches require setting a grid resolution. Search is faster with coarser grids, but the algorithm will fail to find paths through narrow portions of Cfree. Furthermore, the number of points on the grid grows exponentially in the configuration space dimension, which make them inappropriate for high-dimensional problems.
Traditional grid-based approaches produce paths whose heading changes are constrained to multiples of a given base angle, often resulting in suboptimal paths. Any-angle path planning approaches find shorter paths by propagating information along grid edges (to search fast) without constraining their paths to grid edges (to find short paths).
Grid-based approaches often need to search repeatedly, for example, when the knowledge of the robot about the configuration space changes or the configuration space itself changes during path following. Incremental heuristic search algorithms replan fast by using experience with the previous similar path-planning problems to speed up their search for the current one.
Interval-based search
These approaches are similar to grid-based search approaches except that they generate a paving covering entirely the configuration space instead of a grid. The paving is decomposed into two subpavings X−,X+ made with boxes such that X− ⊂ Cfree ⊂ X+. Characterizing Cfree amounts to solve a set inversion problem. Interval analysis could thus be used when Cfree cannot be described by linear inequalities in order to have a guaranteed enclosure.
The robot is thus allowed to move freely in X−, and cannot go outside X+. To both subpavings, a neighbor graph is built and paths can be found using algorithms such as Dijkstra or A*. When a path is feasible in X−, it is also feasible in Cfree. When no path exists in X+ from one initial configuration to the goal, we have the guarantee that no feasible path exists in Cfree. As for the grid-based approach, the interval approach is inappropriate for high-dimensional problems, due to the fact that the number of boxes to be generated grows exponentially with respect to the dimension of configuration space.
An illustration is provided by the three figures on the right where a hook with two degrees of freedom has to move from the left to the right, avoiding two horizontal small segments.
Nicolas Delanoue has shown that the decomposition with subpavings using interval analysis also makes it possible to characterize the topology of Cfree such as counting its number of connected components.
Geometric algorithms
Point robots among polygonal obstacles
Visibility graph
Cell decomposition
Translating objects among obstacles
Minkowski sum
Finding the way out of a building
farthest ray trace
Given a bundle of rays around the current position attributed with their length hitting a wall, the robot moves into the direction of the longest ray unless a door is identified. Such an algorithm was used for modeling emergency egress from buildings.
Artificial potential fields
One approach is to treat the robot's configuration as a point in a potential field that combines attraction to the goal, and repulsion from obstacles. The resulting trajectory is output as the path. This approach has advantages in that the trajectory is produced with little computation. However, they can become trapped in local minima of the potential field and fail to find a path, or can find a non-optimal path. The artificial potential fields can be treated as continuum equations similar to electrostatic potential fields (treating the robot like a point charge), or motion through the field can be discretized using a set of linguistic rules. A navigation function or a probabilistic navigation function are sorts of artificial potential functions which have the quality of not having minimum points except the target point.
Sampling-based algorithms
Sampling-based algorithms represent the configuration space with a roadmap of sampled configurations.
A basic algorithm samples N configurations in C, and retains those in Cfree to use as milestones. A roadmap is then constructed that connects two milestones P and Q if the line segment PQ is completely in Cfree. Again, collision detection is used to test inclusion in Cfree. To find a path that connects S and G, they are added to the roadmap. If a path in the roadmap links S and G, the planner succeeds, and returns that path. If not, the reason is not definitive: either there is no path in Cfree, or the planner did not sample enough milestones.
These algorithms work well for high-dimensional configuration spaces, because unlike combinatorial algorithms, their running time is not (explicitly) exponentially dependent on the dimension of C. They are also (generally) substantially easier to implement. They are probabilistically complete, meaning the probability that they will produce a solution approaches 1 as more time is spent. However, they cannot determine if no solution exists.
Given basic visibility conditions on Cfree, it has been proven that as the number of configurations N grows higher, the probability that the above algorithm finds a solution approaches 1 exponentially. Visibility is not explicitly dependent on the dimension of C; it is possible to have a high-dimensional space with "good" visibility or a low-dimensional space with "poor" visibility. The experimental success of sample-based methods suggests that most commonly seen spaces have good visibility.
There are many variants of this basic scheme:
It is typically much faster to only test segments between nearby pairs of milestones, rather than all pairs.
Nonuniform sampling distributions attempt to place more milestones in areas that improve the connectivity of the roadmap.
Quasirandom samples typically produce a better covering of configuration space than pseudorandom ones, though some recent work argues that the effect of the source of randomness is minimal compared to the effect of the sampling distribution.
Employs local-sampling by performing a directional Markov chain Monte Carlo random walk with some local proposal distribution.
It is possible to substantially reduce the number of milestones needed to solve a given problem by allowing curved eye sights (for example by crawling on the obstacles that block the way between two milestones).
If only one or a few planning queries are needed, it is not always necessary to construct a roadmap of the entire space. Tree-growing variants are typically faster for this case (single-query planning). Roadmaps are still useful if many queries are to be made on the same space (multi-query planning)
List of notable algorithms
A*
D*
Rapidly-exploring random tree
Probabilistic roadmap
Completeness and performance
A motion planner is said to be complete if the planner in finite time either produces a solution or correctly reports that there is none. Most complete algorithms are geometry-based. The performance of a complete planner is assessed by its computational complexity. When proving this property mathematically, one has to make sure, that it happens in finite time and not just in the asymptotic limit. This is especially problematic, if there occur infinite sequences (that converge only in the limiting case) during a specific proving technique, since then, theoretically, the algorithm will never stop. Intuitive "tricks" (often based on induction) are typically mistakenly thought to converge, which they do only for the infinite limit. In other words, the solution exists, but the planner will never report it. This property therefore is related to Turing completeness and serves in most cases as a theoretical underpinning/guidance. Planners based on a brute force approach are always complete, but are only realizable for finite and discrete setups.
In practice, the termination of the algorithm can always be guaranteed by using a counter, that allows only for a maximum number of iterations and then always stops with or without solution. For realtime systems, this is typically achieved by using a watchdog timer, that will simply kill the process. The watchdog has to be independent of all processes (typically realized by low level interrupt routines). The asymptotic case described in the previous paragraph, however, will not be reached in this way. It will report the best one it has found so far (which is better than nothing) or none, but cannot correctly report that there is none. All realizations including a watchdog are always incomplete (except all cases can be evaluated in finite time).
Completeness can only be provided by a very rigorous mathematical correctness proof (often aided by tools and graph based methods) and should only be done by specialized experts if the application includes safety content. On the other hand, disproving completeness is easy, since one just needs to find one infinite loop or one wrong result returned. Formal Verification/Correctness of algorithms is a research field on its own. The correct setup of these test cases is a highly sophisticated task.
Resolution completeness is the property that the planner is guaranteed to find a path if the resolution of an underlying grid is fine enough. Most resolution complete planners are grid-based or interval-based. The computational complexity of resolution complete planners is dependent on the number of points in the underlying grid, which is O(1/hd), where h is the resolution (the length of one side of a grid cell) and d is the configuration space dimension.
Probabilistic completeness is the property that as more "work" is performed, the probability that the planner fails to find a path, if one exists, asymptotically approaches zero. Several sample-based methods are probabilistically complete. The performance of a probabilistically complete planner is measured by the rate of convergence. For practical applications, one usually uses this property, since it allows setting up the time-out for the watchdog based on an average convergence time.
Incomplete planners do not always produce a feasible path when one exists (see first paragraph). Sometimes incomplete planners do work well in practice, since they always stop after a guarantied time and allow other routines to take over.
Problem variants
Many algorithms have been developed to handle variants of this basic problem.
Differential constraints
Holonomic
Manipulator arms (with dynamics)
Nonholonomic
Drones
Cars
Unicycles
Planes
Acceleration bounded systems
Moving obstacles (time cannot go backward)
Bevel-tip steerable needle
Differential drive robots
Optimality constraints
Hybrid systems
Hybrid systems are those that mix discrete and continuous behavior. Examples of such systems are:
Robotic manipulation
Mechanical assembly
Legged robot locomotion
Reconfigurable robots
Uncertainty
Motion uncertainty
Missing information
Active sensing
Sensorless planning
Networked control systems
Environmental constraints
Maps of dynamics
Applications
Robot navigation
Automation
The driverless car
Robotic surgery
Digital character animation
Protein folding
Safety and accessibility in computer-aided architectural design
See also
Gimbal lock – similar traditional issue in mechanical engineering
Kinodynamic planning
Mountain climbing problem
OMPL - The Open Motion Planning Library
Pathfinding
Pebble motion problems – multi-robot motion planning
Shortest path problem
Velocity obstacle
References
Further reading
Planning Algorithms, Steven M. LaValle, 2006, Cambridge University Press, .
Principles of Robot Motion: Theory, Algorithms, and Implementation, H. Choset, W. Burgard, S. Hutchinson, G. Kantor, L. E. Kavraki, K. Lynch, and S. Thrun, MIT Press, April 2005.
Chapter 13: Robot Motion Planning: pp. 267–290.
External links
"Open Robotics Automation Virtual Environment", http://openrave.org/
Jean-Claude Latombe talks about his work with robots and motion planning, 5 April 2000
"Open Motion Planning Library (OMPL)", http://ompl.kavrakilab.org
"Motion Strategy Library", http://msl.cs.uiuc.edu/msl/
"Motion Planning Kit", https://ai.stanford.edu/~mitul/mpk
"Simox", http://simox.sourceforge.net
"Robot Motion Planning and Control", http://www.laas.fr/%7Ejpl/book.html
Robot kinematics
Theoretical computer science
Automated planning and scheduling |
4562883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Roman%20Canon | History of the Roman Canon | The Roman Canon is the oldest eucharistic prayer used in the Mass of the Roman Rite, and dates its arrangement to at least the 7th century; its core, however, is much older. Through the centuries, the Roman Canon has undergone minor alterations and modifications, but retains the same essential form it took in the seventh century under Pope Gregory I. Before 1970, it was the only eucharistic prayer used in the Roman Missal, but since then three other eucharistic prayers were newly composed for the Mass of Paul VI.
Before St. Gregory I (to 590)
It is to Pope Gregory I (590-604), the organiser of the Roman Liturgy, that tradition ascribes the revision and arrangement of the Roman Canon. His reign thus provides a natural division in the discussion of the history of the Canon.
Gregory himself thought that the Canon had been composed by "a certain scholasticus", and Pope Benedict XIV discussed whether he meant some person so named or merely "a certain learned man". Gregory himself is credited with adding a phrase to the Canon. The Canon that he left represents in fact the last stage of a development that amounted to a "complete recasting", in which "the Eucharistic prayer was fundamentally changed and recast".
A distinction must be made between the prayers of the Roman Canon itself and the order in which they are now found. The prayers, or at least some of them, can be traced back to a very early date from occasional references in letters of the Church Fathers: the prayers beginning Te igitur, Memento Domine and Quam oblationem were already in use, even if not with quite the same wording as now, by the year 400; the Communicantes, the Hanc igitur, and the post-consecration Memento etiam and Nobis quoque were added in the 5th century.
Early period
In the 1st century the Church of Rome along with all other local churches (dioceses) celebrated the Eucharist by obeying Christ's direction and doing as he had done the night before he died, at the Last Supper. There were the bread and wine consecrated by the words of Institution and by an invocation of the Holy Spirit; the bread was broken and Communion was given to the faithful. Undoubtedly, too, before this part of the service lessons were read from the Bible, as explicitly stated by Saint Justin Martyr.
It is also known that this Mass was said in Greek. Koine Greek was the common tongue of Christians, at least outside Palestine, used throughout the empire since the conquests of Alexander the Great and then in the Roman Empire. This is shown by the facts that the inscriptions in the catacombs are in Greek and that Christian writers at Rome use Koine Greek.
Of the liturgical formulas of this first period little is known. The First Epistle of St. Clement contains a prayer that is generally considered liturgical (lix-lxi), though it contains no reference to the Eucharist. Also it states that "the Lord commanded offerings and holy offices to be made carefully, not rashly nor without order, but at fixed times and hours." From this it is evident that at Rome the liturgy was celebrated according to fixed rules and definite order. Chap. xxxiv tells us that the Romans "gathered together in concord, and as it were with one mouth" said the Sanctus from Is., vi, 3.
St. Justin Martyr (died c. 167) spent part of his life at Rome and died there. It is possible that his First Apology was written in that city, and that the liturgy he describes in it (lxv-lxvi) was that which he frequented at Rome. From this we learn that the Christians first prayed for themselves and for all manner of persons. Then follows the kiss of peace, and "he who presides over the brethren" is given bread and a cup of wine and water, having received which he gives thanks to God, celebrates the Eucharist, and all the people answer "Amen." The deacons then give out Holy Communion (loc. cit.).
Here is found the outline of the more recent Roman liturgy: the Preface (giving thanks), to which may be added from the First Epistle of Clement the Sanctus, a celebration of the Eucharist, not described, but which contains the words of Institution (c. lxvi, "by his prayer"), and the final Amen that remains at the end of the Eucharistic prayer.
One might deduce a likeness between the Roman use and those of the Eastern Churches in the fact that when St. Polycarp came to Rome in 155, Pope Anicetus allowed him to celebrate, just like one of his own bishops. The canons of Hippolytus of Rome (in the beginning of the 3rd century, if they are genuine) allude to a Eucharistic celebration that follows the order of St. Justin, and they add the universal introduction to the Preface, "Sursum corda", etc.
Exclusive use of Latin in Rome
The first great turning point in the history of the Roman Canon is the exclusive use of the Latin language. Latin first appears as a language used by Christian writers not in Rome, but in North Africa. Pope Victor I (190-202), an African, seems to have been the first Bishop of Rome who used it. After this time Latin would become the only language used by Popes in their writings; Cornelius (251-53) and Stephen (254-57) write in Latin.
Greek seems to have disappeared at Rome as a liturgical language in the second half of the 3rd century, though parts of the Liturgy were left in Greek. The Creed was sometimes said in Greek down to Byzantine times (Louis Duchesne, Origines, 290). The "Ordo Rom. I" says that certain psalms were still said in Greek; and of this liturgical use of Greek there are still remnants in the Kyrie Eleison and the Trisagion, etc., on Good Friday.
Very soon after the acceptance of Latin as the only liturgical language we find allusions to parts of the Eucharistic prayer, that are practically the same as parts of the Tridentine Canon. In the time of Pope Damasus (366-84) a Roman writer who surprisingly identified Melchizedek with the Holy Ghost writes, "The Holy Ghost being a bishop is called Priest of the most high God, but not high priest" (Sacerdos appellatus est excelsi Dei, non summus) "as our people presume to say in the Oblation." These words evidently allude to the form "thy high priest Melchizedek" (summus sacerdos tuus Melchisedech) in the Roman Canon. Pope Damasus has been considered one of the chief compilers of the Roman Liturgy. One liturgical change made by this pope is certain. He introduced the word Alleluia at Rome.
Innocent I (401-17) refers to the Roman Canon as being a matter he ought not to describe – an apparent survival of the idea of the Disciplina arcani – and says it is ended with the kiss of peace: "After all the things that I may not reveal the Peace is given, by which it is shown that the people have consented to all that was done in the holy mysteries and was celebrated in the church." He also says that at Rome the names of persons for whom the celebrant prays are read in the Canon: "first the offertory should be made, and after that the names of the givers read out, so that they should be named during the holy mysteries, not during the parts that precede" (ib.).
This is all that can be known for certain about the Roman Canon before Gregory I. The earliest books that contain its text were written after his time and show it as approved by him.
Relation to other anaphoras
A question that can only be answered by conjecture is that of the relation between the Roman Canon and any of the other ancient liturgical anaphoras. There are undoubtedly very striking parallels between it and both of the original Eastern rites, those of Alexandria and Antioch. Mgr. Duchesne is inclined to connect the Roman use with that of Alexandria, and the other great Western liturgy, the Gallican Rite, with that of Antioch (Origines, 54). But the Roman Canon shows perhaps more likeness to that of Antioch in its formulæ. These parallel passages have been collected and printed side by side by Dr. Drews in his "Entstehungsgeschichte des Kanons in der römischen Messe", in order to prove a thesis which will be referred to later. Meanwhile, whatever may be thought of Drew's theory, the likeness of the prayers cannot be denied. For instance, the Intercession in the Syrian Liturgy of St. James begins with the prayer (Brightman, East. Lit., 89-90):
Wherefore we offer unto Thee, O Lord, this same fearful and unbloody sacrifice for the holy places ... and especially for holy Sion … and for thy holy church which is in all the world. …Remember also, O Lord, our pious bishops … especially the fathers, our Patriarch Mar N. and our Bishop [and all the bishops throughout the world who preach the word of thy truth in Orthodoxy (Greek Lit. of St James)].
The whole of this prayer suggests the "Imprimis quæ tibi offerimus," and certain words exactly correspond to "toto orbe terrarum" and "orthodoxis", as does "especially" to "imprimis", and so on.
Again the Syrian Anaphora continues:
Remember also, O Lord, those who have offered the offerings at thine holy altar and those for whom each has offered [cf. "pro quibus tibi offerimus vel qui tibi offerunt"]. …Remember, O Lord, all those whom we have mentioned and those whom we have not mentioned [ib., p. 92]. Again vouchsafe to remember those who stand with us and pray with us ["et omnium circumstantium", ib., 92]; Remembering … especially our all-holy, unspotted, most glorious lady, Mother of God and ever Virgin, Mary, St. John the illustrious prophet, forerunner and baptist, the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, Andrew … [the names of the Apostles follow] … and of all thy Saints for ever … that we may receive thy help ["ut in omnibus protectionis tuæ muniamur auxilio", Greek St. James, ib. 56-57].
The words of Institution occur in a form that is almost identical with the "Pridie quam pateretur" (ib., 86-87). The Anamnesis (p. 89) begins: "Commemorating therefore ["unde et memores"] O Lord, thy death and resurrection on the third day from the tomb and thy ascension into heaven ... we offer thee this dread and unbloody sacrifice ["offerimus … hostiam puram," etc.].
It is true that these general ideas occur in all the old liturgies; but in this case a remarkable identity is found even in the words. Some allusions to what were probably older forms in the Canon make the similarity still more striking. Thus Optatus of Mileve says that Mass is offered "pro ecclesiâ, quæ una est et toto orbe terrarum diffusa" (Adv. Parm., III, xii). This represents exactly a Latin version of the "holy Church which is in all the world" that we have seen in the Syrian Anaphora above. The Syrian use adds a prayer for "our religious kings and queens" after that for the patriarch and bishop. So the Roman Missal long contained the words "et pro rege nostro N." after "et Antistite nostro N." (see below). It has a prayer for the celebrant himself (Brightman, 90), where the Roman Missal once contained just such a prayer (below). The treatise "De Sacramentis" gives the words on Institution for the Chalice as "Hic est sanguis meus", just as does the Syrian Liturgy.
There are other striking resemblances that may be seen in Drews. But the other Eastern liturgy, the Alexandrine use, also shows very striking parallels. The prayer for the celebrant, of which the form was "Mihi quoque indignissimo famulo tuo propitius esse digneris, et ab omnibus me peccatorum offensionibus emundare" (Ebner, Miss. Rom., 401), is an exact translation of the corresponding Alexandrine text: "Remember me also, O Lord, thy humble and unworthy servant, and forgive my sins" (Brightman, 130). The author of "De Sacr." quotes the Roman Canon as saying "quod est figura corporis et sanguinis domini nostri Iesu Christi", and the Egyptian Prayer Book of Serapion of Thmuis uses exactly the same expression, "the figure of the body and blood" (Texte u. Unt., II, 3, p. 5). In the West the words "our God" are not often applied to Christ in liturgies. In the Gelasian Sacramentary they occur ("ut nobis corpus et sanguis fiat dilectissimi filii tui Domini Dei nostri Iesu Christi", ed. Wilson, 235), just where they come in the same context in St. Mark's Liturgy (Brightman, 126). The modern Mass refers to the oblation as "thy gifts and favours" (de tuis donis ac datis); so does St. Mark (ib., 133). But the most striking parallel between Rome and Alexandria is in the order of the Canon. The Antiochene Liturgy puts the whole of the Intercession after the words of Institution and the Epiklesis; in Alexandria it comes before. And in the Roman Canon the greater part of this intercession ("imprimis quæ tibi offerimus", "Commemoratio pro vivis", "Communicantes") also comes before the Consecration, leaving only as a curious anomaly the "Commemoratio pro defunctis" and the "Nobis quoque peccatoribus" to follow after the Anamnesis (Unde et memores).
Although, then, it is impossible to establish any sort of mutual dependence, it is evident that the Roman Canon contains likenesses to the two Eastern rites too exact to be accidental; in its forms it most resembles the Antiochene Anaphora, but in its arrangement it follows, or guides, Alexandria.
The order of the prayers
The division of the Intercession is unique among liturgies and is difficult to account for. Again, one little word, the second word in the Canon, has caused much questioning; and many not very successful attempts have been made to account for it.
The Canon begins "Te igitur". To what does that "igitur" refer? From the sense of the whole passage it should follow some reference to the sacrifice. One would expect some prayer that God may accept our offering, perhaps some reference such as is found in the Eastern liturgies to the sacrifices of Abraham, Melchizedek, etc. It should then be natural to continue: "And therefore we humbly pray thee, most merciful Father", etc. But there is no hint of such an allusion in what goes before. No preface has any word to which the "igitur" could naturally refer. At any rate there is no trace of it, either in our preface or in any of the other rites. Other difficulties are the reduplications between the ideas of the "Hanc igitur" and the "Nobis quoque peccatoribus". Various allusions to older forms of the Canon increase the number of these difficulties.
The Greek translation of the Roman Canon called the "Liturgy of St. Peter", edited by William de Linden, Bishop of Ghent, in 1589 from a Rossano manuscript contains some variations that point in this direction. For instance, it gives a version of the "Supplices te rogamus", and then goes on: "Aloud. First remember, O Lord, the Archbishop. He then commemorates the living. And to us sinners", etc. This puts the Intercession after the "Supplices" prayer, and exactly corresponds to the order suggested above.
Matthias Flacius published an "Ordo Missæ" in which there are still traces of the old order of the prayers. It begins with the "Unde et memores" and the Epiclesis; then come the "Te igitur", prayer for the pope, "Memento Domine famulorum famularumque tuarum", and eventually "Nobis quoque peccatoribus", in short, the whole Intercession after the Consecration.
The prayer "Hanc igitur" has some difficulties. The Greek version adds a rubric before it: "Here he names the dead". What can the "Hanc igitur" have to do with the dead? The Antiochene Liturgy, in which several parallel passages to the modern Canon have already been noticed, has a parallel to the second half of this prayer too, and that parallel occurs in its commemoration of the dead. There, following a prayer that the dead may rest "in the land of the living, in thy kingdom ... in the bosom of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob", etc., is found this continuation: "And keep for us in peace, O Lord, a Christian, well-pleasing and sinless end to our lives, gathering us under the feet of thy Elect, when Thou willest and as Thou willest, only without shame and offence; through thy only begotten Son our Lord and God and Saviour, Jesus Christ." We notice here the reference to the elect (in electorum tuorum grege), the prayer that we may be kept "in peace" (in tuâ pace disponas), the allusion to the "end of our lives" (diesque nostros) and the unusual "Per Christum Dominum nostrum", making a break in the middle of the Eucharistic prayer. The Syrian form with its plain reference to death ("the end of our lives") seems more clearly to be a continuation of a prayer for the faithful departed. But in the Roman form too is found such a reference in the words about hell (ab æterna damnatione) and heaven (in electorum tuorum grege).
Drews then proposes to divide the "Hanc igitur" into two separate parts. The second half, beginning at the words "diesque nostros", would have originally been the end of the Commemoration of the Dead and would form a reduplication of the "Nobis quoque peccatoribus", where the same idea occurs ("partem aliquam et societatem donare digneris cum tuis sanctis Apostolis er Martyribus" being an echo of "in electorum tuorum iubeas grege numerari"). This second half, then, would belong to the Intercession after the Consecration, and would originally fall together with the "Nobis quoque". In any case, even in the present arrangement of the Canon the "Nobis quoque" following the "Commemoratio pro defunctis" shows that at Rome as in other liturgies the idea of adding a prayer for ourselves, that we too may find a peaceful and blessed death followed by a share in the company of the saints, after our prayer for the faithful departed was accepted as natural.
The first half of the "Hanc igitur" must now be accounted for down to "placatus accipias". This first half is a reduplication of the prayer "Quam oblationem". Both contain exactly the same idea that God may graciously accept our offering. "Hanc oblationem" and "Quam oblationem" differ only in the relative construction of the second form. We know that the relative construction is not the original one. In the "De Sacramentis", to which reference has several times been made, the "Quam oblationem" occurs as an absolute sentence: "Fac nobis hanc oblationem adscriptam, rationabilem acceptabilemque, quod est figura corporis et sanguinis Domini nostri Iesu Christi" (IV, v). We also know that the "Igitur" in "Hanc igitur" is not original. The parallel passages in Serapion and St. Mark's Liturgy have simply tauter ten thysian (Drews, 16). Moreover, the place and object of this prayer have varied very much. It has been applied to all sorts of purposes, and it is significant that it occurs specially often in connection with the dead (Ebner, Miss. Rom., 412). This would be a natural result, if we suppose it to be a compilation of two separate parts, both of which have lost their natural place in the Canon. Drews then proposes to supply the first words of the "Quam oblationem" that we have put in the first place of his reconstructed Canon (see above), by the first half of the "Hanc igitur", so that (leaving out the igitur) the Canon would once have begun: "Hanc oblationem servitutis nostræ, sed et cunctæ familiæ tuæ, quæsumus Domine, ut placatus accipias ut in omnibus benedictam, adscriptam, ratam, rationabilemque facere digneris, ut nobis corpus et sanguis fiat dilectissimi filii tui Domini nostri Iesu Christi" (Drews, 30), and so on, according to the order suggested above. One word, "ut", has been added to this compilation, to connect the "Hanc igitur" with the continuation of "Quam oblationem". This word is vouched for by the Greek version, which has ina here (Swainson, 197). Drews further notes that such a change in the arrangement of the Canon is not inconceivable. Popes have modified its order on other occasions. Joannes Diaconus, the biographer of St. Gregory I, tells us that he re-arranged a few parts of the Canon ("pauca convertens", Vita Greg., II, xvii).
When then may this change be supposed to have been made? It was not made in the time of Innocent I (401-417); it had already occurred when the Gelasian Sacramentary was written (7th century); it may be taken for certain that in the time of St. Gregory I (590-604) the Canon already stood as it does now. The reason for believing that Innocent I still knew only the old arrangement is that in his letter to Decentius of Eugubium (Patrologia Latina, XX, 553-554) he implies that the Intercession comes after the Consecration. He says that the people for whom we pray "should be named in the middle of the holy mysteries, not during the things that go before, that by the very mysteries we should open the way for the prayers that follow". If the diptychs are read after the way has been opened by the holy mysteries, the Roman Canon must follow the same order as the Church of Antioch, and at any rate place the "Commemoratio vivorum" after the Consecration. Supposing, then, that this re-arrangement really did take place, it must have been made in the course of the 5th century.
However, Connolly disputes this translation of Innocent's letter. He demonstrates that the text should be translated as "So that they may be named in the course of the sacred Mysteries [the Canon] — not in the course of other those things we place before in order to open the way by (our) prayers for the mysteries themselves that follow." According to this interpretation, Innocent's reference to the prayers placed before is addressing the Secret in the Offertory, while the names are to be read during the Canon; he does not indicate where in the Canon the names are read out. Based on Innocent's usage of the word 'mysteries', Connolly rejects the interpretation that the names are read at the back of the Canon.
Drews thinks that we can go farther and ascribe the change to Pope Gelasius I (492-96). A very old tradition connects his name with at any rate, some important work about the Canon. The second oldest Roman sacramentary known, although it is really later than St. Gregory, has been called the "Sacramentarium Gelasianum" since the 9th century (Duchesne, Origines, 120). Gennadius I says that he composed a sacramentary (De. vir. ill., c. xciv). Moreover, the Liber Pontificalis refers to his liturgical work (Origines, 122) and the Stowe Missal (7th century) puts at the head of the Canon the title: "Canon dominicus Papæ Gelasi" (ed. Warren, 234). Baumer has collected all the evidences for Gelasius's authorship of some important sacramentary (Histor. Jahrb., 1893, 244 sqq.). It is known that Gelasius did not compose the text of the Canon. Its component parts have been traced back to a far earlier date. But would not so vital a change in its arrangement best explain the tradition that persistently connects the recent Canon with the name of Gelasius?
There is even a further suggestion that Drews has noticed. Why was the reversal of the order made? Evidently to bring the Intercession before the Consecration. This means to change from the same order as Antioch to that of Alexandria. Is it too much to suppose that we have here a case of Alexandrine influence at Rome? Now it is noticeable that Gelasius personally had a great reverence for the venerable "second See" founded by St. Mark, and that since 482 Bishop John Talaia of Alexandria, being expelled from his own Church by the Monophysites, sought and found refuge in Rome. He would have celebrated his own liturgy in the pope's city, and was certainly greatly honoured as a confessor and exile for the Faith. May we then even go so far as to suggest that we owe the present certainly unusual order of our Canon to Gelasius and the influence of John Talaia? So far Drews (p. 38).
Drews's theory has not been unopposed. An argument against it may be found in the very treatise "De Sacramentis" from which he gathers some of his arguments. For this treatise says: "In all other things that are said praise is given to God, prayers are said for the people, for kings, for others, but when he comes to consecrate the holy Sacrament the priest no longer uses his own words, but takes those of Christ" (IV, iv). According to this author, then, the Intercession comes before the Consecration. On the other hand, it will be noticed that the treatise is late. That it is not by St. Ambrose himself has long been admitted by every one. It is apparently an imitation of his work "De Mysteriis", and may have been composed in the 5th or 6th century (Bardenhewer, Patrologie, 407). German Morin thinks that Nicetas, Bishop of Romatiana in Dacia, wrote it (Rev. Benéd., 1890, 151-59). In any case it may be urged that whatever reasons there are for ascribing it to an early date, they show equally conclusively that, in spite of its claim to describe "the form of the Roman Church" (III, 1), it is Milanese. The very assurance is a proof that it was not composed at Rome, since in that case such a declaration would have been superfluous. An allusion occurring in a Milanese work is but a very doubtful guide for the Roman use. And its late date makes it worthless as a witness for our point. When it was written probably the change had already been made at Rome; so we are not much concerned by the question of how far it describes Roman or Milanese offices. So far the theory proposed by Drews, which seems in any case to deserve attention.
From the time of St. Gregory I (590 to present)
Certainly, when St. Gregory became pope, the Roman Canon was already fixed in its present order. There are scarcely any changes to note in its history since then. "No pope has added to or changed the Canon since St. Gregory" says Benedict XIV (De SS. Missæ Sacr., 162). We learn from Joannes Diaconus that St. Gregory "collected the Sacramentary of Gelasius in one book, leaving out much, changing little adding something for the exposition of the Gospels" (II, xvii).
These modifications seem to concern chiefly the parts of the Mass outside the Canon. We are told that Gregory added to the "Hanc igitur" the continuation "diesque nostros in tuâ pace disponas" etc. (ib.). We have already noticed that this second part was originally a fragment of a prayer for the dead. St. Gregory's addition may then very well mean, not that he composed it, but that he joined it to the "Hanc igitur", having removed it from its original place.
From the time of Gregory the most important event in the history of the Roman Canon is not any sort of change in it, but the rapid way in which it spread all over the West, displacing the Gallican Liturgy. Charlemagne (768-814) applied to Pope Adrian I (772-95) for a copy of the Roman Liturgy, that he might introduce it throughout the Frankish Kingdom. The text sent by the pope is the basis of what is called the "Sacramentarium Gregorianum", which therefore represents the Roman Rite at the end of the 8th century.
But it is practically unchanged since St. Gregory's time. The Gelasian Sacramentary, which is earlier than the so-called Gregorian one, is itself later than St. Gregory. It contains the same Canon (except that there are a few more saints' names in the "Communicantes") and has the continuation "diesque nostros in tuâ pace disponas", etc., joined to the "Hanc igitur", just as in the present Roman Missal. The Stowe Missal, now in Dublin (a sixth- or early 7th-century manuscript), is no longer a sacramentary, but contains already the complete text of a "Missa quotidiana", with collects for three other Masses, thus forming what we call a Missal. From this time convenience led more and more to writing out the whole text of the Mass in one book. By the 10th century the Missal, containing whole Masses and including Epistles and Gospels, takes the place of the separate books ("Sacramentarium" for the celebrant, "Lectionarium" for the deacon and subdeacon, and "Antiphonarium Missæ" for the choir).
However, even during this period, there were still minor variants of the Roman canon in place. For instance, during the Synod of Rome held in 732, Pope Gregory III added a few words to the Canon of the Mass, but explicitly stated that this variant was only to be used in the Mass said in the oratory of Sancta Maria in Cancellis within St. Peter's Basilica.
Later variations
After the 9th century the Roman Mass, now quite fixed in all its essential parts (though the Proper Masses for various feasts constantly change), quickly became the universal use throughout the Western patriarchate. Except for three small exceptions, the Ambrosian Rite at Milan, the Mozarabic Rite at Toledo, and the Byzantine Rite among the Italo-Greeks in Calabria and Sicily, this has been the case ever since.
The local medieval rites of which we hear, such as those of Lyons, Paris, Rouen, Salisbury, York, etc., are in no sense different liturgies. They are all simply the Roman use with slight local variations – variations, moreover, that hardly ever affect the Canon. The Sarum Rite, for instance, which Anglicans have sometimes tried to set up as a sort of rival to the Roman Rite, does not contain in its Canon a single word that differs from the parent-rite as used by the Catholic Church, with the exception of a commemoration for the king. But some changes were made in medieval times, changes that have since been removed by the conservative tendency of Roman legislation.
From the 10th century people took all manner of liberties with the text of the Missal. It was the time of farced Kyries and Glorias, of dramatic and even theatrical ritual, of endlessly varying and lengthy prefaces, into which interminable accounts of stories from Bible history and lives of saints were introduced. This tendency did not even spare the Canon; although the specially sacred character of this part tended to prevent people from tampering with it as recklessly as they did with other parts of the Missal. However, additions were made to the Communicantes to introduce allusions to certain feasts; the two lists of saints, the Communicantes and the Nobis quoque peccatoribus, were enlarged to include various local people, and even the Hanc igitur and the "Qui pridie" were modified on certain days.
The Council of Trent (1545–63) restrained this tendency and ordered that "the holy Canon composed many centuries ago" should be kept pure and unchanged; it also condemned those who say that the "Canon of the Mass contains errors and should be abolished" (Sess. XXII., cap. iv. can. vi; Denzinger, 819, 830). In the official Roman Missal that Pope Pius V published in 1570, he made some changes such as removing from the Canon the mention of the emperor or king and shortening the "Communicantes" prayer by removing some saints' names and some clauses of the prayer. He accompanied the Missal with a bull forbidding anyone to add to or in any way change any part of it. It was to be the only one used in the West except for local uses that could be proved to have existed for at least 200 years. This exception allowed the Ambrosian Rite, the Mozarabic Rite, and variants of the Roman Rite developed by religious institutes such as the Dominicans, Carmelites, and Carthusians, to continue in use. The differences in the Missals of the religious institutes hardly affected the text of the Roman Canon, since they regarded rather some unimportant rubrics.
After Pope Pius V, Pope Clement VIII (1592–1605), Pope Urban VIII (1623–44), and Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903) published revised editions of the Roman Missal, which added a great number of Masses for new feasts or local calendars but, apart from very few retouches to the rubrics, did not affect the text of the Roman Canon until, in the 20th century, Pope John XXIII inserted the name of Saint Joseph. In the Institution narrative, Pope Paul VI a little later added the phrase "quod pro vobis tradetur" ("which will be given up for you") from Luke's account of the Last Supper to the words of Jesus previously in the Roman Canon, and removed from them the phrase "mysterium fidei" ("the mystery of faith"), which was not part of his words. The latter phrase was then used independently as an introduction to an acclamation such as is found at this point in Eastern anaphoras. He also replaced "Haec quotiescumque feceritis, in mei memoriam facietis" ("As often as you do these things, ye shall do them in remembrance of me") with "Hoc facite in meam commemorationem" ("Do this in memory of me"). The 1970 Roman Missal also made optional the recitation of the full lists of saints mentioned by name and the conclusion ("through Christ our Lord. Amen.") of many of the component prayers of the Roman Canon, which, with the exception of the words of consecration, made it appear, as Joseph A. Jungmann said, "to be nothing more than a loosely arranged succession of oblations, prayers of intercession and a reverential citation of apostles and martyrs of early Cristianity".
Since Pius V, the Canon does not change with the changes in the liturgical year, except that on a few feasts slight additions are made to the Communicantes and the Hanc igitur, and on one day to the Qui pridie.
See also
Canon of the Mass
Text and rubrics of the Roman Canon
Mass
Pre-Tridentine Mass
Tridentine Mass
Mass of Paul VI
References
This article is mainly a transcription of the section headed "History of the canon" of the article "Canon of the Mass" by Adrian Fortescue in the 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia, now in the public domain. It has been updated to take account of the fact that the Roman Canon is no longer the only Eucharistic Prayer of the Roman Rite.
Catholic liturgy |
4562946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working%20for%20Families | Working for Families | In 2004, the New Zealand Labour government introduced the Working for Families package as part of the 2004 budget. The package, which effectively commenced operating on 1 April 2005, had three primary aims: to make work pay; to ensure income adequacy; and to support people "into work".
The main component resembles the United Kingdom Working Tax Credit.
Both the New Zealand Ministry of Social Development and Inland Revenue have involvement in jointly delivering the package.
Components of the package
The scheme pays "Working for Families Tax credits" (formerly known as Family Assistance) to families with dependent children to help with the cost of raising a family. Dependent children are defined as aged 18 or under who are not in full-time employment. The Working for Family tax credits include four types of payments:
Family tax credit: provides ongoing support for beneficiary and working families with dependent children
In-work tax credit: available to working families only
Minimum family tax credit: paid to working families to ensure they earn a minimum annual income after tax
Best start: paid to assist with the costs of a new baby
The Working for Families package also included additional help with childcare and accommodation, with increases in amounts of the existing Accommodation Supplement and the existing Childcare Assistance.
Family Tax Credit
Formerly known as Family Support, the Family Tax Credit gets paid to families with dependent children aged 18 or younger. There is no employment requirement to qualify for the Family Tax Credit.
The amount paid depends on:
total annual family income before tax
the number of dependent children
the age of dependent children
The maximum amount of family tax credit increases with the age and number of children. An eldest child garners a higher amount.
For an eldest dependent child aged 16 to 18, the maximum tax credit increases by $13 a week.
For dependent children (other than the eldest) aged 13 to 15, the maximum tax credit increases by $8 a week.
For dependent children (other than the eldest) aged 16 to 18, the maximum tax credit increases by $29 a week.
In-work Tax Credit
Formerly known as In-work Payment, the In-Work Tax Credit replaced the Child tax credit from 1 April 2006. It is paid to families with dependent children (aged 18 or younger) who work.
Families do not qualify if they receive a main form of state assistance through social welfare.
From 2006 this amount was paid to a maximum of $60 per week for 1 to 3 children, with an additional $15 per week for the fourth and any additional children (thus a family with five children could receive a maximum of $90 per week). The maximum amount was changed in Budget 2015 to be $72.50 per week, implemented on 1 April 2016.
Minimum Family Tax Credit
Formerly known as family tax credit, and prior to that as guaranteed minimum family income, the Minimum Family Tax Credit aims to ensure that the total annual income of a family with dependent children 18 or younger, who work the required number of hours per week, does not fall below a set level. The minimum family tax credit usually applies if annual family income is $27,768 or less after tax.
Families must work at least 30 hours a week (for a couple) and 20 hours a week (for a sole parent). They do not qualify if they receive a main form of state assistance through social welfare.
The annual and weekly amounts are amended every tax year.
Families who earn a lesser amount from employment, and who are not receiving an income-tested form of social assistance, will receive a payment equal to the difference between their income and the minimum income level.
Best Start
Best Start is a payment of $60 a week for families with a new baby. Families who qualify for Best Start will get the payment until their baby turns 1, no matter how much they earn. They can still get Best Start until their child turns 3 if they earn under $93,858.
Parents receiving paid parental leave or income-tested social welfare do not qualify for this payment.
Assessment of income
The authorities assess income for tax credit purposes based on a "household", which will consist of the pooled resources from up to two adults in any family with dependent children.
Nearly all households earning under $70,000 a year, many households with children earning up to $100,000 a year, and some earning more, qualify to receive assistance.
Withdrawal of tax credits
The level of assistance to individual households depends on their income and on the number and age of children.
The rate of withdrawal (the abatement rate) for the Family Tax Credit, Parental Tax Credit and the In-Work Tax Credit comprises 20%. An abatement-free threshold of $36,350 exists.
The Minimum Family Tax Credit consists of a "top-up" payment, so that regardless of the amount of income earned, it gets topped up to the minimum amount per week (currently $534 after tax). This comprises effectively a 100% withdrawal with earned income up to the set income-level.
Some New Zealand households also receive money from the increased income-thresholds and rates for Accommodation Supplement and Childcare Assistance. These two types of assistance have separate withdrawal rates.
Impact and level of take-up
Under current payment rates and abatement rates the New Zealand Government has stated that three out of four families would qualify for extra financial assistance under the Working for Families package.
In the tax year from 1 April 2005 to 31 March 2006 approximately 285,000 families received Working for Families Tax Credits. In August 2006 beneficiary families received an average of $110 per week of tax-credits, an increase of $30 per week compared to August 2004. Families paid by Inland Revenue received an average of $138 per week of tax-credits, an increase of $54 per week.
The Former Minister of Social Development and Employment David Benson-Pope stated that Working for Families had made beneficiaries better off by around $31.00 per week, and working families by around $64.00 per week, with the April 2007 increase lifting families' incomes further. Estimates suggest that Working for Families has reduced child poverty by 70% since its introduction. This would equate to at least 70,000 children lifted out of income poverty by Working for Families.
Former Minister David Benson-Pope also stated that Working for Families had made it easier for some women to start work, while in other families it had made it easier for one partner to spend more time at home.
A government evaluation (see below) has found that the number of Domestic Purposes Benefit recipients since the Working for Families package has fallen by 8,000.
Opinions on the package
The Working for Families package has received a mixed response. Some (such as Victoria University Professor Robert Stephens) have praised the package for encouraging adults to come off benefits, and for targeting families in need.
Others, however, have criticised the package for potentially extending to the relatively wealthy and for increasing effective marginal tax rates for many people. The economist Gareth Morgan, for example, commented on how some (generally middle-income) people can face effective marginal tax rates of over 100%.
The package (with the exception of the family tax credit, accommodation and childcare components) does not extend to families on the Domestic Purposes Benefit, or to families not in work. Critics say this social group will become worse off, and get left further behind (relatively speaking) by not having access to the in-work tax credit and minimum family tax credit components.
The Child Poverty Action Group has commenced legal proceedings against the New Zealand Government for discriminating against those not in employment in the "Working for Families" package. The case focuses on the In-Work Tax Credit and on the Child Tax Credit it replaced. The Action Group estimates that at least 175,000 children have been "left behind". In a judgement from the Human Rights Review Tribunal, it was stated that the in-work tax credit payment is discriminatory, but in this case, is justified. The Action Group are appealing the decision claiming the discrimination is not justified.
Susan St John has supported poverty-prevention over poverty-alleviation, advocating policies such as a simple universal basic payment indexed to wages as well as prices for pensioners – not conditional on work. She criticises the Working for Families package for not delivering extra income until 2005, provided nothing for the poorest in 2006 and only a small increase in 2007. She states: "a large part of Working for Families is based on the flawed logic that all families need to escape poverty is an incentive to get off benefits."
Phil O’Reilly has included Working for Families in a list of alleged low-quality governmental spending that has purportedly contributed to higher interest-rates and lower productivity rates.
Some find the very name of the "Working for Families" package ambiguous. While supporters portray "working for families" as meaning "making efforts for the benefit of families", others interpret the phrase as "[giving] families work to perform".
John Key called the scheme "communism by stealth" but did not repeal or cut back the Working for Families tax credits, during his time as Prime Minister.
Evaluations and research
The first formal government evaluation of the Working for Families package
describes public awareness of the package and details classes of recipients of Working for Families entitlements to the end of August 2006. The report cites a high level of awareness of the overall package and a high level of receipt of Working for Families payments, meeting or exceeding original forecasts. Since the introduction of the package, the number of families receiving the Domestic Purposes Benefit has fallen by 8,000; with 2,600 recipients cancelling the benefit since the implementation of the In-Work Tax Credit. – While awareness of the package and its advertising appears high, the evaluation-report found that only around three-quarters of people who believe they receive a tax credit actually did so when matched to administrative records. Further, of the people surveyed who did receive a tax credit only two-thirds realised that they did.
Several articles have addressed the potential or theoretical impacts of the Working for Families package.
One study by Auckland University economist Tim Maloney and American welfare-reform researcher John Fitzgerald found that, on average, working mothers spent an extra three hours a week working after the 2005 and 2006 changes from the Working for Families package. Initial speculation suggested that working hours would fall as the higher income paid to families with dependent children would mean that mothers could spend less time in work. Maloney believes that "some women already working were probably increasing their hours worked in order to qualify for family assistance payments". The authors class the results as preliminary – given the relatively recent introduction of the Working for Families package.
A study found that changes in neither In-Work Tax Credit, nor Family Tax Credit were associated with any meaningful changes in self-rated health, a measure of general health status. However, the study found that each additional year of receiving Family Tax Credit led to a very small reduction in self-rated health, but it did not impact tobacco smoking among parents.
Further evaluations completed by the Ministry of Social Development and Inland Revenue include:
The summary report of the evaluation of the Working for Families package.
Receipt of Working for Families
Receipt of Working for Families – 2007 Update
Employment incentives for sole parents: Labour market effects of changes to financial incentives and support
Employment incentives for sole parents: Labour market effects of changes to financial incentives and support. Technical report.
Timeline
October 2004
Announcement of the Working for Families package as part of the 2004 Budget. The first changes came into effect from October 2004. Changes included:
Abatement of Accommodation Supplement removed for beneficiaries
Accommodation Supplement entry and abatement thresholds increased for non-beneficiaries
Childcare and OSCAR Subsidy rates increased and aligned, and income thresholds increased
April 2005
Stage One of Working for Families implementation applied from 1 April 2005 (with a further implementation deliverable released in October 2005). The changes included:
Family tax credit rates increased by $25 for the first child and $15 for additional children
The child component of main income-tested benefits moved into the family tax credit amount
Foster Care Allowance, Unsupported Child’s Benefit and Orphan’s Benefit rates increased by $15 per week
Accommodation Supplement maximum rates increased in some areas with high housing costs
Family tax credit became treated as income for Special Benefit, with standard costs set at 70% of main benefit plus family tax credit for people with children
Childcare and OSCAR Subsidy rates increased by another 10%
April 2006
Stage Two of Working for Families implementation applied from 1 April 2006. The changes included:
The in-work tax credit replaced the Child Tax Credit: it pays up to $60 per week for families with three children, and up to an extra $15 per week for each other child
The minimum family tax credit threshold increased from $15,080 to $17,680
A single higher abatement threshold of $35,000 replaces the two family tax credit abatement thresholds of $20,356 and $27,481
The 18% abatement rate applying to the lower abatement threshold for family tax credit vanishes completely and the 30% rate applying to the higher abatement threshold reduces to 20%
Introduction of the Temporary Additional Support to replace Special Benefit.
April 2007
Stage Three involves the final components of Working for Families implementation and applied from 1 April 2007. The changes include:
Family tax-credit rates increased by $10 per week per child
The income-threshold for the minimum family tax-credit increased to $18,044
Regular inflation-adjustment put in the Income Tax Act 2007 to prevent the erosion of payments over time. Family tax credit amounts and abatement-free threshold to increase when inflation reaches a cumulative five per cent. Minimum family tax credit to be reviewed annually. In-work tax credit and parental tax credit to be reviewed every three years.
April 2008
The after-tax income threshold for the minimum family tax credit increased to $18,460
October 2008
While the package had been completely implemented with the final stage on 1 April 2007, the Income Tax Act 2007 provided for regular adjustments to rates based on cumulative movements in the New Zealand Consumer Price Index; a minimum movement of 5% was required before rates would be amended. These increases would apply from the following 1 April of a year when a change was triggered based on actual data published by Statistics New Zealand.
As part of the 2008 Budget, the Labour Government amended the Income Tax Act 2007 to increase the rates of family tax credit and the abatement-free level by an anticipated movement in Consumer Price Index of 5.22%. The increases would occur from 1 October 2008. This has required the Inland Revenue department to develop composite rates and income limits for the tax year 1 April 2008 to 31 March 2009 (the average between the annual amount before 1 October 2008 and the annual amount after 1 October 2008 inflation adjustment).
The previous abatement-free threshold was $35,000. From 1 October 2008 it increased to $36,827. The composite threshold for the year was $35,914
April 2009
The after-tax income threshold for the minimum family tax credit increased to $20,540
April 2010
The after-tax income threshold for the minimum family tax credit increased to $20,800
October 2010
As part of the 2010 Budget, the National Government amended the Income Tax Act 2007 to increase the amounts of family tax credit by an anticipated movement in Consumer Price Index of 2%; the expected result of the increase in GST rate from 12.5% to 15%. The increases apply from 1 October 2010. Composite amounts and income limits for the tax year 1 April 2010 to 31 March 2011 apply.
The indexation of the abatement-free threshold for Working for Families tax credits has been removed from the Income Tax Act 2007 and the abatement-free threshold will remain at $36,827. Future indexation of the family tax credit rates will ignore any price movement relating to tobacco in the Consumers Price Index.
April 2011
The after-tax income threshold for the minimum family tax credit increased to $22,204
References
Bibliography
New Zealand Government and Politics, edited by Raymond Miller, 4th edition, 2006, Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
External links
Working for Families, Ministry of Social Development
Welfare in New Zealand
Politics of New Zealand
New Zealand Labour Party
Helen Clark |
4563024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Sondheim%20Theatre | Stephen Sondheim Theatre | The Stephen Sondheim Theatre, formerly Henry Miller's Theatre, is a Broadway theater at 124 West 43rd Street in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Owned by the Durst Organization and managed by the Roundabout Theatre Company, the modern 1,055-seat theater opened in 2009 at the base of the Bank of America Tower. The current theater is mostly underground and was designed by Cookfox, architects of the Bank of America Tower. It retains the landmarked facade of the original Henry Miller's Theatre, which was built in 1918 by Henry Miller, the actor and producer.
The original 950-seat theater was designed in the neoclassical style by Harry Creighton Ingalls of Ingalls & Hoffman, in conjunction with Paul R. Allen. Its facade is protected as a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. It was managed by Henry Miller along with Elizabeth Milbank Anderson and Klaw & Erlanger. After Miller's death in 1926, his son Gilbert Miller took over operation. The Miller family sold the theater in 1966 to the Nederlander Organization, who sold it in 1968 to Seymour Durst. The final musical production at the theater closed in 1969. It served as a porn theater through much of the 1970s, then operated as a discotheque called Xenon from 1978 to 1984, and subsequently operated as a nightclub under various names in the 1980s and 1990s.
Henry Miller's Theatre reopened as a Broadway house in 1998, when Roundabout staged a revival of Cabaret, during which it was advertised as the Kit Kat Klub, the musical's fictional venue. Cabaret transferred to Studio 54 later that year, and the theater briefly operated as a nightclub in 1999 and 2000. The dystopian musical Urinetown played in the venue from 2001 to 2004. Afterward, the auditorium was demolished, and the modern theater, originally retaining the Henry Miller's name, opened in 2009. The theater was renamed for American composer and lyricist Stephen Sondheim on his 80th birthday in 2010.
Design
The Stephen Sondheim Theatre is on 124 West 43rd Street, at the base of the Bank of America Tower, in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. It was originally known as Henry Miller's Theatre and was designed in the neo-Georgian style by Paul R. Allen with Ingalls & Hoffman, a firm composed of Harry Creighton Ingalls and F. Burrall Hoffman Jr. Though listed as an architect of record, Hoffman was not involved with the theater's design, having enlisted in the military when Ingalls and Allen began designing the theater. The theater was originally named for its builder, English-born actor-producer Henry Miller; since 2010, it has been named for composer and lyricist Stephen Sondheim (1930–2021). While the facade dates from Allen and Ingalls & Hoffman's original design in 1918, the auditorium and other internal spaces date to a 2009 reconstruction.
Facade
The facade is made of red brick and white marble. Miller had conceived of the theater building as the ideal "American theatre", but the facade took significant inspiration from English theater, and even the neo-Georgian decoration was meant to evoke the English origins of American drama. A writer for Architectural Record wrote that the design appeared to be at least partially inspired by the architecture of the Drury Lane Theatre. Unlike most theaters of its time, Henry Miller's Theatre had windows on its street-facing facade, illuminating what were originally offices. The original facade still exists but only serves as an entrance to the rebuilt theater underground. The facade protrudes from the Bank of America Tower's glass curtain wall, which surrounds it on all sides.
The theater's ground-story facade consists of a water table made of granite, above which is a brick facade. There are five rectangular doorways at the center of the facade, each containing a recessed pair of metal doors; above these doorways are stone lintels with urn symbols flanked by rosettes. When the theater was built, the three center doorways led to a box office lobby; the leftmost doorway led to the balcony; and the rightmost doorway led to the gallery. There is a marquee above the three center bays of the ground story. , the marquee displays the words "Stephen Sondheim", reflecting its rename from Henry Miller's Theatre.
Henry Miller's Theatre was the first Broadway theater to be built under the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which is reflected in its design. Where previous Broadway theaters had to contain open-air alleys on either side, Henry Miller's Theatre concealed its alleys behind the extreme ends of either facade. Accordingly, the five center doorways are flanked by a pair of segmental-arched gateways with wrought-iron gates. The gateways have paneled keystones above their centers and wrought-iron lanterns flanking each side.
The rest of the facade is made of red brick in common bond and is split into two end pavilions flanking five vertical bays. Each bay is delineated by projecting brick pilasters topped by decorated Corinthian-style capitals of terracotta. The five center bays have rectangular window openings at the second story, with stone keystones and brick voussoirs atop each window, as well as iron balconies curving outward. On the third story, there are three round-arched windows at the center, flanked by two blind openings with brick infill; they also have stone keystones and brick voussoirs. The end pavilions have arched brick niches at the second story and terracotta roundels on the third story. Above that is a terracotta frieze with the name "Henry Miller's Theatre" carved in the center and triangular pediments above the end pavilions. A parapet runs at the roof of the facade. Above the theater facade is a billboard attached to the Bank of America Tower's curtain wall.
Interior
Original design
The interior was designed similarly to old English rooms in the Adam style. The box-office lobby was an elliptical space. The walls were cream-colored with mauve glazing and were decorated with a molding, a plaster cornice, and lighting fixtures. The box-office lobby had a floor of black and white marble, and the ceiling was made of plaster. The metal grilles and fixtures were painted in dark colors, while the doors were a dark ivory shade. Three doorways from the box-office lobby led to a shallow foyer running across the rear of the auditorium's orchestra. The foyer had bright-blue walls similar to those along the stairways and passageways. Stairs at either end of the foyer descended to the lounge, and another stair on the right side ascended to the balcony. The stairs between the foyer and lounge contained landings, which led to a ladies' retiring room and gentlemen's smoking room. The lounge had English green walls with silk hangings; its design elements included an onyx-and-crystal candelabra. Different designs of light fixtures were used for the foyer and lounge, but they had similarly designed black carpets with green and rose decorations.
The original auditorium had 950 seats. It was semicircular and designed with what Miller considered an "intimate" feel. The parquet level was outfitted with 404 seats, even though the back row had to be removed because of the presence of the lobby behind it. The original auditorium included two balcony levels, the higher level being the "gallery". The second balcony was included because Miller had only been able to afford balcony seats in his youth. Many older and larger theaters of the time had two balconies, but newer or smaller theaters only contained one balcony. The lower balcony level had boxes, which Miller had initially planned to exclude from the design, though he ultimately decided upon making them inconspicuous. The gallery level, on the same level as Miller's office, had an elevator so people could reach the gallery easily. There were 200 seats in the gallery. The auditorium's carpets had a black background with colorful patterns, a contrast to contemporary theaters that had monochrome carpets. The auditorium also had gray walls, hand-painted panels, and brightly colored plaster medallions and swags. Illumination was provided by central chandeliers as well as lights in the boxes.
The front of the auditorium had a wooden orchestra pit separated from the audience by a curved screen. The music came from louvers at the top of the screen. A pianist in the pit operated a choral cello, sounds from which were piped throughout the auditorium. The stage was wide and had an amber brocade curtain. Above the curtain was a medallion with personifications of comedy and tragedy. The left side of the stage contained its "working side", where stage directions were given, while the right side contained the dressing rooms. The rear of the stage had an additional space with a low ceiling. A counterweight system was installed over the stage, which obviated the requirement for a fly system. A switchboard controlled the lights above the stage.
2009 reconstruction
From 2004 to 2009, the old theater was replaced with a 1,055-seat theater designed by Cookfox, architects of the Bank of America Tower. The rebuilt theater covers . Severud and Tishman had to excavate up to below street level, since the new auditorium could not rise above the old facade. This makes the theater one of two subterranean houses on Broadway. The ground-level entrance contains the mezzanine, with the orchestra level located below. The ground level has a bar and cafe, and there is an upper mezzanine with a restaurant. Two-thirds of the seating, as well as a lobby bar, are at orchestra level. The interior retains artifacts from the original structure. These artifacts include the original emergency-exit doors and the plaster frieze from the auditorium.
The theater's interior was designed to meet Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold green-building standards. The environmental features include recycled wall panels, locally quarried marble, and waterless urinals. This makes the Stephen Sondheim Theatre the first Broadway theater to meet LEED standards. The rebuilt theater's design was influenced by input from numerous government agencies, theatre companies, and other organizations. For instance, the women's restroom was designed with 22 stalls, three times the number required under building code, and the men's restroom was designed with 10 stalls, one and a half times the code requirement. In addition, the Stephen Sondheim is fully accessible under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, with 20 viewing stations, a drinking fountain, and a restroom for disabled guests.
History
Times Square became the epicenter for large-scale theater productions between 1900 and the Great Depression. Manhattan's theater district had begun to shift from Union Square and Madison Square during the first decade of the 20th century. From 1901 to 1920, forty-three theaters were built around Broadway in Midtown Manhattan, including Henry Miller's Theatre.
Original theater
Henry Miller had held a lifelong dream of operating a theater. In December 1916, he announced his intention to build a theater on a plot at 124-130 West 43rd Street, next to the established theater district on Times Square. The site measured and had previously been proposed as the site of an unbuilt theater by Felix Isman. Miller had leased the lot from its owner, Elizabeth Milbank Anderson. Paul Allen and Ingalls & Hoffman were hired for the design. Allen had been involved in the project partially because Miller had a history of working with Allen's sister, actress Viola Allen.
Early years
Henry Miller's Theatre opened on April 1, 1918, hosting the play The Fountain of Youth, in which Miller himself starred. John Corbin wrote for The New York Times that the new theater was "of the ideal size and shape" and that "the decorations are at once rich and in the perfection of good taste". Heywood Broun of the New-York Tribune said the theater "is a delight if you don't mind the curtain too much". The Brooklyn Times-Union subsequently said the theater was "a memorial worthy of any man" even if Miller did not have further accomplishments in his lifetime. The Fountain of Youth itself was a flop, as was the play that succeeded it, The Marriage of Convenience. That July, Klaw & Erlanger agreed to jointly manage the theater with Miller.
Most of the early productions were flops, until Mis' Nelly of N'Orleans, which opened in 1919 and had 127 performances. The musical La La Lucille, which opened in May 1919, was also a success, even though the theater had to close during the 1919 Actors' Equity Association strike. Miller ultimately starred in eight productions at the theater during his lifetime, including The Famous Mrs. Fair (1918), and The Changelings (1923). During the early 1920s, Henry Miller's Theatre hosted the Broadway debuts of Leslie Howard in Just Suppose (1920) as well as Noël Coward in The Vortex (1925). Other actors and actresses to perform at the Henry Miller included Alfred Lunt and Billie Burke in The Awful Truth (1922), Ina Claire in Romeo and Juliet (1923), and Jane Cowl and Dennis King in Quarantine (1924). Meanwhile, Elizabeth Milbank Anderson had died in 1921, and the lease on the underlying land was transferred to the City Real Estate Company. Miller, the theater's lessee, subleased the theater for five years to himself and A. L. Erlanger in June 1924.
Gilbert Miller operation
Henry Miller died in 1926, and his son Gilbert took over management of the theater. As trustee of his father's estate, Gilbert filed a lawsuit to cancel Erlanger's sublease of the theater. Miller argued that he did not have the power to reassign his father's stake in the sublease to himself, and Erlanger was refusing to vouch for him. As a result, shows at Henry Miller's Theatre were transferred to the Shubert Theatre while the litigation was pending. Gilbert Miller ultimately bought Erlanger's interest and paid 25 percent of the gross profit from each production to the Milbank Memorial Fund, Anderson's legatee. Performances at Henry Miller's Theatre around this time included The Play's The Thing (1926), Our Betters (1928), and Journey's End (1929).
Henry Miller's Theatre was most successful from the 1930s through 1950s. In the early 1930s, the theater hosted The Good Fairy (1931), with Helen Hayes and Walter Connolly; The Late Christopher Bean (1932), with Pauline Lord; and Personal Appearance (1934), with Gladys George. Other notable plays in that decade included a revival of The Country Wife (1936) and French Without Tears (1937). The Henry Miller briefly hosted Our Town in 1938 before the play was moved to the Morosco Theatre. The Henry Miller's productions in the early 1940s included Ladies in Retirement (1940) with Flora Robson and Estelle Winwood, Spring Again (1941) with Grace George, and Harriet (1943) with Helen Hayes. By the theater's twenty-fifth anniversary in 1943, Henry Miller's Theatre had hosted 83 plays and one musical, La La Lucille. Later in the decade, the theater showed Dear Ruth in 1944 and Born Yesterday from 1948 to 1950.
The Henry Miller presented The Cocktail Party in 1950 with Alec Guinness, Cathleen Nesbitt, and Irene Worth and The Moon Is Blue in 1951 with Barbara Bel Geddes and Barry Nelson. This was followed in 1953 by Oh, Men! Oh, Women!, which ran for a year. The Living Room also opened at the Henry Miller in November 1954 but, after a month, was replaced by Witness for the Prosecution, which ran until 1956. Other notable shows and performances in the 1950s included The Reluctant Debutante (1956); Hotel Paradiso (1957) with Bert Lahr and Angela Lansbury; Under Milk Wood (1957); Look After Lulu! (1959) with Tammy Grimes, and The Andersonville Trial (1959) with George C. Scott and Albert Dekker. The early 1960s saw performances such as The World of Carl Sandburg (1960) with Bette Davis; Under the Yum Yum Tree (1960) with Gig Young; and Enter Laughing (1963) with Alan Arkin and Vivian Blaine. The 416-performance run of Enter Laughing was followed by a series of flops, some with as few as five performances.
Late 1960s through 1980s
In April 1966, Gilbert Miller's wife offered the theater for sale for $1 million, saying she did not want her 81-year-old husband to "work hard as a producer" in his old age. Theatrical director Elia Kazan and his lawyer H. William Fitelson were reportedly interested in buying the Henry Miller. Instead, that November, the Millers sold the theater to the Nederlanders for $500,000. This was not the high offer that the Millers had received, but the buyers had promised to retain the "Henry Miller" name. The marquee outside the theater was installed around this time. The off-off-Broadway venue Circle in the Square took a one-year lease on the Henry Miller in May 1968, to start that August. The theater became known as "Circle in the Square on Broadway" and was planned to show feature films. The Circle only ran two shows at the venue, both of which were flops.
The Nederlander Organization sold the Henry Miller in 1968 to Seymour Durst, who leased the theater back to the Nederlanders. Durst wanted to redevelop the entire city block but, over the following three decades, failed to carry out several proposals for the block. After the Circle's lease was terminated in January 1969, James M. Nederlander leased the theater to "movie exhibitor" Maurice Maurer. The production But, Seriously, which ran for three days the following month, was the last multi-day production at the theater for nearly three decades. The theater was renamed the Park-Miller and began showing "feature films" in 1970. According to theatrical historian Ken Bloom, the Park-Miller aired male pornographic films. Two years later, the theater was leased to the Avon chain of theaters, becoming Avon-on-the Hudson. Through 1977, the theater was still showing porn films. The Durst Organization retook operation of the theater later that year and renovated it.
In June 1978, the old Henry Miller's Theatre reopened as a discotheque called Xenon. The disco was outfitted with a descending neon panel on the ceiling. Xenon hosted one play, The Ritz, which had exactly one performance on May 2, 1983. Xenon operated until either 1983 or 1984. The old theater reopened as the nightclub Shout in August 1985. The nightclub featured music from the 1950s and 60s, and the auditorium had decorations including a full-sized Cadillac projecting from the wall of the stage. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had started considering protecting the Henry Miller as an official city landmark in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. The LPC designated the Henry Miller's exterior as a city landmark on December 8, 1987, though the interior was merely "tabled" for later consideration. This was part of the LPC's wide-ranging effort in 1987 to grant landmark status to Broadway theaters. The New York City Board of Estimate ratified the designations in March 1988.
1990s and 2000s
The Shout nightclub had closed by September 1991, when the theater reopened as the City nightclub. The nightclub was shuttered before 1994; that March, the old theater was described as being boarded up. In September 1994, it was announced that the nightclub Club Expo would open in the old Henry Miller. The space was decorated with elements, such as monorails and holograms, based on a futuristic conception from the 1939 New York World's Fair.
Club Expo was renovated in late 1997 and reopened the following March as the Kit Kat Club, a "club within a club" concept. Named after the Berlin nightclub in the 1966 musical Cabaret, the Kit Kat Club housed Roundabout Theatre Company's popular revival of the musical. After hours, the location served as a popular nightclub with burlesque entertainment and dancing. In July 1998, a nearby construction accident temporarily closed the building, forcing Roundabout to relocate to Studio 54 to finish their production. That November, the production permanently moved to Studio 54. Douglas Durst of the Durst Organization had wanted to use the Henry Miller as a theater again. The Kit Kat Klub's operators sued Durst and Roundabout in November 1998, claiming that Roundabout had committed breach of contract by moving to Studio 54. At the end of the month, Durst terminated the club's lease.
The show Rolling on the TOBA opened at the Kit Kat Klub in March 1999. Its opening was delayed by ongoing eviction proceedings against the Kit Kat Klub, as Durst claimed that the club was violating its lease by booking TOBA without his permission. TOBA relocated to the Vivian Beaumont Theater the next month after the Tony Awards administration committee ruled that shows at the venue were not eligible for the Tony Awards. After a protracted legal dispute, the New York Supreme Court ordered that the Kit Kat Klub vacate the theater in August 1999. The Henry Miller continued to operate as a nightclub and a venue for private parties until it closed in April 2000. Before its closure, the club had seen several crimes, including a December 1999 incident in which rapper Jay-Z stabbed a promoter.
By December 2000, The New York Times described the Henry Miller as being dilapidated, with dangling wires in the ceiling and a "carpet is so grubby that patrons are allowed to drink their Weissbier in the theater". Around that time, the theater was rechristened the Henry Miller and was renovated with 640 seats and a new air-conditioning system. After multiple delays, including a delay caused by the September 11 attacks, Urinetown opened in September 2001, running for two years. By late 2003, Durst was planning to develop a new skyscraper on the site in conjunction with Bank of America. Durst notified the theater's operators that the Henry Miller's would have to be closed and demolished to make way for the construction of the 55-story Bank of America Tower. The original theater closed in January 2004.
Current theater
Because of the theater's landmark status, Durst and Bank of America had to avoid damaging the facade under threat of financial penalty. In addition, the new theater had to be placed underground because it could not rise higher than the height of the old facade. The landmark facade was temporarily attached to a three-story steel support frame when the tower was built. By late 2004, the frame had been constructed. The theater's interior was demolished using manual tools, and the contractors installed sensors to detect any vibrations on the facade. Some of the old auditorium's seats became part of a Pennsylvania bowling alley.
Roundabout announced in 2007 that it would operate the theater, which would become its third Broadway venue. By the middle of the following year, the scaffolding over the facade was being dismantled. In May 2009, Roundabout announced that Henry Miller's Theatre would reopen that September with a revival production of the musical Bye Bye Birdie. The theater reopened with a preview performance of Bye Bye Birdie on September 10, 2009; the production ran for three months. The other major production to run at the new Henry Miller's Theatre prior to its renaming was All About Me, featuring Dame Edna and Michael Feinstein; it played a limited engagement in early 2010.
On March 22, 2010, the 80th birthday of American composer and lyricist Stephen Sondheim, Roundabout announced that Henry Miller's Theatre would be renamed in Sondheim's honor. The official unveiling and lighting of the marquee of the new Stephen Sondheim Theatre took place in a ceremony on September 15, 2010. The first production at the newly renamed theater was The Pee-wee Herman Show, which played a limited ten-week engagement. The Stephen Sondheim then hosted a revival of Anything Goes, which opened in 2011 and lasted for one year. The Trip to Bountiful then opened at the theater in 2013, followed by Beautiful: The Carole King Musical, which ran from 2014 to 2019 The Stephen Sondheim also hosted Slava's Snowshow at the end of 2019. On March 12, 2020, the theater closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Stephen Sondheim reopened on October 21, 2021, with performances of Mrs. Doubtfire, which ran until May 2022. The musical & Juliet then opened at the Stephen Sondheim in November 2022.
Notable productions
Productions are listed by the year of their first performance. This list only includes Broadway shows; it does not include films screened at the theater.
Henry Miller's Theatre
1918: Daddy Long Legs
1919: La La Lucille
1919: Moonlight and Honeysuckle
1919: The Famous Mrs. Fair
1920: Just Suppose
1922: The Awful Truth
1923: Romeo and Juliet
1924: L'Aiglon
1925: The Poor Nut
1925: The Vortex
1926: Raquel Meller
1926: The Play's the Thing
1927: The Baby Cyclone
1928: Our Betters
1928: Gentlemen of the Press
1928: The Sacred Flame
1929: Journey's End
1931: The Good Fairy
1932: The Late Christopher Bean
1934: Personal Appearance
1936: The Country Wife
1937: French Without Tears
1938: Our Town
1940: Geneva
1940: Ladies in Retirement
1942: Flare Path
1944: Chicken Every Sunday
1944: Dear Ruth
1947: Maurice Chevalier
1948: Born Yesterday
1950: The Cocktail Party
1951: The Moon Is Blue
1953: The Trip to Bountiful
1953: Oh, Men! Oh, Women!
1954: The Living Room
1954: Witness for the Prosecution
1956: The Reluctant Debutante
1957: Hotel Paradiso
1957: Under Milk Wood
1957: The Genius and the Goddess
1957: The Country Wife
1959: Epitaph for George Dillon
1959: Look After Lulu!
1959: The Nervous Set
1959: The Andersonville Trial
1960: The World of Carl Sandburg
1962: Under the Yum Yum Tree
1962: The Affair
1963: The Hollow Crown
1963: Enter Laughing
1964: The Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window
1965: The Subject Was Roses
1967: The Promise
1968: Before You Go
1968: Portrait of a Queen
1968: The Venetian Twins
1983: The Ritz
1998: Cabaret
2001: Urinetown
2009: Bye Bye Birdie
2010: All About Me
Stephen Sondheim Theatre
2010: The Pee-wee Herman Show
2011: Anything Goes
2013: The Trip to Bountiful
2014: Beautiful: The Carole King Musical
2019: Slava's Snowshow
2021: Mrs. Doubtfire
2022: & Juliet
Box office record
& Juliet set the theater's box-office record, grossing $1,639,788 over nine performances for the week ending January 1, 2023. Previously, the record had been held by Beautiful: The Carole King Musical, which grossed $1,546,950 in 2014.
See also
List of Broadway theaters
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Stephen Sondheim Theatre in the New York City Theater Guide
1918 establishments in New York (state)
2009 establishments in New York (state)
Broadway theatres
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
Stephen Sondheim
Theater District, Manhattan
Theatres completed in 1918
Theatres completed in 2009 |
4563136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God%20Speaks | God Speaks | God Speaks: The Theme of Creation and Its Purpose is the principal book by Meher Baba, and the most significant religious text used by his followers. It covers Meher Baba's view of the process of creation and its purpose and has been in print continuously since 1955.
Overview
God Speaks is Meher Baba's most significant published book. Kenneth Lux, Ph.D. writes: "God Speaks is Meher Baba's major book and it is famously difficult. But not only is it Baba's major book, it is his only book. All other books by Meher Baba, such as the Discourses and Listen Humanity, are not written as books, as God Speaks is, but are collections of essays and messages."
While Meher Baba declared "I come not to teach, but to awaken", and did not prescribe intellect as a path to perfection, in God Speaks Meher Baba goes deeper into the subject of metaphysics than other Indian spiritual masters. In his book Mastery of Consciousness, Allan Y. Cohen, Ph.D. writes that Meher Baba's "explanations of the creation, purpose, and evolution of the universe may be the most explicit ever written." In a review of God Speaks, oriental scholar Walter Evans-Wentz, the original English translator of The Tibetan book of the dead, wrote: "No other Teacher in our own time or in any known past time has so minutely analyzed consciousness as Meher Baba has in God Speaks."
God Speaks takes a strictly nondualist approach in explaining the universe and its purpose, carefully clarifying and syncretising terms as it takes the reader through the spiritual journey of the atma (soul) through its imagined evolution, reincarnation, and involution, to its goal, its origin, of Paramatma (Over-soul). The journey winds up being one from God-unconscious ("Beyond Beyond State of God") to God-conscious ("Beyond State of God"). Cohen summarizes, "In elaborate detail he explains the universe is an arena where infinite existence, identifying with the apparently limited soul, becomes more and more conscious of its oneness with itself as the Over-Soul."
Birth of consciousness
According to God Speaks, in the evolution of consciousness, before the Soul has any consciousness of anything or itself, there is an infinite, impressionless unconscious tranquil state. Meher Baba calls this state the Eternal Beyond-Beyond State of God (or Paratpar Paramatma), which has no experience of Self, nor of any of its Infinite latent attributes. Latent in this Infinite state is the undifferentiated and unmanifested Everything. Meher Baba says that the state of the man's consciousness during sound sleep is literally the same original divine sound sleep state of God. Synopsizing this concept in God Speaks biographer Charles Purdom writes, "In the beginningless beginning, in the beyond the beyond, God Is in absolute sound sleep."
Meher Baba writes that in Everything is also included the Nothing. Latent in Paramatma is the First Urge, which is expressed by the question "Who Am I?". This First Urge at one finite but unlimited point becomes manifest as the "Om Point" or the "Creation Point". Through this point the Nothing gradually appears as the shadow of the Everything and this appearance starts expanding ad infinitum. Simultaneously with the manifestation of the First Urge, the infinite Soul, in a tremendous shock, experiences its very first gross impression as it identifies itself with the projected Nothingness. In this experience, the first illusory separation (sense of separate identity) takes place in the undifferentiated. The Soul, still not conscious of its true Self, becomes identified with its projected shadow through this very first impression, thus initiating the illusion of duality.
To make this first event more approachable to understanding, Baba gives the metaphor of an Infinite ocean and a drop of that ocean. In this metaphor, Paramatma (a vedantic term, for which Meher Baba says Over-soul would be the closest western equivalent) is likened to an infinite and limitless ocean. Any drop of this ocean (the drop signifying the individuated soul) is the ocean itself, since no differentiation between drops has yet been conceived. If we liken the manifestation of the First Urge as the imagined separation of one drop from the ocean, then the infinite ocean comes to look upon itself through this drop as merely this most finite, most limited drop of the infinite and unlimited ocean. It is important to keep in mind that here Meher Baba is using metaphor and analogy to explain changes in God's imagination and the development of consciousness and that he is not describing a metaphysical ocean or literal drops in any sense. As Charles Purdom writes, "The 'ocean’ is a symbol, no more."
Development of consciousness
Evolution
The very first forms which the indivisible Soul's consciousness identifies its eternal Self with, according to Meher Baba, are seven gaseous forms (the seventh of which is Hydrogen, according to a footnote). Yet since these are very abstract forms, beyond ordinary human understanding, for the sake of convenience, the first form which consciousness associates itself with is described as the stone-form. Through the medium of this form the individualized soul, experiencing impressions related to the kingdom of stones, associates itself with the stone. When all impressions arising from this association have been experienced and exhausted, the soul dissociates itself from that form and associates with the next stone species. When the whole range of impressions through all stone species have been exhausted, the soul starts associating itself with forms of the metal kingdom, and so forth through evolution. In all, seven major leaps are mentioned in this evolutionary process in consciousness: from stone, to metal, to vegetable, to worm, to fish, to bird, to animal and finally to human.
Meher Baba describes an unfolding geometric schema of forms. In the stone and metal forms, consciousness asserts itself through a recumbent, folded-up position in the gross world, with no voluntary motion. In the vegetable forms, increased consciousness asserts itself through a vertical position and is depended on soil and rock to hold an upright position. In the worm forms (in which Meher Baba includes for his own purposes all worms, insects, reptiles and amphibians) an animate experience is reached, with voluntary movement, but in a creeping and now horizontal manner. In the fish form, consciousness asserts itself as a creature with voluntary movement in water, but still in a horizontal manner. In bird form consciousness is enriched by identifying itself with a form capable of flight and maintaining a slightly erect position. In (quadruped) animal form, an increasingly erect position is experienced, with much more developed attributes. When the human form is reached, consciousness is fully developed and asserts itself through the ideal medium in a fully upright stance.
Since in God Speaks there is no mention of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the progression must be seen as a progression in consciousness rather than in biological linearity. Meher Baba's explanations do not come to disprove any scientific discoveries of biological evolution, but rather examine a different side of the process.
Throughout this process, every time the soul associates itself with a particular form, it collects through this medium impressions of the gross world. When the impressions through association with a particular form have been exhausted, the soul dissociates from that form. Yet the collected impressions must be further experienced and for this the soul associates with the next most developed form. So when the human form is reached, although consciousness is fully developed, it has a store of impressions that still need to be experienced. While the soul is no longer in search of a better medium, it has to go through numerous human forms, until these impressions gathered through evolution are weakened and finally exhausted.
Reincarnation
Through the entire process of evolution, the soul has been consciously identifying itself with the evolving gross body (sharir), yet, unconsciously, it has also been identifying itself with the evolving subtle and mental body (pran and mana). The subtle sphere refers to energy, or prana, a gross aspect of which is nuclear energy. In the book it is also referred to as the life-giving energy, or the breath of God. The mental sphere refers to the domain of instincts, feelings, and eventually also of thoughts and desires. When the human form is reached, along with the gross body, the subtle and mental bodies also reach full development and although they remain unconscious, the soul indirectly works through them in the corresponding spheres.
When the human body dies, the soul retains and further experiences the collected impressions through its identification with the subtle and mental bodies, until it associates with the next human form and takes apparent birth in it. During the interval between death and birth, the soul experiences intensively an unfolding of the impressions collected, so depending on what quality these impressions have been of (virtue or vice, good or bad), the consciousness of soul experiences either a heaven state or a hell state. After most impressions have been exhausted, a certain temporary equilibrium is reached and the soul is ready to associate itself with the next human form. The process of the soul's successive association with human forms is called reincarnation.
Baba's use of the word "reincarnation" does not correlate with what is described as "transmigration of the soul" in Theosophy and certain other esoteric schools of thought. For Meher Baba the soul does not actually 'migrate' because it doesn't go anywhere, since it is eternally within the Over-soul and has nowhere to go. Rather, for Meher Baba, "reincarnation" refers only to identification and dis-identification with forms conceived in illusion, i.e. "the involuntary process of intermittent association and disassociation of consciousness."
During reincarnation consciousness tries to liberate itself from the burden of collected impressions. Yet, since it tries to achieve this by associating itself with impressions opposite from the previously accumulated ones, it gets further entangled in accumulating fresh impressions. Thus the soul experiences itself in a seemingly endless succession of human lives, as a man or a woman, as rich or poor, strong or weak, beautiful or ugly, black or white, in various places, religions, castes etc. It is only after numerous apparent births and deaths, that the range of human experience starts to get exhausted. In this way the soul starts dissociating itself from the gross world, enabling its consciousness to become aware of the subtle sphere.
Perfection of consciousness
Involution
When gross impressions become fainter, consciousness starts turning its focus from the apparent outer world inwards. This marks the beginning of its involution. Gradually the thinner gross impressions become subtle impressions, through which the soul experiences the subtle world, and as subtle impressions get exhausted, they become mental impressions, through which the soul experiences the mental world. While doing so, the soul continues to work through its gross medium, seeing, eating, drinking, walking, sleeping, but consciousness is no more entangled with the gross body or world and eventually with the subtle body and world. Finally when mental impressions have been exhausted, consciousness snaps its connection with Illusion and perceives the Soul directly. This course of involution is described as the spiritual path. In traversing it, the soul's consciousness crosses six planes, the seventh being its final liberation from all illusion.
The first three planes belong to the subtle sphere, the fourth is on the threshold between the subtle and the mental spheres and the fifth and sixth planes are in the mental sphere. The first plane starts from the threshold of the gross and the subtle sphere. The soul here starts experiencing subtle phenomena simultaneously through its gross and subtle senses. It starts hearing subtle sounds and smelling subtle scents, although their nature is far different from their gross equivalents. Eventually it starts perceiving the subtle world through its subtle body and so comes to the second plane. Here the soul becomes aware of infinite energy and can perform minor miracles, like stopping moving objects or filling dried wells with fresh water. Being not conscious of the gross world its experience gives rise only to subtle impressions of the sights, scents and sounds of the subtle world. Further involution of consciousness makes the soul experience the third plane. Here the soul can use more aspects of the infinite energy by performing greater miracles, such as giving sight to the blind, or restoring maimed limbs.
When consciousness reaches the fourth plane, it finds itself in a very particular state. It is fully conscious of the infinite potential of energy and can make full use of it and it also becomes aware of the mental world. This new contact creates very strong desires to make use of this huge potential. At this point consciousness finds itself in the biggest danger of its long development. Not being able to control its feelings or thoughts, the soul is strongly tempted to handle infinite energy. If the infinite potential of this plane is misused, consciousness gets completely disintegrated and the soul finds itself back to the stone-form consciousness and has to start again the long course of evolution from there. If it abstains from using this energy it enters the lower mental plane and if it makes a completely selfless use of it, for the benefit of the spiritual development of others in illusion, it even moves directly to the higher mental plane.
Having abstained from tampering with the energy of the fourth plane, consciousness enters the fifth plane, also described as the lower mental world. This is the inquiring and reflecting state of mind and functions as thoughts mostly. Consciousness on this plane makes one capable of creating or controlling thoughts (but not minds) of gross- or subtle-conscious souls. Although a soul here cannot yet control its feelings or desires, it is safe from making any misuse of its abilities and is no longer conscious of the subtle sphere and can perform no miracles. With more involution consciousness enters the sixth plane, which is the higher mental world. Here the soul is beyond thoughts and is conscious only of feelings. The soul here sees God "face to face" in everything and everywhere, but it cannot yet see God in itself. A soul here can master its feelings and desires completely and governs also the feelings (but not hearts) of gross- and subtle-conscious souls. The longing for union with God, or the Divine Beloved, is here in its most intense expression. Yet the soul cannot bridge this final gap by itself. Only through the grace of a Perfect Master, or Sadguru, can this final union be accomplished. So, in the fifth and sixth planes, predominant is the soul's love for God, as lover of the divine Beloved.
States of divine consciousness
When the soul has gained self-consciousness, it merges with God in one of three distinct states:
Either by dropping immediately all its illusory bodies or by retaining them for some time, yet remaining absolutely unconscious of them, the atma eternally enjoys individualized experience of the infinite power, knowledge and bliss of God, without ever using their attributes.
Retaining its gross, subtle and mental bodies and consciousness of them, simultaneously with Self-consciousness, the atma experiences the infinite power, knowledge and bliss of God, as well as God's shadow (gross, subtle and mental worlds of illusion), but does not use their attributes for other atmas whose consciousness is still within these illusory worlds and so it is independent.
This state is the same as the previous one, except that the atma uses its infinite power, knowledge and bliss for advancing gross-conscious atmas to subtle consciousness, subtle conscious atmas to mental consciousness and mental-conscious atmas to Self-consciousness. It may even bring gross-conscious atmas directly to Self-consciousness.
Each of these states is an eternal state for the consciousness which has overcome all illusion. Yet from the point of view of souls still within the domain of illusion, they have a sequence in time. Therefore, from its point of view, a God-realized soul first "passes away into God" or "becomes God" (as in state 1), yet outwardly it is in a divine coma, oblivious to the phenomenal world. Most souls in this state soon drop their body. A few souls, however, continue to be in this divine coma for quite a while, until, with the help of other Perfect Masters, they regain consciousness of illusion (as in state 2). They are said to have gone through the "second journey" ("first" being the traversing of the spiritual path, before merging with God). In this state they are "abiding in God" or "they are God". In Sufi terms this state is called Baqaa. According to Meher Baba, at any time on Earth there are always exactly five who have arrived at the final state of "living God's life" (as in state 3) and these are the five Perfect Masters. This state is described as the Man-God state, or in Sufi terms, Qutubiyat. These five Perfect Masters can use their (God's) attributes of infinite power, knowledge and bliss to help others progress on the spiritual path and beyond. When one of the five Perfect Masters drops his body, he is said to "pass-away as God". In Avataric times, there is one additional perfect master who is the descent of God, the Avatar, or God-man, whose work is for the spiritual elevation of all of humanity and everything in creation. "The direct descent of God on Earth as Avatar is that independent status of God when God directly becomes man."
History of the writing
Meher Baba began dictating God Speaks to Eruch Jessawala by way of alphabet board in Dehradun, India on August 1953. Points were dictated to Jessawala every day, who would jot them down and write them out at night. The next day Eruch would read to Baba what he had written. This dictation was continued for several months in Mahabaleshwar and also subsequently at Satara.
Eruch completed his writing work in July 1954.
In October 1954, Baba discarded his alphabet board and began using only hand gestures from then on. The chapter titled "Ten States of God" was written by Eruch Jessawala under the direct supervision of Meher Baba, describing and interpreting an original diagram devised by Meher Baba. It and the Conclusion were written by Jessawala in elaboration of notes, and are a recapitulation of the previous sections dictated directly by Meher Baba.
When dictation of points was completed and Eruch had worked these up to Baba's satisfaction, Feram Workingboxwala and Bhau Kalchuri coordinated the typing of Eruch's handwritten pages. Kalchuri also was partially responsible for dividing the book into chapters.
English author and Meher Baba biographer Charles Purdom was given a copy of the manuscript of God Speaks to edit, but wrote to Baba that it would take him two to three years to edit and prepare the book for publication in England.
Before leaving the "Three Incredible Weeks", on the final day of the sahavas on September 30, 1954, Baba gave American Sufi Lud Dimpfl the manuscript to deliver to Ivy Oneita Duce and Don E. Stevens in America to determine if they could edit the grammar and punctuation and prepare it for printing.
Correspondence began between Baba's sister Mani Irani in India and Ivy Duce in America regarding the preparation and publication of God Speaks. After Ivy Duce and Don Stevens had done their grammar and punctuation work, the manuscript was mailed back to India for Baba to check and correct and add any additional points of interest. Eruch Jessawala and Ramjoo Abdulla did the final corrections and writing work according to Baba's dictates. The Supplement to God Speaks was compiled from Dr. Ghani Munsiff's notes over several years. Ghani was an expert on Sufism and familiar with the various Islamic Sufi cults.
On January 10, 1955, at 4 p.m., Baba broke a fast with rice and dal. During this period, Baba would trace letters with his finger on either a stool or any other convenient surface. But it was very difficult for the mandali to decipher them quickly. Yet Baba was patient and would literally spend hours to convey something. Even if the mandali failed to follow what he meant, Baba would keep repeating it through this "unwritten writing" until they understood. This method of gestures was also used to correct the supplement sections to God Speaks, which Ivy Duce had sent to Baba for his approval in early December 1954.God Speaks was published the following year.
In December 1959, in the mornings, Baba began discussing with Don Stevens publication plans for a new edition of God Speaks. Stevens discussed some questions about various subjects in God Speaks which the Sufis and others had been asking, and Baba promised to elucidate these for the second edition.
In May 1965, Baba checked and corrected a glossary of God Speaks, which Lud Dimpfl had prepared. Bal Natu would read out every word and its meaning and, when required, Baba would correct a point.
Editing of the second edition ended on September 10, 1965. However, it was not released until 1973.
Editions
God Speaks has had three editions. The first edition, published by Dodd, Mead and Company, received four printings, 1955, 1967, 1968, and 1970, and was 255 pages. As early as 1956 Meher Baba began work on a second edition, which was printed posthumously in 1973 and 1975. It was 334 pages. In 1990 the original publisher, Dodd, Mead, went out of business and the plates for the second edition were not preserved. For this reason, the book was retypeset in 1997 and is 313 pages in its current form. Labeled within as the "second edition third printing" the 1997 printing is technically a third edition since it is retypeset, although no major editorial changes were made to the text. The third edition received a second printing in 2010.
There is also an Indian printing edition, published by Meher Mownavani Publishing, India, 2001.
Reviews
In a 1955 review of God Speaks anthropologist Walter Evans-Wentz, the original English translator of The Tibetan Book of the Dead, wrote:
No other Teacher in our own time or in any known past time has so minutely analyzed consciousness as Meher Baba has in God Speaks. Occidental psychology, especially under the illustrious leadership of Dr. [Carl] Jung, has made great advances in the study of the unconscious and of the dream-state, but because of its necessary adherence to conservative methods of scientific research it has not been able, as yet, to fathom the Deep of the Seer. So, for the science circumscribed psychologist, God Speaks should prove to be of paramount importance in inspiring further progress on the psychological pathway.
Correlatively, noteworthy in particular is Part VIII, on the Evolution of Consciousness, and Part IX, on the Ten States of God, to which is attached a diagram linking together "the most generally accepted Sufi, Vedantic and Christian mystical equivalents." As a whole, the book marks clear the at-one-ment of the essentials of the various historic religions in the light of the gnosis of the Sufis.
Meher Baba's enlightening treatise adds much to the sum total of learning and contributes incalculably to the enrichment of mankind for, as the sages of Asia teach, the most intrinsically valuable of all riches, and greater than all mundane wealth, is Right Knowledge.
Nowhere is Meher Baba's wisdom more succinctly set forth than in his Conclusion, on page 176: "To understand the infinite, eternal Reality is NOT the Goal of individualized beings in the Illusion of Creation, because the Reality can never be understood; it is to be realized by conscious experience."
In her 1955 review of God Speaks in The Awakener, Filis Frederick wrote:
This is primarily a book for the mind, in the sense that it requires deep thought and study, and does not appeal so directly to our emotional or devotional side as do Baba's short messages and exhortations to His followers. It is, in essence, a divine cosmology, a Map of the Evolving Universe, in which we all play a part, to help us find the quickest and shortest route home—to our Beloved God, Who Is found, on Realization, to be our very own Self.
Notes
References
Kalchuri, Bhau, Meher Prabhu: Lord Meher, The Biography of the Avatar of the Age, Meher Baba (1986), Manifestation, Inc., Myrtle Beach
Purdom, Charles B., The God-Man: The Life, Journeys & Work of Meher Baba with an Interpretation of His Silence & Spiritual Teaching, (1964), George Allen & Unwin, London
Kenneth Lux. The Love Street Lamppost, July/October 2005
Mastery of Consciousness, Allan Y. Cohen, Ph.D., Harper & Row, New York, 1977, p. 21
Evans-Wentz, Walter, "The Uniqueness and Paramount Value of God Speaks", 1955 Book review
External links
The Trust Online Library
Works by Meher Baba
1955 non-fiction books
Books about spirituality
Religious texts
Dodd, Mead & Co. books |
4563182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karas%20%28anime%29 | Karas (anime) | is a Japanese six-part original video animation series. Tatsunoko Productions produced it to commemorate its 40th anniversary of anime production. Each Karas episode was first televised in Japan as a pay-per-view program from March 25, 2005, to August 3, 2007, before being released onto DVDs. Manga Entertainment compiled and released these episodes as two feature length, direct-to-DVD films for the English market.
Karas tells the story of Yousuke Otoha, a former yakuza, living in a fictional version of Shinjuku, Tokyo populated by humans and yōkai (Japanese spirits). He is one of the titular karas, humans appointed as superpowered agents of the land. Able to transform into a car, an aircraft, and an armored crusader; the skilled swordsman is to stop his corrupt predecessor, Eko, from taking over Tokyo. Supporting characters such as Eko's former henchman, Nue; the yōkai; and Homura, the karas of another city, help Otoha in his quest. A concurrent side story focuses on humans affected by Eko's scheme.
Karas won the Best Original Video at the 2006 Tokyo Anime Award competition, and most reviewers were impressed with the images produced by fusing 2D and 3D art techniques. The story presents themes on the conflicts between cultural traditions and modern society, and the relationship between people. Reviewers, however, found its presentation was too confusing to follow; several of them felt it worsened the show by detracting from the strength of its art.
Plot
Ibira initially pictured Karas as a horror story with a vengeance theme. It had a simple plot similar to the manga, Dororo. The protagonist karas is on a quest, slaughtering mikuras to recover the body parts of his murdered lover. Until he recovers all the parts, he assembles them into a katana to kill the mikuras. The final version of Karas was more of a superhero action story, and originally intended for three leading heroes in the same vein as the Japanese period drama, Sanbiki ga Kiru!. The characters Otoha, Nue, and the human detective Kure were the leads but the final version primarily focused on Otoha. The presentation of Karas differs in several ways from typical anime. The show maintains a serious tone and never indulges in slapstick, exaggerated facial expressions, or super deformed characters. It avoids heavy expositions. Dialogue tends to be short and viewers have to infer what is going on based on very little presented information. The team had left out substantial amounts of information from the show, printing them in a booklet of the final DVD package.
Setting
Karas is set in a fictional version of Shinjuku, Tokyo. The show initially showcased larger areas of Tokyo, but the production team felt other animations have featured these areas too many times. Art designer Hajime Satō created a modern version of the ward infused with a mixture of East Asian cultures. Fictional lettering, resembling Chinese and Hangul characters, fill the billboards and signs. Western gargoyles and Singapore's Merlion statues decorate the streets, and the buildings are modeled on Shinjuku structures of 2003 while blending influences from the Shōwa period. This Shinjuku is populated by humans and Japanese folklore spirits, yōkai. The humans have become indifferent to the yōkais presence, and fail to see them as they go about their lives.
The production team envisioned Japanese cities as entities, who require physical agents to execute their will and regulate the activities within them. The concept behind the health of a city is based on traditional Chinese medicine in which the smooth flow of a body's fluids nourishes its internal organs. The team equates yōkai with qi, humans with water, and agents of the city (karas) with blood. They integrated Celtic mythology into their concept for further symbolisms, treating the city as the male (yang); and , the manifestation of its will as female (yin). In contrast, their theory treats the humans and agents as the children of the city and its will, and classifies them as the reproduction system's five major organs. Following the team's vision, the mikuras (evil yōkai) represent the five elements in this system. This idea forms the basis of the relationship between cities and their inhabitants in the show.
Story
The main plot centers around the confrontation between Otoha and Eko. After a cold open that announces Eko's plan to remake Tokyo, the story moves ahead three years. Nue arrives in Shinjuku to free his brother from Eko's hold, while Otoha is in a hospital from heavy injuries. The early parts of the show proceed in a "mikura of the week" fashion as Otoha (as a karas) and Nue separately fight against Eko's minions. When the mikuras attack hospitals across the ward to locate Otoha's body, Otoha and Nue work together but when they separate Otoha's Yurine is abducted and he is deprived from the power to turn into a karas. Nue then goes to Eko's base, where Eko kills Yurine and reveals capturing Nue completes the final part of his plan. Meanwhile, Otoha gets into a yakuza fight only to be rescued by Homura, another city's karas. When Eko launches the last stage of his plan and ravages Tokyo with metal tentacles, Otoha ends up among human refugees in a shelter the chief of police had commissioned.
A side story takes place within the main plot, focusing on the humans affected by the ongoing events. Sagisaka Minoru and Narumi Kure are detectives in Shinjuku's Intervention Department who investigate serial murders for supernatural evidence. Mikuras kill and suck the blood of these victims to replenish their strength, but no one except Sagisaka seriously believes in supernatural involvement. Sagisaka is bent on vindicating his daughter, Yoshiko who has been committed to a psychiatric hospital for claiming a mikura committed the mass murder she had survived. Sagisaka's and Kure's investigation brings them to the survivor of another attack, . Director Sato had created her to represent the best qualities of rural migrants looking for better opportunities in the big cities. When Eko starts the last part of his plan; Kure, Hinaru, and the Sagisaka arrive in the shelter Otoha is in.
The chief of police reveals himself as Ushi-oni and starts eating the humans trapped in the shelter. Sagisaka sacrifices himself to push his daughter away from Ushi-oni's attack. Otoha confronts and, in a climatic sequence, his conviction resurrects his Yurine, which restores Otoha as a karas and he slays Ushi-oni. While karas from other cities observe the showdown between Otoha and Eko, Homura steps in to help Otoha. Otoha carries out Nue's request to kill him and his brother, depriving Eko of his new power source and stopping his entire scheme. Confronting the depowered Eko on equal terms, Otoha finally defeats him. Eko claims Otoha will understand his reasons after 400 years as a karas. Despite defending his human body and Yurine from soldiers ordered by the Deputy Governor to shoot them, Otoha proclaims himself as Tokyo's appointed agent, who will protect all its inhabitants. While Hinaru stays behind in Shinjuku as it is being rebuilt, Kure and Yoshiko have had enough and leave for the countryside.
In a post-credits scene, Eko's boot is found by an unknown character.
Characters
The production team intended Karas to be more than a mere henshin (transforming) hero. Unlike the vengeful protagonist in Mazinger Z, the hero of Karas embodies the spirit of the city, and acts for the city's interest instead of his own. Screenwriter Shin Yoshida sets up a dualism of this idea in the form of two Karas characters; one who believes events are leading to a revolution, and the other viewing them as simply the passing of an era. Manga Entertainment also promoted the hero in Karas as "a cross between a cyberpunk version of the Crow and Batman".
Karas is the title for the city's appointed agents. Capable of transforming into automobiles and aircraft, they are suits of armor animated by human souls infused into them through Yurine's chanting of a Shinto prayer. Director Sato told his animators to enhance the Karas dark nature by drawing their faces in shadows. Fight scenes involving Karas take place mostly in dark settings shrouded with steam or lit with spotlights. Animators touched up film frames by hand, creating an effect different from cel-shaded animation. To make the Karas more menacing, they highlighted the eyes as if light bulbs were shining through them, a technique inspired by the suitmation practice of using light bulbs for the eyes of costumes. Producer Takaya Ibira explained the presence of ravens in Tokyo and the Tower of London, inspired him and Sato to model the agents of the city after them. He stated ravens are believed to be omens of good and bad in superstitions, and they always seem to be watching over the cities. This resonated with his view of the raven in the story Noah's Ark, which cursed Noah as it scouted for land. The presence of ravens all over Tokyo led Ibira to notice the same of cats and conceive the Yurines as catgirls.
is the protagonist of Karas. Yoshida wrote out Otoha Yosuke as a character dark in history and actions, breaking the traditional mold of a Japanese hero. He based his idea on his observation of Shinjuku, questioning what sort of a hero a ward exuding an aura of terror and happiness would produce. He portrayed Otoha as the product of incest between his mother and his brother who is the local yakuza boss. Otoha's back-story states him as suffering from congenital insensitivity to pain which lends the character a merciless reputation as his brother's enforcer. The initial concept of Otoha was much darker, casting him as a serial killer who hunts down mikuras to retrieve his lover's body parts. This was the first project that worked on.
The main antagonist to Otoha is . His back-story states he was the Karas of Tokyo since the Edo period. In events before the start of the show, Eko turned his back on his duties and started a plan to revitalize the city and its yōkai. He attracted several yōkai to be his cybernetic followers and intended to subjugate the humans. An Oedipus complex forms the basis for his motive. He views Tokyo as a father figure, and his Yurine as a mother figure; and aims to supplant the city's role in this relationship. Eko was a nameless character in the initial draft and known as "Another Karas" with a different appearance, although his prosthetic left leg is retained for the final version.
are yōkai who became Eko's minions and replaced their bodies with machinery. Ibira and Sato chose them to be villains, linking the act of the Karas as agents of the city killing these folklore creatures to traditional Japanese exorcism. The chimera-like Nue, however, is a tragic anti-hero who learned of Eko's plans and turned against him. Sato thought up the cybernetic angle to surprise the Japanese who perceive immaterial yōkai to lack physical threat. Creature designer Kenji Andō adapted the yōkai designs from artist Toriyama Sekien's illustrated folklore books, Gazu Hyakki Yakō. The few yōkai with prominent roles in the show underwent greater changes. Andō pictured mikuras as direct cybernetic versions of Toriyama's portrayals, and made Suiko the Kappa and Nue look like robotic versions of their illustrated forms. Sato, however, was dissatisfied with two of Andō's designs, and redesigned them based on the concept behind the yōkai instead of on their appearance. The ghostly head in a flaming wheel, Wanyūdō became a heavily armed skull-on-wheels; and the bull-headed spider, Ushi-oni became a big-mouth, bug-eye, hungry-for-humans predator.
Themes
The show explores the relationship between technology and cultural traditions by personifying traditions as yōkai and mikuras. Ibira thought this up from observing a dramatic drop in the number of yōkai folk tales as Japan undergoes modernization. Electrical and gas lighting made light of these tales born from fear of darkness. The production team explained yōkai represent the city's culture and functions, and their strengths are inversely proportional to the level of technology of society. As society grows more advanced, the yōkai and the functions of the city they represent weaken. The mikuras symbolize the five elements of Taoism. They turned to technology and became cyborgs to regain the strength to support the city. When a mikura dies, the city suffers a heavy loss of function associated with the element it represents; the water level of Tokyo fell after the death of Suiko the kappa (water-based mikura). This theme implies a vibrant city requires a healthy mix of technology and culture.
Another main theme is regarding the "yōkais choice". As agents of the city, the two karas represent different paths for the good of the city. The yōkai have to make a choice to support one of them. By following Eko, the humans are enslaved, and the presence of the yōkai will be imposed on them. By standing behind Otoha, the yōkai accept their lot and continue trying to live with the humans. Using the yōkai-human relationship as an analogy for human-human interaction, the team suggested people should be open and make the move, instead of passively staying in the background hoping for results. Ibira applied this to decision making, saying when faced with difficult choices, one should make a decision instead of hoping for others to make it for them.
Production
Founded in 1962, Tatsunoko Production celebrated their 40th year of animated film production by releasing Karas in 2005, their first production being Space Ace in 1965. Keiichi Sato joined the company as the project director after he pitched its concept of a life-sized dark hero to the management. He researched production and direction techniques from kabuki, a form of traditional Japanese theater; and Japanese staged sword fights as materials for the project. Choreographed sword fights rendered with 3D animation were rare at that time, and Sato felt this would help distinguish the show. The use of theatrical elements and movie shooting techniques in its presentation sets Karas apart from its contemporaries. Producer Kenji Nakamura felt the team's lack of experience in this area pushed them to ignore their previous animation work experience and break free of restrictions influenced by traditional animation production.
The Japanese animation industry traditionally drew every film cel by hand. This is labor-intensive and inefficient; the cels are generally non-reusable, and errors are difficult to correct. This method is called the 2D approach due to the conception of the source images in only two dimensions. The use of computers and graphics software introduced computer graphics (CG) into the industry. This reduced waste; animators can reuse digital cels to correct errors and make changes. Increasing computer power spread the use of three-dimensional graphics software to create 3D models and environments, and render them as 2D images. This 3D approach requires more resources to create the 3D models, but production teams can correct errors or remake film sequences much faster than the traditional 2D approach. The 2D-3D hybrid approach in Karas was due to budget and aesthetic concerns. The 2D approach allowed greater artistic details and creativity, and the 3D approach could save resources. Sato, however, disapproved the common notion of using the 3D approach for economic concern. He pushed the team to enhance image quality with detailed CG. He was also dissatisfied with computer lighting effects, and ordered the animators to draw them by hand. Due to the bright colors of the original cels, they darkened the images and concentrated on areas where shadows should be, leaving untouched the areas where light falls on.
In the typical CG approach, the duties of 2D and 3D artists are distinct. The 2D artists think up and sketch out the characters' appearances; the 3D artists create the models based on these concept sketches. For Karas, these artists worked together in these areas to create the imagery seen in the show. To encourage this and establish consistency between images based on 2D and 3D processes, the 2D drawings incorporate styles typically found in 3D models. Animators also touched up or enhanced by hand, sequences involving the models. Eko's karas form was mainly a 3D model but his skirt was hand drawn. During later stages of editing, the team spaced hand drawn frames among 3D-rendered frames to enhance the fusion of styles. The production did not use motion capture techniques. Animators drew out action scenes based on their feelings, inspirations, and observations. 3D and 2D animation and special effects director, Takashi Hashimoto explained companies typically reduce their animators' workload by using CG for long shots and drawing only close-ups by hand. The team working on Karas, however, drew silhouettes for long shots and created complicated CG for close-ups. The 3D animators used 3D texture software, BodyPaint 3D, to refine textures for the mikura and karas models, creating seamless details on them.
CG director, Takayuki Chiba studied keren, a kabuki stagecraft technique using various props to surprise audiences and immerse them in the show. Chiba attempted to apply this technique with CG to reproduce a vividness associated with live actor productions. He aimed to produce a smooth 2D-3D product full of Japanese flavor, rather than something like a "Disney production". The team scanned real objects and used them in the show. Rice seasoning powder and bird feed became the dust and rubble in scenes of collapsing structures. They also scanned Korean dried seaweed, gim for other scenes. The animation team drew frames interpolating the motion between key frames by hand, and digitally interpolated those frames to create slow motion sequences. Editing teams in the industry normally time stretch the sequence with repeated still frames to produce these shots. Ibira reflected that typical 30-minute anime episodes consist of approximately 300 key frames. The first episode of Karas, however, consisted of approximately 700 key frames.
Composer Yoshihiro Ike infused the music with the sorrow borne by the karas, and the atmosphere conveyed by the background. Ike obliged the team's request for Japanese flavored music, and studied kabuki tunes accompanying actors as they strike their , a picturesque pose to establish their character. He planned to use taikos (Japanese drums) to further enhance the music, but felt the show had taken on an international outlook and discarded the notion. He wanted his music to match the quality of the show, and refrained from composing them until he had watched the pre-dubbed version of the first episode. He composed most of his music as he watched the pre-dubbed episodes to synchronize their tempo and dynamics with the action in the show. He chose Prague Symphony Orchestra to perform the main theme because he felt the background of their city and its people suited the character of Karas. Other departments also took extraordinary measures in producing the show. The sound crew procured a Nissan Skyline GT-R and recorded its engine noise for several runs. These were used for the tunnel chase scenes which involved a hand-drawn 1972–77 Skyline. The editing team took the additional step of editing cels post-voice recording to ensure lip movements were in synch with the voices. These extra work and the hybrid 2D-3D approach inflated the budget of the production to three times the usual amount spent on an original video animation.
Media information
The Japanese episodes initially broadcast one after the other over the dedicated anime pay-per-view channel, Perfect Choice 160, from March 25, 2005, to August 3, 2007. Tatsunoko and the East Asian licensors (providing Chinese subtitles) released Karas as six single-DVD packages in their regions. The collectors' editions feature a hardcover book showing the storyboard for the episode.
Manga Entertainment released the English DVD edition of Karas as two eighty-five-minute feature length films, The Prophecy and The Revelation, on April 24, 2006, and October 22, 2007, respectively. Each feature consists of three original episodes joined together, and has an additional English voice track. They have also released Karas: The Prophecy on UMD. Columbia Music Entertainment published Ike's music for the show on October 24, 2007, as a 24-track audio CD. Dark Horse Comics produced a one-shot comic which went on sale, and is given free with collectors' editions and The Prophecy. The story written by Phil Amara, author of the comic Sky Ape, is an adaptation of the story in episode one.
Reception
Karas impressed its reviewers with its animated imagery. Mania Entertainment affirmed its lush imagery was enough to hook viewers, and certain 2D-3D scenes matched photorealistic standards. They felt Karas could rival or beat live-action films in the visual department. DVD Talk commented they saw evidence a lot of effort went into merging the 2D and 3D animations. They, however, felt setting the scenes in darkness and obscuring points of interest with smoke or other effects marred the high quality imagery. Anime News Network stated the richly detailed images; fast moving action scenes; and visual effects of collapsing buildings, explosions, and blood made Karas one of the best action animation. Reviewers praised the fight scenes between the CG generated karas and mikuras, declaring them realistic, tasteful and stunning. DVD Talk, however, complained the camera jerked and moved all over the place never showing fights cleanly. Mania stated the fights in the later half failed to match those in the first half in terms of beauty, intensity, and variety; the overlaying of characters' face onto their armored forms in the finale detracted from their viewing experience.
Ike's music for Karas impressed reviewers. Anime News Network stated his long scores set the mood in the scenes with their tone, enhancing the reviewers' watching experience. Prague Symphony Orchestra's performance of the main theme impressed more reviewers who claimed it brought out the heroic essence of Karas with a sense of power and drama, and enhanced the impact of the quick and intense battles.
Karas, however, suffered the worst criticisms for its story. Many reviewers and even the voice actors could not follow its dialogue and presentation. Other reviewers felt the abstract presentation forced viewers who wanted to understand the story, to pay extreme attention to the scant details presented in the show. Reelfilm and DVD Verdict were more critical, stating the viewer should not have to resort to reading summaries on the packaging to make sense of a story populated with incoherent battles and characters hard to tell apart from.
The viewers' confused reaction to their story based on the first half, disappointed and frustrated Sato and Ibira. Sato explained the first two episodes were to capture the viewers' attention, and remaining episodes would reveal greater details of the story. Mania complained this franchising tactic is a poor excuse for initial episodes lacking substance. They said although the later half answered much of the questions raised in the first, it created unanswered questions of its own. IGN and DVD Talk felt the story was darker and flowed better in the later half than the first, but IGN felt the revelation of details came too late in the show. DVD Verdict felt the story was pointless. Despite the protagonist reaffirming himself as a protector of the city, his showdown with the antagonist reduced most of Shinjuku to ruins. Reviewers found if they stripped the plot to its basics, it is a shallow good-versus-evil story made complex by its presentation in the first half. They, however, appreciated the surprising deaths of certain characters whose sacrifice in vain rendered a poignant emotion at that point of story.
Reviewers felt part of the failings laid with the underdeveloped characters despite them being slightly different from usual anime stock characters. The story neither properly introduces them nor explains their backgrounds and motivations, making them hard to identify with. Eko's menace only came by force and not by his personality or schemes, making him a weak villain. DVD Talk found it hard to piece together the relationship between the main characters, but acknowledged the later half addressed some of these issues by revealing the background of some characters. They felt the revelations fleshed out Otoha's personality and motivation, helping viewers to sympathize and identify with the protagonist.
Overall, reviewers are mixed in their final assessment of Karas. Their common reaction is of a visually stunning show with a confusing story. DVD Talk commented the blending of traditional 2D drawings and 3D CG was interesting; but with a lacking story, the product is a "triumph of style over substance". In spite of the criticisms, Karas won Best Original Video at the 2006 Tokyo Anime Award competition, and was one of United States' top 10 best selling anime titles in 2006.
Notes
References
Tatsunoko Production (2005-10-21). Karas Vol. 1 (DVD, 説一) in . Taiwan: Proware Multimedia International.
Tatsunoko Production (2006-01-09). Karas Vol. 2 (DVD, 説二) in . Taiwan: Proware Multimedia International.
Tatsunoko Production (2006-03-01). Karas Vol. 3 (DVD, 説三) in . Taiwan: Proware Multimedia International.
Tatsunoko Production (2007-12-11). Karas Vol. 4 (DVD, 説四) in . Taiwan: Proware Multimedia International.
Tatsunoko Production (2007-12-11). Karas Vol. 5 (DVD, 説五) in . Taiwan: Proware Multimedia International.
Tatsunoko Production (2007-12-11). Karas Vol. 6 (DVD, 説六) in . Taiwan: Proware Multimedia International.
Tatsunoko Production (2007-10-22). Karas: The Revelation (DVD). United States: Manga Entertainment. UPC 013138203991.
External links
Official Japanese site
Tatsunoko page on Karas
Manga Entertainment page
Madman Entertainment page
Dark Horse comics page
2005 anime OVAs
Anime with original screenplays
Cyberpunk anime and manga
Dark fantasy anime and manga
Japanese mythology in anime and manga
Superheroes in anime and manga
Tatsunoko Production
Thriller anime and manga
Japanese computer-animated television series |
4563420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%27t%20No%20Other%20Man | Ain't No Other Man | "Ain't No Other Man" is a song by the American singer Christina Aguilera from her fifth studio album Back to Basics (2006). Aguilera co-wrote the song with Kara DioGuardi, Charles Martin Roane, Harold Beatty and the producer DJ Premier. "Ain't No Other Man" is a pop, funk and R&B song that incorporates elements of soul, blues and jazz music. Lyrically, the song was inspired by her marriage to Jordan Bratman in 2005.
"Ain't No Other Man" was released as the lead single from Back to Basics on June 6, 2006, by RCA Records. It received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who complimented its musical style and deemed it a standout on the album. Commercially, the single peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100, number one in Croatia, and peaked within the top five of record charts of several other countries including Brazil, Canada, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Norway, Scotland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
The accompanying music video for "Ain't No Other Man" was directed by Bryan Barber. The music video goes back in time and depicts Aguilera as her then newly established alter ego "Baby Jane". The music video was praised for the "mature" image that Aguilera adopted.
"Ain't No Other Man" won Aguilera a Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) Pop Award (2008), as well as the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards (2006). The music video received four nominations at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards, including Video of the Year. The single was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling over two million units.
Background and production
Following the release of her fourth studio album, Stripped (2002), and several collaborations, Aguilera decided to incorporate elements of 1930s and 1940s musical styles in her follow-up album project. She commented that she wished to evolve as an artist and a visionary in between production of the records. Aguilera sent letters to various producers whom she hoped could help her with the direction she was taking for the project, encouraging them to experiment, re-invent and create a modern soul feel.
The final product, her fifth album Back to Basics, comprises two discs. For the first half disc, Aguilera collaborated with "more beat-driven" producers including DJ Premier and Mark Ronson, who incorporated musical samples into many of the recordings. She described it as "kind of a throwback with elements of jazz, blues and soul music combined with a modern-day twist, like hard-hitting beats". The contents of the second disc were written and produced solely by Linda Perry, Aguilera's longtime collaborator. Aguilera had first collaborated with DJ Premier after hearing his jazz-influenced work with Gang Starr. She revealed that she was impressed, and she also wanted to make jazz-influenced materials. Aguilera stated that she was unsure if DJ Premier would accept the offer, having been his first time working with pop music. Premier later agreed and commented,
"I was surprised I got that call 'cause of our differences in the audiences we hit, but I'm always up for challenges and trying something new ... She described what her album is about and then she sent me some CDs of what type of stuff's been inspiring her to make the record, and it happened to be a lot of stuff that I grew up on in the early '70s, 'cause I'm 40. Aretha Franklin, Etta James, Marvin Gaye, Esther Williams, all kinds of different things. Once I saw that's the vibe she wanted, I still had to make it sound like the way my beats thump and stuff but still give her the atmosphere she's trying to bring out on the singing side."
Composition
"Ain't No Other Man" was written and produced by Aguilera, DJ Premier, and Charles Roane, with additional songwriting provided by Harold Beatty and Kara DioGuardi. It is a pop, R&B and funk song with elements of old-school soul, blues and jazz. Thus, the song is a mixture of old-school and contemporary materials, according to Aguilera herself.
The track contains a brass sample from "Hippy Skippy Moon Strut" by Dave Cortez & The Moon People, and a vocal sample "The Cissy's Thang" by The Soul Seven. Its instrumentation incorporates keyboards, guitar, drums, percussion, and horns. The arrangement of the instruments on "Ain't No Other Man" was described as "raw" and "ass-shaking". Several critics complimented the mixture between old and modern materials; Jody Rosen from Entertainment Weekly claimed that the jazzy melody from the track suited Aguilera perfectly, while Dorian Lyskey of The Guardian deemed the melody of "Ain't No Other Man" "fun" and "crispy".
"Ain't No Other Man" is written in the key of F minor, with a moderate fast tempo of 132 beats per minute. Aguilera's vocal range on the track spans from A3 to C5. Dorian Lyskey of The Guardian noted that the beats of the song are "brassy" and have the same "aerobic oomph" as Beyoncé's "Crazy in Love", while Jody Rosen from Entertainment Weekly deemed the track "exhilarating". According to Aguilera; lyrically, "Ain't No Other Man" is not a love song, but actually intertwines with the events that she experienced in real life. The song seems to be about Aguilera's husband, Jordan Bratman, but is really simply about feeling good. During an interview with MTV News, Aguilera said of the song, "I wanted to make it light and easy for people to dance to and sing along to... Lyrically, I just got married, so it's about someone in particular, but it's all about feeling good and not taking anything too seriously".
Sampling lawsuit
In 2011, American publishing company TufAmeria sued Sony Music for the brass sample of Dave Cortez & The Moon People's "Hippy Skippy Moon Strut" (1968), which is based on "I'll Be a Happy Man" by The Latin Blues Band featuring Luis Aviles. According to a federal lawsuit filed in New York, TufAmerica purchased the exclusive rights to the track in 2004; nevertheless, Sony Music made a deal with Codigo Music and Clyde Otis Music Group to acquire the sample.
Release
While writing "Ain't No Other Man", Aguilera drew inspiration from her husband Jordan Bratman, whom she wedded in 2005. DJ Premier described the track as a "sassy" and "old-Aretha [Franklin] 'Respect'" recording. He further commented that its pace was "too fast", "like 130 beats per minute" and different from his earlier projects. Though lyrics had yet to be written, Aguilera was "in love" with the "high energy" track when she first heard it. Consequentially, she chose to service "Ain't No Other Man" as the lead single from Back to Basics. A remix featuring rapper Chamillionaire was released additionally. Originally Big Boi was supposed to record a verse for the song.
In May 2023, the official house remix of the single was released, produced by British duo Murphy's Law. Titled "Ain't No Other Man (Rework)", it was distributed by RCA and Legacy Recordings. Aguilera herself approved the new, electronic version of the song.
Critical reception
"Ain't No Other Man" received generally positive reviews from music critics. Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine deemed "Ain't No Other Man" as one of the best tracks on Back to Basics. Jody Rosen from Entertainment Weekly wrote that the track "whizzes past at such a furious pace". John Murphy for musicOMH compared Aguilera's vocals on the track to Mariah Carey's. He further wrote that the song makes "you sit up and take notice" and deemed "Ain't No Other Man" "the best pop/R&B crossover" since Beyoncé's "Crazy in Love". Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone selected the track as one of the best from the first disc. Charles Aaron of Spin placed the song third in his list, deeming it "blass-blasting". Stylus Magazine critic Thomas Inskeep complimented the track's mix of old-school and contemporary styles. He also called it a "sexy, sassy" song and "one of the year's best pop singles". Sean Daly of the Tampa Bay Times described the song as a "club-scorching marvel of dance-club breathlessness and brassy blasts". Entertainment Weekly'''s Melissa Maerz considered it "one of the most romantic marriage anthems ever". Dorian Lyskey from The Guardian gave Back to Basics a negative review, but likened "Ain't No Other Man" to Beyoncé's "Crazy in Love", calling it "brilliant" and "the tune of summer". Writing for The Morning Call, Len Righi commented that "Ain't No Other Man", "Understand" and "Slow Down Baby" "put her at Aretha Franklin's doorstep". Kelefa Sanneh for The New York Times praised the song as "the album's glorious, mile-a-minute hit single, which proves once again that no one can roar like Ms. Aguilera". Dan Gennoe of UK Yahoo! Music called it an "ass-shaking" and "sweety back-in-the-day soul" song.Billboard opined that "Ain't No Other Man" was a "savvy blend of the styles".
Accolades
At the 2007 Grammy Awards, "Ain't No Other Man" earned Aguilera a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. The song also earned a BMI Award in 2008. The Village Voices Pazz & Jop annual critics' poll voted "Ain't No Other Man" as the third best single of 2006. The song placed at number 32 on Pitchforks list of The Top 100 Tracks of 2006. Rolling Stone ranked "Ain't No Other Man" at number 18 on their list of 2006's best songs, and Paweł Nowotarski of Porcys named it the 11th best song of the year. The British magazine i-D listed it at number thirty-eight in the Best Pop Comebacks of the 21st Century ranking, calling it "immaculate". The song was also included in the book 1001 Songs You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery.
Commercial performance
"Ain't No Other Man" debuted at number 19 on the US Billboard Hot 100 during the week of June 24, 2006. In the following week, it rose to number 13. On July 8, 2006, "Ain't No Other Man" reached number nine on the chart. In its fourth week charting, the song reached number six, which became its peak. It became Aguilera's first top-ten hit on the chart since "Beautiful" (2002). At the end of 2006, Billboard ranked "Ain't No Other Man" the 32nd most successful hit of the year. On the Billboard Pop Songs chart, the track peaked at number eight and remained there for a total of 20 weeks. The song was a major hit on the US dance market, peaking atop the Hot Dance Club Songs chart. "Ain't No Other Man" was recognized as the eighth best-charting single on the Hot Dance Club Songs of 2006 by Billboard. On August 15, 2006, the track was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling more than one million digital download copies in the country. It was also certified gold for 500,000 master ringtones sold in the region. As of August 2014, "Ain't No Other Man" has sold 1,783,000 copies in the United States alone.
In Canada, the song peaked at number four on the Canadian Hot 100 and was certified platinum by Canadian Recording Industry Association for 80,000 digital sales. It was also certified gold for selling 20,000 ringtones in the country. In the United Kingdom, "Ain't No Other Man" debuted at number 18 on the UK Singles Chart during the week of July 29, 2006. In the following week, the song jumped to number two, just behind Shakira's "Hips Don't Lie" featuring Wyclef Jean. The song also gained chart success in countries around Europe, peaking at number two in Norway, number three in Hungary (both Rádiós Top 100 chart and Single Top 100 chart) and Ireland, number four in Slovakia, number five in Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, number seven in Austria, and number ten in Belgium (Flanders). Throughout Europe, "Ain't No Other Man" peaked at number three on the European Hot 100 Singles chart. The song was certified gold in Denmark by IFPI Denmark for shipping more than 7,500 copies there.
On the Australian Singles Chart, "Ain't No Other Man" debuted at number six on August 13, 2006, and remained on its peak for two weeks. In 2006, the song stayed on the chart for a total of 16 weeks. On January 14, 2007, the track re-entered the chart at number 46. Due to the commercial success in Australia, "Ain't No Other Man" was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipping 35,000 copies in the country. In New Zealand, the single peaked at number five on the New Zealand Singles Chart.
Music video
Background
The accompanying music video for "Ain't No Other Man" was directed by Bryan Barber in early May 2006 and choreographed by Jeri Slaughter. After seeing a trailer of Barber's film project, Idlewild, Aguilera wanted to make a video directed by him, explained: "It intrigued me that this man, Bryan Barber, had been very locked into and had surrounded himself with this whole world of the '20s and '30s era, and it made me think that he could understand what I'm trying to do conceptually. I needed to get the right director who shared my vision". At first Aguilera planned to make a black-and-white video and shot it in her living room for Barber and Slaughter. "I had acted out the entire video in my living room. I used my fireplace as a makeshift stage and the staircase as the pool table where I would stand", said Aguilera. According to Barber, Aguilera was very involved in the making of the video. The whole team seemed like they were doing a movie more than a music video. On June 21, 2006, the music video for "Ain't No Other Man" was premiered on MTV's Total Request Live. It eventually reached number one on the TRLs chart.
Synopsis
Throughout the music video, Aguilera portrays her alter ego Baby Jane, a nickname that Nelly once gave her. The narrative scenes are punctuated by shots of two trombonists playing the Dave Cortez brass sample in unison. The video depicts a mix of styles from the 1920s, as well as modern.
The video begins with a car (white Rolls-Royce Phantom), with a license plate reading "Baby Jane", stopped in front of a club, possibly a speakeasy, on a dark street in California. In front of the bar, a man is smoking a cigar. The melody of Aguilera's song "I Got Trouble", is playing in the background, with sound effects to emulate a gramophone player. Aguilera steps out of the car in high heels, wearing a classic outfit with a hat. After the car door is closed, the song begins. In the club, Aguilera starts dancing with her male and female dancers while singing the song. In the first chorus, Aguilera is in a dressing room, wearing a camisole and fur-trimmed silk dressing-gown, making up with the help of her dancers, and receiving flowers from a stranger.
During the second verse, Aguilera appears in a red 1960s-style outfit and listens to music with silver spangled headphones while a gramophone plays. While singing the second chorus, Aguilera is in front of photographers; she continues to sing in an inter-cut scene, wearing silver and gold outfits, one trimmed with fur. In the next sequence, Aguilera wears a white and black outfit with a black-sequined beret, and continues dancing through the chorus. At the bridge, she walks through the bar and finds her lover. She pushes him down on a chair and pushes him away across the polished dance-floor. She is then lifted onto the billiard table and continues to sing while the chandelier above her head begins to explode and spark fireworks. At the chorus she appears in a sparkling silver dress and makes the whole club come alive in a riot of dancing. There is a brief funk outro. As the video ends, with the club now empty of customers, Aguilera gently sings "I Got Trouble" again, lying on the piano while the people in the club watch her.
Reception
Jody Rosen for Entertainment Weekly noted, "She's revamped [...] her look, sporting an Andrews Sister bouffant and jazz-age togs in the video". Michael Slezak, another editor from Entertainment Weekly, wrote that Aguilera "rocks seven classy-sexy looks in just under five minutes, each more flawless than the one before it (especially that final silver dress and gizzorgeously wild mane)". Its choreography was also praised, "[it] is at once modern and totally in keeping with the whole Cotton Club vibe brought to life", "and just as important, Christina looks like she's having a blast throughout". Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone praised the video, calling it one of the best clips from the album. James Montgomery from MTV News wrote: "Aguilera kicked off her Back to Basics reinvention with this appropriately anachronistic clip, where she vamps through Prohibition-era Harlem". The music video was nominated for four MTV Video Music Awards in 2006, they are: Video of the Year, Best Female Video, Best Pop Video and Best Choreography; however, the video did not win any of them.
Live performances
To promote "Ain't No Other Man" and Back to Basics, Aguilera performed the song on a number of shows and venues. On June 8, 2006, Aguilera performed "Ain't No Other Man" for the first time at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards, which was held at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California. MTV praised the performance, calling her vocals during the show "vibrant". On July 20, 2006, Aguilera performed the track at the Koko jazz club in London, which was held in front of 1,500 fans and invited guests. The 40-minute concert comprised songs from the then-upcoming Back to Basics and other songs, including "Lady Marmalade" (2001) and "Beautiful" (2002). MTV UK was positive toward the performance, writing, "The gig reflected the jazz club mood of Christina's new album, with a swinging brass-heavy backing band and fit dancers bounding sexily around the stage". Aguilera performed the track live on the Late Show with David Letterman on August 16, 2006, and performed it again live on SNL on November 11, 2006. On January 20, 2007, Aguilera performed "Ain't No Other Man" at the 2007 NRJ Music Awards in Cannes, France. On February 18, 2007, Aguilera performed "Ain't No Other Man" and "Candyman" during the halftime show of the 2007 NBA All-Star Game in Las Vegas.
Aguilera performed "Fighter", "Hurt" and "Ain't No Other Man" at the 2007 Muz-TV Awards on June 1, 2007. "Ain't No Other Man" was later performed during the worldwide Back to Basics Tour (2006–2007). It was selected as the show's opener. The performance was supported by a nine-piece band and eight back-up dancers. The tour was preceded by newspapers headlines that flashed across a big screen, such as, "Christina goes from 'dirrty' to demure" and "Christina cleans up her act". The performance is included on the video release Back to Basics: Live and Down Under (2008).
On November 23, 2008, while supporting her compilation album Keeps Gettin' Better: A Decade of Hits, Aguilera performed a medley of her six hits, including "Ain't No Other Man", at the American Music Awards of 2008 held at Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles, California. On May 5, 2010, while promoting her sixth studio album, Bionic, Aguilera performed all of her hits on VH1 Storytellers, including "Ain't No Other Man". On October 24, 2010, Aguilera was invited to the Justin Timberlake & Friends benefit show at Las Vegas. There, she performed "Beautiful", "Fighter" and "Ain't No Other Man". At the show beginning, Timberlake declared that Aguilera is "the best vocalist of my generation", "no contest".
In July 2021, Aguilera performed the song for two nights at the Hollywood Bowl with Gustavo Dudamel and the Los Angeles Philharmonic. She also sang excerpts from the song during the 47th People's Choice Awards.
Usage in media
The song was used in the 2023 Netflix comedy drama series Glamorous, starring Kim Cattrall.
Track listing and formatsDigital download "Ain't No Other Man" – Maxi single "Ain't No Other Man" – 3:47
"Ain't No Other Man" (Jake Ridley Club Mix) – 6:01
"Ain't No Other Man" (Ospina Sullivan Radio Mix) – 3:45
"Ain't No Other Man" (Acappella) – 3:28CD single "Ain't No Other Man" – 3:48
"Ain't No Other Man" (Instrumental) – 3:48Digital download – Dance Vault Mixes'''
"Ain't No Other Man" (Ospina Sullivan Radio Mix) – 3:45
"Ain't No Other Man" (Junior Vasquez Club Mix) – 6:44
"Ain't No Other Man" (Shape: UK Classica Mix) – 8:45
"Ain't No Other Man" (Shape: UK Nocturnal Groove) – 9:16
"Ain't No Other Man" (Ospina Sullivan Club Mix) – 7:11
"Ain't No Other Man" (Ospina Sullivan Dub Mix) – 5:38
"Ain't No Other Man" (Jake Ridley Radio Mix) – 3:50
"Ain't No Other Man" (Jake Ridley Club Mix) – 6:01
"Ain't No Other Man" (Scotty K Bootleg Radio) – 4:16
"Ain't No Other Man" (Scotty K Bootleg Mixshow) – 5:44
Credits and personnel
Credits are taken from the liner notes of "Ain't No Other Man" CD single.
Recording and sampling
Recorded in 2005 at Chalice Recording Studios in Hollywood
Contains a repeated brass sample of "Hippy Skippy Moon Strut", as performed by Dave Cortez & The Moon People
Contains a brief vocal sample of "The Cissy's Thang", as performed by The Soul Seven
Personnel
Songwriting – Christina Aguilera, Kara DioGuardi, Chris E. Martin, Harold Beatty, Charles Roane
Producing – DJ Premier
Co-producing – Christina Aguilera, Charles Roane
Lead vocals – Christina Aguilera
Vocals producing – Rob Lewis
Engineering – DJ Premier, Oscar Ramirez, Charles Roane
Arranging – Davidson Ospina, Dan Sullivan
Keyboards – Davidson Ospina
Guitar – Tareq Akoni
Drums – DJ Premier
Percussion – DJ Premier, Ray Yslas
Mixing – Charles Roane
Mixing assistant – Jordan Laws
Remixing – Davidson Ospina, Dan Sullivan
Photography – Ellen Von Unwerth
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications and sales
Release history
See also
List of number-one dance singles of 2006 (U.S.)
References
2006 singles
Christina Aguilera songs
Music videos directed by Bryan Barber
Song recordings produced by DJ Premier
Songs written by Christina Aguilera
Songs written by Kara DioGuardi
RCA Records singles
Sony BMG singles
Sampling controversies
Songs written by DJ Premier
2006 songs
American funk songs
Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance |
4563465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCTV | RCTV | Radio Caracas Televisión (RCTV) was a Venezuelan free-to-air television network headquartered in the Caracas neighborhood of Quinta Crespo. It was sometimes referred to as the Canal de Bárcenas. Owned by Empresas 1BC, Radio Caracas Televisión (RCTV) was inaugurated on 15 November 1953 by William H. Phelps, Jr. Its radio counterpart was Radio Caracas Radio.
On 27 May 2007, president Hugo Chávez decided to shut down the channel by refusing to renew their broadcast concession, accusing the channel of being involved in the 2002 coup d'état in Venezuela, which briefly overthrew his government. The Supreme Tribunal of Justice (TSJ) upheld the National Commission of Telecommunications (CONATEL) decision. RCTV continued to broadcast via pay television on RCTV Internacional. In January 2010, RCTV was sanctioned with temporary closure. It rejected the Venezuelan media regulator's finding that it was a domestic media provider. On 7 September 2015, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled that the refusal to renew the concession was an "indirect restriction on the exercise of freedom of expression [...] aimed at impeding the communication and circulation of ideas and opinions", that the government violated the right to due process and that it must restore the concession for RCTV. The Venezuelan government has ignored the ruling.
In 2010, the Council on Foreign Relations described RCTV as "the most important independent television station in Venezuela".
History
1953 to 1960
Radio Caracas Televisión, C.A. was established on 18 August 1953 by the Corporación Radiofónica de Venezuela (more commonly known as Coraven, a subsidiary of the Grupo Phelps and RCA), whose mission was that of launching a television network. In the month of September, Radio Caracas Televisión (RCTV) began test broadcasts on channel seven using the call sign YVKS-TV, and on 15 November, the network was officially inaugurated at 7:30 pm. RCTV was the third television network to begin operations in Venezuela after Televisora Nacional and Televisa, seen on channels five and four, respectively, and the second commercial network after Televisa.
On 8 October, during RCTV's testing phase, the inaugural game of the XIV World Cup of Baseball was broadcast. This game matched Cuba and Venezuela and took place at the recently opened stadium of the Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas.
The official inauguration of RCTV took place at its studios located between the corners of Bárcenas and Río in Quinta Crespo, and had the presence of the Minister of Communications, Colonel Félix Román Moreno, the proprietors of the network, and a small group of special guests. In charge of the inauguration was William H. Phelps, Jr., the founding president of the new company, and his wife, Kathy Phelps.
The first program that was aired by the newly inaugurated network was the musical Fiesta, which hosted by Ramírez Cabrera and sponsored by Cerveza Caracas. Afterwards, RCTV aired a program titled El Farol, which was then followed by a program sponsored by Cigarrillos Alas that was directed by Peggy Walker which featured Alfredo Sadel (who had just returned from New York City in time for RCTV's inauguration).
The first voice that identified the network was that of Héctor Myerston.
The following day, RCTV began transmitting its regular programming on channel 7 on the VHF band, presenting programs such as 'El Observador Creole', Cuento Musical Venezolano, Tontín y Tontona, the police adventures of Roy Martin, and the adventures of Kid Carson, to name a few. El Observador Creole was Venezuela's first regular newscast, presented by the Creole Petroleum Corporation (a subsidiary of Standard Oil of New Jersey). At the start, Francisco Amado Pernía hosted the then new news program from Monday to Saturday and on Sunday the newscast had Cristóbal Rodríquez Pantoja as presenter. El Observador Creole remained on the air for almost twenty years, being replaced by El Observador Venezolano, and then relaunched as El Observador.
RCTV's first board of directors included José Marcano Coello, Peter Bottome, Armando Enrique Guía, Guillermo Tucker Arismendi, William H. Phelps, Jr., and Antonio Ortol.
In 1954, Anecdotario appeared. This was the first cultural program that theatrically represented great works of literature. It was directed by Margarita Gelabert and César Henríquez. Other cultural programs similar to Anecdotario included Kaleidoscopio, Teatro del Lunes, Gran Teatro, Ciclorama, Cuentos del Camino, and Candilejas.
Later that year, RCTV debuted their first telenovela, Camay, which was on at 9:00 p.m. As a result of Camay's popularity, RCTV began producing more telenovelas, which became an important part of the network's programming throughout the years. In the 1950s, telenovelas contained between 20 and 25 episodes, with each episode lasting 15 minutes (about three minutes were allocated to advertisements), and were televised live.
In December 1954, RCTV began broadcasting simultaneously on channels two, seven and ten.
In early 1955, RCTV began to transmit exclusively to Caracas, on channel two, from a new transmitting station located in the neighborhood of La Colina in which it remained the main frequency until the network's closure on 27 May 2007 after the government of president Hugo Chavez refused to renew the broadcasting license. In the month of July, RCTV began its regular service to the interior of the country. A repeater antenna was installed in Altamira, south of Lake Valencia, allowing RCTV to reach, by way of channel seven, Valencia, Maracay, and surrounding towns. Later, RCTV put into service their repeater antenna in Curimagua, Falcón State, so that their signal could reach the entire state and the Netherlands Antilles on channel 10. This station was one of the most modern stations in the moment of its installation.
Also in 1955, the morning show that projected Renny Ottolina to national fame made its national premiere. Lo de Hoy came on at 7:30 a.m. and lasted until 9:00 a.m. It was an adaptation of NBC's Today Show, and as a result of the record audience that it obtained, the show was extended to two hours. In 1958, Ottolina left Lo de Hoy, and went on to host his very own variety show, El Show de Renny.
In March 1956, the operations of the repeater station of Isla de Toas commenced, by which, on channel two, RCTV's signal arrived in Zulia State. In September 1956, RCTV installed an antenna in Pariata, to serve what is now Vargas State.
In 1957, RCTV expanded their coverage to reach almost all of Venezuela, offering an uninterrupted signal of high quality.
In January 1957, RCTV improved their installations at Curimagua and were able to offer an uninterrupted and higher quality signal to the Falcon State and the Netherlands Antilles. The network also began service to the state of Lara by way of channel three, transmitting from Mount Manzano in Barquisimeto. On 31 October 1957, RCTV began its first service from Puerto La Cruz to cover the northeastern region of Venezuela on channel 3 via relay.
In 1958, after the fall of dictator Marcos Pérez Jiménez on 23 January of that year, RCTV began airing La Voz de la Revolución, the first political talk show to air in Venezuela.
In 1959, Tito Martinez Del Box, a producer from Argentina, created the comedy series La Gran Cruzada del Buen Humor, later known as Radio Rochela. In 2001, Radio Rochela made the Guinness World Records for being on the air for over five decades uninterrupted (it was seen every Monday at 8:00 pm).
By the end of the 1950s, there existed five television channels in Venezuela: the state channel Televisora Nacional and private channels Televisa, Radio Caracas Televisión, Televisa del Zulia, and Ondas del Lago Televisión.
1960 to 1970
By the 1960s, the American television network, CBS, had purchased a twenty percent stake in RCTV.
In 1961, RCTV, with the help of their radio counterpart, began their first experiments with stereo sound during the broadcast of a variety show.
On 17 September 1961, RCTV put into use their first videotape system, a technology which permitted the consolidation of recordings of sounds and images.
Also in 1961, a major fire affected eighty percent of the operating facilities of the network. As a result of this event, RCTV went on the air with an emergency programming.
Later in 1961, the network expanded its broadcasts to the city of Puerto Cabello from an antenna located at the naval base in that city.
In 1962, RCTV, in a resolve to demonstrating a technological advancement for the network, began producing its programs electronically through a locally manufactured editing machine for camera footage.
Also in 1962, RCTV began broadcasts to the state of Táchira and the Norte de Santander Department in Colombia from a transmitter located in the high barren plain of El Zumbador.
On 24 August 1963, RCTV was given the exclusive rights to broadcast the inauguration of the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge over Lake Maracaibo. On this day, RCTV launched their first transmission via microwave transmitters from the antennas in Curimagua and Maracaibo. The use of the electronic pointer was incorporated.
On every 17 December between the years 1963 and 1969, RCTV presented, and reran by popular demand, a made-for-TV movie that re-created the death of Simón Bolívar. Written by Alfredo Cortina, starred by the Peruvian actor Luis Muñoz Lecaro (Simón Bolívar), directed by José Antonio Ferrara, and presented by Ruben Darío Villasmil, El Ocaso de un Sol made its mark by being one of the first productions by RCTV recorded on videotape.
In 1964, RCTV began using their new transmitters located in the mountains southeast of Puerto la Cruz and Barcelona to offer a higher quality signal by way of channel three to Isla Margarita, Cumaná, Barcelona, Puerto La Cruz, and surrounding areas in the states of Sucre and Anzoátegui. Later, RCTV inaugurated the transmitters on Pico Terepaima, to the south of Barquisimeto, to serve with quality the states of Lara, Yaracuy, and Portuguesa by way of channel three, and the one in Maracaibo, covering with better image and sound the state Zulia. In November, from Pico Zamuro, Trujillo, RCTV began transmitting its signal to the towns of Trujillo, Valera, Biscucuy, Boconó, Guanare, and their surrounding areas.
In the 1960s, the number of episodes contained in each telenovela increased, with each one episode lasting between 30 and 60 minutes long, also telenovelas were no longer made live as a result of the arrival of the videotape technologies. By 1964, telenovelas with sole sponsors disappeared with the release of La Novela del Hogar (which came on at 2:00 p.m.), La Novela de Pasión (which came on at 2:25 p.m.), and La Novela Romantica (which came on at 2:55 p.m.). La Tirana (1967, created by Manuel Muñoz Rico), was the first telenovela to be aired on Saturdays.
On 16 May 1965, RCTV placed into service their transmitters at the Mérida cable car. Thanks to this equipment, RCTV's signal covered the entire Andean region of Venezuela.
By 1967, there were seven television networks on the air in Venezuela. They included Radio Caracas Televisión, Venevisión, Cadena Venezolana de Televisión (CVTV), Canal 11 Televisión, Televisora Nacional in Caracas, Teletrece in Valencia, and Canal 11 in Maracaibo. Because of the exaggerated number of channels, both for the audience and the national publicity market, this number, at the beginning of the 1970s, was reduced to four (two private and two official).
In 1968, RCTV launched Sabado Espectacular, a variety show created and hosted by Amador Bendayan. The show later moved to Venevision, where it was renamed Sabado Sensacional and is currently known as Super Sabado Sensacional hosted by Leonardo Villalobos.
On 17 July 1969, RCTV brought to their viewers the first international broadcast: a news conference with the Apollo 11 American astronauts that were traveling to the moon the next day. On 20 July, RCTV broadcast live and direct the arrival of these astronauts to the moon. Armando Enrique Guía, Hernán Pérez Belisario, and Gustavo Rada were in charge of the transmission which counted a satellital antenna, a channel of microwave transmitters and a submarine cable.
The 600-episode telenovela El Derecho de Nacer, created by Félix B. Caignet and starring among others Raúl Amundaray, Conchita Obach and , which debuted in 1966, would help define the network's drama programming in the latter half of the decade.
1970 to 1980
In 1970, RCTV began using the first chromatic signals during the broadcast of the World Cup in Mexico (the same World Cup where Venezuelans were able to see Pelé make his one thousandth goal). Unfortunately, by pressure from the government, the network was obligated to use electronic filters.
On 16 November 1971, Producciones Cinematográficas Paramaconi, C.A., a company affiliated with RCTV that specializes in cinematography, was established.
On 30 August 1973, RCTV inaugurated a transmitting station in Punta de Mulatos, between La Guaira and Macuto, to offer a better signal in the region. It was the same year that RCTV launched the country's first major kids' program, Popy (featuring Diony Lopez in the title role of a clown), which ran for 13 seasons (1973 to 1986), a program that would set the standard for children's programming.
On 23 June 1974, RCTV signed on new transmitters officially debuting broadcasts via Channel 3 on Ciudad Bolívar, and in July the Puerto Ordaz transmitter signed on, bringing network programming on Channel 2 in that area.
In 1974, the miniseries Doña Bárbara began airing. In just 48 episodes each lasting two hours, José Ignacio Cabrujas brought to television the classic novel authored by Rómulo Gallegos in 1929 and later creating into a trilogy with Canaima and Cantaclaro. Under the direction of the Argentine producer Juan Lamata and with César Bolívar in charge of photography, eighty percent of this production was filmed outdoors (mainly in the llanos of the Apure State). Although it was filmed in color (RCTV was the second network to begin broadcasting in color after VTV in 1971 produced what would be the republic's first ever color TV program), it was broadcast in black and white. This was the first Venezuelan miniseries that was later broadcast to countries in Europe and the first program dubbed into another language as well as its first ever color production.
In the mid-1970s, RCTV created the 2 de Oro award as an incentive for the network's artists and talents. The most recent 2 de Oro was held on 15 April 2007. The 2 de Oro 2004 was held 7 November 2004, and the 2 de Oro 2003 was held on 7 November 2003 (there was no 2 de Oro awards in 2005 and 2006). Other (defunct) award shows that aired on RCTV were the Ronda and Meridiano.
In 1975, RCTV began selling broadcasting rights to some of its programs to television companies overseas, with some of them being translated and dubbed into more than 15 languages and transmitted in more than 40 countries. The three hundred episode telenovela, La Usurpadora, was RCTV's first telenovela broadcast abroad.
Also in 1975, RCTV launched Alerta, a controversial current affairs program that took a look into various social situations in Venezuela. Shortly after Luis Herrera Campins assumed the presidency in 1979, Alerta was taken off the air as a result of a highly controversial report that was conducted on the children's mental hospital located in Catia La Mar. Alerta, as well as Primer Plano and A Puerta Cerrada (the latter to a lesser extent), would make a comeback, get cancelled, make another comeback, and get cancelled again before making another comeback. The latest reincarnation of Alerta began airing on 27 October 2006 and was hosted by Alexandra Belandia. Alerta was originally hosted by Eladio Larez, the future president of RCTV.
On 31 March 1976, RCTV's transmissions were suspended for 72 hours by the first government of Carlos Andrés Pérez for issuing "false and tendacious news", in regard to the kidnapping of the American businessman William Niehous, then president of Owens-Illinois Venezuela. This was RCTV's first shut down by the government.
In 1977, the "cultural telenovela" appeared with La Hija de Juana Crespo and then La Señora de Cárdenas, with both of them captivating their audience with stories that went from the wish of over coming economically and professionally, to infidelity and turbulent marriages.
On 5 January 1978, there was another major fire at RCTV's studios. Fortunately, this fire was nowhere near as damaging as the fire of 1961. It was the very same year that it began test color broadcasts for special events only.
On 15 November 1978, the Fundación Academia de Ciencias y Artes del Cine y Televisión (the Academic Foundation of Sciences and Arts of Film and Television) was founded by William H. Phelps. This academy allowed RCTV to give the opportunity to prepare and train their artists and workers.
The government of Luis Herrera Campins (1979), by decree, began permitting the use of color in television and the American color system, NTSC-M, was adopted. On 1 December 1979, RCTV began broadcasting in color. Unfortunately, this decree allowed only cultural productions to transmit under this format. Estefanía was RCTV's first production broadcast in color. And weeks after the official transition to color, RCTV, together with Venevision, became the official broadcasters of that year's OTI Festival, held at the Theater Hall of the Military Academy of Venezuela, in full color.
1980 to 1990
In 1980, RCTV began airing the miniseries Gómez I and Gómez II. Although they were both a phenomenon, creator José Ignacio Cabrujas and RCTV were sued for 15 million bolívares (about 13 billion bolívares just before 2008, which converts to 13 million bolívares fuertes) because of its historical errors and "injuring the moral patrimony of the descendants and family of General Gómez".
Television networks in Venezuela, whom were already prepared for the change and had occasionally transmitted in this format, made the complete switch-over to color on June 1, 1980.
According to an article published in the Caracas daily newspaper, El Nacional, dated 27 September 1981, RCTV was admonished by the national government for having announced prematurely the death of ex-president Rómulo Betancourt. The Minister of Communications, Vinicio Carrera, by instructions of President Luis Herrera Campins, was in charge of admonishing RCTV "very severely".
In 1982, Coral International was created to sell and distribute RCTV's programs overseas. In 2005, Coral International changed its name to RCTV International to honor its parent company. The same year RCTV became a pioneer station to use the Scanimate system of computer graphics for its on-air presentation and program graphics.
It was in 1986 that the private television networks in Venezuela began using satellite dishes to downlink international signals for their use.
1986 was also the year of Cristal, a telenovela of 246 episodes which broke audience records both inside and outside of Venezuela. In Spain, Cristal was aired since 1988 to 1993 on seven different time periods. Later that year, RCTV launched another major production, called La Dama de Rosa, which in 1991 was seen by seven million people in Spain alone. As a result, RCTV made a record US$12 million from the sales of their telenovelas overseas. Both soaps, based on works by Rómulo Gallegos, formed part of a series of TV adaptations from the works of the Venezuelan writer and former president.
Also in 1986, Expedición, the first ecological and conservationist series produced in Venezuela began airing, which converted RCTV into a pioneering network in this genre. This series was exported to other countries, particularly the United States, Spain, and Japan. Expedición aired until 1998 and contained a total of 48 episodes.
On 13 August 1988, William H. Phelps, Jr., RCTV's founder and first president died at age 85. He had served as RCTV's president for 34 years, retiring from the network only a year before his death.
By 1987–1988, the network was being promoted in a series of station idents and 30-second commercials as Venezuela's Television, following the mid-decade First Class Television campaign.
1990 to 2000
During the first years of the 1990s, RCTV developed a series of made-for-TV-movies. Some were based on real life events. Among the most highlighted were La Madamme (with Mimí Lazo), Cuerpos Clandestinos (with María Conchita Alonso), Volver a Ti (with Ruddy Rodríguez), and Buen Corazón (with Coraima Torres), among many others.
In 1990, RCTV became the second TV network in Venezuela to use computer-generated imagery for its on-air idents.
On 1 August 1991, the Venezuelan government forced RCTV not to air a sketch in Radio Rochela, called "La Escuelita", due to its controversial nature. This decision was ratified by the Supreme Court.
By 1992, RCTV had lost much of its audience to its main rival, Venevisión, but after the launch of Por Estas Calles, RCTV, in terms of viewer ratings, had slowly regained its lead as the nation's no.1 station. This resulted in Venevisión to cancel its contract with Marte TV (Channel 12; now La Tele), and as a result Marte TV nearly entered bankruptcy.
Also in 1992, Kassandra based on a gipsy love theme, was the first Venezuelan telenovela that arrived in the Japanese market. This production was translated in eighty languages and was placed into the Guinness Book of World Records for being the most sold telenovela series in history. The protagonists Coraima Torres and Osvaldo Rios were extremely successful in Italy, Russia, former Eastern Bloc nations, the republics of the former Yugoslavia, as well as the Middle East, south and east Asia.
In 1993, for the first time, RCTV combined cartoons with real actors in one of their productions. Created by Mariela Romero, the telenovela Dulce Ilusión was converted into a modern version of Cinderella.
In 1994 and 1995, with objectives to obtain the best sharpness and resolution of colors, RCTV inaugurated the first studio that utilized component video technology. In 1996 upon its major on-air revamp, RCTV switched from using analog video to Serial Digital Interface, a first for a Venezuelan TV network.
In 1997, RCTV was the first network in Latin America that automated their informative services (from the making of its contents until its airing), in which they adopted DVCPRO.
On 4 December 1998, the testing phase began for Vale TV (Valores Educativos Televisión), a non-profit private enterprise co-owned by the Archdiocese of Caracas and the three leading private television networks in Venezuela (RCTV, Venevisión, and Televen).
In 1999, RCTV purchased Digital Betacam cameras and decks, which allowed the use of cinematographic techniques in the illumination of outdoor shots. That same year, it was the first Venezuelan TV network to take part in the trials of digital television as the government originally planned to adopt the American ATSC standard.
On 15 November 1999, RCTV had been on the air for a total of 16,000 days.
2000 to 2007
In 2000, RCTV was the official Venezuelan broadcaster for the internationally televised special called 2000 Today, headed by the BBC of the UK. Also that year, RCTV was one of the first TV networks in Venezuela buying franchises such as game shows like the Venezuelan version of the original British game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?.
On 18 July 2005, the Centro Nacional de Noticias (National Center for News), was inaugurated. From here, RCTV broadcasts El Observador (all three daily emissions), La Entrevista, and other special programs of information and opinion. The president of Empresas 1BC and general director of RCTV, Marcel Granier, and the president of RCTV, Eladio Larez, were present at its inauguration. It is located in Quinta Crespo, a neighborhood in Caracas downtown where Radio Caracas Televisión's other studios can be found.
On 17 June 2006, the Autonomous Service of Intellectual Property (SAPI), issued an administrative resolution in which it cancelled the use of the trademark "Radio Caracas Televisión", arguing that RCTV has not used this name for at least three consecutive years (they preferred to identify themselves as just RCTV) and thus should no longer have the right to it. This resolution came about when RCTV was being sued by the cable channel, Caracas TV, for having trademarked the name Caracas TV three months after Caracas TV went on the air (RCTV was also known as Radio Caracas TV, and claimed that there was too much of a similarity). Caracas TV would later be relaunched as Canal de Noticias, a 24-hour cable news network.
On 15 December 2006, Tu Tienda RCTV, a gift shop which sells various products containing the logo of RCTV, ¿Quién Quiere Ser Millonario? (the local version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?), and the telenovela Te Tengo en Salsa, opened in the Recordland at the Sambil Mall in Caracas.
In 2006, RCTV was sued for broadcasting advertisements of phone services which used images with "high sexual content" during late night programming. The Supreme Court ordered the station to stop showing content of that type, and described the advertisements as morally hazardous content with persuasive messages.
2007 – shutdown
The Venezuelan government did not renew RCTV's broadcasting license which was up for renewal in May 2007 and the Venezuelan Supreme Court ordered their broadcast equipment to be temporarily seized and made available to the new government-owned TVes station, which commenced transmissions the next day after RCTV was shut down. RCTV has denied any wrongdoing and declared that no trial had been conducted that linked the network to the coup attempt.
The week after the closure, RCTV started broadcasting its newscast to Latin America, first through Colombia's Caracol Televisión and since then to other countries around the world. On 7 June, RCTV started broadcasting its newscast El Observador on Globovisión.
Background
On 11 April 2002, supporters and opponents of Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez clashed near the Miraflores Palace, resulting in a shootout at the Llaguno Overpass between government supporters and the Metropolitan Police of Caracas. A sector of the Armed Forces asked for Chávez's resignation, holding him responsible for the ensuing massacre during the march. Commander of the Army Lucas Rincón Romero reported in a nationwide broadcast that Chávez had resigned his presidency, a charge Chávez would later deny. Chávez was taken to a military base while Fedecámaras president Pedro Carmona was appointed as the transitional President of Venezuela, following protests and a general strike by his opponents.
According to the St. Petersburg Times, RCTV excluded its news programs from its daily programming on 13 April 2002. Gustavo Cisneros, owner of Venevisión, stated that the alleged news blackout was a result of threats received from pro-Chávez demonstrators and callers who claimed to be members of the Chávez government. Protesters attacked RCTV's offices, smashing some windows and shouting: "The palace is in our hands, why aren't you showing that?".
Chávez was restored to power on 14 April 2002. Over the following months, and again in the wake of the 2002-2003 general strike, he stepped up his criticism of the country's private media companies, accusing them of having supported the coup. On his weekly television program Aló Presidente and in other forums, he regularly referred to the leading private media owners as "coup plotters", "fascists", and "the four horsemen of the apocalypse".
End of concession
On 28 December 2006, President Chávez announced that the government would not renew RCTV's broadcast license which expired on 27 May 2007, thereby forcing the channel to cease broadcast operations on that day.
The Venezuelan Supreme Court of Justice (TSJ) ruled on 17 April 2007, that it is within the CONATEL's power to decide on the issuing, renewal and revocation of broadcast licenses. RCTV may continue broadcasting over cable or DTH systems (DirecTV Latin America) when its license expires, but the government will take over the equipment, studios and even the master control for their use in the new station it has created on 27 May 2007. On 24 May, the Supreme Court ordered RCTV to stop broadcasting as soon as its license expires and approved the government's takeover of its equipment, though it would review the station's appeal of the decision. Chávez announced plans to start broadcasting a public service channel, TVes, using this infrastructure which belonged to RCTV.
The Supreme Court ruled that RCTV's broadcasting equipment "must be available" to TVes. The ruling also ordered the military to guard the equipment. This allowed TVes to be available in the same locations where RCTV used to broadcast.
The final program airing on RCTV on Sunday was an all day/night retrospective tribute to the network, featuring current and ex workers, artists and staff of RCTV. Many workers and artists from other networks, including Venevisión, had to use the last hours of RCTV to give their opinion since they were not allowed at their own companies.
On Saturday, 26 May, RCTV shut down its live Internet stream in preparation for its forced close-down on Sunday, 27 May. At midnight on 28 May, RCTV ceased broadcasting and for the following 8 seconds, the signal went dark. Then, it was replaced by TVes ident which was on air for 20 minutes. At 12:20 a.m., TVes began programming for the first time. DirecTV Venezuela has replaced RCTV with TVes on 104.
RCTV interpretation
RCTV argues that no trial has been conducted that links the network to the coup attempt. Other stations—including Venevisión and Televen— were also accused of supporting the coup attempt, but their licenses were renewed. Those networks became less critical of Chávez, prompting opponents to say the action against RCTV was evidence that Chávez defined media outlets critical of his government as the enemy, according to the New York Times.
RCTV also argued that the channel's license would expire in 2022 rather than 2007. A 1987 decree during Jaime Lusinchi's presidential term gave RCTV a 20-year license, but the network claimed that the failure of the National Telecommunications Commission to issue an administrative authorization by 12 June 2002 automatically granted the channel a 20-year license renewal. The government rejected this interpretation, stating that the converting of licenses into administrative authorizations did not mean a license renewal, just a census of broadcasters. The Supreme Court subsequently agreed.
Chávez says TVes would better reflect his socialist revolution, calling RCTV "a threat to the country".
National reactions
Rallies took place, both in favor and against the government's decision. One rally against the decision took place in Caracas on 21 May 2007 with "thousands of protesters." On 25 May, university students from the Universidad Católica Andrés Bello, the Universidad Simón Bolívar and the Universidad Central de Venezuela protested against the government's intentions. On June 2, 2007, tens of thousands of pro-government protesters took to the streets in support of Chavez's decision.
Several opinion polls conducted by companies associated with the Venezuelan opposition showed that the public was strongly against the move. One poll, conducted in April 2007 by the Venezuelan company Datanálisis, found that 13% of the population agreed with the revocation of RCTV's license, while 70% rejected the government's decision. A May poll conducted by a firm called Hinterlaces in 15 Venezuelan states with a 4.7% margin of error reported that 83% of the Venezuelan population rejected the discontinuation of RCTV, with 74% saying that democracy was at stake.
International reactions
Many individuals, international organizations and NGOs—including the OAS's Secretary General José Miguel Insulza
and its Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression,
the Inter American Press Association, Human Rights Watch, the Committee to Protect Journalists, and the Human Rights Foundation—have expressed concerns for freedom of the press. United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice criticised the TV closure as "undemocratic" and went on to say "...disagreeing with your government is not unpatriotic and most certainly should not be a crime in any country, especially a democracy." However, Secretary Insulza also stated that it was up to the Venezuelan courts to solve this dispute and that he believed that this was an administrative decision.
The International Press Institute stated that it is "a flagrant attempt to silence the station's critical voice and in violation of everyone's right 'to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers,' as outlined in Article 19 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights." The Committee to Protect Journalists "concluded [Chávez's] government failed to conduct a fair and transparent review of RCTV's concession renewal. The report, based on a three-month investigation, found the government’s decision was a predetermined and politically motivated effort to silence critical coverage." Reporters Without Borders (RWB) stated "The closure of RCTV [...] is a serious violation of freedom of expression and a major setback to democracy and pluralism. President Chávez has silenced Venezuela’s most popular TV station and the only national station to criticize him, and he has violated all legal norms by seizing RCTV’s broadcast equipment for the new public TV station that is replacing it."
José Miguel Vivanco, Americas director for Human Rights Watch, called the RCTV case "clearly a case of censorship and the most grave step back in the region since Fujimori," referring to the manipulation of the media by Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori in the 1990s. "[Chávez] is misusing the state’s regulatory authority to punish a media outlet for its criticism of the government," Vivanco said.
The United States Senate approved a motion promoted by Senators Richard Lugar and Christopher Dodd condemning the closing, and Nancy Pelosi, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, asserted that it was an attempt to silence the critics of the Government. The U.S. State Department, the European Union, the senates of Chile and Brazil, and the legislatures of a number of other Latin American countries also expressed concern over the incident.
European Commission President José Manuel Barroso qualified the measure as regrettable, adding that "freedom of expression and press freedom are substantial components of democracy. Costa Rican President Óscar Arias Sánchez stated that any media closing was a deathly strike against any democratic system. Chilean President Michelle Bachelet said she regrets the decision and that "freedom of expression is the golden rule." Along with her, Finnish President Tarja Halonen said she was watching the situation with concern. The Spanish Partido Popular, the main opposition party, called the closing an "attack against freedom of expression".
Some British politicians and journalists, in a letter to the editor to The Guardian, supported Chávez's decision to shutdown RCTV, due to their belief that the station had "used its access to the public airwaves to repeatedly call for the overthrow of the democratically elected government of President Hugo Chávez."
After the Brazilian Senate passed a motion urging Chávez to reconsider the shutdown of RCTV, Chávez "accused the Brazilian Congress of acting like a 'puppet' of the US", prompting Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva to say “Chavez has to take care of Venezuela, I have to take care of Brazil and (US President George W.) Bush has to take care of the US”. Later, Lula da Silva said the decision of the shutdown was internal Venezuelan affairs, adding that the legal logic of each country should be respected. Chávez said that presidents Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua and Evo Morales of Bolivia have phoned to show support to his decision and that Álvaro Uribe from Colombia said that his country would not involve itself in Venezuela's internal affairs. He also said "I would not do that to anybody." President Rafael Correa of Ecuador said that he would have canceled the broadcast license automatically after the 2002 coup.
With continued protests in 2010, the RCTV closure has been highlighted by human rights organization as an example of violations of freedom of the press, the absence of due process, and the Chavez administrations "abuse its authority to compel broadcast of presidential speeches that promote the government's political agenda" and Chavez seeking "to intimidate and punish broadcasters who criticize his government".
IACHR
In March 2009, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) concluded two cases brought against Venezuela by the private Venezuelan TV stations Globovisión and RCTV. It concluded that the Venezuelan government had not violated the right to freedom of expression or equality before the law, but that the government had failed to do enough to prevent and punish acts of intimidation against journalists by third parties. On 7 September 2015, the IACHR again criticized the Venezuelan government for forcing RCTV off the air and ruled that concessions and assets taken from RCTV should be returned to the network.
Impact
According to one study, the closure of RCTV led to increased viewership on Globovision, "the only remaining television channel for opposition viewers." The study also found that approval ratings and voting for Chavez fell in places that had access to Globovision after RCTV's closure.
2007-2010 – broadcasting on pay television
RCTV lost its terrestrial broadcast licence, but it was not out of business. In an article in the 5 July 2007 edition of AM New York, the head of RCTV, Marcel Granier said that he was considering taking the network's programming to subscription television. This was accomplished in the Summer of 2007.
In the wake of the loss of its terrestrial licence, RCTV announced plans to continue broadcasting its main news program El observador on popular internet video host YouTube during 2007. YouTube viewership of 'El Observador' was initially significant but within a week of the end of RCTV's television transmission had fallen to less than 5,000 viewers a day. El Observador stopped uploading videos to its YouTube channel after 13 July 2007, and instead directed its viewers to watch its broadcasts through a different video hosting service. Viewership numbers are not available.
On 7 July 2007, DirecTV Latin America and RCTV signed an agreement for the satellite service to air RCTV's programming to satellite subscribers in Venezuela and other parts of the world. The network would be available on DirecTV's channel 103, which on that day, showed a test signal with the RCTV logo. Later came the deals with other national providers, Inter, formerly known as Intercable, and , both being the most important and known cable operators in Venezuela. The channel number varies by area of the country and the cable system. Broadcasting officially resumed on 16 July at 6:00 a.m. (UTC−4).
In mid-2009, the Venezuelan media regulator CONATEL declared that cable broadcasters would be subject to the new media law if 70% or more of their content and operations were domestic. The decree went into effect on December 22, 2009. In January 2010 CONATEL concluded that RCTV met that criterion of broadcasting more than 70% domestic content in the past 90 days (being more than 90% domestic according to CONATEL), and reclassified it as a domestic media source, and therefore subject to the requirement of interrupting its regular programming with mandatory joint broadcasts, or national network. According to NGO Monitoreo Ciudadano, the government aired 141 national networks in 2009, with each having an average length of one hour. Along with several other cable providers, RCTV refused to air the joint broadcasts and was sanctioned with indefinite closure. According to the government, in order to resume broadcasting it will need to register as a domestic media provider. Other sanctioned channels include the American Network, América TV and TV Chile. TV Chile, an international channel of Chilean state television network TVN, had failed to respond to a January 14 deadline for clarifying the nature of its content.
RCTV later registered as a domestic media provider as ordered, and promised that it would follow the media law. However, its registration was rejected.
2010-present – Other media
After RCTV's registration as a domestic media provider was rejected, RCTV continued to produce live action shows for other companies. In 2012, RCTV co-produced La CQ, which was recorded at RCTV's studios, with Televisa and Cartoon Network Latin America, and La mujer de Judas, which was based on RCTV's telenovela of the same name, with TV Azteca. On December 10, 2014, Empresas 1BC announced that it would create a new division for TV program production and distribution called RCTV Producciones.
On September 7, 2015, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled that the Venezuelan government must restore the concession for RCTV and for channel 2 in Caracas, noting that the refusal to renew the concession was an "indirect restriction on the exercise of freedom of expression [...] aimed at impeding the communication and circulation of ideas and opinions" and that the government violated the right to due process. The court also ordered a series of economic reparations to be paid by the state to RCTV and an open process to restore the concession to RCTV. Before the decision was handed, the network began its online blog in 2014 and within months began online broadcasting through the Internet, with a mix of program reruns and new programming.
On July 5, 2020, RCTV announced that its programming would return that same day as a streaming app. RCTV president Marcel Granier stated that the project was started because they knew the content produced by RCTV throughout its history had "outstanding" value, which let make over 22,000 hours of telenovelas, 13,000 hours of entertainment/variety programs and 7,000 hours of news/opinion programs available at launch, and they would continue adding new original content. It uses Streann Media's content streaming solution, and it's available on Android and iOS/iPadOS phones and tablets, Roku devices and desktop web browsers as a free service with no geoblocking.
On December 23, 2021, RCTV president Eladio Lárez announced that the company's programming content was available on the ad-supported Prende TV, Vix, Tubi and Canela TV streaming services. RCTV's own streaming service was shut down after the announcement.
News and broadcasts
El Observador was RCTV's main newscast. It was broadcast three times a day, except for Sundays, when it only came on during important events such as elections.
Some of RCTV's programs could be seen in other countries on various channels, including TV Venezuela, a premium subscription channel available on DirecTV and their YouTube channel.
See also
List of telenovelas of Radio Caracas Televisión
Media of Venezuela
Censorship in Venezuela
2007 Venezuelan RCTV protests
BBC One
1939 Temporary shutdown of BBC Television Service
ABS-CBN
1972 Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos
Rede Tupi
Banahaw Broadcasting Corporation
Seven TV
ATV
ABS-CBN franchise renewal controversy
"Death on the Rock" - documentary broadcast about Operation Flavius by Thames Television that led to the loss of their ITV franchise due to an alleged political motivations against airing it
References
External links
Free RCTV – Campaign in support of RCTV and the freedom of the press
The Economist – Chávez changes channels (May 29 2007)
AM NewYork (July 5, 2007)
Latin American CATV penetration rates. CableLabs (2003). Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
Television stations in Venezuela
Spanish-language television stations
Television networks in Venezuela
Mass media in Caracas
Empresas 1BC subsidiaries
Television channels and stations established in 1953
Entertainment companies established in 1953
Mass media companies established in 1953
1953 establishments in Venezuela
Human rights abuses in Venezuela |
4563864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titania%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29 | Titania (Marvel Comics) | Titania (Mary MacPherran) is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by then-Editor-in-Chief Jim Shooter and Mike Zeck, the character first appeared in Secret Wars #3 (July 1984). Mary MacPherran is the second incarnation of Titania. She is the rival of the superhero She-Hulk. Originally a supervillain, in later years, she has reformed into more of an antihero. The character has also been a member of the Masters of Evil and the Frightful Four at various points in her history.
Titania has been described as one of Marvel's most notable and powerful female antiheroes, being labelled as one of She-Hulk's greatest rivals.
The character made her live action debut in the Marvel Cinematic Universe Disney+ series She-Hulk: Attorney at Law (2022), portrayed by actress Jameela Jamil.
Development
Concept and creation
Mary MacPherran is the name of a real-life Marvel production assistant who was asked by Jim Shooter if it was permissible to name a character after her. In 2011, Shooter posted a photo on his blog of a group of Marvel staffers, with a caption identifying the real MacPherran. In a comment, Shooter said of MacPherran:
Publication history
Titania debuted in Secret Wars #3 (July 1984), created by writer Jim Shooter and artist Mike Zeck. She appeared in the 2015 Illuminati series, by Joshua Williamson.
Fictional character biography
Born prematurely in a suburb of Denver, Colorado, Mary MacPherran grew up scrawny and short-statured, inspiring the popular Vanessa Ashwood at school to nickname her "Skeeter" (a slang word for mosquito). While a high school senior, Mary works as a salesclerk alongside her only friend, Marsha Rosenberg, to support her struggling family. Consistently bullied since childhood by the wealthy and cruel Vanessa and her friends, Mary grows resentful and fantasizes about gaining superpowers to become admired, and exact retribution on her tormentors.
After the second Spider-Woman (Julia Carpenter) makes one of her early appearances in their town, Marsha remarks that the new superheroine's reddish-blonde hair color matches Mary's. Mary then falsely confides to her friend that she is secretly Spider-Woman. Shortly afterward, Mary is invited to a fancy party at Vanessa's house where she realizes that her newfound popularity is due to Marsha spreading the false Spider-Woman rumor.
In the middle of the party, their section of Denver is torn from Earth and becomes part of the composite planet Battleworld, created by the Beyonder as a stage for a selected group of superheroes and supervillains to battle each other. When the real Spider-Woman arrives on the scene to save the guests from a collapsing structure, the now-enraged Vanessa and her guests turn on Mary and Marsha, chasing them into the forests of Battleworld.
Scared and exhausted, the two girls are found by Doctor Doom in need of further metahuman operatives to further his ambitions. Mary and Marsha both agree to Doom's offer of power in exchange for serving in his army of supervillains.
Secret Wars
Using the highly advanced alien technologies found in Doombase, the villain headquarters, powered by immense energies from the ferocious alien storm outside, Doom recreates both girls by inducing high-level metahuman abilities of specific and particular design. While Rosenberg (now known as Volcana) receives a fiery form composed of ionized plasma, MacPherran gains powers diametrically opposed to her previous self – where once she had been "the scrawny one who got her face rubbed in the dirt", she becomes taller, more muscular, and buxom.
Titania's physical changes come with changes in personality. Where Mary MacPherran had been small and timid, the newly named Titania (seemingly as strong as a Titan) is brash and confident. When Volcana melts machinery into a large pile of red-hot slag, Titania picks it up, boldly ignoring the possibility of injury and hurls it through the wall. Soon after, she challenges Carl "Crusher" Creel, the Absorbing Man, to a fight which he refuses, stating that he has "nothing to prove... to a dame." Titania begins to work for Doom in earnest, and is one of the villains ordered by Doom to attack the superheroes. She battles Thor, Rogue and Wolverine, as well as the X-Men. She eventually gets the better of She-Hulk beginning a long rivalry between the two.
When the heroes later storm Doombase to rescue She-Hulk, Titania tries to face up against veteran superhero Spider-Man. Initially extremely confident due to her massive strength and durability, she panics upon realizing that Spider-Man's vastly superior speed, agility, reflexes, intelligence and years of experience against more powerful foes allow him to not only easily avoid her, but also attack her with complete impunity. The fight ends when Spider-Man beats her into the ground, then picks her up and disdainfully tosses her through an exterior wall. During this fight, Titania's newfound arrogance quickly evaporates, giving way to what Spider-Man mockingly calls the "whining little wimp-ette" — it is clear that her arrogance masks an insecure, fragile personality. Mindful of this beating, Titania avoids coming into contact with Spider-Man while on Battleworld, and harbors a fear of him for some time after returning to Earth.
After her run-in with Spider-Man, the Absorbing Man and Titania begin a relationship. Once Owen Reece, the Molecule Man, manages to seal off the chunk of Denver and navigate it toward Earth, Creel and MacPherran reveal that they are done with Doom and his war and simply want to go home.
During the return to Earth, Titania beats up Vanessa Ashwood and destroys her house, but gets no satisfaction out of getting revenge on her childhood tormentor.
Back to Earth
Once back on Earth, Titania and Absorbing Man continue to work as professional criminals by joining Baron Helmut Zemo's latest incarnation of the Masters of Evil. Their first assignment is to recruit the powerful Moonstone, which also prevents them from joining the main group in the assault on Avengers Mansion. To kill time, Titania robs a jewelry store and attracts the attention of Spider-Man. Too afraid to fight him, she runs but encounters him again at LaGuardia Airport. Titania avoids fighting, having Creel do so on her behalf. The sight of his near-defeat at Spider-Man's hands proves enough for Titania to temporarily overcome her 'arachnophobia', charging in to save her boyfriend. Creel ends the fight by threatening to destroy a plane full of innocents if Spider-Man refuses to leave the scene, which he reluctantly does.
The villain couple receive another assignment from the Masters: to kill Hercules who had been gravely injured by the Masters, and was hospitalized. Despite being guarded by only Ant-Man (Scott Lang) and the Wasp, Hercules survives. Creel is stung by insects in human form and Titania is shrunk to the size of Wasp. She is taken to the Vault, a superhuman penitentiary.
The stay in the Vault does not last long. When Iron Man begins the Armor Wars (the battle to destroy or disable all enhanced armor types based on stolen Iron Man designs), it inevitably leads him to the Guardsmen, The Vault's wardens. The ensuing conflict creates a power failure, allowing Titania and Mister Hyde to escape. While Captain America manages to subdue and capture Mister Hyde, his colleague D-Man is unsuccessful in apprehending Titania. When allowed the opportunity for a rematch, D-Man simply lets her escape because she is far stronger than him.
Using her newfound freedom, Titania travels to Washington D.C. After losing a succession of battles with She-Hulk, Titania promises to never attack her again and returns to jail.
Broken out yet again, Titania joins with the Wizard, Klaw and Hydro-Man to become the new Frightful Four. Battling the Fantastic Four with Titania taking on the Thing and Ms. Marvel, the team only wins due to help from Professor Gregson Gilbert's creation Dragon Man and Aron, the Renegade Watcher. In the rematch, the Fantastic Four prevails only to have both teams imprisoned by Aron in suspended animation, using clones of the Fantastic Four to act out adventures he wished to witness. When both teams are freed, Aron chooses to witness the dreams of his clones instead and transports the Frightful Four back to The Vault, as a service to the Fantastic Four.
Titania permanently overcomes her fear of Spider-Man during the 1989-1990 "Acts of Vengeance" crossover, in which a conspiracy between Loki and the Wizard teams supervillains to fight enemies not usually their own. Titania is dismayed when Doctor Doom, her partner, tells her she would face She-Hulk and not Spider-Man. With the help of a behavior modification device secretly affixed to Titania, Doom stokes her pride and anger, allowing her to engage Spider-Man at the Daily Bugle offices. After the Puma's claws tear Doom's device from her she cowers from Spider-Man, but he makes her realize that she had been fighting him the whole time, and resumes attacking. At the time, Spider-Man was temporarily bonded with the Uni-Power, making him Captain Universe. This grants him the power to render Titania unconscious in one massive energy discharge.
She is freed on the way to the Vault by Graviton who also collects the Trapster and the Brothers Grimm. All had been humiliated by Spider-Man in the Captain Universe guise and along with Chameleon and Goliath, they make a failing attempt to take revenge. Titania is humiliatingly defeated by a collision with a speeding bus.
Finding romance
Escaping The Vault once again, Titania joins Superia's Femizons, as foes of Captain America and the Paladin. This does not work out and Titania resolves to track down her old flame – the Absorbing Man, finding him battling the Eric Masterson Thor. When she appears injured by a blow from Mjolnir, Creel admits his love for her which she gladly reciprocates. Seeing this, Thor allows them to leave.
While Creel makes an attempt to live a normal life, Titania goes back to robbing jewelry stores. Concerned, Creel attempts to "scare her straight", collaborating with Thor in a ploy involving an exhibit at the Guggenheim Museum. While the appearance of Spider-Man and special police unit Code: Blue complicates matters, ultimately Titania remembers her love for Creel.
Creel continues to get mad at Mary for not managing to stay legal and violating their parole. In order to alleviate her stress he arranges an official bout with She-Hulk, but Titania nonetheless decides to cheat and ends up losing the fight.
Titania and the Absorbing Man's wedding is attended by many supervillains. While the Avengers interrupt the ceremony, they ultimately leave the couple alone. Titania quickly grows bored with her law-abiding reform, and after Absorbing Man tries to buy her a Valentine's present but is nonetheless attacked by the police, they accept having to live a life on the run from the law.
In need of funds the pair assumes the guises of Thunder Girl and Lightning Bolt in order to hunt Spider-Man for the reward offered by Norman Osborn. Despite Titania briefly contracting severe skin burns as a result of this escapade, the pair remains unable to reform and commit more robberies. Titania also continues to clash with She-Hulk.
Illness and recuperation
Despite her enhanced durability, Titania contracts cancer. Lacking both health insurance and money, Creel is quickly forced to move her from the hospital to an abandoned building. Creel kidnaps Dr. Jane Foster and brings her to the abandoned building to treat Titania, whose condition is rapidly deteriorating. Due to a battle between Creel and Thor, the building collapses upon the two women. Weakened and barely conscious, but still massively strong, Titania is nonetheless able to save Foster from being killed by holding up the falling debris. Foster subsequently helps treat Titania's cancer at the hospital.
In a "silent" story containing no word balloons, Captain America fights the Absorbing Man on Christmas Eve, then learns that Creel was trying to get enough money to buy a Christmas present for Titania. Cap then secretly delivers the present in Creel's place, and remains outside their apartment window long enough to watch Titania pick up the gift. In an accompanying script excerpt, writer Dan Jurgens explains that Titania's illness has been cured.
During Christopher Priest's run on Deadpool, Titania appears as a roommate of Deadpool and the supervillain Constrictor, but is later revealed to be the shapeshifter Copycat. She was originally intended to be the real Titania, but Marvel editors came up with the Copycat explanation in order to resolve the continuity conflict with Dan Jurgens' cancer storyline simultaneously occurring in Thor.
Wielding the Power Gem
Titania proves unable to stay away from She-Hulk, and undergoes an intense physical regimen to boost her abilities. However, She-Hulk had done so more efficiently, briefly reaching levels almost approaching those of the Hulk himself. Battered and inadvertently humiliated by her, Titania is offered the chance at revenge after obtaining the Power Gem, one of the legendary Infinity Gems, from its former owner, the former Champion of the Universe, now known as the Fallen One because of his own defeat at She-Hulk's hands. The Fallen One had agreed to cease using the Power Gem as a condition of his defeat, but was free to gain his own revenge by proxy through Titania. After an initial defeat by the newly empowered Titania, She-Hulk tricks her into believing that she had killed the Jade Giantess in a second battle; Titania's initial rush of triumph suddenly melts into uncertainty, as she realized that her life now had no meaning or focus without the object of her obsessive hatred. She-Hulk (in her normal form as Jennifer Walters) then takes advantage of Titania's confusion to pluck the Power Gem from the criminal's forehead, and uses the Gem's power to knock Titania out with a single punch.
Titania is incarcerated in the Lang Memorial Penitentiary, a.k.a. the Pym Experimental Prison #2, a prison in which superhuman inmates are shrunk with Pym particles to less than an inch in height, to reduce both their chances of escape and their threat to guards and the public.
Titania appears as a member of The Wizard's Frightful Four, battling the Fantastic Four on Saturn's moon, Titan. Titania is shown having been returned to the Pym Experimental Prison. In the next issue, having escaped (though still shrunken to diminutive size), she is reunited with the Absorbing Man, and clashes again with She-Hulk. To save She-Hulk from the Absorbing Man, her friend, the Skrull Jazinda uses the shrunken Titania as a hostage and throws her into the mouth of a shark.
Titania survives this somehow, as she encounters X-Factor Investigations and is later seen at the Raft, commenting along with other female inmates on the prowess of the new warden Luke Cage.
Fear Itself
During the Fear Itself storyline, one of the seven Hammers of the Worthy lands near Titania after it was launched to Earth by Serpent. When she lifts it, her body becomes possessed by Skirn, Breaker of Men. Skirn then helps Creel find his own hammer in the capital of Hell. When they find his hammer, they come across a well known thief who has a personal history with Skirn. The thief tries to take the hammer as his own, but Skirn quickly defeats him. War Machine, Iron Fist, and their allies appear and try unsuccessfully to keep the hammer from Creel, who becomes the host body for Greithoth, Breaker of Wills when he grasps it.
Shortly after the Worthy are defeated, a distraught Titania is shown in her prison cell imploring Raft personnel to stop Crossbones from stealing Skirn's hammer and committing atrocities with it.
All-New Thor
When Absorbing Man and Titania rob an armored car, the female Thor appears to thwart their plans. Upon meeting the female Thor, Creel mocks her for being a woman and for having taken Thor's name for herself, which she answers by breaking his jaw. Titania then appears to confront her. But out of respect for what Thor was doing, she knocks out her husband with his own weapon and surrenders. Despite this surrender, and despite Titania having once saved her life, Thor hits her hard with Mjolnir, knocking her out.
Illuminati
Titania attempts to quit the supervillain lifestyle, and with She-Hulk's help, gets a security job at a pawn shop. Though she successfully stops a robbery by thugs armed with energy weapons, her powers attract the attention of Luke Cage and Iron Fist. Despite her innocence, the Heroes for Hire view her with suspicion and attempt to subdue her. In the middle of the fight, the Hood teleports Titania against her will back to his lair, where he invites her to join his incarnation of the Illuminati, promising a way out of supervillainy. She reluctantly agrees to join. It is revealed to the reader that Hood engineered the robbery and is manipulating Titania.
Of her new teammates, Titania is closest with her friend, the Wrecking Crew member Thunderball. Over the short life of this team, she fights various supervillains, has a rematch with Thor, and temporarily exhibits new mystical powers, which manifest themselves as purple energy discharges while she uses her super strength.
During the Avengers: Standoff! storyline, Titania and Hood attack Pleasant Hill to extract Absorbing Man. There is some brief tension between the reunited couple when Titania overhears Creel confess that he had feelings for Elektra while he was under Kobik's brainwashing.
In the final issue of Illuminati, the Hood, having expanded his team of supervillains with the former inmates of Pleasant Hill, plots to kill the Avengers' family members out of revenge for the events of Avengers: Standoff! Titania feels that this crosses a moral line and refuses to go along. In the ensuing argument, Hood reveals that he manipulated Titania into joining the team and that he used his dark magic to give her new powers. They fight, and Titania, suspecting that Hood's mystical cloak and use of dark magic is corrupting his mind, destroys the cloak (which also removes her new powers) telling Hood that she is saving him from himself. Titania and Absorbing Man then resign themselves to remaining supervillains, though after seeing his wife stand up to the Hood and defeat him, Creel tells Titania that he can't believe that he ever had "mixed-up feelings for Elektra".
Teaming with Black Bolt
In the 2017 series Black Bolt, the Absorbing Man is shown in a cosmic prison, where he befriends the Inhuman king Black Bolt and a telepathic alien girl named Blinky. Creel is seemingly killed fighting the prison's jailer, but successfully frees his fellow inmates. Black Bolt and Blinky travel to Earth to inform Titania of her husband's heroic sacrifice. She mourns his death and arranges his funeral, which is attended by Captain America, Thor, and the Wrecking Crew. After the funeral, Black Bolt is attacked by Lash. Titania helps fight off the Inhuman villains, but is unable to prevent them from kidnapping Blinky. At the time when Jailer has possessed Blinky's mind in order to kill Black Bolt, Lockjaw took Titania to Parkwood Cemetery where Absorbing Man suddenly emerged from his grave. Absorbing Man and Titania helped Black Bolt fight a Jailer-possessed Blinky until they managed to drive Jailer out of him.
Working with Weapon H
Dario Agger hires Titania and an ex-S.H.I.E.L.D. operative named Angel to help a team led by Weapon H and Korg on a mission to Weirdworld. She calls Absorbing Man, warning him to stay out of trouble while she is away. As Weapon H leads the mission to Weirdworld, they are attacked by a tribe of blue-skinned humanoids called the Inaku, who blame them for breaking the Earth and allowing a shapeshifting race called the Skrullduggers to take their queen. After Weapon H frees his comrades, Titania knocks out Protector Hara, resulting in the Inaku's protective dome being damaged. As Roxxon's Man-Thing fortifies the Inaku village's defenses, Titania and Korg stay behind while Weapon H, Angel, and a Brood-infected human named Blake go on a stealth mission to the Roxxon outpost. She and Korg help the Inaku set up a pit filled with spikes coated in berry poison. When the Skrullduggers attack, Man-Thing, Korg, and Titania assist the Inaku in defending their fortified village from the Skrullduggers until they suddenly go in one direction. Titania, Korg, and Man-Thing find Weapon H with the Skrullduggers under Morgan le Fay's control as they attack the Inaku village. Thinking that Weapon H is in a battle frenzy, Korg reminds Titania that Weapon H is part-Hulk. When Morgan le Fay of Earth-15238 shows up and is identified as the missing Inaku queen, Titania and Korg are attacked by Protector Hara, the Skrullduggers and Weapon H. Man-Thing comes to Titania's defense. Titana and Korg catch up to Weapon H, where they find that Dario Agger has transformed into Minotaur. She is among those that are evacuated through the portal. When Titania tries to get a Roxxon scientist to close the portal, she is blasted by Sonia Sung, Weapon H's wife and a Roxxon employee. After Dario pays them the terms of their contract, Titania takes Blake, Korg, and Man-Thing out to a burger joint down the street.
Powers and abilities
Titania possesses immense strength that originally enabled her to match other individuals (such as the Thing), owing to cellular augmentation through radiation, but later increased after performing rigorous weightlifting training, and rivals She-Hulk herself. Titania's muscles produce considerably less fatigue toxins than a normal human, thus granting her superior stamina. Her body is completely resistant to physical attacks. She can even withstand high caliber bullets, temperature extremes, falling from great heights, and severe blunt force trauma without sustaining injury. Titania has extensive experience in street fighting techniques.
Reception
Critical response
Renae Richardson of MovieWeb stated, "Titania has proved to be one of the strongest female villains in the Marvel universe. Based on the powers she has been given, she is invincible. She has super strength and endurance, which is unrivaled by many. Her strength fuels a weird entanglement between Titania and her nemesis. She-Hulk proves more than a worthy opponent." Drew Beaty of Screen Rant asserted, "While the shy Mary MacPherran may seem like a generic super-strong supervillain on the surface, Titania has gradually evolved from a B-list antagonist into a nuanced comic book character with over 30 years of Marvel Comics history behind her." Rob Bricken of Gizmodo included Titania in their "12 Marvel Villains Who Should Have Been in Thunderbolts" list. Mark Ginocchio of ComicBook.com ranked Titania 4th in their "10 More Characters We'd Like to See in Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Season Two" list, writing, "Titania can be viewed as a viable threat as one of the Marvel Universe's strongest female characters." The A.V. Club ranked Titania 27th in their "29 Best Marvel Villains" list.
Screen Rant included Titania in their "15 Most Powerful She-Hulk Villains" list, and ranked ranked her 7th in their "Fantastic Four: 10 Best Female Villains" list. Comic Book Resources ranked Titania 1st in their "Top 10 She-Hulk Villains" list, 1st in their "10 Villains Fans Hope To See In Marvel’s She-Hulk Series" list, 4th in their "10 Strongest Female Marvel Antagonists" list, 5th in their "Marvel: The 10 Strongest Female Villains" list, 8th in their "10 Most Powerful Members Of The Masters of Evil" list, and 10th in their "10 Most Evil Supervillain Couples In Marvel" list.
Other versions
Amalgam Comics
In Amalgam Comics, Titania is combined with Big Barda to form Big Titania.
Earth X
In Universe X, the sequel to Earth X (about a dystopic future Marvel Universe), the Absorbing Man has absorbed the knowledge of the evil artificial intelligence Ultron. It is explained in the Appendix that, prior to the events of the series, Creel killed one-third of Earth's population, and was only stopped when Titania begged him to change his mind. Titania is later put in a coma when struck in the head during a battle with the Avengers. In revenge, and possibly under the influence of Ultron, Creel kills many members of the team. In the climax of the series, Iron Maiden and Loki convince Creel to sacrifice himself to save the Earth by telling him that it would save Titania. Mar-Vell later brings Titania to a giant statue of her husband, and she tells him that there was a good man inside Creel.
House of M
In the House of M reality, Titania is a member of the Hood's team of supervillains that defies Magneto's House of M and establishes a safe haven for humans in the country of Santo Rico. When Magneto's forces threaten to attack them, she and the Absorbing Man are part of the group that elects to stay behind and fight until all the citizens can evacuate. Titania is the only survivor of the Red Guard's attack and she is seen at the end as a member of the Human Resistance.
In other media
Television
Titania appears in the Avengers Assemble episode "Small Time Heroes," voiced by Clare Grant.
Titania appears in Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H., voiced again by Clare Grant. Throughout the series, she battles She-Hulk and the "Agents of S.M.A.S.H." before eventually befriending her and joins the Leader's "Agents of C.R.A.S.H."
Titania appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe / Disney+ series She-Hulk: Attorney at Law, portrayed by Jameela Jamil. This version is a social media influencer, skilled martial artist, and superhuman who seeks to prove herself the "strongest woman in the world" after being overpowered by She-Hulk.
Video games
Titania appears as a boss in Iron Man and X-O Manowar in Heavy Metal, voiced by Shelley Futch.
Titania appears as a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight.
Titania appears as a playable character in Marvel Strike Force.
Titania appears as a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions.
Titania appears in the digital collectible card game Marvel Snap.
References
External links
Titania at Marvel.com
Titania at Comic Vine
Characters created by Jim Shooter
Characters created by Mike Zeck
Comics characters introduced in 1984
Fictional characters from Colorado
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics female supervillains
Marvel Comics mutates |
4564287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29 | Ares (Marvel Comics) | Ares is a fictional character, a deity appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is based on the Greek god of the same name. He first appeared in Thor #129 (June 1966) and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. Ares has commonly appeared as an enemy of Thor and Hercules and starred in his own self-titled series in 2006.
Ares, the Greek God of War, was initially depicted as a supervillain in the Marvel Universe, opposing Thor, Hercules and the Avengers. Early on, his influence on Earth was less direct as he created an organization known as the "Warhawks" and used them to create war on Earth.
In 2006 the character was recast to not be a villain but instead more of an antihero who simply lived for battle, any battle. He was added to the Avengers roster as one of their "heavy hitters" and showed himself to have his own "Warriors Honor" codex and not the one-dimensional villain he had been portrayed as in the past. He would later join Norman Osborn's Dark Avengers, believing that he could put his powers to good use. During the Siege storyline Ares is killed by Sentry who literally tears him apart. He is later brought back from the dead.
Publication history
Ares first appeared in Thor #129, 1966, written by Stan Lee and drawn by Jack Kirby. He would often appear as a villain in both Thor and The Avengers over the next 30 years.
A 5-issue limited series, Ares, written by Michael Avon Oeming and drawn by Travel Foreman, was published in 2006 and focuses on this character. Since the release of the Ares miniseries he has been portrayed as an antihero.
Following the superhero Civil War, Ares was invited to join the official, S.H.I.E.L.D.-sponsored The Mighty Avengers, led by Tony Stark, and appeared in that title. He was one of only two members to remain on the team after Norman Osborn took Stark's position, as part of the Dark Reign storyline and appeared in the first Dark Avengers series throughout its run. Ares subsequently starred in a three-issue Dark Avengers: Ares miniseries written by Kieron Gillen. He appeared as a regular character in the Dark Avengers series from issue #1 (March 2009) until the time of his death in the Siege limited series.
During the "Chaos War" storyline, Ares appeared in a one-shot comic titles Chaos War: Ares.
Fictional character biography
Ares is the son of Zeus and is the Olympian God of War. Ares reveled in war and combat in all its forms, not caring about sides or victims, supporting Troy in the Trojan war. Ares has hated Hercules ever since Hercules killed Ares' pets, the monstrous Stymphalian birds, and his hatred increased when he noticed Hercules being favored by their father, while he was shunned for his brutal behavior. Further adding to his hatred, is that in modern times, war is shunned and disliked, whereas Hercules is still beloved by the masses, despite his own history of death and destruction. As the Romans took on worship of Greek gods and renamed them, Ares is also the deity Mars.
After Zeus allowed the worship of the Greek/Roman gods to cease, the dissatisfied Ares held a deep grudge and would try to overthrow Olympus more than once. He refused to battle against Pluto on behalf of Hercules, and aided Pluto instead. Hercules teamed up with the Asgardian god Thor in order to defeat Ares, leading to Ares' retreat. Ares fought a duel with Hercules, forming an alliance with the Enchantress to make Hercules her slave and ally against the Avengers using water from the Spring of Eros, which led to Hercules being exiled from Olympus for a year.
Ares organized the Warhawks, which included Satyrs whose pipes caused violence in humans, and with them battled the Avengers. He dispatched Kratos and Bia to capture Hercules. After allying with the Enchantress again, he used the Black Knight's Ebony Blade to quench the Promethean Flame and conquer Olympus, by turning all the other Olympians to crystal, although Hercules was not transformed, but exiled to Earth with amnesia, due to being brutally beaten by Ares' henchman the Yellow-crested Titans and drifting between Olympus and Earth for six days and nights. Ares sent the two gods, Kratos and Bia, after Hercules, and despite the Avenger's efforts Hercules was captured and taken back to Olympus. Ares again battled the Avengers who had come to rescue the captive Hercules, and was defeated by Thor and the Black Knight.
Ares also battled Namor the Sub-Mariner and Venus. He formed another alliance with Pluto, and kidnapped Krista in an attempt to foment war between Olympus and Asgard. He also plotted with Pluto and Ares' daughter Hippolyta to marry Hercules and Venus to Hippolyta and himself.
It was revealed that in ancient times, he took part in the Trojan War. Alongside Zeus, Ares struck an alliance with Odin against the Eternals, and battled the Eternal Ikaris.
He frequently battled teams and individuals while working as a villain, and continued to battle heroes like the Avengers.
Ares' uncle Pluto sought to overwhelm Mount Olympus with an army of the dead, leading to a stalemate that the gods and demigods (including Achilles) were unable to break. In desperation to end the siege of Olympus, Zeus called upon his son Ares who defeated Hades' army almost single-handedly. Hoping that this would allow him to join his kind in Olympus, Ares was disappointed to hear his parents and the other gods disparage his "crude" and "dishonorable" nature. He abandoned his brethren to live amongst mortal men, but did not completely give up his god nature yet.
Ares tired of his own warmongering when he realized that was why the other gods despised him and decided to live a normal life. He gave up his position as god of war, but maintained his skills, weaponry, and immortality. On Earth, he set himself up as a builder/carpenter. He would later father a son with an unidentified mother.
After the events of the Civil War storyline, Ms. Marvel and Iron Man recruit Ares as part of the new Mighty Avengers. He plays a major part in defeating Ultron. During the Secret Invasion, Ares' son Alexander was recruited for Nick Fury's Secret Warriors, by Daisy Johnson, to oppose the Skrull invasion of New York City.
During the Dark Reign storyline, Ares has joined the Dark Avengers, Norman Osborn's personal team of Avengers. Writer of the Dark Avengers series, Brian Michael Bendis, described Ares' role: "Ares is going to be a big part of this book. He's really going to step up and use his War God brain." During The Dark Avengers' first mission, "Venom-Spidey" is turned into a monster by Morgan le Fay. Venom (under her control) attempts to eat Ares. He is spit back out but is turned to stone shortly thereafter by Morgana. He returns to normal when Morgana is defeated by Dr. Doom in her own time. Ares later receives a truancy notice in the mail regarding his son. Deciding to investigate as best he can, he sends Alex to school, only to see him board Daisy Johnson's scooter on the way to a new base for the Secret Warriors. Ares tails them on his motorcycle and rampages his way in through the wall. When Hellfire tries to attack, Ares easily dispatches him and in their own silent way, Nick Fury and Ares ask for a private audience with one another. Ares then uncharacteristically declares himself a horrid father, but only aims to raise Alex differently than he and his father were raised. He then peacefully leaves the place behind, allowing Alex the opportunity to not have to hide his allegiance anymore.
When the Dark Avengers and H.A.M.M.E.R. go to San Francisco to quell the riots, Ares was stomping out a group of pro-mutant activists. Gambit challenged him but was easily dispatched. Rogue tried absorbing his powers, which prove too much for her, but nonetheless she manages to weaken him. Danger, fearing that Rogue might injure herself, threw an energized manhole at Ares, pushing him away from Rogue. She gained half of Ares' power as a result. The trio then hijack a H.A.M.M.E.R. tank and leave a bleeding Ares behind.
Ares, having recovered from his injuries, is seen next during the Dark Avengers' assault on the X-Men's new base Utopia (which was made from the remains of the first Asteroid M). There he fights with several X-Men until he is confronted with the once more empowered valkyrie Danielle Moonstar. The two fight and are evenly matched with Dani quickly gaining the upper hand due to having borrowed some power from Hela the Asgardian death Goddess. Eventually both he and his team of Avengers are forced to retreat.
Before the Siege begins, Osborn is seen trying to convince Ares to come up with a plan to invade Asgard, saying Loki has taken control of it. Even though Osborn promises Ares that nothing is wrong, Ares tells Osborn that if he is lying, he will 'cut his head off, armour and all'. Once the Siege of Asgard begins, as the battle intensifies, Ares finds himself battling Balder and learns from Heimdall about Osborn's deceptions. When Osborn dispatches Daken to find Maria Hill, he is struck down by Ares, who vows to kill Osborn for his lies. However, Ares is suddenly attacked by the Sentry and a brutal battle ensues, in which Ares is wounded while barely doing any damage to Sentry. The battle then comes to a violent conclusion when the Sentry rips Ares in half before the horrified eyes of the combatants on both sides. Alexander, after finding out about his father's death, recalls a time when he asked Ares if they would always be together, Ares responded that, as they are gods, they can be killed, but they "will never truly die" and tells him that he has experienced "this many, many times", having been "to Hades and through the Underworld to awaken in the fair Fields of Elysium...". Ares tells Alexander that he would one day die, but promises him that he will always find him again.
During the Chaos War storyline, Ares is among the dead beings released by Pluto in order to defend the Underworld from the forces of Amatsu-Mikaboshi, but is ultimately defeated and enslaved bodily by the Chaos King along with his fallen parents Zeus and Hera. Despite the combined attacks of the newly assembled God Squad, Ares is unscathed and engages Hercules in direct combat as Zeus and Hera battle Galactus and the other members of the God Squad. Ares ultimately returned to the underworld with the rest of the dead.
As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel, Ares and Alexander (who had been killed by Gorgon) are later seen residing in the Elysian Fields. However, Ares is kidnapped and forcibly resurrected by agents of Maestro in order to serve as one of the Collector's fighters in the new Contest of Champions. Though Ares agrees to go along with the tournament, Stick claims that he is simply biding his time until he can find a way to kill Collector and Maestro. After the Maestro is defeated, Ares chooses to travel the world with his new friends, stating that he wishes to have a whole host of new adventures to tell Phobos about when he returns to the Elysian Fields one day.
During the Secret Empire storyline, Ares appears as a member of the Champions of Europe alongside Captain Britain, Excalibur, Guillotine, Outlaw, and Peregrine. Alongside Squirrel Girl and Enigma, the Champions of Europe liberate Paris, France from a Hydra invasion force.
Shortly after the War of the Realms storyline, Ares is seen watching Shang-Chi and Sword Master train in Flushing, New York. After Flushing is merged with other Asian, Pacific and predominantly Asian cities outside of Asia with portals created by the Big Nguyen Company, Ares and his legion of Dragonborn soldiers confront Shang-Chi and Sword Master as the God of War wants Lin Lie's mystical Fuxi sword for himself. After a brief struggle, Ares is able to take the sword and reveals his plans to use its god slaying abilities to kill another god. While he and his soldiers leave, Ares is belittled by Shang-Chi for his cowardice and stupidity, comparing him unfavorably to Chiyou, the Chinese God of War. Ares takes the sword to a repair shop run by his dwarven ally Orgarb, an exiled master smith from Nidavellir; despite Orgarb's efforts, Ares is unable to activate the sword's power, as Shang-Chi predicted. When Orgarb inquires what Ares plans to do with the sword, Ares refuses to tell him. Shang-Chi and Sword Master suddenly appear and Shang reveals Ares' plan to kill another god with the sword, shocking Orgarb. Seeing that the sword's magic can only be summoned when wielded by Sword Master, Ares and Orgarb attempt to kidnap Lin Lie for his blood, only to be stopped by Shang-Chi who uses the sword (without activating its power) to break Ares' hammer, impressing the Olympian. Shang-Chi makes a compromise to Ares: in exchange for Shang-Chi and Sword Master helping him, Ares would use his godhood help find Lin Lie's missing father. Sword Master protests, claiming that Ares is an evil god but Ares rebuffs the accusation, pointing out the atrocities committed by the Greek "heroes" Jason and Cadmus against his son, the drakon Ismenios, were done without the encouragement of the gods. Ares accepts Shang-Chi's offer, revealing that Ismenios had been abducted. Believing that only someone powerful would risk angering the God of War, Ares had hoped to use the Fuxi sword to punish his son's kidnapper. After arming themselves at Ares' armory in the South Bronx, the three then head though a Pan Portal from Flushing to Madripoor, where Ares warns them of the gods residing there. Due to Lin Lie's skill with solving puzzles, the group eventually finds an imprisoned Ismenios within a Madriporrian temple and Ares is reunited with his son. However Sword Master's destruction of Ismenios' cage activates the temple's stone dragon guards and summons Davi Naka, the Mother Goddess of Madripoor. Despite Shang-Chi's attempts to negotiate, Ares, Ismenios and Sword Master attack Naka but are easily defeated by the Mother Goddess. Naka explains her reasoning behind Ismenios's kidnapping: Ismenios attempted to plunder Atlantis's treasure hoard during the absence of its sea serpent guardian but was caught by Namor. Due to her duty to protect all dragons, Naka rescued Ismenios from Namor's wrath and imprisoned the young drakon in her temple for his protection and to placate Atlantis. Ares admonishes his son for attacking the kingdom under the protection of his uncle, Poseidon, but quickly forgives him after realizing he would've done the same thing. Dismissing the whole ordeal was a misunderstanding and ending his deal with Sword Master and Shang-Chi as they and the Fuxi sword were not needed, Ares attempts to leave the temple with Ismenios, but is prevented so by Naka. The goddess warns the group that despite her efforts, Atlantis is still outraged over the disappearance of their sea serpent and orders them to find the missing guardian or else face the wrath of the kingdom.
Powers and abilities
Ares belongs to a race of inter-dimensional deities known only as the Olympians. He possesses the base superhuman physical attributes of an Olympian, including superhuman strength, speed, agility, durability, reflexes, regenerative healing factor, and virtual immortality, though some of his powers are substantially greater than most other Olympians.
Like all Olympians, Ares is superhumanly strong, though far more so than the majority of his race. Among the Olympians, his physical strength is equaled only by his uncles, Neptune and Pluto, and is exceeded only by his father, Zeus, and his half-brother, Hercules. Ares' body and metabolism generates almost no fatigue toxins during physical activity, granting him virtually inexhaustible superhuman stamina in all physical activities. Ares' body is also highly resistant to physical injury. He can withstand great impact forces, energy discharges, temperature extremes, and falls from great heights without being injured. However, also like all other Olympians, he can sustain injury; once, after an extensive self-imposed exile on the Earthly plane, Ares was physically vulnerable enough to be injured and downed by mere bullets. At the same time Ares has been shown withstanding being shot at point-blank range from machine guns used by War Machine. Ares is functionally immortal in the sense that he is immune to the effects of aging and hasn't aged since reaching adulthood. He is also immune to any known terrestrial disease or infection.
While not as accomplished at magic as many of his fellow Olympians, and lacking the ability to fly, project energy and teleport, as an Olympian god Ares has the potential to use magic. Ares can sense the presence of other gods, demons, and the use of magic, call other gods, and transport himself to Olympus and to Earth at will on certain occasions (such as abandoning his station as the God of War to lead a mortal life, or when retreating to Olympus after Hercules wounded him in a fierce battle with Kyknos). However, neither his rudimentary magic nor his Olympian natural abilities were capable of overwhelming the Merlin-tutored Morgan le Fay or preventing the mistress of the mystic arts from easily transmuting him into stone.
He is, as fits his station as the Olympian God of War, a formidable hand-to-hand combatant, possessing fighting skills superior to that of even his father Zeus and his sister Athena; Nate Grey described him as "war personified, on every plane...in every future" and admits that even he can find nothing to counter one such as Ares; when Nate hid himself and Mimic "amongst time", Ares was able to tear through the fabric of time itself to reach and overpower him (claiming that such could not "limit" him), the temporal conflict sending ripples across the stars and disrupting the timestream itself. In another instance, apparently without aid, Ares was able to somehow bring himself and Alexander to another dimension, where many gods of Earth, including the Council of Skyfathers, had convened to judge his son's worthiness as the 'God of Fear'. Ares was also able to somehow create the man-eating Stymphalian birds "as a perfect expression of his own essence" ages ago, and was also able to send his son Monstro from 1805 through time into the mid-20th century as punishment for his renouncing war and change him into a sixty-foot tall giant. Ares can also use his powers to create and manipulate conflicts at will.
He is also an expert with numerous weapons, including ancient weapons and conventional, modern-day firearms. In his earlier appearances, he typically carried Olympian weapons like battleaxes, spears, swords, daggers, and a javelin (which has been said to at least once be his "favorite" weapon), but his most recent appearance shows him favoring a mixture of ancient, like the jawbone of an ass, and modern weapons, like gases, rays, firearms, and high-explosives, as well as "Hydra blood bullets", which contain the lethal blood of a Lernaean Hydra. He is an aficionado, expert, and collector of the most unusual instruments and methods of death dealing, as well as being well-versed in torture, interrogation, and combat tactics.
Reception
Accolades
In 2012, IGN ranked Ares 39th in their "Top 50 Avengers" list.
In 2019, CBR.com ranked Ares 6th in their "Marvel Comics: The 10 Most Powerful Olympians" list.
In 2021, CBR.com ranked Ares 7th in their "Marvel: 10 Most Powerful Olympians" list.
In 2022, Sportskeeda ranked Ares 5th in their "10 best Greek gods from Marvel comics " list.
In 2022, Screen Rant ranked Ares 10th in their "10 Marvel Comics Gods Who Should Join The MCU Next" list, included him in their "10 Most Powerful Hercules Villains In Marvel Comics" list, and included him in their "10 Most Powerful Olympian Gods In Marvel Comics" list.
In 2022, CBR.com ranked Ares 3rd in their "Black Knight's 10 Strongest Villains" list and 8th in their "10 Scariest Avengers" list.
Other versions
Age of Ultron
In the Age of Ultron storyline, the reality that formed from Wolverine and Invisible Woman killing Henry Pym to prevent Ultron from being created shows that Ares has become the new Doctor Doom after the original died and is engaged to Morgan le Fay where they have conquered half the planet. Hippolyta defeats Ares and takes back command of the Amazons (who were subdued by Ares).
In other media
Television
Ares appears in The Marvel Super Heroes episode, "The Verdict of Zeus".
Ares appears in the Avengers Assemble, voiced by Trevor Devall. In the episode "The Incredible Herc", he pursues Hercules as part of his plot to steal the Key of Tartarus from him. In the episodes "The Citadel" and "The Wastelands", Ares helps the Beyonder pursue the Avengers to maintain Battleworld.
Ares appears in Marvel Future Avengers, voiced by Masami Iwasaki in Japanese and JB Blanc in the English dub. This version is a member of the Masters of Evil.
Video games
Ares appears as an unlockable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
Ares appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
Ares appears in Lego Marvel's Avengers.
Ares appears as a boss in Marvel Future Revolution.
Collected editions
References
External links
Ares at Marvel.com
Ares in popular culture
Avengers (comics) characters
Characters created by Jack Kirby
Characters created by Stan Lee
Classical mythology in Marvel Comics
Comics characters introduced in 1966
Fictional axefighters
Fictional gods
Fictional swordfighters in comics
Greek and Roman deities in fiction
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters who use magic
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength |
4564511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Cline | Eric Cline | Eric H. Cline (born August 12, 1955) is a former Canadian politician. He served in the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan as the New Democratic Party (NDP) Member of the Legislative Assembly for Saskatoon Idylwyld from 1991 to 1995, Saskatoon Mount Royal from 1995 to 2003, and Saskatoon Massey Place 2003 to 2007. He was a senior cabinet minister in the governments of Roy Romanow and Lorne Calvert. Appointed to Cabinet in November 1995, he had responsibility for a number of portfolios including Health, Labour, Finance, Justice, and Industry and Resources. On December 15, 2006, Cline announced his intention to not run in the 2007 election. He continued to serve in Cabinet until May 31, 2007. Cam Broten, subsequently Leader of the Saskatchewan NDP (2012- ) and Leader of the Opposition in the Saskatchewan Lesgislature (2012- ), was elected to replace him as the MLA for Saskatoon Massey Place.
Early life and career
Cline received a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science from the University of Saskatchewan in 1976. He campaigned for the NDP while still a student, finishing third in Regina South in the 1975 provincial election. He subsequently received a Bachelor of Laws from the University of Saskatchewan, was called to the Saskatchewan Bar in 1980, and was a partner in the Saskatoon firm Woloshyn & Co. prior to his 1991 election (Calgary Herald, 9 January 1996).
Member of Provincial Legislature
Government backbencher
He was first elected to the Saskatchewan legislature in the 1991 provincial election, winning election in the safe NDP seat of Saskatoon Idylwyld. The New Democrats won a majority government under the leadership of Roy Romanow, and Cline served as a government backbencher. He was re-elected for the new seat of Saskatoon Mount Royal in the 1995 election.
In March 1995, Cline announced that he would support his local Member of Parliament, Chris Axworthy, for leader of the federal New Democratic Party (Globe and Mail, 23 March 1995). Axworthy subsequently declined to run.
Minister of Health
Cline was called to cabinet on November 22, 1995, and was given the senior portfolio of Minister of Health. He continued with the Romanow government's previous health reforms, and defended the decision to create consolidated regional health boards (Saskatoon Star-Phoenix, 25 November 1996). A defender of the public health system, he helped bring forward the Health Facilities Licensing Act in May 1996 to restrict private clinics from being established in the province (Saskatoon Star-Phoenix, 2 May 1996). Shortly thereafter, he eased restrictions on private nursing homes in the province (SSP, 14 May 1996). Cline described this as a fair compromise, though some in the public sector described the latter initiative as an abandonment of medicare (SSP, 24 May 1996).
During the same legislative session, Cline introduced legislation to permit greater tax incentives for those who donate money to the health-care system (SSP, 22 May 1996). In August 1996, he announced that the provincial and federal governments would cooperate to construct a new Athabasca health facility in northern Saskatchewan (SSP, 14 August 1996). Later in the year, after accusations of underfunding by the Saskatchewan Nurses Union, Cline and the Romanow government introduced an additional $40 million for the provincial health system (SSP, 22 August 1996).
In 1997, Cline indicated that Saskatchewan would take steps toward the legalization and regulation of midwifery, (Globe and Mail, 27 March 1997) and announced a $25,000 incentive for doctors setting up a practice in rural communities (Winnipeg Free Press, 26 April 1997). He also spoke out against plans by the federal government of Jean Chrétien to offer pharmaceutical companies twenty-year patent protection for new prescription drugs (SSP, 17 April 1997). In June 1997, he encouraged the Canadian federal and provincial governments to pool their resources in a class action lawsuit against tobacco companies for health-related expenses (18 June 1997)
He also served as Acting Minister of Labour from July 1, 1996 to August 6, 1996.
Minister of Finance
Romanow government
Cline was promoted to Minister of Finance in the Romanow government on June 27, 1997, replacing Janice MacKinnon. He introduced the Romanow government's fourth consecutive balanced budget in March 1998. Highlighted by an unexpected 2% provincial income tax cut, the budget also provided tax incentives for the film and energy sectors, while increasing spending on health, education and roads (Financial Post, 20 March 1998). In August, he released figures indicating that the provincial surplus target was $11 million more than expected (Globe and Mail, 28 August 1998).
Cline wrote an editorial piece in the Financial Post newspaper in mid-1998, arguing that the Romanow government had prevented Saskatchewan from falling into bankruptcy through its policy decisions since 1991 (4 August 1998). The editorial was a response to a previous Post article which questioned the Romanow government's financial record.
Just before the 1999 budget was unveiled, Cline announced that the Saskatchewan government would contribute $140 million to a farm-aid package. This payment reduced the estimated budget surplus to $8 million from $105 million (Times-Colonist, 2 March 1999). The final totals indicated a surplus of $28 million (Saskatoon Star-Phoenix, 29 October 1999).
Cline's 1999 budget reduced the provincial sales tax by 1%, and put $195 million of new spending into health care (Winnipeg Free Press, 27 March 1999). Two months later, he announced that the province would conduct a review of its tax system (Globe and Mail, 7 May 1999). This announcement led to the creation of the Personal Income Tax Review Committee, which held several public meetings throughout the summer of 1999, and recommended a new personal income tax system for Saskatchewan, which Cline introduced in the 2000 Saskatchewan budget.
The NDP was unexpectedly reduced to a minority government in the 1999 provincial election, and later formed a coalition government with the Liberal Party. Cline was personally re-elected without difficulty and was retained as Finance Minister.
Cline released the coalition government's first budget in 2000, which featured income tax cuts and an expansion of the sales tax. He described the budget as providing for "growth and opportunity for Saskatchewan" rather than "buying the short-term goodwill of people with their own tax dollars" (Globe and Mail, 30 March 2000). It was largely welcomed by the business community, and was given an "A" grade from the leader of the North Saskatoon Business Association (SSP, 30 March 2000). The budget also included a controversial provision to extend the provincial sales tax to off-reserve aboriginals (Globe and Mail, 17 April 2000).
Expanding oil and gas revenues brought the Saskatchewan government an unexpected windfall of $370 million in late 2000. In late November, Cline was able to announce $150 million worth of spending for road and highway repairs over the next three years (Canadian Press, 30 November 2000). The final budget surplus for the fiscal year ending in 2001 was $58 million, much higher than the $9 million projected (Broadcast News, 20 July 2001).
Calvert government
Romanow announced his retirement as Premier of Saskatchewan and NDP leader in September 2000. Cline was mentioned by some as a possible successor (Canadian Press, 25 September 2000), but he declined to contest the position and did not publicly endorse another candidate (SSP, 1 December 2000). Lorne Calvert was chosen as Romanow's successor in February 2001, and he retained Cline as Finance Minister.
Cline's first budget under Calvert introduced $370 worth of new spending, while also providing tax cuts for small business and projecting a narrow $2.8 million surplus. Some have argued that the budget marked a turning away from the more fiscally conservative approach of the Romanow government (Canadian Press, 30 March 2001). Subsequent declines in gas revenue and losses in federal equalization later forced Cline to withdraw $479 million from the fiscal stabilization fund to prevent a return to deficit spending (Canadian Press, 20 February 2002). In early 2002, he announced that the province would begin issuing quarterly financial reports (Broadcast News, 18 February 2002).
Despite the worsening economic circumstances, Cline was able to present the NDP's eighth consecutive balanced budget in early 2002 with a modest surplus of $45,000 (Regina Leader-Post, 28 March 2002). The budget reduced the size of government, while further increasing health spending and introducing taxes on tobacco and liquor. To avoid going into deficit, Cline was required to withdraw another $225 million from the fiscal stabilization fund (Reuters News, 28 March 2002). A subsequent Prairie drought reduced revenues further, and he needed to access the fund again later in the year (National Post, 28 November 2002). In December 2002, Cline and his government reduced fees and taxes in the oil industry to encourage further provincial development (Reuters News, 16 December 2003).
Cline endorsed Lorne Nystrom for the leadership of the federal New Democratic Party in September 2002, and was part of Nystrom's campaign team (Canadian Press, 19 September 2002). At the party's 2003 convention, Cline argued that Nystrom was best positioned to "speak to the realities of the market economy and how to generate wealth" while also affirming the role of public programs "to maximize equality of opportunity" (Canadian Press, 22 January 2003). Nystrom finished third against Jack Layton.
Cline's third-quarter update in January 2003 showed a surplus of $100,000, maintained by the stabilization fund. While acknowledging the surplus, the auditor general suggested that the government was concealing some economic difficulties by transferring funds among departments and crown corporations (Canadian Press, 30 January 2003).
After serving as Finance Minister for over five years, Cline was reassigned as Minister of Justice and Attorney-General and as Minister of Industry in February 2003. He replaced the retiring Chris Axworthy in the former position, and Eldon Laudermilch in the latter. Jim Melenchuk was chosen as Cline's successor in Finance.
Minister of Justice
Cline announced in late February 2003 that the province would hold an inquiry into the death of Neil Stonechild, a seventeen-year-old aboriginal youth who was found frozen to death in 1990. His death was ruled accidental, but many believe he was abandoned outside of town by members of the police force. Both the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations and the Saskatoon Police Association welcomed the decision for an inquiry (Canadian Press, 20 February 2003).
Cline also announced that Saskatchewan would become the first province to completely protect Registered Retirement Savings Plans (RRSPs) and related funds from creditors, in the event of bankruptcy (Canadian Press, 25 February 2003).
In June 2003, Cline announced that the Saskatchewan government would charge David Ahenakew with promoting hatred. Ahenakew, once a respected aboriginal leader, had delivered a speech describing Jews as a "disease" who deserved to be "fried" in The Holocaust. The Canadian Jewish Congress commended Cline for his courage in bringing the case before the courts (Globe and Mail, 12 June 2003).
In October 2003, Cline announced that the Saskatchewan government would establish a commission to investigate the wrongful conviction of David Milgaard in 1969 (Kitchener-Waterloo Record, 1 October 2003).
Minister of Industry and Resources
In June 2003, Cline led a Saskatchewan trade delegation to an international conference on biotechnology in Washington, D.C. His intent was to develop international contacts, and specifically to export Saskatchewan's biotechnology expertise to India (Broadcast News, 17 June 2003). The initiative was reported as a success (Saskatchewan Business, 1 September 2003).
The NDP narrowly recovered their majority government in the 2003 provincial election. Cline, once again re-elected without difficulty, was appointed to a restructured Ministry of Industry and Resources while yielding the Justice portfolio. He also became Chair of the Liquor and Gaming Authority, and minister responsible for the Saskatchewan Research Council, Saskatchewan Opportunities Corporation, Tourism Saskatchewan, Information Services Corporation of Saskatchewan, and Investment Saskatchewan (formerly known as Crown Investments Corp.). In December 2003, he announced that Titanium Corporation Inc. would construct the world's first Mineral Sands Processing Facility at the Regina Research Park (Market News Publishing, 12 December 2003).
As chair of the Liquor and Gaming Authority, Cline approved plans for a new casino on the Whitecap Dakota Sioux reserve in August 2004. The provincial auditor general had previously raised concerns about the Saskatchewan Indian Gaming Authority's accounting methods. Cline acknowledged that the SIGA had made significant improvements in recent years, and indicated that the government would hold the casino's profits in trust if further concerns were not resolved (Canadian Press, 7 August 2004).
Cline led a twelve-day business excursion to Europe in September 2004, and spoke at the World Nuclear Association Symposium in London (Broadcast News, 3 September 2004). He presented to the conference on Saskatchewan's pioneering Reclaimed Industrial Sites Act, which requires funds to be in place to ensure environmental reclamation and monitoring after mines shut down. In response to opposition questions later in the year, he argued that constructing a nuclear power plant in Saskatchewan would not be economically viable (Canadian Press, 19 October 2004).
In January 2005, Cline presided over an economic conference in Saskatoon billed as the Centennial Summit. Representatives from several industries gathered in the city, and called for a more competitive business environment (Saskatchewan Business, 1 March 2005). The following year, Calvert and Cline headed a Saskatchewan delegation on energy resources to the United States, which met with Vice-President Dick Cheney (The Oil Daily, 22 February 2006).
Cline was identified as the best minister in the Calvert government in 2005 by members of the government, opposition and media, amid a general economic recovery in the province (Regina Leader-Post, 18 June 2005). He relinquished cabinet responsibility for the Gaming and Liquor commission in early 2006 (SSP, 4 February 2006).
Retiring from public life
On December 15, 2006, Cline announced that he would not be seeking re-election. On April 19, 2007, New Democrats in the constituency of Saskatoon Massey Place selected Cam Broten to be their candidate in the next provincial election. Broten won the nomination on the first ballot after a three-way race. 400 people were in attendance at the nomination meeting. On April 23, 2007, Cline stated the following about Broten:
"Cam Broten is young, enthusiastic, intelligent, hard-working, and absolutely dedicated to the ideas and values at the heart of Saskatchewan’s success ... I have every confidence that he will prove to be an outstanding representative for Saskatoon Massey Place."
(Saskatchewan Hansard, April 23, 2007, p. 1363)
Broten was elected for Saskatoon Massey Place in the 2011 Saskatchewan general election. He became Leader of the Saskatchewan New Democratic Party and Leader of the Opposition in the Saskatchewan legislature in 2012, but was defeated in the 2016 Saskatchewan general election in the new riding of Saskatoon Westview.
After leaving politics, Cline returned to work in the private sector in Saskatoon, first as Vice President of a diamond exploration company (2007-2012), then as a corporate lawyer and Vice President of a potash company,(2012-2018). He remained active in the community, serving on various community and industry boards, including the Saskatchewan Mining Association, YMCA of Saskatoon, Shakespeare on the Saskatchewan Theatre and several others, all in a voluntary unpaid capacity.
In 2008, a memoir of his time in politics, Making a Difference—Reflections From Political Life, was published (Thistledown Press, Saskatoon) and Cline oversaw the construction of a new home in Saskatoon that year and in 2009.
After retiring as a corporate executive in 2018, Cline returned to the practice of law part time and commenced working as a fused glass artist on a professional basis. He joined the Saskatchewan Craft Council as a professional craftsperson in 2018 and became a peer-reviewed juried member of the Council in the category of glass the following year. He became a member of the Saskatoon Glassworkers Guild, established Cline Art in Glass and commenced selling works and accepting commissions for homes and offices in Saskatoon and other centres in Saskatchewan, Alberta, Ottawa and Washington DC.
In 2019 Cline ended a 47 year association with the federal wing of the New Democratic Party following the expulsion of Regina Lewvan member of Parliament Erin Weir by federal NDP leader Jagmeet Singh. Cline joined with 67 other formerly elected New Democrats to raise concerns about the expulsion. Singh summarily dismissed the concerns on national television by describing the former members as “persons occupying positions of privilege” trying to “intimidate” him.
In a full-page article in the National Post in August 2019 and a longer essay in the international online magazine Quillette the next month, Cline strongly condemned the expulsion arguing there had been clear evidence of malice and bias, rush to judgement, lack of due process, procedural unfairness, a contrived fishing expedition, inconsistency in treatment of caucus members, lack of transparency, and selective and misleading provision or withholding of information, all overseen by Singh acting unilaterally. Cline expressed the view that Singh‘s judgement and sense of balance was seriously flawed. There was no response to any substantive issue raised by the former politicians or by Cline other than Singh’s televised personal characterization of them, and no NDP Member of Parliament or executive officer expressed concern.
In 2020, Cline earned the designation Qualified Arbitrator from the Alternate Dispute Resolution Institute of Canada and began to serve as a neutral Arbitrator on occasion.
1955 births
Attorneys-General of Saskatchewan
Living people
Politicians from Saskatoon
Saskatchewan New Democratic Party MLAs
University of Saskatchewan alumni
University of Saskatchewan College of Law alumni
21st-century Canadian politicians
Finance ministers of Saskatchewan
Members of the Executive Council of Saskatchewan |
4564818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste-to-energy | Waste-to-energy | Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) is the process of generating energy in the form of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste, or the processing of waste into a fuel source. WtE is a form of energy recovery. Most WtE processes generate electricity and/or heat directly through combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol, ethanol or synthetic fuels, often derived from the product syngas.
History
The first incinerator or "Destructor" was built in Nottingham, UK, in 1874 by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred Fryer.
The first US incinerator was built in 1885 on Governors Island in New York, New York.
The first waste incinerator in Denmark was built in 1903 in Frederiksberg.
The first facility in the Czech Republic was built in 1905 in Brno.Gasification and pyrolysis processes have been known and used for centuries and for coal as early as the 18th century.... Development technologies for processing [residual solid mixed waste] has only become a focus of attention in recent years stimulated by the search for more efficient energy recovery. (2004)
Methods
Incineration
Incineration, the combustion of organic material such as waste with energy recovery, is the most common WtE implementation. All new WtE plants in OECD countries incinerating waste (residual MSW, commercial, industrial or RDF) must meet strict emission standards, including those on nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), heavy metals and dioxins. Hence, modern incineration plants are vastly different from old types, some of which neither recovered energy nor materials. Modern incinerators reduce the volume of the original waste by 95-96 percent, depending upon composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling.
Incinerators may emit fine particulate, heavy metals, trace dioxin and acid gas, even though these emissions are relatively low from modern incinerators. Other concerns include proper management of residues: toxic fly ash, which must be handled in hazardous waste disposal installation as well as incinerator bottom ash (IBA), which must be reused properly.
Critics argue that incinerators destroy valuable resources and they may reduce incentives for recycling. The question, however, is an open one, as European countries which recycle the most (up to 70%) also incinerate to avoid landfilling.
Incinerators have electric efficiencies of 14-28%. In order to avoid losing the rest of the energy, it can be used for e.g. district heating (cogeneration). The total efficiencies of cogeneration incinerators are typically higher than 80% (based on the lower heating value of the waste).
The method of incineration to convert municipal solid waste (MSW) is a relatively old method of WtE generation. Incineration generally entails burning waste (residual MSW, commercial, industrial and RDF) to boil water which powers steam generators that generate electric energy and heat to be used in homes, businesses, institutions and industries. One problem associated is the potential for pollutants to enter the atmosphere with the flue gases from the boiler. These pollutants can be acidic and in the 1980s were reported to cause environmental degradation by turning rain into acid rain. Modern incinerators incorporate carefully engineered primary and secondary burn chambers, and controlled burners designed to burn completely with the lowest possible emissions, eliminating, in some cases, the need for lime scrubbers and electro-static precipitators on smokestacks.
By passing the smoke through the basic lime scrubbers, any acids that might be in the smoke are neutralized which prevents the acid from reaching the atmosphere and hurting the environment. Many other devices, such as fabric filters, reactors, and catalysts destroy or capture other regulated pollutants. According to the New York Times, modern incineration plants are so clean that "many times more dioxin is now released from home fireplaces and backyard barbecues than from incineration. " According to the German Environmental Ministry, "because of stringent regulations, waste incineration plants are no longer significant in terms of emissions of dioxins, dust, and heavy metals".
Compared with other waste to energy technologies, incineration seems to be the most attractive due to its higher power production efficiency, lower investment costs, and lower emission rates. Additionally, incineration yields the highest amount of electricity with the highest capacity to lessen pile of wastes in landfills through direct combustion.
Fuel from plastics
One process that is used to convert plastic into fuel is pyrolysis, the thermal decomposition of materials at high temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It involves change of chemical composition and is mainly used for treatment of organic materials. In large scale production, plastic waste is ground and melted and then pyrolyzed. Catalytic converters help in the process. The vapours are condensed with oil or fuel and accumulated in settling tanks and filtered. Fuel is obtained after homogenation and can be used for automobiles and machinery. It is commonly termed as thermofuel or energy from plastic.
A new process uses a two-part catalyst, cobalt and zeolite, to convert plastics into propane. It works on polyethylene and polypropylene and the propane yield is approximately 80%.
Other
There are a number of other new and emerging technologies that are able to produce energy from waste and other fuels without direct combustion. Many of these technologies have the potential to produce more electric power from the same amount of fuel than would be possible by direct combustion. This is mainly due to the separation of corrosive components (ash) from the converted fuel, thereby allowing higher combustion temperatures in e.g. boilers, gas turbines, internal combustion engines, fuel cells. Some advanced technologies are able to efficiently convert the energy in the feedstocks into liquid or gaseous fuels, using heat but in the absence of oxygen, without actual combustion, by using a combination of thermal technologies. Typically, they are cleaner, as the feedstock is separated prior to treatment to remove the unwanted components:
Thermal treatment technologies include:
Gasification: produces combustible gas, hydrogen, synthetic fuels
Thermal depolymerization: produces synthetic crude oil, which can be further refined
Pyrolysis: produces combustible tar/bio-oil and chars
Plasma arc gasification or plasma gasification process (PGP): produces rich syngas including hydrogen and carbon monoxide usable for fuel cells or generating electricity to drive the plasma arch, usable vitrified silicate and metal ingots, salt and sulphur
Non-thermal technologies:
Anaerobic digestion: Biogas rich in methane
Fermentation production: examples are ethanol, lactic acid, hydrogen
Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
MBT + Anaerobic digestion
MBT to Refuse derived fuel
Global developments
During the 2001–2007 period, the waste-to-energy capacity increased by about four million metric tons per year.
Japan and China each built several plants based on direct smelting or on fluidized bed combustion of solid waste. In China there were about 434 waste-to-energy plants in early 2016. Japan is the largest user in thermal treatment of municipal solid waste in the world, with 40 million tons.
Some of the newest plants use stoker technology and others use the advanced oxygen enrichment technology. Several treatment plants exist worldwide using relatively novel processes such as direct smelting, the Ebara fluidization process and the Thermoselect JFE gasification and melting technology process.
As of June 2014, Indonesia had a total of 93.5 MW installed capacity of waste-to-energy, with a pipeline of projects in different preparation phases together amounting to another 373MW of capacity.
Biofuel Energy Corporation of Denver, Colorado, opened two new biofuel plants in Wood River, Nebraska, and Fairmont, Minnesota, in July 2008. These plants use distillation to make ethanol for use in motor vehicles and other engines. Both plants are currently reported to be working at over 90% capacity. Fulcrum BioEnergy incorporated located in Pleasanton, California, is building a WtE plant near Reno, NV. The plant is scheduled to open in 2019 under the name of Sierra BioFuels plant. BioEnergy incorporated predicts that the plant will produce approximately 10.5 million gallons per year of ethanol from nearly 200,000 tons per year of MSW.
Waste to energy technology includes fermentation, which can take biomass and create ethanol, using waste cellulosic or organic material. In the fermentation process, the sugar in the waste is converted to carbon dioxide and alcohol, in the same general process that is used to make wine. Normally fermentation occurs with no air present.
Esterification can also be done using waste to energy technologies, and the result of this process is biodiesel. The cost effectiveness of esterification will depend on the feedstock being used, and all the other relevant factors such as transportation distance, amount of oil present in the feedstock, and others.
Gasification and pyrolysis by now can reach gross thermal conversion efficiencies (fuel to gas) up to 75%, however a complete combustion is superior in terms of fuel conversion efficiency. Some pyrolysis processes need an outside heat source which may be supplied by the gasification process, making the combined process self-sustaining.
Carbon dioxide emissions
In thermal WtE technologies, nearly all of the carbon content in the waste is emitted as carbon dioxide () to the atmosphere (when including final combustion of the products from pyrolysis and gasification; except when producing biochar for fertilizer). Municipal solid waste (MSW) contain approximately the same mass fraction of carbon as itself (27%), so treatment of of MSW produce approximately of .
In the event that the waste was landfilled, of MSW would produce approximately methane via the anaerobic decomposition of the biodegradable part of the waste. This amount of methane has more than twice the global warming potential than the of , which would have been produced by combustion. In some countries, large amounts of landfill gas are collected. However, there is still the global warming potential of the landfill gas being emitted to atmosphere. For example, in the US in 1999 landfill gas emission was approximately 32% higher than the amount of that would have been emitted by combustion.
In addition, nearly all biodegradable waste is biomass. That is, it has biological origin. This material has been formed by plants using atmospheric typically within the last growing season. If these plants are regrown the emitted from their combustion will be taken out from the atmosphere once more.
Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate WtE of the biomass part of waste as renewable energy. The rest—mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products—is generally treated as non-renewables.
The CO2 emissions from plastic waste-to-energy systems are higher than those from current fossil fuel-based power systems per unit of power generated, even after considering the contribution of carbon capture and storage. Power generation using plastic waste will significantly increase by 2050. Carbon must be separated during energy recovery processes. Otherwise, the fight against global warming would fail due to plastic waste.
Determination of the biomass fraction
MSW to a large extent is of biological origin (biogenic), e.g. paper, cardboard, wood, cloth, food scraps. Typically half of the energy content in MSW is from biogenic material. Consequently, this energy is often recognised as renewable energy according to the waste input.
Several methods have been developed by the European CEN 343 working group to determine the biomass fraction of waste fuels, such as Refuse Derived Fuel/Solid Recovered Fuel. The initial two methods developed (CEN/TS 15440) were the manual sorting method and the selective dissolution method. A detailed systematic comparison of these two methods was published in 2010. Since each method suffered from limitations in properly characterizing the biomass fraction, two alternative methods have been developed.
The first method uses the principles of radiocarbon dating. A technical review (CEN/TR 15591:2007) outlining the carbon 14 method was published in 2007. A technical standard of the carbon dating method (CEN/TS 15747:2008) is published in 2008. In the United States, there is already an equivalent carbon 14 method under the standard method ASTM D6866.
The second method (so-called balance method) employs existing data on materials composition and operating conditions of the WtE plant and calculates the most probable result based on a mathematical-statistical model. Currently the balance method is installed at three Austrian and eight Danish incinerators.
A comparison between both methods carried out at three full-scale incinerators in Switzerland showed that both methods came to the same results.
Carbon 14 dating can determine with precision the biomass fraction of waste, and also determine the biomass calorific value. Determining the calorific value is important for green certificate programs such as the Renewable Obligation Certificate program in the United Kingdom. These programs award certificates based on the energy produced from biomass. Several research papers, including the one commissioned by the Renewable Energy Association in the UK, have been published that demonstrate how the carbon 14 result can be used to calculate the biomass calorific value. The UK gas and electricity markets authority, Ofgem, released a statement in 2011 accepting the use of Carbon 14 as a way to determine the biomass energy content of waste feedstock under their administration of the Renewables Obligation. Their Fuel Measurement and Sampling (FMS) questionnaire describes the information they look for when considering such proposals.
Physical location
A 2019 report commissioned by the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives (GAIA), done by the Tishman Environment and Design Center at The New School, found that 79% of the then 73 operating waste-to-energy facilities in the U.S. are located in low-income communities and/or "communities of color", because "of historic residential, racial segregation and expulsive zoning laws that allowed whiter, wealthier communities to exclude industrial uses and people of color from their boundaries.". In Chester, Pennsylvania, where a community group is actively opposing their local waste-to-energy facility, Sintana Vergara, an assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Resources Engineering at Humboldt State University in California, commented that community resistance is based on both the pollution and the fact that many of these facilities have been sited in communities without any community input, and without any benefits to the community.
Notable examples
According to a 2019 United Nations Environment Programme report, there are 589 WtE plants in Europe and 82 in the United States.
The following are some examples of WtE plants.
Waste incineration WtE plants
Essex County Resource Recovery Facility, Newark, New Jersey
Harrisburg incinerator, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Lee County Solid Waste Resource Recovery Facility, Fort Myers, Florida, USA (1994)
Montgomery County Resource Recovery Facility in Dickerson, Maryland, USA (1995)
Spittelau (1971), and Flötzersteig (1963), Vienna, Austria (Wien Energie)
SYSAV waste-to-energy plant in Malmö (2003 and 2008), Sweden
Algonquin Power, Brampton, Ontario, Canada
Stoke Incinerator, Stoke-on-Trent, UK (1989)
Delaware Valley Resource Recovery Facility, Chester, United States
Teesside EfW plant near Middlesbrough, North East England (1998)
Edmonton Incinerator in Greater London, England (1974)
Burnaby Waste-to-Energy Facility, Metro Vancouver, Canada (1988)
Timarpur-Okhla Waste to Energy Plant, New Delhi, India
East Delhi Waste Processing Company Limited, New Delhi, India
SELCHP, South Bermondsey in Greater London, England (1994)
Liquid fuel producing plants
A single plant is currently under construction:
Enerkem Waste to Biofuels and Chemicals Facility, located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada based on the Enerkem-process, fueled by MSW.
Plasma gasification waste-to-energy plants
The US Air Force once tested a Transportable Plasma Waste to Energy System (TPWES) facility (PyroGenesis technology) at Hurlburt Field, Florida. The plant, which cost $7.4 million to construct, was closed and sold at a government liquidation auction in May 2013, less than three years after its commissioning. The opening bid was $25. The winning bid was sealed.
Besides large plants, domestic waste-to-energy incinerators also exist. For example, the Refuge de Sarenne has a domestic waste-to-energy plant. It is made by combining a wood-fired gasification boiler with a Stirling motor.
Australia
Renergi will scale up their system of converting waste organic materials into liquid fuels using a thermal treatment process in Collie, Western Australia. The system will process 1.5 tonnes of organic matter per hour. Annually the facility will divert 4000 tonnes of municipal waste from landfill and source an additional 8000 tonnes of organic waste from agricultural and forestry operations. Renergi’s patented “grinding pyrolysis” process aims to converts organic materials into biochar, bio-gases and bio-oil by applying heat in an environment with limited oxygen.
Another project in the Rockingham Industrial Zone, roughly 45 kilometres south of Perth will see a 29 MW plant built with capacity to power 40,000 homes from an annual feedstock of 300,000 tonnes of municipal, industrial and commercial rubbish. As well as supplying electricity to the South West Interconnected System, 25 MW of the plant’s output has already been committed under a power purchase agreement.
See also
Alternative fuels
Biogas
Biohydrogen production
Cogeneration
Energy recycling
Landfill gas utilization
Lead
List of solid waste treatment technologies
List of waste management acronyms
Manure-derived synthetic crude oil
Plastic pollution
Refuse-derived fuel
Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources
Reuse of human excreta
Waste-to-energy plant
References
Further reading
Field, Christopher B. "Emissions pathways, climate change, and impacts." PNAS 101.34 (2004): 12422–12427.
Tilman, David. "Environmental, economic, and energetic costs." PNAS 103.30 (2006): 11206–11210.
External links
Waste-to-Energy Research and Technology Council
Energy Recovery from the Combustion of Municipal Solid Waste - US EPA
WtERT Germany
Gasification Technologies Council
Bioenergy
Waste management
Waste treatment technology
Industrial gases
Energy conversion |
4565055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techfest | Techfest | Techfest is the annual science and technology festival of Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, consisting of social initiatives and outreach programs throughout the year.
Started in with the aim of providing a platform for the Indian student community to develop and showcase their technical prowess, with a footfall of 1.75 lakhs in its latest edition. The activities culminate in a large three-day event on the campus of IIT Bombay which attracts people from all over the world, including students, academia, corporates and the general public.
History and growth
The very first edition of Techfest was in 1998. It set the broad outlines of Techfest in the form of competitions, lectures, workshops, and exhibitions which went on to become a standard feature at every Techfest. Entrepreneurship also made an appearance in the 1999 and 2000 editions. Technoholix—Techfest in the Dark, showcasing technological entertainment at the end of each day as well as the hub of on the spot activities, made its debut during these years.
Techfest 2001-2002 saw the incorporation of IIT Bombay's department oriented events like Yantriki, Chemsplash and Last Straw. Students from G H Raisoni College of Engineering got the Engineering Excellence Award for best design. Mr. Amit Shankar Choudhary, Mr. Fahad Azad, Mr. Bodhisatta Ganguly were in the team of designers from GHRCE, Nagpur.
Techfest 2002-2003 launched the Techfest trophy to make the competitions more interesting. Colleges from all over India participated in multiple segments to win the trophy.
Techfest 2003-2004 marked a big milestone in the growth of Techfest as this was the year Techfest became an International event with the introduction of the International Machine design contest - Cliffhanger. It also saw the introduction of the renowned robotics competition, Micromouse for the first time in India. Teams from Nepal, Sri Lanka and Singapore also participated in Cliffhanger.
Techfest 2004-2005 added challenging problem statements in the form of competitions like Survivor as well as Drishti, which was conceived with the National Association for the Blind (NAB) in order to provide aids for the visually challenged.
The emphasis at Techfest 2006 was on technology and its applications rather than just engineering know-how. With this view, a section of competitions held under the name E-Rustique had problem statements that encouraged the participants to come up with solutions to existing rural problems and hence contribute to the development of modern India.
Techfest 2006-2007 introduced an event Nexus to take robotics to the masses via robotics workshops and subsequent competitions with easy problem statements in many cities other than Mumbai.
In Techfest 2007-2008, Nexus was conducted at 7 centres across India namely Indore, Calicut, Jaipur, New Delhi, Pune, Surat and Mumbai respectively. Techfest 2008 also returned to the trend of taking up of initiatives by the Techfest team for social and public causes through their campaign on Global Warming.
Techfest 2008-2009 featured the iNexus taking Nexus international to Sri Lanka, UAE and Denmark, whose finalists were flown to India to compete with their counterparts from India, making Techfest the first ever student organization to go truly international. It also saw the creation of open innovation platform called Prayaas to try come up with implementable solutions to problems existing in rural India.
Techfest 2009-2010 added a new segment to their festival called Scintillations. The segment consisted of night exhibitions and thrilling interactive shows. The exhibitions had quite a nationalistic flavour with hangar space devoted to ISRO, Indian Navy and National Disaster Management Authority .
Techfest 2010-2011 added more entertainment events to the festival with a new section called Crossroads which featured Street Magic Shows, Stunt Shows etc. Some of the featured events at 2011 were the VirtuSphere and Laser Tag, lectures by the likes of Harold Kroto and Richard Stallman, an exhibition of Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci and PR2, energy-saving competition among all Indian Institutes of Technology. Technoholix saw the world's best Double Dutch (jump rope) crew.
Techfest 2011-2012 took a unique initiative Ummeed-e-Milaap to step towards a peaceful future between India and Pakistan. WAVE-India was launched with the motto of spreading awareness about electric vehicles through a road trip covering over 2500 kilometres through India. Great lecturers viz. Venki Ramakrishnan (Nobel Laureate in Chemistry), Karlheinz Brandenburg (Co-Inventor of MP3) and many amazing exhibits like Nao Robot (France), Crazy file (Sweden) etc. were a part of the festival.
Techfest 2012-2013 created a benchmark for itself with its lecture series, competitions and initiatives. This stint of Lecture Series at Techfest was graced by Amartya Sen, Ei-ichi Negishi (Nobel Laureate in Chemistry), Rakesh Sharma and many more. International Robotics Challenge(IRC), the flagship event of Techfest 2013, witnessed participation from 8 countries. A new competition TechOlympics was launched which saw 240 teams from India participate to solve multiple problem statements and compete to be crowned the winner. The initiatives - Techfest Green Campus Challenge (participation from 750 colleges and formation of 150 new Eco-clubs) and Give-A-Coin aimed at awareness of financial child adoption were a huge success and well appreciated all over the country.
Techfest 2013-2014 registered participation of 1.35 lakhs which turned out to be the highest till that year. The lecture series witnessed Prof. C.N.R. Rao (Bharat Ratna 2014), Pranav Mistry (Inventor of SixthSense Technology), Kiran Bedi and many renowned personalities. The technoholix segment witnessed the World Premiere of a 3D projection mapping play, in June, covered in Indian as well as Italian media. An anti-smoking campaign, I SMOKE featured in Limca Book of Records for the most number of doodles collected. The 16th edition also saw the launch of 4G services for the first time in India by Reliance Jio.
Techfest 2014-2015 recorded a footfall of 1.45 lakhs. The edition featured a stellar lineup of eminent lecturers like late APJ Abdul Kalam, inventor of C++, Bjarne Stroustrup and one of the founding fathers of internet Vint Cerf. The social initiatives Techfest had undertaken over the past years were nominated for Times of India Social Impact Award. Smart City Challenge, inspired by Prime Minister Narendra Modi's vision of 100 smart cities in India, engaged college students to think of innovative ideas for making a smart city. ASK, the nationwide campaign of Techfest, with the partnership of NCPRI, was aimed at creating awareness of the Right to Information Act.
Techfest 2015-2016 witnessed the highest ever footfall of 1.65 lakhs. The lecture series featured Prof. Serge Haroche (Physics Nobel Laureate), Eric Klinker (CEO of BitTorrent) and Dr. K. Radhakrishnan (Former Chairman of ISRO). This edition included an International Summit to unite a dynamic community of global leaders and activists to discuss solutions for challenges and analyze the impact of technology. Recycle, a college campaign of Techfest, aimed at creating awareness about physical fitness and environmental protection among the youth in society. Internet for All, a social initiative, with the association of NIELIT, aimed at improving digital literacy in India by teaching the basics of the Internet to school students.
Techfest 2016-2017 was based on the theme "A Space Expedition". The lecture series was graced by Rakesh Sharma (1st Indian in Space), Bruce Allen (American Physicist and Principal Investigator, LIGO Project), Mark Papermaster (Former CTO, Apple Inc.) and many more eminent personalities. This edition hosted World MUN with 525 delegates from all over the world. CURED?, a social initiative to make the masses aware of the causes and effects of Diabetes for which over 200+ camps were set up all across India. Save The Souls was an initiative aimed at stopping the inhumane testing of Beagle dogs in laboratories for which an online petition campaign was run. IAmPower was initiated with the aim to empower girls to become leaders of technology, and innovators in STEM and build their own future through exposure to computer science and technology.
Techfest 2017-18 was based on "Digitalization, Sustainability and Biotechnology", and recorded participation of 1.75 lakhs which has been the highest for any college festival. Sophia, the first ever humanoid robot to get citizenship made its appearance for the first time in India. The lecture series was adorned by Tanmay Bakshi (youngest IBM Watson Developer), Late Manohar Parrikar (Former Defence Minister of India), Jayanth Sinha (Former Minister of State, Civil Aviation) and many more distinguished personalities. International Robowars saw participation from 5 countries and had a massive response from its audience for its grandeur. SHE (Sanitary Health Education), a social initiative focused on emancipating the taboo of menstruation in India by conducting hygiene management sessions and distributing 2 Lakh sanitary napkins. Nirbhaya was another initiative which stood for women's empowerment by conducting workshops on self-defence in various cities across the nation to help them stand up for themselves.
Techfest 2018-19 was based on the theme "A Timeless Lapse". This edition raised the benchmark with its lecture series, social initiatives and competitions. The 14th Dalai Lama (Nobel Laureate, Peace), Simon Taufel (Member of the ICC Elite Umpire Panel) and many more eminent personalities graced the lecture series. Techfest, in association with SoULS, IIT Bombay, under its Student Solar Ambassador Program (SSAP) conducted workshops across all states of India where over 1,25,000 students were trained to assemble their solar lamps and became Solar Ambassadors. Also, a Guinness World Record for the most number of LED lights lit simultaneously was created. SPEAK: Stand to express initiative was launched to spread the message of positive mental health and for this workshops were conducted in more than 50 colleges throughout India mentoring 5000+ students. International Full Throttle saw the participation of World ranked teams from 3 countries and had a massive response from both audience and teams in terms of grandeur.
Techfest 2019-20 was based on the theme "Da Vincian Spectacle" which was inspired by the idea that art and science are really closer than we think. The legacy of moving the benchmark higher and higher was continued by bringing lecturers like RoboThespian and Einstein robots. With lecturers like Zaheer Khan, Vidya Balan, Narayan Murthy and Tshering Tobgay, the quality of learning and experience is not comparable to any other fest. Techfest 19-20 organised IUnderstand, a financial initiative for making students financially literate throughout India, and under the social initiative BOLT, Techfest campaigned to spread awareness on the dangers of osteoporosis in adults by setting up Bone Health check up by setting up 50+ camps across the country and conducting 10K+ free bone health check ups for free
Techfest 2020-21 was based on the theme "An Elysian Singularity", a future where continuous advancement has launched the world into an age of bold innovation with uncontrollable growth, almost leading to a technological singularity point. This edition was held completely online due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It featured lectures from prominent personalities like the 14th Dalai Lama, Malcolm Turnbull, Rana Daggubati and Andrew Ng. Virtual Industry Visits, aimed at giving viewers a first-hand experience of what happens inside leading industries, were also introduced this year. Techfest 2020-21 organized 10+ fully online mental health sessions with 90+ professional counsellors from across the country as a part of its social initiative HOPE, one of the country's most extensive initiatives on Mental Health Awareness and Suicide Prevention. Techfest also launched a petition to update India’s archaic animal welfare laws under WeCare, with workshops being conducted in 70+ schools across India in association with 10 major NGOs to sensitize students to the plight of stray animals during the pandemic.
Techfest 2021-22 was based on the theme "The Multiversal Escapade," which means venturing through the multiverse where one is similar, and the other is dissimilar to us. This year was also the 25th edition and one of its kind, with Techfest conducting the three-day fest on a virtual platform. It was graced by eminent personalities like Kevin Rudd, Ehud Olmert, Scott Belsky, and Takaaki Kajita. Virtual Ed-Conclave was introduced this year, helping high school students choose their field of study. Techfest conducted 50+ online breast cancer awareness sessions associated with 10+ NGOs as part of the social initiative Nidaan. 50+ sessions promoting betterment for differently-abled people were conducted under the initiative Saksham. This year Techfest also organized 50+ myth-buster sessions spreading awareness about Eye Donation in India as part of the social initiative Drishti. Techfest 2021-22 also conducted Robowars and Auto-Expo as the first post-pandemic event.
Techfest 2022-23 was based on the theme “The Submerged Sojourn” which highlighted the infinite possibilities of technology to explore the mysteries and possibilities that lie unknown in the unexplored parts of the ocean. Being the first offline edition, post covid, there were various milestones that were accomplished. Eminent Personalities such as Tarja Halonen, Kathryn Leuders, Suresh Prabhu and Lars Rasmussen graced the fest and enlightened the ever inquisitive minds. Jio launched 5G for the first time ever for consumer testing making IIT Bombay the first-ever 5Gfied campus in India. For the first time in its history, Techfest witnessed a Drone Light Show, that lit up the skies of Mumbai. Techfest Drone Racing League was conducted for the first time with drones flying through hurdles and competing for the win.
Patronages, awards and recognitions
Techfest is among the very few student organizations to have received patronage from United Nations organisations. Among its various recognitions, prominent ones are listed below:
UNESCO for promotion of technical knowledge
UNICEF for the social causes taken up through Ideate competitions and other initiatives over the years
Centre for environment education("CEE") and (SAYEN) for its approach and initiatives towards environment changes
Techfest has also been nominated for the Times of India "Social Impact Award 2015" for its unique social campaigns in the field of child education, women empowerment, encouraging Indo-Pak relations and creating awareness
Techfest, IIT Bombay in association with SoULS, IIT Bombay created a Guinness World Record for the "most LED lights lit simultaneously" on 2 October 2018
Structure and organisation
Techfest is an entirely student-organized body. The core committee has 24 members: two Overall Coordinators at the helm and 22 managers who overlook all the aspects and activities of Techfest. Each Manager has a portfolio assigned to them which can be broadly categorized into two sections - administration and events. The administrative portfolios primarily include tasks like accounts, infrastructure, marketing, hospitality, publicity and media along with helping with the events. The events portfolios include responsibility for each of the numerous happenings and initiatives are taken by Techfest each year. A team of over 800 Coordinators and Organizers along with 2500+ College ambassadors works in sync with the managers to execute and implement the activities of the festival. Each manager has their own team of coordinators and organisers, who together take care of every little detail of the department and ensure that the ideas of the team are executed smoothly.
Events
Competitions
Competitions serve as the backbone of Techfest by fulfilling its motto of spreading Science and Technology. Techfest 2022 Competitions saw a total participation of over 35,000 from various parts of the globe. With participation from more than 20 countries, this segment has evolved to become a tremendous stage for international exchange. Young enthusiasts from all over the world come together at this magnificent platform to prove their mettle at the vanguard of technical competitions. Competitions of Techfest, IIT Bombay, covers various genres under this segment like Competitive Coding under International Coding Challenge and World Programming Championship, Game Development under Game of Codes, Aerospace under Drone Challenge and Boeing Aeromodelling Competition, Aquatics under Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Challenge (AUV), RC Nitro Buggy Car under International Full Throttle, Robotics under Robowars, Playto-National Robotics Challenge, International Robotics Challenge and International Micromouse Challenge, Gaming under E-sports, Structural Engineering under Crane-o-Mania and Tata Project Design Challenge. Techfest organized a plethora of online competitions for participants around the globe. These explored different genres like AI/ML under Weldright, Fleet Risk Business Insight, API Generate-a-thon and Find the Lag, Software Development under Smart UI and Site developer, and Application-based competitions like Design for Defence, Computational Agriculture and Corpcomp. Ideate competitions, namely Stress Prediction TIH-IoT, Home Automation and Ocean Revival, which require participants to come up with innovative solutions to real-world problems, were also conducted.
Techfest also organizes competitions for school kids to encourage them to explore the field of science and technology. Competitions like Techfest Olympiads (Online as well as Offline), Young Inventor and were conducted in 2021-22 which were aimed at promoting innovation and creativity in young minds. In the 26th edition of Techfest, 25+ brainstorming competitions were conducted in different modes, focused on solving real-world problems, like Simpl Case Challenge, Rural Digital Payment Challenge, and many more. Also, the DiveIntoETH Hackathon was conducted for Blockchain enthusiastic students.
The International Robotics Challenge (IRC) used to be an international competition, which had participation from over 12 countries. The elimination rounds are held in the respective countries and the finals are held at Techfest. IRC has seen participation from France, Russia, Sweden, South Africa, Egypt, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Syria, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Techfest International Coding Challenge also saw participation from different countries.
Techfest Drone Racing League has become an exhilarating and widely embraced inclusion within the festival. Year after year, Techfest continues to push the limits of what can be achieved in the realm of technology, serving as a catalyst for inspiring the upcoming generation of pioneers and inventors.
In addition to the list of other competitions, the zonal competitions at Techfest, named Technorion included Five nationwide zonal centers as Jaipur, Nagpur, Bhopal, Mumbai, Bangalore competing in robotics and coding competitions namely Meshmerize, CoDecode, Cozmo Clench, and Techfest Olympiads held especially for school students around the country.
Technorion 2022 went International this year wherein we had International Technorion in Nepal in association with Advanced Robotics Club - ARC, Nepal, in Madagascar in association with STEM4GOOD Madagascar, and in Bangladesh in association with DUET, Bangladesh. The winners from Nepal, Bangladesh, and Madagascar then represented their nation at Techfest from 16th-18th December
Techfest International Model United Nations (MUN) was launched with the aim of spreading political awareness on International affairs. Earlier held under the name of Techfest International Model United Nations until 2014, this competition was relaunched in 2016 as Techfest World Model United Nations (TWMUN). Techfest World Model United Nations (TWMUN) witnesses over 500 delegates from international universities/schools of over 20 countries, coming together to simulate various committees of the United Nations with the prime objective to innovate solutions for various international agendas and build diplomatic relations. TWMUN 2022 saw 10 different committees like WHO, UNGA, UNSC and even a special crisis committee being organized with delegates having intense discussion for a total prize worth of over 3 lakh Indian rupees. In Techfest 2020-21, the first-ever completely online TWMUN was conducted. Special committees like the Non-proliferation committee and Treaty review conference were introduced. It featured 13 committees including UNCCW, DISEC, UNCND, etc, and witnessed participation from over 450 delegates.
Smart City Challenge was an initiative inspired by Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s vision to develop 100 new smart cities to engage the youth of the country in the development of their city and the prosperity of its citizens. The competition was designed with the vision of bringing together technology, government and the student fraternity to make the cities more efficient, sustainable, and liveable and to improve the quality of life of the rapidly urbanizing population. 1000 teams participated across India involving students from IITs, IIMs, IISER, NITs and BITS. The expert panel of over 50 mentors consists of IPS officers, IIT professors, corporate professionals, and eminent government officers. Besides the prize money of INR 5 lakhs for winners, the ideas were also forwarded to the Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor Project Corporation.
International Robowars
Robowars is the grandest competition in the entire Techfest. It has been one of the biggest crowd-pullers in recent years, with an audience of 7000+ in Techfest 2022, besides having the biggest arena of its kind in India. In the starting years, there were two weight categories, 120 lbs and 30 lbs. Throughout the years, Robowars has seen mass participation and a massive crowd watching this event. Eventually, the event became The International Robowars in Techfest 2017-18. The International Robowars has been hosted by the renowned Battlebots announcer, Faruq Tauheed in Techfest 2022 and by renowned Indian model, actor, voice artist, TV presenter, and anchor Ridhima Pathak in the last year. Techfest saw a participation of more than 450 participants, with Team UARRIOR (World No.1 Team at the time) also participating in the event. Also, a new weight category of 8 kg was introduced in 2019, followed by the introduction of the latest weight category of 30 kg, which was introduced in 2022. The current champion for the International Robowars in the 60 kg category was team Prixx. The International Robowars boasts a humongous prize money of 1.25 million. For the first time in its history, The International Robowars was broadcast on Jio TV. Currently, the Champions are Riobotz(Brazil) and BlankaBotz holds the record for winning The Robowars Title the most number of times (3).
Technoholix
Technoholix consists of techno-cultural nights held over 3 days. Technoholix hosts a plethora of events like EDM nights, Laser shows, UV light shows, pyrotechnics, Tron dances, Acrobatics and Virtual 3D holographic displays for an ecstatic audience of over 20,000. Started in 2000, Technoholix has witnessed several bedazzling performances over the years by artists from around the globe like DJ Marnik, Danny Avila, AFISHAL, Julius Nox, Sonakshi Sinha ,Arjun Kapoor and last year we had Krispie, Oxlo and MADDIX as the Headliner for the EDM Night, the producer of world-famous remixes like Prophecy, Smash the Beat, and 𝗕𝗲𝗹𝗹𝗮 𝗖𝗶𝗮𝗼.The finale event of Technohlix, which was earlier organized in the Open Air Theatre, was moved to the Gymkhana Grounds of IIT Bombay in 2018, to throw the largest laser show ever in India. Justifying its name, Technoholix promises to fill the veins of the audience with adrenaline and leave a look of awe on the faces of thousands.
Exhibitions
Exhibitions provide an ideal platform to reduce the gap between technology in today's world and the common man in India. Every year Exhibition has mesmerized people by presenting technological avant-garde in the world. It helps young minds to broaden their vision and to update their tech know-how. The exhibitions segment of Techfest started out in 2004 with Indian Navy Exhibitions feeling the need to motivate young Indian minds towards military research. It was re-initiated in 2006 with a plethora of exhibitions. Welcome To Mars was the first International Exhibition from Arizona State University and NASA . While 2007 witnessed a massive increase in the number of International Exhibits of which the most prominent were Mind Reading Machines and the life-size exhibits of Pterosaur, 2008 had the first interactive exhibit in Techfest, the Shadow Dexterous Hand. In 2009 an Amphibot capable of moving without any limbs or wheels, face detection software on a robot security platform, rudders and flight control mechanics from Airbus, and DRDO's mobile autonomous launcher BrahMos were the major attractions. Alice, the first robot smaller than a ping-pong ball and eye-writer writing by eye movement was the focus of Techfest Exhibitions 2010.
Da Vinci Robotics Exhibitions conceptualised by Leonardo da Vinci, Open vibe- the brain–computer interface which shows brain activity, PR2 Robot, Eccerobot 2- an anthropomimetic robot acting as a human replica were the cynosure of all eyes in 2011. Techfest 2013 saw the NAO Robot from France, exhibits from the MIT Media Lab like the EyeNetra, and the HIRO robot. Exhibitions at Techfest 2014 witnessed the BINA48, Fumanoids (Germany), Solowheel (United States), Cubli (Vertex balancing cube, EPFL Switzerland) and many other exhibits. Techfest 2015 featured innovative Sepios which mimic swimming through proper fins. Bionic Hand, an artificial bionic prosthesis using 3D printing technology. Some other exhibits at display were Beach Bot, Teegi, Tigers Mannheim, Thomas Li Vigni and many more. Jinn Bot (robot which express moods such as joy and anger), Dutch Nao Team exhibits from BRAC University, ETH Zurich were among the highlights of Exhibitions in 2016. Following the Space Expedition theme, Exhibitions in Techfest 2016-17 showcased ISRO prototypes, Advanced Military Weaponry, Bebionic hand with Techconnect, an exclusive showcase of IIT Bombay research projects and Exhibits.
Techfest 2016 also witnessed an Auto-show as a part of exhibitions showcasing BMW i8, BMW M4, Hayabusa, Ducati, Triumph Bikes and many more. Techfest 2017-18 provided unparalleled variety and gave an amazing experience by showcasing Team Puli (Hungary), KinoMo (UK), GBL robotics(United States), Mini Robot (Korea), Synergy Moon, Neurosky, Universal Robots, Nao (Softbank). Techfest 2018-19 had many riveting exhibits like Android U( Hiroshi Ishiguro Lab, Japan), Furhat Robotics(Sweden), NTU Singapore, B-Human ( six times RoboCup German Open winner and 1 time RoboCup European Open winner), Skelex( Netherlands ) among many more. Techfest 2019-20 had amazing exhibits like Arm-XR to minimize the disability of specially-abled humans, RoboThespian, world's first actor performer robot, PDRL, India's first indigenous air taxi and many many more. The Auto-show, as a part of international exhibitions, also showcased various cars like Porche Boxster, BMW Motorsport M5, Mercedes Benz AMG C63 and various motorbikes like Benelli TNT600, Suzuki Hayabusa, Kawasaki Ninja ZX10R, Honda Goldwing and Triumph Tiger among others. Techfest 2020-21 featured NEXTAGE, the all-in-one Dual Arm Robot designed to coexist with people by Kawada Technologies from Japan; the Nadine Social Robot, who can engage in intelligent conversation, play instruments and alter her moods; and the Daedalus an exoskeleton developed by Gravity Industries that enables humans to fly. The Virgin Hyperloop company, which is working towards commercializing high-speed transportation via hyperloop systems, and AUTOLAB’s project AlphaGarden, which attempts to find out whether AI can learn something as complex; and then in year 2021-22, techfest featured Nino, a humanoid robot that can walk, talk, sing, and play made by Sirena Technologies, then we had Zeus, a high-functioning multi-articulating bionic hand combining ease of control; and we also had Ai-Da, a humanoid robot credited with being the first ever ultra-realistic robot artist as our some major attractions in our two years of online mode. The online exhibitions saw a viewership of more than 60K. In 2022-23, after two years of online mode, techfest came back to its offline version where we had SpaceHopper and Raptor from ETH Zurich, we also had Formula E, M8 Electro Gen 2 coming last year, then we had Unitree GO1, an intelligent bionic quadruped robot also coming.
Lectures
The past speakers at Techfest include personalities like:
The 14th Dalai Lama (Nobel Laureate, Peace)
Late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam (Former President of India and Founder of India's missile program)
Kevin Rudd (Former Prime Minister of Australia)
Tarja Halonen (First Woman President of Finland)
Lars Rasmussen (Co-founder, Google Maps)
Kathryn Leuders (Associate Administrator, NASA)
Dasho Tshering Tobgay (Former Prime minister of Bhutan)
Ehmud Olmert (Former Prime Minister of Israel)
Malcolm Turnbull (29th Prime Minister of the Commonwealth of Australia)
Late Manohar Parrikar (Former Defence minister of India)
Vint Cerf (one of the fathers of Internet)
Rana Daggubati (Indian actor, producer, television personality and entrepreneur)
Sophia, Hanson Robotics, Citizen of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Most advanced humanoid robot ever built)
Zaheer Khan (Indian Cricket Legend)
Einstein Robot(Albert HUBO)
Ai-Da Robot (United Kingdom)
Prof. Eric Maskin (Nobel Laureate in Economics)
Jayant Sinha (Minister of the state, Civil aviation)
Viral V. Acharya (Deputy Governor, RBI)
Andrew Ng (co-founder of Google Brain and Coursera, pioneer in online education)
Simon Taufel (Member of the ICC Elite Umpire Panel)
Randy Schekman (Nobel Prize recipient in Physiology)
Dilip Chhabria (Founder of DC Design)
Jimmy Wales (Founder, Wikipedia)
Scott Belsky (Chief Product Officer, Adobe)
Mustafa Ghouse (Director, Delhi Capitals)
Akhil Rabindra (Indian Motorsports Racing Driver)
Ada Yonath (Nobel Laureate, Chemistry)
Michael Sandel (Political Philosopher, Harvard University)
Gaur Gopal Das (Motivational Speaker, ISKCON)
C.N.R. Rao (Bharat Ratna 2013-Highest Civilian Award of India)
Bjarne Stroustrup (inventor of C++)
Amartya Sen (Nobel Laureate, Economics)
David J. Griffiths (eminent American physicist, Howard Vollum Professor of Science at Reed College, 1978-2009)
Pranav Mistry (Vice President of Research at Samsung, Inventor of SixthSense technology)
John Nash (Nobel Laureate, Economics)
Harold Kroto (Nobel Laureate, Chemistry)
Ei-ichi Negishi (Nobel Laureate, Chemistry)
Robert E. Kahn (One of the fathers of internet)
Manjul Bhargava (Fields Medal and Padma Bhushan awardee, Mathematician)
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (Nobel Laureate, Chemistry)
Stephen Wolfram (Developer of Mathematica )
Ryan Germick (Google Doodle team leader)
Jaap Haartsen (Inventor of Bluetooth)
Jaime Lagunez (Scientist and Human Rights activist has accepted this year's invitation)
Dr. K. Radhakrishnan (Ex-Chairman, Indian Space Research Organisation)
Eric Klinker (CEO, Bit Torrent)
Robert Aumann (Nobel Laureate, Economics)
Takaaki Kajita (Nobel Laureate, Physics)
Serge Haroche (Nobel Laureate, Physics)
Rakesh Sharma (1st Indian in Space)
Sharmila Tagore (UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador)
Peter Atkins (British Chemist and renowned Author)
Bruce Allen (American Physicist and Director, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics)
Mark Papermaster (Former CTO, Apple Inc.)
Virtual Industry Visits
Techfest 2020-21 introduced a new event series known as the Virtual Industry Visits to engage the audience by giving them a virtual tour of India’s industrial megacentres through online platforms. More than 3500 participants got to experience a tour of the cutting-edge manufacturing facilities and witness the ultra-modern instruments and equipment at the factories as expert professionals meticulously guided them step by step through each process. Students and professionals alike participated in thousands to gain knowledge about the processes carried out in complex plants from Industry experts themselves. The Virtual Industry Visits were facilitated by reputed companies like Mercedes Benz, Larsen and Toubro, Dabur, Reliance, Bosch, Godrej, Nestle, Johnson & Johnson, ArcelorMittal, UltraTech Cement, Tata Projects, Indigrid, thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions (India) and Thermax.
Apart from the Industry Visits, Virtual Museum Visits to the Van Gogh Museum, which houses the largest collection of Van Gogh's paintings and drawings in the entire world and the Museum of natural sciences, USA, which has over 1.2 million visitors annually were also organised.
Social Initiatives
Techfest has had a rich history in the space of initiatives for social & public causes. Several of the competitions each year have science problem statements intertwined with environmental sustainability, rural development, green energy & more. However, a clear distinction between these initiatives from other activities of the 25-year-old fest was brought about in the 2007-2008 edition through their campaign on Global Warming. Each edition since then has covered things ranging from high-output initiatives on women empowerment, free health checkups, and osteoporosis to awareness-raising initiatives on anti-smoking, financial literacy, RTI, Diabetes, physical fitness, mental health & many more. Two of the highest impact social initiatives by Techfest so far have been-
SSAP - Student Solar Ambassador Program conducted workshops across all states of India where over 1,25,000 students were trained to assemble their solar lamps and became Solar Ambassadors. This initiative also holds the Guinness World Record for the most number of LED lights lit simultaneously.
SHE - Sanitary Health Education was a social initiative focused on emancipating the taboo of menstruation in India by conducting hygiene management sessions and distributing 200,000+ sanitary napkins in 25+ villages.
The 25th edition of Techfest witnessed social initiatives like Drishti, Saksham, and Nidaan. Which had 50 myth-buster sessions spreading awareness about eye donation to 1,00,000 people & got 500 pledges signed in a single day under the initiative Drishti. Also, the initiative Saksham promoted the betterment of differently-abled people through 50 awareness sessions reaching 43,000 people and associating with 15 prominent NGOs under it. Moreover, the initiative Nidaan to spread awareness about the treatment of breast cancer by conducting 50 sessions and reaching 13,000 people in association with 10 NGOs
Ozone
Ozone or 'On the spot zone' comprises the amusement part of Techfest. It is a place to hang around for exciting games and astounding street performances. Started in 2006, it has proved to be an integral part of Techfest in the past few years. Through Ozone, Techfest has brought in various entertainment-based technical gadgetry for the first time in India, be it Lazer tag (2010), VirtuSphere (2011), Silent Disco (2013), F1 Simulator (2014) or Oculus Rift (2015), Augmented Wall (2017, China), Beat Saber (2018) 9-D simulator, most powerful realism(2019). Events like Junkyard Wars, Paintball, Water Zorbing, 6D-XD Simulator, Flying Simulator, Go Karting, ATV rides and the Gaming Zone help keep the audience engrossed when they are not involved in the grueling competitions and workshops.
Summit
Techfest has hosted an International Summit on topics like Artificial Intelligence and Internet of Things, over the years. An International summit was held in Techfest for two days. It focused on understanding how the business will be affected by these technologies which are rapidly adopted all over the world and how professionals may benefit from it as major technology companies and startups are embracing these strategies. The Inaugural Summit brought together corporates, entrepreneurs and investors alike, under one roof, to explore technologies like AI or IoT from business point of view. Professionals from various IT/Software cells and techies of various organizations across all strata of industry were invited to the summit. It allowed one to hear from the stalwarts of the industry and get the real picture in India and the World.
Techfest previous editions of summit consisted of panel discussions, workshops and keynote by speakers like Mr. Bob Frankston, Mr.Jeff Demain, Dr. Aloknath De, Mr. Sundara Nagalingam, Mr. Ishwar Parulkar, Mr. Rishi Bhatnagar, Mrs.Vidya Mani, Mr.Kaustubh Nande, Mr. Rafiq Somani, Mr. Rajendra Pratap Gupta, Mr. Anil Mathur, Mr. Kartik Iyengar, Mr. Parvez Goiporia along with other distinguished scholars. Workshops ware conducted by Microsoft, Intel, Texas Instruments, giving hands-on approach on various applications of AI, IoT etc.
The AI Summit of Techfest 2018–19, held on 14 and 15 Dec 2018, included names like Mudit Jakhar, Vikram Vij, Sohan Maheshwar, Mohammed Saleem, Siddhi Trivedi, Rajesh Sharma, Kapil Garg, Jalaj Thanaki, Pushpak Bhattacharyya, Surya Durbha, Mudit Garg, Aseem Jakhar. The people discussed the relevance of Artificial Intelligence incorporates and day-to-day life. Hands-on workshops giving a complete experience of the capabilities of AI were also conducted.
The summit of 2019-2020 was held between 3 and 5 January, was attended by names like Atul Tripathy, Atul Jalan, Uptal Chakrab0rty, Rajesh Sharma, and Chetan Murty, the summit discussed points like Smart Mobility, Artificial Intelligence in Industries and Smart Manufacturing.
Techfest’s International Media Summit of 2020-21 was India's leading conference of acclaimed journalists and senior executives from all across the world. At the International Media Summit, topics related to the fields of Journalism and Media were discussed, which are tied closely with technology and help develop a deeper understanding of this rapidly evolving domain. It featured stalwarts of the field like Paul Pringle, Ravish Kumar, Rajdeep Sardesai, Farah Stockman, and Michael Braga.
Techfest 2021-2022 includes the first edition of the Fintech Summit, which primarily focuses on India’s Fintech Revolution, the future of money management, and reviewing banking and financial services post Covid-19. The International Fintech Summit is the ideal meeting place for facilitating multi-stakeholder dialogue with power-packed networking opportunities among C-Level executives, leading industry experts, decision-makers, and policymakers from across the value chain to foster collaboration, discuss current challenges and business opportunities, develop market strategies, share knowledge and identify solutions aimed at shaping the future of Fintech. Many Fintech giants were featured like Viral V. Acharya, Abhishek Kothari, Yashish Dahiya, Ruchir Swarup, Ganesh Rengaswamy, Priya Sharma, Arun Kumar, Samy Karim, Rajeev Agrawal, Vaibhav Garg.
Techfest 2022-2023 included International Industry Summit, Techfest Blockchain Summit, Media summit. The International Industry Summit aimed at discussing the trends that are bringing this change and changing the consumer’s perspective to this new way of shopping. Many industrial giants like Sanjeev Bikhchandani, Naveen Munjal, V Kalyana Rama, John Crichton, Abhishek Gupta, PrasunKumar, Sandeep Karwa and Soumya Sarkar were featured. The Techfest Blockchain Summit aimed at bringing together some of the world’s leading crypto influencers, policymakers, key government delegates, media, family offices, HNIs and other curated investors, among others, to foster the crypto and blockchain community across the globe. Many blockchain giants were featured like Kunal Sanghavi, Teddy Pahagbia, Shantnoo Saxsena, Pranay Sharma , Mru Patel, Alias Ahonen, Ryan Howells, and Lokesh Rao. Techfest also conducted the Media summit where you navigate the new playbook for Media as you future-ready yourself for the post-pandemic economy. Many Media giants were featured like Avinash Panday, Smriti Mehra, Arpit Jain, Manuja Veerappa.
Workshops
Workshops play an essential role in fulfilling Techfest, IIT Bombay's vision of bringing the students face to face with the latest technology that is storming the world. These workshops are organized under expert guidance from various fields and are known to attract a lot of students owing to their repute and quality content. Techfest 2017-18 organized workshops in Google Android, Gesture Robotics, Automobile Mechanics, Financial Fitness, Underwater Robotics, Ethical Hacking, Internet of Things, ArduinoBotix, Quadcopter, All In Cloud, 6th sense Robotics & a lot more.
In the 25th edition of Techfest, there were workshops on Solarizer, Python Programming, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Data Analytics, Automobile, Android Development, Cybersecurity, Ethical Hacking, Web Development, Amazon Web Services, Nanotechnology, Sixth Sense Technology, Embedded Systems, Deep Learning. Over the past few years, workshops in Techfest, IIT Bombay, provide an enriching experience to participants & connected with the most effective and tangible reform movement in high education. Apart from the workshops, Techfest also organizes WinTech Project by Dr. Saurabh Kwatra.
In Techfest 2022-23, workshops on QUADCOPTER, ETHICAL HACKING, MACHINE LEARNING, ANDROID DEVELOPMENT, GESTURE ROBOTICS, GAME DEVELOPMENT, CRYPTO TRADING, SOLARIZER, DIGITAL MARKETING, SIXTH SENSE ROBOTICS, AUTOMOBILE, DATA ANALYTICS, PYTHON, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE were organized. Renowned professionals from esteemed organizations such as Google, Ubisoft, WazirX, Sharedeum, and Fev were invited to guide these workshops. Throughout the years, the workshops held at Techfest, IIT Bombay have consistently delivered a fulfilling experience to participants, successfully linking them to the most influential and tangible movement for educational reform.
Virtual Ed-Conclave
Techfest 2021-22 kick-started a new pan India initiative, namely Virtual Ed-Conclave. This two-day conclave consists of various keynote sessions on different departments followed by Q&A from renowned professors, Deans, and Head of Department from prominent IITs. This event aimed to make freshly JEE qualified students aware of the different departments IITs offer, helping them make an informed decision in choosing their technical stream. With an annual reach of over 50,000 , Ed-Conclave helps students all over India to become aware about the whereabouts of various engineering fields and hence make knowledgeable decision for their future.
Prominent speakers at Ed-Conclave include:
Prof. Chebrolu (Associate Professor of Computer Science and Engineering at IIT Bombay)
Prof. Arghya Deb (Associate Dean (Infrastructure), IIT Kharagpur and Professor of Civil Engineering)
Prof. Shantanu Roy (Dean of Academics, IIT Delhi and Professor of Chemical Engineering)
Prof. Ravi Kumar NV (Head of the Department, Metallurgical & Materials Engineering at IIT Madras)
Prof. Amit Agrawal (Dean of International Affairs, IIT Bombay and Institute chair Professor of Mechanical Engineering)
Prof. Ameeya K. Nayak (Associate Professor of Mathematics, IIT Roorkee)
Prof. VC Srivastava (Head of the Department, Chemical Engineering at IIT Roorkee)
Prof. SK Mathur (Associate Professor of Economics at IIT Kanpur)
Prof. Preeti Ranjan Panda (Professor of Computer Science and Engineering at IIT Delhi)
Prof. Deepankar Choudhary (Head of the Department, Civil Engineering at IIT Bombay | Organising Vice-Chairman, JEE-Advanced 2015 and Founding Member, JOSAA)
Prof. Sanjeeva Srivastava (Professor of Biosciences and Bioengineering at IIT Bombay)
Prof. Nagarajan R (Head of the Department, Chemical Engineering at IIT Madras)
Prof. Suhas Joshi (Dean Alumni and Corporate Relations, IIT Bombay and Rahul Bajaj Chair Professor of Mechanical Engineering)
Prof. Dipanwita Roy (Head of the Department, Computer Science and Engineering at IIT Kharagpur)
Prof. Surjya K Pal (Associate Dean (Alumni Affairs), IIT Kharagpur and Professor of Mechanical Engineering)
Prof. U Bhandarkar(Associate Dean R&D, IIT Bombay and Professor of Mechanical Engineering)
Prof. Anidhya Dutta(Professor at Chemistry Department, IIT Bombay)
Prof. Rajesh Zele (Professor of Electrical Engineering at IIT Bombay)
Prof. Parag Bhargava (Professor of Metallurgy and Material Sciences at IIT Bombay)
Prof. Rajkumar S. Pant (Professor of Aerospace Engineering at IIT Bombay)
Prof. D N Singh (Professor of Civil Engineering at IIT Bombay)
Prof. G P Raja Sekhar (Professor of Mathematics and Computing at IIT Kharagpur)
Associates and Partners
Techfest receives extensive coverage in print, television, digital as well as online media. Techfest has had Hindustan Times, DNA, Times of India, Indian Express, Maharashtra Times, Navbharat Times, CNBC, Times Internet, Discovery Channel, Big RTL Thrill, India Today, Big CBS Prime, 93.5 RED FM and 92.7 BIG FM as its media partners. In the past, consulates and embassies of Italy, Netherlands, Israel, Germany, Australia, Austria, Hungary, South Korea, France, Spain, Canada and Indonesia have supported Techfest in its endeavours. In terms of industrial and corporate associations, Techfest receives sponsorship from a wide range of sectors such as Telecom, PSUs, Banking, Crypto, Fintech, FMCG, Automobile, Electronics. Techfest has associated with top firms such as Amazon Prime Video, Reliance Jio Infocomm Ltd, which had the national launch of its 4G Free Wifi in Techfest 2014, Google, Microsoft, Intel, Larsen & Toubro, GE, IBM, NTPC, PepsiCo, Nestle, RuPay, WD and many more such sponsors. Organisations such as DAAD, Alliance Française, British Council, Goethe Institute, German Centre for Research and Innovation, Polish Institute, Swissnex and India-Sri Lanka Foundation have also partnered with Techfest for the promotion of Science and Technology, education and cultural exchange. Social initiatives of Techfest have received the support of esteemed NGOs such as CRY, Smile Foundation, Khushi Life Learning, Befrienders India, Pratham, Muktangan, Suicide Prevention India Foundation, Garbage Concern Welfare Society, Indian Cancer Society, Laadli, Akshara and The Candle Project. With diverse participation, Techfest is a very good place for engaging and interacting with the youth of the country.
References
Technical festivals in India
Indian Institutes of Technology festivals
IIT Bombay
1998 establishments in Maharashtra
Festivals established in 1998 |
4565507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Chicago%20history | Timeline of Chicago history | The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Chicago, Illinois, United States.
Before the 19th century
1673: French-Canadian explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet, on their way to Québec, pass through the area that will become Chicago.
1677: Father Claude Allouez arrived to try to convert the natives to Christianity
1682: French explorer René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, passes through Chicago en route to the mouth of the Mississippi River.
1696: Jesuit missionary Francois Pinet founds the Mission of the Guardian Angel. It is abandoned four years later.
1705: Conflicts develop between French traders and the Fox tribe of Native Americans.
1719: The Comanche Indian Tribe settle in the Great Plains and in the Midwest of the United States.
1754: The Illinois Country becomes part of New France, days later The French and Indian War begins with the war against the British.
1763: The Illinois Country falls to British Troops after the defeat of New France.
1775: The Revolutionary War begins with America declaring independence from Britain.
1778: The Illinois Campaign is born under the command of George Rogers Clark to lead the fight against major British outposts scattered across the country.
1780s: Jean Baptiste Point du Sable establishes Chicago's first permanent settlement near the mouth of the Chicago River.
1795: Six square miles (16 km2) of land at the mouth of the Chicago River are reserved by the Treaty of Greenville for use by the United States.
1796: Kittahawa, du Sable's Potawatomi Indian wife, delivers Eulalia Point du Sable, Chicago's first recorded birth.
19th century
1800s–1840s
1803: The United States Army orders the construction of Fort Dearborn by Major John Whistler. It is built near the mouth of the Chicago River.
1812
June 17, Jean La Lime is killed by John Kinzie, making him the first recorded murder victim in Chicago.
August 15, the Battle of Fort Dearborn.
1816: The Treaty of St. Louis is signed in St. Louis, Missouri. Ft. Dearborn is rebuilt.
1818: December 3, Illinois joins the Union and becomes a state.
1830
August 4, Chicago is surveyed and platted for the first time by James Thompson.
Population: "Less than 100".
1833: Chicago incorporated as a town.
1837
Chicago incorporated as a city.
C.D. Peacock jewelers was founded. It is the oldest Chicago business still operating today.
Chicago receives its first charter.
Rush Medical College is founded two days before the city was chartered. It is the first medical school in the state of Illinois which is still operating.
The remaining 450 Potawatomi left Chicago.
1840
July 10, Chicago's first legally executed criminal, John Stone was hanged for rape and murder.
Population: 4,470.
1844: Lake Park designated.
1847: June 10, The first issue of the Chicago Tribune is published.
1848
Chicago Board of Trade opens on April 3 by 82 local businessmen.
Illinois and Michigan Canal opens and traffic begins moving faster.
Galena and Chicago Union Railroad enters operation becoming the first railroad in Chicago
1849
Wauconda is founded.
1850s–1890s
1850: Population: 29,963.
1851: Chicago's first institution of higher education, Northwestern University, is founded.
1852: Mercy Hospital becomes the first hospital in Illinois.
1853
October: State Convention of the Colored Citizens held in city.
Union Park named.
1854: A cholera epidemic took the lives of 5.5% of the population of Chicago.
1855
Chicago Theological Seminary founded.
April 21, Lager Beer riot.
Population: 80,000.
1856: Chicago Historical Society founded.
1857
Iwan Ries & Co. Chicago's oldest family-owned business opens, still in operation today, the oldest family-owned tobacco shop.
Mathias A. Klein & Sons (Klein Tools Inc.), still family owned and run today by fifth and sixth generation Klein's.
Cook County Hospital opens.
Hyde Park House built.
1859: McCormick Theological Seminary relocated.
1860
September 8, the Lady Elgin Disaster.
Population: 112,172.
Daprato Statuary Company (Currently Daprato Rigali Studios) founded by the Daprato brothers, Italian immigrants from Barga.
1865
Corporal punishment was abandoned in schools.
Population: 178,492.
1866: School of the Art Institute of Chicago founded.
1867
Construction began on the Water Tower designed by architect W. W. Boyington.
Chicago Academy of Music founded.
1868
Rand McNally is formed as a railway guide company.
Lincoln Park Zoo founded.
1869
Chicago Water Tower built.
The first Illinois woman suffrage convention was held in Chicago
The Chicago Club is established.
Washington Square Park being developed.
1870
St. Ignatius College founded, later Loyola University
Population: 298,977.
1871: October 8 – 10, the Great Chicago Fire.
1872
Montgomery Ward in business.
Establishment of the first Black fire company in the city.
1873: Chicago Public Library established.
1875: Holy Name Cathedral dedicated.
1877: Railroad strike.
1878
Art Institute of Chicago established.
Conservator newspaper begins publication.
1879: Art Institute of Chicago founded.
1880: Polish National Alliance headquartered in city.
1881: Unsightly beggar ordinance effected.
1885: Home Insurance Building building was the first skyscraper that stood in Chicago from 1885 to 1931. Originally ten stories and tall, it was designed by William Le Baron Jenney in 1884 Two floors were added in 1891, bringing its now finished height to . It was the first tall building to be supported both inside and outside by a fireproof structural steel frame, though it also included reinforced concrete. A landmark lost to history and is considered the world's first skyscraper.
1886
May 4, the Haymarket riot.
Chicago Evening Post published (until 1932).
1887: Newberry Library established.
1888: Dearborn Observatory rebuilt.
1889
Hull House founded.
Auditorium Building completed.
Auditorium Theatre opened.
1890: The University of Chicago is founded by John D. Rockefeller.
1891
Chicago Symphony Orchestra founded by Theodore Thomas.
Provident Hospital founded.
Serial killer H.H. Holmes murdered at least 5 people in Englewood, Chicago between 1891-1894.
1892
June 6, The Chicago and South Side Rapid Transit Railroad, Chicago's first 'L' line, went into operation.
Masonic Temple for two years, the tallest building in Chicago.
Streetcar tunnels in Chicago (under the Chicago River) in use until 1906.
1893
May 1 – October 30, The World's Columbian Exposition (World's Fair); World's Parliament of Religions held.
October 28, Mayor Carter Harrison, Sr. was assassinated by Patrick Eugene Prendergast.
Sears, Roebuck and Company in business.
First Ferris wheel built by George Washington Gale Ferris Jr.
Art Institute of Chicago building opens.
Monadnock Building completed.
Universal Peace Congress held.
Chicago Civic Federation founded.
1894
May 11 – August 2, the Pullman Strike.
Ženské Listy women's magazine begins publication.
Field Museum of Natural History established.
1895: Marquette Building completed.
1896
1896 Democratic National Convention held; Bryan delivers Cross of Gold speech.
Campaign "to improve municipal service and politics" begun in 1896.
Abeny beauty shop and Tonnesen Sisters photo studio in business.
1897
March 12, The Chicago Elevator Protective Association of Chicago was formed. Later, on July 15, 1901, to become the International Union of Elevator Constructors Local 2.
The Union Loop Elevated is completed.
National union of meat packers formed.
1898: National peace jubilee was held.
1899
Cook County juvenile court established.
Municipal Art League established.
Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building constructed.
1900
Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal opens; the Chicago River is completely reversed.
Municipal Reference Library active (approximate date).
Labor strike of machinists.
Population: 1,698,575.
20th century
1900s–1940s
1902: Meatpacking strike.
1903
December 30, Iroquois Theater Fire
City Club of Chicago formed.
1905
The Industrial Workers of the World was founded in June
Teamsters' strike.
Chicago Defender newspaper begins publication.
City Hall rebuilding completed.
Chicago Federal Building completed.
1906
Municipal court established.
The Chicago White Sox defeated the Chicago Cubs in the only all-Chicago World Series.
Sinclair's fictional The Jungle published.
Chicago Tunnel Company operated a 2 ft. narrow-gauge railway freight tunnel network (until 1959).
1907: Adolph Kroch opens a bookstore which will evolve into Kroch's and Brentano's
1908
The Chicago Cubs win the World Series for the second year in a row
Binga Bank in business.
1909: Burnham's Plan of Chicago presented.
1910: Population: 2,185,283.
July 1: Comiskey Park opened (originally called White Sox Park).
December 22: Chicago Union Stock Yards fire (1910)
1911: Chicago and North Western Railway Terminal completed.
1912:
Harriet Monroe starts Poetry, which will soon make Chicago a magnet for modern poets.
1913
Great Lakes Storm of 1913
Wabash Avenue YMCA opens.
1914: Alpha Suffrage Club active.
April 23: Wrigley Field opened (originally called Weeghman Park).
1915
July 24, the SS Eastland Disaster.
Chicago Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium founded.
1916
Rebuilding of the American Fort
Navy Pier built.
1918
Micheaux Film and Book Company in business.
The Spanish flu killed over 8,500 people in Chicago between September and November 1918.
1919
July 27, the Chicago race riot of 1919.
Real estate broker Archibald Teller opened the first Fannie May candy store.
1920: Population: 2,701,705.
1921
Balaban and Katz Chicago Theatre built, (later the Chicago Theatre).
Field Museum of Natural History relocates to Chicago Park District.
Street-widening and street-opening projects underway.
Medill School of Journalism opens.
1922: Chicago Council on Global Affairs established.
1924
Murder trial and conviction of Leopold and Loeb.
October 9: Soldier Field opened.
1925
Goodman Theatre established.
Chicago railway station opened.
The Tribune Tower was completed on Michigan Avenue. The building's large Gothic entrance contains pieces of stone from other famous buildings: Westminster Abbey, Cologne Cathedral, the Alamo, the Taj Mahal, the Great Pyramid, and the Arc de Triomphe.
1926
Nederlander Theatre opened.
Granada Theatre opened.
1927: Originally called the Chicago Municipal Airport, Chicago Midway International Airport opened. It was renamed in 1949 to honor the Battle of Midway in World War II.
July 28: 27 people, mostly women and children, were killed in the Favorite Boat Disaster.
1929
February 14, the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.
Oscar De Priest becomes U.S. representative for Illinois's 1st congressional district.
Civic Opera Building & Civic Opera House opened.
1930
March 6: 50,000 gather for International Unemployment Day, capping 10 days of protest against Great Depression conditions.
May 12, Adler Planetarium opened, through a gift from local merchant Max Adler. It was the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere.
April 6, Twinkies are in Invented in Schiller Park.
May 30, Shedd Aquarium opens.
The Merchandise Mart was built for Marshall Field & Co. The $32 million, 4.2 million square foot (390,000 m2) building was the world's largest commercial building. It was sold it to Joseph P. Kennedy in 1945.
1933
Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago) opened.
March 6: Mayor Anton Cermak was killed while riding in a car with President-elect Roosevelt. The assassin was thought to have been aiming for Roosevelt.
1933–34: Century of Progress World's Fair.
1934
May 19: Chicago Union Stock Yards fire (1934)
July 1: Brookfield Zoo opened.
July 22: John Dillinger was shot by the FBI in the alley next to the Biograph Theater.
1935
January 19: Coopers Inc. sells the world's first briefs.
Jay Berwanger of the University of Chicago is awarded the very first Heisman Trophy
1937: Labor strike of steelworkers.
1938: Community Factbook begins publication.
1944: Premiere of Williams' play The Glass Menagerie.
1945: Ebony magazine begins publication.
1946: Construction of Thatcher Homes begins.
1948: Chicago Daily Sun and Times newspaper begins publication.
1950s–1990s
1950: Chess Records in business.
1954: Johnson Products Company in business.
1955: The first McDonald's franchise restaurant, owned by Ray Kroc, opened in the suburb of Des Plaines.
1958
December 1, Our Lady of the Angels School Fire.
The last streetcar ran in the city. At one time, Chicago had the largest streetcar system in the world.
1959: Second City comedy troupe active.
1960
September 26: Nixon-Kennedy televised presidential debate held.
The first of the Playboy Clubs, featuring bunnies, opened in Chicago.
1963 – Donald Rumsfeld became U.S. representative for Illinois's 13th congressional district.
1965–66 – The Chicago Freedom Movement, centering on the topic of open housing, paves the way for the 1968 Fair Housing Act.
1966
July 13–14: Chicago student nurse massacre
1967
January 26 – 27, Major snowstorm deposits 23 inches of snow, closing the city for several days.
August 1: maiden voyage of UAC TurboTrain.
1968:
February 7: Mickelberry Sausage Company plant explosion kills nine and injured 70.
August 26 – 29, 1968 Democratic National Convention and its accompanying anti-Vietnam War protests.
1969
October: Weathermen's antiwar demonstration.
December 4: Black Panther Fred Hampton assassinated.
The Chicago 8 trial opens.
The 100-floor John Hancock Center was built.
1970
Soul Train television program begins broadcasting.
Casa Aztlán (organization) founded.
1971: Segundo Ruiz Belvis Cultural Center founded.
1972: Vietnam Veterans Against the War headquartered in Chicago.
1973: Sears Tower, the tallest building in the world for the next 25 years, was completed.
1974: Steppenwolf Theatre Company founded.
1977: Chicago Marathon begins.
1978: First BBS goes online on February 16.
1979
Heavy snowstorm and city's slow response lead to upset of incumbent mayor.
May 25, the American Airlines Flight 191 crashes.
Chicago's first female mayor, Jane M. Byrne, takes office.
Woodstock Institute headquartered in city.
1981: Hill Street Blues television show premieres on January 15.
1982
September – October: Chicago Tylenol murders
1983
Harold Washington became the first African American mayor.
Ordinance banning handguns takes effect.
1984
The Chicago Cubs reach the postseason for the first time since 1945
The Nike shoe Air Jordan is made for superstar basketball player of the Chicago Bulls Michael Jordan.
Heartland Institute headquartered in city.
1986
Oprah Winfrey's Harpo Productions, Inc. in business.
The Chicago Bears win Super Bowl XX
Presidential Towers complex completed
1988
Lights are installed in Wrigley Field
Christian Peacemaker Teams headquartered in city.
1990: Population: 2,783,726.
1991: May 28, at the Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago, Sony proudly revealed that it was working with Nintendo to create a version of the Super NES with an in-built CD drive. The two Japanese companies had been working together in secret on the project, tentatively titled the Nintendo PlayStation, since 1989 and with the hype about CD-ROM reaching fever pitch, Sony’s announcement should have been a highlight of the trade show. Eventually leads to betrayal of the company Nintendo to Sony into Leading to the beginning of PlayStation Counsel.
1992: April 13, the Chicago Flood.
1995
The Chicago Heat Wave of 1995.
Your Radio Playhouse begins broadcasting.
Kroch's and Brentano's, once the largest privately owned bookstore chain in the US, closes.
1996
Chicago hosts the 1996 Democratic National Convention, sparking protests such as the one whereby Civil Rights Movement historian Randy Kryn and 10 others were arrested by the Federal Protective Service.
City website online (approximate date).
1998: The Chicago Bulls won their sixth NBA championship in eight years.
21st century
2001:
9/11
Chicago International Speedway is opened.
Boeing moves its headquarters from Seattle to Chicago
A video game company called Bungie Launches Halo that would give Rise to Microsoft's Xbox counsels.
2002: Lakeview Polar Bear Club founded (now known as the Chicago Polar Bear Club).
2003
Meigs Field closed after having large X-shaped gouges dug into the runway surface by bulldozers in the middle of the night.
Chicago Film Archives founded.
February 17: 2003 E2 nightclub stampede
June 29: 2003 Chicago balcony collapse
2004: Millennium Park opens.
2005
The Chicago White Sox win their first World Series in 88 years.
Regional Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning established.
2006
May 1, the 2006 U.S. immigration reform protests draw over 400,000.
Cloud Gate artwork installed in Millennium Park.
2008: November 4, US President-elect Barack Obama makes his victory speech in Grant Park.
2010
June 28: US supreme court case McDonald v. City of Chicago decided; overturns city handgun ban.
Chicago Blackhawks win the Stanley Cup.
City of Chicago Data Portal launched.
2011
February 2: 900 cars abandoned on Lake Shore Drive due to Blizzard.
March 30: Last of Cabrini Green towers torn down.
Rahm Emanuel becomes mayor.
Population: 8,707,120; metro 17,504,753.
2012
38th G8 summit and 2012 Chicago Summit are to take place in Chicago.
The first of an ongoing franchise of NBC Chicago-set dramas, Chicago Fire, makes its world premiere on WMAQ
2013
Chicago Blackhawks win the Stanley Cup scoring 2 goals in 17 seconds to defeat the Boston Bruins
Robin Kelly becomes U.S. representative for Illinois's 2nd congressional district.
2014:
January: Chiberia
August: Archer Daniels Midland completes its headquarters move from Decatur to the Loop.
November 2: Wallenda performs high-wire stunt.
2015
606 linear park opens.
Chicago Blackhawks win the Stanley Cup yet again for the third time in six years, establishing a "puck dynasty" nationwide and arguably becoming the best team in the NHL.
Video of the murder of Laquan McDonald is released by court order, and protests ensue.
2016:
June 16: McDonald's announces it will move its headquarters from Oak Brook to the West Loop by 2018.
ConAgra completes its headquarters move from Omaha to the Merchandise Mart.
November 2: Cubs win the world series.
2017
January 21: Women's protest against U.S. president Trump.
City approves public high school "post-graduation plan" graduation requirement (to be effected 2020).
2018: Walgreens announces the move of its headquarters from Deerfield, including 2,000 jobs, to the Old Chicago Main Post Office.
2019
May 20: Lori Lightfoot becomes the first female African-American mayor of Chicago.
2020
March 16: First Chicago death due to the COVID-19 pandemic; Governor J.B. Pritzker and Mayor Lori Lightfoot issue a stay at home order. Over 7,700 people in Chicago died in the pandemic.
May 28 – June 1: George Floyd protests in Chicago
2022
May – July: 2022-2023 abortion protests
2023
May 15: Brandon Johnson becomes mayor.
See also
History of Chicago
List of mayors of Chicago
National Register of Historic Places listings in Chicago
References
Further reading
External links
(Sortable by decade)
Timeline of Illinois compiled in 1939 by the Federal Writers' Project
Chicago-related lists
History of Chicago
Chicago
Years in Illinois |
4565664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henderson%20%28surname%29 | Henderson (surname) | Henderson is a surname of Scottish origin. The name is derived from patronymic form of the name Hendry, which is a Scottish form of Henry. In Scottish Gaelic it is rendered MacEanraig (masculine), and NicEanraig (feminine).
The surname Henderson is borne by numerous unrelated families in Scotland. For example, the Hendersons of Fordell, in Fife, were the chief Lowland family of the name, Clan Henderson. The Hendersons of Glencoe, a sept of Clan Donald, derive their surname from the Gaelic MacEanruig.
The surname was unknown in England prior to the 17th century and is first mentioned in a marriage document between one of the Borders Hendersons and the daughter of a Carlisle merchant at Hexham.
A
Adele Dunlap (née Henderson; 1902–2017), American academic and supercentenarian
Ainslie Henderson (born 1979), Scottish singer-songwriter
Alan Henderson (1944–2017), Northern Irish bassist for the rock band Them
Alan Henderson (born 1972), African-American basketball player
Alana Henderson, Northern Irish musician, singer, songwriter, and actress
Alastair Henderson (1911–1979) Scottish footballer
Albert H. Henderson (1893–1951), American lawyer, politician, and judge
Alexander Henderson (disambiguation), several people including:
Alexander Henderson (American politician) (1738–1815), Scottish merchant and politician in Virginia, United States
Alexander Henderson (Canadian politician), historical Member of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, Canada
Alexander Henderson (theologian) (1583–1646), Scottish theologian
Alexander Henderson, 1st Baron Faringdon
Alexander D. Henderson (businessman) (1865–1925), Vice-President and Treasurer of California Perfume Company
Alexander D. Henderson, Jr. (1895–1964), Vice-President of Purchasing, California Perfume Company
Alice Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Alice Henderson (novelist), American author
Alice Corbin Henderson, American poet and editor
Alice Faye Henderson, African-American singer Alice Wonder Land
Alistair Donald Henderson of Fordell, Australian environmental engineer, inventor, and Chief of the Clan Henderson
Andrew Henderson (disambiguation)
Ann Henderson-Sellers, climatologist
Anthony Henderson, African-American rapper Krayzie Bone
Archibald Henderson (1783–1859), fifth Commandant of the US Marine Corps
Archibald Henderson (politician), United States Congressman from North Carolina
Arthur Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Arthur Henderson (1863–1935), British union leader, politician, and Nobel Peace Prize Laureate
Arthur Henderson (VC) (1894–1917), British Army officer
Arthur Henderson, Baron Rowley (1893–1968), British Labour Party politician
B
Barrington "Bo" Henderson, African-American singer
Barry Henderson, Conservative member of the House of Commons
Barton Henderson, Scottish curler, European champion
Biff Henderson, American television personality
Bill Henderson (curler), Scottish curler, European champion
Bill Henderson (Canadian singer), singer and songwriter
Bill Henderson (novelist) (William McCranor Henderson), American novelist, author of I Killed Hemingway
Billy Henderson (disambiguation)
Bobby Henderson, American creator of the satirical parody religion Flying Spaghetti Monsterism
Brian Henderson (disambiguation)
Brodie Henderson (rugby union), Canadian rugby player
Brodie Henderson (engineer), British civil engineer
Brooke Henderson (born 1997), Canadian golfer
Bruce Henderson, American management consultant
Bryan Henderson, American football player
C
C. J. Henderson (disambiguation), multiple people
Cam Henderson, American college sports coach
Camille Henderson, Canadian singer
Carlos Henderson, American football player
Caspar Henderson, British journalist
Charles Henderson (disambiguation), several people including:
Charles Henderson (historian), British antiquarian, historian of Cornwall
Charles Henderson Yoakum, American politician
Charles Roy Henderson, American geneticist and statistician
Charlie Butler-Henderson, British motor racing driver
Caroline Henderson (disambiguation)
Chris Henderson, American soccer player
Claude Henderson, South African cricketer
D
Dan Henderson, American martial arts fighter
Darius Henderson (born 1981), Nottingham Forest football player
Darrell Henderson (born 1997), American football player
David Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
David Henderson (basketball), 1991 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP, head basketball coach at the University of Delaware
David Henderson (British Army officer), senior British Army and, later, RAF officer
David Henderson (economist), chief economist at the OECD in Paris from 1984 to 1992
David B. Henderson, prominent U.S. politician of the 1890s and 1900s
David N. Henderson (1921–2004), U.S. Representative from North Carolina
Dave Henderson, Major League Baseball player
Dave Henderson (footballer), Irish football player
Dean Henderson (born 1997), English footballer
De'Angelo Henderson (born 1992), American football player
Sir Denys Henderson (1932–2016), chairman of Imperial Chemical Industries from 1987 to 1995
Devery Henderson, American football player
Diane Henderson, American applied mathematician
Dick Henderson, English comedian (father of Dickie Henderson)
Dickie Henderson, British comedian
Don Henderson, British actor
Donald Henderson (1928–2016), American epidemiologist who led the World Health Organization's successful World Smallpox Eradication Campaign
Donnie Henderson, American football figure
Doug Henderson (Labour politician) (born 1949), British politician
Douglas Henderson (SNP politician) (1935–2006), British politician
Douglas Mackay Henderson (1927–2007), Scottish botanist
Duke Henderson (1925–1973), American blues shouter and jazz singer
E
Ebenezer Henderson (1784–1858), Scottish minister and missionary
Ebenezer Henderson (writer) (1809–1879), Scottish historian and science writer
Edith Henderson, American landscape architect
Edith Maude Henderson, British writer better known as E. M. Hull
Edmonia Henderson (c.1898 or 1900–1947), American classic female blues singer
Sir Edmund Henderson, head of London Metropolitan Police
Edward Elers Delaval Henderson, British Army officer
Ella Henderson, British singer
Elsie Henderson (1880–1967), British artist
Erica Henderson, American comic artist
Eugénie Henderson (1914–1989), British linguist and academic
F
Faye Henderson, Scottish bagpipe player
Fergus Henderson, British chef
Fletcher Henderson (1897–1952), African-American jazz and swing musician
Florence Henderson (1934–2016), American television actress
Frank Henderson (disambiguation)
Frederick Henderson, CEO of General Motors
G
Gary Henderson (baseball coach), American college baseball coach
George Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
George Henderson (Australian politician), Australian politician
George Henderson (Manitoba politician) (1916–2008), MLA in Manitoba
George Henderson (Prince Edward Island politician), former Member of Parliament in Canada
George Francis Robert Henderson (1854–1903), British soldier and military author
George R. Henderson (1893–1964), World War II-era officer in United States Navy
George Stuart Henderson (c. 1894 – 1920), recipient of the Victoria Cross
George Wylie Henderson (1904–1965), American author of the Harlem Renaissance
Georgie Henderson, New Voyage
Krazy George Henderson, American cheerleader
Gerald Henderson (born 1956), American basketball player
Gerald Henderson Jr. (born 1987), son of the above, also an American basketball player
Gerard Henderson, Australian journalist and commentator
Gilbert Henderson, Canadian sports shooter
Girard B. Henderson, CEO of Alexander Dawson, Inc.
Gordon Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Gordon Henderson (lawyer), Canadian lawyer
Gordon Henderson (politician), British Conservative Member of Parliament
Grace Henderson, American silent film and stage actress
Greg Henderson, professional New Zealand track and road racing cyclist
Greig Henderson, Scottish curler and coach, European champion
Gunnar Henderson (born 2001), American baseball player
Gus Henderson, American football coach
H
Hamish Henderson, Scottish poet
Harold Lloyd Henderson, Canadian Presbyterian minister and politician
Hazel Henderson (1933–2022), British futurist writer
Helen Anne Henderson, Canadian journalist and disability rights activist
Herb Henderson (Australian footballer), Australian rules footballer
Herbert Stephen Henderson, British soldier
Horace Henderson (1904–1988), American jazz musician, brother of Fletcher Henderson
I
Ian Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Ian Henderson (footballer), English football player
Ian Henderson (news presenter), Australian news presenter
Ian Henderson (police officer), former head of secret police in Bahrain, accused of torture
Isaac Henderson, American writer
Ivan Henderson, British politician
J
J. R. Henderson or J. R. Sakuragi (born 1976), American–Japanese basketball player
J. W. Henderson, fourth governor of Texas
Jack Henderson, artist, charity fundraiser
Jack Henderson (author)
Jackie Henderson (1932–2005), Scottish football player
James Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
James Henderson (footballer, born 1867), footballer for Woolwich Arsenal
James Henderson (footballer, born 1870), footballer for Liverpool
James Pinckney Henderson, first governor of Texas
James (Sákéj) Youngblood Henderson, Indigenous law scholar
Jarlath Henderson, Irish folk musician, doctor
Jeremy Henderson (1952–2009), artist
Joe Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Joe Henderson, American jazz saxophonist
Joe Henderson (runner)
Jolene Henderson (born 1991), American softball pitcher
Joseph Henderson (pilot), early American harbor pilot
John Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
John Henderson (Australian rules footballer), Australian rules footballer
John Henderson (darts player)
John Henderson (defensive tackle) (born 1979), American football player
John Henderson (director), British film and television director
John Henderson (ice hockey), Canadian ice hockey player
John Henderson (Mississippi politician) (1797–1857), U.S. senator from Mississippi
John Henderson (Conservative politician) (1888–1975), Conservative MP for Glasgow Cathcart 1946–1964
Sir John Henderson, 5th of Fordell (1605–1650), Scottish soldier who brought his military expertise to the Royalists cause during the English Civil War.
Sir John Henderson, 5th Baronet of Fordell (1752–1817), Scottish nobleman and politician
John B. Henderson (1826–1913), U.S. senator from Missouri and author of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
John D. Henderson ("Colonel Jack" Henderson), American editor and pro-slavery politician
John E. Henderson, American politician
John Ronald Henderson (1920–2003), British Army officer
Jordan Henderson (born 1990), English footballer
Joseph Welles Henderson, lawyer and Bucknell University president
Josh Henderson, American actor
Julian Henderson, Bishop of Blackburn
K
Karen L. Henderson, American judge
Katherine Henderson (1909—unknown), American classic female blues singer
Katherine Henderson (sports executive), Canadian sports executive
Keith Henderson (American football), American football player
Keith Henderson (artist), Scottish painter and illustrator
Kelo Henderson (1923–2019), American film and television actor
Kelson Henderson, Australian actor
Ken Henderson (baseball coach) (born 1960), American college baseball coach
Kenneth Henderson, American politician
L
Larry Henderson, Canadian television journalist
Laura Henderson, English theatrical promoter
Lawrence Joseph Henderson, American scientist
Les Henderson, Canadian consumer-fraud author
Liam Henderson (born 1996), Scottish football player (Celtic FC, Hibernian FC)
Liam Henderson (English footballer) (born 1989), English football player (Watford FC)
Linda Dalrymple Henderson, American art historian
Lofton R. Henderson, World War II aviator
Lois T. Henderson, novelist
Lucius J. Henderson, American silent film director
Luther Henderson, American arranger
Logan Henderson (born 1989), American actor/singer
M
M. R. Henderson, Scottish botanist
Margot Henderson (born 1964), New Zealand chef
Marianne K. Henderson, American biomedical scientist
Marie Therese Henderson, Scottish music director and composer
Mario Henderson (1984–2020), American football player
Marjorie Lyman Henderson, the cartoonist Marge
Mark Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people
Marshall Henderson (born 1990), American basketball player
Martin Henderson, New Zealand actor
Mary Henderson, writer Mary H. Eastman (1818–1887)
Mary Foote Henderson, socialite and wife of Missouri Senator John Brooks Henderson
Mary H. J. Henderson (1874 –1938), World War I Scottish Women's Hospital administrator, suffragist and war poet
Mary Henderson (1919–2004), Greek-British journalist and host
Matt Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Matt Henderson (cricketer) (1895–1970), New Zealand cricketer
Matt Henderson (ice hockey) (born 1974), retired American professional ice hockey player
Meredith Henderson, Canadian actress
Michael Henderson (doctor), (born 1937), Vehicle safety researcher
Monique Henderson, American athlete
Monroe Henderson (1818–1899), New York politician
N
Nekeshia Henderson, American basketball player
Nevile Henderson, British Ambassador to Germany 1937–1939
Nicholas Henderson, British diplomat
Nicky Henderson, British racehorse trainer
Nikki Henderson, (born 1993) British yachtswoman, youngest ever skipper to lead a team in the Clipper Round the World Yacht Race
O
Othello Henderson, American football player
P
Paul Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Paul Henderson (born 1943), Canadian ice hockey player
Paul Henderson (cricketer), English cricketer
Paul Henderson (footballer) (born 1976), Australian football goalkeeper
Paul Henderson (journalist) (1939–2018), American journalist and winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting in 1982
Paul Henderson (rugby union) (born 1964), New Zealand rugby union player
Peter Henderson (disambiguation), multiple people
Q
Quadree Henderson (born 1996), American football player
R
Ray Henderson (born Raymond Brost, 1896–1970)), American songwriter
Richard Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Richard Henderson (biologist) (born 1945), Scottish molecular biologist and biophysicist
Richard Henderson (jurist) ((1734–1785), American pioneer
Richard Alexander Henderson (1895–1958), First World War stretcher-bearer at Gallipoli and the Somme
Rickey Henderson (born 1958), American baseball player
Robert Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Robert Henryson (c. 1425 – c. 1500), Scottish poet
Robert Henderson (Welsh cricketer) (1851–1931), English cricketer
Robert Henderson (writer) (born 1947), English political writer
Rob Henderson (born 1972), English and Irish rugby union footballer
Rosa Henderson (1896–1968), American jazz singer
S
Saffron Henderson, Canadian actress
Safiya Henderson-Holmes (1950–2001), African-American poet
Sákéj Henderson, Indigenous law scholar
Sam Henderson, American comics artist
Sammy Henderson, Scottish footballer
Sara Henderson, Australian writer
Sarah Henderson, Australian politician and former journalist
Scoot Henderson (born 2004), American basketball player
Scott Henderson, American guitarist
Scott Henderson (golfer), Scottish golfer
Sean Henderson, American soccer player
Shirley Henderson, Scottish actress
Skitch Henderson, musician and band leader
Stephen Henderson, Irish footballer
Stewart Henderson, Scottish footballer
T
Thelton Henderson, federal judge
Thomas Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Thomas Henderson (American football), NFL football player
Thomas Henderson (astronomer) (1798–1844), Scottish Astronomer Royal
Thomas Henderson (Liberal politician), Scottish Liberal Member of Parliament for Roxburghshire and Selkirkshire 1922–1923
Thomas Henderson (New Jersey politician), U.S. congressman
Thomas Henderson (New Zealand politician), New Zealand politician
Tom Henderson (Labour politician) (1867–1960), Scottish Labour Cooperative politician
Thomas Finlayson Henderson (1844–1923), Scottish author
Thomas J. Henderson (activist), American businessman
Thomas J. Henderson (politician), United States congressman from Illinois
Tommy Henderson, Northern Ireland politician
Trayvon Henderson (born 1995), American football player
TreVeyon Henderson (born 2002), American football player
U
Ursula Henderson, South Australian politician
V
Valerie Henderson, American footballer
Vicki Butler-Henderson, British racing driver and television presenter
Virginia Henderson, American nurse
W
Wayne Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
Wayne Henderson (footballer), Irish football player
Wayne Henderson (musician), American jazz trombonist
Wesley Henderson (born 1951), African American architect, historian, and educator
William Henderson (disambiguation), one of several people including:
William Henderson (American football), NFL player
William James Henderson, American music critic
William Penhallow Henderson, American painter, architect and furniture designer
William Williams Henderson, American educator
Z
Zac Henderson (1955–2020), American football player
Zenna Henderson, American author
Fictional
Christopher Henderson (character), fictional character portrayed by Peter Weller on the television series 24
Dustin Henderson, fictional character portrayed by Gaten Matarazzo on the Netflix science fiction horror web television series Stranger Things
Rose Henderson (Lost), married name Nadler, character in TV series Lost
Inspector Henderson, character from DC Comics
General James Henderson, president of the International Astrofisical Commission from the television series UFO (his name is probably a reference to Gerry and Sylvia Anderson).
Isaac Henderson, a character from The Mummy (1999 film)
See also
Clan Henderson
Fenderson
References
Clan Henderson
Scottish surnames
Surnames of Scottish origin
English-language surnames
Patronymic surnames
Surnames from given names |
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