Datasets:

devrim
/

wiki-long-subset

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (2)

train · 147k rows

id stringlengths 2 8	url stringlengths 31 206	title stringlengths 1 130	text stringlengths 16.4k 435k
4615758	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec%20society	Aztec society	Aztec society was a highly complex and stratified society that developed among the Aztecs of central Mexico in the centuries prior to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and which was built on the cultural foundations of the larger region of Mesoamerica. Politically, the society was organized into independent city-states, called altepetls, composed of smaller divisions (calpulli), which were again usually composed of one or more extended kinship groups. Socially, the society depended on a rather strict division between nobles and free commoners, both of which were themselves divided into elaborate hierarchies of social status, responsibilities, and power. Economically the society was dependent on agriculture, and also to a large extent on warfare. Other economically important factors were commerce, long-distance and local, and a high degree of trade specialization. Overview Aztec society can trace its roots to Mesoamerican Origins. Their language, lifestyle, and technology were all impacted by contact with neighboring cultures. But, while they were impacted by various sources, they developed their own distinct social groupings, political structures, traditions, and leisure activities. Mesoamerican origins In the middle of the first millennium CE, the first waves of tribes speaking the forefather language of the Nahuan languages migrated south into Mesoamerica. They were nomadic hunter-gatherers and arrived in a region that was already populated by complex societies at a highly advanced technological level. Under the influence of classic Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Teotihuacanos, the Maya, the Totonacs and the Huastecs the proto-Aztecs became sedentary agriculturalists and achieved the same levels of technology as their neighbouring peoples. They held on to their language, many of their religious systems, and probably aspects of their previous social customs. Resultingly the foundations of "Aztec society" were developed as a synthesis between Mesoamerican societies and Aztec traditions, although today it cannot easily be discerned which parts come from where. Aztec society was not isolated from the larger Mesoamerican context, and in fact, most aspects of it were similar in structure to what existed in the surrounding societies. Aztecs The definition of the term "Aztec" which will be applied here is that of Michael E. Smith. He defines "Aztec" as including all the Nahuatl speaking peoples of central Mexico, that is in opposition to a definition restricting the term "Aztec" to cover the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan or the parties in the Aztec Triple Alliance. This definition is referring to specific circumstances of one particular Aztec group it will be done with the ethnonym referring specifically to that group e.g. Mexica for the inhabitants of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Tlaxcaltecs for those from Tlaxcallan and so on. Social organization The most basic social division in Aztec society was that between nobles (Nahuatl pīpiltin) and commoners (Nahuatl mācehualtin). Nobles held a large number of privileges not shared by the commoners, most importantly the right to receive tribute from commoners on their land. Commoners on the other hand were free to own and cultivate land and to manage their own possessions, while still completing the services required by their lords and their calpulli, such as tribute payment and military service. Mobility between the two social layers was difficult, but in practice both the commoner and noble groups were structured into finer hierarchies and a high degree of social mobility was possible within a given layer. For example, the pochteca, long-distance traders, were considered commoners yet at the same time held a number of privileges comparable to those of the lesser nobility. Calpulli The calpulli (from Nahuatl calpulli meaning "big house") was a political unit composed of several interrelated family groups. The exact nature of the calpulli is not completely understood and it has been variously described as a kind of clan, a town, a ward, a parish or an agriculture based cooperative. In Nahuatl another word for calpulli was tlaxilacalli – "a partition of houses". The calpulli was ruled by a local chief (calpuleh), to whom its members were normally related. He provided the calpulli members with lands for cultivation (calpullālli) or with access to non-agricultural occupations in exchange for tribute and loyalty. The calpulli ran a temple for adoration of the calpulli's deity and also a school called the Telpochcalli where young men were trained, predominantly in martial arts. In some Aztec city-states calpullis practiced a specialized or specific trade, and these calpullis functioned something like a medieval trade guild. This was the case in Otompan and in Texcoco and Tlatelolco. Other calpullis were composed of immigrant groups from other areas of Mesoamerica who settled together. There is evidence that Tenochtitlan had calpullis composed of Otomis, Mixtecs and Tlapanecs. Altepetl The altepetl (from Nahuatl āltepētl "water-mountain") was a city-state composed of several calpullis and ruled by a tlatoani. The altepetl was the unit that held sway over a given territory and defended and possibly expanded it by military might. The tlatoani was the head of the most influential calpulli, often because of having the most prestigious lineage. The word altepetl, however, did not only refer to the area but also to its population, and altepetl affiliation is thought to have been the primary criterion for ethnic divisions in Mesoamerica – rather than linguistic affinities. Family and lineage Family and lineage were the basic units of Aztec society. One's lineage determined social standing, and noble traced their lineage back to the mythical past, as they were said to be descended from the god Quetzalcoatl. Prestigious lineages also traced their kin back through ruling dynasties, preferably ones with a Toltec heritage. The extended family group was also the basic social unit and living patterns were largely determined by family ties, because networks of family groups settled together to form calpollis. Lineage was traced through both the maternal and paternal lines, although with a preference for paternal lineage. Marriage Aztec marriage practices were similar to those of other Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Mayans. Aztecs married at a later age, during their late teens and early twenties, whereas in Mayan culture it was not unusual for marriages to be arranged by parents for a son and daughter who were still children. Aztec marriages were initiated by the parents of the potential groom. After consulting with the extended kinship group, the parents would approach a professional matchmaker (ah atanzah), who would approach the potential bride's family. The parents of the young woman would advise the matchmaker whether or not they accepted the proposal. Brides were expected to be virgins before marriage, although young people of both sex were advised to be celibate. Political organization James Lockhart, who specializes in the historical description of the Nahua, said Aztec society was characterized by a "tendency to create larger wholes by the aggregation of parts that remain relatively separate and self-contained brought together by their common function and similarity". This understanding entails a social stratification that is built from the bottom – up, rather than from the top – down. Aztec hierarchy by this understanding was not of the type "where a unit of one type – the capital – controls subordinate units of another type" but instead a type where the main unit is composed out of several constituent parts. Alliances and political hegemony Altepetl states would normally strive to dominate neighboring altepetl through warfare. Weak altepetl would be subjugated by stronger ones and made to pay tribute. Often subordinate altepetl would form alliances in order to overthrow a dominant altepetl. Some alliances were short-lived and others were long-term relationships wherein a group of altepetl would converge to form what could almost be considered a single political entity. One example of a long-term alliance between independent city-states would be that between the four altepetl of Tlaxcallan, Ocotelolco, Tizatlan, Quiyahuiztlan and Tepeticpac, which is normally thought of as a single entity even though it had four independent rulers and a certain level of internal competition. Another is the so-called Aztec Triple Alliance between Tlacopan, Texcoco and Tenochtitlan which was originally formed to end the dominance of the altepetl Azcapotzalco. The Aztec Triple Alliance eventually achieved political hegemony and control over the greater part of Mesoamerica, becoming known to posterity as the Aztec Empire. Recent studies have countered the claim that the Aztec Empire ran the triple alliance by suggesting that Tenochtitlan was actually the dominant altepetl all along. Economics The economic practices of the Aztec relied upon both trade and military conquest. Furthermore, each Altepetl usually produced some form of unique trade good, meaning there were significant merchant and artisan classes. While the Aztec traded with each other and others for goods and services, agricultural trade was less common, leading to a large class of agricultural laborers. Agriculture The pre-conquest Aztecs were an empire that prospered agriculturally, and they did so without the wheel or domestic beasts of burden. They primarily practiced four methods of agriculture: rainfall cultivation, terrace agriculture, irrigation, and Chinampa. The earliest, and most basic, form of agriculture implemented by the Aztecs is known as " rainfall cultivation." The Aztecs implemented terrace agriculture in hilly areas, typically in the highlands of the Aztec Empire. Terracing allowed for an increased soil depth and impeded soil erosion. Terraces were built by piling a wall of stones parallel to the contour of the hillside. Dirt was then filled in, creating viable, flat farmland. There were three distinct types of terrace, each used for specific circumstances: hillslope contour terraces (steeper slopes), semi-terraces (gentle slopes, walls were made with Maguey plants rather than stones), and cross-channel terraces. In the valleys of the empire, irrigation farming was used. Dams diverted water from natural springs to the fields. This allowed for more regular harvests because the prosperity of an irrigated field was not dependent upon the rain. Irrigation systems had been in place long before the Aztecs. However, they built canal systems that were longer and more elaborate than any previous irrigation systems. They even managed to divert a large portion of the Cuauhtitlan River to provide irrigation to large areas. The network of canals was very complex and intricate. In the swampy regions along Lake Xochimilco, the Aztecs implemented a unique method of crop cultivation, chinampas. Chinampas, areas of raised land in a body of water, were created from alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake and plant matter/other vegetation. These "raised beds" were between 2 and 4 meters wide, and 20 to 40 meters long. They rose approximately 1 meter above the surface of the water, and were separated by narrow canals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. The chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. In order to plant on them, farmers first created "seedbeds", or reed rafts, where they planted seeds and allowed them to germinate. Once they had germinated, they were re-planted on the chinampas. This cut the growing time down considerably. Aztec farmers could be divided into general laborers and specialists. General laborers could be slaves, menial workers, or farm hands, while specialists were responsible for things like choosing the most successful seeds and crop rotations. The Aztecs are credited with domestication of the subspecies of wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo, which is native to this region. Warfare Aztec armed forces were typically composed of large numbers of commoners with basic military training, who were stiffened by smaller numbers of professional warriors belonging to the nobility. The professional warriors were organized into warrior societies and often ranked according to their achievements. As the Aztec state was centered on expansion, dominance, and extraction of tribute from other city-states, warfare became the basic dynamic force in Aztec politics, economy, and religion. Trade and commerce Prior to the fall of the Aztec, the Aztec people had a stable economy driven by a successful trade market. The markets, which were located in the center of many communities, were well organized and diverse in goods, as noted by the Spanish conquistadors upon their arrival. The regional merchants, known as tlacuilo, would barter utilitarian items and food, which included gold, silver, and other precious stones, cloth and cotton, animal skins, both agriculture and wild game, and woodwork. The trade market of the Aztec people was not only important to commerce, but also to the socialization, as the markets provided a place for the people to exchange information within their regions. This type of trade market was used primarily for locally produced goods, as there was not much traveling needed to exchange goods at the market. With no domestic animals as an effective way to transport goods, the local markets were an essential part of Aztec commerce. However, the Aztec nobility obtained much of their merchandise from neighboring highland basins, distant places within the empire, and from land beyond the empire therefore creating the need for a long-distance trade organization. The long-distance trade was carried out by merchants called pochteca, who were defined by their positions within the system. These professional merchants occupied a high status in Aztec society, below the noble class. The pochteca were responsible for providing the materials that the noble class used to display their wealth. These materials were often obtained from foreign sources. Due to the success of the pochteca, many of the merchants became as wealthy as the noble class, but were obligated to hide this wealth from the public. The pochteca were an advanced group who reported to 12 locations throughout the Empire, where the high officials were located. The highest officials of the pochteca were the pochteca tlatoque. The pochteca tlatoque were the elder of the pochteca, and were no longer travelers, but rather acted as administrators, overseeing young pochteca and administering the marketplace. The second group of pochteca was the slave traders, known as the tlatoani. These people were often referred to as the richest of merchants, as they played a central role in capturing the slaves used for sacrificial victims. The third group of long-distance traders was the tencunenenque, who worked for the rulers by carrying out personal trade. A group of trader spies, known as the natural oztomeca, made up the last group of pochteca. The natural oztomeca were forced to disguise themselves as they traveled, as they sought after rare goods. The natural oztomeca were also used for gathering information at the markets and reporting the information to the higher levels of pochteca. All trade throughout the Aztec Empire was regulated by officers who patrolled the markets to ensure that the buyers were not being cheated by the merchants. Because markets were so numerous, in large cities reaching upwards of 20,000 people, the organization was crucial, and the Aztecs were able to create a successful market due to the success of enforcing the laws of the empire. Education The Mexica, the founders and dominant group of the Aztec Empire, were one of the first people in the world to have mandatory education for nearly all children, regardless of gender, rank, or station. Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their calpulli. Periodically they attended their local temples, to test their progress. Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings, called huehuetlatolli ("The sayings of the old"), that embodied the Aztecs' ideals. It included speeches and sayings for every occasion, the words to salute the birth of children, and to say farewell at death. Fathers admonished their daughters to be respectful and very clean, but not to use makeup, because they would look like ahuianis. Mothers admonished their daughters to support their husbands, even if they turned out to be humble peasants. Boys were admonished to be humble, obedient and hard workers. Judging by their language, most of the huehuetlatolli who what is that seemed to have evolved over several centuries, predating the Aztecs and most likely adopted from other Nahua cultures. Children were taught at home until about 15 years of age, but all Aztec children, boys and girls, were expected to attend school for some time when they were between 10 and 20 years old. Boys and girls went to school at age 15. There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli, for practical and military studies, and the calmecac, for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The two institutions seem to be common to the Nahua people, leading some experts to suggest that they are older than the Aztec culture. The telpochcalli or House of the Young, taught history, religion, military fighting arts, and a trade or craft (such as agriculture or handicrafts). Some of the telpochcalli students were chosen for the army, but most of them returned to their homes. The calmecac, attended mostly by the sons of pillis, was focused on turning out leaders (tlatoque), priests, scholars/teachers (tlatimini), healers (tizitl) and codex painters (tlacuilos). They studied rituals, ancient and contemporary history, literacy, calendrics, some elements of geometry, songs (poetry), and, as at the telpochcalli, military arts. Each calpulli specialized in some handicrafts, and this was an important part of the income of the city. The teaching of handicraft was highly valued. The healers (tizitl) had several specialities. Some were trained to just inspect and classify medicinal plants, others were trained in the preparation of medicines that were sold in special places (tlapalli). More than a hundred preparations are known, including deodorants, remedies for smelly feet, dentifric paste etc. Also there were tizitl specialized in surgery, digestive diseases, teeth and nose, skin diseases, etc. Aztec teachers (tlamatimine) propounded a spartan regime of education – cold baths in the morning, hard work, physical punishment, bleeding with maguey thorns and endurance tests – with the purpose of forming a stoical people. There is contradictory information about whether calmecac was reserved for the sons and daughters of the pillis; some accounts said they could choose where to study. It is possible that the common people preferred the telpochcalli, because a warrior could advance more readily by his military abilities; becoming a priest or a tlacuilo was not a way to rise rapidly from a low station. Girls were educated in the crafts of home and child raising. They were not taught to read or write. Some of them were educated as midwives and received the full training of a healer; they were also called tizitl. Female tizitl would treat women throughout their reproductive life. They would admonish young wives, and after the second month of pregnancy, they began to watch for any problems. They preferred to save the woman's life over that of a fetus, resorting to embryotomy. Because of this, their work, called temiuxiuliztli, has sometimes been translated as "obstetrics" (Medicine in Mexico, before the Discovery. Dr. Manuel Valdez 1992). All women were taught to be involved "in the things of god"; there are paintings of women presiding over religious ceremonies, but there are no references to female priests. There were also two other opportunities for those few who had talent. Some were chosen for the house of song and dance, and others were chosen for the ball game. Both occupations had high status. Recreation Recreation came in different forms in Aztec society. Ullamaliztli, the ball game, was a large part of the indigenous society and had ritual aspects. Dance, however could be used in many different ways such as entertainment, religion or politics. Ullamaliztli Dance In Aztec society, dance could be used for entertainment, religious and sacrificial purposes, or for politics. When the intent was entertainment, it was performed in either a temple, temple or secluded areas for nobles. These performances often included songs, instrumental music and sometimes comic sketches. When used for religion or sacrifice, it followed the sacred Aztec calendar and its ritual cycle. Dance could also be used in politics to show imperial power and to impress the gods for successful wars and conquest. Bathing and Cleanliness Spanish chronicles describe the bathing habits of the peoples of Mesoamerica during and after the conquest. Bernal Díaz del Castillo describes Moctezuma (the Mexica, or Aztec, emperor at the arrival of Cortés) in his Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España as being "...Very neat and cleanly, bathing every day each afternoon...". Bathing was not restricted to the elite, but was practised by all people; the chronicler Tomás López Medel wrote after a journey to Central America that "Bathing and the custom of washing oneself is so quotidian (common) amongst the Indians, both of cold and hot lands, as is eating, and this is done in fountains and rivers and other water to which they have access, without anything other than pure water..." The Mesoamerican bath, known as temazcal in Spanish, from the Nahuatl word temazcalli, a compound of temaz ("steam") and calli ("house"), consists of a room, often in the form of a small dome, with an exterior firebox known as texictle (teʃict͜ɬe) that heats a small portion of the room's wall made of volcanic rocks; after this wall has been heated, water is poured on it to produce steam, an action known as tlasas. As the steam accumulates in the upper part of the room a person in charge uses a bough to direct the steam to the bathers who are lying on the ground, with which he later gives them a massage, then the bathers scrub themselves with a small flat river stone and finally the person in charge introduces buckets with water with soap and grass used to rinse. This bath had also ritual importance, and was vinculated to the goddess Toci; it is also therapeutic when medicinal herbs are used in the water for the tlasas. It is still used in Mexico. Historical records The sources for information about Aztec society are primarily documents written in the Spanish language in the first century after the Spanish conquest. Important among these are the Florentine Codex, a 12 volume ethnographic description of precolumbian Aztec society compiled by Bernardino de Sahagún, the chronicle of Diego Durán, and the descriptions of the first conquistadors such as those of Hernán Cortés himself and of Bernal Díaz del Castillo. In recent decades the archaeological study of precolumbian Aztec civilization has also unearthed important information about Aztec society which has led to a deeper understanding particularly of social structures and trade. Notes References Bibliography (search return) specifically: Kathleen Kuiper - Pre-Columbian America: Empires of the New World The Rosen Publishing Group, 2010 Society Society of Mexico
4615852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salatiga	Salatiga	Salatiga () is a city in Central Java province, Indonesia. It covers an area of and had a population of 192,322 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 195,065, comprising 96,341 males and 98,724 females. Located between the cities of Semarang and Surakarta, and administratively an independent city enclaved within Semarang Regency, it sits at the foot of Mount Merbabu () and Mount Telomoyo, and has a relatively cool climate due to its elevated position. Salatiga is a part of the Semarang metropolitan area. Etymology Salatiga is thought to be named either after the goddess of Trisala, or after the three wrongs done to the first king of Semarang. In the first explanation, the people of the village celebrate the goddess of Siddhadewi, who is mentioned in the Monolith of Plumpungan. Siddhadewi was also called Trisala, so the village was called Trisala and in the years to come became Salatri and eventually Salatiga. The second explanation is based on the story of Ki Ageng Pandanaran, the first regent of Semarang, who was robbed by three muggers, and he thus named the location Salah Telu. Salah means wrong in both Indonesian and Javanese. Telu is Low Javanese for three, spelled is tiga in both the more refined Middle/High Javanese (but pronounced /tigo/ in Javanese respectively /tiga/ in Indonesian). Hence the name Salatiga from Salah Tiga. History The official birth date of Salatiga is 24 July 750 A.D. (the 31st date and 4th year of the Saka calendar). The scroll Monolith of Plumpungan (Prasasti Plumpungan in Sanskrit) by King Bhanu, declares May you be happy! All the people ("Srir = astu swasti prajabhyah") and designated village of Hampran (Desa Hampran) a Perdikan village (Desa Perdikan, meaning a tax-free village). "Çrirastuswasti Prajabyah" is the official motto of Salatiga as written in the government seal. In 1746, the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC) built De Hersteller fort in Salatiga because Salatiga was strategically located at the intersection between Semarang, Surakarta and Magelang. On 1 July 1917 the village of Salatiga was designated as a stads gemeente or small town by the Dutch East Indies government. In the colonial era, Salatiga was stratified by race. The Europeans lived near the city centre, at the Toentangscheweg (Toentang Road) leading to Semarang and also near to Dutch plantations in the Salatiga Afdeling. The Chinese were based near the trading centre, the Kalicacing Market, at the Soloscheweg (Solo Road). Native people were bound to live outside the European and Chinese communities. The education system was divided accordingly, with different schools for the Europeans, the Chinese and the natives. Salatiga was led by a burgermeester (mayor), assisted by College van Burgermeester en Wethouders. There was a legislative body, the Stadsgemeenteraad; however, its membership was not proportional, with 8 seats for the Europeans, 1 seat for the Chinese, and only 2 seats for the natives who form the majority of the people. The economy of Salatiga was hampered by the world economic depression of the 1930s. To reduce the city's spending the salaries of government officials were cut by up to 15%. Salatiga had an important economic role as a hinterland to Semarang, providing agricultural products like coffee, rubber, cacao, cotton, spices, tobacco, wheat and vegetables to Semarang to be processed. Supported by geographical factors, its mostly mild climate and its luxurious buildings with Indies architecture, Salatiga's beauty was well known during the Dutch colonisation, even it was called De Schoonste Stad van Midden-Java (The Most Beautiful City in Central Java). Administration Before 1992, Salatiga comprised a single administrative district (kecamatan), the Salatiga District. According to Government Regulation No. 69 of 1992, 13 villages from Semarang Regency were moved into Salatiga, and Salatiga District was dissolved. There are now four districts: Argomulyo, Tingkir, Sidomukti, and Sidorejo. These are tabulated below with their population at the 2010 Census and 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2022. The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centes, the number of urban villages (kelurahan) within each district and its post codes. Bordering Salatiga are the following districts of Semarang Regency: To the North: Pabelan (Pabelan and Pejaten villages) and Tuntang (Kesongo and Watu Agung villages) To the South: Getasan (Sumogawe, Samirono and Jetak villages) and Tengaran (Patemon and Karang Duren villages) To the East: Pabelan (Ujung-ujung, Sukoharjo and Glawan villages) and Tengaran (Bener, Tegalwaton and Nyamat villages) To the West: Tuntang (Candirejo, Jombor, Sraten and Gedangan villages) and Getasan (Polobogo village) All these districts are located in Semarang Regency, making Salatiga an enclave within Semarang Regency. Geography Salatiga is located south of Semarang and north of Surakarta. Its elevation is between 450–800 metres. Salatiga has a tropical monsoon climate (Am) in the Köppen climate classification with the average rainfall of per year, the highest temperature in October (24.1 °C) and the lowest in January (22.4 °C). Demographics , Salatiga had a population of 192,322; 95,025 of them were males and 97,297 were females. The official estimate as at mid 2022 was 195,065, comprising 96,341 males and 98,724 females. Religion , Islam was the most practised religion in Salatiga (79.5%), followed by Protestantism (15.8%) and Catholicism (4.7%). Other religions (Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism and aliran kepercayaan) make up less than 1% of the population. Salatiga is repeatedly called "one of the most tolerant cities in Indonesia" and is one of the few cities in Java to hold outdoor Christian festivals during Christmas. On Christmas, an event is held where tens of thousands of congregates from 96 churches within the city gather to worship and celebrate Christmas together in Lapangan Pancasila. The main cause for this event is to tighten the relationship between the churches. Even though it is meant to promote a feeling of unity in the Christian community, the service is open to the public for anyone to join, giving Christmas time a more beautiful sentiment. Ethnicity Salatiga is mainly inhabited by the Javanese, with a sizeable minority of Chinese Indonesians and some Bataks from North Sumatra. As a university town, it also hosts an assembly of other ethnicities from as far as Borneo and New Guinea. In total, there are about 30 ethnicities in Salatiga. Economy Salatiga’s economy rate increased by 22.38% from 2014-2016. About 2 billion rupiah from the data collected in 2016. From lowest to highest divided according to regions, Argomulyo with the lowest economy (Rp 368,741). Sidomukti with Rp 424,301.65, Tingkir with Rp 541,630.14, and the highest, Sidorejo, with Rp 697,593,54. There is an emerging processing industry that includes textile, tires and animal slaughter in Salatiga. In 2000, this industry contributes Rp. 119.76 billion to the economy of Salatiga. Salatiga is located at the intersection to and from Semarang, Surakarta and Yogyakarta, benefiting its trade sector. In 2000, the trade sector contributes Rp 109 billion to the economy of Salatiga. The following are examples of industries within each category in Salatiga: Food PT. Charoen Pokphand PT. Sukasari Mitra Mandiri Cv. Juara Food Industry Perusahaan Abon Abadi SS Beverage PT. Kievit Indonesia PT. Adarasa Putra Jaya PT. Globalindo Perkasa Building materials PT. Tripilar Beton Mas Salatiga PT. Trikartika Megah Salatiga PT. Agric Amarga Jaya (Tobacco Processing) PT. Daya Manungal Textiles – Damatex) PT. Selalu Cinta Indonesia (Leather or Items of Leather and Footwear) PT. Indo Sakura Indah (Polivinyl Products) PT. Unza Vitalis (Cosmetics) PT. Formulatrix (Computer and Electronic Products) PK. Mulyo (Furnitures) Cuisine Ronde Sekoteng Jago This dessert is one of the most popular dishes in Salatiga. Ronde sekoteng jago is made of 9 different ingredients which consist of ginger, sugar, ronde (sticky rice ball filled with crushed peanut), dried fruits, sagu delima (tapioca pearl), kolang-kaling (sugar palm fruit), and seaweed. That variety of ingredients makes ronde sekoteng jago a unique, delicious and popular choice. Warung Sate Sapi Suruh Sate Sapi Suruh is a popular street food vendor in Salatiga. Sate Sapi Suruh serves skewered beef grilled over a charcoal fire until tender. These satay are served with their specialty peanut sauce and lontong/ketupat (Rice wrapped banana leaf and steamed). Bakso Sari Roso ABC Bakso Sari Roso ABC is located on Jl. Jendral Sudirman 274, Salatiga. Its location is very strategic that even people from outside Salatiga can quite easily locate this place. A portion of Bakso Sari Roso ABC contains just several beef bakso but, despite its simplicity, the flavor it presents is loved by locals and visitors alike. Bakpao Luber Bakpao Luber is located at Jl. Sukowati No. 5, Kalicacing, Salatiga. Bakpao Luber is a Chinese steamed bun filled with various fillings. Bakpao luber offers lots of bakpao fillings, but most people choose chocolate and cheese as their favorite. The price of one bakpao is around Rp 10,000 – Rp 12,000. Singkong Keju D-9 Singkong Keju D-9 is located at Jl. Argowiyoto No. 8A, Ledok, Salatiga. Singkong Keju D-9 is cassava that is seasoned using spices ans mixed with cheese with various flavour varieties, making it a great quality and delicious product that many people outside Salatiga come to buy Singkong Keju D-9. Tumpang Koyor Tumpang Koyor is an original food from Salatiga that is loved and enjoyed by locals. Tumpang Koyor is made from beef and brisket fat and cooked with various spices. Tumpang Koyor is a popular dish in Salatiga, therefore, you can easily find tumpang koyor anywhere in Salatiga. The price of one portion of tumpang koyor is around Rp 15,000 – Rp 35,000. Enting Enting Gepuk Enting enting gepuk is an original, and unique light food/snack from Salatiga. Enting Enting Gepuk featured peanuts as its main ingredient. Enting Enting Gepuk in its triangular prism shape, and wrapped in paper is a Salatiga specialty. The flavor of it is sweet, tasty, a little savory, with a crunchy and crumbly texture, and the distinctive taste of peanut is very dominant. Soto Esto Soto is a favorite choice for breakfast in Salatiga. One of the most popular soto in Salatiga is Soto Esto. Soto Esto is located at Jl. Langensuko No. 4, Salatiga. The difference between soto esto and other soto is that other soto places have clear soup, but soto esto uses coconut milk that makes it distinctly yellowish in color. A portion of soto esto contains rice, with Soto Esto’s signature soup, in combination with shredded chicken and bean sprouts, then sprinkled with chopped celery leaves. Keripik Paru Keripik Paru is a popular snack from Salatiga that is loved by Javanese people. Keripik Paru can be categorized as snack as well as a side dish. Keripik Paru is made from cow’s lung that has been thinly sliced then fried in a seasoned flour. People might be tricked by the appearance keripik paru before they taste its delicious savory flavor. Government Office Mayor's Office (Kantor Walikota) is located on Jl. Letjen Sukowati No. 74, Salatiga, Jawa Tengah, 50724. Regional House of Representatives Office (Kantor DPRD) is located on Jl. Sukowati No. 51, Kalicacing, Sidomukti, Salatiga, 50724 Courthouse (Kantor Pengadilan) is located on Jl. Veteran No. 6, Ledok, Kec. Argomulyo, Salatiga, Jawa Tengah, 50732. Class 1B Salatiga Religious Court (Kantor Pengadilan Agama Salatiga Kelas 1B) is located on Jl. Lingkar Selatan, RT.014/RW.005, Jagalan, Cebongan, Kec. Argomulyo, Salatiga, Jawa Tengah, 5073. Civil Registry Service Office (Kantor Disdukcapil) is located on Jl. Pemuda No. 2, Salatiga. The role of the Service Office is to assist the Mayor in the performance of government affairs under the jurisdiction of the city in the field of population administration and civil registration, as well as in the tasks of assistance assigned to the region. Following is the contact info: Ph. (0298) 312650, Email: [email protected]. Education Office (Kantor Dinas Pendidikan) is located on Jl. LMU Adisucipto No. 2, Salatiga. Following is the contact info: Ph. (0298) 324979, Fax. (0298) 324844. Public Health Office (Kantor Dinas Kesehatan) is located on Jl. Hasanudin No. 110 A, Mangunsari, Sidomukti, Salatiga, Jawa Tengah, 50721 The role of the Service Office is to assist the Mayor in the performance of government affairs which fall under the health authority of the Region and to assist the tasks assigned to the Region in the area of health. Youth and Sports Office (Kantor Dinas Kepemudaan dan Olahraga) is located on Jl. LMU Adi Sucipto No. 2 (Gor Pelajar Hati Beriman), Salatiga, 50711. Department of Tourism and Culture (Kantor Dinas Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata) is located on Jl. Diponegoro No.37, Salatiga, Sidorejo, Kec. Sidorejo. The Office of Culture and Tourism is responsible for carrying out the governmental affairs of the city of Salatiga in the cultural and tourism sector on the basis of the concept of regional autonomy. They have the authority to grant permits relating to cultural fields, such as cultural events, the conversion of historic buildings and others. Following is the contact info: Ph. (0298) 3432437. Transportation Service Office (Kantor Dinas Perhubungan) is located on Jl. Magersari No.166, Tegalrejo, Kec. Argomulyo, Salatiga, 50724. Women's Empowerment and Child Safety Office (Kantor Dinas Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak) is located on Jl. Hasanudin No. 114 B Salatiga. Office of Manpower (Kantor Dinas Tenaga Kerja) is located on Jl. Ki Penjawi No.12a, Sidorejo Lor, Sidorejo, Salatiga, 50714. Communication and Information Technology Office (Kantor Dinas Komunikasi dan Informatika) is located on Letjend., Jl. Sukowati No.51, Kalicacing, Sidomukti, Salatiga, 50724. Infrastructure Transport Salatiga is traversed by provincial road that connects Semarang and Surakarta. Tingkir Terminal is the main bus station in Salatiga, serving intercity buses. The Tamansari Terminal serves angkot (share taxis), even though most of the angkot did not stop at the terminal. The Semarang–Solo Toll Road section Bawen-Salatiga was inaugurated on 25 September 2017. There is a plan to build a junction with the toll road at Pattimura Street, closer to the city centre than the current junction, to prevent Salatiga from becoming a dead city. Angkot As a small city between Solo and Semarang. Salatiga has adequate transportation facilities. With an area of approximately , Salatiga has 423 units (updated 24 May 2016) of urban transportation (angkot). Angkot in the City of Salatiga is divided into 15 different routes which are centered in front of Ramayana Salatiga, Tamansari. These 15 routes have been able to cover all areas in Salatiga. Bus Salatiga has three bus terminals Terminal Tingkir which serves buses for AKDP Central Java and AKAP Central Java, such as Jakarta, Denpasar, Bali. Terminal Tamansari which serves the inner city route. Pasar Sapi Terminal which serves the Upper Salatiga area (Getasan, Kopeng, Ngablak, and Magelang city). For inter-city transportation, Salatiga has city buses Esto, Sawojajar, Konco Narimo, Tunas Mulya, Safari, Galaksi Taxi and Matra Taxi with destinations around the city of Salatiga. Ring Road Jalan Linkar Selatan Salatiga (Salatiga’s Ring Road) runs from the northwestern end of the city to the southeastern end. It runs long in an arc around the southwestern edge of the city. Jalan Lingkar Selatan Salatiga was planned in 1994 and was finalized in 1999. Construction only began in 2005 and was completed in 2016. Water supply Clean water is supplied by PDAM Salatiga. The water comes from Kaliombo, Senjoyo, Kali Golek Senjoyo, and Kaligetak water springs. Hospitals The Salatiga Regional Public Hospital (RSUD) operates for public use. It is located at Jl. Osamaliki No. 19 in Sidomukti, Salatiga. This being a Type B hospital, it provides facilities such as general medical services, emergency services, basic specialist medical services, medical support specialist services, other specialist medical services, oral dental specialist medical services, subspecialty medical services, nursing and midwifery services, clinical support services, and non-clinical support services. The Dr. Asmir Hospital is a military hospital that operates for public use as well as for military personnel. It is located at Jl. Dr. Muwardi No. 50 Salatiga, though it used to operate at a different location, and was moved to its current location in 1967 at the request of the local government. This being a Type C hospital, it provides general medical services, emergency services, basic medical specialists, medical support specialists, oral dental specialists, nursing and midwifery, as well as clinical and non-clinical support services. The Salatiga Puri Asih Hospital operates for public use. It is located at Jl. Jend. Sudirman No.169, Gendongan, Salatiga. This is a Type C hospital. The Pulmonary (Lung) Hospital by Dr.Ario Wirawan is located at Jl.Hasanuddin No.806, Salatiga. Dr Ario Wirawan Hospital was used as a referral hospital during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is a class A hospital that has been established since 1934. It is now owned by the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia. RSIA Hermina Mutiara Bunda is located at Jl.Merak No.8, Sidomukti, Salatiga. It was founded in 2004 by Dr. Robby Hernawan, Sp. OG (K) dan Dr. Hj. Emilia Pratiwi. In 2012, Mutiara Bunda Maternity Hospital developed into a Maternity Hospital and, in the same year, they received national accreditation certification as a class C hospital. Education Tertiary education Salatiga has several universities and colleges: Satya Wacana Christian University (UKSW), the largest university in Salatiga with 14 Faculties and 3 Doctoral studies, and 14,000 students and 300 faculty members. It was founded in 1956. State Institute for Islamic Studies Salatiga (IAIN Salatiga), an Islamic College specialising in Education. Now, the largest High Education Institution in Salatiga, which is accept up to 10,000 students per year with Five Faculty (Fakultas Tarbiyah dan Ilmu Keguruan, Fakultas Ekonomi dan Bisnis Islam, Fakultas Syariah, Fakultas Dakwah, Fakultas Ushluhuddin, Adab dan Humaniora dan Sekolah Pascasarjana). Let's join us, Spirituality, Intellectuality, Professionalism Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi (STIE AMA), a private college specialising in Economics There are some Sekolah Tinggi Teologi (College of Christian Theology) in Salatiga such as STT Salatiga, STT Sangkakala, STT Efata, STT Berea, STT Nusantara, and The Theological Faculty of Satya Wacana Christian University (UKSW). The latter is one of the best theological schools in the nation, as it has been A-accredited by the National Accreditation Agency for Higher Education (BAN-PT). Schools There are 96 elementary schools, 27 junior high schools, 33 senior high schools, and 19 vocational schools in Salatiga. Schools in Salatiga are normally affiliated with the government, universities, or religious institutions. In the past, state-run schools are generally sought after for their quality and subsidised cost however this had changed significantly. Students also generally compete by using final examination grades and written examinations to enter the more popular schools. Salatiga has one international English-speaking school at elementary and secondary level (Mountainview International Christian School). Public Schools SMANSSA Salatiga is one of three public senior highschools in Salatiga. It is located at Jl. Kemiri No. 1, Salatiga. This school has become the choice of many students aiming to enroll in both public and private universities in various regions of Indonesia, such as UI, UGM, ITB, IPB, Undip, ITS, UNS and so on. SMP Negeri 4 Salatiga is one of the first public junior highschools in Salatiga that is an A accredited school. SMP Negeri 4 is more commonly known as Nepatsa. It is located at Jl. Patimura No. 47 Salatiga. SMK Negeri 3 Salatiga is a highschool that uses the SMK curriculum. It is located at Jl. Jafar Shodiq, Tingkir, Salatiga and was founded on May 21, 2007 in agreement with the government of Salatiga. At first, the highschool was called SMK Negeri 1 but on 20 July 2007 its name was officially changed to SMK Negeri 3 Salatiga. Private Homeschools Destiny Institute is a school that uses a homeschool curriculum, as well as being a private school. Private Schools Mountainview Christian School Salatiga is an Indonesian international school that provides Christian education for the children of Christian missionary families. It is well known for its sports programs and events, and provides boarding programs for students to live in dormitories during the school year. It is possible for both international and students living and originating within the country to enroll. Jungle School is an Indonesian, privately owned experimental school, accepting students ranging from the ages 2 to Elementary-aged students. It is located at Jl. Setiaki, Sidomukti, Salatiga. It is an English-speaking school that currently provides non-formal education for children from over 15 countries, including Indonesian residents, and is accepting more. It is well-known for providing facilities without electricity, and integrating education into a natural environment for the students to learn in and about. SMA Kristen Satya Wacana is a private school located at Jl. Diponegorono 52-60, in the city of Salatiga, founded by Willi Toisuta Ph.D, who was then the UKSW Rector. It is more commonly known as Lab School. It implements the 2013 curriculum, which provides programs such as specialization in math and natural sciences, social sciences, language and culture, as well as sports programs. SMA Kristen 1 Salatiga was founded on 1 June 1951 by PPKJTU (Perkumpulan Perguruan Kristen Jawa Tengah Utara). SMA Kristen 1 Salatiga is located at Mangunsari, Sidomukti, Salatiga City, Central Java 50721. The current headmaster of SMA Kristen 1 Salatiga, as of the year 2021, is Dra. Kriswinarti. Sports Centres Lapangan Kridanggo Salatiga is a local stadium that is located near RSUD Salatiga at Jl. Stadion, Sidomukti. It was first renovated in 2005, then in 2015, and most recently in 2018 until now. Lapangan Kridanggo has an impressive view of Mount Merbabu, Telomoyo, and Merapi. One of Indonesia’s football legends, Bambang Pamungkas, had trained at Lapangan Kridanggo Salatiga. Lapangan Tenis Kridanggo is an indoor court. It is located at Jl. Stadion, Sidomukti, Salatiga. It was once used by KONI (National Sports Committee of Indonesia) for a tournament that hosted visitors from various other cities. Lapangan Pancasila Salatiga is a tourist attraction. It is located at Jl. Ahmad Yani no. 100, Kalicacing, Salatiga. It is used by many locals to exercise in. Locals usually use Lapangan Pancasila for a daily exercise, such as jogging, calisthenics, etc.. There are some exercise facilities that are available for public use. Arena Futsal Centre is a local futsal place located at Jl. Cemara Raya no. 838, Salatiga. It opens at 8am to 9pm throughout the week. Muncul is a swimming pool that sources its water from a natural spring in Mt. Telomoyo. It is located near Bukit Cinta, Banyubiru. The water is kept very cold and refreshing. It has become a tourist destination for some, and for most, it is used by people from Ungaran, Salatiga and even Semarang for a daily swim. The entry ticket is 5,000 Rupiah as of March 2021. The Kalitaman Swimming Pool is an affordable pay-to-enter swimming area for general use. It is located at Jl. Kalitaman No.3, Kutowinangun Kidul, Salatiga. It provides a clean swimming area with one uniqueness that allows for clean freshwater to pump in from the holes in the bottom of the pool. It has other facilities such as a canteen, and has hosted many sporting events such as Porseni, Popda, and Salatiga Cup. This pool’s history dates back to the Dutch colonial area in 1927, when it was built as a bathing area, though it was only for the use of the Dutch residents who lived nearby, where it was then reclaimed by the Salatiga Local Water Company as a public swimming pool in 2005. Tourism Saloka Saloka theme park, with an area of , is the largest theme park at Central Java located a mere from the border of Salatiga. This amusement park has 25 rides with the theme of the legend of the people of Central Java. Alongside recreational tourism, Saloka theme park also provides educational tourism with their indoor science museum. Mt. Merbabu Mount Merbabu is part of the district areas of Magelang, Boyolali and Semarang. There are 5 hiking routes to this mountain. One of the bases, is Basecamp Chuntel in Kopeng, Salatiga. From this base, the route trails through steep and extreme landscaping with the final destination arriving at the northern side of Mount Merbabu. Kopeng Treetop Adventure Park Kopeng Treetop Adventure Park is a tourist attraction set in nature. This recreational park is located in the woods at the foot of Merbabu Mountain and has become a popular attraction for families who wish to spend their weekends or holidays with a refreshing activity in nature. Arts and Festivals Indonesian International Culture Festival (IICF) A parade (organized by UKSW, a local university) dubbed as the Indonesian International Culture Festival, or IICF, is held annually in mid-April, where marchers dress in distinct, traditional clothing to represent different tribes and ethnicities. The parade follows a chosen theme for that particular year, often with strong tones of nationalism and unity in the differences notably between the more than a thousand tribes. Drumblek The parade marches their route throughout the city, announcing their presence with music played by a Drumblek, which is a traditional drum band originated in Salatiga. This form of cultural music is played from repurposed materials such as barrels. It was pioneered by the artist Didik Subiantoro Masruri in 1986. This particular band style based on recycled items was a result of the lack of funds in celebration of Indonesia’s Independence Day. Chinese New Year Chinese New Year is a festive time in Salatiga. On the fifteenth and last day of celebration, also called Cap Go Meh, can be witnessed a compelling performance of a large dragon puppet, the Barongsai. This puppet is usually played by two or more people, performing an entrancing Chinese traditional dance at Klenteng Hok Tek Bio and along Sukowati street, where the temple is located. On this special day, civilians gather around the temple where a big celebration filled with performances is held and angpao (red envelope) is given out. Mural Village Murals are found all over the city. The catalysts range from groups of 15 artists to underground, solo artists. Nonetheless, their impressive talents reward the city with colorful art that convey important messages enjoyed by civilians and visitors alike. A village, Pancuran, is entirely painted in art and became known as the “Mural Village”. Festival Mata Air In 2005, a group of local artworkers in Salatiga formed a community, Tanam Untuk Kehidupan (“Planting for Life”). In 2006, the community organized a three-day festival with the intention of raising awareness of environmental and especially water issues through cleaning programs and re-utilizing the garbage into hand-crafted arts. This festival, named “Festival Mata Air” (“Spring Festival”), was held annually, the first festival in November, 2006. The last festival was held in 2016, at a spring in Muncul, where a team of 170 people retrieved a staggering 1,800 kilograms of trash which was later repurposed. Salatiga 'How Art you' Salatiga “How Art You” is a community fest held for enthusiasts to share their appreciation for arts, theaters, dances, and visuals, as well as introducing these arts to a public audience through performances, and to provide young, rising artists a space to develop their talents and love of art. The event has been held annually since 2015 in the form of an exhibition, where artists are welcome to sell their works to the visitors. The last festival was held in 2019 at the mayor's official residence (Rumah Dinas Walikota Salatiga). Landmarks Tugu Jam Tamansari Tugu Jam Tamansari is a historical monument, a clock, that has been known as the central point of the city of Salatiga since colonial times. Unto this day, the monument remains the center of the downtown area of Salatiga and has become an important landmark for the reason of its historical background. Pancasila Park Alun Alun Pancasila is a city park that has been around for a long time. It is a favorite choice of destination for local civilians to spend their leisure time. In the park is a monument with statues of the three national heroes of Indonesia who were born in the city of Salatiga: Brigadier General Sudiarto, Admiral Madya Yosaphat Soedarso, and Marshal Muda Agustinus Adisucipto. Architecture Salatiga is a small town that connects Semarang and Solo. Thus, Salatiga provided a lot of the infrastructure as a resting point for the Dutch. During the Dutch Colonial era, Salatiga was considered as De schoonste stad van Midden Java, which translates to,“The Most Beautiful Town in Middle Java,“ in Dutch. There’s a few building from Dutch Colonial Era like Bus stop, Salatiga Mayor's Office, and The building of Korem Makutarama Salatiga. Some of the buildings mentioned still stand until today. Gallery References Cited works External links Salatiga historical photo archives Populated places in Central Java Tuntang basin
4616525	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%20to%20Normal	Next to Normal	Next to Normal is a 2008 American rock musical with book and lyrics by Brian Yorkey and music by Tom Kitt. The story centers on a mother who struggles with worsening bipolar disorder and the effects that managing her illness has on her family. The musical addresses grief, depression, suicide, drug abuse, ethics in modern psychiatry, and the underbelly of suburban life. Before its Off-Broadway debut, Next to Normal received several workshop performances and won the Outer Critics Circle Award for Outstanding New Score and received Drama Desk Awards nominations for Outstanding Actress (Alice Ripley) and Outstanding Score. After its Off-Broadway run, the show played from November 2008 to January 2009 at the Arena Stage while the theater was in its temporary venue in Virginia. The musical opened on Broadway in April 2009. It was nominated for eleven Tony Awards that year and won three: Best Original Score, Best Orchestration, and Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical for Alice Ripley. It also won the 2010 Pulitzer Prize for Drama, becoming the eighth musical in history to receive the honor. In awarding the prize to Kitt and Yorkey, the Pulitzer Board called the show "a powerful rock musical that grapples with mental illness in a suburban family and expands the scope of subject matter for musicals." The first US tour launched in November 2010, with Alice Ripley reprising her Broadway role; the tour concluded in July 2011. The Broadway production closed on January 16, 2011, after 20 previews and 734 regular performances. There have been numerous international productions. Synopsis Act I Diana Goodman, a suburban mother with bipolar disorder, stays up late awaiting the return of her son Gabe, who has broken curfew. Also awake is Diana's daughter Natalie, an overachieving high school student who is stressfully studying for an upcoming test. Diana encourages her daughter to take a break and rest. Soon after, Gabe returns home, and Diana's husband, Dan, awakes to help the family prepare for the day ("Just Another Day"). Diana prepares a meal for her family, but Dan and Natalie stop her when they realize the sandwiches she is making cover every kitchen surface. As Dan helps the disoriented Diana, Natalie and Gabe leave for school. Natalie releases some pent-up anger and frustration as she practices for an upcoming piano recital in the school's music room ("Everything Else"), where she meets Henry, a classmate who has been admiring Natalie from afar. Meanwhile, Diana repeatedly visits her psychiatrist's office, where she is prescribed a variety of medications that all prove to cause debilitating physical side effects; Dan waits through her appointments in the car while he questions his own sanity ("Who's Crazy?/ My Psychopharmacologist and I"). When Diana is given a medication that numbs and rids her of all feelings, the doctor pronounces her stable and sends her on her way. After witnessing a romantic moment between Natalie and Henry ("Perfect For You"), Diana mourns the loss of her old life, longing for the days she lived in both pain and joy, as opposed to the numbness her new medication has caused ("I Miss the Mountains"). At Gabe's suggestion, she flushes her medications. Meanwhile, Dan arranges a family dinner, inviting Henry to join them ("It's Gonna Be Good"). When Diana brings to the table a cake for Gabe's birthday, Dan gently reminds her that Gabe, in fact, died nearly sixteen years ago, and her visions of him throughout the show have only been hallucinations ("He's Not Here"). After an upset Natalie runs to her bedroom, Dan clears off the dinner table while Diana reveals she has stopped her medication. As he tries to empathize with her, she becomes angry, saying he could not possibly understand the pain she is going through ("You Don't Know"). Dan begs her to let him help however he can, reminding her of his faithfulness and patience thus far, but is interrupted by a vision of Gabe, whom only Diana can see. Diana immediately clings to her son, rejecting Dan's offer of comfort ("I Am the One"). Upstairs, Natalie vents to Henry over her mother's attachment to the dead Gabe. Diana overhears their conversation and offers the only comfort she is capable of giving, telling Natalie, "I love you as much as I can" ("Superboy and the Invisible Girl"). Diana visits a new doctor, who performs talk therapy and hypnosis on her. During their session, she sees Gabe, who asserts his dominance over her and the control he has in her life ("I'm Alive"). Diana reveals intimate details about the effects of her illness, saying that she was unable to hold Natalie in the hospital when she was born. Meanwhile, Natalie botches an important piano recital upon discovering her parents are not in the audience ("Make Up Your Mind/ Catch Me I'm Falling"). Diana's doctor encourages her to go home, spend time with Natalie, and clean out a box of Gabe's old things in an attempt to let him go. Diana agrees but is confronted with a hallucination of Gabe while sorting through a box in their basement ("I Dreamed a Dance"). Gabe convinces her to commit suicide, saying it is the only way they can be together ("There's a World"). Diana is hospitalized after her suicide attempt fails, and Dr. Madden tells Dan that electroconvulsive therapy is one of the only options they have left. Dan returns home to clean up the scene of his wife's attempt at suicide, narrowly avoiding a breakdown of his own as he reminisces about the years spent with Diana (“I’ve Been”). Natalie finds him and is angry to discover that he has agreed to the doctor's recommendation of shock therapy. Upon returning to the hospital, he finds that Diana has become aggressive with the staff for wanting her to sign the confirmation papers, likening the idea of shock therapy to its depiction in the film One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest ("Didn't I See This Movie?"). However, after clearing the room, he manages to convince her of the necessity of this treatment, saying it is the only way they can get back to normal ("A Light in the Dark"). Diana reluctantly agrees and signs the papers. Act II Diana receives a series of ECT treatments over two weeks. Meanwhile, Natalie experiments with drugs and frequently goes clubbing, being rescued most nights by Henry, who sees her home safely. On one occasion, she seems to share a hallucination with her mother, highlighting some of the parallels between their emotional states ("Wish I Were Here"). Upon Diana's return home from the hospital, it is revealed that she has lost her memories of the last nineteen years due to the shock therapy – including the memory of her deceased son ("Song of Forgetting"). During this song Natalie expresses concerns over the efficacy of this "cure" claiming her mind is "so pure she doesn't know anything" while Dan remains hopeful about the eventual return of Diana's memory. Henry, who has been finding Natalie passed out at clubs and driving her home, asks Natalie to the upcoming school dance, an invitation which she immediately declines ("Hey #1"). Meanwhile, Dan questions Dr. Madden over Diana's memory loss, learning it is a relatively common side effect of ECT ("Seconds and Years"). Because Gabe's death was the start of a lifetime of depression, Dan hesitates to remind her of it. At home, he and Natalie help Diana sort through a box of pictures and memories of her old life, leaving out any mention of Gabe's existence ("Better Than Before"). However, Diana is briefly confronted afterward by Gabe, who hints that she has forgotten a vital part of her life ("Aftershocks"). Meanwhile, Henry again invites Natalie to the dance but is turned down again ("Hey #2"). Diana visits Dr. Madden, who accidentally reveals the existence of her son, unaware that Dan has not yet done so ("You Don't Know (reprise)"). After learning this, Diana returns home and searches through Gabe's old belongings, finding the music box that helped him sleep as an infant. When Dan finds her revisiting the night their son died, he reluctantly reminds her that their son had died of an illness all of the doctors missed ("How Could I Ever Forget?"). Diana confusedly admits she recalls hallucinating Gabe as a teenager, and Dan frantically says they will get her to the doctor and do more ECT ("It's Gonna Be Good (reprise)"), which leads to a heated argument between the two that Natalie witnesses the peak of. After Natalie runs upstairs to her bedroom, where Henry is waiting to talk with her, Diana questions Dan about why he stays, despite all of the things she puts him through and all the pain they have experienced together. He reminds her of their wedding vows and promises to see their relationship through, no matter how much she pushes him away. Upstairs, Henry makes a similar pledge to Natalie ("Why Stay?/A Promise"). However, Diana again sees Gabe and is immediately entranced by him, drawn away from Dan ("I'm Alive – Reprise"). Though Dan begs her to stay, Diana leaves and visits Dr. Madden, frustrated that years of treatment haven't seemed to improve her condition, and wonders if her grief over losing her son should truly be medicated ("The Break"). Dr. Madden pleads with her to stay with him, recommending more shock treatment and other medications, but she leaves the appointment ("Make Up Your Mind/Catch Me I'm Falling (reprise)"). Upon returning outside, she connects with Natalie for the first time, noting the similarities between the two of them and truly making an effort to connect with her for possibly the first time. They embrace and agree that somehow they will get a life somewhere next to normal, and Diana drives Natalie to the dance to meet Henry ("Maybe"). At the dance, Natalie voices her concerns to Henry that she will someday end up with the same issues as her mother, though Henry promises to stand by her no matter what, and the two kiss ("Hey #3/ Perfect For You (reprise)"). Diana returns home and tells Dan she is leaving him, saying that though she still loves him, they both must finally come to terms with their grief on their own ("So Anyway"). Devastated, Dan looks back on his years of faithfulness to her and sees Gabe for the first time ("I Am the One (reprise)"). The two share an embrace, and Dan says Gabe's name for the first and only time in the show. Gabe disappears, and Natalie returns home to find that her mother is gone. She continues her relationship with Henry, and Diana has moved in with her parents temporarily, still depressed but more hopeful than she's ever been. Dan visits Dr. Madden, who gives him the name of another psychiatrist he can talk to. Gabe is seen by the audience one final time, this time relaying a message of hope as opposed to the threatening, ominous persona he has previously taken, and the family adjusts to their new way of life ("Light"). Characters Note: These descriptions come from the Characters section in the script. Diana: "A suburban mother. Sharp. Delusional bipolar depressive. Thirties or forties." Gabe: "Diana's son who died as a baby. He comes back to her in visions as a teenager." Dan: "Diana's husband. Handsome. Genuine. Constant. Tired. Thirties or forties." Natalie: "Diana's daughter. Sixteen and trying to be perfect. It's not going well." Henry: "Musician. Romantic. Stoner. Slacker. Philosopher king. Seventeen." Doctor Madden: "On the young side of ageless. Assured. A rock star." Doctor Fine: A Psychopharmacologist. Musical numbers Note: The song titles are not listed in the program 2008 Off-Broadway Act I "Prelude" – Orchestra "Preprise – Let There Be Light" – Dan, Natalie, Diana "Just Another Day" – Diana, Natalie, Gabe, Dan "Everything Else" – Natalie "More... And More... And More" – Diana, Natalie, Gabe, Henry, Doctor Madden "The Cavalry" – Dan "Who's Crazy"/ " My Psychopharmacologist and I" – Dan, Doctor Fine, Diana "Perfect For You" – Henry, Natalie "I Miss the Mountains" – Diana "It's Gonna Be Good" – Dan, Natalie, Henry, Diana "He's Not Here" – Dan "You Don't Know" – Diana "I Am the One" – Dan, Gabe, Diana "Superboy and the Invisible Girl" – Natalie, Diana, Gabe "Open Your Eyes" – Doctor Madden "I'm Alive" – Gabe "Make Up Your Mind"/ "Catch Me I'm Falling" – Doctor Madden, Diana, Dan, Natalie, Gabe, Henry "A Good Step" – Orchestra "I Dreamed a Dance" – Diana, Gabe "There's a World" – Gabe "In the Light" – Dan "E.C.T." – Orchestra "I've Been" – Dan, Gabe "Didn't I See This Movie?" – Diana "A Light in the Dark" – Dan, Diana "Feeling Electric" – Diana, Gabe, Dan, Doctor Madden, Natalie, Henry Act II "Growing Up Unstable" – Natalie "Song of Forgetting" – Dan, Diana, Natalie "Hey #1" – Henry, Natalie "Seconds and Years" – Doctor Madden, Dan, Diana "Getting Better" – Doctor Madden, Diana, Natalie "Better Than Before" – Doctor Madden, Dan, Natalie, Diana "Aftershocks" – Gabe "Hey #2" – Henry, Natalie "You Don't Know" (Reprise) – Diana, Doctor Madden "Music Box" – Gabe "How Could I Ever Forget?" – Diana, Dan "It's Gonna Be Good" (Reprise) – Dan, Diana "Why Stay?"/ "A Promise" – Diana, Natalie, Dan, Henry "I'm Alive" (Reprise) – Gabe "The Break" – Diana "Make Up Your Mind"/ "Catch Me I'm Falling" (Reprise) – Doctor Madden, Diana, Gabe "Everything" – Diana, Natalie "Hey #3”/ "Perfect For You" (Reprise) – Henry, Natalie "So Anyway" – Diana "I Am the One" (Reprise) – Dan, Gabe "Finale (Let There Be Light)" – Diana, Dan, Natalie, Gabe, Henry, Doctor Madden 2009 Broadway Act I "Prelude" – Orchestra "Just Another Day" – Diana, Natalie, Gabe, Dan "Everything Else" – Natalie "Who's Crazy" / "My Psychopharmacologist and I" – Dan, Doctor Fine, Diana "Perfect for You" – Henry, Natalie "I Miss the Mountains" – Diana "It's Gonna Be Good" – Dan, Natalie, Henry, Diana "He's Not Here" – Dan "You Don't Know" – Diana "I Am the One" – Dan, Gabe, Diana "Superboy and the Invisible Girl" – Natalie, Diana, Gabe "I'm Alive" – Gabe "Make Up Your Mind" / "Catch Me I'm Falling" – Doctor Madden, Diana, Dan, Natalie, Gabe, Henry "I Dreamed a Dance" – Diana, Gabe "There's a World" – Gabe "I've Been" – Dan, Gabe "Didn't I See This Movie?" – Diana "A Light in the Dark" – Dan, Diana Act II "Wish I Were Here" – Diana, Natalie "Song of Forgetting" – Dan, Diana, Natalie "Hey #1" – Henry, Natalie "Seconds and Years" – Doctor Madden, Dan, Diana "Better Than Before" – Doctor Madden, Dan, Natalie, Diana "Aftershocks" – Gabe "Hey #2" – Henry, Natalie "You Don't Know" (Reprise) – Diana, Doctor Madden "How Could I Ever Forget?" – Diana, Dan "It's Gonna Be Good" (Reprise) – Dan, Diana "Why Stay?" / "A Promise" – Diana, Natalie, Dan, Henry "I'm Alive" (Reprise) – Gabe "The Break" – Diana "Make Up Your Mind" / "Catch Me I'm Falling" (Reprise) – Doctor Madden, Diana, Gabe "Maybe (Next to Normal)" – Diana, Natalie "Hey #3" / "Perfect for You" (Reprise) – Henry, Natalie "So Anyway" – Diana "I Am the One" (Reprise) – Dan, Gabe "Light" – Diana, Dan, Natalie, Gabe, Henry, Doctor Madden Depiction of mental illness Bipolar disorder Next to Normal follows the struggle of one woman, Diana Goodman, with mental illness and the effect of the illness on her whole family. In the second act, these effects are at times diminished and other times exacerbated by the fact that Diana additionally suffers memory loss following electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Kitt and Yorkey began writing the musical in 2002 and continued through 2008, but there have since been changes in the understanding and treatment of bipolar depressive disorder. In the show, Diana's doctor describes her as a "bipolar depressive with delusional episodes", however, the most recent edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) would now diagnose Diana as bipolar "with psychotic features", referring to the hallucinations she experiences, such as of her dead son Gabe in the form of a teenager. The disorder is also now separated into bipolar types I and II. Treatment Bipolar disorder is a disorder of both mania (or hypomania) and depression that is not curable, mostly treated through psychopharmacological, psychotherapeutic, and biological means. First, are the psychopharmacological therapies, commonly known as drug therapies, which involves the use of antipsychotic, anticonvulsant, and antidepressant medications, that aim to stabilize the patient's mood. Such drugs include Lithium, a mood stabilizer, Ativan and Valium, benzodiazepines, all of which are mentioned in the lyrics, particularly in the song "My Psychopharmacologist and I", in which Diana is prescribed a plethora of different drugs at once, which are mentioned alongside their side-effects, ranging from drowsiness to sexual dysfunction. Another form of treatment the play explores is psychotherapy, where patients talk to psychologists or other licensed mental health professionals and aim to work through the psychological component of their disease through conversation; Diana's psychiatrist leads her through a guided meditation or hypnotherapeutic approach. The third form addressed is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in which seizures are induced by sending an electric current through the brain. Following a suicide attempt, Diana is convinced to undergo ECT and then loses her memory (including her memory of Gabe), which she slowly gains back in talks with her family. ECT is often viewed as a last-resort option for depressed patients who are incredibly ill and extremely treatment-resistant or whose symptoms include very serious suicidal or psychotic symptoms, or for pregnant women. This practice holds true in the play, in which ECT is only recommended after Diana's hallucination of Gabe suggests that she kill herself in the song "There's a World". Productions Development The musical began in 1998 as a 10-minute workshop sketch about a woman undergoing electroshock therapy, and its impact on her family, called Feeling Electric. Yorkey brought the idea to Kitt while both were at the BMI Lehman Engel Musical Theatre Workshop. Kitt wrote a rock score for the short piece, which was highly critical of the medical treatment. Both Yorkey and Kitt turned to other projects, but they "kept returning to Feeling Electric", eventually expanding it to a full-length musical. This had a reading in 2002 at Village Theatre in Issaquah, Washington, then at several venues in New York City, with a cast that included Norbert Leo Butz as Dan, Sherie Rene Scott as Diana, Benjamin Schrader as Gabe, Anya Singleton as Natalie and Greg Naughton as Dr. Madden. A subsequent staged reading was held in late 2002 at the Musical Mondays Theater Lab in New York. In 2005 it was workshopped again at Village Theatre starring Amy Spanger as Diana, Jason Collins as Dan, Mary Faber as Natalie and Deven May as Dr. Madden. In September 2005, the musical ran at the New York Musical Theatre Festival, with Spanger as Diana, Joe Cassidy as Dan, Annaleigh Ashford as Natalie, Benjamin Schrader as Gabe and Anthony Rapp as Dr. Madden. This attracted the attention of producer David Stone. Second Stage Theatre then workshopped the piece in both 2006 and 2007, featuring Cassidy and then Gregg Edelman as Dan, Alice Ripley as Diana, Mary Faber and then Phoebe Strole as Natalie, Rapp as Dr. Madden/Dr. Fine and Skylar Astin as Henry. Meanwhile, at the urging of Stone and director Michael Greif, who had joined the team, the creators focused the show on the family's pain rather than on the critique of the medical establishment. Off-Broadway and Virginia (2008–09) Next to Normal was first produced Off-Broadway at the Second Stage Theatre from January 16 through March 16, 2008, directed by Greif, with Anthony Rapp as assistant director and musical staging by Sergio Trujillo. The cast featured Ripley as Diana, Brian d'Arcy James as Dan, Aaron Tveit as Gabe, Jennifer Damiano as Natalie, Adam Chanler-Berat as Henry and Asa Somers as Dr. Madden/Dr. Fine. The surname of the family was changed from Brown to Goodman. Although the show received mixed reviews, at least one reviewer criticized it for pushing an irresponsible message about the treatment of bipolar disorder and for failing to strike the proper balance between pathos and comedy. The critics found the show internally confused, and the team decided to make major changes in both the book and score, including eliminating the original title song, "Feeling Electric". They concentrated the story entirely on the emotions of Diana and her family as they confront bitter truths. The re-written musical was given a regional theatre production at the Arena Stage (normally in Washington, D.C. but operating in Virginia during a renovation of its main facility), from November 21, 2008, through January 18, 2009, under the direction of Greif. J. Robert Spencer took over the role of Dan while Louis Hobson assumed the roles of Dr. Madden/Dr. Fine; the remaining Off-Broadway leads returned. The production received rave reviews, with critics noticing that "comic songs and glitzy production numbers" had been replaced by songs that complemented the emotional content of the book. Broadway (2009–11) Next to Normal began previews on Broadway at the Booth Theatre on March 27, 2009, with an opening night of April 15. The entire cast from the Arena Stage production returned, once again under the direction of Greif. The musical was originally booked for the larger Longacre Theatre, but, according to producer David Stone, "When the Booth Theatre became available... we knew it was the right space for Next to Normal". Reviews were very favorable. Ben Brantley of The New York Times wrote that the Broadway production is "A brave, breathtaking musical. It is something much more than a feel-good musical: it is a feel-everything musical." Rolling Stone called it "The best new musical of the season – by a mile." Next to Normal was on the Ten Best of the Year list for 2009 of "Curtain Up". The show set a new box office record at the Booth Theatre for the week ending January 3, 2010, grossing $550,409 over nine performances. The previous record was held by the 2006 production of Brian Friel's Faith Healer, with a gross of $530,702. One year later, Next to Normal broke that record again during its final week on Broadway (week ending January 16, 2011) grossing $552,563 over eight performances. The producers recouped their initial investment of $4 million a few days after the production's one-year anniversary on Broadway. At the end of its run, Next to Normal grossed $31,764,486, the most out of all the shows that have run at the Booth Theatre, earning double the amount of money as its closest competition, I'm Not Rappaport. Cast replacements during the run included Marin Mazzie as Diana, Brian d'Arcy James and later Jason Danieley as Dan, Kyle Dean Massey as Gabe and Meghann Fahy as Natalie. John Kenrick wrote in November 2010 that the show "is glowing with breathtaking brilliance as it ends its Broadway run." The Broadway production closed on January 16, 2011, after 21 previews and 733 regular performances. Twitter promotional campaign In May 2009, about six weeks into the Broadway run, Next to Normal began publishing an adapted version of the script over Twitter, the social media network. Over 35 days, the serialized version of the show was published, a single line from a character at a time. The Twitter promotion ended the morning of June 7, 2009, the morning of the 63rd Tony Awards. The initiative earned the musical the 2009 OMMA Award for Best in Show. First US tour (2010–11) Next to Normal began its first national tour of North America and Canada at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, California on November 23, 2010. The tour played in 16 cities in the U.S., ending in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on July 30, 2011. Alice Ripley reprised her role as Diana and was joined by Asa Somers as Dan, Emma Hunton as Natalie, Curt Hansen as Gabe, Preston Sadleir as Henry and Jeremy Kushnier as Dr. Madden/Dr. Fine. East West Players (2017) East West Players (EWP) produced a diverse and inclusive version of the musical featuring a cast with nearly all artists of color as a part of their 51st season under the direction of Nancy Keystone. The production was originally slated to run from May 12 to June 11, 2018, but was extended a week through June 28 due to high demand. The show's popularity carried into awards season, earning the production four of the major awards at the 2018 Ovation Awards including Best Production of a Musical (Large Theater), Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Best Lead Actress in a Musical, and Direction in a Musical; additionally, the Set/Projection Designer for the show, Hana Kim, was honored with the Sherwood Award which seeks "to nurture innovative and adventurous theatre artists working in Los Angeles." Deedee Magno Hall played the leading role of Diana alongside her real-life husband Cliffton Hall, who played Diana's husband, Dan. Isa Briones won for her portrayal of Natalie. The show was praised for its subject matter and the way in which the musical's exploration of mental health tied in seamlessly with its all-Asian cast. Mental health awareness is particularly stigmatized within areas of the Asian Pacific-Islander community as a result of conflicting cultural and familial emphases. EWP's producing artistic director Snehal Desai made a point to belabor the importance of "shedding light on the stigma of mental illness in our communities," and that he hoped that the production could create "a space for that conversation." TheaterWorks Hartford (2017) TheaterWorks Hartford (TWH) ran a production of the show under the direction of Rob Ruggiero. The show originally ran from March 24 through April 30 before extending through May 14 of the same year in light of its great success. The show starred Christiane Noll as Diana Goodman, alongside David Harris as Dan Goodman. The cast also included Maya Keleher, John Cardoza, J.D. Daw, and Nick Sacks. The production garnered 10 nominations for the 2017 Connecticut Critic Circle Choice Awards, and won the awards for Outstanding Production of a Musical, Outstanding Actress in a Musical (Noll), Outstanding Director of a Musical, Outstanding Lighting, and Outstanding Debut (Keleher). Joseph Harrison of BroadwayWorld wrote that the production "goes beyond entertainment, reaching in and touching you to your very core in a brilliant symphony of emotional energy." The Hartford Courant praised the show for "being done with such careful thought and expressive detail in such an intimate environment raises this already confrontational musical to a different level of emotional intensity" and praised Noll for being "a fearless performer [who] can switch from indomitability to vulnerability in a split second." Kennedy Center (2020) Rachel Bay Jones, Brandon Victor Dixon, Roman Banks, Maia Reficco, Khamary Rose, Ben Levi Ross and Michael Park, joined original Broadway director Michael Greif for the Broadway Center Stage production at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. from January 29-February 3, 2020. London (2023) In October 2022 it was announced that the show would receive its London premiere at the Donmar Warehouse, in a new production directed by Michael Longhurst. The production will run from August 12 until October 7, 2023, over 15 years after it first premiered in New York. In January 2023, it was announced that Caissie Levy will play the lead role of Diana Goodman. International Note: The following are independent productions of the musical produced internationally and in most cases, in that native language. They also feature the original music, lyrics and book, but changes in other aspects including direction, set design, costume design and choreography. Nordic countries The European premiere and the first non-English language production opened in September 2010 at the Det Norske Teatret in Oslo, Norway under the direction of Svein Sturla Hungnes. The cast included Heidi Gjermundsen Broch as Diana and Charlotte Frogner as Natalie Broch received the 2011 Hedda Award (Norway's highest theatrical accolade) for her portrayal. This production was later re-staged for a Swedish premiere at the Wermland Opera A Finnish production opened in December 2010 in Helsinki, Finland at Studio Pasila, where it ran for one year. A Swedish-language production opened in September 2012 at Wasa Teater in Vaasa, Finland. The cast included Anna-Maria Hallgarn as Diana. Another Finnish-language production was staged at the Tampere Workers' Theatre from October 2012 through February 2013. A Swedish-language production opened open at Swedish Theatre in Helsinki in November 2021 and ran until March 2022. A Danish production ran from February 2012 until April 2012 at Nørrebro Teater in Copenhagen, Denmark. The show premiered again in Sweden in 2022, after being postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, at Uppsala Stadsteater with Helen Sjöholm as Diana. Asia Philippines The Asian premiere was staged at the Carlos P. Romulo Auditorium, RCBC Plaza, Makati, Philippines in March 2011 and again in October 2011, performed in English, re-imagined by director Bobby Garcia. The cast included Pilipinas Got Talent star Markki Stroem as Henry, Menchu Lauchengco-Yulo as Diana, Jett Pangan as Dan, Bea Garcia as Natalie, Felix Rivera as Gabe, and Jake Macapagal as Doctor Madden. South Korea Soon after The Philippines premiere, a replica of the Broadway production, under the Broadway production's associate director Laura Pietropinto, premiered at Seoul, South Korea's Doosan Art Center in November 2011 performed in Korean. The production starred renown American actor/musical artist Kolleen Park as Diana, and local actors Kim Ji-hyun alternating the role with Park, Nam Kyung-joo and Lee Jung-yeol sharing the role of Dan, Choi Jae-rim and Han Ji-sang as Gabe, Oh So-yeon as Natalie, and Lee Sang-min as Henry. Since then the show had four local productions, each in 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2022 and in each, Park reprised her role as Diana. Singapore A new version of the show, directed by Tracie Pang, premiered in Singapore in September 2013 in English at the Drama Centre Theatre. The cast included Sally Ann Triplett as Diana, Adrian Pang as Dan, Julia Abueva as Natalie, Nathan Hartono as Gabe, Linden Furnell as Henry, and Juan Jackson as Doctor Madden. China A non-replica Chinese production premiered in Beijing, China, on August 3, 2018, at Dongcheng's Super Theatre in Mandarin and transferred to Shanghai that December. The first Cantonese language production took place in Hong Kong, premiering in December 2022 at the City Hall Theater. Taiwan The original Taiwan production will premiere in July 2023 in English the National Taichung Theater, directed and re-imagined by Carolyn Sun. The cast will feature Chi, who played Natalie in the Beijing company, returning to the role, American actors Ya Han Chang as Diana and Ellis Gage as Gabe, local actors ERay Chiang as Dan and Sassoon Yang and Henry as well as Taiwan radio and television personality Francis Chia as Dr. Madden. Australia The Australian premiere of the musical by the Melbourne Theatre Company was staged in Melbourne, Australia. Performances began on April 28, 2012, and ran through June 4 (extended from May 28). The cast included Kate Kendall as Diana, Matt Hetherington as Dan and Bert LaBonte as Dr. Madden/Dr. Fine. A production in Perth played at the Heath Ledger Theatre from November 5–19, 2015. Produced by Black Swan State Theatre Company, the cast included Rachael Beck as Diana and Brendan Hanson as Dan. Australia's first Musical Theatre performance since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic is a new production of Next to Normal directed by Darren Yap and choreographed by Kelley Abbey. The performance will run in October and November at the National Institute of Dramatic Art in Sydney. The most recent production was scheduled to be performed at Chapel Off Chapel in Melbourne from the 15th of July 2021. The cast included Queenie van de Zandt as Diana, Tyran Parke as Dan, Melanie Bird as Natalie, Sam Richardson as Gabe, Liam Wigney as Henry and Ross Chisari as Dr. Madden/Dr. Fine. The show was presented by the James Terry Collective. Due to the snap COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, they were only able to perform one show at that time, resuming nearly eight months later in March 2022 with Hanlon Innocent alternating with Tomáš Kantor as Henry and Matt Hetherington reprising the role of Dan. America A Spanish-language Peruvian premiere of the musical played the Teatro Marsano, in Lima, Peru. The production ran from May to June 2011. The cast included Gisela Ponce de León as Natalie A Brazilian production opened in July 2012 at the Clara Nunes Theatre in Rio de Janeiro, under the title Quase Normal. A Mexican production opened at the Teatro Aldama in Mexico City on January 31, 2019, starring Susana Zabaleta as Diana. The Mexican cast also included Federico Di Lorenzo as Dan, María Penella as Natalie, Mariano Palacios as Gabe, Jerry Velázquez as Henry/Gabe and Héctor Berzunza as Dr. Madden/Dr. Fine. The cast was also joined by María Chacón as Natalie, and Rodolfo Zarco as Henry for some performances. Directed by Diego Del Río, the creative team included Jorge Ballina (set design), Victor Zapatero (lighting design), Josefina Echeverría (costume design) and Alejandro García (sound design). This production was nominated for six awards in several categories at the Premios Metropolitanos de Teatro in 2019, which included Best Musical, Best Direction of a Musical, among others. Diego del Río, Susana Zabaleta, María Penella and Jerry Velázquez each won at their categories. After a short run in Mexico City, the musical had a single tour performance at Auditorio Luis Elizondo, in Monterrey on July 4, 2019. The original cast reunited on June 9, 2020, for an online live concert, where they read and sang through the score in an acoustic version of the musical. Europe The Dutch premiere took place on January 16, 2012, at DeLaMar Theater in Amsterdam. The cast included Simone Kleinsma as Diana. A German-language production translated and directed by Titus Hoffmann opened at the Stadttheater in Fürth, Bavaria, on October 11, 2013. Pia Douwes starred in the role of Diana with Thomas Borchert as Dan and Sabrina Weckerlin as Natalie. The Italian version, produced by STM and directed by Marco Iacomelli, opened on March 7, 2015, at Teatro Coccia in Novara. A Spanish-language production opened at the Teatro Pérez Galdós in Las Palmas, Canary Islands, on September 14, 2017, starring Nina as Diana, and then it toured through Spain with stops at Barcelona, Bilbao, and Madrid. In 2016, in Portugal, opened a Portuguese-speaking version, with the title Quase Normal. A Russian-language production (Недалеко от Нормы), directed by Anastasia Grinenko, opened in Minsk, Belarus on March 28, 2018, with Svetlana Matsievskaia starring as Diana. In Poland the show opened on April 6, 2019, at Teatr Syrena in Warsaw, with Katarzyna Walczak as Diana. The production was translated and directed by Jacek Mikołajczyk. The musical will have its UK premiere at the Donmar Warehouse, London from 12 August to 7 October 2023, directed by Michael Longhurst. CastsNote: Below are the principal casts of all official major productions of the musical.Notable Broadway replacements Gabriel "Gabe" Goodman: Kyle Dean Massey Dan Goodman: Brian d'Arcy James, Jason Danieley Diana Goodman: Marin Mazzie Natalie Goodman: Meghann Fahy Literary references and allusions During Act I, Gabe reads a paperback copy of The Catcher in the Rye. Kyle Dean Massey said, "I read about a page a night." Salinger's novel about grieving a loss is read by the character who is the loss. In Catcher, Holden struggles with the loss of a brother, Allie, who died of leukemia. When sorting through a box of items from her son's room, Diana picks up a music box from the box to reveal a copy of Goodnight Moon underneath. Natalie carries a hardcover copy of Flowers for Algernon, which she is studying in school. Both the novel and Next to Normal deal with psychological experimentation. Diana alludes to One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, Sylvia Plath, and Frances Farmer in the song "Didn't I See This Movie?". This is in regards to her ECT that also takes place in the movie as a form of abuse, provoking questions as to whether Diana is a reliable narrator or whether the ECT is ethical. Diana also reads from Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, a play by Edward Albee which deals with marital stress caused by issues similar to some in Next to Normal. On her YouTube site, Alice Ripley said that she uses Albee's play as a Bible, drawing inspiration for Diana. Pulitzer Prize controversyNext to Normal won the 2010 Pulitzer Prize for Drama although it was not on the shortlist of three candidates submitted to the twenty-member Pulitzer Prize board by the five-member Drama jury. Jury chairman and critic Charles McNulty publicly criticized the Board for overlooking three plays (Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo, The Elaborate Entrance of Chad Deity, andIn the Next Room (or The Vibrator Play)), which were not running on Broadway at the time of the Award, in favor of one that was. Major awards and nominations Original Off-Broadway production Original Virginia production Original Broadway production Legacy In 2021, the songs of the musical were the focus of "Chapter Ninety-Four: Next to Normal", a musical episode of Riverdale. The Riverdale cast album of the musical was produced via WaterTower Music. References External links Official Website Next to Normal'' at the Music Theatre International website Twitter Performance Transcript Lortel Archives listing Interview with Brian Yorkey on MyNorthwest.com NY Times Feature: An Out-of-Town Overhaul Helps Next to Normal Find Focus NY Times Feature: On Broadway, 'Next to Normal' Aims for Truth About Mental Illness Daily News Broadway review 2009 Entertainment Weekly Broadway review 2009 Associated Press Broadway review 2009 Washington Post Broadway Review 2009 NY Times off-Broadway review, February 2008 TheatreMania review, February 2008 Musik und Bühne Verlag German licensing company Argentina Website Italian Website https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next to Normal Off-Broadway musicals Original musicals Bipolar disorder in fiction Mental health in fiction Fiction about suicide Works about depression Sung-through musicals American rock musicals Broadway musicals 2008 musicals Musicals by Brian Yorkey Musicals by Tom Kitt (musician) Pulitzer Prize for Drama-winning works Pulitzer Prize for Drama-winning musicals Tony Award-winning musicals
4616601	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20of%20Bosnia	Thomas of Bosnia	Stephen Thomas (, ; 1411 – July 1461), a member of the House of Kotromanić, reigned from 1443 until his death as the penultimate king of Bosnia. An illegitimate son of King Ostoja, Thomas succeeded King Tvrtko II, but his accession was not recognized by the leading magnate of the Kingdom of Bosnia, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. The two engaged in a civil war which ended when the King repudiated his wife, Vojača, and married the insubordinate nobleman's daughter, Catherine. Thomas and his second wife, both raised in the Bosnian Church tradition, converted to Roman Catholicism and sponsored construction of churches and monasteries throughout the kingdom. Throughout his reign, Thomas waged a war with the Serbian Despotate over the lucrative mining town of Srebrenica and its surroundings, in addition to (or in conjunction with) multiple conflicts with his father-in-law. Moreover, he had a tense relationship with the menacing Ottoman Empire. After years of skirmishes and raids, Thomas appeared willing to lead the Christian coalition against the Turks, but received no assistance from fellow Christian rulers. Having failed to expand into Croatia proper, Thomas turned again to the east in 1458, arranging a match between his son Stephen and the Serbian heiress Helena. Bosnian control over the remnants of the Serbian Despotate lasted merely a month before the Ottoman conquest of the state. King Thomas' failure to defend Serbia permanently damaged his reputation in Europe. Wishing to improve his image among Europe's Catholics, Thomas turned against the Bosnian Church, thus becoming the first ruler of Bosnia to engage in religious persecution. Thomas' sometime contradictory traits earned him both admiration and scorn from his contemporaries. His son Stephen succeeded him, and immediately proved more apt at dealing with the challenges of the time. Background Thomas was the son of King Ostoja, who died in 1418, and his mistress, whose name is not recorded. He was a doubly adulterine child, as both his father and mother were married at the time of his birth. Thomas was raised as a member of the Bosnian Church, to which his parents adhered. Tvrtko II deposed Stephen Ostojić, Ostoja's only known legitimate child and successor, in 1421. Thomas' illegitimate older brother, Radivoj, unsuccessfully contested Tvrtko's rule with the help of the Ottoman Turks and the Kosača family, the leading magnates of the Kingdom of Bosnia. The narrative sources refer to Thomas (as well as his father and brother) as a Kristić, which is thought to be the name of a cadet branch of the Kotromanić dynasty. Thomas was thus closely related to Tvrtko II, likely his first cousin. Avoiding the limelight during the reign of Tvrtko II, Thomas lived with a commoner named Vojača and their children. He was loyal to King Tvrtko, and together the two took part in a skirmish in Usora, where Thomas was wounded. His loyalty likely influenced the childless and ailing King to ensure his succession; Thomas was certainly preferable to his brother Radivoj, whom Tvrtko detested. Count Hermann II of Celje, a descendant of the Kotromanić family once designated as heir presumptive, had died in 1435. Accession to coronation Tvrtko II died in November 1443. The Stanak approved his choice of heir, and Thomas was duly elected king by 5 December. Like his predecessors, he added the royal name Stephen to his own. However, the kingdom's most powerful magnate, Grand Duke Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, refused to accept Thomas as king, and announced his support for Radivoj. The authorities of the neighbouring Republic of Ragusa immediately expressed concern about the situation. Kosača and Radivoj appealed to Ragusa not to recognize Thomas as king, but to no avail. Simultaneously, Hermann's grandson Ulrich II pressed his claim to the Bosnian throne and tried to gather support among Thomas's opponents. Because of this, Thomas hastened to send word of his accession to foreign rulers, including the German king Frederick IV, Ulrich's rival, and Ragusan and Venetian authorities, hoping to receive recognition. Ulrich was occupied with the feud waged against him by Frederick, as well as with the succession struggle in Hungary, where he had taken side with his cousin, queen dowager Elizabeth of Luxembourg and her infant son Ladislaus against the reigning monarch Vladislav I, leaving Thomas ample space of maneuver. Succession war King Thomas acted resolutely to strengthen his position. In January 1444, he penetrated the Bosnian-held region of Zachlumia, ruled by the Kosačas. Kosača's nephew Ivaniš Pavlović accompanied him, and the Radivojević family, the discontented vassals of the Kosačas, joined them upon their arrival. The party soon took Drijeva, thus restoring the important customs town to the royal domain for the first time in three decades. Pressed by his simultaneous war with Venice, and receiving no help from the Ottoman Turks, Kosača agreed to a truce in March. Both sides hoped to buy time to regain strength for future clashes. King Thomas tried to exact the promise of help from Venice in the event of a Hungarian offensive against him, even offering 25-year-long control over some of his towns and mines to the Republic in return. However, throughout May successful negotiations with Hungary rendered this cession unnecessary. János Hunyadi's intercession with King Vladislaus I led to Hungarian recognition of Thomas in June, for which the grateful King of Bosnia promised Hunyadi free passage, shelter, an annual income and assistance in any matter. Thus, by summer, Thomas had secured his grip on the throne. In July 1444, the Hungarian king informed Thomas of his intention to break the truce with the Ottomans. King Thomas decided to make the best of his membership in the Christian coalition. In May he had already conquered the lucrative silver mining town of Srebrenica, taken by the Ottomans from the Serbian Despotate, which in turn had taken it from Bosnia. He now decided to resume his war against the rebellious Kosača, an Ottoman tributary. The Turks were now ready to assist the Duke and broke into Bosnia, forcing the King to flee from Kozograd to Bobovac, and enabling Kosača to reverse all his losses. In August, the Ottomans restored Serbia to Đurađ Branković, who allied with Kosača against King Thomas. The destruction of the Hungarian army in November 1444 at the Battle of Varna, where King Vladislaus himself perished, left Thomas vulnerable. Forced again to rely solely on Venice, Thomas repeated his earlier offer, but the Republic declined and made peace with Kosača. In April 1445, Thomas lost Srebrenica and the entire Drina Valley to Branković. Ivaniš Pavlović came to his aid again, and the two advanced towards Pomorje. Thomas retook Drijeva, but his advance was suddenly halted, perhaps by another Turkish incursion or a truce. Hostilities finally ended in September. Conversion and marriage Having failed to strengthen royal authority by force, King Thomas decided to seek another way to pacify the kingdom. A rapprochement with Kosača via marriage with his daughter Catherine was probably already envisaged in 1445, when Thomas improved relations with the Holy See in order to be cleared of the "stain of illegitimacy" as well as to receive an annulment of his union with Vojača. Pope Eugene IV responded affirmatively on 29 May. By that time, Thomas appears to have decided to join the Roman Catholic Church. Negotiations with Kosača intensified in the beginning of 1446. King Thomas was then finally converted from Bosnian Christianity to Roman Catholicism by Tommaso Tommasini, Bishop of Lesina; however, Cardinal Juan Carvajal only performed the baptism in 1457. Thomas' intention to marry Kosača's daughter Catherine was made known in April, their lands and borders reverting to status quo ante bellum. The prospective bride, a Bosnian Christian, also had to convert to Catholicism for the marriage to proceed. These developments angered Ivaniš Pavlović and Petar Vojsalić, another vassal, but in the end no conflict with them took place. Elaborate festivities marked the royal wedding in mid-May in Milodraž, conducted by Catholic rite, followed by the couple's coronation in Mile. For the first time, a crown was sent from Rome to be placed on the head of a Bosnian king. The Bishop of Feltre and papal legate to Bosnia, another Tommaso Tommasini, fetched the crown from the Cathedral of Saint Domnius in Spalato in July, but it never reached Thomas. As it facilitated alliances with Western rulers and came along with Western cultural influences (in art, architecture, music and fashion) that penetrated Bosnia, Roman Catholicism became the preferable faith early in Thomas' reign. Many Bosnian noblemen followed the King's example in converting to Catholicism, but some soon returned to the Bosnian Church; Kosača wrote that he considered conversion, but never went through with it. Churches and Franciscan monasteries sprang up throughout Bosnia during Thomas' reign, some erected by the King himself. Despite his efforts to project an image of a good Catholic king, Thomas' religious policy was not initially so resolute. He continued honoring Bosnian Christians and their clergy as his predecessors had done, which led to disputes with local Franciscans. Pope Eugene agreed that, for political reasons, King Thomas had to tolerate heretics. Peak Peace brought unusual stability to Bosnia as well as security to Thomas. He retook Srebrenica once again in the autumn of 1446, and eventually struck a short-lived compromise with Branković by which the two would share the town and its mining revenues. It was not to last, however. Unfounded rumour had it that Hungarian noblemen considered offering the Holy Crown of Hungary to him, which testified to his growing reputation. The Ottomans, who wanted to weaken Bosnia by encouraging internal division, were very displeased by the kingdom's stability. At the request of Đurađ Branković, the Turks broke into both King Thomas' personal lands, and those of his father-in-law, in March 1448, plundering and burning towns. Kosača, who now called himself "Herzog of Saint Sava", was thus forced to side with Branković against his son-in-law and king. In mid-September, Branković's brother-in-law Thomas Kantakouzenos, leading an army that included Kosača himself, soundly defeated King Thomas. King Thomas reconquered Srebrenica again in February 1449, but hostilities continued until 1451, when the King made peace again with his insubordinate father-in-law. The dispute was even taken before the Diet of Hungary. To finance this incessant warfare, as well as to sustain the royal court, King Thomas engaged in vigorous commerce and made business deals with Dalmatian traders. He relied heavily on his silver mining, but profited most from his salt trade monopolies. In-laws' conflict In 1451 when Kosača sought to improve his own economy through a war with the Republic of Ragusa, Thomas refused to join either side, but still interceded with Pope Nicholas V to prevent his father-in-law's excommunication. However, Ragusa persisted and promised to return the favor by helping Thomas take Drijeva from Kosača, and Hodidjed from the Turks. In the summer, Thomas was even approached by Kosača's family, namely the King's brother-in-law Vladislav and mother-in-law Jelena, who were gravely offended when the Duke took his son's charming Sienese bride as his concubine. In mid-December, Thomas finally agreed with Ragusa on a pact against his infamous father-in-law, but the war ended abruptly when Hungary and the Ottomans signed a truce which specifically forbade the latter's tributary to attack Ragusa. Open rebellion against Stjepan Kosača broke out in March 1452. Vladislav, along with his mother and grandmother, raised an army and took control over most of his father's territory. Thomas, Vladislav's king and brother-in-law, answered his call for help and arrived with his army the following month. Ragusa also joined them. However, King Thomas proved reluctant to attack and soon went back north to ward off a Turkish incursion. Kosača seized the opportunity to enlist help from Venice, which took Drijeva from Vladislav, and to entice uprisings against the rebels themselves. Thomas returned, as he had promised, chasing the Venetians from Drijeva and easily defeating his brother-in-law's enemies. The coalition then suddenly fell apart when it became clear that Vladislav would not hand over parts of his patrimony that Thomas claimed as his due, namely Drijeva and Blagaj, which was the Kosača seat and the key to Zachlumia. New conflict emerged in 1453 upon the death of Petar Talovac, who had governed Croatia proper as ban on behalf of the Hungarian king. Both Thomas and his recently widowed father-in-law wished to gain control of Talovac's allodial land by offering marriage to his widow, Hedwig Garai; Kosača proposed himself, while Thomas suggested his son Stephen. Kosača invited Turks to Bosnia in autumn, but neither prevailed as Venice moved in to protect Talovac's heirs. They then made peace, realizing that the Ottomans, who had just stunned Europe by conquering Constantinople, would soon be at their gates as well. Another concern was the end of regency for the hitherto underage Hungarian king Ladislaus the Posthumous, which decreased the influence of Thomas' friend János Hunyadi, and led to the rise of Ulrich of Celje, who was supported by Kosača. After Ladislaus made Ulrich the new Ban of Croatia, the latter started seizing control of Croatian towns, which met strong opposition from Thomas. The Bosnian king feared that Ulrich would take Talovac's land and have his territory border Kosača's. Not wishing to break peace with his father-in-law yet again, the King turned to Venice for help. Christian coalition The Holy See put King Thomas under its protection in 1455, and promised that he would be given back the lands taken by Turks and his treacherous magnates if the Christians defeated the Ottomans. In 1456, Thomas sent a letter to Pope Callixtus III asking him to find a bride for his son Stephen, hoping that the Holy See would provide him with a daughter-in-law of royal blood. Preparations were under way for another Ottoman attack on Hungary in the beginning of that year. Mehmed the Conqueror, the Ottoman sultan, issued unusual demands to the King of Bosnia and his nobles, the Kosačas and the Pavlović family. He asked Thomas to send 10,000 loads of food, his father-in-law 8,000 and Petar Pavlović 4,000. Mehmed also demanded that they commit their troops and personally take part in the war on the Ottoman side. He also requested from Thomas the cession of four towns: two in the middle of Bosnia and two bordering Hungary and Venetian Dalmatia. This was all refused. By now Thomas suspected that Mehmed also intended to conquer his kingdom. Therefore, he started taking more interest in a Christian coalition against the Turks, and cooperating more closely with his father-in-law. The lack of a firmer action against the Ottomans was blamed on Bosnian Christians, whom he described as being more inclined towards the Muslims than towards other Christians. The heavy Ottoman defeat by Hungarians at the Battle of Belgrade in July 1456 did nothing to alleviate Thomas' situation, as Mehmed started exerting an even greater pressure on Bosnia. In addition to financial extortion, Thomas was now forbidden to export silver, which Mehmed claimed for himself. This severe crippling of the Bosnian economy suffocated the kingdom. The situation in Hungary took a sharp turn for the worse immediately after the celebrated victory over the Turks. The victorious commanders, including János Hunyadi, died of plague, Ulrich of Celje was murdered, and even the young King Ladislaus died suddenly the following year. The aged Đurađ Branković also died, his despotate passing to his son Lazar. Realizing that Hungary was drastically weakened, and that he had crossed the point of no return by refusing the Sultan's demands, Thomas decided to step forward to head the Christian coalition. In August 1456, Ragusa received an information from the King in the utmost secrecy: he was intent on declaring war on the Turks. He was far from capable of succeeding, and even suffered a Turkish raid in the beginning of 1457. Pope Callixtus III took King Thomas very seriously: he ordered that the King of Bosnia be handed the Crusaders' cross, the papal flag and the crusading fund, marking him as the leader of the coalition in July 1457. However, Thomas relied not on his own dubious strength, but on the assistance of Western rulers. His emissaries to King Alfonso V of Aragon, Doge Francesco Foscari of Venice, Duke Francesco I Sforza of Milan, and Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy all reported refusals of help. Cardinal Carvajal was sent to Bosnia to meet with King Thomas. Cardinal Giovanni Castiglione sceptically wrote that Carvajal would have been better off if he had stayed in Buda. Indeed, Carvajal found Thomas ill-equipped to deal with the enemy. The Pope became disillusioned with him, and transferred the leadership of the Christian coalition to the Albanian lord Skanderbeg. Fall into disrepute Expansion efforts The ultimately failed crusading efforts did not preclude Thomas from seeking expansion. The death of the heirless Ulrich of Celje reopened the possibility of seizing Talovac lands, but his father-in-law moved more quickly, leading to a new brief cooling in their relations. However, in January 1458 a new opportunity arose on Bosnia's eastern border. The turmoil that followed the death of Lazar Branković enabled Thomas to retake the formerly Bosnian part of the Drina River valley, conquered by Lazar's father in the preceding decade, as well as to expand into its right bank. Thomas captured a total of eleven towns, keeping Srebrenica, Zvornik and Teočak for himself, and distributing the rest among the local nobility who swore fealty to him. He then turned his attention back to Croatia. He suggested to Venice that since the Hungarians had not yet appointed a new ban of Croatia, he and the Republic should split the banate among themselves. In June, he warned Venice that the new Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus, Hunyadi's son, would not be a good neighbour to either Bosnia or Venice if he took hold of Croatia. A large Turkish raid in February 1458 forced Thomas to sign a truce, despite his earlier crusading vows, but Mehmed no longer insisted on the cession of the four towns; he intended to conquer Serbia instead. At that time, King Thomas dropped the plan of having his son marry an illegitimate daughter of Francesco Sforza; the match with a bastard daughter of a duke was far beneath the King's expectations for Stephen. Instead, he successfully negotiated with Lazar's widow, the Byzantine princess Helena Palaiologina, about a marriage between Stephen and her oldest daughter, Helena. That way Thomas procured not only a daughter-in-law of imperial blood, but also found a way to extend the Kotromanić rule to the Despotate of Serbia, now reduced to the Smederevo Fortress and its surroundings, as Lazar had left no sons. Thomas sent word of the plans to King Matthias, his feudal overlord, in October. In early December, Thomas himself went to meet Matthias at a diet in Szeged. Matthias was thrilled and urged Thomas to send his son as soon as possible. During Thomas' long absence, Turks broke into Bosnia and besieged Bobovac and Vranduk, but his son Stephen and brother Radivoj escaped. Thomas returned to Bosnia in mid-January 1459 and took up the fight against the attackers, even trying to eject them from Hodidjed. In mid-April, he raided the outskirts of Hodidjed and besieged the fort. Meanwhile, Thomas' son had married Lazar's daughter and taken possession of Smederevo. Thomas boasted about his son being made despot, but the arrangement was cut short by the arrival of Mehmed at the head of a vast force before the walls of Smederevo. Terrified, Thomas' son and brother agreed to surrender the town and fortress on 20 June in exchange for safe conduct. Thomas and Radivoj were bitterly reproached by the Hungarian king. Matthias told all Europe that Thomas had sold the fortress of paramount importance to the enemy. Thomas took great pains to clear his name, explaining to Pope Pius II that Smederevo could not have been defended. The King sent a delegation to the Council of Mantua in July, promising to do his best to hold the Turks back and begging for help. The only ruler to provide assistance to Thomas was Bianca Maria Visconti, Duchess of Milan, who sent 300 men via Ancona. Religious persecution Unlike in other Balkan states of the time, the politics of Bosnia were not dominated by religion, and its rulers as well as the common people were entirely indifferent to the religious beliefs of others. However, this changed in 1459 when the Ottoman threat became greater. Pope Pius II informed Thomas that he would not come to his aid as long as the Bosnian Church was tolerated. Thomas was anxious to appear as a good Catholic in the wake of Hungarian accusations of betraying the Christendom. The decision Thomas took in 1459 made him the first Bosnian ruler to persecute people for their religious beliefs, a policy popes had long demanded by the Holy See. The Bosnian Church had been decimated by Catholic, and then even Orthodox, proselytization and its own low morale. Thomas' order that its clergy either convert or leave his domain was followed by confiscation of their considerable property, which probably helped him make the otherwise difficult decision. The persecution lasted almost two years. 12,000 people were forcefully converted, while forty members of the clergy fled to his father-in-law's domain. In 1461, he sent three men accused of heresy to be questioned by Cardinal Juan de Torquemada in Rome. The Bosnian Church was thus all but annihilated by King Thomas. The persecution did little to restore Thomas' reputation in Catholic Europe. When possession of the formerly Talovac-held Čačvina Castle caused another feud with his father-in-law in 1459, Kosača accused him of having invited the Turks who plundered his land. The accusation reached Pope Pius, who ordered that the King be excommunicated if such a grave offense against Christian interests were proven. Though Thomas probably did invite the Turkish raiders, the excommunication never took place. Last years The fall of Serbia meant that the eastern border of Thomas' realm was now the bulwark of Christendom. However, Bosnia was not Mehmed's priority. Thomas was forced to surrender northeastern Bosnia, namely Usora, Srebrenica, Zvornik and Teočak, in early 1460, allowing the Turks to cross the Sava to the Hungarian regions of Slavonia and Syrmia. Both Thomas and his father-in-law were aware that the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia was inevitable. They continued to seek foreign assistance, but were also preparing for a life in exile. However, this prospect did not help them settle their differences and put up a more effective defence. Thomas, still estranged from his in-laws, fell ill in June 1461 and requested a physician from Ragusa. He died in July, aged around 50. He was buried in the royal mausoleum in Bobovac. The circumstances of his death are unclear. Rumours circulated, first recorded by a gunsmith from Nuremberg, that the King's death was not natural. Specifically, it was said that his brother Radivoj and son Stephen had conspired against him. Later narratives also involved Mehmed and Matthias in the plot, with the Hungarian king as the mastermind. These rumours are generally dismissed by historians. Stephen succeeded him, to the benefit of the doomed kingdom, as the ruptures between the monarch and his nobles were finally healed. Personality and legacy Thomas was a man of many contradictions. His good looks and noble comportment greatly impressed his contemporaries. The Italian condottiero Gaspare Broglio da Lavello (son of Angelo Tartaglia), whom he met in 1452, wrote that he had never met a prince more refined and dignified, surpassing even the intellectual humanist Federico da Montefeltro, Broglio's idol. At the same time, Thomas' inconstancy and lack of courage inspired disdain. He was capable of both great generosity and pettiness. Fickleness damaged his reputation abroad, while religious persecution and forced conversions caused disapproval at home; he was cursed in the early years of the Ottoman rule for robbing the indigenous Bosnian Church of its property. Thomas' union with Vojača produced at least four children: Stephen (who succeeded him), a son who died as a child during a pilgrimage to Meleda, a daughter who married a Hungarian nobleman in 1451, and another daughter who married in 1451. With Catherine, who outlived both him and his kingdom, Thomas had a son named Sigismund in 1449 and a daughter named Catherine in 1453. Family tree Notes References Bibliography Bosnian monarchs 15th-century births 1461 deaths Kotromanić dynasty Converts to Roman Catholicism from the Bosnian Church Bosnia and Herzegovina Roman Catholics Roman Catholic monarchs 15th-century Bosnian people Year of birth unknown Year of birth uncertain Kings of Bosnia
4616840	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragons%20of%20Spring%20Dawning	Dragons of Spring Dawning	Dragons of Spring Dawning is a 1985 fantasy novel by American writers Tracy Hickman and Margaret Weis. The third book in the Dragonlance Chronicles series, it continues the events from Dragons of Winter Night (1985) and sets up the premise of the Dragonlance Legends trilogy, also written by Weis and Hickman. Originally published in September 1985, the novel has seen multiple reprints with the latest reprint in March 2004. It has also been adapted into a 12-issue comic book series. Plot Book 1 Into the Blood Sea The book begins with Tanis Half-Elven in Flotsam. Kitiara has recently left for Solamnia to lead the Dragonarmies in their failed attack against the High Clerist's Tower, which was depicted in the previous novel and resulted in the death of Sturm Brightblade. Tanis returns to the other companions, being watched by the draconian Gakhan, Kitiara's personal assassin. Returning to his friends (Goldmoon, Riverwind, Tika Waylan, Caramon and Raistlin Majere), Tanis tells them the half-truth that he was mistaken for an officer by an unspecified Dragon Highlord and forced to continue the impersonation for his own safety. Later on, the companions depart to Kalaman via Blood Sea of Istar by the ship Perechon, where the mysterious Berem (also called "the Everman" and "the Green Gemstone Man") works as a helmsman. Kitiara leads her forces and her dragon Skie to follow The Perechon. Evading pursuit, Berem steers the ship straight towards the whirlpool at the center of the sea, which was formed over the ruins of Istar city during the Cataclysm. Eventually Kitiara is unable to follow them, but The Perechon is caught in the whirlpool and the heroes realize they're doomed. Raistlin uses his Dragon Orb to teleport away, leaving the rest of his companions behind. Soon afterward, the Perechon tips over the edge of the whirlpool and the rest of the companions vanish beneath the waves. The Master of Past and Present Raistlin's spell brings him to the steps of the Great Library of Palanthas, where the great librarian/historian Astinus lives. The strain of working such powerful magic has left Raistlin on the verge of death. When told of his presence, Astinus orders his aesthetics (a semi-monastic order responsible for the preservation and cataloguing of Astinus's voluminous history of Krynn) to bring the mage into the library. Knowing he will die soon, the mage requests access to the ancient spell books in the Great Library. Astinus grants this, but Raistlin cannot use these books without "The Key", a formula that has been lost over the ages. Watching over the wizard who he believes will die soon, Astinus says his good-byes but then accidentally lets slip the fact that the gods Paladine, Gilean and Takhisis, Queen of Darkness, are possessors of "the Key of Knowledge". Calling upon the spirit that has helped him before (during the Test), Raistlin makes a dark bargain saying "Save me and save yourself". The Golden General Not long afterwards, the elven princess Laurana receives a message from Lord Gunthar Uth-Wistan, leader of the Knights of Solamnia, in which he names her as the new commander of the knights stationed in Palanthas (a political move on Lord Gunthar's part to limit political maneuvering within the knighthood). Lord Amothus of Palanthas then places her in command of the armies of Palanthas as well, since the city is full of peaceful people and the army has been deemed rather pointless for some time. Gilthanas and Silvara arrive at Palanthas, bringing the legendary good dragons with them. The two explain that together they journeyed to Sanction, the home of the Dragonarmies and discovered the truth about the origin of the draconians. The Dragonarmies had ensured that the good dragons would not join the war against them by taking their eggs hostage. But now in the Temple, Gilthanas and Silvara see that the clerics of Takhisis and the mages of the black robes have been perverting the eggs of the good dragons in order to spawn the new race of draconians. Having been told what has happened with their eggs, the good dragons are now willing to join the fight and avenge their children. Later on Gilthanas tells Laurana that while he was in Sanction he overheard the Dragon Highlord Kitiara bragging to the Dragon Emperor Ariakas about how Tanis Half-Elven is serving her as both an officer and lover. This confirms for Laurana what Kitiara told her at the High Clerist's Tower in the previous novel. With the Dragonlances in her possession and the good dragons on her side, Laurana organizes a flying cavalry of Knights of Solamnia and has her army take the offensive. Laurana becomes known as the "Golden General" during this campaign as her beauty and courage inspire her troops. Her army surges out of Palanthas, defeating the Dragonarmies in a series of battles and liberating much of northern Solamnia. During one of these battles Tasslehoff and Flint, riding a bronze dragon known as Fireflash, capture Kitiara's second-in-command Bakaris (who had insisted on riding into battle despite not being able to use his arm, previously wounded by Laurana at the High Clerist's Tower). Book 2 The Trap Laurana's army liberates the city of Kalaman, which honors the Golden General at their Spring Dawning Festival. Kitiara responds by sending the elfmaid a message that says Tanis has been mortally wounded and wants to see her before he dies. Kitiara will only allow Tanis to be exchanged for Bakaris. Flint and Tas warn Laurana that Kitiara is lying and this is obviously a trap, but Laurana believes the message to be true and insists on making the exchange. Laurana, Flint, and Tas take Bakaris to the exchange site, where they are betrayed and forced to travel to Dargaard Keep. Once they near Dargaard Keep, Bakaris attempts to rape Laurana. Tasslehoff comes to her defense, stabbing Bakaris, and then Laurana is able to kill him. But then the death knight Lord Soth, one of Kitiara's most powerful allies, appears. Lord Soth subdues Laurana and carries the unconscious elfmaid off to Dargaard Keep. Flint and Tas are allowed to return to Kalaman to tell the people that the Golden General is now Kitiara's prisoner. Reunited Following their voyage into the whirlpool, Tanis and his companions, along with Berem the Everman (who reveals he only pretends to be mute) find themselves in the ancient city of Istar, which is underwater and now inhabited by sea elves who saved them from death. The companions meet the sea elf Apoletta and her husband, a red-robed human mage named Zebulah. At first Apoletta is reluctant to help the companions or allow them to return to the surface, when Tanis tells her of the Dragonarmies and demonstrates his unawareness of good dragons' existence, she realizes how dire the situation is and relents. The companions wash up just outside Kalaman with only vague memories of the underwater city. Later, Kitiara returns to Kalaman and reveals that Laurana has been taken to the temple of Takhisis in Neraka. She demands unconditional surrender and that Berem the Everman must be delivered to her within three weeks or she will kill Laurana. Tanis resolves to go to Neraka with Berem and attempt to rescue Laurana, being accompanied by Caramon, Tika, Flint and Tasslehoff. Book 3 Rescue Mission The companions depart for Neraka and meet up with Fizban and the golden dragon Pyrite (who "polymorphs" into a statue so that he can be carried for the trip). During the trip Flint dies due to a heart attack. Fizban then departs. Berem finally decides to tell the companions his full story. He explains that he and his sister named Jasla discovered a jeweled column, half-buried in the ground, one day several years after the Cataclysm. This was in fact the foundation stone of the Kingpriest's temple and it had landed there after being hurled through various planes of existence. Berem was overcome with greed and proceeded to pry one of the emeralds loose but Jasla sensed the sacred aura of the place. They struggled and Jasla died when she fell against the column. The Queen of Darkness herself then manifested and seared the emerald into Berem's chest as a reward for freeing her, revealing that this column is like a doorway to the Abyss. Jasla's pure spirit, however, remains with the column and blocks the Dark Majesty's escape, telling Berem to run as a new Temple of Takhisis is built around the site. Since that day, Takhisis's true goal has been to use the Everman to break his sister's enchantment upon the column and fully return to the world. Neraka The companions reach Neraka and the Temple of Takhisis, underneath which they know the column remains. When guards become suspicious of them, Tanis decides he is the riskiest prisoner to be discovered and needs to separate from the others. He quickly calls out to Kitiara nearby, who is parading atop her dragon in a ceremonial entrance into the city, and joins her, hoping to save Laurana while the others can surreptitiously take care of the column. Tanis tells Kit that he has come to offer himself in exchange for Laurana and that he is prepared to serve under her as an officer in the Dragonarmies. Kitiara seems to agree but actually intends for the elf maid to be tortured by Takhisis and given to Lord Soth to become his undead consort. By forcing him to witness this, Kitiara hopes to break Tanis once and for all and remold him to her liking. Meanwhile, Gakhan realizes the true identities of the ones who arrived with Tanis. He finds the heroes beneath the Temple. When he tries to grab the Everman though, the weaponless Berem kills him and an alarm sounds. Berem hears his sister Jasla calling to him and sets off to find the jeweled column. Caramon follows the Everman while Tika and Tas run off in another direction to draw off pursuit. Meanwhile, up above, the Grand Council of the Dragon Highlords has begun and Tanis marches into the grand chamber at the head of Kitiara's troops. Emperor Ariakas presides over the council, since he possesses the Crown of Power and, as Kitiara explains "whoever holds the crown rules". Ariakas and Kitiara's forces nearly come to blows over protocol until Takhisis herself arrives and imposes order. Lord Soth carries in a body that has been wrapped from head to toe in winding cloth and places it at Kitiara's feet. Kitiara then cuts open the wrappings to reveal a nearly suffocated Laurana. The captive elfmaid staggers to her feet, and then Kitiara points out Tanis to her. To mask his true intentions from Takhisis, Tanis treats Laurana very coldly, disheartening her. Kitiara then presents Laurana as her gift to Takhisis and offers Tanis for service in the Dragonarmies. Takhisis is pleased by Kitiara's gift. She agrees to have Laurana tortured to death and her soul given to Lord Soth. She also accepts Tanis as an officer saying he needs only to lay his weapon at the feet of Emperor Ariakas to symbolize his allegiance. Tanis makes the long march up the stairs to the highest of the Dragon Highlords, who is both a warrior and a high-level magic-user. Instead of laying his sword at Ariakas' feet, Tanis reverses his stroke and kills the Highlord. A black-robed wizard standing next to Takhisis overcame the prismatic shields and wards surrounding Ariakas, allowing Tanis' blow to kill him. Chaos and Escape Tanis seizes the Crown of Power and attempts to exchange it for Laurana. Taking advantage of this distraction, Laurana breaks free and attacks Kitiara, disarming and knocking down the Highlord. Tanis tries to stop Laurana from running off on her own, but, after seeing him with Kitiara, Laurana no longer trusts him, so she shoves him off the platform. Laurana tells him she has to choose her own way—that she is not to be bargained for, or won, like an object. Amidst the chaos, Tanis drops the Crown, and all the Dragonarmy factions start fighting for it and the favor of Takhisis. In the confusion, the independent Laurana fights her way out of the chamber. Tanis chases after her. The goddess Takhisis suddenly disappears, distracted by something more important than the fight over the crown. Deep beneath the temple, Caramon and Berem reach the chamber of the jeweled column, but are blocked by the sudden appearance of Raistlin. Caramon's brother is wearing robes of black, and had been the magic-user who had earlier disarmed Ariakas' defenses for Tanis. He explains that he allied himself with Takhisis to get greater power (and presumably to obtain the Key of Knowledge). Upon second thought, he decides to betray her and allows Berem to go to the jeweled column. The Everman throws himself upon the column and kills himself. As his spirit is reunited with his sister Jasla, the Dark Queen's doorway to the real world closes. As result, Raistlin has now taken away his two greatest rivals, Ariakas and Takhisis, and is now the single most powerful force of evil on Krynn. The Queen of Darkness is banished once more and her temple begins to collapse. Believing he still owes some small debt to his brother and to Tika and Tasslehoff, Raistlin aids in their escape from Neraka. Raistlin then summons Cyan Bloodbane and flies away, but not before Caramon (who knows that his twin now walks the paths of darkest evil) makes a plea offer to accompany him. Raistlin refuses and tells his twin that they are now as the gods meant them to be, two whole and separate people. Tanis finally catches up with Laurana, but before he can say much to her Kitiara arrives. She offers Tanis one last chance to join her as ruler of the Dragonarmies and warns him that Lord Soth is coming to collect Laurana. Tanis refuses and tells Kitiara that he will not only die for Laurana but that he will use his dying breath to ask Paladine to shield the elf maid's soul from Lord Soth. He says that, despite his transgressions, he knows that Paladine owes him and that it will be granted. Laurana then realizes Tanis has not become corrupted, and that he does love her. Kitiara then surprisingly tells the pair the location of the same exit that the other companions used. Tanis and Laurana flee just as Lord Soth enters the chamber and the Death Knight presents the Crown of Power to Kitiara. Kitiara reveals to Lord Soth she has in fact exacted her final revenge upon Tanis and Laurana, performing an act of mercy that will always keep her in Tanis' thoughts and poison his relationship with Laurana. Endings and Epilogue Exiting the city, Tanis and Laurana meet up with Fizban, Caramon, Tika and Tasslehoff. Fizban then reveals that he is really the god Paladine. Tanis also recognizes him now as the old man at the Inn who first spurred them into action by calling for the guards in Dragons of Autumn Twilight. Fizban tell the heroes that both the good and evil dragons will remain on Ansalon and that balance has been restored between good and evil. Fizban explains to Caramon that the spirit who has helped Raistlin at times (and with whom Raistlin made a bargain in the Great Library) is the ancient evil wizard Fistandantilus. But he points out that Raistlin is not being possessed and chose his life and his actions all by himself. The companions separate. Tasslehoff to travel to Kenderhome, Caramon and Tika to travel to Solace and Tanis and Laurana to travel to Kalaman. In the epilogue, Raistlin travels to the Tower of High Sorcery in an abandoned neighborhood in the city of Palanthas, cursed and unoccupied since the end of the Cataclysm. He proclaims himself to be the master of past and present whose coming was foretold, is recognized by the spectral denizens of the tower, and settles into his new home. Connections to other books The Dragonlance Legends trilogy is a sequel to the Chronicles and detail Raistlin's next plan to achieve even greater power than he already has. Fizban himself relates part of the plot of that story when he speaks to Tasslehoff about Flint. The Legends trilogy also goes into greater detail concerning the relationship between Raistlin and Fistandantilus and reveals the final fate of Kitiara. Comic Following from the adaption of "Dark Elf Trilogy", the comic adaptation for Dragonlance Chronicles began with Dragons of Autumn Twilight in August 2005. NY Times best seller author Margaret Weis said: "We've all been waiting for this! I'm really impressed with Devil's Due and the quality of their artwork and storytelling. This is going to be a great project. I am so excited!" The first issue of last book of the trilogy Dragons of Spring Dawning was a moderate success ranking 187 in the top 300 comics for the March 2007 period. The latest issue #8 was ranked 206 in the top 300 comics for the February 2008 period. Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman along with Andrew Dabb adapted Dragons of Spring Dawning to a comic format, with Julius Gope as the artist. It has been slated for 12 issues by Devil's Due Publishing. Reviewer Ron Miller from indycomicreview.com reviewed the first issue awarded the comic 3 stars, but noting as the last book of trilogy it is a difficult starting point for new readers. Reception In the Io9 series revisiting older Dungeons & Dragons novels, Rob Bricken commented that "I can certainly understand why it's beloved, but I can't in good conscience call Spring Dawning better than its predecessors. Thus, it rolls a 14 on its 1d20, below Winter Nights 17 and Autumn Twilights 16, and same as the Forgotten Realms novel Shadowdale. It feels harsh but fair: Spring Dawning is a mostly good book that is permeated with small bits of atrocious plotting". Reviews Review by Laurel Anderson Tryforos (1985) in Fantasy Review, December 1985 Review by Andy Sawyer (1986) in Paperback Inferno, #63 See also Dragons of Autumn Twilight Dragons of Winter Night Dragons of Summer Flame References 1985 American novels American fantasy novels Core Dragonlance novels Novels by Margaret Weis Novels by Tracy Hickman
4617112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocannabinoid%20system	Endocannabinoid system	The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a biological system composed of endocannabinoids, which are endogenous lipid-based retrograde neurotransmitters that bind to cannabinoid receptors (CBRs), and cannabinoid receptor proteins that are expressed throughout the vertebrate central nervous system (including the brain) and peripheral nervous system. The endocannabinoid system remains under preliminary research, but may be involved in regulating physiological and cognitive processes, including fertility, pregnancy, pre- and postnatal development, various activity of immune system, appetite, pain-sensation, mood, and memory, and in mediating the pharmacological effects of cannabis. The ECS plays an important role in multiple aspects of neural functions, including the control of movement and motor coordination, learning and memory, emotion and motivation, addictive-like behavior and pain modulation, among others. Two primary cannabinoid receptors have been identified: CB1, first cloned (or isolated) in 1990; and CB2, cloned in 1993. CB1 receptors are found predominantly in the brain and nervous system, as well as in peripheral organs and tissues, and are the main molecular target of the endogenous partial agonist, anandamide (AEA), as well as exogenous THC, the most known active component of cannabis. Endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), which was found to be two and three orders of magnitude more abundant in mammalian brain than AEA, acts as a full agonist at both CB receptors. Basic overview The endocannabinoid system, broadly speaking, includes: The endogenous arachidonate-based lipids, anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamide) and 2-AG, besides other N-acylethanolamines (NAEs); these are known as "endocannabinoids" and are physiological ligands for the cannabinoid receptors. Endocannabinoids are all eicosanoids. The enzymes that synthesize and degrade the endocannabinoids, such as fatty acid amide hydrolase or monoacylglycerol lipase. The cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, two G protein-coupled receptors that are located in the central and peripheral nervous systems. The neurons, neural pathways, and other cells where these molecules, enzymes, and one or both cannabinoid receptor types are all colocalized collectively comprise the endocannabinoid system. The endocannabinoid system has been studied using genetic and pharmacological methods. These studies have revealed that cannabinoids act as neuromodulators for a variety of processes, including motor learning, appetite, and pain sensation, among other cognitive and physical processes. The localization of the CB1 receptor in the endocannabinoid system has a very large degree of overlap with the orexinergic projection system, which mediates many of the same functions, both physical and cognitive. Moreover, CB1 is colocalized on orexin projection neurons in the lateral hypothalamus and many output structures of the orexin system, where the CB1 and orexin receptor 1 (OX1) receptors physically and functionally join to form the CB1–OX1 receptor heterodimer. Expression of receptors Cannabinoid binding sites exist throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. The two most relevant receptors for cannabinoids are the CB1 and CB2 receptors, which are expressed predominantly in the brain and immune system respectively. Density of expression varies based on species and correlates with the efficacy that cannabinoids will have in modulating specific aspects of behavior related to the site of expression. For example, in rodents, the highest concentration of cannabinoid binding sites are in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, regions of the brain involved in the initiation and coordination of movement. In humans, cannabinoid receptors exist in much lower concentration in these regions, which helps explain why cannabinoids possess a greater efficacy in altering rodent motor movements than they do in humans. A recent analysis of cannabinoid binding in CB1 and CB2 receptor knockout mice found cannabinoid responsiveness even when these receptors were not being expressed, indicating that an additional binding receptor may be present in the brain. Binding has been demonstrated by 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) on the TRPV1 receptor suggesting that this receptor may be a candidate for the established response. In addition to CB1 and CB2, certain orphan receptors are known to bind endocannabinoids as well, including GPR18, GPR55 (a regulator of neuroimmune function), and GPR119. CB1 has also been noted to form a functional human receptor heterodimer in orexin neurons with OX1, the CB1–OX1 receptor, which mediates feeding behavior and certain physical processes such as cannabinoid-induced pressor responses which are known to occur through signaling in the rostral ventrolateral medulla. Endocannabinoid synthesis, release, and degradation During neurotransmission, the pre-synaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft which bind to cognate receptors expressed on the post-synaptic neuron. Based upon the interaction between the transmitter and receptor, neurotransmitters may trigger a variety of effects in the post-synaptic cell, such as excitation, inhibition, or the initiation of second messenger cascades. Based on the cell, these effects may result in the on-site synthesis of endogenous cannabinoids anandamide or 2-AG by a process that is not entirely clear, but results from an elevation in intracellular calcium. Expression appears to be exclusive, so that both types of endocannabinoids are not co-synthesized. This exclusion is based on synthesis-specific channel activation: a recent study found that in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, calcium entry through voltage-sensitive calcium channels produced an L-type current resulting in 2-AG production, while activation of mGluR1/5 receptors triggered the synthesis of anandamide. Evidence suggests that the depolarization-induced influx of calcium into the post-synaptic neuron causes the activation of an enzyme called transacylase. This enzyme is suggested to catalyze the first step of endocannabinoid biosynthesis by converting phosphatidylethanolamine, a membrane-resident phospholipid, into N-acyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE). Experiments have shown that phospholipase D cleaves NAPE to yield anandamide. This process is mediated by bile acids. In NAPE-phospholipase D (NAPEPLD)-knockout mice, cleavage of NAPE is reduced in low calcium concentrations, but not abolished, suggesting multiple, distinct pathways are involved in anandamide synthesis. The synthesis of 2-AG is less established and warrants further research. Once released into the extracellular space by a putative endocannabinoid transporter, messengers are vulnerable to glial cell inactivation. Endocannabinoids are taken up by a transporter on the glial cell and degraded by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), which cleaves anandamide into arachidonic acid and ethanolamine or monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), and 2-AG into arachidonic acid and glycerol. While arachidonic acid is a substrate for leukotriene and prostaglandin synthesis, it is unclear whether this degradative byproduct has unique functions in the central nervous system. Emerging data in the field also points to FAAH being expressed in postsynaptic neurons complementary to presynaptic neurons expressing cannabinoid receptors, supporting the conclusion that it is major contributor to the clearance and inactivation of anandamide and 2-AG after endocannabinoid reuptake. A neuropharmacological study demonstrated that an inhibitor of FAAH (URB597) selectively increases anandamide levels in the brain of rodents and primates. Such approaches could lead to the development of new drugs with analgesic, anxiolytic-like and antidepressant-like effects, which are not accompanied by overt signs of abuse liability. Binding and intracellular effects Cannabinoid receptors are G-protein coupled receptors located on the pre-synaptic membrane. While there have been some papers that have linked concurrent stimulation of dopamine and CB1 receptors to an acute rise in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production, it is generally accepted that CB1 activation via cannabinoids causes a decrease in cAMP concentration by inhibition of adenylyl cyclase and a rise in the concentration of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase). The relative potency of different cannabinoids in inhibition of adenylyl cyclase correlates with their varying efficacy in behavioral assays. This inhibition of cAMP is followed by phosphorylation and subsequent activation of not only a suite of MAP kinases (p38/p42/p44), but also the PI3/PKB and MEK/ERK pathway. Results from rat hippocampal gene chip data after acute administration of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) showed an increase in the expression of transcripts encoding myelin basic protein, endoplasmic proteins, cytochrome oxidase, and two cell adhesion molecules: NCAM, and SC1; decreases in expression were seen in both calmodulin and ribosomal RNAs. In addition, CB1 activation has been demonstrated to increase the activity of transcription factors like c-Fos and Krox-24. Binding and neuronal excitability The molecular mechanisms of CB1-mediated changes to the membrane voltage have also been studied in detail. Cannabinoids reduce calcium influx by blocking the activity of voltage-dependent N-, P/Q- and L-type calcium channels. In addition to acting on calcium channels, activation of Gi/o and Gs, the two most commonly coupled G-proteins to cannabinoid receptors, has been shown to modulate potassium channel activity. Recent studies have found that CB1 activation specifically facilitates potassium ion flux through GIRKs, a family of potassium channels. Immunohistochemistry experiments demonstrated that CB1 is co-localized with GIRK and Kv1.4 potassium channels, suggesting that these two may interact in physiological contexts. In the central nervous system, CB1 receptors influence neuronal excitability, reducing the incoming synaptic input. This mechanism, known as presynaptic inhibition, occurs when a postsynaptic neuron releases endocannabinoids in retrograde transmission, which then bind to cannabinoid receptors on the presynaptic terminal. CB1 receptors then reduce the amount of neurotransmitter released, so that subsequent excitation in the presynaptic neuron results in diminished effects on the postsynaptic neuron. It is likely that presynaptic inhibition uses many of the same ion channel mechanisms listed above, although recent evidence has shown that CB1 receptors can also regulate neurotransmitter release by a non-ion channel mechanism, i.e. through Gi/o-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase and protein kinase A. Direct effects of CB1 receptors on membrane excitability have been reported, and strongly impact the firing of cortical neurons. A series of behavioral experiments demonstrated that NMDAR, an ionotropic glutamate receptor, and the metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) work in concert with CB1 to induce analgesia in mice, although the mechanism underlying this effect is unclear. Potential functions Memory Mice treated with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) show suppression of long-term potentiation in the hippocampus, a process that is essential for the formation and storage of long-term memory. These results may concur with anecdotal evidence suggesting that smoking cannabis impairs short-term memory. Consistent with this finding, mice without the CB1 receptor show enhanced memory and long-term potentiation indicating that the endocannabinoid system may play a pivotal role in the extinction of old memories. One study found that the high-dose treatment of rats with the synthetic cannabinoid HU-210 over several weeks resulted in stimulation of neural growth in the rats' hippocampus region, a part of the limbic system playing a part in the formation of declarative and spatial memories, but did not investigate the effects on short-term or long-term memory. Taken together, these findings suggest that the effects of endocannabinoids on the various brain networks involved in learning and memory may vary. Role in hippocampal neurogenesis In the adult brain, the endocannabinoid system facilitates the neurogenesis of hippocampal granule cells. In the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus, multipotent neural progenitors (NP) give rise to daughter cells that, over the course of several weeks, mature into granule cells whose axons project to and synapse onto dendrites on the CA3 region. NPs in the hippocampus have been shown to possess fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and express CB1 and utilize 2-AG. Intriguingly, CB1 activation by endogenous or exogenous cannabinoids promote NP proliferation and differentiation; this activation is absent in CB1 knockouts and abolished in the presence of antagonist. Induction of synaptic depression Endocannabinoids are known to influence synaptic plasticity, and are in particular thought to mediate long-term depression (LTD, which refers to neuronal firing, not psychological depression). Short-term depression (STD) has also been described (see the next paragraph). First reported in the striatum, this system is known to function in several other brain structures such as the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, ventral tegmental area (VTA), brain stem, and superior colliculus. Typically, these retrograde transmitters are released by the postsynaptic neuron and induce synaptic depression by activating the presynaptic CB1 receptors. It has further been suggested that different endocannabinoids, i.e. 2-AG and anandamide, might mediate different forms of synaptic depression through different mechanisms. The study conducted with the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis found that the endurance of the depressant effects was mediated by two different signaling pathways based on the type of receptor activated. 2-AG was found to act on presynaptic CB1 receptors to mediate retrograde STD following activation of L-type calcium channeles, while anandamide was synthesized after mGluR5 activation and triggered autocrine signalling onto postsynapic TRPV1 receptors that induced LTD. These findings provide the brain a direct mechanism to selectively inhibit neuronal excitability over variable time scales. By selectively internalizing different receptors, the brain may limit the production of specific endocannabinoids to favor a time scale in accordance with its needs. Appetite Evidence for the role of the endocannabinoid system in food-seeking behavior comes from a variety of cannabinoid studies. Emerging data suggests that THC acts via CB1 receptors in the hypothalamic nuclei to directly increase appetite. It is thought that hypothalamic neurons tonically produce endocannabinoids that work to tightly regulate hunger. The amount of endocannabinoids produced is inversely correlated with the amount of leptin in the blood. For example, mice without leptin not only become massively obese but express abnormally high levels of hypothalamic endocannabinoids as a compensatory mechanism. Similarly, when these mice were treated with an endocannabinoid inverse agonists, such as rimonabant, food intake was reduced. When the CB1 receptor is knocked out in mice, these animals tend to be leaner and less hungry than wild-type mice. A related study examined the effect of THC on the hedonic (pleasure) value of food and found enhanced dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and increased pleasure-related behavior after administration of a sucrose solution. A related study found that endocannabinoids affect taste perception in taste cells. In taste cells, endocannabinoids were shown to selectively enhance the strength of neural signaling for sweet tastes, whereas leptin decreased the strength of this same response. While there is need for more research, these results suggest that cannabinoid activity in the hypothalamus and nucleus accumbens is related to appetitive, food-seeking behavior. Energy balance and metabolism The endocannabinoid system has been shown to have a homeostatic role by controlling several metabolic functions, such as energy storage and nutrient transport. It acts on peripheral tissues such as adipocytes, hepatocytes, the gastrointestinal tract, the skeletal muscles and the endocrine pancreas. It has also been implied in modulating insulin sensitivity. Through all of this, the endocannabinoid system may play a role in clinical conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and atherosclerosis, which may also give it a cardiovascular role. Stress response While the secretion of glucocorticoids in response to stressful stimuli is an adaptive response necessary for an organism to respond appropriately to a stressor, persistent secretion may be harmful. The endocannabinoid system has been implicated in the habituation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) to repeated exposure to restraint stress. Studies have demonstrated differential synthesis of anandamide and 2-AG during tonic stress. A decrease of anandamide was found along the axis that contributed to basal hypersecretion of corticosterone; in contrast, an increase of 2-AG was found in the amygdala after repeated stress, which was negatively correlated to magnitude of the corticosterone response. All effects were abolished by the CB1 antagonist AM251, supporting the conclusion that these effects were cannabinoid-receptor dependent. These findings show that anandamide and 2-AG divergently regulate the HPA axis response to stress: while habituation of the stress-induced HPA axis via 2-AG prevents excessive secretion of glucocorticoids to non-threatening stimuli, the increase of basal corticosterone secretion resulting from decreased anandamide allows for a facilitated response of the HPA axis to novel stimuli. Exploration, social behavior, and anxiety These contrasting effects reveal the importance of the endocannabinoid system in regulating anxiety-dependent behavior. Results suggest that glutamatergic cannabinoid receptors are not only responsible for mediating aggression, but produce an anxiolytic-like function by inhibiting excessive arousal: excessive excitation produces anxiety that limited the mice from exploring both animate and inanimate objects. In contrast, GABAergic neurons appear to control an anxiogenic-like function by limiting inhibitory transmitter release. Taken together, these two sets of neurons appear to help regulate the organism's overall sense of arousal during novel situations. Immune system In laboratory experiments, activation of cannabinoid receptors had an effect on the activation of GTPases in macrophages, neutrophils, and bone marrow cells. These receptors have also been implicated in the migration of B cells into the marginal zone and the regulation of IgM levels. Female reproduction The developing embryo expresses cannabinoid receptors early in development that are responsive to anandamide secreted in the uterus. This signaling is important in regulating the timing of embryonic implantation and uterine receptivity. In mice, it has been shown that anandamide modulates the probability of implantation to the uterine wall. For example, in humans, the likelihood of miscarriage increases if uterine anandamide levels are too high or low. These results suggest that intake of exogenous cannabinoids (e.g. cannabis) can decrease the likelihood for pregnancy for women with high anandamide levels, and alternatively, it can increase the likelihood for pregnancy in women whose anandamide levels were too low. Autonomic nervous system Peripheral expression of cannabinoid receptors led researchers to investigate the role of cannabinoids in the autonomic nervous system. Research found that the CB1 receptor is expressed presynaptically by motor neurons that innervate visceral organs. Cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of electric potentials results in a reduction in noradrenaline release from sympathetic nervous system nerves. Other studies have found similar effects in endocannabinoid regulation of intestinal motility, including the innervation of smooth muscles associated with the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. Analgesia At the spinal cord, cannabinoids suppress noxious-stimulus-evoked responses of neurons in the dorsal horn, possibly by modulating descending noradrenaline input from the brainstem. As many of these fibers are primarily GABAergic, cannabinoid stimulation in the spinal column results in disinhibition that should increase noradrenaline release and attenuation of noxious-stimuli-processing in the periphery and dorsal root ganglion. The endocannabinoid most researched in pain is palmitoylethanolamide. Palmitoylethanolamide is a fatty amine related to anandamide, but saturated and although initially it was thought that palmitoylethanolamide would bind to the CB1 and the CB2 receptor, later it was found that the most important receptors are the PPAR-alpha receptor, the TRPV receptor and the GPR55 receptor. Palmitoylethanolamide has been evaluated for its analgesic actions in a great variety of pain indications and found to be safe and effective. Modulation of the endocannabinoid system by metabolism to N-arachidinoyl-phenolamine (AM404), an endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitter, has been discovered to be one mechanism for analgesia by acetaminophen (paracetamol). Endocannabinoids are involved in placebo induced analgesia responses. Thermoregulation Anandamide and N-arachidonoyl dopamine (NADA) have been shown to act on temperature-sensing TRPV1 channels, which are involved in thermoregulation. TRPV1 is activated by the exogenous ligand capsaicin, the active component of chili peppers, which is structurally similar to endocannabinoids. NADA activates the TRPV1 channel with The high potency makes it the putative endogenous TRPV1 agonist. Anandamide has also been found to activate TRPV1 on sensory neuron terminals, and subsequently cause vasodilation. TRPV1 may also be activated by methanandamide and arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide (ACEA). Sleep Increased endocannabinoid signaling within the central nervous system promotes sleep-inducing effects. Intercerebroventricular administration of anandamide in rats has been shown to decrease wakefulness and increase slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. Administration of anandamide into the basal forebrain of rats has also been shown to increase levels of adenosine, which plays a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal. REM sleep deprivation in rats has been demonstrated to increase CB1 receptor expression in the central nervous system. Furthermore, anandamide levels possess a circadian rhythm in the rat, with levels being higher in the light phase of the day, which is when rats are usually asleep or less active, since they are nocturnal. Physical exercise The endocannabinoid system is also involved in mediating some of the physiological and cognitive effects of voluntary physical exercise in humans and other animals, such as contributing to exercise-induced euphoria as well as modulating locomotor activity and motivational salience for rewards. In humans, the plasma concentration of certain endocannabinoids (i.e., anandamide) have been found to rise during physical activity; since endocannabinoids can effectively penetrate the blood–brain barrier, it has been suggested that anandamide, along with other euphoriant neurochemicals, contributes to the development of exercise-induced euphoria in humans, a state colloquially referred to as a runner's high. Cannabinoids in plants The endocannabinoid system is by molecular phylogenetic distribution of apparently ancient lipids in the plant kingdom, indicative of biosynthetic plasticity and potential physiological roles of endocannabinoid-like lipids in plants, and detection of arachidonic acid (AA) indicates chemotaxonomic connections between monophyletic groups with common ancestor dates to around 500 million years ago (Cambrian). The phylogenetic distribution of these lipids may be a consequence of interactions/adaptations to the surrounding conditions such as chemical plant-pollinator interactions, communication and defense mechanisms. The two novel EC-like molecules derived from the eicosatetraenoic acid juniperonic acid, an omega-3 structural isomer of AA, namely juniperoyl ethanolamide and 2-juniperoyl glycerol (1/2-AG) in gymnosperms, lycophytes and few monilophytes, show AA is an evolutionarily conserved signalling molecule that acts in plants in response to stress similar to that in animal systems. The endocannabinoid Docosatetraenoylethanolamide has been found in Tropaeolum tuberosum (Mashua) and Leonotis leonurus (Lion's tail) Maca contains several N-benzylamides referred to as "macamides" that are structurally related to endocannabinoids such as the N-Benzyl analog of Oleamide. Echinacea contains alkylamides structurally related to endocannabinoids. Cannabinoids in Cyanobacterium Serinolamide A is a cannabinoid structurally related to endocannabinoids found in cyanobacteria such as Lyngbya majuscula and other species in the Oscillatoria family. Endocannabinoid articles Anandamide 2-Arachidonoylglycerol 2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether Oleamide Oleoylethanolamide Virodhamine Docosatetraenoylethanolamide Stearoylethanolamide N-Arachidonylglycine Arachidonoyl serotonin N-Arachidonoyl dopamine N-Acylethanolamine See also Endocannabinoid enhancer Endocannabinoid reuptake inhibitor Cannabinol Cannabinoid receptor antagonist Jasmonate Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor TRPV References External links Homepage of the ICRS – The International Cannabinoid Research Society Neurochemistry Cannabinoids
4617126	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Mughar%20Ridge	Battle of Mughar Ridge	The Battle of Mughar Ridge, officially known by the British as the action of El Mughar, took place on 13 November 1917 during the Pursuit phase of the Southern Palestine Offensive of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the First World War. Fighting between the advancing Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) and the retreating Yildirim Army Group, occurred after the Battle of Beersheba and the Third Battle of Gaza. Operations occurred over an extensive area north of the Gaza to Beersheba line and west of the road from Beersheba to Jerusalem via Hebron. Strong Ottoman Army positions from Gaza to the foothills of the Judean Hills had successfully held out against British Empire forces for a week after the Ottoman army was defeated at Beersheba. But the next day, 8 November, the main Ottoman base at Sheria was captured after two days' fighting and a British Yeomanry cavalry charge at Huj captured guns; Ottoman units along the whole line were in retreat. The XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps attacked the Ottoman Eighth Army on an extended front from the Judean foothills across the Mediterranean coastal plain from 10 to 14 November. Beginning on 10 November at Summil, an Ottoman counterattack by the Seventh Army was eventually blocked by mounted units while on 13 November in the centre a cavalry charge assisted by infantry captured two fortified villages and on 14 November, to the north at Ayun Kara an Ottoman rearguard position was successfully attacked by mounted units. Junction Station (also known as Wadi es Sara) was captured and the Ottoman railway link with Jerusalem was cut. As a result of this victory the Ottoman Eighth Army withdrew behind the Nahr el Auja and their Seventh Army withdrew toward Jerusalem. Background After the capture of Beersheba on 31 October, from 1 to 7 November, strong Ottoman rearguard units at Tel el Khuweilfe in the southern Judean Hills, at Hareira and Sheria on the maritime plain, and at Gaza close to the Mediterranean coast, held the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in heavy fighting. During this time the Ottoman Army was able to withdraw in good order; the rearguard garrisons retiring under cover of darkness during the night of 8/9 November 1917. The delay caused by these rearguards may have seriously compromised the British Empire advance as there was not much time to conclude military engagements in southern Palestine. The winter rains were expected to start in the middle of the month and the black soil plain which was currently firm, facilitating the movements of large military units would with the rains become a giant boggy quagmire, impassable for wheeled vehicles and very heavy marching for infantry. With the rains the temperatures which were currently hot during the day and pleasant at night would drop rapidly to become piercingly cold. In 1917 the rains began on 19 November just as the infantry began their advance into the Judean Hills. The strength of the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies, before the attack at Beersheba on 31 October, was estimated to have been 45,000 rifles, 1,500 sabres and 300 guns. This force had been made up of the Seventh Army's incomplete III Corps. The III Corps' 24th Infantry Division was at Kauwukah (near Hareira–Sheria) and its 27th Infantry Division was at Beersheba. Its 3rd Cavalry Division, as well as the 16th, 19th, and 24th Infantry Divisions were also in the area to the east of the Gaza–Beersheba line. The Seventh Army was commanded by Fevzi Çakmak. The Eighth Army's XXII Corps (3rd and 53rd Infantry Divisions) was based at Gaza while its XX Corps (16th, 26th and 54th Infantry Divisions) was based at Sheria in the centre of the Gaza–Beersheba line. Supporting these two corps had been two reserve divisions; the 7th and 19th Infantry Divisions. The Eighth Army was commanded by Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein and at that time had an estimated 2,894 officers; 69,709 men; 29,116 rifles; 403 machine-guns and 268 guns. Prelude During 7–8 November rearguards of the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies delayed the advance of Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel's Desert Mounted Corps, Major General Edmund Hakewill-Smith's (or Major General J. Hill's) 52nd (Lowland) Division, and Major General Philip C Palin's 75th Division. The Desert Mounted Corps consisted of the Anzac Mounted Division (Major General Edward Chaytor), the Australian Mounted Division (Major General Henry W Hodgson) and the Yeomanry Mounted Division (Major General George Barrow). The 52nd (Lowland) Division and 75th Division formed part of Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin's XXI Corps. On the coast the 52nd (Lowland) Division was fought a fierce action after crossing the Wadi el Hesi on the coast north of Gaza. By the morning of 8 November, two infantry brigades had crossed the Wadi el Hesi near its mouth and, despite some opposition established themselves on the sand dunes to the north towards Askelon. Sausage Ridge, on their right stretched from Burberah to Deir Sineid, was held in considerable strength, as the ridge covered the road and railway from Gaza to the north. During the afternoon the 155th Brigade moved to attack Sausage Ridge, but it was threatened by a counterattack on the left forcing, the brigade to halt and face north to meet this attack. When the 156th Brigade arrived from Sh. Ajlin on the Wadi el Hesi, the 157th Brigade attacked the southern portion of the ridge, and gained a footing as darkness fell. They lost this precarious position four times to fierce Ottoman counterattacks, before strongly attacking and throwing the defenders off the ridge by 21:00. The two attacking brigades lost 700 men in this action. The Ottoman rearguards were able to safely get away during the night of the 8/9 November, but during the following day the only infantry unit capable of advancing was the 52nd (Lowland) Division's 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General Archibald Herbert Leggett. The division's other brigades were regrouping after the fierce fighting at the Wadi Hesi. The brigade moved to Ashkelon, which was found to be deserted. By evening advance troops had pressed on to Al-Majdal, from Gaza, where they secured abandoned stores and water. By 9 November the Eighth Army had retreated while the Seventh Army "had lost hardly any ground." Most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's infantry divisions were at the end of their lines of communication and were not able to follow up the Ottoman withdrawal. XXI Corps's 54th (East Anglian) Division was forced to rest at Gaza and the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade at Beit Hanun. In the rear, Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode's XX Corps had transferred its transport to XXI Corps. XX Corps's 60th (2/2nd London) Division (Major General John Shea) was resting at Huj and its 10th (Irish) (Major General John Longley) and 74th (Yeomanry) (Major General Eric Girdwood) Divisions were at Karm. The only units in the field were the 53rd (Welsh) Division (Major General S. F. Mott), corps cavalry, the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, deployed in the front line near Tel el Khuweilfe in the foothills of the Judean Hills north of Beersheba. Mounted troop movements on 9 November Chaytor's Anzac Mounted Division moved off across the maritime plain towards the coast soon after daylight on 9 November, having watered their horses the previous evening. The advance was led by two brigades—on the left the 1st Light Horse Brigade and on the right the 2nd Light Horse Brigade rode in line, each responsible for their own front and outer flanks; the attached 7th Mounted Brigade formed a reserve. By about 08:30 the 1st Light Horse Brigade had entered Bureir and around an hour later the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was approaching Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein's Eighth Army headquarters at Hulayqat. Here Ottoman soldiers were discovered to be occupying a strong position on high ground north-west of the village; the brigade made a dismounted attack capturing 600 prisoners along with large amounts of supplies, materiel and an abandoned German field hospital. At midday El Mejdel, north-east of Gaza, was occupied with little difficulty by the 1st Light Horse Brigade, who captured 170 prisoners and found a good well with a steam pump enabling the brigade to water all horses expeditiously. After passing the ancient town of Ashkelon a message was received from the Desert Mounted Corps notifying the Anzac Mounted Division that the British XXI Corps were marching towards El Mejdel and Julis. The main Ottoman road and railway leading north from Gaza were both cut and as a consequence, Chauvel ordered the division to advance towards Bayt Daras. The division duly turned north-east with the 1st Light Horse Brigade entering Isdud close to the Mediterranean Sea. On the right, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured the villages of Suafir el Sharkiye and Arak Suweidan, a convoy and its escort (some 350 prisoners). While the brigade was reorganising, Ottoman guns further north opened fire, shelling both captors and captives alike. Just before dark the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured a further 200 prisoners. The Anzac Mounted Division took up a night battle outpost line along high ground south of the Wadi Mejma, from near Isdud to Arak Suweidan. During its journey across the maritime plain to Isdud, the Anzac Mounted Division captured many prisoners but met no large organised Ottoman force. As the day progressed, the captured Ottoman units were found to be increasingly disorganised with many soldiers suffering severely from thirst and exhaustion and some from dysentery. Meanwhile, Hodgson's Australian Mounted Division, spent most of 9 November searching for water, which was eventually found at Huj. After most of the horses had been watered, they advanced to the Kastina–Isdud line capturing prisoners, guns, and transports on the way. This march during the night of 9/10 November was the only night march made through Ottoman territory of the campaign. The Australian Mounted Division was led by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade as advanced guard, with an artillery battery attached. The 5th Mounted Brigade, two squadrons of which had made the charge at Huj the day before, followed, with the 4th Light Horse Brigade forming the rearguard. To ensure the division maintained its cohesion throughout the night, the advance guard placed pickets along the route every . These were picked up by the following units which in turn dropped pickets to be gathered up by the rearguard. Corps headquarters in the rear was kept informed of the division's movement by signal lamp. Signallers from the two leading brigades intermittently flashed the letters of the divisional call signal in a south-westerly direction from every prominent hilltop along the route. These arrangements worked well and the division arrived intact in the vicinity of Arak el Menshiye and Al-Faluja. The Australian Mounted Division was followed by the 4th Light Horse Brigade Field Ambulance and the divisional train made up of brigade transport and supply sections carrying rations. The field ambulance set up a dressing station and treated about 40 wounded men before moving through Huj at 16:00. After encountering rugged mountainous ravines and of very rough terrain, at around midnight they set up camp in a wadi bed. The Yeomanry Mounted Division, (Barrow), had been in hills north of Beersheba fighting in the line at Tel el Khuweilfe with infantry from the 53rd (Welsh) Division, the 1/2nd County of London Yeomanry Regiment (XX Corps, Corps Troops) and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade until Allenby ordered it to rejoin the Desert Mounted Corps, away on the coast. Meanwhile, the infantry from the 60th (2/2nd London) Division marched to Huj during the afternoon of 9 November, obtaining water there. Infantry in the 10th (Irish) and 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions remained at Karm. Positions of armies on 10 November The 52nd (Lowland) Division had ended the possibility of an Ottoman stand on the Wadi Hesi and the next natural defensive line was to the north, on the Nahr Sukereir. Allenby had issued orders on 9 November to advance to El Tineh–Beit Duras in an attempt to turn the Ottoman Nahr Sukereir line before it could be firmly established. Meanwhile, disorganised and demoralised Ottoman columns were harassed as they retreated by the Royal Flying Corps dropping bombs and firing machine-guns. Aircraft also dropped bombs on El Tineh railway station and detonated the ammunition depot. By 10 November infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) and 75th Divisions had advanced to the line Beit Duras–Isdud with the leading brigade of the 52nd Division successfully attacking a strong Ottoman rearguard defending Isdud. Despite these difficulties the Ottoman Army successfully carried out a difficult retreat to establish a new defensive position on an extensive and well chosen position. The new line stretched about west to east from the mouth of the Nahr Sukereir on the Mediterranean Sea to Bayt Jibrin not far from Tel el Khuweilfe in the Judean Hills. The Ottoman Eighth Army on the coastal sector was still retreating when ordered to form the new line along the north side of the valley of the Nahr Sukereir, more than from Gaza. Further inland the Ottoman Seventh Army was in relatively good condition having retired or so without interference and was preparing to launch a counterattack. Reinforcements, transport and supplies were not a problem for these two Ottoman armies as they were falling back on their lines of communication. Their defensive line ran more or less parallel to and or so in front of both road links and the railway. The Jaffa to Jerusalem railway, with connections northwards to Damascus and Istanbul, had a line branching southwards to El Tineh which branched again to Gaza and Beersheba. These lines could still be used to transport supplies and reinforcements quickly and efficiently to the Ottoman Army's front line. Indeed, a general strengthening of resistance along the Wadi Sukereir line was concentrated around Qastina, towards which the 2nd Light Horse Brigade advanced, capturing a refugee column between Suafir and Qastina. Infantry capture Isdud and Nahr Sukereir The series of engagements leading up to the Battle of Mughar Ridge began on 10 November near Isdud. The leading brigade of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, advanced despite encountering stiff Ottoman resistance around Isdud and was subjected to artillery bombardment from across the Nahr Sukereir. Two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division followed the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade pushing across the Nahr Sukereir at Jisr Isdud, to Hamama. Here they successfully established a bridgehead on the Ottoman right flank. Ample water was found and the bridgehead was enlarged the following day. Mounted advance towards Summil The Australian Mounted Division, which had left Huj after dark on the night of 9/10 November bound for Tel el Hesi, arrived there at 04:30. They halted until dawn on 10 November when several large pools of good water were found in the wadi. These allowed the horses to drink their fill—some that had missed out on watering before the trek, had been without water for three days and four nights. The division then came up into position on the right. The Anzac Mounted Division reported on the morning of 10 November that the division was "ridden out" and had to halt for water. Meanwhile, the 12th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade) advanced north from Burieh to Al-Faluja arriving at 24:00 on 9/10 November when engineering stores and five burnt out aircraft were captured. The 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered at 10:40 on 10 November to threaten the Ottoman force opposing 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the Menshiye–Al Faluja line. Between 08:00 and 10:30, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had occupied the Arak el Menshiye Station while the 4th Light Horse Brigade entered Al-Faluja to the north-west. The Australian Mounted Division was joined a few hours later by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which had left Huj early in the morning. They came up on the right of the Australian Mounted Division and took over Arak el Menshiye extending the line a little further east. By the afternoon of 10 November the whole of the Desert Mounted Corps with the exception of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, (still at Tel el Khuweilfe) were in line from a point a little east of Arak el Menshiye to the sea. Both the Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions reconnoitred the left half of the Ottoman line running from Qastina, roughly through Balin and Barqusya, to the neighbourhood of Bayt Jibrin in the foothills of the Judean Hills. Chauvel ordered the Yeomanry Mounted Division to move westward to the coast leaving the Australian Mounted Division on the right flank. Neither he nor Hodgson commanding the Australian Mounted Division were aware at that time, that the division was threatened by three or four Ottoman Eighth Army infantry divisions. The 16th and 26th Divisions (XX Corps) and the 53rd Division (XXII Corps) were holding a line between the railway line and Bayt Jibrin, all more or less reorganised and all within striking distance. However, Chauvel's reliance on the steadiness of the Australian Mounted Division was fully justified. With its headquarters at Al-Faluja on 10 and 11 November, the Australian Mounted Division became engaged (during 10 November) in stubborn fighting. Ottoman trenches had been dug from Summil north of Arak el Menshiye to Zeita, to the north-east, and to the east of the railway line. The three brigades of the Australian Mounted Division ran into this Ottoman rearguard's left flank near the village of Summil. Ottoman forces were advancing from Summil by 12:55 and the 4th Light Horse Brigade was deployed to attack them with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade assisting. At 14:55 patrols reported strong Ottoman positions along the Zeita–Summil–Barqusya line with trenches extending west of Summil village. Two Ottoman guns were seen being placed in a well-sited position with no cover for in front, which would require a long dismounted attack. By 15:30 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was approaching Summil when ordered to attack from the north with the 5th Mounted Brigade supported by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade threatening Summil from the west. By 16:30 3rd Light Horse Brigade headquarters were established south-east of Al-Faluja on the railway line, but owing to darkness at 17:15 the attack was not developed and night battle outpost lines were established at 20:00. By 18:00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was holding a line linking to the Anzac Mounted Division at Beit Affen, while the Ottomans were holding a ridge near Barqusya with three cavalry troops, three guns and about 1,500 infantry. The mounted infantry and cavalry brigades were unable to advance further due to intense Ottoman artillery fire which continued throughout the day. However, Summil was occupied unopposed, during the morning of 11 November. The 4th Light Horse Brigade casualties were one other rank killed, one officer and nine other ranks wounded. These wounded soldiers were probably treated by the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance which was in the field a couple of miles past Al-Faluja. The ambulance had itself suffered two casualties when subjected to artillery fire from the hills. But they halted and put up a tent and after dark took in eight more patients all hit by high-explosive shells from the 4th Light Horse Regiment. They were busy until midnight; two seriously wounded soldiers being evacuated to a Casualty Clearing Station and the rest were kept till morning. Position on 11 November Allenby decided that an advance on Junction Station could most easily be made from the south-west, by turning the Ottoman Army's right flank on the coast. The 11 and 12 November were days of preparation for battle the following day. The Anzac Mounted Division were resting at Hamama when their supporting Australian Army Service Corps personnel caught up and distributed supplies for man and horse. This task was performed by "B" echelon wagons of brigades' transport and supply sections forming an improvised Anzac Divisional Train. It was here also that the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade rejoined the division at 23:00 on 12 November. Supplies for the advance were transported over land and by sea but it was only with great difficulty that two infantry divisions of XXI Corps and three mounted divisions of Desert Mounted Corps were maintained in the advance at such distances from base. The Navy transported stores to the mouths of the Wadi Hesi and the Nahr Sukherier as these lines were secured. The railhead was being pushed forward as rapidly as possible, but did not reach Deir Suneid until 28 November. So it was a considerable distance over which the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps worked to bring up supplies. The Australian Mounted Division occupied Summil unopposed at dawn on 11 November but was unable to advance in the face of gathering opposition from the immediate north-east. Summil had been found deserted at 06:00 by patrols of 3rd Light Horse Brigade (Australian Mounted Division). But by 09:30 the 10th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) reported Ottoman units in strength, holding a high ridge north-east of the town. At the same time Ottoman field guns began shelling Summil from a position on high ground about east of the town. Following instructions from Australian Mounted Division received at 14:00, the 10th Light Horse Regiment carried out active patrolling. They made themselves as conspicuous as possible without becoming seriously engaged while the remainder of the division advanced north. The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was ordered to rejoin the Anzac Mounted Division. The brigade left Beersheba at 16:30 on 11 November and made a forced march of . Their Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment, which had been in the front line with the 53rd (Welsh) Division about Tel el Khuweilfe in the southern Judean Hills not far from Hebron, made a forced march of . These treks were estimated to have taken 18 hours, with a halt to rest and water at Kh. Jemmame early on 12 November. They arrived at Hamama that night at 23:00 some 30 and 1/2 hours later. Allenby prepares for battle as Kress counterattacks The defensive line, chosen by the Ottoman commanders to rally their 20,000-strong army and stop the invasion, was also designed to protect the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway and the threatened Junction Station. Their choice of position was partly dictated by pressure from the British, Australian, Indian and New Zealand advance, and partly by the terrain. The line north of the Nahr Rubin ran nearly north–south and parallel to, but about to the west of the railway line branching southwards. It ran along a high steep ridge connecting the hillside villages of Al-Maghar and Zernukah (surrounded by cactus hedges) and extended north-westwards to El Kubeibeh. The southern extremity of this ridge commanded the flat country to the west and south-west, for a distance of or more. Prisoners from almost every unit of the Ottoman Army were being captured indicating that rearguards had been driven back in on the main body of the two Ottoman armies. All along their line Ottoman resistance grew noticeably stronger. The Ottoman line was defended by the Eighth Army's 3rd Division (XXII Corps) to the north, the 7th Division (Eighth Army Reserve) to the east, the 54th Division (XX Corps) near el Mesmiye and the 26th Division (XX Corps) holding Tel es Safi. Erich von Falkenhayn, the overall commander of the Ottoman Armies, had resolved to make a stand in front of Junction Station and succeeded in deploying his forces by the evening of 11 November. He ordered a counterattack against the British right flank which was covered by the Australian Mounted Division. His plan was to overwhelm them, cut their supply lines, outflank and capture all the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's forward units. Originally ordered for 11 November it was postponed until the next day. Meanwhile, Allenby's plan for 13 November was to turn the right flank of the Ottoman line on the coast despite aircraft and cavalry reconnaissances revealing a considerable Ottoman force further inland on the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's own right flank. He assigned the task of dealing with this immediate threat to the Australian Mounted Division, which was ordered to make as big a demonstration of their operations as possible. This would further focus Ottoman attention away from the coastal sector where the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions would advance northwards to attempt to turn the Ottoman right flank assisted by infantry attacks on the Ottoman right centre the following day. Allenby's force was deployed with infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division and the 75th Division in the centre, the Australian Mounted Division on their right flank with the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions on the infantry's left flank. He ordered the 52nd (Lowland) Division to extend their position across the Nahr Sukereir on the Ottoman right flank. And, reinforced with two additional brigades, he ordered the Australian Mounted Division to advance towards Tel es Safi where they encountered a determined and substantial Ottoman counterattack. Infantry attack Brown Hill, 12 November The 52nd (Lowland) Division was to make a preparatory attack near the coast to open the way for the attack on Junction Station the next day. They were to attack north of the Nahr Sukhereir between the villages of Burqa and Yazur with the Yeomanry Mounted Division acting as flank guard. Their objective was an important Ottoman rearguard position which ran from the village of Burqa to Brown Hill. While the village was easily taken it was necessary to make an extremely difficult attack on the steep sided Brown Hill. The hill was topped by a large cairn and commanded a long field of fire over the plain southwards across the Nahr Sukhereir. By the time a battalion of the 156th Brigade, covered by two batteries of the 264th Brigade Royal Field Artillery and the South African Field Artillery Brigade of 75th Division, captured the crest it had been reduced to a handful of men. But just 20 minutes after taking Brown Hill the remnants of the Scots battalion (now down to just one officer and about 100 men) was unable to withstand an Ottoman counterattack and was driven off after a fierce struggle at close quarters. The 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles were then ordered to renew the attack at dusk. Owing to poor light, the artillery was no longer able to give much assistance, but nevertheless the Gurkhas quickly retook the hill with a bayonet charge, suffering 50 casualties, and in the process recovering two Lewis guns. The attacking battalion suffered over 400 killed or wounded, while the defending Ottoman 7th Division must have also suffered heavy casualties; 170 dead Ottoman soldiers were found on the battlefield. The fighting here has been described as equal to the 157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade's encounter at Sausage Ridge on 8 November. The success of these operations north of the Nahr Sukhereir opened the way for the main attacks the following day, on the Ottoman armies' front line positions. Ottoman counterattack Australian Mounted Division, 12 November Meanwhile, the Australian Mounted Division advanced in the direction of Tel es Safi to press the left flank of the Ottoman forces as strongly as possible. About 4,000 Australian and British mounted troops of 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades moved northwards in a conspicuous demonstration of aggression. At first it appeared that the Ottoman formations had retired altogether; the 9th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) rode through Barqusya, one troop pressing on to occupy Tel es Safi. The 5th Mounted Brigade also found Balin unoccupied, and rapidly advanced northwards towards Tel es Safi and Kustineh. By 12:00 the Australian Mounted Division was spread over at least facing the north and east when four divisions of the Ottoman 7th Army (about 5,000 soldiers) began their advance southwards from the railway. The Ottoman infantry divisions began moving south from El Tineh east of Qastina from the Ottoman controlled branch line of the railway line running southwards in the direction of Huj. Here and further north along the railway trains were stopping to allow huge numbers of troops to take to the field. Soon after the 11th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade) was forced to retire from Qastina as Ottoman units occupied the place in strength. Then at 12:00 three separate columns (of all arms) were seen advancing towards Tel es Safi from the north and north-east. Ten minutes later the British Honourable Artillery Company battery opened fire, but was hopelessly out shot, outnumbered, and out ranged by Ottoman guns of greater power and weight. The approach of the Eighth Ottoman Army's XX Corps (16th, 26th 53rd and 54th Divisions) was at first unknown to the 5th Mounted Brigade in Balin. But at about 13:00 a force estimated at 5,000 Ottoman soldiers suddenly attacked and almost surrounded the mounted brigade. The attack was made by two Ottoman columns, one coming down the track from Junction Station to Tel el Safi and the other by rail to El Tineh Station. It was by far the heaviest counterattack experienced since the break through by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force at Sharia on 7 November. The Royal Gloucestershire Hussars and Warwickshire Yeomanry regiments of 5th Mounted Brigade, were pushed back out of Balin before being reinforced by the Worcestershire Yeomanry. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was sent up at a canter from Summil, followed by the remaining two batteries of the Australian Mounted Division. One light horse regiment occupied Berkusie but was forced to retire by an attack from a very strong Ottoman force supported by heavy artillery fire from several batteries. All available troops of the Australian Mounted Division were now engaged and the Ottoman attack continued to be pressed. The counterattack forced the mounted division to concede the territory gained during the day, before fighting the Ottoman Army to a standstill in front of Summil. The 4th Light Horse Brigade could render no effective aid to the 3rd Light Horse or the 5th Mounted Yeomanry brigades. It was strung out to the west as far as the Dayr Sunayd railway line and was being heavily attacked. Ottoman units managed to advance to within of the 4th Light Horse Brigade's position; only at the end of the day was this strong Ottoman attack repulsed by machine-gun and rifle fire. Hodgson (commander of the Australian Mounted Division) ordered a slow withdrawal by 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades to high ground on the line Bir Summil–Khurbet Jeladiyeh. The order had only just been given when another Ottoman train was sighted moving to the south. It stopped west of Balin and disgorged a fresh force of Ottoman soldiers who deployed rapidly to advance against the left flank of the 5th Mounted Brigade. Two batteries of Australian Mounted Division were in action on the high ground north-west of Summeil firing on this fresh Ottoman force moving over the open plain in full view of the gunners. The artillery fire was so effective the attacking Ottoman advance was halted, forcing them to fall back a little where they dug trenches. Fighting steadily and withdrawing skilfully, the 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades had reached the edge of Summil village where the Ottoman attack was finally held. The attack ended at 18:00 in darkness. The Ottoman attackers dug themselves in on a line through Balin and Berkusie while the line taken up by the Australian Mounted Division began with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade facing east on a line running due north from about halfway between Iraq el Menshiye and Summil. The line then turned westward so the 5th Mounted Brigade faced northwards in front of Summil with the 4th Light Horse Brigade to their left in front of Ipseir and connecting with the right of the infantry division; the 75th Division at Suafir esh Sharqiye. A critical situation created by the strong Ottoman attacking forces had been controlled by the coolness and steadiness of the troops, especially the machine-gun squadrons of the 5th Mounted and the 4th Light Horse Brigades. The Australian Mounted Division suffered about 50 casualties mainly from the 5th Mounted Brigade. To the east von Falkenhayn, held his reserve force of 3rd Cavalry Division (Seventh Army's III Corps) and 19th Division (Eighth Army reserve) in front of Beit Jibrin. They waited throughout the day for the main attack to make progress before beginning their own advance, but the opportunity never eventuated. This powerful Ottoman counterattack had been contained and had not forced any rearrangement of the invading forces, whose preparations and concentration on the plain were now complete. But von Falkenhayn was forced to halt his Seventh Army's attack and then to take away from it the 16th Division plus one regiment. Battle In southern Palestine the wet season was approaching with another thunderstorm and heavy rain on the night of 11 November. The dark cotton soil over which the Egyptian Expeditionary Force was now advancing would not need much more rain to turn it into impassable mud. But 12 November had been fine and the roads had dried out. The rolling maritime plain was dotted with villages on low hill tops surrounded by groves and orchards. These were in turn surrounded by hedges of prickly pear or cactus, making them strong natural places of defence. In the distance to the right the spurs and valleys of the Judean Hills were visible even to the invading British Empire troops near the Mediterranean coast. On 13 November the weather was clear and fine with at first no sign of the Ottoman Army. The 20,000-strong Ottoman force was deployed to defend the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway along the Wadi al-Sarar and Al-Nabi Rubin. The battlefield was generally cultivated but with winter approaching it was bare and open. Its most prominent feature, the high ridge which continues north towards Zernukah and El Kubeibeh formed the backbone of the Ottoman Army's long defensive position. The naturally strong Ottoman line was defended by the Eighth Army's 3rd Division (XXII Corps) to the north, the 7th Division (Eighth Army Reserve) to the east, the 54th Division (XX Corps) near el Mesmiye and the 26th Division (XX Corps) holding Tel es Safi. Benefiting from the terrain two strong defensive positions with commanding views of the countryside were located on the ridge. They were the villages of Qatra and Al-Maghar. These villages were separated by the Wadi Jamus which links the Wadi al-Sarar with the Nahr Rubin. While the Ottoman counterattack had been in progress on 12 November, Allenby issued orders for the attack on 13 November to the commanders of XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps at the latter's headquarters near Julis. The main attack was to be carried out by the XXI Corps' 52nd (Lowland) and 75th Divisions westwards towards Junction Station between the Gaza road on the right, and El Mughar on the left. On the right flank of the XXI Corps the Australian Mounted Division's 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades, reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade (Anzac Mounted Division), the 7th Mounted Brigade (Yeomanry Mounted Division) and two cars of the 12th LAM Battery, would attack in line advancing northwards towards Junction Station. The remainder of Desert Mounted Corps; the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions would cover the left flank of XXI Corps, with Yibna as their first objective and Aqir the second. As soon as Junction Station was captured they were to swing north to occupy Ramla and Lod and reconnoitre towards Jaffa. In the centre During the first phase of the attack by infantry in the 75th Division (XXI Corps) were to capture the line Tel el Turmus–Qastina–Yazur and then seize Mesmiye. On their left infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) Division were to secure the line Yazur–Beshshit and then seize Qatra. After a pause for the artillery to be brought forward, the second phase attacks on the final objectives of Junction Station for the 75th and al-Mansura for the 52nd (Lowland) Divisions were to be made. The first phase was due to start at 08:00 hours on 13 November preceded by one hour's bombardment. By 10:00 the 2/4th Somerset Light Infantry, 1/5th Devonshire Regiment, 2/5th Hampshire Regiment, 1/4th Wiltshire Regiment, 2/3rd and 3/3rd Gurkha Rifles (from the 232nd and the 233rd Brigades, 75th Division) were advancing along the main road. They occupied the undefended villages of Tall al-Turmus, Qastina and Yazur. The 52nd (Lowland) Division had already occupied Bashshit. The 75th Division proceeded to attack Mesmiye on a lower and southward extension of the ridge on which Qatra and el Mughar were situated with the 52nd (Lowland) Division attacking directly towards these two villages. But these attacks were held up by very strong Ottoman defences. At Mesmiye the Ottoman Army was strongly posted on high ground in and near the village, and well-sited machine-guns swept all approaches. Infantry in the 75th Division made steady slow progress; the main body of the Ottoman rear guard eventually falling back to a slight ridge to the north-east. The attack by 3/3rd Gurkhas and infantry in the 234th Brigade moved up to Mesmiye el Gharbiye and cleared the place of snipers. One company of 58th Vaughan's Rifles suffered heavy casualties during an Ottoman attack on the flank of infantry in the 233rd Brigade. Towards dusk the final stage of the infantry assault was supported by two troops of 11th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade), who galloped into action on the infantry's right flank and gave valuable fire support. An infantry frontal attack covered by machine-gun fire drove the Ottoman defenders off the ridge, enabling Mesmiye esh Sherqiye to be occupied soon after. With Ottoman resistance broken infantry in the 75th Division pushed on through Mesmiye where they took 300 prisoners, and although ordered to capture Junction Station they halted short of their objective in darkness. On the flanks The Australian Mounted Division covered the right flank of the infantry divisions. At 10:00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade moved forward but was held up by an Ottoman position covering El Tineh. The brigade was ordered at 11:50 to push forward to protect the right of the 233rd Brigade (75th Division) as their attack had succeeded and they advanced to occupy Mesmiye. In order for the 4th Light Horse to move the 7th Mounted Brigade was ordered to relieve them in the line. At 12:00 troops of the 4th Light Horse Brigade entered Qazaza south-south-east of Junction Station with the 7th Mounted Brigade on its left then only from the station. By 16:00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered to push forward to El Tineh as the infantry advance on their left was progressing. It was occupied the following morning. The Yeomanry Mounted Division, with the Anzac Mounted Division in reserve, covered the infantry's left flank. Yibna was captured by the 8th Mounted Brigade which then advanced northwards against El Kubeibeh and Zernukah. The 22nd Mounted Brigade was held up by Ottoman units defending Aqir while the 6th Mounted Brigade (with the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade protecting their northern flank) was directed against el Mughar. Charge at El Mughar At about 11:30 the two leading battalions of the 155th (South Scottish) Brigade (52nd (Lowland) Division) were advancing under heavy shrapnel and machine-gun fire to the shelter of the Wadi Jamus about from their objective. But every attempt to leave the wadi was stopped by very heavy fire from well placed machine-guns. The reserve battalion was brought up but an attempt to work up the wadi between Qatra and El Mughar was barred by heavy machine-gun fire from the villages. At about 14:30 it was agreed between the GOC 52nd (Lowland) Division and the GOC Yeomanry Mounted Division that the 6th Mounted Brigade should attack El Mughar ridge in combination with a renewed assault on Qatra and El Mughar by the 52nd (Lowland) Division. Half an hour later the Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry and the Queen's Own Dorset Yeomanry, already in the Wadi Jamus, advanced in column of squadrons extended to four paces across at first trotting then galloping onto the crest of the ridge. They gained the ridge but the horses were completely exhausted and could not continue the pursuit of the escaping Ottoman units down the far side. The charge cost 16 killed, 114 wounded and 265 horses; 16 per cent of personnel and 33 per cent of horses. However, the Ottoman defenders continued to hold El Mughar village until two squadrons of the Berkshire Yeomanry of the 6th Mounted Brigade fighting dismounted, with two battalions of the 155th (South Scottish) Brigade (52nd (Lowland) Division), renewed the attack. Fighting in the village continued until 17:00 when they succeeded in capturing the two crucial fortified villages of Qatra and El Mughar but at a cost of 500 casualties. Two field guns and 14 machine-guns were captured. The prisoners and dead amounted to 18 officers and 1,078 other ranks and more than 2,000 dead Ottoman soldiers. Aftermath Junction Station was occupied during the morning and during the following days other villages in the area were found to have been abandoned. Units of the 75th Division supported by several armoured cars occupied Junction Station during the morning of 14 November cutting the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway. Seventeen days of operations virtually without rest, had resulted in an advance of from Beersheba; major and minor engagements occurring on 13 of those days. Most of the mounted units had covered at least since 29 October 1917 capturing 5,270 prisoners and over 60 guns and about 50 machine-guns. At Junction Station two train engines and 60 trucks in the station were captured along with an undamaged and fully functioning steam pumping plant which supplied unlimited, easily accessible water. Junction Station, with its branch line running south to El Tineh and extensions southwards towards Beersheba and Gaza was an important centre for both sides' lines of communication. On 14 November at 06:30 4th Light Horse Brigade entered El Tineh with the rest of the Australian Mounted Division following a couple of hours later. Here good wells containing plenty of water were found but without steam pumps and so watering was not complete until 16:00. The horses had done all that had been asked of them, existing during this time on only 9 lbs of grain ration (practically no bulk food) and scarce water while all the time carrying about . That they were able to carry on into the Judean Hills after only a limited period of rest established a remarkable record. Meanwhile, the Australian Mounted Divisional Supply Train followed the fighting units as closely as they could, moving out from Beersheba via Hareira and Gaza on 11 November to Isdud on 14 November; to Mesymie the day after and Junction Station on 16 November. During 14 November infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) and 75th Divisions concentrated and reorganised their ranks. The advance was taken over by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which crossed the railway north of Junction Station and the Anzac Mounted Division which pressed the retreating Ottoman Army northwards near the coast. On 14 November the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (commanded by Brigadier General William Meldrum) ran into a determined and well entrenched Ottoman rearguard near Ayun Kara, which they attacked. Fierce close quarter fighting against the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division continued during the afternoon. Although severely threatened, the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade eventually prevailed and went on to occupy Jaffa two days later. The Anzac Mounted Division had been ordered to cut the road linking Jaffa to Jerusalem by capturing Ramleh and Ludd. This was the only main road from the coast through Ramleh up the Vale of Ajalon to Jerusalem. During the morning Meldrum's New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade crossed the river close to the sand dunes with 1st Light Horse Brigade on its right. By 09:00 El Kubeibeh had been occupied by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade before pushing on towards the Wadi Hunayn. Here Ottoman rearguards were encountered in the orange groves and on the hills between El Kubeibeh and the sand dunes. About noon the 1st Light Horse Brigade drove an Ottoman rearguard from a ridge facing Yibna where the Anzac Mounted Division had bivouacked the night before and occupied the village of Rehovot also called Deiran. At the same time the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade fought off a strongly entrenched rearguard at Ayun Kara. After conceding considerable ground the Ottoman soldiers made a vigorous counterattack but were finally defeated. 15–16 November 1917 At midnight on 14 November Falkenhayn ordered a general withdrawal and in the days following the Ottoman Seventh Army fell back into the Judean Hills towards Jerusalem while the Eighth Army retreated north of Jaffa across the Nahr el Auja. The Ottoman armies suffered heavily and their subsequent withdrawal resulted in the loss of substantial territory; between was invaded by the British north of the old Gaza–Beersheba line. In its wake the two Ottoman armies left behind 10,000 prisoners of war and 100 guns. The day after the action at Ayun Kara, the 75th Division and the Australian Mounted Division advanced towards Latron where the Jaffa to Jerusalem road enters the Judean Hills, while the Anzac Mounted Division occupied Ramleh and Ludd. An Ottoman rearguard above Abu Shusheh blocked the Vale of Ajalon on the right flank of the advance on Ramleh. This rearguard position was charged and overwhelmed by the 6th Mounted Brigade (Yeomanry Mounted Division). On 16 November Latron itself was captured and the first British unit to enter Jaffa; the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade (Anzac Mounted Division) occupied the city, without opposition. They administered Jaffa until representatives of the director of Occupied Enemy Territory arrived. And marking the end of the British Empire's first advance into Palestine, the Ottoman Eighth Army retired to the northern bank of the Auja River some north of Jaffa and the Seventh Army retreated into the Judean Hills. Since the advance from Gaza and Beersheba began very heavy casualties and losses had been inflicted. The invasion had spread northwards into Ottoman territory while over 10,000 Ottoman prisoners of war and 100 guns had been captured by the victorious Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Desert Mounted Corps medical support The three divisional receiving stations of the Anzac, Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions operated in echelon. As soon as one had evacuated all wounded to the rear, they moved ahead of the other two divisional receiving stations to repeat the process. However, from the beginning there were problems evacuating casualties caused by the lack of linking infrastructure, one receiving station lost all its transport, and the light motor ambulances of another disappeared. The greatest difficulty were of communication and traveling including mechanical breakdowns on the rough roads and tracks which quickly became impassable for motor traffic. Advance into Judean Hills The advance towards Jerusalem began on 19 November and the city was captured during the Battle of Jerusalem on 9 December, three weeks later. Notes Footnotes Citations References External links Conflicts in 1917 1917 in British-administered Palestine Battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign Battles of World War I involving Australia Battles of World War I involving New Zealand Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire Battles of World War I involving Germany Ottoman Empire in World War I British Empire in World War I German Empire in World War I Middle Eastern theatre of World War I Sinai and Palestine Military campaigns and theatres of World War I involving Australia November 1917 events
4617382	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Soviet%20aircraft%20losses%20during%20the%20Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan%20War	List of Soviet aircraft losses during the Soviet–Afghan War	The following is a partial and unofficial list of helicopter and airplane crashes, accidents and shootdowns that occurred during the Soviet–Afghan War of 1979–89. In total, at least 333 helicopters and 118 Soviet jets were reported lost during the war. 1979 25 December 1979 – An Il-76 heavy transport plane crashed into a mountain near the village of Kanzak (Northeast of Kabul) after being damaged by anti-aircraft artillery fire. Its pilot, 37 paratroopers and nine troops from unknown units were killed upon impact, leaving no survivors. Two vehicles in cargo, including a fuel truck, were also destroyed. 1980 9 January 1980 – Mi-8 was shot down using DShK, all crew members survived. 7 February 1980 – An-12 transport aircraft crashed on the outskirts of Kabul, killing its pilot. 13 February 1980 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was badly damaged by ground fire, and crashed in a botched emergency landing. 23 February 1980 – An Mi-8TV Border guard helicopter was shot down, killing one passenger. 7 March 1980 – An Mi-8 crashed due to a technical malfunction, killing all crew members. 7 March 1980 – An Mi-6 was shot down in Kush mountains. 10 March 1980 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter crashed due to technical difficulties near the village of Kochek Qizil (Southwest of Mazari Sharif), killing two crew members. 23 March 1980 – Su-17 fighter-bomber crashed due to either technical problems or poor weather conditions, killing its pilot. 24 March 1980 – An Mi-8 crashed due to pilots error, killing three people. 30 March 1980 – An Mi-8 was shot down with DShK, all on board survived. 30 March 1980 – An Mi-24D crashed due to technical failure, crew survived. 9 April 1980 – An Mi-8T transport helicopter, crashed due to either technical problems or poor weather conditions, killing two crew members. 11 April 1980 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down near the remote village of Shindand, killing two crew members. 24 April 1980 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 12 June 1980 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 1 July 1980 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 5 July 1980 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 20 July 1980 – An Mi-10 heavy transport helicopter was shot down, killing three crew members. 23 July 1980 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down, killing two crew members. 23 July 1980 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 1 August 1980 – A MiG-21 aircraft was shot down. Pilot was killed. 25 August 1980 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 6 September 1980 – An unidentified aircraft crashed due to either technical problems or bad weather, killing one crew member. 18 October 1980 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 12 December 1980 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 1981 17 April 1981 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 15 June 1981 – A MiG-21 aircraft was shot down. One crewman, Mikhail Korchinsky, was killed. The other crewman, Yuri Moscowchuk, was captured, becoming the first Soviet air force pilot to be a prisoner of war. 24 July 1981 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing four crew members. 5 September 1981 – An Mi-8T transport helicopter was shot down, killing four crew members. 10 October 1981 – An Mi-8MT transport helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 17 October 1981 – An Mi-8T Border Guard helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 28 October 1981 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down, killing three crew members. 13 November 1981 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 18 November 1981 – An Mi-8MT transport helicopter was shot down, killing two crew members. 1982 10 March 1982 – An unidentified aircraft crashed, killing one crew member. 15 April 1982 – An unidentified aircraft was shot down, killing one crew member. 17 May 1982 – An unidentified aircraft crashed, killing one crew member. 27 May 1982 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 27 May 1982 – A MiG-21 aircraft was shot down. ? June 1982 – A MiG-21 aircraft was shot down. 13 June 1982 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down near the village of Taghaz (245 km to the Southwest of Kandahar), killing two crew members. 10 July 1982 – An unidentified aircraft was shot down, killing one crew member. 6 August 1982 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 13 August 1982 – A MiG-21 aircraft was shot down. Pilot was killed 18 August 1982 – A MiG-21 aircraft was shot down. 23 August 1982 – An Mi-6 heavy transport helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 11 September 1982 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 7 October 1982 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 11 October 1982 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 12 October 1982 – An unidentified helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 24 October 1982 – A MiG-21 aircraft was shot down. 30 October 1982 – An unidentified helicopter was shot down, killing three crew members. 4 December 1982 – A Su-17 aircraft was shot down. Both crewmen were killed 1983 4 January 1983 – An unidentified helicopter was shot down near the village of Kholm (East of Mazari Sharif), killing one crew member. 15 February 1983 – An An-12 was shot down while on approach to Jalalabad. The five crew members were killed. 22 February 1983 – An Mi-6 heavy transport helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 5 June 1983 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down, killing two crew members. 19 July 1983 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 24 July 1983 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down near Jalalabad, killing two crew members. 7 August 1983 – An unidentified helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 9 September 1983 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down 120 km South of Faizabad, killing one crew member. 16 September 1983 – An Antonov An-12 transport plane was shot down, killing four crew members. 3 October 1983 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 18 October 1983 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down near the Kajaki reservoir (Helmand province), killing two crew members. 21 October 1983 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 25 October 1983 – An unidentified aircraft crashed, killing one crew member. 29 October 1983 – A MiG-21 aircraft was shot down. 15 November 1983 – An Mi-6 heavy transport missed the Soviet landing strip near the town of Kunduz and crashed due to a faulty tail rotor. Two crew members were killed. 1984 16 January 1984 – A Su-25 strike jet was shot down, killing its pilot. 6 March 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 2 April 1984 – An unidentified helicopter crashed either due to bad weather or a technical failure. One crew member was killed. ? May 1984 – 4 MiG-21 Aircraft were destroyed on the ground. 9 May 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 5 June 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 6 June 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 2 July 1984 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 3 July 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 5 July 1984 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing one crew member. 6 July 1984 – An Mi-6 heavy transport helicopter was shot down on approach to its base (while returning from a mission). All three crew members were killed. It is possible that this helicopter was captured by Afghan guerrillas. 14 July 1984 – An unidentified helicopter crashed. One crew member was killed. ? August 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 6 August 1984 – An unidentified helicopter was shot down. One crew member was killed. 23 August 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 27 August 1984 – An unidentified helicopter was shot down. One crew member was killed. 19 September 1984 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing all three crew members in addition to a unit of paratroopers. 23 September 1984 – An unidentified helicopter crashed. One crew member was killed. 16 October 1984 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down while landing a group of soldiers near the town of Baghlan. All three crew members and four disembarking troops were killed. 18 October 1984 – A Su-25 strike jet was shot down, killing its pilot. 18 October 1984 – An unidentified helicopter (probably a Mi-24) was shot down, killing two crew members. 27 October 1984 – An Il-76 heavy transport plane was shot down during landing, 20 km to the South East of Kabul. Five were killed. 28 October 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down in the Panshir Valley, killing two crew members. 8 November 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 27 November 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 1 December 1984 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 10 December 1984 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down. 1985 22 January 1985 – An An-26 transport plane was shot down, killing one. 29 January 1985 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down shortly after taking off from Kandahar, en route to Kabul, killing one crew member. 13 February 1985 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down, killing its pilot. 11 March 1985 – An An-30 transport plane was struck in the left engine by ground fire, causing a fire that began to spread. All non-essential crew members bailed out, while the pilot and co-pilot remained, hoping to land the aircraft at Bagram Airport (near Kabul). The aircraft crashed 25 km from Kabul after the fire destroyed the aileron controls, and both were killed. 14 March 1985 – An Mi-6 heavy transport helicopter collided with a Soviet Air Force reconnaissance plane, killing three. 20 March 1985 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down while transporting troops from Ghazni to Baraki(?). All five aboard were killed. 24 March 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 27 April 1985 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down 7 km away from its destination of Lashkargah while transporting troops. Three were killed. 11 May 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 18 May 1985 – An Mi-6 heavy transport helicopter was shot down near the remote village of Bakarak, killing one. 1 June 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 18 June 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 21 June 1985 – A MiG-23 fighter jet was shot down, killing its pilot. 21 June 1985 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing one. 27 June 1985 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter shot down, possibly with several troops on board. All those aboard were killed. 10 July 1985 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down, killing one. 16 July 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 11 July 1985 – An unidentified ‘special missions’ aircraft was shot down, killing five. 22 July 1985 – A Su-25 strike jet was shot down. 23 July 1985 – A MiG-23 fighter jet was shot down. 25 July 1985 – An unidentified aircraft crashed, killing one. 16 August 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 19 August 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 17 September 1985 – An Mi-6 heavy transport helicopter was attacked on the ground, killing one. 21 September 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 24 September 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 3 October 1985 – An Mi-6 heavy transport helicopter was shot down. 12 October 1985 – An Mi-6 heavy transport helicopter was shot down 23 km South of Kabul, killing two. 13 October 1985 – An unidentified aircraft crashed, killing one. 18 October 1985 – An unidentified aircraft was shot down, killing one. 25 October 1985 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down 20 km to the Northwest of Kunduz, killing nine crew members and paratroopers. 1 November 1985 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing one. 7 November 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 15 November 1985 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 24 November 1985 – An unidentified aircraft crashed, killing one. 6 December 1985 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter shot down while transporting troops, killing seven. 16 December 1985 – A Su-17 aircraft was shot down. 27 December 1985 – A MiG-23 fighter jet was shot down. 1986 13 January 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 18 January 1986 – An unidentified aircraft crashed, killing one. 19 January 1986 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing all crew members and paratroopers aboard. 1 February 1986 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down West of Maymaneh, killing one. 21 February 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 5 March 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 3 April 1986 – An Su-17 aircraft was shot down. 6 April 1986 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down by a Pakistan Air Force F-16, pilot Alexander Rutskoy safely ejects. 18 April 1986 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down. 21 April 1986 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing two. 2 May 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 17 May 1986 – Either one or two Su-22s were shot down by an F-16 flown by Hameed Qadri of the 9 Squadron of the Pakistan Air Force. Some accounts state that both were shot down, others say that one was only damaged. 24 May 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 26 May 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 31 May 1986 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down over Kabul airbase, killing two instantly while another died of his wounds six days later. 3 June 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 15 July 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 31 July 1986 – Two Mi-8 medevac helicopters collided near Pagman, killing some of the injured passengers. 22 September 1986 – An Su-17 aircraft was shot down. 25 September 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. September 1986 was the month that the FIM-92 Stinger missile was introduced by the CIA and Zia ul-Haq of Pakistan into the war. 16 October 1986 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing two. 19 October 1986 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down, killing one. 22 October 1986 – An Su-17 aircraft was shot down. 20 November 1986 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down. 29 November 1986 – An An-12 transport plane was shot down while leaving Kabul Airbase en route to Jalalabad, transporting a contingent of newly arrived Russian troops. All crew members (4–5) and all 27 passengers were killed. 29 November 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 29 November 1986 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 3 December 1986 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down. 3 December 1986 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down. 26 December 1986 – An An-26RT transport plane was shot down. All crew members bailed out, except the mechanic, who was killed either by the missile or in the crash. 1987 12 January 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down by MANPADS. 14 January 1987 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down by MANPADS. 21 January 1987 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down by MANPADS. 28 January 1987 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down by MANPADS. 2 February 1987 – An Su-17M3 suffered combat damage. 27 February 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down at night by MANPADS. 2 April 1987 – An Su-25 aircraft was shot down by MANPADS. 4 April 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter suffered combat damage by MANPADS. 12 April 1987 – An Mi-8 suffered combat damage by MANPADS. 12 April 1987 – An Su-17 aircraft was shot down. 15 April 1987 – An Mi-8 was shot down by MANPADs attempting to land. 15 April 1987 – An Yak-28R aircraft crashed, killing one. 16 April 1987 – A MiG-23 fighter jet was shot down by a Pakistani F-16 Sidewinder. 18 April 1987 - An Mi-24 assault helicopter is shot down by MANPADS. 22 April 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 18 May 1987 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down by MANPADS. 28 May 1987 – An Su-25 aircraft was shot down, killing two. 31 May 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 1 June 1987 – An Su-25 strike jet was shot down. 4 June 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 5 June 1987 – An Mi-8 Medevac helicopter carrying one wounded individual was shot down North of Kandahar, killing one. 1 June 1987 – An Su-25 aircraft is shot down by MANPADS. 3 June 1987 – An Mi-24 aircraft was shot down. 20 June 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter is shot down by MANPADS. 9 July 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was destroyed by artillery fire. 21 July 1987 - A pair of Mi-8 helicopters are lost by MANPADS. 15 July 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 28 July 1987 – An Su-22 suffered combat damage and was destroyed. 1 August 1987 – An Mi-6 aircraft crashed, killing one. 13 August 1987 –An An-12 aircraft suffered combat damage. 30 August 1987 – An Mi-8Mt operating at night shot down by MANPADS. 29 September 1987 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down, killing two. 8 October 1987 – An Su-17MZR suffered combat damage. 24 October 1987 – An Su-25 suffered combat damage from MANPADS. 30 October 1987 – An MI-24 was shot down by MANPADS. 27 November 1987 – An Mi-8 helicopter was shot down. 21 December 1987 – An An-26 was shot down by MANPADS. 23 December 1987 – An Mi-8Mt transport helicopter was shot down by MANPADS. 1988 17 January 1988 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing four. 6 February 1988 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter on a search and rescue mission was shot down with several rescued personnel aboard, killing two and wounding 6. 16 February 1988 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down, killing one. 26 February 1988 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down, killing one. 29 February 1988 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter shot down 10 km Southeast of Bagram, killing one. 18 April 1988 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 20 April 1988 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 25 May 1988 – An unidentified aircraft crashed, killing one. 23 June 1988 – 8 Su-25 strike jets were destroyed on the ground. ? June 1988 – 1 Su-25 strike jet was destroyed on the ground. 18 July 1988 – An unidentified helicopter (possibly a Mi-8) was shot down, killing one. 4 August 1988 – A Su-25 strike jet was shot down by a Pakistani F-16, pilot Alexander Rutskoy safely ejects. 21 August 1988 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter shot down, killing its two-member crew. 27 August 1988 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down. 4 September 1988 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing one. 30 September 1988 – An Mi-24 attack helicopter was shot down, killing two. 1 October 1988 – An Mi-8 transport was helicopter shot down, killing one. 1989 7 January 1989 – A Su-25 strike jet was shot down, killing its pilot. 19 January 1989 – An Mi-8 transport helicopter was shot down, killing five. 2 February 1989 – An Mi-24 assault helicopter was shot down, killing both crew members. 6 March 1989 – An Antonov was struck by a rocket killing two. Summary by aircraft type An-12 6 An-26 4 An-30 1 Il-76 2 Mi-6 10 Mi-8 45 Mi-10 1 Mi-24 74 MiG-21 12 (4 to hostile fire while on the ground) MiG-23 4 Su-17 10 Su-22 5 Su-25 23 (9 to hostile fire while on the ground) Unidentified aircraft 24 Unidentified helicopter 14 Non-Soviet losses (2) 26 September 1988 - Two Soviet MiG-23MLs intercepted and shot down two Iranian Air force Bell AH-1 SuperCobras flying southeast of Shindand, Herat Province. (4) October 1988 - Since October 1987 several rogue and defected Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Air Force Su-22s attempted to bomb the Kabul Presidencial Palace, at least four were intercepted and shot down by Soviet Mig-29s based on Termez Airbase. 29 April 1987 - One Pakistani F-16 was lost during an encounter between two F-16s and six Afghan aircraft; the pilot ejected safely. The downed F-16 was likely hit accidentally by a Sidewinder fired by the other F-16. See also List of aviation accidents and incidents in the war in Afghanistan References External links A Russian aviation aficionado's translation of crash reports (found on a Soviet veteran webpage) Soviet AF losses in Afghanistan Aviation accidents and incidents in Afghanistan Lists of aviation accidents and incidents Russian and Soviet military-related lists Aircraft Afghanistan Soviet aircraft losses Afghanistan–Soviet Union relations
4618033	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapanos%20v.%20United%20States	Rapanos v. United States	Rapanos v. United States, 547 U.S. 715 (2006), was a United States Supreme Court case challenging federal jurisdiction to regulate isolated wetlands under the Clean Water Act. It was the first major environmental case heard by the newly appointed Chief Justice, John Roberts, and Associate Justice Samuel Alito. The Supreme Court heard the case on February 21, 2006, and issued a decision on June 19, 2006. While five justices agreed to void rulings against the defendants, who were prosecuted for impacting a wetland incidental to commercial development, the court was split over further details, with the four more conservative justices arguing in a plurality opinion for a more restrictive reading of the term "navigable waters" than the four more liberal justices. Justice Anthony Kennedy did not fully join either position. The case was remanded to the lower court. Ultimately, Rapanos agreed to a nearly $1,000,000 settlement with the EPA without admitting any wrongdoing. Background The case involves developers John A. Rapanos (Midland, Michigan) and June Carabell, whose separate projects were stopped because of the environmental regulations that make up the Clean Water Act. In the late 1980s, Rapanos prepared of land for the development of a mall by pulling trees and filling the hole with sand. Rapanos did not file for a permit when he pulled the trees, but the government claimed that his land was a wetland because it was adjacent to a drainage ditch. Rapanos argued that the land was not a wetland and that he was not breaking the law. He claimed that his land was up to from any navigable waterways. But the United States Environmental Protection Agency has interpreted the term "navigable waterway" broadly, to include areas connected to or linked to waters via tributaries or other similar means. When Rapanos refused to accept the government's claims about whether his land was a wetland, the government filed a federal lawsuit against him, accusing him of violating the Clean Water Act. After a mistrial, the jury returned two felony guilty verdicts for filling wetlands in Rapanos's second trial. In August 1995, U.S. District Judge Lawrence Paul Zatkoff granted Rapanos's request for a new trial, but in May 1997, Sixth Circuit Judge Pierce Lively, joined by Judge Karen Nelson Moore, reversed and remanded for sentencing, over the dissent of Judge David Aldrich Nelson. After sentencing, Circuit Chief Judge Boyce F. Martin Jr., joined by Judges Alan Eugene Norris and Karl Spillman Forester, remanded for resentencing in December 2000. In February 2002, Judge Zatkoff set aside Rapanos's conviction again, and in September 2003 Circuit Judge Martin, joined by Judges Norris and John M. Rogers, again reinstated the conviction. In the end, Rapanos was forced to serve three years of probation and pay $5,000 in fines. In July 2004, Judge Danny C. Reeves, joined by Circuit Judges Eugene Edward Siler Jr. and Julia Smith Gibbons, affirmed the district court's civil judgment against Rapanos. Next, with representation from the nonprofit public interest law firm Pacific Legal Foundation, Rapanos unsuccessfully sought a rehearing from the Sixth Circuit. Failing that, he appealed the civil case against him, which included millions of dollars of fines, to the Supreme Court. Carabell, who was involved in the associated case Carabell v. United States Army Corps of Engineers, sought a permit to build condominiums on of wetlands, but his request was denied by the Army Corps of Engineers. Carabell took the issue to the courts by arguing that the federal government did not have jurisdiction. In September 2004, Judge William Stafford, joined by Circuit Judges Gibbons and Alice M. Batchelder, affirmed the district court's delivery of summary judgment against Carabell. Carabell then appealed to the Supreme Court. In United States v. Riverside Bayview, the unanimous Court had found that wetlands abutting Lake St. Clair were included in the Corps's jurisdiction over waters of the United States. In 2001, a divided Court found that the migratory bird rule could not reach isolated ponds in Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. Army Corps of Engineers (SWANCC). All waters with a "significant nexus" to "navigable waters" are covered under the CWA, but the words "significant nexus" remain open to judicial interpretation and considerable controversy. Some regulations included water features such as intermittent streams, playa lakes, prairie potholes, sloughs and wetlands as "waters of the United States". The case was argued on the same day as S. D. Warren Co. v. Maine Board of Environmental Protection, with the Pacific Legal Foundation arguing for Rapanos and United States Solicitor General Paul Clement arguing for the government. Decision The justices were unable to produce a majority decision. Four justices voted to affirm. Four justices voted to vacate, to strike down the Corps's interpretation of the CWA, and to remand under a new "continuous surface water connection" standard. Justice Kennedy also voted to vacate and remand but under the different, "significant nexus", standard. The Court voted 4-1-4, with three justices making oral readings at the opinion announcement, and five printed opinions spanning over 100 pages. Both cases were remanded "for further proceedings". Justice Scalia's plurality opinion Justice Antonin Scalia authored a plurality opinion, joined by Chief Justice John Roberts, Justice Clarence Thomas, and Justice Samuel Alito. Scalia began his analysis by arguing that the Corps "exercises the discretion of an enlightened despot" and quoted factors it used when choosing to exercise jurisdiction, such as "aesthetics" and "in general, the needs and welfare of the people". He then criticized the cost associated with exercising jurisdiction, noting that the average applicant spends 788 days and $271,596 on an application and that "for backfilling his own wet fields", Rapanos faced 63 months in prison. Scalia argued the "immense expansion of federal regulation" over "swampy lands" would give the Corps jurisdiction over "half of Alaska and an area the size of California in the lower 48 States." Scalia detailed the Clean Water Act's history, from the litigation forcing the Corps to broaden its jurisdiction beyond traditional navigable waters to its adoption of the Migratory Bird Rule after Riverside Bayview to SWANCC'''s rejection of that rule and calls for new regulations. He then noted that the Corps has still not amended its published regulations, and emphasized a Government Accountability Office investigation finding disparate standards across different Corps district offices. Scalia ultimately concluded that Waters of the United States should include only relatively permanent, standing or continuously flowing bodies of water because, according to him, that was the definition of "the waters" in Webster's Dictionary. He also rejected Justice Kennedy's assertion that the same dictionary definition lists floods as an alternative usage, on the grounds that it is "strange to suppose that Congress had waxed Shakespearean." Therefore, he suggested, the Corps's regulations of intermittent streams were "useful oxymora". According to the plurality opinion, the Clean Water Act confers federal jurisdiction over non-navigable waters only if the waters exhibit a relatively permanent flow, such as a river, lake, or stream. In addition, a wetland falls within the Corps's jurisdiction only if there is a continuous surface water connection between it and a relatively permanent waterbody, and it is difficult to determine where the waterbody ends and the wetland begins. In addition to his textualist arguments, Scalia also argued that his conclusions conformed with basic principles of federalism. Quoting the CWA's policy to "protect the primary responsibilities and rights of the States", he argued that the Corps's inferred jurisdiction failed the clear statement rule. Furthermore, because its interpretation "stretches the outer limits of Congress's commerce power", Scalia justified his selective interpretation under constitutional avoidance. The rest of his opinion attacks the other justices' arguments. Justice John Paul Stevens wrote that the plurality opinion upset three decades of administrative and congressional practice, but Scalia rejected that argument as "a curious appeal to entrenched Executive error" and also characterized Kennedy's significant nexus test as a "gimmick" to devise "his new statute all on his own" and his reasoning as "turtles all the way down". Chief Justice Roberts's concurring opinion Chief Justice Roberts wrote separately to note that it was "unfortunate" that the Court failed to reach a majority. He also criticized the Corps for refusing to publish guidance on the scope of its power, even after being warned to do so in SWANCC. Justice Kennedy's concurring opinion Justice Kennedy wrote an opinion concurring with the judgment of the court. But while he agreed that the cases should be vacated and remanded, he believed that a wetland or non-navigable waterbody falls within the scope of the Clean Water Act's jurisdiction if it bears a "significant nexus" to a traditional navigable waterway. Using some of the Court's language in SWANCC, Kennedy argued the CWA defines navigable waters as a water or wetland that possesses a significant nexus to waters that are navigable in fact. He argued that a nexus exists where the wetland or waterbody, either by itself or in combination with other similar sites, significantly affects the physical, biological, and chemical integrity of the downstream navigable waterway. Kennedy spent the rest of his concurring opinion explaining why the eight other justices were wrong. He called Scalia's opinion "inconsistent with the Act's text, structure, and purpose" and wrote that what Scalia called "wet fields" were in fact sensitive habitats that provide essential ecosystem services. He also criticized Scalia's selective reliance on only part of the dictionary definition of "waters". Kennedy noted that even the Los Angeles River might fail Scalia's test. Kennedy also attacked, "as an empirical matter", Scalia's assertion that silt cannot wash downstream. Likewise, Kennedy criticized Stevens's dissenting opinion, writing, "while the plurality reads nonexistent requirements into the Act, the dissent reads a central requirement out." Referring to the inconsistencies found by the GAO investigation, Kennedy wrote that he could not share Stevens's trust in the Corps's reasonableness. Justice Stevens's dissenting opinion Justice Stevens wrote a dissenting opinion, joined by Justice David Souter, Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, and Justice Stephen Breyer. Stevens called the Corps's asserted jurisdiction "a quintessential example of the Executive's reasonable interpretation" and argued that Riverside Bayview already "squarely controls" the validity of the regulations. After reviewing in detail the criminal allegations against Rapanos, Stevens emphasized that the SWANCC Court limited Corps jurisdiction over only truly isolated waters, and Congress deliberately acquiesced to Corps regulation when it appropriated funds for the National Wetlands Inventory. Stevens also criticized Scalia's "dramatic departure" from Riverside Bayview in a "creative opinion" that "is utterly unpersuasive". He derided Scalia's new limit on jurisdiction to relatively permanent bodies of water as an "arbitrary distinction". Additionally, Stevens criticized Scalia for "cit[ing] a dictionary for a proposition it does not contain." Rather, Stevens argued that "common sense and common usage" treat intermittent streams as streams. Stevens concluded that "the very existence of words like 'alluvium' and 'silt' in our language" disprove Scalia's assertion that material does not normally wash downstream. Stevens noted that he agreed with Kennedy's description of the cases and Kennedy's critique of Scalia's opinion. But Stevens wrote that he was "skeptical" that there actually were any adjacent wetlands that would not meet Kennedy's significant nexus test. Nevertheless, Stevens clarified that because all four dissenters adopted the broadest jurisdictional test, they would also find Corps jurisdiction in any case that meets either Scalia's or Kennedy's test. Stevens therefore assumed Kennedy's "approach will be controlling in most cases". Justice Breyer's dissenting opinion Justice Breyer wrote separately to note that he believed that Corps CWA authority extended to the very limits of the interstate commerce power. Because he believed that agency expertise would produce better definitions than judicial review, he called on the Corps to write new regulations "speedily." Subsequent developments Because no single opinion garnered a majority of the votes, there was some confusion about the controlling test for wetlands jurisdiction in the aftermath of this case. Roberts observed that the lower courts would likely look to Marks v. United States to guide them in applying the competing Rapanos standards. Marks provides, "When a fragmented Court decides a case and no single rationale explaining the result enjoys the assent of five Justices, the holding of the Court may be viewed as that position taken by those Members who concurred in the judgments on the narrowest grounds." Stevens, writing the principal Rapanos dissent, suggested that lower courts could use either the plurality's or Kennedy's test, as both would command the support of at least five justices. Between 2006 and 2023, seven federal appellate courts had considered the question of which Rapanos test was controlling. The Fifth Circuit in United States v. Lucas and the Sixth Circuit in United States v. Cundiff avoided the question, as they determined that the evidence presented was adequate to support federal jurisdiction under either standard. The Seventh Circuit in United States v. Gerke Excavating, Inc., the Ninth Circuit in Northern California River Watch v. City of Healdsburg, and the Eleventh Circuit in United States v. Robison held that Kennedy's opinion (the "significant nexus" test) is controlling. The First Circuit in United States v. Johnson and the Eighth Circuit in United States v. Bailey held that jurisdiction may be established under either Rapanos test. The United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas court held that the Rapanos plurality opinion (the "continuous surface water connection" test) was controlling. As Roberts anticipated, the courts adopting Kennedy's standard between Rapanos and the later case Sackett v. EPA did so by invoking Marks; under Marks, a split decision's binding legal rule is found in the opinion taken by the concurring justices on the narrowest grounds, which has been interpreted as meaning the opinion that is the "logical subset" of the other opinions in the case. As applied to Rapanos, Marks dictates that if either the plurality or the Kennedy test is a subset of the other, that test is controlling. The appellate courts that have followed the Kennedy test have concluded that it is a logical subset of the Rapanos plurality test and therefore controlling. The appellate courts that have adopted both Rapanos tests (the First and Eighth Circuits) have concluded that Marks does not apply to Rapanos and that both tests are equally valid. The Supreme Court has denied petitions for writ of certiorari in six of the seven circuit court cases addressing the Rapanos split-decision question. (The Bailey appellant did not file a petition.) On October 3, 2022, the court held oral arguments in Sacket v. EPA, and on May 25, 2023, Justice Alito announced an opinion adopting the Rapanos plurality's "continuous surface water connection" test. Justice Brett Kavanaugh filed a concurrence in the judgment joined by Justices Sonia Sotomayor, Elena Kagan, and Ketanji Brown Jackson. Kavanaugh agreed with the majority's adoption of the Rapanos plurality's characterization of "waters of the United States", but argued that the Clean Water Act covered wetlands adjacent to the "waters of the United States". WOTUS rule Citing the confusion created by Rapanos, on June 29, 2015, the Corps and EPA promulgated a new 75-page regulation attempting to clarify the scope of waters of the United States, to take effect on August 28. Thirteen states sued, and on August 27, U.S. Chief District Judge Ralph R. Erickson issued an injunction blocking the regulation in those states. In separate litigation, on October 9, a divided federal appeals court stayed the rule's application nationwide. See also Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook Cty. v. Army Corps of Engineers County of Maui v. Hawaii Wildlife Fund'' List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 547 Notes References External links Court of Appeals Opinion (PDF) NPR story regarding the case History of Rapanos and the related case, Carabell (A history, starting from the US Army Corps of Engineers permit application submitted by the Carabells and the enforcement action brought by the Environmental Protection Agency against Mr. Rapanos, through the various appeals leading to this US Supreme Court decision) The Supreme Court and the Clean Water Act: Five Essays on the Supreme Court's Clean Water Act jurisprudence as reflected in Rapanos v. United States, published in April 2007 by the Vermont Journal of Environmental Law and the Vermont Law School Land Use Institute United States Supreme Court cases United States environmental case law United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court 2006 in the environment 2006 in United States case law United States Army Corps of Engineers Midland, Michigan Legal history of Michigan United States water case law
4618308	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20green%20macaw	Great green macaw	The great green macaw (Ara ambiguus), also known as Buffon's macaw or the great military macaw, is a critically endangered Central and South America parrot found in Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador. Two allopatric subspecies are recognized; the nominate subspecies, Ara ambiguus ssp. ambiguus, occurs from Honduras to Colombia, while Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis appears to be endemic to remnants of dry forests on the southern Pacific coast of Ecuador. The nominate subspecies lives in the canopy of wet tropical forests and in Costa Rica is usually associated with the almendro tree, Dipteryx oleifera. Taxonomy The great green macaw belongs to the genus Ara, which includes other large parrots, such as the scarlet macaw, the military macaw, and the blue-and-yellow macaw. This bird was first described and illustrated in 1801 by the French naturalist François Le Vaillant for his Histoire Naturelle Des Perroquets under the name "le grand Ara militaire", using a skin deposited at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris. Le Vaillant states that it is not certain if the bird is truly a distinct species of parrot, or, as he thinks more likely, it is specific varietal race of the military macaw, but nonetheless, he must mention that its existence merits notice. The bird was subsequently named Psittacus ambiguus by the Thuringian Johann Matthäus Bechstein in the first tome of the fourth volume, published in 1811, of the series Johann Latham's Allgemeine Uebersicht der Vögel, the greatly expanded German translation of the Englishman John Latham's A General Synopsis of Birds. Bechstein mentions le Vaillant's reluctance to consider it as an independent species, but explains that having examined a living bird, he considers it a valid species, mentioning the size difference and enumerating numerous other characteristics he deems distinctive. After almost 200 years, the binomial name was changed from Ara ambigua to Ara ambiguus in 2004, as it was decided that the word ara was in fact male, despite ending in an -a (see epicene). There are two subspecies which are geographically isolated at present: Ara ambiguus ssp. ambiguus, which has the largest distribution range (Central and northern South America), and Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis, which only occurs in Ecuador. The Ecuadorian subspecies is sometimes referred to as Chapman's macaw or Chapman's green macaw. American naturalist Frank M. Chapman shot the type specimen of his proposed new taxon in 1922 on a hill in the Cordillera de Chongon, twenty miles northwest of Guayaquil, Ecuador, and first described the taxon in 1925 in a report on the newly collected bird skins he had brought back to the US from Ecuador. Due to the morphological variability of ssp. guayaquilensis, with a number of specimens of this taxon being identifiable as the military macaw, in 1996 Berg and Horstman, themselves referencing Fjeldså et al., mentioned it might best be synonymised with A. militaris, or suggested there might be gene-flow between all three populations. A 2015 study comparing the mitochondrial DNA of different populations of the military macaw and this species found that while these two species are clearly differentiated, as well as different populations of the military macaw in Mexico, no genetic difference between ssp. guayaquilensis and the nominate taxon was found (at least regarding the mitochondria). This indicates that the division of this species into two subspecies is likely not taxonomically valid. It is also possible that the Ecuadorian populations do not all belong to ssp. guayaquilensis. Description Great green macaws are the largest parrots in their natural range, the second heaviest macaw species (although they are relatively shorter tailed than other large macaws such as the red-and-green macaw and are thus somewhat shorter), and the third heaviest parrot species in the world. This species averages in length and in weight. They are mainly green and have a reddish forehead and pale blue lower back, rump and upper tail feathers. The tail is brownish-red tipped with very pale blue. The bare facial skin is patterned with lines of small dark feathers, which are reddish in older and female parrots. Juveniles have grey-coloured eyes instead of black, are duller in colour and have shorter tails which are tipped in yellow. The main morphological distinction with the subspecies guayaquilensis is that this bird has a smaller, narrower bill. The great green macaw appears superficially similar to, and may easily be confused with, the military macaw where their ranges overlap. Distribution and habitat The great green macaw lives in tropical forests in the Atlantic wet lowlands of Central America from Honduras to Panama and Colombia, and in South America in the Pacific coastal lowlands in Panama, Colombia and western Ecuador, where they also occur in deciduous (seasonal), dry tropical forests. In Colombia, where both species occur, it prefers more humid woodlands than the closely related military macaw. The habitat where it breeds in Costa Rica is practically non-seasonal, evergreen rainforest, with rain some ten months of the year, a precipitation of 1,500 to 3,500 mm a year, and an average temperature of 27 °C throughout the year. In Costa Rica the habitats where great green macaws occur during breeding season is dominated by the almendro (Dipteryx oleifera) and Pentaclethra macroloba, with secondarily raffia palms (Raphia spp.) dominated wetlands. It is usually observed below 600 m above sea level in Costa Rica during the breeding season, but disperses to higher elevations to 1000 m after breeding, and can be seen as high as 1500 m in southern Panama. The population in Ecuador is thought to be split into two disjunct areas in the western coast of the country, the coastal mountain range of the Cordillera de Chongon in southwestern Ecuador, and in the far north bordering Colombia from the west in Río Verde Canton in central coastal Esmeraldas Province, stretching eastwards into Imbabura Province. This bird is very uncommon in Ecuador. In Colombia it is reasonably common in the Darién region and the Gulf of Urabá near the Panamanian border, and is also found in the north of the Serranía de Baudó mountains on the Pacific coast, the West Andes, and found eastwards to the dry forests of the upper Sinú valley near the Caribbean coast. In Panama it is common in some areas such as the Caribbean slope and in parts of Darién National Park such as the famous Cana birdwatching site and across the Alto de Nique mountain and the adjacent border with Colombia. It is also found in Panama in the mountains of the Serranía de Majé near Panama City and the southern Cerro Hoya mountains. In Costa Rica in the early 2000s, the reproductive range of the great green macaw was thought to be restricted to 600 to 1120 km2 of very wet forests in the northeast along the border with Nicaragua. After the breeding season this population disperse in larger groups to higher altitudes both southwards in the central cordillera of Costa Rica as well as northwards to Nicaragua. Another population was known by 2007 in the hills inland between Old Harbour and Sixaola near the northern Panamanian border. In Nicaragua there are populations in the east of the country in the Bosawás, Indio Maíz Biological Reserve and San Juan reserves. It occurs in a number of areas in eastern Honduras such as the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, where it is rare. Historically this macaw had a larger range. For example: in 1924 it was collected in Limón, Costa Rica, in 1904 and 1907 around Matagalpa, Nicaragua and in 1927 in Almirante, Panama. Introduced range This is a rare introduced species in Singapore, where it can be seen on Sentosa island and in Ang Mo Kio Town Garden West. Ecology To improve the state of knowledge of the natural history the great green macaw in Costa Rica a large study using radio telemetry was launched by George V. N. Powell and conducted by a team of researchers from 1994 to 2000. The main objectives were to determine the home range of A. ambiguus, characterize the habitats that it frequents and learn more about its feeding habits, ecological associations, abundance, and reproduction and nesting habits. Behaviour Birds are usually observed in pairs or small groups of up to four to eight birds, very rarely more. In Costa Rica it breeds in the lowlands, but disperses to higher elevations afterwards, gathering together in flocks which migrate in search of food. In Costa Rica these flocks usually consist of up to 18 birds. This species rests and forages in the upper areas of the canopy. In Nicaragua these macaws are notably unwary of humans and when feeding will often allow a person to come quite close to them. Older residents of the region where Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis lives relate that until the 1970s or 1980s it would gather together to undertake a daily migration from the mangrove forests at estuaries along the seashore near the village of Puerto Hondo, crossing the Guayaquil-Salinas road in flocks, to the dry hilly woodlands of the Cerro Blanco Forest. Vocalisation An extremely loud, raucous "aak, raak" that can be heard at great distances. Captive birds will emit loud squawks and growls, and also make creaking or groaning sounds. See external links for an example. Diet Birds have been recorded feeding on a wide variety of foodstuffs in the wild such as seeds, nuts and fruits, but also including flowers, bulbs, roots and bark. In Costa Rica at least 38 plants are used for food, of which the most important are the seeds or nuts of Dipteryx oleifera (almendro), Sacoglottis trichogyna, Vochysia ferruginea and Lecythis ampla. This macaw is able to crack open larger nuts than the sympatric scarlet macaw. The beak is particularly suited for breaking open large nuts. Within 50m distance from the lagoons in Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge the following plants have been recorded as food plants for the great green macaw: the palms Iriartea deltoidea, Raphia taedigera, Socratea exorrhiza and Welfia regia, the large shrub Solanum rugosum, the emergent trees Balizia elegans and Dipteryx oleifera, and the trees Byrsonima crispa, Cespedesia macrophylla, Croton schiedeanus, Dialum guianense, Guarea rhopalocarpa, Laetia procera, Maranthes panamensis, Pentaclethra macroloba, Qualea paraensis, Sacoglottis tricogyna, Vantanea barbourii, Virola koschnyi, V. sebifera and Vochysia ferruginea. A major source of food in Costa Rica during breeding time is D. oleifera, 80% of the observations of foraging birds in Costa Rica in a 2004 study were in this tree (albeit in an area where this is the most common tree). It will fly large distances to feed on these trees, also going to trees found in pastures and semi-open areas. It feeds on the trees starting in September, while the fruit is still immature, and continues feeding on them until April. In November D. oleifera forms the mainstay of the diet. Sacoglottis trichogyna is the second most important food here in this period, especially when D. oleifera is not available. It feeds on this species from April to August. When these two trees are no longer in fruit after June the macaws feed on many other species. It is theorised that some movements of the local population of this bird may be due to the asynchronous ripening of D. oleifera fruits. Great green macaws use D. oleifera during breeding season for both feeding and nesting. In Unguía, Chocó Department, Colombia, the species was also observed to feed on D. oleifera. After the two most important trees of the breeding season are no longer in fruit the macaws gather together in flocks and begin to migrate away from the Dipteryx forests. Terminalia catappa, the beach almond (locally also known as almendro), is a commonly planted and naturalised tree from the old world, which these macaws have also been observed feeding on in gardens in Suerre, Costa Rica, between July and September during their migrations - they use fragments of the leaves to help scrape the flesh off the fruits in order to obtain the nuts, and depart after feeding on the trees for 40 minutes. This tree is also one of the most important foods for the scarlet macaw. A 2007 study conducted on Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis in southwest Ecuador showed the most important food plant by far was Cynometra bauhiniifolia, producing more food than all other food plants combined. It further revealed that the abundance of food within a habitat is not related to the abundance of macaw, however, the researchers found that there was a link between the abundance of food and the amount of time great green macaws spend at one place. A popular food plant and nesting tree in Ecuador is also Vitex gigantea. According to BirdLife International a report from central Colombia recorded that a pair of macaws were observed in Ecuador eating orchids. This, however, appears to be utter nonsense, as the work cited reports no such thing. Reproduction The great green macaw's breeding season starts in December and ends in June in Costa Rica, and from August to October in Ecuador. In Costa Rica and Nicaragua it usually nests in the most common of the largest trees of the area, Dipteryx oleifera, which are used for nesting 87% of the time in one 2009 study which looked at 31 nests. Other trees used were Vochysia ferruginea, Carapa nicaraguensis, Prioria copaifera and an unidentified species. Older studies have also recorded it nesting in Albizia caribea, Carapa guianensis and the afore-mentioned Vochysia ferruginea. Other species are used in Guatemala. The trees used are generally quite tall, on average 32.5 m tall, but reaching to 50 m, and with a diameter at chest height of 75 to 166 cm. The nest cavity has no specific orientation. The cavities are usually found high up in the trunk, near the crown of the tree. Such cavities were formed 87% of the time by a large branch breaking off the trunk in the crown of tree. Pairs have sometimes been found to nest in the same tree as other pairs, with a tree found with three active nest cavities at least twice. The scarlet macaw has the exact same nest preferences, and the two species compete for nesting cavities where they co-occur. In a few instances the two species have been found nesting in separate cavities in Costa Rica and Honduras. In one case the nests were found in the same large dead tree in a clearing in the forest, which contained two nests of this species, one nest of the scarlet macaw, and numerous holes containing nesting Psittacara finschi parakeets - all these animals apparently tolerating each other. In Costa Rica it nests from December to June, with most pairs laying the first egg in January. The male macaw only has semen available during the breeding season; the semen has a low sperm concentration. The female lays a clutch of 2-3 eggs and incubates them for 26 days. A single adult (possibly the female) incubates the eggs while the other forages for food and feeds the incubating bird. Both parents participate in rearing the young. The nest contains chicks from February to April in Costa Rica, with the young usually being completely feathered by the end of April, rarely by mid-June. Chicks hatch weighing 23g, can fly after 12–13 weeks, and are weaned after 18–20 weeks when they weigh over 900g. In the wild, generally two young are produced per nest. Chicks eat the same things as the parents. This species has high reproductive success (60% of young survive). After fledging juveniles stay with the parents as a family unit for a significant amount of time, only separating gradually from them. Juvenile birds, at least in captivity, are mature after 5 years, and sexually mature after 6 or 7 years. This species can live to 50–60, to a maximum of 70, years of age. Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis has used a hole in a dead tree of the species Cavanillesia platanifolia at least one time, and has shown a preference for living Ceiba trichastandra in southern Ecuador. Ceiba trees which are considered suitable by the birds have a limbless trunk, the nest is some 20m high in the trunk. At least in northern Ecuador macaws show a preference for Vitex gigantea for nests. Parasites The feather mite Aralichus ambiguae (syn. A. canestrinii pro parte) was recovered from old museum specimens of Ara ambiguus collected in Costa Rica, Panama and Nicaragua. This is a tiny ectoparasite or possibly commensal, likely, based on related species, inhabiting the wing feathers on the ventral surfaces of the secondaries and inner primaries in the channels formed by adjacent barbs. It feeds on tiny fragments broken off from the feathers. It appears most closely related to Aralichus mexicanus of Mexican populations of the military macaw and A. canestrinii (sensu stricto) from the scarlet macaw, differing noticeably in the much larger size of the females in this species. Disease This species is known to suffer from proventricular dilatation disease, also known as "macaw wasting disease", a fatal inflammatory disease of the nerves of the upper and middle digestive tract. It is typified by a swollen proventriculus and tiny lesions which appear in the ganglia and nerves, and the affected birds show abnormal movements and have problems feeding. The aetiology is unknown, but a virus is suspected. It is possibly a virus dubbed "avian bornavirus" of the Bornaviridae family, which has been recovered from tissue of victims. Cultural associations With a 2004 resolution, the city council voted to consider the subspecies Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis, known in the city as papagayo de Guayaquil, as an emblematic symbol of Guayaquil in Ecuador. A July 2005 city ordinance declared it so. A 12m high ceramic monument to this subspecies by the artist Juan Marcelo Sánchez was unveiled in the city in 2006. The macaw was also declared an official symbol of the village of El Castillo, Nicaragua, in the 2000s. A festival organised by the Centro Científico Tropical, the Fundación del Río and more recently The Ara Project promoting great green macaw conservation and bi-national relations is held each year since 2002 in alternatively Costa Rica and then Nicaragua. During the festival nest caretakers receive prizes for helping in the conservation of the species. The 2018 event was planned for El Castillo, Nicaragua, while the 2017 festival was held in Rio Cuarto, Costa Rica. Vernacular names In Spanish it is known as guacamayo verdelimón or guacamayo verde mayor and locally as lapa verde in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The southern Ecuadorian population of Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis is locally known as papagayo de Guayaquil in Spanish. Aviculture This species is bred in captivity. A large enclosure of 15m in length is recommended for housing outside of the breeding season. The aviary should have a large tree trunk in the middle. It should not be kept indoors all the time. Healthy birds enjoy large chewable toys and weekly decorations of fresh branches of pine or eucalyptus in their enclosure. An overhead mister is needed for bathing. A recommended nest box is a 21in x 36in barrel. Different sources recommend different feeding regimes for captive birds. Important is soaked and/or sprouted seeds, as well as some fresh vegetables and fruit, along with nutritionally complete standard commercial macaw pellets. Larger seeds, peanuts, acorns and other larger nuts are recommended, as well as a daily palm nut. It is best to sometimes supply some small bits of gravel to aid in digestion, and some extra calcium at regular times (especially for females). It is prone to biting people if not properly adjusted to humans from a young age. Conservation Status This species of parrot is considered critically endangered by the IUCN. In 2001 Chassot et al. thought it should be considered at risk of extinction in Costa Rica. The species is protected from international trade under CITES Appendix I. While conservation projects have had success educating people and releasing great green macaws into the wild, their numbers remained between 500 and 1000 individuals worldwide as of 2020. It is considered a "vulnerable species" in the 2002 Red List of birds of Colombia. The 2014 Colombian Red List upgrades it to "critically endangered", citing criteria A, the historical loss of habitat (46%, although the authors note the recuperation of 4.7% of the forests in the 2000-2010 period), and C, the potential reduction of the population in the future - it does not qualify for the other two criteria. The subspecies Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis is amongst the rarest parrots in the world. It is considered "vulnerable" by the IUCN (1996), and was included in the 2002 Red List of birds of Ecuador as "critically endangered". Population statistics Population estimates have been somewhat divergent. The first estimate of world totals of the wild population was 5,000 birds in 1993, 2,500 to 10,000 birds in 2000, and less than 2,499 in 2002 in the first Red List of birds of Colombia. In 2004-2005 Jahn sent an unpublished estimate to Bird Life International (BLI) of 2,500 mature individuals, or some than 3,700 individuals including young, of which he believed 1,700 to 2,500 were to be found in the Panama-Colombia borderlands. BLI somehow derived an estimated total world population of 1,000 to 2,500 from that in 2005, and has maintained that number in subsequent assessments despite conflicting evidence. All these previous estimates were basically guesses, but in 2009 Monge et al. performed calculations using known population densities, satellite imagery and the known ranges, and estimated a total population of 7,000, of which 1,530 were to be found in Costa Rica and the southeastern portion of Nicaragua, and 302 in Costa Rica. An unreferenced global population estimate by the American Bird Conservancy in 2016 put the population at 3,500. In the second Red List of birds in Colombia in 2014, 3,385 birds were calculated for that country, using 1/4 lower population density statistics than normal for a number of reasons, but even then the authors state their belief that this is an overestimation, and find a population of 2,500 mature birds in the country more likely. This number includes an estimate of 1,700 birds found in the Colombian part of the Darién region made in the same work. In 1994, the population of macaws in Costa Rica was estimated by Monge et al. to be at 210 individuals with only 35 to 40 breeding pairs. The estimated population in Costa Rica and southern Nicaragua was calculated to be 1530 individuals by Monge et al in 2009. An adjusted estimate of 350 in Costa Rica in 2019 has been derived from that total by including released birds bred in captivity. The population trend would appear to show an increasing population, but due to the undependable nature of the earlier assessments such a conclusion would appear premature. In the 2002 Red List of birds of Ecuador, the total population was estimated at between 60 and 90 individuals, and an unpublished estimate by Horstman for BLI in 2012 was of only 30 to 40 individuals. Only twelve wild macaws were thought to exist of the southern population of the endemic Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis in 1995. In the early 2010s a flock of 36 birds was seen in Río Canandé Reserve in northern Ecuador, disproving the low estimate. Threats The main threat for the survival of the great green macaw was habitat loss. It is estimated that between 1900 and 2000 some 90% of the original habitat has been lost in Costa Rica. Private land not owned by the government is or has been developed into agricultural fields for the production of crops such as oil palm, pineapples and bananas. Especially in the 1980s and 1990s the unsustainable harvest of Dipteryx oleifera and other trees that produce high quality wood is thought to have further compromised macaw habitat, as only 30% of the remaining rainforest in the northeast is thought to be primary. As of 2015 Indio-Maíz Biological Reserve in Nicaragua is threatened by settlers moving into the reserve to found farms, especially of subsidence agriculture, oil palm and cattle. Costa Rican loggers continued to cross the border to illegally harvest timber in the reserve as of 2007. Other threats have included hunting pressure for sport and the feathers, and the pet trade, with chicks fetching prices of up to $300 in Costa Rica in 2001. Hurricane Otto of November 2016, which crossed Central America into the Pacific directly through the Nicaragua-Costa Rica border region, has had a large effect on the woodlands and communities of the region. Three nests were destroyed. Dead wood left in the forests after the hurricane fuelled large forest fires in Indio-Maíz, Nicaragua, in 2018, destroying 5,500 hectares. In southern Ecuador it was reported in 2000 that capture of chicks of ssp. guayaquilensis for national commerce continued to be a problem, at times by attempting to fell trees to get at the nest. An indication of this is the reported ownership of at least 20 pet birds of this species in Guayaquil alone in 1997. Local residents of the area around Cerro Blanco Forest report the macaws are pests on maize cultivation. They are known to have been killed as an agricultural pest in Esmeraldas Province, at least in the 1990s. They have also been killed for food. Protection Honduras It occurs in the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, where it is rare, in eastern Honduras. It has also been seen in the hills of the Sierras del Warunta within the proposed Rus-rus Biological Reserve. Costa Rica and Nicaragua In Costa Rica commerce of the macaw was reduced after an environmental education program was initiated in 1998 by George Powell and his research team. In 1998 this research team, later united as Centro Científico Tropical, devised a conservation plan with an alliance of 18 different organizations known as the San Juan-La Selva Biological Corridor which would protect the habitat of the great green macaw. An earlier iteration of this plan had first been proposed in 1985 by the first revolutionary Sandinista government in the midst of the US-sponsored Contras insurgency, as an "international ecological peace park" (SI-A-PAZ), but the binational agreements with the Costa Rican government were never carried out, so instead Nicaragua established the vast "Áreas Naturales Protegidas del Sureste de Nicaragua" in the southeast, and a similar block of land in the northeast bordering Honduras. After the elections the new Nicaraguan government reduced and carved up these blocks of land between 1997 and 1999, which then became a number of new and much smaller reserves. Much of this land was actually set aside in 1987 to be governed by the indigenous population of these regions, such as the Rama and Kriol people, which has created legal conflict. The Indio-Maíz Biological Reserve remains the main refuge for this species in the two countries. The new "biological corridor plan" entailed the creation of the Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge in Costa Rica in 2005, which helps connect the six previously existing protected areas of the Tortuguero National Park and La Selva Biological Station in the Cordillera Central in Costa Rica, with the Barra del Colorado Wildlife Refuge, the Indio-Maíz Biological Reserve, Punta Gorda Natural Reserve and the Cerro Silva Natural Reserve in Nicaragua, thereby allowing animals to move between the regions. The plan was considered a success in 2012. The macaws migrate to the mountains in northern central Costa Rica after breeding, for example to Braulio Carrillo National Park. A national prohibition of the cutting of almendro de montaña (Dipteryx oleifera) trees was also engineered by the Centro Científico Tropical. Experimental D. oleifera plantations have also been established around Sarapiquí, which appear to show the species is acceptable for commercial silviculture. The Costa Rican NGO Ara Manzanillo has released 60 captive-bred birds in Jairo Mora Sandoval Gandoca-Manzanillo Mixed Wildlife Refuge near Puerto Viejo de Talamanca (Old Harbour), southeasternmost coastal Costa Rica, as of 2019. In Nicaragua there are further populations in the east of the country in the Bosawás and San Juan reserves. Fundación del Río is an organisation which carries out macaw conservation in southeast Nicaragua. Panama It is reasonably common in parts of Darién National Park. Colombia It is common in Utría National Natural Park along the Pacific coast (as of 2003). It also occurs and is protected in Los Katíos National Park bordering Darién in Panama, Paramillo National Park, Sanquianga National Park and in southwest of the country in Farallones de Cali National Park. Ecuador The southern Ecuadorian population of Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis is mostly protected in the Cerro Blanco Forest just west of the city of Guayaquil, a private reserve administered by the Ecuadorian NGO Fundación Pro-Bosque, which is expanding the plantings of native trees on the grounds. The Jambeli Foundation undertakes captive reproduction near the city, and a number of municipal organisations such as Parque Historico, the Urban Parks and Public Spaces Administration and the Guayaquil Botanical Garden undertake educational activities related to this bird. It is used as a flagship species for conservation of the fragmented remnants of the dry forest ecosystem only found near this city. Between 2017 and 2019 fourteen birds of ssp. guayaquilensis captive-bred by the Jambeli Foundation and Loro Parque Fundación were released into the private Ayampe Reserve in Esmeraldas Province owned by the Fundación de Conservación Jocotoco. It is possible that by doing so they are mixing up populations of the subspecies, as it is unclear if the original population in Esmeraldas is not the nominate. The northern Ecuadorian population is primarily protected within the Cotacachi Cayapas Ecological Reserve where most of the population is thought to be found, it is also found within the Río Canandé Reserve, another private reserve owned by the Fundación de Conservación Jocotoco. See also The Ara Project - Macaw reintroductions in Costa Rica References External links Ara ambiguus call Call, videos Ara (genus) Birds of Costa Rica Birds of Nicaragua Birds of Panama Macaws Birds of Colombia Birds of Ecuador Birds described in 1811 Taxa named by Johann Matthäus Bechstein
4618604	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General%20of%20New%20Zealand	Governor-General of New Zealand	The governor-general of New Zealand () is the viceregal representative of the monarch of New Zealand, currently King Charles III. As the King is concurrently the monarch of 14 other Commonwealth realms and lives in the United Kingdom, he, on the advice of his New Zealand prime minister, appoints a governor-general to carry out his constitutional and ceremonial duties within the Realm of New Zealand. The current office traces its origins to when the administration of New Zealand was placed under the Colony of New South Wales in 1839 and its governor was given jurisdiction over New Zealand. New Zealand would become its own colony the next year with its own governor. The modern title and functions of the "governor-general" came into being in 1917, and the office is currently mandated by Letters Patent issued in 1983, constituting "the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief of the Realm of New Zealand". Constitutional functions of the governor-general include presiding over the Executive Council, appointing ministers and judges, granting royal assent to legislation, and summoning and dissolving parliament. These functions are generally exercised only according to the advice of an elected government. The governor-general also has an important ceremonial role: hosting events at Government House in Wellington, and travelling throughout New Zealand to open conferences, attend services and commemorations, and generally provide encouragement to individuals and groups who are contributing to their communities. When travelling abroad, the governor-general is seen as the representative of New Zealand; for this reason, the governor-general has been described by academics and politicians as the de facto head of state. The governor-general (titled "governor" before 1917) initially represented the British monarch and the British government. Therefore, many past officeholders were from the United Kingdom, including a succession of minor aristocrats from the 1890s onwards. In a gradual process, especially with the adoption of the Statute of Westminster in 1947, the governor-general has become the independent, personal representative of the New Zealand monarch. In 1972, Sir Denis Blundell became the first New Zealand resident to be appointed to the office. Governors-general are typically appointed for a five-year term of office, subject to a possible short extension, though they formally serve "at the monarch's pleasure". The incumbent governor-general is Dame Cindy Kiro, since 21 October 2021. Administrative support for the governor-general is provided by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Appointment The monarch of New Zealand appoints the governor-general on the sole recommendation of the prime minister of New Zealand, by commission issued under the Seal of New Zealand, known as the "Terms of Appointment". Constitutional convention adopted in 1930, following the Imperial Conference held that year, allowed for the appointment of the governor-general to be made upon the advice of the New Zealand Government, though that right was not exercised directly by a New Zealand prime minister until 1967, with the appointment of the first New Zealand-born governor-general, Sir Arthur Porritt on the advice of Keith Holyoake. The next governor-general, Sir Denis Blundell, was the first New Zealand born and resident governor-general. Today, the Terms of Appointment are counter-signed by the prime minister, to signify that the prime minister is responsible for advising the sovereign on the appointment. The prime minister's advice has sometimes been the result of a decision by Cabinet; there is no requirement for this, and there have been a number of instances where the governor-general was appointed with no consultation of Cabinet. Since 1980, the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet prepares a short list of candidates for the office. By convention, the leader of the Opposition is consulted on the appointment; this has not always been the case. On only one occasion has the prime minister's choice of appointee aroused public anger or complaint, and that controversy was short-lived. In 1977, Sir Keith Holyoake, a former National Party prime minister and a serving minister of state, was controversially appointed as governor-general. The Leader of the Opposition, Bill Rowling, complained he had not been consulted by Prime Minister Robert Muldoon on the appointment of Holyoake, and openly suggested that he would have recommended Sir Edmund Hillary instead. (Rowling's remark was in turn criticised by the Government, as Hillary had backed the opposition Labour Party in 1975 as part of the "Citizens for Rowling" campaign.) It was suggested by many commentators that it would be inappropriate to entrust the office to a former party leader or anyone who is closely allied with a political party; despite his background, Holyoake could not be said to have discharged his duties in a partisan way, and he stayed in office for only three years. Since Holyoake's appointment, the prime minister is now meant to consult with the leader of the opposition during the nomination process, to avoid partisan controversy, and informally seek approval for the appointment from the monarch. The decision is then kept confidential until both the New Zealand Government and Buckingham Palace (the royal household) announce the appointment simultaneously. Beginning with the appointment of Sir David Beattie in 1980, lawyers and judges have predominated as governors-general. Following the introduction of MMP in 1996, it has been determined that an understanding of constitutional law is an important prerequisite for candidacy to the office. The first governor-general to preside over a MMP general election was Sir Michael Hardie Boys, a retired high court judge. Hardie Boys was appointed in 1995 on the advice of then prime minister Jim Bolger, following notification of all leaders of parties then represented in parliament, to ensure broad cross-party support. Following Hardie Boys' appointment other party leaders are only notified very shortly before the announcement is made, if at all. There has been on-and-off speculation that a member of the royal family might take up the position. In 2004, National MP Richard Worth, an avowed monarchist, asked the prime minister, Helen Clark, whether she had considered nominating the Queen's son, Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, to be the next governor-general. Swearing-in ceremony The commission of appointment is publicly read in the presence of the chief justice and the members of the Executive Council before the governor-general enters office. The chief justice or other High Court judge then administers the Oath (or Affirmation) of Allegiance, and the Oath (or Affirmation) of Office to the governor-general. Election proposals From time to time, there have been proposals to elect the governor-general. When first drafted by then Governor George Grey, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 contained a provision for the governor to be elected by New Zealand's parliament. This provision was removed from the final enactment, probably because the Colonial Office wanted to keep a check on New Zealand's colonial government. In 1887, Sir George Grey, by then also a former premier, moved the Election of Governor Bill to make the office of governor an elective position. The Bill was narrowly defeated 46–48, being opposed by the government of Harry Atkinson. In 1889, Grey tried again with another bill, which if passed would have allowed for a "British subject" to be elected to the office of governor "precisely as an ordinary parliamentary election in each district." In 2006, political commentator Colin James suggested that the governor-general could be elected (or, more correctly, nominated to the Queen) by a 60 percent majority of votes in parliament. James argued that the New Zealand public should be given the ability to choose the Queen's representative and that the current system is undemocratic and not transparent. Such a system is not unique: the governors-general of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are nominated in such a way. Constitutional law specialist Professor Noel Cox, who is a former chair of Monarchy New Zealand, criticised the proposal, claiming that "[g]iving the Governor-General a new and separate source of democratic legitimacy could result in a separation between Ministers and Governors-General. (...) the Governors-General would have their own independent popular mandate, and become potential political rivals of the Ministers". In February 2008, the New Zealand Republic proposed electing the governor-general as an interim step to a republic, arguing "Electing the Governor-General allows for easier transition to a republic because the populace is used to electing someone as a ceremonial de facto head of state." With the introduction of the Governor-General Act 2010, Green MP Keith Locke suggested parliament recommend the next governor-general's appointment to the Queen, with a recommendation endorsed by three-quarters of parliament. In its submission to the select committee considering the Bill, the Republican Movement suggested parliament appoint the next governor-general with a three-quarters majority plus a majority of party leaders in parliament, with a similar dismissal process and a fixed five-year term. National MP Nikki Kaye queried whether several one-member parties in parliament could veto the decision, which could give them too much power if an appointment was based on one vote per leader. The Republican Movement responded that the method would ensure appointments were made that most MPs and parties found acceptable. Tenure The governor-general holds office at His Majesty's pleasure, under clause II of the Letters Patent 1983. It is the norm that an appointed individual holds office for a minimum of five years but this tenure may also be extended. The Terms of Appointment of the governor-general defines their expected term in office. For instance, Dame Silvia Cartwright would have been in office for five years on 4 April 2006, but her term as governor-general was extended by four months as Prime Minister Helen Clark deemed that "the selection and appointment process [of a new governor-general] [should] not coincide with the pre-election period". Administrator of the Government A vacancy will occur on the resignation, death, incapacity or absence from New Zealand territory of the governor-general. In the absence of a governor-general the chief justice (currently Helen Winkelmann) becomes the administrator of the Government and performs the functions of the office of governor-general. The administrator is required to take an oath similar to the governor-general. If there is no chief justice available then the next most senior judge of the New Zealand judiciary who is able so to act is appointed as administrator. Prior to the granting of responsible government in 1856, the colonial secretary acted as administrator when a governor was absent. Dismissal The prime minister may advise the monarch to dismiss (recall) the governor-general. As no New Zealand governor-general has ever been dismissed on the advice of the prime minister, it is unclear how quickly the monarch would act on such advice. Some constitutional lawyers dispute whether the monarch would implement such advice at all, while others argue that they would delay its implementation. Others argue that the monarch would be obliged to follow the prime minister's advice (so long as the prime minister has the confidence of the House of Representatives), and further that the monarch would be bound to implement the prime minister's advice immediately if so advised. Critics (such as supporters of a New Zealand republic) have described the ability of the prime minister to advise the monarch to recall the governor-general as a flaw in New Zealand's constitutional makeup that gives the governor-general and the prime minister the ability to dismiss one another. They argue that this flaw is exacerbated by the reluctance of the monarch or their representatives to become politically involved. Three 19th-century New Zealand governors were recalled from office: William Hobson (who died before he was officially recalled), Robert FitzRoy, and Sir George Grey. All three governed before the institution of responsible government in New Zealand; they were dismissed on the advice of the British (Imperial) government. Functions The governor-general's functions can be informally divided into three areas: constitutional, ceremonial and community. By constitutional convention, the governor-general is "above party politics" and not involved in the day to day decision making of government. Constitutional role The Constitution Act 1986 provides that "the Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand". The governor-general is delegated the sovereign's Royal Prerogative (royal powers), including the reserve powers, on behalf of the sovereign. All of the executive authority of the New Zealand monarch (except for the appointment of the governor-general) is delegated to the governor-general by the sovereign under the Letters Patent 1983: When he is present in New Zealand the King may exercise his powers personally. Further constitutional duties are outlined in the Constitution Act. The governor-general is a nominal chief executive, acting within the constraints of constitutional convention and precedent. Although the governor-general's powers are in theory extensive, they are in practice very limited; most political power is exercised by the New Zealand Parliament (which is composed of the Governor-General-in-Parliament and the House of Representatives), through the prime minister and Cabinet. The governor-general does use a number of remaining powers, but almost always on the formal advice of the prime minister and other ministers. Ministers are, in turn, accountable to the democratically elected House of Representatives, and through it, to the people. (The governor-general may refuse to follow ministerial advice only in the event that the prime minister loses the confidence of the House of Representatives.) Even in the appointment of a prime minister, the governor-general rarely exercises any discretion; in accordance with constitutional conventions, the governor-general must appoint the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Representatives: this is usually the leader of the largest party among those forming the government. Role in executive government The governor-general appoints and dismisses Cabinet ministers and other ministers, but exercises such a function only on the prime minister's advice. Thus, in practice, the prime minister, and not the governor-general, exercises complete control over the composition of the Cabinet. The governor-general may, in theory, unilaterally dismiss a prime minister, but convention and precedent bar such an action. The governor-general presides over, but is not a member of, the Executive Council of New Zealand. The Executive Council (which comprises all ministers) exists and meets to give legal effect to decisions made by the Cabinet. The primary function of the Executive Council is to collectively and formally advise the governor-general to issue Orders in Council (to make, for example, regulations or appointments), which operate under the authority of "the Governor-General in Council". The governor-general also has custody of the Seal of New Zealand for all official instruments of His Majesty's Government in New Zealand. Role in the New Zealand Parliament The governor-general summons and dissolves the New Zealand Parliament, acting in the absence of the sovereign. Each parliamentary session begins with the governor-general's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the opening of parliament, during which the governor-general delivers the 'Speech from the Throne' in the Legislative Council Chamber, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term (which lasts a maximum of three years), and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Representatives. These powers are almost always exercised on the advice of the prime minister, who also determines the date of an election. The governor-general may theoretically refuse a dissolution, but the circumstances under which such an action would be warranted are unclear. It might be justified if a minority government had served only briefly and another party or coalition seemed likely to have better success in holding the confidence of the House. Before a bill can become law, the Royal Assent is required. The governor-general acts on the monarch's behalf and may grant the Royal Assent (making the bill law), or, in theory, withhold the Royal Assent (vetoing the bill). By modern constitutional convention the Royal Assent is invariably granted, and bills are never disallowed. A law comes into effect from the date the governor-general signs the bill. Reserve powers The governor-general acts with the advice of the prime minister, unless the prime minister has lost the confidence of the House of Representatives. These are the so-called 'reserve powers'. These powers include the ability to: Dissolve or prorogue parliament; Appoint or dismiss the prime minister; Refuse a prime minister's request for a dissolution; Refuse assent to legislation. The exercise of the above powers is a matter of continuing debate. Constitutional commentators believe that the governor-general (or the sovereign) does not have the power to refuse the Royal Assent to legislation — former law professor and Prime Minister Sir Geoffrey Palmer and Professor Matthew Palmer argue that any refusal of the Royal Assent would cause a constitutional crisis. Constitutional lawyers, such as Professor Philip Joseph, believe the governor-general does retain the power to refuse the Royal Assent to bills in exceptional circumstances, such as the abolition of democracy. As with other Commonwealth realms, the governor-general's exercise of the Royal Prerogative under the reserve powers is non-justiciable; that is, they cannot be challenged by judicial review, unlike the actions of other members of the executive (such as the Prime Minister in Fitzgerald v Muldoon). Prerogative of mercy The governor-general also exercises the royal prerogative of mercy, an ancient right of convicted persons to seek a review of their case where they allege an injustice may have occurred. The prerogative of mercy can be exercised where a person claims to have been wrongly convicted or wrongly sentenced. The governor-general acts on the advice of the minister of justice. The governor-general has power to grant a pardon, to refer a person's case back to the court under section 406 of the Crimes Act 1961, and to reduce a person's sentence. If a person's case is referred back to the court, the court will consider the case in a similar way to hearing an appeal. The court then provides advice to the governor-general as to how to act. In 2000, David Bain was granted such an appeal to the Court of Appeal, which in turn was appealed to the Privy Council. Ceremonial role With most constitutional functions lent to Cabinet, the governor-general is particularly invested in a representative and ceremonial role. The extent and nature of that role has depended on the expectations of the time, the individual in office at the time, the wishes of the incumbent government, and the individual's reputation in the wider community. The governor-general will host the monarch or their family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and will represent New Zealand abroad on state visits to other nations. At least once during their term, the governor-general visits the other nations within the Realm of New Zealand: Niue, the Cook Islands and Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency. Also as part of international relations, the governor-general issues the credentials (called letter of credence) of New Zealand ambassadors and consuls, as authorised by the Letters Patent. Increasingly, the governor-general is personally accorded the same respect and privileges of a head of state. This is particularity true when the governor-general visits other nations or receives heads of states. (See .) Prior to the Lomé Convention in February 1975, the Queen, rather than the governor-general, would sign treaties on behalf of New Zealand. Following the signing of the convention, the Queen granted "full powers" to the governor-general to sign such instruments. Under the Defence Act 1990 and letters patent the governor-general is also the titular commander-in-chief of the Defence Force. The position technically involves issuing commands for New Zealand troops, though the governor-general only acts on the advice of the minister of defence and other ministers. In practice, the commander-in-chief is a ceremonial role in which the governor-general will see troops off to and return from active duty and visit military bases in New Zealand and abroad to take part in military ceremonies. Community role The governor-general provides leadership in the community. Governors-general are always the patrons of many charitable, service, sporting and cultural organisations. The sponsorship or patronage of the governor-general signals that an organisation is worthy of wide support. This follows the tradition of royal patronage established by British monarchs; the practice of issuing royal warrant of appointment has been discontinued in New Zealand. Some governors and their spouses founded or supported new charities; in the early 1900s, Lord Plunket and his wife, Lady Victoria, presided over the creation of Truby King's Plunket Society. Until the later 20th century, many governors and governors-general were grand masters of the Freemasons, and they included visits to lodges as a part of their tours of the country. The governor-general has also had a long association with the Order of St John, traditionally serving as prior in New Zealand. Many of the governor-general's community functions have a ceremonial dimension, such as attendance at the official openings of buildings, addresses to open conferences, or launching special events and appeals. The governor-general attends state banquets and receptions, making and hosting state visits, meeting ceremonial groups, and awarding medals and decorations. As well as attending public events, the governor-general hosts many community functions at Government House, Wellington, such as a garden reception to mark Waitangi Day. According to the official website of the governor-general, in a typical year over 15,000 people will attend such events. Starting from New Year's Day 2009, the governor-general issues a New Year's Message to bring to attention issues New Zealanders might consider as they look to the future. Salary and privileges Cost The New Zealand Government pays for the costs associated with the governor-general. Monarchy New Zealand states "[t]his figure is about one dollar per person per year", about $4.3 million per annum. An analysis by New Zealand Republic of the 2010 budget shows the office of governor-general costs New Zealand taxpayers about $7.6 million in ongoing costs and $11 million for Government House upgrades, a total of $18.6 million. These figures are disputed by Monarchy New Zealand, who claim New Zealand Republic "arbitrarily inflated the cost of the Governor-General". Salary , the annual salary is NZ$354,000, which is subject to income tax from 2010. Until the end of Sir Anand Satyanand's term, the salary of governor-general was regulated by the Civil List Act 1979. From the start of Sir Jerry Mateperae's term, the Governor-General Act 2010 applies. Residences and household The governor-general's main residence is Government House, Wellington, and there is a small secondary northern residence, Government House, Auckland. Government House in Wellington closed in October 2008 for a major $44 million conservation and rebuilding project and was reopened in March 2011. In November 2012, Prince Charles opened a visitor centre at Government House in Wellington to mark the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. The viceregal household aids the governor-general in the execution of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by an official secretary to the governor-general. All of the governor-general's staff are public servants within the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Transport Since the 1960s the New Zealand Government has supplied Government House with an official state car to transport the governor-general on official business. It is also used to transport other state officials, as well as visiting dignitaries, including royalty. The governor-general's official vehicle displays a representation of St Edward's Crown instead of standard number plates. The current official car is a BMW 7 Series. It replaced a Jaguar XJ8, which was purchased in 2003 for about NZ$160,000. The Jaguar was auctioned off in August 2011. Symbols The governor-general's flag may be flown from a vehicle in which the governor-general is travelling, or from a building in which the governor-general is present or is residing. The flag in its present form was adopted in 2008 and is a blue field with the shield of the New Zealand coat of arms surmounted by a crown in the centre. It takes precedence over the national flag. The national flag is generally employed when the governor-general undertakes a state visit abroad. The national flag is also flown at half-mast upon the death of an incumbent or former governor-general. The design of the flag, with the shield and crown in the centre, mirrors the collar badge of the New Zealand Order of Merit which can only be worn by the sovereign and the governor-general. A viceregal salute, composed of the first six bars of "God Save the King", is used to greet the governor-general upon arrival at, and mark their departure from most official events. Precedence and titles In the New Zealand order of precedence, the governor-general outranks all individuals except the sovereign. The governor-general and their spouse are styled "His/Her Excellency" during the term in office, and the governor-general is entitled to the style "The Right Honourable" for life upon assuming the office. From 2006, former living governors-general were entitled to use the style "the Honourable", if they did not already hold the title or the higher appointment of Privy Counsellor. The incumbent governor-general uses the titles of Chancellor and Principal Knight or Dame Grand Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit and Principal Companion of the Queen's Service Order. The governor-general is titled Sir or Dame. Official dress The governor-general is entitled to a special court uniform that is worn on ceremonial occasions, consisting of a dark navy wool double-breasted coatee with silver oak leaf and fern embroidery on the collar and cuffs trimmed with silver buttons embossed with the Royal Arms; bullion-edged epaulettes on the shoulders; dark navy trousers with a wide band of silver oak-leaf braid down the outside seam; silver sword belt with ceremonial sword; bicorne cocked hat with plume of ostrich feathers; black patent leather Wellington boots with spurs, etc. There is also a tropical version made of white tropical wool cut in a typical military fashion worn with a plumed helmet. This dress has fallen into disuse since the 1980s. Initially this was due to Sir Paul Reeves, as a cleric, choosing not to wear a military uniform. Although not specifically colonial, the traditional dress was abandoned as overt reminders of a colonial legacy. Usually the governor-general will now wear a black lounge jacket with morning dress trousers for men or formal day dress for ladies (or military uniform if they are already entitled to it) for ceremonial occasions and normal day dress at other times. The undress form of the uniform is still worn on rare occasions, such as when the governor-general visits military bases. History Governors From 1832 James Busby was assigned the post of official British resident in New Zealand. He played a role in drafting the Treaty of Waitangi, which established British colonial rule over New Zealand. Captain William Hobson was first appointed lieutenant-governor of New Zealand by letters patent on 24 November 1840 (having previously been the British consul to New Zealand), when New Zealand was part of the colony of New South Wales. While Hobson is usually considered the first governor of New Zealand, Sir George Gipps was the first governor over New Zealand, albeit only in his capacity as governor of New South Wales, until New Zealand was established as a separate colony on 3 May 1841. Hobson continued in office until his death on 10 September 1842. In Hobson's place the Colonial Office appointed Captain Robert FitzRoy. FitzRoy struggled to keep order between Māori and settlers keen to buy their land, with very limited financial and military resources at his disposal. Outbreak of the first armed conflicts of the New Zealand Wars and FitzRoy's siding with Māori claims against the New Zealand Company and its settlers over land deals led to his recall by the Colonial Office in 1845. FitzRoy's replacement, Sir George Grey, is considered by some historians, such as Michael King, to be the most important and influential governor of New Zealand. Grey was the last governor of New Zealand to act without reference to parliament. During his first term (1845–1852), Grey petitioned the British Parliament to largely suspend the complex New Zealand Constitution Act 1846 (Grey briefly took the title "governor-in-chief" under the act but this was eventually reverted to governor), drafting his own constitution bill, which became the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852. Grey's first term ended before responsible government was implemented, although he established the first provinces under the 1846 Constitution Act, appointing a lieutenant-governor for each of the provinces: George Dean Pitt for the New Ulster Province and Robert Wynyard for the New Munster Province. The office of lieutenant-governor was superseded by elected superintendents with the implementation of the 1852 Constitution Act, in 1853. The task of overseeing the transition to a responsible government was left to Robert Wynyard, as the administrator of the Government, who opened the 1st New Zealand Parliament on 24 May 1854. Wynyard was quickly confronted by the demands from members of parliament for the ability to select ministers from among their number—rather than the governor deciding. The parliament passed a resolution to that effect on 2 June. Wynyard and the Executive Council of New Zealand refused to allow this, stating that the Colonial Office made no mention of responsible government in its dispatches. Wynyard then offered to add some elected members of parliament to the Executive Council, which he did—a compromise that worked for a few weeks, until on 1 August 1854, parliament again demanded complete power to appoint ministers. Wynyard refused and prorogued parliament for two weeks. Then on 31 August, he appointed more elected members to the Executive Council, but when Parliament met again on 8 August 1855, it moved a motion of no confidence in the members. Fortunately for Wynyard the next governor, Sir Thomas Gore Browne, arrived on 6 September 1855. Gore Browne's tenure saw the introduction of responsible government, which constrained the powers of the governor, who now had to work with a premier and their ministers. In the following years, Gore Browne and Premier Edward Stafford clashed over whether the governor (and hence the imperial government) had control over Māori affairs, a key issue at the time with the ongoing New Zealand Wars. Stafford began the practice of Cabinet meeting independently of the Executive Council, further reducing the influence of the governor. Sir George Grey returned to New Zealand in 1861 for a second term. Grey struggled to meet the competing demands of the colonial and British governments. The New Zealand Wars had brought many thousands of British troops to New Zealand, and fearing further fighting Grey, with the support of Edward Stafford, evaded Colonial Office instructions to finalise their return to Britain. In the end, the Colonial Office recalled Grey in February 1868. After Grey, successive governors of New Zealand were derived from the British aristocracy and played a much less active role in government. In only a few instances did the governor refuse the advice of the premier. Ironically this happened mainly during the tenure of Sir George Grey as premier of New Zealand from 1877 to 1879. One famous instance of the use of the governor's powers came during the term of Sir Arthur Gordon. Gordon had left New Zealand on 13 September 1881 for a visit to the Pacific Islands. In his absence, Premier John Hall advised Chief Justice James Prendergast (well-known for his negative opinions about Māori from his decision in the case Wi Parata v the Bishop of Wellington), acting as the administrator, to order the invasion of the Māori pacifist Te Whiti o Rongomai's village at Parihaka, something the Governor had indicated he was opposed to. Governors-General British subjects In 1907 Sir Joseph Ward's Liberal government passed a resolution to create New Zealand as the Dominion of New Zealand. This led to new letters patent being issued in 1917, which greatly curtailed the powers of the governor. To reflect these changes, the office was renamed governor-general (equivalent to governors-general of other dominions), with the Earl of Liverpool, the serving governor, becoming the first to be titled governor-general. In 1926, following the King-Byng affair in Canada, an Imperial Conference approved the Balfour Declaration, which defined a British Commonwealth as a freely associated grouping known as the Commonwealth of Nations. The Balfour Declaration was ratified by the Parliament of the United Kingdom with the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The effect of the declaration was to elevate the governor-general from a representative of the British government to a regal position with all the theoretical constitutional powers of the sovereign. New Zealand did not ratify the Statute of Westminster until after the Second World War with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 being passed on 25 November 1947. Despite adopting the statute later than most other Commonwealth realms, the functions of the governor-general in representing the British government were gradually reduced prior to the statute passing. For example, beginning in 1939, the high commissioner of the United Kingdom to New Zealand replaced the governor-general as the foremost diplomatic representative of the British government in New Zealand. In 1945, New Zealand Prime Minister Peter Fraser suggested that Sir Bernard Freyberg, the British-born commander of New Zealand's armed forces, be appointed governor-general. Until 1967, the precedent was that governors-general were nominated by the Foreign Office (the successor of the Colonial Office) in consultation with the New Zealand prime minister, who then recommended appointments to the sovereign. New Zealand citizens During the 1960s, the Foreign Office made strong overtures that the appointment of the governor-general should be made by the New Zealand prime minister and the monarch. A Gallup poll for the Auckland Star newspaper found 43 percent of respondents preferred Britons for the role, while 41 percent favoured New Zealanders and 6 percent candidates from other Commonwealth countries. In 1967 the first New Zealand-born governor-general, Sir Arthur Porritt (later Lord Porritt), was appointed to the office, on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister, Keith Holyoake. Porritt's appointment was followed by Sir Denis Blundell in 1972, who was the first fully New Zealand-resident governor-general. The appointment of New Zealand citizens and residents led to concerns that the constitutional convention that governors-general remain "above party politics" might be compromised, especially with the appointment of former prime minister Sir Keith Holyoake to the role in 1977. Despite this appointment, Holyoake was said to have acted in an impartial way, especially following the very close 1981 general election. In 1983, letters patent were issued once again, further reducing the powers of the office. The new letters patent were counter-signed by the New Zealand Prime Minister, symbolising the "patriation" of the office. The governor-general now presided over the "Realm of New Zealand" instead of the "Dominion of New Zealand". Following the 1984 constitutional crisis, the 1852 Constitution Act was replaced by the Constitution Act 1986 and the governor-general's powers further limited. For example, section 16 of the 1986 act significantly narrowed section 56 of the 1852 act so that the governor-general has much less discretion to refuse Royal Assent to bills of parliament. With the patriation of the office came an expectation that the officeholders would be representative of New Zealanders generally; since then a more diverse group of governors-general have been appointed. Former Anglican Archbishop of New Zealand Sir Paul Reeves (1985–90) was the first Māori Governor-General. Dame Catherine Tizard (1990–96) was the first woman to be appointed to the office. Sir Anand Satyanand (2006–11) was the first Governor-General of Indian and Pasifika descent, and the first Roman Catholic to hold the office. De facto head of state Increasingly, the governor-general is regarded as a de facto head of state. Political commentator Colin James has expressed this view, along with historian Gavin McLean and former Prime Minister Helen Clark. Beginning in the late 20th century, the governor-general has been performing more and more of the functions of a head of state, such as travelling overseas, representing all New Zealanders at major international events and generally promoting New Zealand interests abroad. The first time such a visit occurred was in 1989 for the state funeral of the late Japanese Emperor Hirohito. New Zealand governors-general could not make state visits until 1992, when the King of Spain invited Dame Catherine Tizard on a State Visit for the Seville Expo '92. Buckingham Palace (the monarch's advisers) advised that Elizabeth cannot travel abroad in her capacity as the queen of New Zealand. As a compromise, the Palace agreed that governors-general could accept invitations for state visits, but that it must be made clear that the governor-general is the sovereign's representative. At the 2007 commemorations of the Battle of Passchendaele, Governor-General Anand Satyanand represented New Zealand on behalf of the Queen, while the Queen herself represented the United Kingdom. Reform of the office is usually only mentioned in the context of a New Zealand republic. Helen Clark, when defending Dame Silvia Cartwright following a political controversy over prison sentences, stated "[o]ne of the challenges for us is we clearly are no longer a dominion of Britain where the Governor-General is exactly like the Queen. I think we need to consider how the role of Governor-General might evolve further. As you know, my view is that one day there will be a president fulfilling the kind of role the Governor-General does." Others, such as Professor Noel Cox have argued that the governor-general's role needs to be updated, rather than reforming the office. Some constitutional academics expressed concern that the process of electoral reform could result in the governor-general having greater political influence due to the reserve powers of government formation. In 1993, then Governor-General Dame Catherine Tizard caused controversy by suggesting that under the proposed mixed-member proportional (MMP) electoral system the governor-general may have to use their reserve powers more often (because under MMP, election results most probably do not produce an outright majority, and therefore the governor-general would be obliged to identify a minority parliamentary leader to form a government). Following the adoption of MMP at a referendum later in 1993, Prime Minister Jim Bolger suggested at the opening of parliament in 1994 that one reason New Zealand might move to a republic was that the governor-general would have more influence under the new electoral system. In a 1996 address, Governor-General Sir Michael Hardie Boys clarified how he would use his powers in the case of an unclear electoral result; he maintained that politicians must decide who would govern, and only after a public announcement of their decision would he appoint a prime minister. In December 2009 a review of the Civil List Act 1979 by the Law Commission recommended that part 1 of the act be repealed, and replaced with a new Governor-General Bill to reflect the nature of the modern office of governor-general. The most significant change would be that the governor-general was no longer exempt from paying income tax on their salary. The changes proposed in the report would take effect for the appointment and term of the next governor-general. The Bill was introduced into the House of Representatives on 28 June 2010 and was granted Royal Assent on 22 November 2010. In 2020 a poll by Curia, commissioned by New Zealand Republic, found 32 percent of New Zealanders thought the governor-general was the head of state, and only 18 percent could name the Queen as New Zealand's head of state (25 percent answered that it was the prime minister). See also Letters Patent Constituting the Office of Governor-General of New Zealand List of governors-general of New Zealand Armorial of the governors-general of New Zealand List of official secretaries to the governor-general of New Zealand Viceregal consort of New Zealand (spouse of the governor-general) Government Houses of New Zealand Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom and New Zealand royal honours system for an explanation of honours References Footnotes Citations Bibliography External links Official website of the Governor-General History of the Governor-General, NZHistory Former Governors-General, the Governor-General website Government of New Zealand Constitution of New Zealand Monarchy in New Zealand 1841 establishments in New Zealand
4618607	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Baltimore%20Orioles	History of the Baltimore Orioles	Milwaukee Brewers The modern Orioles franchise can trace its roots back to the original Milwaukee Brewers of the minor-league Western League (WL), beginning in 1894 when the league reorganized. The Brewers were still league members when the WL renamed itself the American League (AL) in 1900. At the end of the 1900 season, the AL removed itself from baseball's National Agreement, the formal understanding between the National League (NL) and the minor leagues. Two months later, the AL declared itself a competing major league. As the baseball "war" heated up, the AL began to challenge the NL senior circuit more directly. The AL already fielded teams in Boston, Chicago, and Philadelphia, solid NL cities. It had planned to move the Brewers to St. Louis for the 1901 season, but those plans fizzled. As a result of several franchise shifts, the Brewers were one of only two WL teams that did not either fold or move (the other being the Detroit Tigers). During , the first season that the AL operated as a major league, the Brewers finished last among the league's eight teams, with a record of . During its lone major-league season in Milwaukee, the team played at Lloyd Street Grounds, between 16th and 18th Streets in Milwaukee. St. Louis Browns In 1902, however, the team did move to St. Louis, where it became the "Browns", in reference to the original name of the legendary 1880s club that by 1902 was known as the Cardinals. In their first St. Louis season, the Browns finished second. Although they usually fielded terrible or mediocre teams (they had only four winning seasons from 1901 to 1922), they were very popular at the gate. During this time, the Browns were best known for their role in the race for the 1910 American League batting title. Detroit's Ty Cobb took the last game of the season off, believing that his slight lead over Cleveland's Nap Lajoie was enough to win the title unless Lajoie had a near-perfect day at the plate. However, Cobb was one of the most despised players in baseball, and Browns catcher-manager Jack O'Connor ordered rookie third baseman Red Corriden to station himself in shallow left field. In each of his next five at bats, Lajoie bunted down the third-base line and made it to first easily. In his last at-bat, he reached base on an error – officially giving him a hitless at-bat. O'Connor and coach Harry Howell tried to bribe the official scorer, a woman, to change the call to a hit, even offering to buy her a new wardrobe. Cobb won the batting title by just a few thousandths of a point over Lajoie (though in 1978 sabermetrician Pete Palmer discovered that one game may have been counted twice in the statistics). The resulting outcry triggered an investigation by American League president Ban Johnson. At his insistence, Browns owner Robert Hedges fired O'Connor and Howell; both men were informally banned from baseball for life. In 1916, after years of prosperity at the gate, Hedges sold the team to cold-storage magnate Phil Ball, who had owned the St. Louis Terriers of the defunct Federal League. Ball's tenure as owner saw the Browns' first period of prosperity; they were a contender for most of the early 1920s, even finishing second in 1922. He made a considerable effort to make the Browns competitive, reinvesting all profits back into the team. Ball, however, committed several errors that dogged the franchise for years to come. His first major blunder was to fire Branch Rickey, the resident genius in the Browns' front office, in 1919 because of a conflict of egos, causing Rickey to jump to the crosstown Cardinals. In 1920 Sam Breadon, who had just purchased the Cardinals, convinced Ball to allow his team to share the Browns' home, Sportsman's Park. With the money from the sale of the Cardinals' Robison Field, Rickey began building an extensive farm system. This eventually produced a host of star players that brought the Cardinals far more drawing power than the Browns. The 1922 Browns excited their owner by almost beating the Yankees to a pennant. The club was boasting the best players in franchise history, including George Sisler, and an outfield trio – Ken Williams, Baby Doll Jacobson, and Jack Tobin – who batted .300 or better in 1919–1923 and in 1925. In 1922, Williams became the first player in major league history to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 bases in a season, something that was not done again in the majors until 1956. Ball confidently predicted that there would be a World Series in Sportsman's Park by 1926. In anticipation, he increased the capacity of his ballpark from 18,000 to 30,000. There was indeed a World Series in Sportsman's Park in 1926, but it was the Cardinals, not the Browns, who played in it, upsetting the Yankees. St. Louis had been considered a "Browns' town" until then; after 1926, the Cardinals dominated St. Louis baseball, while still technically tenants of the Browns. Meanwhile, the Browns rapidly fell into the cellar. They had only two winning records from 1927 to 1943, including a 43–111 mark in 1939 that is still the worst in franchise history. Ball died in 1933. His estate ran the team for three years until Rickey helped broker a sale to investment banker Donald Lee Barnes, whose son-in-law, Bill DeWitt, was the team's general manager. To help finance the purchase, Barnes sold 20,000 shares of stock to the public at $5 a share, an unusual practice for a sports franchise. War Era 1944 In 1944, during World War II, the Browns won their only St. Louis-based American League pennant, becoming the last of the 16 teams that made up the major leagues from 1901 to 1960 to play in a World Series. By comparison, each of the other seven American League teams had appeared in at least three World Series, and won it at least once. Some critics called it a fluke, as most major league stars voluntarily joined or were drafted into the military; however, many of the Browns' best players were classified 4-F (unfit for military service). They faced their local rivals, the more successful Cardinals, in the 1944 World Series, the last World Series played entirely in one stadium until 2020, and lost 4 games to 2. After the season, Barnes sold the Browns to businessman Richard Muckerman, who cared more about improving Sportsman's Park than getting better players. 1945–46 In 1945, the Browns posted an 81–75 record and fell to third place, six games out, again with less than top-ranked talent. The 1945 season may be best remembered for the Browns' signing of utility outfielder Pete Gray, the only one-armed major league position player in history. They tumbled to seventh in 1946. They never finished with a winning record again while in St. Louis, partly because Muckerman was unwilling to improve the on-field product. Muckerman sold the team to DeWitt in 1949, but DeWitt was unable to reverse the slide. Bill Veeck's Browns In 1951, Bill Veeck, the colorful former owner of the Cleveland Indians, purchased the Browns. In St. Louis, he extended the promotions and wild antics that had made him famous and loved by many and loathed by many others. His most notorious stunt in St. Louis came on August 19, 1951, when he instructed Browns manager, Zack Taylor to send Eddie Gaedel, a 3-foot 7 inch, 65-pound midget, to bat as a pinch hitter. When Gaedel stepped to the plate he was wearing a Browns uniform with the number , and little slippers turned up at the end like elf's shoes. With no strike zone to speak of, Gaedel walked on four straight pitches. The stunt infuriated American League President Will Harridge, who voided Gaedel's contract the next day. In another Veeck stunt, the Browns handed out placards – reading take, swing, bunt, etc. – to fans and allowed them to make managerial decisions for a day. Taylor dutifully surveyed the fans' advice and relayed the sign accordingly. Veeck also brought the legendary, and seemingly ageless, Satchel Paige back to major league baseball to pitch for the Browns. Veeck had previously signed the former Negro leagues great to a contract in Cleveland in 1948 at age 42, amid much criticism. At 45, Paige's re-appearance in a Browns' uniform did nothing to win Veeck friends among baseball's owners. Nonetheless, Paige ended the season with a respectable 3–4 record and a 4.79 earned run average. Veeck believed that St. Louis was too small a market for two franchises, and planned to drive the Cardinals out of town. He signed many of the Cardinals' most locally loved ex-players and, as a result, brought many of their fans in to see the Browns. Veeck signed former Cardinals great Dizzy Dean to a broadcasting contract and tapped former Redbirds great Rogers Hornsby as manager. He also re-acquired former Browns fan favorite Vern Stephens and signed former Cardinals pitcher Harry Brecheen, both of whom had starred in the all-St. Louis World Series in 1944. He stripped Sportsman's Park of any Cardinals material and dressed it exclusively in Browns memorabilia. He even moved his family to an apartment under the stands. Veeck's showmanship and colorful promotions made the fan experience at a Browns game more fun and unpredictable than that at a Cardinals game. At the same time, the Cardinals were finally feeling the effects of Rickey's departure for the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1942. In early 1953, Cardinals owner Fred Saigh was indicted for tax evasion, and ultimately pleaded no contest to lesser charges. Facing almost certain banishment from baseball, Saigh was forced to put the Cardinals up for sale. For a time, no credible offers surfaced from St. Louis interests, and it looked as if Veeck's all-out assault on the Cardinals might indeed force them out of town. However, Saigh turned down higher offers from out-of-town buyers in favor of a bid from the St. Louis-based Anheuser-Busch brewery, which stepped in with the intent of keeping the Cardinals in St. Louis. Veeck quickly realized that the Cardinals now had more resources than he could possibly hope to match. Reluctantly, he decided to cede St. Louis to the Cardinals and move the Browns elsewhere. The Browns had been candidates for relocation earlier; in 1941, they had come close to moving to Los Angeles, nearly two decades before Major League Baseball arrived in California. The American League even drew up a schedule including Los Angeles and had a meeting scheduled to vote on the relocation of the Browns. However, on December 7, the day the vote was scheduled, the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. Soon after Anheuser-Busch closed on its purchase of the Cardinals, Veeck sold Sportsman's Park to the Cardinals–thus ending a situation where the more popular team in a two-team city was the tenant of the less-popular team. It is very likely Veeck would have had to sell it in any event, as the 44-year-old park had fallen into disrepair. The city was threatening to have it condemned, and Veeck could not afford to make the necessary improvements to bring it up to code even with the rent from the Cardinals. Veeck attempted to move the Browns back to Milwaukee (where he had owned the Brewers of the American Association in the 1940s) for the 1953 season. However, the other American League owners blocked the move, seemingly for reasons that were more personal than business related. Veeck then tried to move the Browns to Baltimore. He got in touch with Mayor Thomas D'Alesandro Jr. and attorney Clarence Miles, who were leading an effort to bring the major leagues back to Baltimore after a half-century hiatus. However, he was rebuffed by the owners, still seething at the publicity stunts he pulled at the Browns home games. After the season, Veeck cut a deal with Miles which would see the Browns move to Baltimore. Under the plan, Veeck would sell half of his 80 percent stake in the Browns to Miles and several other Baltimore investors, with Veeck remaining as principal owner. Despite being assured by American League president Will Harridge that there would be no problem getting approval, only four owners voted aye – two short of passage. Reportedly, this was due to Yankees co-owner Del Webb drumming up support to move the Browns to Los Angeles. Miles and D'Alesandro realized that the owners were simply looking for a way to push Veeck out. Over the next 48 hours, Miles lined up enough support from his group of investors to buy out Veeck's stake entirely for $2.5 million. The plan called for Baltimore brewer Jerold Hoffberger to emerge as the largest single shareholder, though Miles became team president. With his only leverage, ownership of Sportsman's Park, gone and facing threats of having his franchise liquidated, Veeck had little choice but to agree. Miles' first act was to submit a renewed request to move to Baltimore for the 1954 season. With Veeck "out of the way", this request was swiftly approved. Legacy Unlike other clubs that relocated in the 1950s, retaining their nickname and a sense of continuity with their past (such as the Brooklyn-Los Angeles Dodgers), the Browns were renamed upon their transfer, implicitly severing themselves from their history. In December 1954, the team further distanced itself from its Browns past by making a 17-player trade with the New York Yankees that included most former Browns of note still on the roster. Though the deal did little to improve the short-term competitiveness of the club, it did help establish a fresh identity for the franchise. To this day, it mentions almost nothing about its past in St. Louis. There are still societies to keep the memory of the team alive in St. Louis; the club was based in the city for 52 years. In 2006, the O's played their 53rd season in Baltimore, longer than they had played in St. Louis. Baltimore Orioles Soon after taking over, the Miles-Hoffberger group renamed their new team the Baltimore Orioles. The name has a rich history in Baltimore, having been used by Baltimore baseball teams since the late 19th century. History of the Orioles name In the 1890s, in the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs ("National League"), established in 1876, a powerful, innovative and scrappy Baltimore Orioles squad included "Wee" Willie Keeler, Wilbert Robinson, Hughie Jennings and John McGraw. They won three straight unprecedented NL pennants – 1894/1895/1896, and participated in all four of the then "Temple Cup" championship series, winning the last two of them. That Orioles team had started a decade and a half earlier as a charter member of the old American Association in 1882, a competing rival to the then 7 year older National League. Despite its on-field success in either first or second place standings, it was sabotaged as one of the four teams that was contracted out of existence by the National League after the 1899 season which reduced itself from 12 franchises to 8 teams, a number which endured for over half a century. Its best players (and its manager, Ned Hanlon) regrouped with the Brooklyn Trolley Dodgers, turning that later famous team into a contender. In 1900 and 1901, Baltimore and player/manager McGraw were awarded a charter franchise of the original 8 in the newly reorganized American League of Professional Baseball Clubs ("American League"), (out of the old minor league level Western League) which had claimed major league status under feisty president Ban Johnson, but again the team and city of Baltimore was sacrificed in favor of a New York City franchise – the "New York Highlanders", or occasionally known as the "New York Americans", as the team was replaced in 1903 by the nation's biggest city after only playing two seasons, 1901 and 1902, as one of the terms negotiated of the "peace pact" to end the "baseball wars" between the elder Nationals of 1876 and the fledging upstart American League of 1901, giving the newcomers a representative franchise in the one American city that was the biggest and most important. Another term of the truce was also with inauguration of a new championship game tournament series to be known as the World Series, also begun in 1903. After some early struggles, that fledging New York Highlanders team eventually became renamed a decade later in 1913 and by the 1920s with the help of a young Baltimorean – George Herman "Babe" Ruth and eventually became baseball's most successful franchise – the New York Yankees. The name was then revived for a a high-level minor league team from 1903 to 1953. These Orioles were a mainstay of the International League (with Canadian and Cuban teams competing against Americans), competing at what eventually became the Triple-A ("AAA") level, one rung below the majors. Baltimore's own Babe Ruth pitched briefly for owner/manager Jack Dunn's Orioles for part of one season after signing the 19 year old wild rough youth out of St. Mary's Industrial School on Wilkens and Caton Avenues, just on the southwest edge of the city before being forced to further sell him to the AL Boston Red Sox in 1914 because of the new third major league competition by the Baltimore Terrapins of the upstart Federal League for two seasons. The IL Orioles were among the best baseball teams in the minors, offering frequent competition to passing AL and NL teams in exhibitions. The "Birds" won nine league championships, first in 1908 followed by a lengthy dominating run during the "Roaring 20's" from 1919 to 1925, and then finally dramatically during World War II in 1944, after they had lost their home field Oriole Park (built 1915) on Greenmount Avenue in a disastrous mid-season fire. Later relocating to 33rd Street Boulevard to Municipal Stadium (aka Baltimore or Venable or later as Babe Ruth Stadium), the 1922-built football stadium, for the rest of the 1944 season (plus the following decade to 1954 as well). Because of the stadium's large capacity, the Junior World Series easily outdrew that year's major league World Series which, coincidentally, included the same team of the St. Louis Browns of the AL (versus cross-town rivals St. Louis Cardinals from the NL) that moved to Baltimore 10 years later and take up occupancy in the rebuilt 1949–1954 version of what became Memorial Stadium in former Venable Park on 33rd Street. For the 2014 season, the Orioles wore a patch on their right sleeve to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the franchise's move to Baltimore. First years in Baltimore (1954–1965) The new AL Orioles took about six years to become competitive even after jettisoning most of the holdovers from St. Louis. Under the guidance of Paul Richards, who served as both field manager and general manager from 1955 to 1958 (the first man since John McGraw to hold both positions simultaneously), the Orioles began a slow climb to respectability. While they posted a .500 record only once in their first five years (76–76 in ), they were a success at the gate. In their first season, for instance, they drew more than 1.06 million fans – more than five times what they had ever drawn in their tenures in Milwaukee and St. Louis. This came amid slight turnover in the ownership group. Miles served as team president for two years, then stepped down in favor of developer James Keelty. In turn, Keelty gave way in to financier Joe Iglehart. By the early 1960s, stars such as Brooks Robinson, John "Boog" Powell, and Dave McNally were being developed by a strong farm system. The Orioles first made themselves heard in , when they finished 89–65, good enough for second in the American League. While they were still eight games behind the Yankees, it was the first time they had been a factor in a pennant race that late in the season since 1944. It was also the first season of a 26-year stretch where the team had only two losing seasons. Shortstop Ron Hansen was named AL Rookie of the Year, and first-year pitcher Chuck Estrada tied for the league lead in wins with 18, finishing second to Hansen in the Rookie of the Year balloting. After the 1965 season, Hoffberger acquired controlling interest in the Orioles from Iglehart and installed himself as president. He had been serving as a silent partner over the past decade despite being the largest shareholder. Frank Cashen, advertising chief of Hoffberger's brewery, became executive vice-president. On December 9, 1965, not long after Hoffberger took over, he engineered a deal that sent pitcher Milt Pappas and several others to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for slugging outfielder Frank Robinson. In 1966, Robinson won the Triple Crown (leading the American League in batting average, home runs, and runs batted in) and received the American League Most Valuable Player Award, becoming the first (and so far only) player to win the MVP Award in each league (he had been named NL MVP in 1961, leading the Reds to the pennant). The Orioles won their first-ever American League championship in 1966 and, in a major upset, swept the World Series by out-dueling the Los Angeles Dodgers aces Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale. The Orioles thus became the last of the eight teams that made up the American League from 1903 to 1960 to win a World Series. Pappas, meanwhile, went 30–29 in a little over two years with the Reds before being traded. Although he later had back-to-back 17-win seasons for the Chicago Cubs in 1971 and 1972, including a no-hitter in the latter season, this did not help the Reds, who ended up losing the 1970 World Series to Robinson and the Orioles. This trade has become renowned as one of the most lopsided in baseball history, including a mention by Susan Sarandon in her opening soliloquy in the 1988 film Bull Durham: "Bad trades are a part of baseball. I mean, who can forget Frank Robinson for Milt Pappas?" Glory years (1966–1983) The Orioles farm system had begun to produce a number of high-quality players and coaches who formed the core of winning teams; from 1966 to 1983, the Orioles won three World Series titles (1966, 1970, and 1983), six American League pennants (1966, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1979, and 1983), and five of the first six American League East titles. They played baseball the "Oriole Way", an organizational ethic best described by longtime farm hand and coach Cal Ripken, Sr.'s phrase "perfect practice makes perfect!" The Oriole Way was a belief that hard work, professionalism, and a strong understanding of fundamentals were the keys to success at the major league level. It was based on the belief that if every coach, at every level, taught the game the same way, the organization could produce "replacement parts" that could be substituted seamlessly into the big league club with little or no adjustment. This led to a run of success from 1966 to 1983 which saw the Orioles become the envy of the league, and the winningest team in baseball. During this stretch, three different Orioles were named Most Valuable Player (Frank Robinson in 1966, Boog Powell in 1970, and Cal Ripken Jr. in 1983), four Oriole pitchers combined for six Cy Young Awards (Mike Cuellar in 1969, Jim Palmer in 1973, 1975, and 1976, Mike Flanagan in 1979, and Steve Stone in 1980), and three players were named Rookie of the Year (Al Bumbry in 1973, Eddie Murray in 1977, and Cal Ripken Jr. in 1982). It was also during this time that the Orioles severed their last remaining financial link to their era in St. Louis. In 1979, Hoffberger sold the Orioles to his longtime friend, Washington attorney Edward Bennett Williams. As part of the deal, Williams bought the publicly traded shares Donald Barnes had issued in 1936 while the team was still in St. Louis, making the franchise privately held once again and severing one of the few remaining links with the Orioles' past in St. Louis. During this rise to prominence, "Weaver Ball" came into vogue. Named for fiery manager Earl Weaver, it was defined by the Oriole trifecta of "pitching, defense, and the three-run home run." When an Oriole general manager was told by a reporter that Earl Weaver, as the skipper of a very talented team, was a "push-button manager", he replied, "Earl built the machine and installed all the buttons!" As Frank and Brooks Robinson grew older, newer stars emerged, including multiple Cy Young Award winner Jim Palmer and switch-hitting first baseman Eddie Murray. With the decline and eventual departure of two other professional sports teams in the area, the National Football League's Baltimore Colts and baseball's Washington Senators, the Orioles' excellence paid off at the gate, as the team cultivated a large and rabid fan base at old Memorial Stadium. Collapse and redemption (1984–1991) After winning the World Series in 1983, the Orioles organization began to decline. In 1986, a rash of injuries resulted in the team suffering its first losing season since 1967. The 1988 season started unceremoniously when the Orioles lost their first 21 contests, finally winning in the team's next-to-last game of April. Manager Cal Ripken, Sr. was fired six games into the season, replaced by former Oriole great Frank Robinson. However, this was not enough to stop the bleeding, and the Orioles ended the year at 54–107, the worst record for the franchise since 1939. The next year, the Orioles sported a new look, replacing the cartoonish bird with a more realistic one. The 1989 squad, led by surprise ace Jeff Ballard, rebounded to finish in second place behind the Toronto Blue Jays with an 87–75 record, staying in contention until the last week of the season and earning the nickname of the "Why Not?" Orioles. Frank Robinson earned the 1989 American League Manager of the Year Award for his efforts in leading the team out of the abyss. Two years later, Cal Ripken Jr. won the American League Most Valuable Player award in the team's final season at Memorial Stadium. He was also named Most Valuable Player of the 1991 All-Star Game, played in Toronto's SkyDome. Oriole Park at Camden Yards and Ripken's record (1992–1995) In 1992, with grand ceremony, the Orioles began their season in a brand new ballpark, Oriole Park at Camden Yards. However, the name of the new park was accompanied by controversy. Many felt that since the Orioles' new home was so close to Babe Ruth's birthplace that the new park should have been named after Ruth instead of being indirectly named after the Earl of Camden, Charles Pratt, a Britisher who never set foot on American soil. There was also the superficial connection to the fact that Ruth played for the Orioles early in his career, but the Orioles team that Ruth played for was not related to the Orioles team that moved to Baltimore from St. Louis. In 1993, Peter Angelos bought the Baltimore Orioles, which returned the team to local ownership. However, Angelos' ownership resulted in a number of controversies. The Orioles also hosted the 1993 All-Star Game. On September 6, 1995, in a game between the Orioles and the California Angels at Camden Yards, Cal Ripken Jr. broke Lou Gehrig's consecutive games streak of 2,130 games. This was later voted the all-time baseball moment of the 20th century by fans from around the country in 1999. Ripken's streak ended at 2,632 straight games, when he sat out the game on September 20, 1998. Return to the playoffs (1996–97) In 1996, team owner Peter Angelos hired Pat Gillick away from the Toronto Blue Jays to be the Orioles' general manager. Gillick brought in several players, including catcher B. J. Surhoff, relief pitcher Randy Myers, and second baseman Roberto Alomar. Under Gillick and manager Davey Johnson, the Orioles returned to postseason play by winning the American League's wild card spot in the 1996 season. The team set a major league record for home runs in a single season, with 257, and upset the Cleveland Indians in the Division Series before falling to the Yankees in a controversial American League Championship Series (a fan, Jeffrey Maier, interfered with a fly ball hit by Derek Jeter in Game 1; the play was ruled a home run and the Yankees eventually won the game). The Orioles followed up by winning the AL East Division title in 1997, going "wire-to-wire" (being in first place from the first day of the season to the last). After eliminating the Seattle Mariners in four games in the opening round, the team lost again in the 1997 American League Championship Series, this time to the underdog Indians, in which each Oriole loss was by one run. After the Orioles failed to advance to the World Series in either playoff, Johnson resigned as manager following a dispute with Angelos, with pitching coach Ray Miller taking his place. Downturn (1998–2004) With Miller at the helm, the Orioles found themselves not only out of the playoffs, but also with a losing season. When Gillick's contract expired in 1998, it was not renewed, and Angelos brought in Frank Wren to take over as general manager. The Orioles added volatile slugger Albert Belle, but the team's woes continued in the 1999 season, with stars like Rafael Palmeiro, Roberto Alomar (who joined his brother Sandy Jr. in Cleveland), and Eric Davis leaving via free agency. After a second straight losing season, Angelos fired both Miller and Wren. He named Syd Thrift as general manager and brought in former Cleveland manager Mike Hargrove to lead the team on the field. In 1998, the Orioles updated the bird in their logo, and then once again the next season in 1999. The first decade of the 21st century saw the Orioles struggle due to the combination of lackluster play on the team's part, a string of ineffective management, and the ascent of the Yankees and Red Sox to the top of the game – each rival having a clear advantage in financial flexibility due to their larger media market sizes. Further complicating the situation for the Orioles was the relocation of the National League's Montreal Expos franchise to nearby Washington, D.C. in 2004. Orioles owner Peter Angelos demanded compensation from Major League Baseball, as the new Washington Nationals threatened to carve into the Orioles fan base and television dollars. However, there was some hope that having competition in the larger Baltimore-Washington metro market would spur the Orioles to field a better product to compete for fans with the Nationals. Beginning with the 2003 season, big changes began to sweep through the organization to try to snap the losing ways. General manager Thrift was fired as general manager, and to replace him, the Orioles hired Jim Beattie as executive vice president and Mike Flanagan as vice president of baseball operations. After another losing season, manager Hargrove was not retained and Yankees coach Lee Mazzilli was brought in as the new field manager. The team signed powerful hitters in shortstop Miguel Tejada, catcher Javy López, and former Oriole first baseman Rafael Palmeiro. The following season, the Orioles traded for outfielder Sammy Sosa. 2005 season The 2005 season was one of the more controversial in the Orioles' history. The Orioles began the season with a tremendous start, holding onto first place in the AL East division for 62 straight days. However, turmoil on and off the field began to take its toll as the team started struggling around the All-Star break, dropping them close to the surging Yankees and Red Sox. Injuries to Luis Matos, Javy López, Brian Roberts, Sammy Sosa, and Larry Bigbie came within weeks of each other. The team was increasingly dissatisfied with the front office's and manager Mazzilli's "band-aid" moves to help the team through this period of struggle. Various minor league players such as A League Frederick outfielder Jeff Fiorentino were brought up in place of more experienced players such as David Newhan, who had batted .311 the previous season. On July 15, Rafael Palmeiro collected his 3,000th hit in Seattle; but 15 days later he was suspended for a violation of MLB's drug policy, after testing positive for the anabolic steroid stanozolol. The Orioles continued tumbling, falling out of first place and further down the AL East standings. This downfall cost Mazzilli his managerial job in early August, allowing bench coach and 2003 managerial candidate Sam Perlozzo to take over as interim manager and lead the team to a 23–32 finish. The Orioles called up Dave Cash from the Ottawa Lynx to serve as the team's first base coach. Measured by winning percentage, the Orioles' 32–60 second half record is the worst in baseball history after playing .600 ball for the first 70 days . Sosa, who was the club's biggest offseason acquisition, posted his worst performance in a decade, with 14 home runs and a .221 batting average. The Orioles did not attempt to re-sign him, considering his exorbitant salary, his miserable performance, and his stormy relationship with batting coach Terry Crowley and teammates including Miguel Tejada. The Orioles also allowed Palmeiro to file for free agency and publicly stated they would not re-sign him. On August 25, pitcher Sidney Ponson was arrested for DUI and on September 1 the Orioles moved to void his contract (on a morals clause) and release him. The Major League Baseball Players Association filed a grievance on Ponson's behalf and the case was sent to arbitration. The case was finally resolved in late 2008 with Ponson winning at the arbitration hearings. 2005–06 offseason Front office changes Following the disappointing 2005 season, it was clear major changes needed to be made within the Orioles. In the front office, Executive VP Beattie was not re-signed, allowing Flanagan to become the sole general manager. Shortly after, Jim Duquette was hired as vice president of baseball operations, which was Flanagan's previous position. Duquette made it clear at his signing that he reported to Flanagan, so the "two-headed GM" will not exist anymore. The Orioles also fired assistant general manager Ed Kenney and asked for the resignation of Dave Ritterpusch, the director of baseball information systems. Coaching staff changes There were also drastic changes in the Orioles coaching staff. Perlozzo was named the new manager, and unlike Mazzilli, was given full freedom to name his coaching staff. Perlozzo led off strong by convincing Atlanta pitching coach Leo Mazzone, who had revolutionized the careers of many pitchers in Atlanta, to become the pitching coach for the Orioles. He retained Crowley as hitting coach and Cash as first base coach. Former base coach and 1983 World Series World Series MVP Award Rick Dempsey replaced the late Elrod Hendricks as the bullpen coach, with Tom Trebelhorn resuming third base coach. Perlozzo rounded out his staff with former Cubs and Phillies manager Lee Elia as the bench coach. Roster changes The roster changes of 2005 were prefaced with Peter Angelos' comments: "We are coming back strong next year. I know you have heard that tune before, but this time it will literally come true." The Orioles allowed Palmeiro, Sosa, and Surhoff to become free agents. They also set their wishlist: an everyday first baseman, an experienced starter, a closer, a defensive catcher, outfield help, more defense, and more speed. However, their off-season moves showed no differences from past years. The Orioles were not able to re-sign closer B. J. Ryan, who signed with the Toronto Blue Jays. They were also locked out in bids to sign first baseman Paul Konerko, outfielder Johnny Damon, and starter Paul Byrd. The Orioles were rumoured to have a deal with outfielder Jeromy Burnitz, but his agent balked, supposedly at language regarding the physical, which was deemed by legal experts to be rather standard, and Burnitz signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Orioles chose not to enter the bidding for players like A. J. Burnett and Kevin Millwood, whose asking prices were far beyond what the Orioles were willing to pay. The only target the Orioles managed to sign was catcher Ramón Hernández. Locked out of pursuits to sign top-tier players, the Orioles decided to make several moves to allow minor league prospects more time to develop. This led to bringing in players like Jeff Conine and Kevin Millar, both of whom were known for their positive presence in the clubhouse. The Orioles also made several trades to bring in needed players. They first traded disgruntled reliever Steve Kline for LaTroy Hawkins, then traded for outfielder Corey Patterson, who brought speed and defense to the outfield, and traded former closer Jorge Julio and John Maine for experienced starter Kris Benson. The Orioles also addressed future free agents by extending the contract of outfielder Jay Gibbons and third baseman Melvin Mora, and signed a contract extension with second baseman Brian Roberts. The team's opening day roster featured top prospect Nick Markakis, a potential A.L. "Rookie of the Year", the best young position player the Orioles' farm system has produced since Roberts. Markakis represented the revival of the Orioles' once proud farm system, which features four players listed in Baseball America's 2006 list of the top 100 prospects in minor league baseball. Miguel Tejada The Orioles' lack of movement over the course of the off-season frustrated many, including Miguel Tejada. This led to him stating, controversially, that he "wanted to play for a winner", and "perhaps a change of scenery is needed." The Oriole front office began to talk to many teams interested in Tejada as a trade. It was rumored that the Boston Red Sox offered All-Star outfielder Manny Ramírez for Tejada, though no Orioles officials confirmed this. There were also talks of Mark Prior being offered for Tejada. After several weeks, teammate Melvin Mora facilitated a conference call between the Orioles and Tejada where Tejada backed down and said his comments were intended to provoke the Orioles to make more moves in free agency. The Orioles finished the up and down 2006 season with a record of 70–92, 27 games behind the Yankees, who won the AL East Division. 2007–2011: Rebuilding years and arrival of Buck Showalter A new President of Baseball of Operations named Andy MacPhail was brought in about halfway through the 2007 season. MacPhail had had success as general manager of the Minnesota Twins in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and had been the chief executive officer of the Chicago Cubs from 1994 to 2006. He spent the remainder of the 2007 season assessing the talent level of the Orioles, and determined that significant steps needed to be made if the Orioles were ever to be a contender again in the American League East. He completed two blockbuster trades during the next off-season, each sending a premium player away in return for five prospects or (or younger less expensive players). Tejada, who had hit .296 with 18 home runs and 81 runs batted in during 2007, went to the Houston Astros in exchange for outfielder Luke Scott, pitchers Matt Albers, Troy Patton, and Dennis Sarfate, and third baseman Mike Costanzo. The newly designated ace of the Orioles rotation, Érik Bédard, who went 13–5 with a 3.16 earned run average and 221 strikeouts in 2007, was sent to the Seattle Mariners in exchange for top outfield prospect Adam Jones, left-handed pitcher George Sherrill, and three minor league pitchers – Chris Tillman, Kam Mickolio, and Tony Butler. The Bedard trade in particular became one of the most lop-sided and successful trades in the history of the franchise. While MacPhail found success in most of his trades made for the Orioles over the long-term, the veteran acquisitions that he made often did not pan out, and as a result, the team did not finish higher than 4th place in the AL East, or with more than 69 wins, while MacPhail was in charge. Some of his free agent signings had positive contributions (such as reliever Koji Uehara), most gave only mediocre returns. In particular, the Orioles never managed to cobble together a successful pitching staff during this time. Their most consistent starting pitcher from 2008 to 2011 was the late bloomer Jeremy Guthrie who was the Opening Day starter in 3 of the 4 seasons and had a cumulative 4.12 earned run average during this stretch. Following Davey Johnson's dismissal after the 1997 playoff season, Orioles ownership struggled to find a manager that they liked, and this time period was no exception. Dave Trembley was brought on as an interim manager in June 2007, and had the interim tag removed later that year. Trembley was at the helm again in 2008 and 2009 but was not able to lead the team out of the cellar in the AL East. After starting the 2010 season a dismal 15–39, Trembley was fired and third base coach Juan Samuel was named the interim manager. The Orioles were seeking a more permanent solution at manager as the 2010 season continued to unfold, and two-time AL Manager of the Year Buck Showalter was eventually hired in July 2010. The Orioles went 34–23 after he took over, foreshadowing that a brighter future might be on the horizon, and giving Orioles fans renewed hope and optimism for the team's future. The Orioles made some aggressive moves to improve the team in 2011 in the hopes of securing their first playoff berth since 1997. MacPhail completed trades to bring in established veterans like Mark Reynolds and J. J. Hardy from the Diamondbacks and Twins, respectively. Veteran free agents Derrek Lee and Vladimir Guerrero were also brought in to help improve the offense. At the 2011 trade deadline, fan favorite Koji Uehara was sent to the Texas Rangers in exchange for Chris Davis and Tommy Hunter, a move that did not pay immediate dividends, but was crucial to the team's later success. While these moves had varying impacts, the Orioles scored 95 more runs in 2011 than they had the previous year. The team still finished last in the AL East due to the utter failures of the team's pitching staff. Brian Matusz compiled one of the highest single-season earned run averages in major league history (10.69 over 12 starts) and every pitcher who started a game for the Orioles except for Jeremy Guthrie ended the season with an earned run average of 4.50 or higher. The Orioles finished last out of 30 major league teams that year with a 4.89 team earned run average. MacPhail's contract was not renewed in October 2011 and a search for a new general manager began. After a public interview process where several candidates declined to take the position, former general manager Dan Duquette was brought in to serve as the executive vice-president of baseball operations. 2012–2014 "Buckle Up, We won't stop." Duquette wasted no time in overhauling the Orioles roster, especially the pitching staff. He traded Guthrie to the Colorado Rockies in exchange for Jason Hammel. He brought in new free agent starting pitcher Wei-Yin Chen from the Nippon Professional Baseball league, and Miguel González was signed as a minor league free agent. Nate McLouth was signed to a minor league deal in June 2012 and made a significant impact down the stretch. 2012 year also marked the debut of the much hyped prospect Manny Machado. The Orioles won 93 games in 2012 (after winning 69 in the previous year) thanks in large part to a 29–9 record in one-run games, and a 16–2 record in extra inning games. The difference between this Orioles bullpen and bullpens past was like night and day, led by Jim Johnson and his 51 saves. He finished with a 2.49 earned run average, with Darren O'Day, Luis Ayala, Pedro Strop, and Troy Patton all finishing as well with earned run averages under 3.00. Experts were amazed as the team continued to outperform expectations, but regression never came that year. They battled with the New York Yankees for first place in the AL East until September, and earned their first playoff berth in 15 years by winning the second wild-card spot in the American League. In the 'sudden death' wild-card game against the Texas Rangers, Joe Saunders (acquired in August of that year in exchange for Matt Lindstrom) defeated Yu Darvish, and the Orioles advance to the divisional round, where they faced a familiar opponent, the Yankees. The Orioles forced the series to go five games (losing games 1 and 3 of the series, while winning 2 and 4), but CC Sabathia outpitched the Orioles' Jason Hammel in Game 5 and the Orioles were eliminated from the playoffs. Back to the playoffs (2015–2016) On April 26, the Orioles scored 18 runs against the Boston Red Sox, the most runs they had scored in a single game, since they defeated the Cleveland Indians 18–9 on April 19, 2006. The Orioles beat the Red Sox 18–7. On June 16, the Orioles scored 19 runs against the Philadelphia Phillies, making it the most runs the Orioles scored since earlier in the season against the Red Sox. The Orioles had 8 home runs during the game, a franchise record. The team then later got their 5000th win as the Orioles on June 28 with a shutout 4–0 win over the Indians. On August 16, the Orioles defeated the Oakland Athletics 18–2, during which the team tied a franchise record for hits in a single game with 26. On September 11, the Orioles rallied from a two-run deficit of 6–4 in the bottom of the 8th inning against the Kansas City Royals. The Orioles won the game 14–8. The rally included left fielder Nolan Reimold and designated hitter Steve Clevenger both hitting their first career grand slam home runs, making the Orioles the only franchise in major league history to hit multiple grand slams in the same inning in two different games, the last time being in 1986. On September 30, in a reverse of fortune, the Toronto Blue Jays clinched the AL East with a win over the Orioles in Baltimore where they had watched the Orioles celebrate their division title clinch the previous year. Despite the 2016 season being another above .500 season for the Orioles, they failed to win their division, but were able to secure a wild card spot. However, they lost against the Toronto Blue Jays in the AL Wild Card game. Rebuilding (2017–2022) 2017 season The 2017 season was the Orioles' first losing season since the 2011 season. They finished 75–87 and last place in the American League East. 2018 season The 2018 Orioles broke the record of most losses in franchise history, and instead of improving from their 75–87 finish from the previous season, they became the first team since the 2003 Detroit Tigers to win fewer than 50 games and the first to lose at least 110 games since the 2013 Houston Astros. 2019 season By late August, the 2019 Orioles had lost twice as many games as they had won. Home runs were being hit at a record pace across the league, and on August 22, the team set a single-season MLB record for home runs allowed (12 years to the day where they lost 30–3 to the Texas Rangers). They ended with a record of 54–108, good for the second overall pick in the 2020 MLB Draft. 2020 season Despite having a shortened 60-game season, the Orioles were contenders for a playoff spot and at one point they were 20–21 before fading to a 25–35 record, still the best Orioles team since 2017. 2021 season In 2021, Trey Mancini returned from colon cancer and was named the AL Comeback Player of the Year. Cedric Mullins became the second player in franchise history to join the 30–30 club. Nevertheless, the Orioles fell to 52–110, tying with the Arizona Diamondbacks for the worst record in the major leagues. 2022 season In 2022, the Orioles had their first winning season since 2016, finishing fourth in the AL East with an 83–79 record. They became the first team since the 1899 St. Louis Perfectos to lose 110 games in one season and post a winning record in the next. References Baltimore Orioles Baltimore Orioles
4619467	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20cruiser%20Mikuma	Japanese cruiser Mikuma	was a heavy cruiser of the Imperial Japanese Navy. The second vessel in the four-ship , she was laid down in 1931 and commissioned in 1935. During World War II she participated in the Battle of Sunda Strait in February 1942 and the Battle of Midway in June 1942, being sunk the last day of the latter engagement, on 6 June. The ship was named after the Mikuma river in Oita prefecture, Japan. Background Built under the 1931 Fleet Replenishment Program, the Mogami-class cruisers were designed to the maximum limits allowed by the Washington Naval Treaty, using the latest technology. This resulted in the choice of a 155 mm dual purpose (DP) main battery in five triple turrets capable of 55° elevation. To save weight, electric welding was used, as was aluminum in the superstructure, and the use of a single funnel stack. New impulse geared turbine engines, coupled with very heavy anti-aircraft protection, gave the class a very high speed and protection. However, the Mogami class was also plagued with technical problems due to its untested equipment and proved to be unstable and top-heavy as well, due to cramming too much equipment into a comparatively small hull. Service career Early career Mikuma was completed at Mitsubishi's Nagasaki shipyards on 29 August 1935. Beginning in 1939, Mikuma was brought in for substantial reconstruction, replacing the triple turrets with twin guns (the 155 mm turrets going to the battleship ). Torpedo bulges were also added to improve stability, but the increased displacement caused a reduction in speed. Mikuma participated in the occupation of Cochinchina, French Indochina, after Japan and Vichy French authorities reached an understanding on use of its air facilities and harbors from July 1941, from its forward operating base on Hainan. At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Mikuma was assigned to cover the invasion of Malaya as part of Cruiser Division 7 under Vice Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa's First Southern Expeditionary Fleet, providing close support for landings of Japanese troops at Singora, Pattani and Kota Bharu. In December 1941, Mikuma was tasked with the invasion of British Borneo, together with , covering landings of Japanese troops at Miri and Kuching. In February 1942, Mikuma was tasked with covering landings of Japanese troops in Sumatra and Java. On 10 February, Mikuma and were attacked by the submarine , which fired four torpedoes, but missed. Battle of Sunda Strait At 2300 on 28 February 1942, Mikuma and Mogami, destroyer , light cruiser and destroyers , , , and arrived and engaged the cruisers and with gunfire and torpedoes after the Allied vessels attacked Japanese transports in the Sunda Strait. At 2355, Houston scored hits on Mikuma that knocked out her electrical power, but it was quickly restored. During the battle, Mikuma lost six men and eleven others were wounded. Both Houston and Perth were sunk during the engagement, as was transport Ryujo Maru with IJA 16th Army commander Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura—although the general survived the sinking. In March, Mikuma and Cruiser Division 7 were based at Singapore to cover Japanese landings in Sumatra and the seizure of the Andaman Islands. From 1 April 1942 Cruiser Division 7 based from Mergui joined with Cruiser Division 4 to participate in the Indian Ocean raids. Mikuma, Mogami and destroyer detached and formed the Southern Group, which hunted for merchant shipping in the Bay of Bengal, while Chōkai, Destroyer Squadron 4's light cruiser and destroyers , , and covered the northern areas. During the operation, the Southern Group claimed kills on 7,726-ton British passenger ship Dardanus and 5,281-ton British steamship Ganara and the 6,622-ton British merchant vessel Indora, en route from Calcutta to Mauritius. On 22 April, Cruiser Division 7 returned to Kure, and Mikuma went into dry dock for overhaul. On 26 May, Cruiser Division 7 arrived at Guam to provide close support for Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka's Midway Invasion Transport Group. Mikumas crew was advised that upon the completion of the Midway operation they would proceed to the Aleutian Islands and from there to Australia. Battle of Midway On 5 June, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, CINC of the Combined Fleet ordered Cruiser Division 7 to shell Midway in preparation for a Japanese landing. The Mikuma at the time was captained by Captain Sakiyama Shakao, former skipper of the cruiser . Cruiser Division 7 and DesDiv 8 were away from the island, so they made a high-speed dash at . The sea was choppy and the destroyers lagged behind. At 2120, the order was canceled; however, due to a mix up, Cruiser Division 7 did not receive the order till 0210 the following day, when it was just off Midway. This placed Cruiser Division 7 within range of the submarine , which was spotted by the cruiser . Kumano signalled a submarine alert to the formation and directed the ships to conduct evasive maneuvers to the left. The squadron was thrown into confusion. Kumano turned sharply to port for a short time, heading west, before turning slightly starboard back to north. Suzuya followed her but coursed slightly less to port. She found herself steaming directly for Kumano but turned sharply to starboard and narrowly avoided colliding with the Kumano. Mikuma attempted to mirror the movements of Suzuya, turning to port and then turning to port further more after witnessing Suzuya maneuvering to avoid the formation's flagship (to avoid being entangled with the flagship). Mogami at the rear of the formation had made a turn to port and maintained a straight course heading north-west. Mikumas final turn to port had brought her directly into the course of Mogami. In the darkness, Mogami did not sight Mikuma until she was very close to Mogami, moving ahead across her starboard bow. Captain Soji of Mogami attempted a last-second sharp turn to port, but it was too late. This resulted in a collision in which Mogami rammed Mikumas portside, below the bridge. Mogamis bow caved in and she was badly damaged. Mikumas portside oil tanks ruptured and she began to spill oil, but otherwise her damage was slight, thanks in part to the last-second portside turn that deflected Mogamis bow along an angle from Mikumas portside. With her damaged bow, Mogami could make only for the time being, and was generally unwieldy and clumsy. The destroyers and of DesDiv 8, which had steamed ahead with the Suzuya and Kumano at high speed to escape the range of Midway's aircraft, were ordered by Kurita to reverse course and escort Mogami and Mikuma. At 0630, a PBY Catalina spotted the stragglers, thanks to the massive oil trail leaking from Mikuma, and radioed their coordinates to Admiral Spruance. Throughout the day, in an aura of great confusion, many American sighting reports would misidentify one of the two ships as a battleship. Other sightings of the flagship of CruDiv 7 steaming at high speed to the north-west, combined with the reports of battleships and suspicions of a fifth carrier lurking about, led to great consternation on the part of Spruance and his staff at Task force 16, who thought that the faster force steaming northwest was the one that contained the battleship. Midway wasted no time after receiving the report and launched the remnants of VMSB-241 containing 12 dive bombers (6 SBD Dauntlesses and 6 SB2Us divided in two wings). The aircraft travelled the short distance of 40 miles to their target and found the two cruisers. Despite her damaged bow and greatly reduced speed, Mogami began evasive maneuvers along with Mikuma and received no hits from the Dauntless section. Capt. Richard Fleming, in command of the Vindicator section, led his bombers in a glide bombing attack. The two cruisers responded with accurate and effective anti-aircraft fire, and managed to shoot down Fleming's bomber. Almost as soon as this attack ended, a group of eight B-17 level bombers operating out of Midway, led by Lt. Col. Brooke E. Allen, arrived to attack the two cruisers. They attacked in two sections of four aircraft and dropped a total of 39 bombs around the two ships with no hits. This attack concluded at around 0830. The following morning, 6 June 1942, Mikuma and Mogami were still heading due west instead of north-west where the combined fleet was converging, hoping to come within the range of Wake Island's fighter air cover. Hornets 26 dive bombers arrived first, and at first ignored the two cruisers and searched for the alleged battleship ahead of this force, but having found nothing they circled back to the two cruisers and commenced their attacks. All bombing attempts on Mikuma missed, but two bombs struck Mogami, hitting one of her 8-inch turrets and the aircraft deck, respectively. The latter bomb could have caused fatal damage to the Mogami as it started a fire in the torpedo room below the aviation facility, but Mogamis damage control officer had previously ordered all torpedoes jettisoned. Anti-aircraft fire from the force shot down two of Hornets SBD Dauntlesses. The captain of the Mogami pushed the damaged ship's speed up to to hurry out of the danger zone. At 1045 a composite force of 31 dive bombers launched from Enterprise to seek the purported battleship in the area spotted the two stragglers. The force was escorted by 12 Wildcats and 3 TBD Devastator torpedo bombers. The force was under the command of Wallace "Wally" Short of Yorktown (some of her aircraft had been forced to land at Task Force 16 after their ship was abandoned). The dive bombers once again bypassed CruDiv 7 to search for the battleship, which was not located. The Wildcats escorting the formations approached the cruisers and received anti-aircraft fire that forced them to retreat to a safe distance. The Wildcat formation leader radioed to the dive bombers that one of the ships appeared to be a battleship (perhaps owing to the contrast between the two cruisers presented by Mogamis shattered bow) and the dive bomber formation reversed course to attack the formation. Willy Short, leading the dive bombers, wanted to circle behind the formation and attack with the sun behind them, as was a favored dive bombing practice. But his rear section of the formation, VB-3, detached itself and attacked the rearmost cruiser in the formation (Mogami), planting 2 bombs in her at 1230. The rest of the dive bombers under Short attacked Mikuma from an altitude of , and caught her as she was coming out of her sharp starboard turn. Cascading through a fiery torrent of her anti-aircraft fire, the bombers delivered two hits. The first struck her No.3 turret; the explosion killed many of the officers on the bridge, including the commander of the starboard anti-aircraft batteries, and injured her captain severely enough to render him unconscious. Mikumas executive officer Takashima Hideo took command of the cruiser. The second bomb crashed through the deck and disabled the starboard forward engine rooms. Immediately after, two more bombs hit her aviation deck and exploded in the port aft engine room, starting a fire near her torpedo room. Mikuma was now dead in the water. The attacking planes left (the three TBD Devastator torpedo bombers did not join the attack, having been instructed to not attack anything that could respond with anti-aircraft fire). At 1358, the fire amidships Mikuma reached the torpedoes stored there and triggered a chain of massive secondary explosions, putting to rest the hope of towing the ship out of danger. At 1420 Mogami radioed to the combined fleet that Mikuma was in dire straits. The secondary explosions left Mikumas aft-amidships section and the aviation facility unrecognizable. The mast and superstructure atop the bridge collapsed and crashed into the conflagration in the aviation compartment. Though it wasn't obvious at the time, the bomb hit on the port machinery spaces had also ruptured the ship below the waterline, and she began taking on water. Mikuma continued trying to bring her fires under control, but approximately 30 minutes later the ship's executive officer Takashima came to the conclusion that there was no hope of saving the ship now that she was slowly settling in the water and gave the order to abandon ship. Takashima ordered the repair parties to throw shoring wood and other materials overboard to construct life rafts. Mogami and Arashio were close to Mikuma but maintained a safe distance as Mikuma was still burning and exploding, so the crews of Mikuma would have to swim over to the ships or use life rafts and launchers to reach Arashio and Mogami. In the meanwhile Asashio patrolled in a circle around them to screen the ships from air or submarine attack. The ship's severely wounded captain Sakiyama was lowered on the first life raft, closely followed by the ship's paymaster and air officers, who took with them the ship's important documents. The rafts were launched towards the direction of Arashio. Takashima remained in the ship's smoke-filled bridge, choosing to go down with the ship. The ship's main battery fire control director commander, Lt. Koyama Masao, also refused to leave the ship, choosing to instead commit Hara-Kiri on top of the forward gun turret, ashamed that his guns did not have a chance to smash the enemy. A few minutes after Takashima gave the order to abandon ship, the ships were set upon by yet another dive bombing attack. At 1445, 23 Dauntlesses from Hornet that had been launched at 1330 arrived over the hapless formation. Arashio and Mogami immediately commenced evasive maneuvers, leaving behind them many of Mikumas crew in the water who were still making their way to their accompanying ships. The dive bombers commenced their attack at 1500. Mogami and Arashio did not have enough time to get underway and were both hit. The burning Mikuma was also hit. Arashio was hit by a bomb, which exploded among the surviving crew of Mikuma that she had just picked up out of the water, killing 37 men outright and damaging her steering ability badly enough to force the destroyer to switch to manual steering and wounding Cdr. Ogawa Nobuki, commander of DesDiv8. Mogami received a hit near the seaplane deck, which started a fire near the sick bay and killed almost all of the ship's doctors and their orderlies outright. The fire was quickly contained at the cost of the life of most of the injured and wounded men in the sick bay. Asashio was not hit by the bombing attack but lost 22 men to strafing. Realizing the urgency of the situation, Captain Akira Soji, then in command of the detachment, communicated to the Combined Fleet to inform them of the attack, and immediately set course west to vacate the area before more air attacks occurred, leaving most of Mikumas crew in the water, Mogami and the two destroyers of DesDiv8 sailed away from her, having had time to rescue only 239 of her crew, including her dying captain Sakiyama. Mikuma continued to drift and burn for at least 4 more hours. Owing to the great confusion among American sighting report the past 2 days, Admrial Spruance of Task Force 16 ordered two recon Dauntlesses with cameras launched from Enterprise at 1553 to ascertain whether this damaged ship was indeed the alleged battleship reported by multiple reconnaissance airplanes. The Dauntlesses arrived over the burning Mikuma at 1715, just before dusk, and took several photographs of her at extremely low altitude, and recorded footage of her as well. The Dauntlesses recorded her position at 29°-28'N, 173°-11'E before leaving her. A survivor recalled that Mikumas port list began increasing rapidly at dusk, and at approximately 1930, she finally turned over on her portside and sank at . She was the first Japanese cruiser to be sunk during the war. Only 188 of Mikumas crew survived the ordeal; her captain also succumbed 3 days later to his wounds while he was aboard Suzuya. Captain Soji later ordered Asashio to reverse course and go back to Mikuma and make every effort to save any of her surviving crews. Asashio made her way back to Mikumas location but found nothing, and promptly returned to CruDiv7, according to her log she found nothing but a great patch of oil and "not one survivor could be rescued". However, two of Mikumas crew would be rescued by on 9 June, the only survivors on a life raft that originally held seventeen. Owing to the secrecy and attempted cover-up of the disaster at Midway, the General Navy Headquarters would list Mikuma as "heavily damaged" rather than sunk, and then temporarily listed her as "unmanned" before being struck off the navy list at 10 August 1942. References Bibliography Further reading External links Tabular record: CombinedFleet.com: Mikuma history (Retrieved 26 January 2007.) Gallery: US Navy Historical Center Mogami-class cruisers Ships built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries 1934 ships World War II cruisers of Japan World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean Cruisers sunk by aircraft Maritime incidents in June 1942 Ships sunk by US aircraft
4619730	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Kinsler	Ian Kinsler	Ian Michael Kinsler (; born June 22, 1982) is an American-Israeli former professional baseball second baseman. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for 14 seasons for the Texas Rangers, Detroit Tigers, Los Angeles Angels, Boston Red Sox, and San Diego Padres. Kinsler was a four-time All Star, two-time Gold Glove winner, and a member of the 2018 World Series champion Boston Red Sox. Despite having been drafted in the 17th round out of college, Kinsler rose to become a four-time All-Star and a member of the Sporting News''' 2009 list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball. He was known as a five-tool player, hitting for average and power, and excelling in baserunning, throwing, and fielding. Kinsler twice hit 30 home runs and stole 30 bases in the same season (2009 and 2011), and is one of 12 ballplayers in major league history who have had multiple 30–30 club seasons. In 2011, he also joined the 20–20 club for the third time, one season shy of the major league record for a second baseman. He hit for the cycle in a game in 2009, while getting hits in all six of his at bats. Through 2013, Kinsler led the Texas Rangers, all-time, career-wise, in stolen bases and power-speed number. In November 2013, he was traded to the Detroit Tigers for Prince Fielder. He has been awarded both a Fielding Bible Award (2015) and two Gold Glove Awards (2016 and 2018). Through 2019, on defense Kinsler had the best career range factor of any active second baseman in MLB, while on offense among all active players he was 3rd in power–speed number and in career runs scored, and 5th in career doubles. He retired following the end of the 2019 season with 1,999 career hits. In 2021, he played for the Israeli national baseball team in the 2020 Summer Olympics. He was the manager of Team Israel at the 2023 World Baseball Classic. Early life and high school Kinsler was born in Tucson, Arizona, and was born to a Jewish father and a Catholic mother. Kinsler’s paternal great-grandparents, Benjamin and Rose Künstlich, were born in Germany and immigrated to the United States in the 1930s to escape the rising antisemitism in Europe prior to World War II. Benjamin and Rose anglicized their last name to Kinsler by the time their son, Jack, was born in the U.S. Ian Kinsler's father, Howard, had grown up in the Bronx and played basketball during his freshman season at the University of Arizona, and was a warden at a state prison on Tucson's southeast side. He has been a major influence on Kinsler. When Kinsler was four his father would toss him fly balls, and his dad says Kinsler would "get under them like he'd been doing it his whole life." His father coached him until high school, and was especially tough.Greg Hansen (February 24, 2008). "Hard work got most of 38 Tucsonans to big leagues," Arizona Daily Star, accessed August 7, 2009. When Kinsler was 13 years old, and the best player on a PONY league team coached by his father that was playing for a championship, his dad caught Kinsler rolling his eyes as he gave the team orders. "I benched him, without hesitation", said his father. With Kinsler on the bench, the team lost the game. Kinsler had a physical challenge to overcome. "I've had asthma my whole life", Kinsler said. "That was tough when I was younger. I woke up a lot and couldn't breathe, and had to go to the hospital in the middle of the night. It kind of held me back from athletics. I still have it, but I control it. Now I use an atomizer or an inhaler. When I was younger, I used this breathing machine… I hated that thing. I always wanted to run around and be active." He graduated in 2000 from Canyon del Oro High School in the Tucson suburb of Oro Valley, Arizona. Kinsler helped lead the baseball team to state titles in 1997 and 2000. He hit .380 as a junior, to earn second-team All-League honors, and .504 with 5 home runs and 26 stolen bases during his senior year, in which he was named first-team All-State and first-team All-League. Four of his high school teammates also made it to the major leagues: Brian Anderson (his best friend in high school), Scott Hairston, Chris Duncan, and Shelley Duncan. In 2019 he was inducted into the Pima County Sports Hall of Fame. Draft and college Kinsler was drafted by his home-state Arizona Diamondbacks after high school in the 29th round of the 2000 MLB draft, but did not feel ready for the pros. He opted instead to honour his commitment. He started his college career at Central Arizona College, where he hit .405 with 17 doubles, 37 RBIs, and 24 stolen bases, was named second-team All-ACCAC, and played shortstop alongside future major leaguers Scott Hairston and Rich Harden. The Diamondbacks drafted him again in 2001 (26th round), but he declined to sign because he felt that playing college baseball a little longer would help him develop his game. Arizona State Sun Devils coach Pat Murphy secured his commitment out of junior college, getting him transfer to ASU in his sophomore year with the promise that he would play shortstop for the Sun Devils. But while he started briefly alongside fellow middle infielder Dustin Pedroia, he ended up spending much of the season on the bench. He was also teammates with Andre Ethier. University of Missouri Tigers coach Tim Jamieson spotted him in a summer league, and convinced him to head east for his junior year. Jamieson said, "I saw him take ground balls and thought, defensively, he was as good a middle infielder as I had ever seen. As for his bat, I didn't really care." While there, Kinsler had a .335 batting average, .416 on-base percentage, and .536 slugging percentage, with 16 steals in 17 attempts. He was named to the All-Big 12 Conference second team. Jamieson noted, "From the day Ian stepped through the doors here, you could see it on his face: He was on a mission." Kinsler was then drafted a third time by the Texas Rangers in the 17th round (496th overall) in 2003 as a shortstop at the urging of area scout Mike Grouse. Grouse liked Kinsler's tools, makeup, desire, and gritty approach. In Grouse's scouting report, he wrote that Kinsler had a great feel for the game, athleticism, solid defensive skills, intensity, and leadership qualities. Grouse knew that Kinsler was probably being underrated by rival scouts who did not know that Kinsler had played with a foot stress fracture while at Missouri, "so [Kinsler] really couldn't run like I knew he could. I'd seen him in Wichita the year before, so I knew he was a plus runner. Most people ... didn't know that, so they probably downgraded him. But I knew it, and I wasn't telling anybody." Kinsler, for his part, says: "I thought I was a lot better than a 17th round pick. I thought I belonged in the top 10 rounds." Kinsler nonetheless agreed to sign with the Rangers on his 21st birthday, for $30,000. Five years later, John Sickels wrote: "Only a handful of players from the 2003 draft are as good as Kinsler, and he's certainly outperformed many more heralded talents. Scouting and drafting will always be an inexact science/art." The pick was later lauded as "one of the greatest 17th round picks of all time." Minor league career (2003–05) 2003: Entering the pros Kinsler signed quickly, and broke in as a shortstop in 2003. He batted .277 in 188 at-bats in his pro debut for the Spokane Indians in the Short-season Northwest League, while leading the team in steals (11) and triples (6). He then spent the 2003–04 winter in Arizona, working out with the Rangers' strength and conditioning coaches. He said: "I was probably 170 pounds, and I decided I needed to lift, put on some weight, and eat as much as I could. And I learned how to hit." 2004: Breakout season By early 2004, Kinsler had vaulted to the # 1 spot on Baseball Americas Prospect Hot Sheet. John Sickels of ESPN described him as having "great plate discipline, power, and ... [being] a reasonably good defensive shortstop." He had a breakout year in 2004. He split the season between two teams, beginning with the Low-A Clinton LumberKings, for which he hit .402/.465/.692 in 224 at bats. Kinsler was voted to start at shortstop for the Midwest League Western Division All Star team, while he was leading the league in batting, on-base percentage, slugging percentage, hits, doubles, extra-base hits, and runs scored, but did not play as he was promoted. Baseball America rated him the most exciting ballplayer and the # 8 prospect in the league. When a friend asked him what the secret was to his success, he responded: "Dude, I have no idea." Kinsler was promoted two levels on June 12 to the Double-A Frisco RoughRiders. "When I first got called up, there were a million things running through my head", he said. "I was nervous, my hands were sweating. It was really exciting, but I didn't know what to expect. I was a little nervous that ... all of a sudden I wouldn't be able to hit." In June he was named the Rangers' Minor League Player of the Month. Frisco manager Tim Ireland observed: I think he's succeeding because his swing is graceful and effortless. It's just a smooth swing, and he hits for power because he lets his swing work for him. Defensively, so far he's shown a real feel for shortstop. He's got good feet and soft hands, and he throws well enough.... He seems pretty legit to me. In July, the Rangers agreed to send Kinsler and prospect right-hander Erik Thompson to the Colorado Rockies for Larry Walker, but Walker vetoed the trade. He ended up hitting .300/.400/.480 for Frisco, in 277 at bats. Those numbers would have placed him fourth in OBP, seventh in slugging percentage, and eighth in the league's batting race had he received enough plate appearances to qualify for the title (he was short by about 60). Baseball America rated Kinsler the # 9 prospect in the Texas League. Overall, in 501 at bats, Kinsler tied for first in the minor leagues in doubles (51), and was seventh in batting average (.345) and ninth in hits (173). He also had 20 home runs, 103 runs, 98 RBIs, 18 HBP, and 23 steals. Rangers manager Buck Showalter marveled at Kinsler's 51 doubles, saying: "Fifty... A lot of guys don't have 50 singles." Baseball America rated him the No. 4 Rangers prospect, the No. 11 prospect in the minors, and a second-team Minor League All Star. Kinsler was also named a Sports Weekly All Star, and the Rangers' Tom Grieve Minor League Player of the Year. In addition, he was awarded the first annual Diamond in the Rough Award, which recognizes a minor leaguer who "defies the odds" and rises from obscurity to play himself into prospect status during a breakout season. For his part, Kinsler noted simply: "It is fun to come to the ballpark every day when you are playing good baseball." Towards the end of the season, Sickels augmented his scouting report on Kinsler by reporting that he was, "a good athlete, not super-toolsy, but strong for his size with speed a notch above average. His swing looked short, quick, and sharp...Overall, he is a solid all-around player who makes the most of his natural ability." Kinsler spent the winter of 2004–05 playing for the Peoria Saguaros of the Arizona Fall League, improving his versatility by getting work in at second base. There, he hit .306/.369/.500. A scout in Arizona noted that his swing was so effortless, yet generated so much line drive power, that: "It's like he's swinging a Wiffleball bat out there." 2005: Transitioning to second base Invited to the parent club's 2005 spring training, he hit .327 while slugging .612. Kinsler spent 2005 at Triple-A with the Oklahoma RedHawks, transitioning from shortstop to second base because that is where the organization anticipated he would play in the future, in the event that Alfonso Soriano no longer played second base for the major league team. That was tough on Kinsler's ego initially, but the most difficult part of the switch for him was the double play. He was selected to the mid-season Pacific Coast League All Star team in June, and came in a close second to Mitch Jones in the 2005 Triple-A Home Run Derby. For the season, in 530 at bats he hit .274 with 23 home runs, 102 runs (tied for tenth in the minor leagues), 94 RBIs, and 12 steals in 14 attempts. Kinsler cracked the Baseball America Top 100 Prospects list, ranking 98th. On the side, during the season he kept an on-line journal for MinorLeagueBaseball.com. Major league career Texas Rangers (2006–13) 2006: Rookie With Alfonso Soriano having been traded in the off-season, Kinsler won the Rangers' starting second base job in spring training in 2006 over Mark DeRosa. "Ian Kinsler came as advertised", said Showalter. He made his major league debut against the Boston Red Sox on Opening Day on April 3, 2006, and got his first major league hit in his first major league at bat, off Curt Schilling. Kinsler said: The crowd was full; I had the butterflies going, so to get that hit was huge. The family was in town.... To go out there and face one of the best pitchers of all time, you've got to be locked in. It's your first game, your first big league experience—it was unbelievable to face that guy. He was hitting .476 when he dislocated his left thumb sliding head-first into second base on April 11, 2006, and was placed on the disabled list. "I knew it wasn't good when I looked down and I saw the top part of the thumb pointing in at me", Kinsler said. He came back 41 games later on May 25, and went 3–4 with a single and two home runs, to lead the Rangers to an 8–7 victory over the Oakland Athletics. "I hope the fans don't expect that much every night", he joked. While Kinsler started off the season batting ninth in the lineup, in June Showalter moved him up to seventh. "I think as Ian's career progresses, he'll move up in the batting order", predicted Showalter. For the season, he started 31 games batting seventh, 30 batting eighth, 20 batting sixth, 19 batting ninth, 12 batting second, 3 batting leadoff, 2 batting third, and 1 batting fifth. Kinsler finished 2006 with a .286 batting average, 14 home runs, 55 RBIs, and a team-leading 11 stolen bases in 423 at bats. He batted .300 with runners in scoring position, and .300 when the game was tied. He led all AL rookies with 27 doubles, and his .454 slugging percentage was the seventh-best in a season since 2000 by an AL rookie with at least 400 at bats."Texas Rangers sign Ian Kinsler to 5 year, $22 million contract" , Pegasus News, February 19, 2008, accessed August 5, 2009 Defensively, in August he tied a team record by recording five double plays in one game. He also led all American League (AL) second basemen in both range factor (5.58) and errors (18). He was named Texas Rangers 2006 Rookie of the Year. 2007: 20–20 season During the 2006–07 off-season, Kinsler focused on building up his legs to improve his speed, durability, and agility. In spring training in 2007, he hit .429, led the AL in RBIs (19), and was sixth in the major leagues in hits (27). His torrid hitting continued into the season, and Kinsler was named the AL Player of the Week for the period ending April 15. He batted .476 (10-for-21) that week with four home runs, eight RBIs, seven runs scored, and a 1.095 slugging percentage. His nine home runs in April tied the team record for that month (shared by Iván Rodríguez (2000), Alex Rodriguez (2002), and Carl Everett (2003)), and were the most ever in the season's first month by a Major League second baseman."Red Sox pour on misery for Yankees", The China Post, May 1, 2007, accessed August 5, 2009 Kinsler said: "I'm trying to put good swings on the ball, and if it goes out, it goes out." He batted .298 with 22 RBIs for the month, and was also voted the Rangers' Player of the Month for April. On July 2, Kinsler went on the disabled list with a stress fracture in his left foot; he did not come back until July 31, and missed 26 games. He tied a major league record on August 25, when he had eight plate appearances in a nine-inning game (a 30–3 win over Baltimore). In 2007, Kinsler hit 20 home runs and was 23-for-25 in stolen base attempts (a 92% success rate). He became the sixth player in franchise history to reach the 20–20 plateau, joining Alfonso Soriano (2005), Iván Rodríguez (1999), Rafael Palmeiro (1993), Bobby Bonds (1978), and Toby Harrah (1975 and 1977). He did it despite his stress fracture, which kept him under 500 at bats. His 23 stolen bases and 96 runs led the Rangers. Kinsler finished the season seventh in the AL in power/speed number (21.4), ninth in sacrifice hits (8) and steals of third base (4), and tied for tenth in bunt hits (5). He was also tied for fourth in the league in steals of third (4), eighth in line drive percentage (23%), and tied for ninth in sacrifice hits (8). He began to hit higher in the batting order, as he batted second in 48 games, leadoff in 26, seventh in 24, sixth in 19, ninth in 10, and eighth in 2. On defense, Kinsler led all major league second basemen in range factor (5.69), leading the league for the second straight year. 2008: All-Star In February 2008, Kinsler signed a five-year deal worth $22 million guaranteed with a $10 million option for 2013. The contract was at the time largest the Rangers have ever made to a player whom they drafted and developed. "Ian represents the past, present, and future of this organization", said assistant general manager Thad Levine. "It's a lot of money", Kinsler said. "I've never imagined being in this position in my life." "This is a big day for me and my family", he reflected. "I've been working my whole life to get to this point, since my dad first started taking me out in the backyard and started throwing the baseball with me." Kinsler was delighted when Rangers manager Ron Washington ultimately committed to Kinsler being the team's leadoff hitter in 2008. "I didn't think he was the prototype leadoff hitter, but the guy proved me wrong", Washington said. "He'll take a walk, or get one run for us with one swing of the bat. He can bunt, he can run, and he can hit the ball to the other side." Through mid-May 2008, Kinsler had the best career stolen-base percentage (88.5%) of anyone in Rangers/Senators history with at least 40 attempts. "It's part of my game", said Kinsler. "It's not one of the first things I'm known for." According to scouts, his ability on the basepaths is due to innate instincts and his "twitch speed" rather than his pure running speed. Grouse, who signed him, says that Kinsler also "goes from first to third faster than anyone, because he has that God-given ability to read the ball so well off the bat." During a mid-June rain delay at Shea Stadium, Kinsler hopped to his feet, raced from the dugout and dove head-first across the wet tarp covering the infield as though it was a giant Slip 'n Slide. Four teammates followed, receiving a large ovation from the New York Mets fans. Shea Stadium security ushered them off the field, drawing a chorus of boos. "We had some good routines going", said Kinsler. "It was awesome." Kinsler was a 2008 AL All Star at the 79th All Star Game at Yankee Stadium. It was his most exciting moment in baseball to that point. He was a reserve voted in by his peers. In the fan balloting, Dustin Pedroia, who finished with nearly 1.3 million votes, beat him by 34,243 votes. In the game, Kinsler hit 1-for-5 and stole a base. He was called out attempting to steal another base, though replays demonstrated that the umpire had missed the call. The Washington Post and ESPN baseball writer Jayson Stark picked Kinsler as the AL MVP for the first half of the season. Kinsler had an MLB-best 25-game hitting streak in June and July. The team-best hitting streak of 28 belongs to Gabe Kapler. Through July 28, Kinsler was leading the AL in batting average (.331), runs (90), hits (145), total bases (232), extra base hits (55), at bats (438), and plate appearances (499). He was also second in doubles (37) and power/speed number (17.9), third in sacrifices (7), fourth in singles (90), sixth in sacrifice flies (6), seventh in stolen bases (26), triples (4), and on-base percentage (.392), and eighth in OPS (.922). "Kinsler", said Seattle Mariners left fielder Raúl Ibañez, "is the engine that makes that offense go." However, on August 17 he injured the left side of his groin on a defensive play, suffering a sports hernia that ultimately required season-ending surgery. He missed the last 37 games of the season. "I really didn't have a decision", Kinsler said. "If I want to fix this injury, then I have to have surgery." In 2008, despite missing the last six weeks of the season, Kinsler was third in the AL in times advanced from first to third on a single (17), fourth in batting average (.319) and power/speed number (21.3), fifth in steals of third base (8) and "bases taken" (23; advanced on fly balls, passed balls, wild pitches, balks, etc.), sixth in line drive percentage (24%) and in extra base hit percentage (10.8% of all plate appearances), eighth in runs (102) and OPS (.892), ninth in sacrifice hits (8) and home runs on the road (14), and tenth in stolen bases (26; while only being caught twice—a 93% success rate) and lowest strikeout percentage (11.5% of at bats). He hit .413 with runners in scoring position. He was one of only three batters in the AL to have at least 18 home runs and 18 stolen bases in both 2007 and 2008, along with Alex Rodriguez and Grady Sizemore. His 41 doubles ranked second in franchise history to Alfonso Soriano's 43 in 2005. He had a .377 on-base percentage as a leadoff hitter, the third-best mark in the AL, and his .521 slugging percentage was the highest for a leadoff batter in the American League. Kinsler's .381 on-base percentage as a leadoff hitter over the 2005–08 seasons was the fourth-highest in the major leagues. "Most hitters have [a location] that you can exploit", said All Star pitcher Justin Duchscherer. "This guy has trouble with fastballs in. This guy has trouble with breaking balls down. [Kinsler] doesn't have a hole like that." In the field, he led all major league second basemen with a 5.77 range factor and 123 double plays, but also in errors with 18. Kinsler was mentioned as an MVP candidate before his injury by writers at ESPN, the Dallas News, the Los Angeles Times, and the Washington Post.White, Lonnie (July 16, 2008). "Red Sox haven't lost favorite role," The Los Angeles Times, accessed March 21, 2009 He could have conceivably rivaled Pedroia for MVP, if not for the sports hernia that cut his 2008 campaign short a month and a half. "I think he just missed having an MVP year", manager Ron Washington said. "If luck [had been] on our side and he [had stayed] healthy, he would have run away with it." In the end, he received a single 10th-place vote from Jeff Wilson of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram.Matschulat, Joey (November 19, 2009). "Wednesday Morning Rangers Notes", MVN.com, accessed March 21, 2009. 2009: Hitting for the cycle, and joining the 30–30 club In 2009, Kinsler was named # 24 on the Sporting News''' list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball. A panel of 100 baseball people, many of them members of the Baseball Hall of Fame and winners of major baseball awards, was polled to arrive at the list. On April 15, 2009, in a game against the Baltimore Orioles, Kinsler hit for the cycle, becoming only the fourth Ranger to do so (and, at the time, the only right-handed Ranger). In the same game, Kinsler became only the second player in Ranger history to get 6 hits in a single game (the first having been Alfonso Soriano, on May 8, 2004), and the first to do so in a 9-inning game. His five runs and four extra base hits in the game matched two other team records. "It was a thing of beauty", teammate Marlon Byrd said. "I loved it." Kinsler's dual feat was the first in the modern baseball era. The last major league player to have six hits in a game while hitting for the cycle was William Farmer Weaver, for the Louisville Colonels on August 12, 1890. Kinsler's 13 total bases were also one base shy of Jose Canseco's June 13, 1994, team record. Only three other players in the prior 55 years had had six hits, five runs, and four extra-base hits in a game, the most recent having been Shawn Green of the Los Angeles Dodgers in 2002. Kinsler was named AL co-Player of the Week on April 20, 2009. For the week, in 30 plate appearances he led the major leagues in batting average (.556), hits (15), extra base hits (7), and runs (9), and tied for the lead in doubles (4). He also had a .600 on-base percentage and 1.000 slugging percentage, with a triple, two home runs, and six stolen bases. "He's incredible", said teammate Hank Blalock. On June 16 against Houston, Kinsler opened the first inning with his ninth career leadoff homer, surpassing the club record of eight, shared by Mike Hargrove, Oddibe McDowell, and Michael Young. On May 21, Kinsler stole third base in the fifth inning, setting a club record for career steals of third at 18. Furthermore, at the time Kinsler had never been caught trying to steal third. Rick Paulas of ESPN called Kinsler his "first quarter MVP." Through July 1, Kinsler led the AL in power-speed number (17.5), was third in home runs (19), fourth in runs (55) and total bases (160), sixth in extra base hits (38) and at bats (307), seventh in sacrifice flies (4), and ninth in stolen bases (16) and sacrifices (8), while batting .359 against left-handers and .333 with runners on base. Kinsler narrowly missed making the AL All-Star team. First, though he had led all AL second basemen as of June 30, with 2,170,100 fan votes (fifth-most votes of all AL players, just ahead of Dustin Pedroia's 2,163,270), Pedroia passed him on the last day in last-minute voting. Then, he just missed making the team as a reserve in player voting, coming in second again, this time to Toronto's Aaron Hill. He missed in his third chance, as AL All Star team and Tampa Bay manager Joe Maddon did not pick him as a reserve. He missed a fourth opportunity to make the team, in the Sprint Final Vote competition for the final spot on the team, coming in second to Brandon Inge of the Tigers. A fifth opportunity presented itself when Pedroia pulled out of the All Star Game to spend time with his pregnant wife—and as Kinsler had finished second in fan voting, in player voting, and in the Final Vote competition, he appeared a likely candidate to replace his fellow second baseman. But Maddon went with one of his own to replace Pedroia, Tampa Bay's first baseman Carlos Peña, who was leading the league in homers but batting .228 (and who had come in fourth in the Final Vote competition, behind Kinsler and Chone Figgins). A sixth and final opportunity presented itself when Evan Longoria withdrew because of a finger infection; but again Maddon (a former Angels coach) chose someone else as a replacement, this time Figgins of the Angels, who had come in third in the Final Vote competition (behind Kinsler).Bleacher Reports' Andrew Nuschler observed: "Maddon spent his tenure as the AL All Star manager finding new and inventive ways to give Ian Kinsler the middle finger." And Sports Illustrateds Jacob Osterhout took note, writing: It is an absolute travesty that Ian Kinsler is not the starting second baseman for the American League. Dustin Pedroia, who IS the starting second baseman, has hit only three home runs and has 36 RBIs. Kinsler, on the other hand, has hit 20 home runs and has 63 RBIs. The fact that Kinsler isn't even a reserve makes it hard to take the All Star Game seriously. At the All Star Game, as a tribute to Kinsler, his teammate and close friend Michael Young wore wristbands with Kinsler's number 5. On July 11, Kinsler stole third base for the 21st time in his career, building on his team record, without ever having been thrown out. Kinsler suffered a strained left hamstring on July 28, and missed 11 games while on the disabled list. Kinsler, who already had 30 stolen bases, hit his 30th home run on September 25, becoming the only major leaguer to join the 30–30 club in 2009, and the 34th major leaguer ever. He became only the second player in Rangers' history to have a 30–30 season (joining Alfonso Soriano, who did it in 2005), and joined Soriano (who also had 30–30 seasons in 2002 and 2003 for the Yankees) and Brandon Phillips (2007) as the only 30–30 second basemen in Major League history. "It's an incredible accomplishment", said Michael Young. "I've played with guys who have had some incredible seasons here, but 30–30 is something special. He deserves a lot of credit. He battled all season long. That's what separates the great players from the good ones." He led the AL in power-speed#, with a 31.0. Through 2009, he had the second-highest steal success rate among active players with at least 100 attempts, at 87.5% (91-of-104). Carlos Beltrán was the best, at 88.3%. Sharing his philosophy on stealing bases, he said: "It takes the art of stealing away if you do it when you're four runs up or four runs down, and the opposing team is just worried about getting outs, not stolen bases. The idea is to steal them when you need them." He also showed a good eye at the plate. Of 15 Rangers who had at least 100 at bats, his rate of only one strikeout per 8.31 at bats was the best on the team. Similarly, he made contact on 87% of his swings, the best contact rate on the team. Playing 144 games, he also had 13 home runs against lefties (2nd in the league), stole third base 11 times (3rd), hit 47% of his hits for extra bases (7th-best in the AL), was 7th in the AL in stolen bases, scored 101 runs (10th), and had 5 bunt hits (10th). On defense, he led AL second baseman in "zone runs"s (17), was 2nd in assists (451) and range factor/game (4.86), and was 5th in putouts (249). 2010: All-Star In December 2009, Washington said Kinsler would bat second in 2010. "I think Kinsler performs better when he's in the mix hitting at the top of the lineup in the first inning", Washington said. "When he has to wait to hit, I think it takes a lot away from him." But by early March, it was reported that he would bat fifth. Washington said, however, that that would not keep Kinsler from running: "I will not slow him down. He is a threat. I will not take away that threat. I'm not stopping Kins." On days when Julio Borbon was not batting leadoff, Kinsler was to move up to the top of the lineup. In the end, Kinsler started 60 games batting 3rd, 20 games batting 5th, 16 games batting 6th, and 6 games leading off. In spring training, while he was batting .400, Kinsler slipped on a patch of wet grass during pre-game warm-ups. He rolled his right ankle, and suffered a sprain of the ligaments above it (referred to as a "high ankle sprain"), as well as a small bone bruise at the tip of his tibia at the back of his ankle. He missed three weeks of spring training, and began the season on the disabled list. Washington said: "We miss his presence. We miss his threat. We miss what he brings on the defensive end. We miss his leadership." He made his initial 2010 appearance on April 30, after having missed the first 20 games of the season. Batting .304 at the time with a .412 on-base percentage (4th in the AL), he was selected as a reserve to the 2010 American League All Star team, his second All Star Game. An appreciative Kinsler said: "It's a huge honor." He had finished third among AL second basemen in fan voting behind Robinson Canó and Pedroia, but Pedroia was injured, and Kinsler was picked to replace him. He had also finished second among AL second basemen in voting by AL players. On July 29 he went on the disabled list again, this time for a strained left groin, and was not reactivated until September 1. Kinsler finished the season batting .286, with a career-high on-base percentage of .382. His .985 fielding percentage was 5th-best in the league, and he had the highest career range factor/game of all active major league second basemen (5.201). With his two stints on the disabled list, he played in only 103 games. In the first round of the playoffs, against the Tampa Bay Rays, Kinsler batted .444/.500/.944 in five games, leading the majors with 3 home runs (tied) and 6 RBIs in the division series. He hit safely and scored a run in all five games, joining Boston's Nomar Garciaparra as the only two players to start their post-season careers with at least one hit—and with at least one hit and one run—in each of five consecutive games. As teammate Nelson Cruz also hit three home runs, it marked the second time in Major League history that two teammates each hit three homers in a postseason series of five games or fewer (the other two to do it were Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig, in the 1928 World Series). For the first two rounds of the playoffs, Kinsler hit safely in 9 of 11 games, and batted .342 with 3 HRs, a playoff-high 9 RBIs, 6 runs, 2 stolen bases, an OBP of .409, and an OPS of 1.067. 2011: 30–30 club, redux On April 2, 2011, Kinsler became the first player in major league history to hit a lead-off home run in the first two games of a season (giving him a total of 15 lead-off homers in his career). In his next game against the Red Sox, he hit another home run in the third inning. Kinsler and Nelson Cruz also became the first two teammates to homer in each of the first three games in a season. The two also joined Dean Palmer (1992) as the only Texas ballplayers to ever homer in the first three games of the season. In September, Kinsler tied his own Rangers record, which he set in 2009, with his seventh leadoff home run of the season. He also hit his 20th career leadoff homer, becoming the 34th player in major league baseball history to have hit at least 20. Since his first season in 2006, his 20 lead-off homers were the 6th-most behind Alfonso Soriano (31), Hanley Ramírez (25), Jimmy Rollins (24), Curtis Granderson (24), and Rickie Weeks (24). He stole 28 consecutive bases without being caught, breaking his own club record, which he had set in 2007–08. Kinsler joined the 30–30 club, for the second time. He became the 12th player in major league history to have multiple 30–30 seasons. The only other infielders in major league history who had had multiple 30–30 seasons as of 2011 were Alfonso Soriano, Howard Johnson, and Jeff Bagwell. He also joined the 20–20 (home runs–steals) club for the third time in his career. Joe Morgan, who did it four seasons, is the only second baseman to have joined the 20–20 club more times. In 2011, Kinsler was 2nd in the American League in runs scored (121; the fifth-highest season total in Rangers' history), 5th in home runs (32; a career high) and walks (89), and 9th in stolen bases (30) and extra base hits (70). He was also third in power-speed # (31.0; behind Jacoby Ellsbury and Curtis Granderson), and had the best walks-to-strikeouts ratio in the major leagues, with 1.25 walks per each strikeout. On defense, his career range factor of 5.092 was the highest among active major league second basemen, and in 2011 he led AL second basemen in double plays, with 103. His 136 career stolen bases through season-end were third-most in Rangers history, behind Bump Wills (161) and Toby Harrah (143), and his career stolen-base percentage was the third-best rate among active players with at least 120 attempts. His 124 career home runs were the 5th-most in the first six years of any second baseman's career, behind Dan Uggla (183), Joe Gordon (142), Chase Utley (130), and Alfonso Soriano (126). On October 4, in Game 4 of the playoff series against the Rays, Kinsler led off the game with a home run, sparking the Rangers 4–3 victory over Tampa Bay to send them to the ALCS. 2012: All-Star In April 2012, the Rangers gave Kinsler a five-year, $75 million contract extension, with a $10 million option for a sixth year and a $5 million buyout if the team were to not pick up the option. The extension replaced the team's $10 million option for 2013 with a $13 million salary, and paid him $16 million in both 2014 and 2015, $14 million in 2016, and $11 million in 2017. A team option in 2018 could become guaranteed at $12 million, and included a $5 million buyout. The contract made Kinsler the highest-paid second baseman in baseball. Kinsler was an All Star again in 2012, for the third time. For the season, he was second in the AL in plate appearances (731), third in at bats (655) and runs (105), fifth in power-speed number (20.0), sixth in doubles (42), and eighth in hit by pitch (10). 2013: Rangers' all-time stolen base leader In 2013, Kinsler struck out once every 10.4 plate appearances, making him the third-toughest batter to strike out in the American League, and was the sixth-toughest batter to double up in the league (109.0 at bats/double play). He finished the season tied for fifth among active players in leadoff home runs. He led the Texas Rangers, all-time, career-wise, in stolen bases (172), hit by pitch (57), and power-speed number (163.6), and was fifth in runs (748), seventh in doubles (249) and walks (462), eighth in home runs (156), and ninth in hits (1,145) and RBIs (539). Fangraphs ranked him as the 56th-best baserunner in baseball history. In 2022, he was inducted into the Texas Rangers Hall of Fame.Kinsler takes winning swagger into Rangers HOF Detroit Tigers (2014–17) In November 2013, Kinsler was traded to the Detroit Tigers for Prince Fielder in a one-for-one trade of All-Stars, with the Tigers sending Texas $30 million to cover part of the difference in the players' salaries. The Tigers gave Kinsler permission to honor Alan Trammell by wearing #3. 2014: All-Star In 2014, Kinsler was named to his fourth All-Star team, as a replacement for an injured Victor Martinez. For the season he led the American League in at bats (684; also an all-time Tigers record), was 4th in hits (188) and doubles (40), 5th in runs scored (100; scoring 100 runs for the fifth time in his career), and 7th in power-speed number (15.9). He was the 10th-toughest batter in the American League to strike out (once per every 9.19 plate appearances), and was one of seven AL players to hit at least 15 home runs and steal at least 15 bases. On defense, he led the AL in putouts (290) and was third in assists (467) and fielding percentage (.988), among all second basemen. Through 2014, Kinsler had the best career range factor of any active second baseman in Major League Baseball, at 4.881. On November 5, 2014, Kinsler was awarded the Wilson Defensive Player of the Year Award for second base. 2015: Fielding Bible Award On September 10, 2015, Kinsler recorded his 1,500th career hit, a single off of Bryan Shaw of the Cleveland Indians. For the 2015 season, he hit .296, his best batting average since posting a career-high .319 mark in 2008, while collecting 11 home runs and 73 RBIs. For the season he led the major leagues in multi-hit games (61), and was 4th in the American League in hits (185), 6th in at bats (624, and 10th in runs scored (94) and at-bats-per-strikeout (7.8). On defense, he was 2nd in the AL in putouts (289), assists (425), and double plays (109) among all second basemen. His single-season defensive WARs in 2014 (2.9) and 2015 (2.6) were the second- and seventh-best in Tigers' history. Following the 2015 season, Kinsler was awarded the Fielding Bible Award as the best-fielding second baseman in MLB. His 19 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) were six better than any other Major League second baseman that season, according to Fangraphs. His 6.3 Ultimate Zone Rating (UZR) was the best in the American League, and second only to Miami's Dee Gordon. His 2.6 defensive Wins Above Replacement, according to the Baseball Reference formula, ranked him 8th among all Major League players regardless of position. Kinsler had put up 50 Defensive Runs Saved over the last three seasons, according to The Fielding Bible. The next-best total among Major League second basemen was 29, from Colorado's DJ LeMahieu. 2016: Gold Glove In mid-May 2016 he became the first player in Tigers history to hit home runs from the leadoff spot in the batting order in four consecutive games. On July 3, Kinsler hit his 200th career home run, off Danny Farquhar of the Tampa Bay Rays. Kinsler became the third active Major League player, and the 40th overall, with 200 home runs, 1,000 runs scored, 1,600 hits, and 200 stolen bases. On September 30 Kinsler hit his eighth lead-off home run of the season, setting a new Tigers' franchise record as he surpassed that of Curtis Granderson. The homer was also Kinsler's 28th of the year, tying Lou Whitaker's 1989 record for most by a Tiger second baseman. For the season he was 4th in the American League in runs (117) and hit by pitch (13), 9th in power-speed number (18.7), and 10th in hits (178), as he batted .288 with 83 RBIs. His 40 career leadoff home runs at year-end were the 7th-most in Major League Baseball history. On defense, he led AL second basemen in range factor/9 innings (5.09), and was 2nd in putouts (303) and assists (432), and was 5th in fielding percentage (.988) and double plays (109). Following the season, Kinsler was named the Gold Glove Award winner for second base, the first of his career. Kinsler and Dustin Pedroia finished tied for the lead among AL second basemen in 2016 with 12 DRS. Kinsler's 8.5 UZR trailed only Pedroia (12.5). Through 2016, Kinsler had the best career range factor of any active second baseman in Major League Baseball. 2017: Leader in Ultimate Zone Rating and Defensive Runs Saved Kinsler missed some time in 2017, going on the disabled list in late May due to a left hamstring strain. In August, Kinsler was fined $10,000 by MLB for critical comments he made about umpire Ángel Hernández after Hernández ejected Kinsler from a game against the Texas Rangers. He had said that Hernández was a bad umpire, and "needs to find another job." Kinsler slammed 22 home runs in 139 games, but posted a career-low .236 batting average. Kinsler was named a 2017 Gold Glove finalist at second base, along with Dustin Pedroia of the Red Sox and Brian Dozier of the Twins. Dozier won, despite Kinsler having a better Ultimate Zone Rating by a wide margin (6.1; leading AL second basemen), and being much better in Defensive Runs Saved, with a plus-six (leading AL second basemen) compared to Dozier's minus-four. Kinsler's fWAR since 2014 over his four seasons in Detroit ranked third among Major League second basemen in that timespan, behind José Altuve and Dozier, and his 57 Defensive Runs Saved were 27 more than the next-highest second baseman. Los Angeles Angels (2018) On December 13, 2017, the Tigers traded Kinsler to the Los Angeles Angels, in return for minor league center fielder Troy Montgomery and pitching prospect Wilkel Hernandez. On June 19, 2018, Kinsler hit the 48th leadoff home run of his career, which ranked fourth all-time behind Rickey Henderson, Alfonso Soriano, and Craig Biggio. In 91 games with the 2018 Angels, Kinsler batted .239 with 13 home runs, 49 runs, 32 RBIs, and 9 stolen bases. Boston Red Sox (2018): Gold Glove and World Series Champion On July 30, 2018, the Angels traded Kinsler and cash considerations to the Boston Red Sox for Williams Jerez and Ty Buttrey, with the two teams splitting the remainder of Kinsler's $11 million salary. In 37 regular season games with the Red Sox, Kinsler batted .242 with 1 home run, 16 RBIs, and 7 stolen bases in 132 at bats. Between the two teams, in 2018 he tied for first among all American League second baseman in Defensive Runs Saved (10), was second in SABR Defensive Index (8.4) and was third in zone rating (.832). Kinsler won a World Series ring in the 2018 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. Following the season, Kinsler was named the Gold Glove Award winner for second base. It was the second Gold Glove Award of his career. He became the only player in the American League to steal more than 10 bases, as well as the only one to score more than 60 runs, in each of the prior 13 seasons since 2006. San Diego Padres (2019): 1,999 career hits On December 20, 2018, Kinsler signed an $8 million, two-year contract with the San Diego Padres. The team received a $3.5 million option for the 2021 season, with a $500,000 buyout. Kinsler's season ended early, as he suffered a herniated disc in his neck. In 2019 he batted .217/.278/.368 with 28 runs, 9 home runs, and 22 RBIs in 258 at bats, while also pitching one shutout inning. He ended the season with 1,999 career hits. Through 2019, Kinsler had the best career defensive range factor per game of any active second baseman in Major League Baseball (4.71). Among all active MLB players, in his career he was 3rd in power-speed # (249.8) and in career runs scored (1,243), and 5th in career doubles (416). On August 12, 2019, Kinsler pitched for the first time in his major league career in the ninth inning during a blowout against the Tampa Bay Rays, pitching a scoreless inning, and then proceeded to hit a home run in the bottom half of the inning. It would be his final game ever played in the major leagues. Front office career San Diego Padres On December 20, 2019, Kinsler announced the end of his playing career and his subsequent move into an adviser to baseball operations role in the Padres front office. He and the Padres settled the $4.25 million left on his contract for 2020. He ended his 14-year career one hit short of 2,000, with 257 home runs, 909 RBIs, and 243 stolen bases. Texas Rangers On February 6, 2023, Kinsler was hired by the Texas Rangers to serve as a special assistant to general manager Chris Young. International career Team USA; player In 2017, Kinsler participated in the 2017 World Baseball Classic as a member of Team USA and won a gold medal in the competition. Team Israel; player In March 2020, Kinsler obtained Israeli citizenship and joined Team Israel. The team qualified to play baseball at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. On June 21, 2021, in preparation for the games (which were postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic), Kinsler signed a contract with the Long Island Ducks of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball. He played with the club from July 2 to July 8, after which he joined Team Israel on a barnstorming tour in the Northeastern United States to further prepare for Tokyo. Kinsler played second base for Team Israel at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo in the summer of 2021. He batted four for 18, hitting .222/.333/.444 with a double and a home run. Team Israel went 1-4 overall, defeating Mexico in Round 1 of the knockout stage, but losing to South Korea and the Dominican Republic, eliminating them from the competition. Team Israel; manager Israel competed in the 2023 World Baseball Classic in Miami. Kinsler managed the team. Personal life Kinsler identifies as Jewish; his father is Jewish and his mother is Catholic. He was featured in the 2008 Hank Greenberg 75th Anniversary edition of Jewish Major Leaguers Baseball Cards, licensed by Major League Baseball, commemorating the Jewish major leaguers from 1871 through 2008. He joined, among others, teammate Scott Feldman, Brad Ausmus, Kevin Youkilis, Ryan Braun, Gabe Kapler, Jason Marquis, Jason Hirsh, John Grabow, Craig Breslow, and Scott Schoeneweis. He said that "Youkilis will always say something to me on the bases [referring to the fact that they are both Jewish]. 'Happy Passover,' he'll throw something at me." In 2013 he passed Shawn Green with his 163rd steal, to become the all-time career steals leader among Jewish major leaguers. Through the 2022 season, his 243 steals led the career all-time list of Jewish major leaguers (directly ahead of Ryan Braun), his 416 doubles placed him second directly behind Shawn Green, his 257 home runs and 909 RBIs both placed him 4th (behind Green in each case), his 693 walks placed him 4th behind Sid Gordon, and his 41 triples placed him 6th behind Gordon. His 31 steals in 2009 were the third-most ever in a season by a Jewish ballplayer, behind the 35 steals by Shawn Green in 1998 and the 33 steals by Ryan Braun in 2011. Kinsler, who would have been eligible to play for Israel in the 2013 World Baseball Classic because of his father's Jewish heritage, said: "Wow, I would be happy to play for Team Israel.... The truth is that if a proposal comes from Team USA to play for them, I will have a very difficult decision to make. Youk [Kevin Youkilis], Braun [Milwaukee's Ryan Braun], and I could make a fantastic team. I am sure that I'll talk it over with Youk – we always laugh about things like this." Kinsler married Tess Brady, his high school sweetheart, on November 18, 2006. Their daughter, Rian Brooklynn Kinsler, was born December 5, 2008. On June 8, 2011, his wife gave birth to a son, Jack Jamisson Kinsler. He was put on paternity leave due to the birth. In 2008 Kinsler won the Rangers' Jim Sundberg Community Achievement Award, in recognition of his having devoted a great deal of his personal time to the community. Kinsler made aliyah in March 2020 and became an Israeli citizen. In July 2022, Kinsler was one of five torch carriers of the opening ceremony of the 2022 Maccabiah Games at Teddy Stadium in Jerusalem. See also List of select Jewish baseball players List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders References Further reading External links 1982 births Living people American people of German-Jewish descent Israeli people of German-Jewish descent Israeli people of American descent American League All-Stars Arizona State Sun Devils baseball players Baseball players at the 2020 Summer Olympics Baseball players from Tucson, Arizona Boston Red Sox players Central Arizona Vaqueros baseball players Clinton LumberKings players Detroit Tigers players Frisco RoughRiders players Gold Glove Award winners Israeli American Israeli baseball players Jewish American baseball players Jewish Major League Baseball players Long Island Ducks players Los Angeles Angels players Major League Baseball second basemen Missouri Tigers baseball players Oklahoma RedHawks players Peoria Saguaros players San Diego Padres executives San Diego Padres players Spokane Indians players Texas Rangers players World Baseball Classic players of the United States 2017 World Baseball Classic players Olympic baseball players for Israel 21st-century American Jews
4620141	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross%20motor%20skill	Gross motor skill	Gross motor skills are the abilities usually acquired during childhood as part of a child's motor learning. By the time they reach two years of age, almost all children are able to stand up, walk and run, walk up stairs, etc. These skills are built upon, improved and better controlled throughout early childhood, and continue in refinement throughout most of the individual's years of development into adulthood. These gross movements come from large muscle groups and whole body movement. These skills develop in a head-to-toe order. The children will typically learn head control, trunk stability, and then standing up and walking. It is shown that children exposed to outdoor play time activities will develop better gross motor skills. Types of motor skills Motor skills are movements and actions of the muscles. Typically, they are categorized into two groups: gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are involved in movement and coordination of the arms, legs, and other large body parts and movements. Gross motor skills can be further divided into two subgroups of locomotor skills and object control skills. Gross locomotor skills would include running, jumping, sliding, and swimming. Object control skills would include throwing, catching and kicking. Fine motor skills are involved in smaller movements that occur in the wrists, hands, fingers, and the feet and toes. They participate in smaller actions such as picking up objects between the thumb and finger, writing carefully, and even blinking. These two motor skills work together to provide coordination. Less developed children focus on their gross movements, while more developed children have more control over their fine movements. Development of posture Gross motor skills, as well as many other activities, require postural control. Infants need to control the heads to stabilize their gaze and to track moving objects. They also must have strength and balance in their legs to walk. Newborn infants cannot voluntarily control their posture. Within a few weeks, though, they can hold their heads erect, and soon they can lift their heads while prone. By 2 months of age, babies can sit while supported on a lap or an infant seat, but sitting independently is not accomplished until 6 or 7 months of age. Standing also develops gradually across the first year of life. By about 8 months of age, infants usually learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a chair, and they often can stand alone by about 10 to 12 months of age. There is a new device called a "Standing Dani" developed to help special needs children with their posture. Learning to walk Walking upright requires being able to stand up and balance position from one foot to the other. Although infants usually learn to walk around the time of their first birthday, the neural pathways that control the leg alternation component of walking are in place from a very early age, possibly even at birth or before.[1] This is shown because 1- to 2-month-olds are given support with their feet in contact with a motorized treadmill, they show well-coordinated, alternating steps. If it were not for the problem of switching balance from one foot to the other, babies could walk earlier. Tests were performed on crawling and walking babies where slopes were placed in front of the path and the babies had to decide whether or not it was safe. The tests proved that babies who just learned how to walk did not know what they were capable of and often went down slopes that were not safe, whereas experienced walkers knew what they could do. Practice has a big part to do with teaching a child how to walk. Vision does not have an effect on muscle growth but it could slow down the child's process of learning to walk. According to the nonprofit Blind Children Center, "Without special training, fully capable infants who are visually impaired may not learn to crawl or walk at an appropriate age and gross and fine motor skills will not properly develop." When the child is not able to see an object then there is no motivation for the child to try to reach for it. Therefore, they do not want to learn independently. Learning to walk is done by modeling others and watching them. Children when put in environments with older children will observe and try and copy the movements done. This helps the child learn through trial and error. The babies will imitate others, picking up the skills a lot faster than creating their own errors. Visually impaired children may need physical therapy to help them learn these gross motor skills faster. One hour of therapy each week is not enough so parents have to make sure they are involved in this process. The parent can help by telling the baby the direction of where the object is and encourage them to get it. You must have patience because every child has their own developmental schedule and it is even truer for the children with special needs. Focusing on the progress of your child is better than focusing on comparing your child to other children. (Humphrey) Infancy development It has been observed by scientists that motor skills generally develop from the center to the body outward and head to tail. Babies need to practice their skills; therefore they will grow and strengthen better. They need space and time to explore in their environment and use their muscles. "Tummy-time" is a good example of this. At first they are only able to lay their belly on the floor but by around two months they start to gain muscle to raise their head and chest off the ground. Some are also able to go on their elbows. They will also start to kick and bend their legs while lying there, this helps to prepare for crawling. By four months they are able to start to control their head and hold it steady while sitting up. Rolling from belly to back movements is started. At about five months the baby will start to wiggle their limbs to strengthen crawling muscles. Infants can start to sit up by themselves and put some weight on their legs as they hold onto something for support by six months. As they enter their first-year caregivers needs to be more active. The babies will want to get into everything so the house needs to become 'baby proofed'. Babies are able to start to reach and play with their toys too. It is said that the use of baby walkers or devices that help to hold the baby upright are said to delay the process of walking. Research has been found that it delays developing the core torso strength, which can lead to different issues down in their future. Around ten months they should be able to stand on their own. Throughout their years of life different motor skills are formed. (Oswalt) With regards to the gait pattern, study shows that infant at 12 months old exhibit larger mediolateral motion, which may be caused by weak muscle strength and lack of stability. They also show a synchronized use of hip and shoulder while they are walking, which is different from a mature gait pattern performed by adults. The ankles didn't move as much among 12-month infants as compared to that of adults performing a mature walking. Development in the second year Development in the second year of life, toddlers become more motorically skilled and mobile. They are no longer content with being in a playpen and want to move all over the place. Child development experts believe that motor activity during the second year is vital to the child's competent development and that few restrictions, except for safety, should be placed on their motoric adventures. By 13 to 18 months, toddlers can move up and down steps and carry toys. Once they reach the top of the stairs though, they are not able to get back down. They also begin to move from one position to another more smoothly. (Oswalt) Significant changes in gait patterns are also observed in the second year. Infants in the second year have a discordant use of hip and shoulder while walking, which is closer to an adult walking pattern. They are also able to utilize the range of motion of their ankles, toes, and heels more, which is similar to a mature walk. By 18 to 24 months, can move quicker or run for a short distance along with other motor skills. They also start to walk backwards and in circles and begin to run. They can also not only walk up the stairs with their hands and feet but are now able to hold onto the handrail and walk up. Near the end of their second year, complex gross motor skills begin to develop including throwing and kicking. Their skills becomes more natural. Pedaling a tricycle and jumping in place is acquired. At the end they are very mobile and can go from place to place. It is normal for them to get themselves into small situations that could be dangerous such as walking into the street because their brain can't send the information fast enough to their feet. Parents need to keep an eye on their children at all times. (Oswalt) In a majority of the select kinematic and kinetic variables, there are greater differences between two-year-old children and four-year-old-children than there are between four year old children and six year old children. The variables for which there were significant differences tended to be in displacement, velocity, and magnitude of force measurements. Development of children with disabilities Children with disabilities who are as young as seven months can learn to drive a power wheelchair. This will give specific benefits to the leg, is paralyzed. This chair may decrease the rate of development of the child's gross motor skills, but there are ways to compensate for this. These children usually work with a physical therapist to help with their leg movements. Walkers and other devices are used to help aide this process and avoid obstacles. The negative side to this is that they are limited in their mobility. There is research out to find a device to encourage children to explore their environment while gaining their gross motor skills. This will also hopefully help them with their exercise. A 2017 Cochrane review found that for children with delays associated with cerebral palsy or Down Syndrome up to the age of six the use of a treadmill may accelerate the development of independent walking. Childhood Early childhood is a critical period for the development of fundamental motor skills. Children in preschooler, develop depending on their interactions with the surrounding environment. A child in an encouraging environment with constructive feedback will develop fundamental motor skills at a faster rate. Typically, females perform better fundamental movement skills at an earlier age than males. Although many studies prove this to be true, it is dominantly true in walking. Girls typically go through maturity faster than boys do, causing them to also be less active. This allows boys to be deemed more active, due to the fact that they mature much later than their opposing gender. However, this does not give a clear answer as to whether or not girls learn to walk before boys. One would think that learning to walk sooner would allow for a higher activity level, though since girls have a noticeably lower activity level than boys, one would assume that this would mean that girls would learn to walk after boys. But since they mature earlier, that would involve the walking stage. As they grow older, children become more proficient in their tasks allowing them to use their high developed skill for events such as sports where these motor skills are highly required. Children who do not master fundamental motor skills are less likely to participate in sport games during childhood and adolescence. This is one explanation of why boys tend to be more or less athletic than their opposite gender. Children at a younger age might not be able to perform at the level of older children, but their ability to learn and improve on motor skills is much higher. At 3 years of age, children enjoy simple movements, such as hopping, jumping, and running back and forth, just for the sheer delight of performing these activities. However, the findings in the article "The relationship between fine and gross motor ability, self-perceptions and self-worth in children and adolescents" it stated that there was not a statistical significance in athletic competence and social competence. This correlation coefficient was .368 and simply means that there is a low correlation between those two relationships. A child being able to perform certain gross and fine motor skills does not mean that they will have the ability to demonstrate social skills such as conversation, social awareness, sensitivity, and body language. This Their body stability is focused on the child's dynamic body base and is related to their visual perceptions such as height, depth, or width. A study was done to assess motor skill development and the overall rate and level of growth development. This study shows that at the preschool age children develop more goal-directed behaviors. This plays a big role, because their learning focuses around play and physical activity. While assessing the gross motor skills in children can be challenging, it is essential to do so in order to ensure that children are prepared to interact with the environment they live in. Different tests are given to these children to measure their skill level. At age 4, children continue to do the same actions as they did at age 3, but further their moving. They are beginning to be able to go down the stairs with one foot on each step. At 5 years of age, they are fully able to go down the stairs one foot at a time in addition to improvements in their balance and running. Their body stability becomes more mature and their trunk is fixed on their posture. Performances are more fluent and are less influenced by factors such a slope and width. During middle and late childhood, children's motor development becomes much smoother and more coordinated than it was in early childhood. As they age, children become able to have control over their bodies and have an increased attention span. Having a child in a sport can help them with their coordination, as well as some social aspects. Teachers will suggest that their students may need occupational therapists in different situations. Students could get frustrated doing writing exercises if they are having difficulties with their writing skills. It also may affect the teacher because it is illegible. Some children also may have reports of their "hands getting tired". There are many occupational therapists out there today to give students the help they need. These therapists were once used when something was seriously wrong with your child but now they are used to help children be the best they can be. According to the article "The Relationship Between Fundamental Motor Skills and Outside-School Physical Activity of Elementary School Children", the developmental level of overhand throwing and jumping of elementary kids is related to skill specific physical activity outside of school. In the studies done boys were seen to have higher scores in developmental level of overhand throwing and higher scores for the Caltrac accelerometer, rapid-trunk movement, and motor skill related physical activity. Girls were seen to have higher scores in lower-intensity physical activities and physical inactivity. The study showed that the developmental level of the fundamental skills (Overhand-throwing and Jumping) are related to skill-specific physical activity outside of school in elementary children. We can conclude that boys at a younger age develop fundamental motor skills quicker than girls will. In other studies it has been seen that having a higher motor proficiency leads to kids being more active, and in most cases more athletic. This can lead to some issues in childhood development such as issues with weight, and increasing the public health epidemic of childhood obesity. Adolescence and adulthood Between the ages of 7 and 12 there is an increase in running speed and are able to skip. Jumping is also acquired better and there is an increase in throwing and kicking. They're able to bat and dribble a ball. (Age) Gross motor skills usually continue improving during adolescence. The peak of physical performance is before 30, between 18 and 26. Even though athletes keep getting better than their predecessors—running faster, jumping higher, and lifting more weight—the age at which they reach their peak performance has remained virtually the same. After age 30, most functions begin to decline. Older adults move slower than younger adults. This can be moving from one place to another or continually moving. Exercising regularly and maintaining a healthy lifestyle can slow this process. Aging individuals who are active and biologically healthy perform motor skills at a higher level than their less active, less healthy aging counterparts. See also Apraxia Developmental coordination disorder Fine motor skill References Further reading External links About Down Syndrome Gross motor development in early & middle childhood Infancy Physical Development: Gross Motor Skills - A. Oswalt Watch How You Hold That Crayon - New York Times Pediatrics Motor control Motor skills
4620735	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit%20%28Buddhism%29	Merit (Buddhism)	Merit (; ) is a concept considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics. It is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts. Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of the next life and contributes to a person's growth towards enlightenment. In addition, merit is also shared with a deceased loved one, in order to help the deceased in their new existence. Despite modernization, merit-making remains essential in traditional Buddhist countries and has had a significant impact on the rural economies in these countries. Merit is connected with the notions of purity and goodness. Before Buddhism, merit was used with regard to ancestor worship, but in Buddhism it gained a more general ethical meaning. Merit is a force that results from good deeds done; it is capable of attracting good circumstances in a person's life, as well as improving the person's mind and inner well-being. Moreover, it affects the next lives to come, as well as the destination a person is reborn. The opposite of merit is demerit (papa), and it is believed that merit is able to weaken demerit. Indeed, merit has even been connected to the path to Nirvana itself, but many scholars say that this refers only to some types of merit. Merit can be gained in a number of ways, such as giving, virtue and mental development. In addition, there are many forms of merit-making described in ancient Buddhist texts. A similar concept of kusala (Sanskrit: kusala) is also known, which is different from merit in some details. The most fruitful form of merit-making is those good deeds done with regard to the Triple Gem, that is, the Buddha, his teachings, the Dhamma (Sanskrit: Dharma), and the Sangha. In Buddhist societies, a great variety of practices involving merit-making has grown throughout the centuries, sometimes involving great self-sacrifice. Merit has become part of rituals, daily and weekly practice, and festivals. In addition, there is a widespread custom of transferring merit to one's deceased relatives, of which the origin is still a matter of scholarly debate. Merit has been that important in Buddhist societies, that kingship was often legitimated through it, and still is. In modern society, merit-making has been criticized as materialist, but merit-making is still ubiquitous in many societies. Examples of the impact of beliefs about merit-making can be seen in the Phu Mi Bun rebellions which took place in the last centuries, as well as in the revival of certain forms of merit-making, such as the much discussed merit release. Definition Puñña literally translates as 'merit, meritorious action, virtue'. It is glossed by the Theravāda Commentator Dhammapāla as "santanaṃ punāti visodheti", meaning 'it cleans or purifies the life-continuity'. Its opposites are apuñña (demerit) or pāpa ('infertile, barren, harmful, bringing ill fortune'), of which the term pāpa has become most common. The term , originally a Christian term, has in the latter part of the twentieth century gradually been used as a translation of the Buddhist term puṇya or puñña. The Buddhist term has, however, more of an impermanent character than the English translation implies, and the Buddhist term does not imply a sense of deserving. Before the arising of Buddhism, merit was commonly used in the context of Brahmanical sacrifice, and it was believed that merit accrued through such sacrifice would bring the devotee to an eternal heaven of the 'fathers' . Later, in the period of the Upanishads, a concept of rebirth was established and it was believed that life in heaven was determined by the merit accumulated in previous lives, but the focus on the pitṛ did not really change. In Buddhism, the idea of an eternal heaven was rejected, but it was believed that merit could help achieve a rebirth in a temporary heaven. Merit was no longer merely a product of ritual, but was invested with an ethical meaning and role. In the Tipiṭaka (; the Buddhist scriptures), the importance of merit is often stressed. Merit is generally considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics, in nearly all Buddhist traditions. Merit-making is very important to Buddhist practice in Buddhist societies. Merit is a "beneficial and protective force which extends over a long period of time" (B.J. Terwiel)—and is the effect of good deeds (, ) done through physical action, words, or thought. As its Pāli language (the language of Theravada Buddhism, as practiced in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, etc.) definition indicates, this force is associated with goodness and purity of mind. In traditional Buddhist societies, it is believed that merit is more sustainable than that of magical rites, spirit worship or worldly power. The way merit works, is that acts of merit bring good and agreeable results, whereas demeritorious acts bring bad and disagreeable results. A mixture of the two generates mixed results in a person's life. This () or "automatic cosmic reaction" (Brokaw) is a common idea found in Buddhist texts and Buddhist societies, and explains why people are different and lead different lives in many ways. Karma is self-regulatory and natural: it operates without divine intervention and human intention is fundamental to it. Internally, merit makes the mind happy and virtuous. Externally, present good circumstances, such as a long life, health and wealth, as well as the character and abilities someone is born with, arise from merits done in the past and vice versa, with demerits. The merits and demerits a person has done may take a while to bear fruit. Merit or demerit may cause a good or bad future respectively, including in the next lives to come. A bad destination after rebirth may be caused by demerit, but merely a lack of merit may also lead a person to be born in an unhappy destination. When someone is reborn in a happy destination, however, one can only stay there as long as merits last. Thus, it is stated in the Tipiṭaka that people cannot take anything with them when they die, except for whatever merit and demerit they have done, which will affect their future. Merit can be accumulated in different quantities, and stored up, but also has an impermanent character: it can run out. Summarizing from the Buddhist text Milinda Pañhā, some scholars conclude that merit is inherently stronger than demerit. Moreover, many merits together have the power to prevent demerits from having an effect, by pushing them "to the back of the queue" (Richard Gombrich), though demerits can never be undone. All these benefits of merit (; ), whether internal or external, are the aim in merit-making, and are often subject of Dharma teachings and texts. Thus, merit is the foundation of heavenly bliss in the future, and in some countries merit was also considered to contribute to the good fortune of the country. Because merit is understood to have these many beneficial effects, it is sometimes compared with cool water, which is poured or which is bathed in. This symbol is used in merit transfer ceremonies, for example. Discussion in traditional texts General Merit is not only a concept, but also a way of living. The Pāli canon identifies three bases of merit (), in order of difficulty: giving () () mental development () In Buddhist texts and practice, giving is considered the easiest of the three bases of merit. It helps to overcome selfishness and stills the mind; it prepares the mind for the practice of virtue. It is also considered a form of saving, considering there is a rebirth in which people receive back what they have given. As for virtue, this comprises three out of eight aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path, the path central in the Buddhist teaching: right speech, right action and right livelihood. Being the main criterion for moral behavior in Buddhism, virtue is mostly about the undertaking of five precepts, although the eight precepts may be kept now and then. The five precepts are part of many Buddhist ceremonies, and are also considered a merit itself, helping the practitioner to become strong and healthy. The benefits of practicing the three bases of merits are also summarized as three forms of happiness ()—happiness as a human being, happiness in heaven, and happiness in Nirvana. When people die, what world they will be reborn into depends on how intense they practice these three bases of merit. It is, however, only mental development that can take someone to the highest heavenly worlds, or to Nirvana. Post-canonical texts and commentaries such as the Dhammasaṅganī and Atthasālinī, elaborating on the three bases of merit, state that lay devotees can make merit by performing ten deeds. Seven items are then added to the previous three: Giving (Dāna-maya) Virtue (Sīla-maya) Mental development (Bhāvanā-maya) Honoring others (Apacāyana-maya) Offering service (Veyyāvaca-maya) Dedicating (or transferring) merit to others (Pāli:Pattidāna-maya; Sanskrit: puṇyapariṇāmanā) Rejoicing in others' merit (Pattānumodanā-maya) Listening to Buddha's Teachings (Dhammassavana-maya) Instructing others in the Buddha's Teachings (Dhammadesanā-maya) Straightening one's own views in accordance with the Buddha's Teachings (Diṭṭhujukamma) These ten, the Commentator Buddhaghosa says, all fit within the three first bases of merit: 'Giving' includes 'Transferring merit to others' and 'Rejoicing in others' merit' by extension, whereas 'Virtue' includes 'Honoring others' and 'Offering service'. The remaining items 'Listening to Teachings', 'Instructing others in the Teachings' and 'Straightening one's own views' are part of 'Mental development'. Thus, in Theravāda Buddhism, merit is always accrued through morally (good) actions. Such good deeds are also highly valued in the other two Buddhist schools, that is Mahāyāna (China, Japan, etc.) and Vajrayāna (Tibet, Nepal, etc.). In some forms of Mahāyāna or Vajrayāna it is believed, however, that even more merit will accrue from certain ritual actions, sometimes called the 'power of blessed substances' (). These are considered an addition to the traditional list and can help protect against calamities or other negative events caused by bad karma. A number of scholars have criticized the concepts of merit and karma as amoral, egoist and calculative, citing its quantitative nature and emphasis on personal benefits in observing morality. Other scholars have pointed out that in Buddhist ethics egoism and altruism may not be as strictly separated as in western thought, personal benefit and that of the other becoming one as the practitioner progresses on the spiritual path. Buddhist ethics is informed by Buddhist metaphysics, notably, the not-self doctrine, and therefore some western ethical concepts may not apply. Besides, as Keown notices, moral action would not be possible if it was not preceded by moral concern for others, as is illustrated by the example of the Buddha himself. Such moral concern is also part of the Buddhist path, cultivated through loving-kindness and the other sublime attitudes (). Accumulation and fruition In post-canonical and vernacular Pāli literature, such as the Jātaka stories of the Buddha's previous lives, the Avadānas and Anisaṃsa texts, as well as in many Mahāyāna texts, merit is the main concept. It is regarded as something which can be accumulated throughout different lifetimes in the process of attaining Buddhahood, and is also instrumental in attaining it. The Bodhisatta intent on accomplishing Buddhahood and bringing other beings across the ocean of suffering, must do so by accumulating all sorts of merits, in this context also called perfections (; ). This form of merit-making is always led by a vow for enlightenment (; ), and an intention to enlighten others as well, as well as the transferring of merits to all living beings to that effect. Another aspect of meritorious acts, emphasized more in later literature, is the idea that a single meritorious act done will reap many fruits, as, for example, expressed in the Vimānavatthu. Not only is the quality of people's next rebirth affected by their merits, but also the circumstances in which they are reborn; not only in the next life, but also in adjacent lives after that. Wealth, lifespan, and position are all contingent on merit. In Buddhist texts further details are given in what way and to what extent a meritorious deed will bring results: this depends on the spiritual quality of the recipient, the spiritual attitude of the giver, the manner in which one gives and the object given. If the recipient is a human, the gift yields more fruits than if the recipient is an animal, but a gift to a (a young monk), a monk, many monks, and the Buddha yield even more fruits, in ascending order. If the giver is motivated by greed or other defilements of the mind, the merit gained will be much less than if the giver is motivated by loving-kindness or other noble intentions. Even the intention of going to heaven, though in itself not considered wrong, is not seen as lofty as the intention to want to develop and purify the mind. If the recipient is spiritually "not worthy of the gift", the gift will still be meritorious provided the giver's intention is good, and this is also valid the other way around. Good thoughts must also be maintained after the good deed is done, as regretting the gift will also decrease the merit. Whether the giver pronounces a certain wish or intention also affects the meritorious deed, as the power of the merits can be channeled toward a certain purpose. The manner in which people give is also important: whether someone gives respectfully or not, and whether by giving someone is harming anyone. With regard to the size of the gift, a larger gift is usually more meritorious than a smaller one, but purity of mind affects merit more than the gift's size. It is therefore recommended to give as much as you can afford, no more and no less. Such care in choosing whom to give to and how to give, is called being 'skilled in merit' (). Puñña, kusala and Nirvana A teaching that exists in both Mahāyāna sūtras and Theravādin suttas is the teaching on the Ten Wholesome Ways of Action (). In Mahāyāna, this teaching is described as the way in which a Bodhisattva prevents "suffering in all evil destinies". These ten wholesome ways are: In giving up the taking of life, the practitioner will accomplish freedom from vexations; In giving up stealing, the practitioner will find security in life, economically, socially and spiritually; In giving up wrongful (sexual) conduct, the practitioner will find inner peace and peace in the family life; In giving up lying, the practitioner will attain purity of speech and mind; In giving up slander, the practitioner will be protected socially and spiritually; In giving up harsh language, the practitioner's words will be more effective; In giving up frivolous speech, the practitioner will become wise and dignified; In giving up lust, the practitioner finds freedom in life through contentment and simplicity; In giving up hatred, the practitioner will develop kindness and gentleness; In giving up wrong views, the practitioner will not falter in the good and spiritual path. These ten actions are described as ('unwholesome'; ), and when abstaining from them it is called ('wholesome'; ). Moreover, kusala and akusala are depicted as having 'roots' (mūla). Akusalamūla are the roots of evil in the mind (the defilements), whereas the kusalamūla are roots connected with good qualities of the mind. Both of them are called roots because they are qualities that can be cultivated and grown in the mind. Puñña and pāpa are close in meaning to kusala and akusala. Both pairs are used for distinguishing between ethically right and wrong. However, even though the negatives akusala and pāpa have almost the same meaning, there are some differences between the positives, kusala and puñña. According to P. D. Premasiri, Kusala is used to describe a more direct path to Nirvana than puñña. Damien Keown, however, believes they are merely different angles of the same concept: kusala refers to the moral status of an action, whereas puñña refers to the experience of the consequences of the action. He further points out that in the Pāli (discourses) mental development (bhāvanā) practices such as meditation are also included in the path of merit. It is unlikely that in the Tipiṭaka meditation would be regarded as an indirect path or obstacle to Nirvana, and there are passages that directly relate merit to Nirvana. Sometimes a distinction is made between worldly () and transcendental () merit, in which only transcendental merit leads to liberation. The Thai scholar and monastic Phra Payutto believes that merit and kusala are both used to describe the 'cleanliness of the mind' (). But whereas merit aims for the 'beautiful and praiseworthy' () aspect of such cleanliness, with worldly benefits such as wealth, praise and happiness; kusala aims for the 'purity' () aspect of cleanliness, with enlightenment as its benefit. Phra Payutto does add that both need to be accumulated on the Buddhist path. In making this comparison, he says this only holds for worldly merit, not for transcendental merit. Collins equates transcendental merit with kusala. In the earlier Pāli texts, kusala was much more commonly used than puñña, puñña mostly being used in the context of the practice of giving. In a widely quoted theory, Melford Spiro and Winston King have distinguished two forms of Buddhism found in traditional Buddhist societies, "kammatic Buddhism" focused on activities such as merit-making, and "nibbanic Buddhism" which focuses on the liberation from suffering and rebirth. In this theory, called the "transcendency thesis" (Keown), Buddhism has two quite separate aims, which are pursued by separate groups, that is, laypeople (kammatic) and monks (nibbanic). This view has, however, been downplayed or criticized by many other scholars, who believe that kammatic practices are in many ways connected to nibbanic practices, and the aims of monks and laypeople cannot be that easily separated. This transcendency thesis has also been applied to scriptural interpretation. When discussing the path to the attainment of Nirvana, in some passages in the Tipiṭaka merit is rejected. For example, in the Padhāna Sutta, the Bodhisatta (the Buddha Gotama to be) is tempted by Māra to give up his self-torture practices to do meritorious acts instead. The Bodhisatta replies that even a bit of merit is no use to him (). Some scholars, supporting the transcendency thesis, have interpreted this to mean that merit can only lead to happiness and progress within Saṃsāra, but does not lead to Nirvana, and must in fact be discarded before attaining Nirvana. Marasinghe believes, however, that the word merit in this passage refers to merit in the pre-Buddhist Brahmanical sense, connected with rituals and sacrifice, and the lay life. Another example often quoted in this context is the simile of the raft, which states that both dhamma and adhamma should be let go of in order to attain liberation. Whereas the term adhamma in the text clearly refers to evil views, the meaning of dhamma is subject to different interpretations. Considering that no other similar passage can be found in the Tipiṭaka, Keown believes that only this passage is not enough to base the transcendency thesis on. In the Pāli Canon, an enlightened person is said to be neutral in terms of karma, that is, the person no longer generates karma, merit, or demerit. Some scholars have interpreted this to mean that an enlightened person attains a state where distinctions between good and evil no longer exist. Other scholars have criticized this as making little sense, considering how the Buddha would normally emphasize ethics. The fact that an enlightened person is neutral in terms of karma, does not mean he is neutral. Indeed, the Buddha is quoted in the Tipiṭaka as saying he is foremost in 'higher morality' (adhisīla). Keown attempts to overcome this problem by proposing that enlightened people are beyond the accumulative experience of good deeds (merit, puñña), since they are already perfected. They therefore do not need to accumulate goodness and the resulting happiness anymore. They no longer need to strive for a happy rebirth in the next life, because they have gone beyond rebirth. Their enlightenment is, however, an perfection as well, though this is solely described as kusala, not as puñña. Field of merit In pre-Buddhist Brahmanism, Brahmin priests used to perform s (sacrifices) and thereby generating merit for the donors who provided gifts for the sacrifice. In Buddhism, it was the Buddhist monk who assumed this role, considered qualified to receive generosity from devotees and thereby generating merit for them. He came to be described as āhuneyyo ('worthy of offering'), by analogy with the Brahmanical term āhavanīya ('worthy of sacrifice', used in offerings to the ritual fire); and as dakkhiṇeyyo ('qualified to accept the offering'), by analogy with the Brahmanical dakśiṇā, the sacrificial offering itself. The Sangha (monastic community) was also described as (; ). The difference with the Brahmanical tradition was, according to Marasinghe, that Buddhism did recognize ways of generating merit apart from offerings to the monk, whereas the Brahmanical yajña emphasized offerings to the Brahmin priest. That is not to say that such offerings were not important in early Buddhism: giving to the Sangha was the first Buddhist activity which allowed for community participation, and preceded the first rituals in Buddhism. The main concept of the field of merit is that good deeds done towards some recipients accrue more merit than good deeds to other recipients. This is compared with a seed planted in fertile ground which reaps more and better fruits than in infertile ground. The Sangha is described as a field of merit, mostly because the members of the Sangha follow the Noble Eightfold Path. But in many texts, the Buddha and the Dhamma, and their representations, are also described as fields of merit. For example, Mahāyāna tradition considers production and reverence of Dharma texts very meritorious—this tradition, sometimes referred to as the "cult of the book" (Gregory Schopen), stimulated the development of print technology in China. In other traditions a Buddha image is also considered a field of merit, and any good deed involving a Buddha image is considered very meritorious. A meritorious deed will also be very valuable (and sometimes viewed in terms of a field of merit) if performed to repay gratitude to someone (such as parents), or performed out of compassion for those who suffer. Deeds of merit done towards the Sangha as a whole yield greater fruits than deeds done towards one particular recipient () or deeds done with favoritism. Indeed, saṅghadāna yields even more fruits than deeds of merit to the person of the Buddha himself. Practice in Buddhist societies Merit-making The ten bases of merit are very popular in Buddhist countries. In China, other similar lists are also well-known. In Thai Buddhism, the word "merit" () is often combined with "to do, to make" (), and this expression is frequently used, especially in relation to giving. In Buddhist societies, such merit-making is common, especially those meritorious deeds which are connected to monks and temples. In this regard, there is a saying in Burma, "Your hands are always close to offering donations". Contrary to popular conceptions, merit-making is done by both monastics and laypeople alike. Buddhist monks or lay Buddhists earn merit through mindfulness, meditation, chanting and other rituals. Giving is the fundamental way of making merit for many laypeople, as monks are not allowed to cook by themselves. Monastics in their turn practice themselves to be a good field of merit and make merit by teaching the donors. Merit-making has thus created a symbiotic relationship between laypeople and Sangha, and the Sangha is obligated to be accessible to laypeople, for them to make merit. Giving can be done in several ways. Some laypeople offer food, others offer robes and supplies, and others fund ceremonies, build monasteries or persuade a relative to ordain as a monk. Young people often temporary ordain as monks, because they believe this will not only yield fruits of merit for themselves, but also for their parents who have allowed them to ordain. In China, Thailand and India, it used to be common to offer land or the first harvest to a monastery. Also, more socially oriented activities such as building a hospital or bridge, or giving to the poor are included in the Tipiṭaka, and by many Buddhists considered meritorious. In fieldwork studies done by researchers, devotees appreciated the merits of becoming ordained and supporting the building of a temple the most. Fisher found that building a temple was considered a great merit by devotees, because they believed they would in that way have part in all the wisdom which would be taught at that temple. People may pursue merit-making for different reasons, as Buddhist orthodoxy allows for various ideals, this-worldly or ultimate. Although many scholars have pointed out that devotees often aim for this-worldly benefits in merit-making, it has also been pointed out that in old age, people tend to make merit with a view on the next life and liberation. Among lay people, women tend to engage in merit-making more than men, and this may be a way for them to enhance empowerment. Very often, merit-making is done as a group, and it is believed that such shared merit-making will cause people to be born together in next lives. This belief holds for families, friends, communities and even the country as a whole. In some cases, merit-making took the form of a community-wide competition, in which different donors tried to outdo each other to prove their generosity and social status. This was the case during merit-making festivals in nineteenth-century Thailand. In modern Thailand, businesses and politicians often make merit to improve their public image and increase confidence among customers or voters. In Burma, lay devotees form associations to engage in merit-making as a community. People were so intent on merit-making and giving, that in some societies, people would even offer and their family to a Buddhist temple, as one high-ranking minister did in the ancient Pagan Kingdom (ninth until fourteenth century Burma). On a similar note, in Sri Lanka, kings and commoners would offer slaves to the temple, and then donate money to pay for their freedom, that way accruing two merits at once. Even more symbolically, kings would sometimes offer their kingdom to a temple, which, returned the gift immediately, together with some Dhamma teaching. Also in Sri Lanka, King Mahakuli Mahatissa disguised himself as a peasant and started to earn his living working on a paddy field, so he would be able to gain more merit by working himself to obtain resources to give to Buddhist monks. In some cases, merit-making was even continued after a person's death: in ancient Thai tradition, it was considered meritorious for people to dedicate their corpses to feed the wild animals after death. Rituals Many devout Buddhists observe regular "rest days" () by keeping five precepts, listening to teachings, practicing meditation and living at the temple. Besides these weekly observances, ceremonies and festivities are yearly held and are often occasions to make merit, and are sometimes believed to yield greater merits than other, ordinary days. In Thailand and Laos, a yearly festival is held focused on the Vessantara Jātaka, a story of a previous life of the Buddha which is held sacred. This festival, seven centuries old, played a major role in legitimating kingship in Thai society. Making merit is the central theme of the festival. Since the period of Rama IV, however, the festival has become less popular. Many countries also celebrate the yearly Kaṭhina, when they offer robes, money and other requisites to the Sangha as a way to make merit. In Burma, the two yearly Light Festivals are typically occasions to make merit, as gifts are given to elders, and robes are sewn for the Sangha. In South Korea, a Buddha Day is held, on which Buddhists pray and offer alms. Other kinds of occasions of merit-making are also uphold. A special form of merit-making less frequently engaged in is going on pilgrimage, which is mostly common in Tibet and Japan. This practice is highly regarded and considered very meritorious. Recording In several Buddhist countries, it has been common to record merits done. In China, it was common for many centuries to keep record of someone's meritorious deeds in 'merit ledgers' (). Although a belief in merit and retribution had preceded the merit ledgers by many centuries, during the Ming dynasty, through the ledgers a practice of systematic merit accumulation was established for the first time. The merit ledgers were lists of good deeds and bad deeds, organized in the form of a calendar for users to calculate to what extent they had been practicing good deeds and avoiding bad deeds every day. The ledgers also listed the exact retributions of every number of deeds done, to the detail. Through these ledgers it was believed someone could offset bad karma. In the fourth century CE, the Baopuzi, and in the twelfth century the Treatise On the Response of the Tao and the Ledger of Merit and Demerit of the Taiwei Immortal introduced the basics of the system of merit ledgers. In the fourteenth century CE, the Tao master Zhao Yizhen recommended the use of the ledgers to examine oneself, to bring emotion in harmony with reason. From the fourth to the sixteenth centuries, many types of ledgers were produced by Buddhist and Tao schools, and the usage of the ledgers grew widespread. The practice of recording merits has survived in China and Japan until the present day. In Theravāda countries, for example in Burma and Sri Lanka, similar customs have been observed. In Sri Lanka, a (, ) was sometimes kept by someone for years and read in the last moments of life. This practice was based on the story of King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi, and was mostly practiced by the royalty and rich during the period of the Mahāvaṁsa chronicle. More recent practice has also been observed, for example, as a form of terminal care. or as part of the activities of lay merit-making associations. Merit and wealth The association of wealth with merits done has deeply affected many Buddhist countries. The relation between giving and wealth is ubiquitous in vernacular Pāli literature, and many stories of exemplary donors exist, such as the stories of Anāthapiṇḍika and Jōtika. In Buddhism, by emphasizing the usage of wealth for generosity, accumulating wealth for giving purposes thus became a spiritual practice. But using wealth in unrighteous ways, or hoarding it instead of sharing and giving it, is condemned extensively. Taṇhā (thirst, desire, greed, craving) is what keeps a person wandering in Saṃsāra (the cycle of rebirth), instead of becoming liberated. It is the attachment to wealth that is an obstacle on the spiritual path, not wealth per se. Stories illustrating these themes in vernacular Buddhist literature, have profoundly influenced popular culture in Buddhist countries. Several scholars have described merit as a sort of spiritual currency or bookkeeping system. Though objections have been made against this metaphor, it is not new. Similar comparisons have been made in the Milinda Pañhā, and in seventeenth-century China. Moreover, Schopen has shown that Buddhism has had strong connections with the mercantile class, and Rotman thinks that a mercantile ethos may have informed Buddhist texts such as the Divyāvadāna. Gombrich objects to calling merit-making "dry metaphysical mercantilism", but he does speculate on a historical relation between the concept of merit and the monetization of ancient India's economy. Transfer Description and origins Two practices mentioned in the list of meritorious acts have been studied quite extensively by scholars: dedicating (or transferring) merit to others, and rejoicing in others' merits. Transferring merit is a widespread custom in all Buddhist countries, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna and Theravāda. In the Pāli tradition, the word pattidāna is used, meaning 'giving of the acquired'. And in the Sanskrit tradition, the word pariṇāmanā is used for transferring merit, meaning 'bending round or towards, transfer, dedication'. Of these translations, 'transfer of merit' has become commonplace, though objected to by some scholars. Buddhist traditions provide detailed descriptions of how this transfer proceeds. Transferring merit to another person, usually deceased relatives, is simply done by a mental wish. Despite the word transfer, the merit of the giver is in no way decreased during such an act, just like a candle is used to light another candle, but the light does not diminish. The merit transferred cannot always be received, however. The dead relatives must also be able to sympathize with the meritorious act. If the relatives do not receive the merit, the act of transferring merit will still be beneficial for the giver himself. The transfer of merit is thus connected with the idea of rejoicing. The other person who rejoices in one's meritorious deeds, in that way also receives merit, if he approves of the merit done. Thus, rejoicing in others' merits, apart from being one of the ten meritorious acts mentioned, is also a prerequisite for the transferring of merit to occur. The purposes for merit transfer differ. In many Buddhist countries, transferring merit is connected to the notion of an intermediate state. The merit that is transferred to the deceased will help them to cross over safely to the next rebirth. Some Mahāyāna traditions believe that it can help deceased relatives to attain the Pure Land. Another way of transferring merit, apart from helping the deceased, is to dedicate it to the devas (deities), since it is believed that these are not able to make merits themselves. In this way it is believed their favor can be obtained. Finally, many Buddhists transfer merits to resolve a bond of revenge that may exist between people, as it is believed that someone else's vengefulness may create harm in one's life. Initially in the Western study of Buddhism, some scholars believed that the transfer of merit was a uniquely Mahāyāna practice and that it was developed only at a late period after the historical Buddha. For example, Heinz Bechert dated the Buddhist doctrine of transfer of merit in its fully developed form to the period between the fifth and seventh centuries CE. Scholars perceived that it was discordant with early Buddhist understandings of karma, and noticed that in the Kathāvatthu the idea is partly refuted by Theravādins. Other scholars have pointed out that the doctrine of the transfer of merit can be found early in the Theravāda tradition. Then there also scholars who propose that, although the transfer of merit did not exist in early Buddhism, early doctrines did form a basis for it, the transfer of merit being an "inherent consequence" (Bechert) of these early doctrines. The idea that a certain power could be transferred from one to another was known before the arising of Buddhism. In religious texts such as the Mahābhārata, it is described that devas can transfer certain powers (). A similar belief existed with regard to the energy gained by performing austerities (). Apart from these transfers of power, a second origin is found in Brahamanical ancestor worship. In the period preceding the arising of Buddhism, it was believed that after a person's death he had to be transformed from a wandering preta to reach the blissful world of the pitṛs. This was done through the complex Śrāddha ceremonies, which would secure the destiny of the deceased as a pitṛ. In Buddhism, however, ancestor worship was discontinued, as it was believed that the dead would not reach heavenly bliss through rituals or worship, but only through the law of karma. Nevertheless, the practice of transfer of merit arose by using the ethical and psychological principles of karma and merit, and connect these with the sense of responsibility towards one's parents. This sense of responsibility was typical for pre-Buddhist practices of ancestor worship. As for the veneration of dead ancestors, this was replaced by veneration of the Sangha. Application in the spreading of Buddhism Sree Padma and Anthony Barber note that merit transfer was well-established and a very integral part of Buddhist practice in the Andhra region of southern India. In addition, inscriptions at numerous sites across South Asia provide definitive evidence that the transfer of merit was widely practiced in the first few centuries CE. In Theravāda Buddhism, it has become customary for donors to share merits during ceremonies held at intervals, and during a teaching. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, it is believed that Bodhisattvas in the heavens are capable of transferring merits, and will do so to help relief the suffering of their devotees, who then can dedicate it to others. This concept has led to several Buddhist traditions focused on devotion. Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists transfer merits as part of the 'Seven-part-worship' (), and there is almost no ceremony without some form of merit transfer. Thus, merit transfer has developed to become a standard element in the basic liturgy of all main schools of Buddhism. Indeed, the transfer of merits has grown that important in Buddhism, that it has become a major way for Buddhism to sustain itself. In Japan, some temples are even called ekōdera, which means a temple for merit transfer. Kingship In South and South-East Asia, merit-making was not only a practice for the mass, but was also practiced by the higher echelons of society. Kingship and merit-making went together. In the Tipiṭaka, ideas about good governance were framed in terms of the ideal of the 'wheel-turning monarch' (; ), the king who rules righteously and non-violently according to Dharma. His roles and duties are discussed extensively in Buddhist texts. The Cakkavatti is a moral example to the people and possesses enough spiritual merit. It is through this that he earns his sovereignty, as opposed to merely inheriting it. Also, the Buddha himself was born as a prince, and was also a king (Vessantara) in a previous life. Apart from the models in the suttas, Pāli chronicles such as the Mahāvaṃsa and the Jinakālamālī may have contributed to the ideals of Buddhist kingship. In these vernacular Pāli works, examples are given of royalty performing meritorious acts, sometimes as a form of repentance for previously committed wrongdoings. The emperor Asoka () is featured as an important patron supporting the Sangha. Because of these traditions, kings have had an important role in maintaining the Sangha, and publicly performed grand acts of merit, as is testified by epigraphic evidence from South and South-East Asia. In Sri Lanka, from the tenth century CE onward, kings have assumed the role of a lay protector of the Sangha, and so have Thai kings, during the periods of Sukhothai and Ayutthaya (fourteenth until eighteenth centuries). In fact, a number of kings in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma have described themselves as Bodhisattas, and epithets and royal language were established accordingly. In short, kingship in traditional Buddhist societies was connected with the Sangha as a field of merit: the king assumed an exemplary role as a donor to the Sangha, and the Sangha legitimated the king as a leader of the state. Both facilitated one another, and both needed each other. In times of famine or other hardship, it was traditionally believed that the king was failing, and the king would typically perform meritorious activities on a grand scale. In this way the king would be able to improve the kingdom's conditions, through his "overflow karma" (Walters). A similar role was played by queens. In the last seven centuries in Thailand, the Vessantara Jātaka has played a significant role in legitimating kingship in Thailand, through a yearly festival known as the 'Preaching of the Great Life' (). Merit-making and pāramīs (doing good deeds, developing good habits to become a Buddha) were greatly emphasized in this festival, through the story about Prince Vessantara's generosity. During the reform period of Rama IV, as Thai Buddhism was being modernized, the festival was dismissed as not reflecting true Buddhism. Its popularity has greatly diminished ever since. Nevertheless, the use of merit-making by the Thai monarchy and government, to solidify their position and create unity in society, has continued until the late twentieth century. In modern society 19th–early 20th century Buddhists are not in agreement with regard to the interpretation, role, and importance of merit. The role of merit-making in Buddhism has been discussed throughout Buddhist history, but much more so in the last centuries. In the nineteenth century, during the rise of Buddhist modernism and the Communist regimes, Buddhists in South and Southeast Asia became more critical about merit-making when it became associated with magical practices, privileging, ritualism and waste of resources. In pre-modern Thailand, a great deal of the funds of temples were derived from the profits of land that were offered to temples by royalty and nobility. During the period of religious reform and administrative centralization in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, however, Thai temples were no longer supported in this manner and had to find other ways to maintain themselves. At the beginning of the twentieth century, perspectives of merit-making had changed again, as merit-making was being associated with capitalism and consumerism, which had been rising in South and Southeast Asia. Furthermore, in some Buddhist countries, such as Thailand, there is a tendency among teachers and practitioners to dismiss and even revile merit-making in favor of teachings about detachment and attaining Nirvana, for which L. S. Cousins has coined the term "". From 1960s onward Studies done in the 1960s and 1970s in Thailand, Sri Lanka and Burma showed that a great deal of time, effort and money was invested by people in merit-making, e.g. Spiro described Burma's rural economy as "geared to the overriding goal of the accumulation of wealth as a means of acquiring merit". In some studies done in rural Burma, up to thirty percent of people's income was spent on merit-making. In 2014, when Burma ranked highest on the World Giving Index (tied with the United States, and followed by many other Buddhist countries), scholars attributed this to the Burmese habit of merit-making. Studies done in Thailand, however, showed that in the 1980s merit-making was declining, and a significant group did no longer believe in karma—though this was not a majority. Some scholars disagree with these findings, however, saying that Buddhist practices such as merit-making are still very widespread. Similar observations have been made about Cambodia and even about Thai people in the United States. As for Buddhist "converts" in the west, for example from the United Kingdom, the interest in merit is less than among Asian Buddhists, but they strongly appreciate the generosity and reverence as exhibited by Asian Buddhists. Discussion by scholars Some scholars have suggested that merit-making may have affected the economies of Buddhist countries in a negative way, because spending savings on the local temple would prevent consumption and investment and therefore stunt economic growth. Other researchers have disagreed, pointing out that spending resources on a Buddhist temple does stimulate economic growth through the investment in goods for the temple. It has also been suggested that even if the economy of Buddhist countries would be better off without merit-making, it would result in an economy that the majority of the population would not prefer. Another criticism often leveled at merit-making in modern times is that it prevents people from using their resources to help the poor and needy. Very often, however, temples do have many social roles in society, and offer help to many groups in society—resources are therefore redistributed widely. Moreover, since merit-making is often done as a community, merit-making may strengthen social ties, which Walters calls "sociokarma". Scholars have often connected the notion of karma to the determinism in the caste system in India. Just like in the case of karma, some scholars believe that a belief in merit can cause social differences to stay unchanged. This would be the case when the poor, who cannot make much merit, resign to their fate. Other scholars point out that merit can be used to improve social status in the present, as in the case of someone ordaining as a monk for a few years. And vice versa, if someone's social status quickly deteriorates, for example, due to quick changes in the bureaucratic structure, these changes might be justified in Buddhist societies because someone's store of merit is believed to have run out. Someone's position in society, even in the cosmos, is always subject to the impermanent workings of merit and demerit. In traditional Buddhist societies, quick changes in position, status, or roles are therefore considered part of life, and this insecurity is a motivator in trying to improve the situation through merit-making. Findly points out that in Buddhist ideals of merit-making, the earned value gained by doing good deeds is more important than the assigned value gained by social status at birth. Phu Mi Bun movements The idea of merit is also at the basis of the movements as has been studied in Thailand and other Buddhist societies. Phu Mi Bun are people who are considered to have much merit from past lives, whose influence morally affects society at large. Phu Mi Bun are in many ways similar to people declared Bodhisattvas in Buddhist societies, and in fact, the word Phu Mi Bun is often used in traditional Thai texts about the previous lives of the Buddha. Besides the example of the king himself, certain monks and shamans have assumed this role throughout history. In Thailand, around the turn of the twentieth century, a millennialist movement arose regarding the coming of a Phu Mi Bun, to the extent of becoming an insurgency which was suppressed by the government. This insurgency became known to Thai historians as the "rebellion of the Phu Mi Bun" (), commonly known in English as the Holy Man's Rebellion. Several of such rebellions involving Phu Mi Bun have taken place in the history of Thai, Laos, Cambodia and Burma. For example, in Cambodia, there were Phu Mi Bun–led revolts against the French control of Cambodia. Lucien Hanks has shown that beliefs pertaining to Phu Mi Bun have profoundly affected the way Thai people relate to authority. Indologist Arthur Basham, however, believed that in contemporary Thai society the Phu Mi Bun is more of a label, and merit more of a secular term than a deeply-rooted belief. Merit release One merit-making practice that has received more scholarly attention since the 1990s is the practice of "merit release". Merit release is a ritual of releasing animals from captivity, as a way to make merit. Merit release is a practice common in many Buddhist societies, and has since the 2010s made a comeback in some societies. Its origins are unclear, but traditionally it is said to originate from the Mahāyāna Humane King Sutra, among other sources. It often involves a large number of animals which are released simultaneously, as well as chanting, making a resolution, and transfer of merits. Though the most common practice is the releasing of fish and birds back in nature, there are also other forms: in Tibet, animals are bought from the slaughterhouse to release. However, the practice has come under criticism by wildlife conservationists and scholars. Studies done in Cambodia, Hong Kong and Taiwan have shown that the practice may not only be fatal for a high percentage of the released animals, but may also affect the survival of threatened species, create a black market for wildlife, as well as pose a threat for public hygiene. In Thailand, there are cases where animals are captured for the explicit purpose of being sold to be released—often into unsuitable ecosystems. Some Buddhist organizations have responded to this by adjusting their practices, by working together with conservationist organizations to educate people, and even by pushing for new laws controlling the practice. , the Society for Conservation Biology (SCB) started discussing possible solutions with religious communities on how the practice could be adapted. According to the SCB, the communities have generally responded positively. In the meantime, in some countries, laws have been issued to control the practice. In Singapore, to limit merit release on Vesak celebrations, people were fined. Despite its critics, merit release continues to grow, and has also developed new forms in western countries. In 2016, it was widely reported that the Canada-based Great Enlightenment Buddhist Institute Society (GEBIS) had released of lobsters in the ocean. The release was planned in agreement with local lobster-men. In the same year, Wendy Cook from Lincoln, United States, bought about 135 rabbits from a farm to raise them under better conditions. The costly release, advertised on Facebook as The Great Rabbit Liberation of 2016, was supported by Buddhist monastics from Singapore and the Tibetan tradition, and was based on the idea of merit-making. In a less successful attempt, two Taiwanese Buddhists released crab and lobsters in the sea at Brighton, United Kingdom, to make merit. They were fined by the authorities for £15,000 for a wildlife offense that could have significant impact on native species. See also Three Refuges Noble Eightfold Path Sukha Karma in Buddhism Notes Citations References Further reading Field research study on how merit-making practices benefit disabled people in a traditional Buddhist country External links Ten ways of making merit by Mahinda Wijesinghe and Ven. Ñāṇadassana What are the benefits of making merit? by Luang Por Dattajivo, DMC.tv Merit: A Study Guide by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Access to Insight (Legacy Edition) 30 November 2013. Merit: Does Happiness Need to Be Earned? by Dr. Alexander Berzin, Study Buddhism May All Beings Be Happy by Sharon Salzberg, Beliefnet Merit Buddhist ethics
4621330	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban%C5%AB%20M%C5%ABs%C4%81%20brothers	Banū Mūsā brothers	The three brothers Abū Jaʿfar, Muḥammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (before 803 – February 873); Abū al‐Qāsim, Aḥmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (d. 9th century) and Al-Ḥasan ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (d. 9th century), were Persian scholars who lived and worked in Baghdad. They are collectively known as the Banū Mūsā (, "Sons of (or Moses)"). The Banū Mūsā were the sons of Mūsā ibn Shākir, who was an employee of al-Ma'mun, a son of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. After their father's death, the brothers received an education under al-Ma'mun’s direction, and were enrolled at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. There they undertook the translation of ancient Greek works acquired from Byzantium, which they used to develop their own technological, mathematical and astronomical ideas. They were some of the earliest scholars to adopt Greek mathematics, but innovative in their approach to the concepts of area and circumference by expressing them using numerical values instead of ratios. They made geodesic measurements to determine the length of a degree of latitude, and so obtained a relatively accurate value for the circumference of the Earth. The Banū Mūsā wrote almost 20 books, all but three of which are now lost. The most important of all their works was a treatise on geometry, ("Book on the Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures"), which was used extensively by medieval mathematicians. Their most famous extant work (of which the oldest and most reliable copy is in the Topkapi Sarayi in Istanbul) is ("Book of Ingenious Devices"). It describes 100 inventions, many of which were pouring vessels, intended to entertain party guests. Some of their innovations, such as those that involved fluid pressure variations and valves, remained unsurpassed until the modern period. One of those inventions includes an automatic flute player that may have been the first programmable machine or computer. Biographical details Early years Moḥammad, Aḥmad, and Ḥasan were the three sons of Mūsā ibn Shākir. They are always listed in sources in what is assumed by scholars to be their order of seniority. A Persian from Khorasan, Mūsā had been a highwayman, but became known as an astronomer. According an account by the medieval Egyptian historian Al-Qifti, Mūsā ibn Shākir was known to leave part of the way through the Friday prayer to rob travellers, before returning to the mosque before the praying was finished. Musa befriended al-Ma'mun, a son of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid who was staying in Merv. Al-Maʾmūn, who became caliph in 813, employed Musa as an astronomer. According to one story, al Ma’mun saw the Greek polymath Aristotle in a dream telling him about the importance of natural philosophy, which resulted in al-Ma’mun supporting the work then being done by scholars, during what has been called by some historians of science as the Islamic Golden Age. After their father's death, the three orphaned children were cared for at the court of al-Maʾmūn, who made the senior Baghdad official Ishaq ibn Ibrahim al-Mus'abi their guardian. Al-Ma’mun recognized their abilities, and enrolled them in the House of Wisdom, an institution created by him as a centre for collecting, translating and studying books from other lands. In Baghdad, where they apparently lived for the rest of their lives, the three brothers studied geometry, mechanics, music, mathematics and astronomy, trained by a senior court astrologer, Yaḥyā bin Abī Manṣūr. Accomplishments under the Abbasid Caliphate The Banū Mūsā assisted al-Ma'mun's in his obsession to obtain and translate works from Greek into Arabic. They sent for Greek texts from the Byzantines, or travelled themselves to Byzantium to acquire them. During their working lives they used their wealth and energy towards the translation of these works. On his way home to Baghdad from Byzantium, Muhammad met and recruited Thābit ibn Qurra, a money changer from Harran. Thābit went on to make important discoveries in algebra, geometry, and astronomy. Under the direction of al-Ma'mun, the Banū Mūsā worked with the most talented men available, including al-Khwarizmi, al-Kindi, Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar, and the mathematician and translator Hunayn ibn Ishaq, who became a close friend of one of the brothers, Muhammad. Of the translators, three were paid about 500 dinars a month. None of the brothers were medically trained, and relied upon Ishaq bin Hunayn and Thabit bin Qurra to translate Greek medical works. They exchanged ideas with other experts, including the astrologer Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, with whom Muhammed was in continuous contact. The brothers are likely to have used portable instruments such as armillary spheres or dials when making their observations, which were recorded from around 847 to 869. From their Baghdad home, they observed stars in the constellation Ursa Major In 847–848, and measured the maximum and minimum altitudes of the Sun in 868–869. They also observed the September equinox in the Persian city of Samarra. To calculate the difference in latitude between Samarra and Nishapur, they organized simultaneous observations of a lunar eclipse. Whilst working for al-Ma’mun, the Banū Mūsā travelled to a desert near Sanjar, in northern Mesopotamia, with the aim of measuring the length of a degree of latitude along a meridian, and from that verifying a value of obtained by the Greeks for the Earth's circumference. They first measured the altitude of the Pole Star, and then, using pegs and a rope as they moved north, stopped again when the altitude of the star changed by one degree. They repeated the same measurement, this time travelling southwards. The process was repeated at al-Kufa. From their measurements, the brothers obtained a value for the circumference of the Earth of . Under the patronage of the caliphs that followed al Ma’mun—al-Mu'tasim, al-Wathiq, and al-Mutawakkil—the brothers continued to acquire great wealth and become influential in court. They used much of their wealth to collect the works of ancient writers, a practise that was later copied by other scholars at the House of Wisdom. The brothers were very active during the reign of al-Mutawakkil, who was interested in mechanics, and asked the Banū Mūsā to write on this subject. A son of al-Mu'tasim was educated by Ahmad, but the brothers' relations with the caliph are otherwise unknown. When close to death, al-Mu'tasim's successor al-Wathiq called together his astrologers, including Muhammed, who erroneously pronounced that the caliph would live for another 50 years. Involvement in politics The Banū Mūsā's employment by the caliphs for different civil engineering projects, including their involvement in the building of the city of al-D̲j̲aʿfariyya for al-Mutawakki, led to them becoming involved in court politics. In 860, the Banū Mūsā and Mutawakkil’s architects were involved in obtaining land for a new city. The caliph’s advisor suggested that Muhammed and Ahmad bin Musa should be forced to contribute towards the expense of a new palace nearby. The peak of Muhammad's political activity came towards the end of his life, when Turkish commanders were starting to take control of the state. After the death of al-Mutawakkil, Muhammad helped al-Mustaʿīn to become nominated as caliph. Denied the throne, Al-Mustaʿīn's brother besieged Baghdad, and Muhammad was sent to estimate the size of the attacking army. After the siege, he was sent to find out the terms for al-Mustaʿīn to abdicate. Jaʻfariyya canal It was during the reigns of al-Wathiq and al-Mutawakkil that internal rivalries arose between the scholars there. The Banū Mūsā became enemies of al-Kindi, and assisted in his persecution by al-Mutawakkil. They criticized and ridiculed his treatise on the astrolabe, and caused al-Mutawakkil to have him beaten, removed from court, and his library confiscated. The library was returned back to him at a later date with the help of the Persian Jewish scholar Sanad ibn Ali, who insisted the library was returned as a condition to him assisting the Banū Mūsā over his judgement concerning the construction of a canal for the city of al-Ja’fariyya. Shortly before his death, Mutawakkil gave the Banū Mūsā overall responsibility for building the al-Ja’fariyya canal; they in turn delegated the work to Fargftani. The caliph discovered that, due to an engineering error, once built, the water in the canal would drain away. He decreed that the brothers would be crucified beside the canal if this happened. Sanad bin Ah', who was the caliph's consultant engineer, agreed to proclaim—four months before the truth was to be revealed, and knowing that astrologers had predicted that the caliph was close to death—that no error had been made. The brothers were saved from execution when the caliph was assassinated shortly afterwards. Deaths Of the three brothers, only the year that Mohammed died—January 873—is known. Works The Banū Mūsā wrote almost 20 books. Moḥammad was the most productive of the brothers; of his many works, one still exists. They worked together as well as separately: Jafar Muhammad was an expert on mathematics and astronomy, Ahmad excelled in technology, and al-Hasan on mathematics. Muhammed knew the works of both Euclid and Ptolemy, and was considered by contemporaries to be an expert mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher. All but three of the books attributed by scholars to the Banū Mūsā are now lost. Many of the lost works are named in the Book of Ingenious Devices, their most famous work. Astronomy and astrology The Banū Mūsā are known to have made many astronomical observations in Baghdad. ("Book on the Mathematical Proof by Geometry that there Is not a Ninth Sphere Outside the Sphere of the Fixed Stars") is a lost book, reportedly written by Ahmed. Also referred to as the ("Book of Astronomy"), or the ("Book on the First Motion of the Celestial Sphere"), the work analysed the Ptolemy's geocentric model of the cosmos, in which a ninth sphere is responsible for the motion of the heavens, and instead considered that the Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the stars all moved of their own volition. The other astronomical or astrological works by the Banū Mūsā are: ("The Book of Degrees"); ("Book on the Construction of the Astrolabe"), a work quoted by the 11th century Persian scholar al-Biruni; ("Book on the Solar Year"), which was once attributed to Thābit ibn Qurra; ("On the Visibility of the Crescent"), by Muhammad; Book on the Beginning of the World, by Muhammad, now lost; A non-extant (an Islamic astronomical book used to calculate the positions of the Sun and objects in the night sky) by Ahmad was mentioned by the Egyptian astronomer and mathematician Ibn Yunus in his , written in ; A separate non-extant by the Banū Mūsā was mentioned by Ibn Yunus. A translation of a Chinese work called A Book of Degrees on the Nature of Zodiacal Signs; The calculation by Moḥammad and Aḥmad of the Sun’s mean motion in a year agreed with the result obtained by al-Bīrūnī—that a solar year was 365 days and less than 6 hours long. Aḥmad independently reached a similar conclusion in 851852. They observed the longitude of Regulus from their house on a bridge in Baghdad in 840841, 847848, and 850851, and made observations of Sirius, Al-Bīrūnī used data about the Moon obtained by the Banū Mūsā in his astrological calculations. Mathematics The Banū Mūsā were some of the earliest scholars to adopt Greek mathematics. They differed from the Greeks in their approaches to the concepts of area and circumference, giving them numerical values rather than considering them in terms of ratios. Book on the Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures The most important of the works produced by the Banū Mūsā was the ("Book on the Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures"), of which a commentary was made by the persian polymath Naṣīr al‐Dīn al‐Ṭūsī in the 13th century. A Latin translation by the 12th century Italian astrologer Gerard of Cremona appeared entitled and . This treatise on geometry, which is similar to Archimedes's On the measurement of the circle and On the sphere and the cylinder. was used extensively in the Middle Ages, and was quoted by authors such as Thābit ibn Qurra, Ibn al‐Haytham, Leonardo Fibonacci (in his ), Jordanus de Nemore, and Roger Bacon. It includes theorems not known to the Greeks. The book was re-published in Latin with an English translation by the American historian Marshall Clagett, who has also summarized how the work influenced mathematicians during the Middle Ages. Other mathematical works The other known mathematical works by the Banū Mūsā were: Three works relating to Conic Sections, a book by the astronomer Apollonius of Perga. Conic Sections was first translated to Arabic by Hilāl al-ḥimṣī and Thābit ibn Qurra. One of these three works, ("Conic Sections of Apollonius"), by Muhammed, was a recension of Apollonius's book. ("The Book of the Elongated Circular Figure"), a mathematical treatise by al-Hasan—and the only one that is attributed to him— now lost. It contained a description of a procedure used to draw an ellipse using a length of string, a technique that is now known as the "gardener's construction"; or ("Reasoning on the Trisection of an Angle"), by Aḥmad; The treatise attempted to solve the classical problem of trisecting an angle. The manuscript and medieval Latin translations are extant. The two known manuscripts containing the treatise, MS. Marsh 720 and MS. Thurston 3, are held in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. ("Book on a Geometric Proposition Proved by Galen"). A lost book by Muhammed. Technology The Book of Ingenious Devices ("The Book of Ingenious Devices"), the only surviving work by Aḥmad, describes 100 inventions, 25 of which had a practical use. These include mechanical fountains, a "hurricane" lamp, self-trimming and self-feeding lamps, a form of gas mask for use underground, and a grabbing tool, constructed in the same way as a modern clamshell grab, for recovering underwater objects. The book's other inventions are ingeniously built pouring vessels, designed to puzzle guests at parties. It is thought that some of these models were never constructed. The inventions employ innovative engineering ideas, such as automatic one-way and two-way valves, mechanical memories, devices capable of responding to feedback, and delay mechanisms. Most of them were operated by water pressure. The trick vessels are unimportant in themselves; their significance for historians of engineering is the means by which they were developed. Many of Ahmad's ideas were obtained from Greek texts such as Philo of Byzantium's Pneumatics (3rd century BCE) and Hero of Alexandria's Pneumatics (written in the 1st century CE). However, some of the devices, particularly when involving small variations in fluid pressure, and automatic control components such as valves, were developed by the Banū Mūsā. The most important copies of the are: a complete manuscript held at the Vatican Library (no. 317); a manuscript in two parts kept at the Berlin State Library (Ahlward No. 5562) and Gotha (Pertsch No. 1349); the manuscript at the Topkapi Sarayi (A 3474), which is both the oldest and most reliable of the all the extant copies of the work. Other works The other technology-based works by the Banū Mūsā were: ("A Book on the Qarasṭūn"), a treatise on the weight balance, or steelyard. Thabit bin Qurra also wrote a book on the steelyard. A Book on the Description of the Instrument Which Sounds by Itself. A copy of the manuscript is held in Beirut. The Banū Mūsā are credited with inventing the first music sequencer, as described in the manuscript, as an example of an early type of programmable machine. , a treatise containing a discussion between Ahmad and Sanad ibn Ali, possibly about the difficulties encountered by the Banū Mūsā due to the failure by their agent Al-Farghani to properly build the Jaʻfariyya canal. See also Inventions in the Muslim world Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world Science in the medieval Islamic world Notes References Sources (PDF version) Further reading Digitized manuscripts and translations Manuscript facsimile of the held in the Princeton University Library (Islamic Manuscripts, Garrett no. 501H) The Book of Ingenious Devices: A manuscript facsimile held in the Vatican Library (Manuscript Vaticani Arabi 317), a copy of which was made by the philosopher al ‘Afrit. A manuscript facsimile held at the Berlin State Library (Ms. or. quart. 739). A manuscript facsimile held at the University of Erfurt (Ms. orient. A 1349). A manuscript facsimile of kept at Columbia University, New York (via the Internet Archive). The treatise is located from pp. 253265 (f. 116 to 122). Translations (PDF version) External links A list of works by the Banū Mūsā from the Islamic Scientific Manuscripts Initiative (ISMI) website Pioneers of Engineering: Al-Jazari and the Banu Musa TV episode from Al Jazeera (25 minutes) 873 deaths People from Baghdad Astronomers from the Abbasid Caliphate Astronomers of the medieval Islamic world Mathematicians from the Abbasid Caliphate 9th-century Iranian mathematicians Iranian engineers Inventors of the medieval Islamic world 9th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate 9th-century Iranian astronomers 9th-century inventors Brothers
4622696	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20City%20of%20Burnside	History of the City of Burnside	The history of the City of Burnside, a local government area in the metropolitan area of Adelaide, spans three centuries. Prior to European settlement Burnside was inhabited by the Kaurna people, who lived around the creeks of the River Torrens during the winter and in the Adelaide Hills during the summer. Soon after British colonisation of South Australia in 1836, settlers began acquiring property in the foothills lying to the east of the city of Adelaide. The village of Magill was subdivided in 1838. A Scotsman named Peter Anderson, who with his family were the first official settlers in the area now known as the suburb of Burnside in 1839, named the area after his property's location adjacent to Second Creek (in Scots, "Burn" means creek or stream). The village of Burnside was established shortly after, and the District Council of Burnside was gazetted in 1856, separating itself from the larger East Torrens District Council. The mainstays of the early Burnside economy were viticulture, mining and olive groves. Glen Osmond boasted substantial mineral deposits, and vineyards were established at Magill and Stonyfell. The present council chambers were built in 1926 in Tusmore; the council became a municipality in 1935. With strong growth and development throughout the region, Burnside was proclaimed a city in 1943. The 1960s brought to Burnside a community library and a swimming centre; both were further expanded and upgraded between 1997 and 2001. Early villages The village of Kensington was established in May 1839, only 29 months after the foundation of South Australia. The village was primarily agricultural and had a close relationship with the nearby village of Norwood. The two villages formed one of Adelaide's first municipalities in 1853 as the Town of Norwood and Kensington, evolving into today's City of Norwood Payneham St Peters. Parts of Kensington that are now included in Burnside are the suburbs of Kensington Gardens and Kensington Park. The village of Makgill (later Magill) was first established as the Makgill Estate, owned by two Scots—Robert Cock and William Ferguson—who met aboard HMS Buffalo en route to the newly founded colony. It was named after Mrs Cock's trustee, David M Makgill. Ferguson, who was charged with farming the estate, built the estate's homestead in 1838. Soon after farming started the two were short of funds, and thus Magill became the first foothills village to be subdivided. The village of Glen Osmond was closely associated with the discovery of silver and lead on the slopes of Mount Osmond by two Cornish immigrants. Their discovery of minerals provided the colony with valuable export income, at a time when the early South Australian economy was not yet established and facing bankruptcy. South Australian Governor George Gawler visited the early discovery and the first mine, Wheal Gawler, was named in his honour. Wheal Gawler exported overseas throughout the 1840s, providing employment to early Cornish and then German immigrants after several mines were bought by a German businessman. The early village assumed a strong Cornish, and later a German character. Mining declined after an exodus of workers when a gold rush began in 1851 in the neighbouring colony of Victoria. The Anderson family was the first to settle the land that was to become the village of Burnside, arriving in 1839. Peter Anderson named the property after its location by the side of Second Creek ("burn" means creek in Scots). They brought with them good character testimonials from Scotland, valuable farming experience and £3,000 (£ in 2018); however, the farming patterns in Scotland differed greatly from those in the antipodes, and the family failed to adapt. The Andersons moved on to Morphett Vale in 1847, selling their land and abandoning their homestead. The buyer of the Anderson land, William Randell, soon decided to build a village in his new property in 1849. He hired surveyor and planner Nathan Hailes to lay out the new village. Hailes was both surprised and disappointed when he found that it had already been settled and left—especially since the growth and adaptation of European foliage to the area. The first villages to be established in the region, those of Glen Osmond, Magill and Kensington had existed for some time when the new village of Burnside was proclaimed. The new village was in a good position to grow; it was bounded by two major thoroughfares, Burnside (now Glynburn) and Greenhill Roads, and had the advantage of lying on Second Creek. The village was soon attracting residents; some of whom were wealthy Adelaide folk building an estate in the foothills, and others who were more concerned with working the land. The village was described in advertisements by Hailes in 1850 as "Burnside the Beautiful" with advantages of "perpetual running water, extensive and diversified view, rich garden soil and good building stone" offering a "direct, newly-opened and unblemished route to Adelaide". Establishment of district councils The villages in what was to become the Burnside District Council were originally in the District Council of East Torrens, which covered . East Torrens bordered the River Torrens in the north, the Adelaide Hills to the east, Mount Barker Road to the south, and the Adelaide Parklands to the west. The District Council of East Torrens was proclaimed on 26 May 1853 by Governor Henry Young under the provisions of the District Councils Act 1852. The Governor appointed five inaugural councillors as required by the Act: Dr David Wark, James Cobbledick, Charles Bonney, Daniel Ferguson and George Müller. Bonney, in addition to being a councillor, was the colony's Commissioner of Crown Lands. The councillors met for the first time at World's End Hotel in Magill on 12 June 1853. Initial plans were put in place to first survey and evaluate the council area and to collect licence fees and taxes as provided for by the Councils Act. T. B. Penfold of Magill, a former captain, was to become the first District Clerk and Collector on 1January 1854. On 4January 1854 there was a vote in which ratepayers decided how much they would pay to the council (one shilling to a pound); it was decided to exempt charitable organisations, schools and churches from rates. In 1855 the population of the council area was 3,705, higher by a thousand than the adjacent Corporate Town of Kensington and Norwood. The huge East Torrens was not to prove as stable as Kensington and Norwood. Ratepayers were frustrated as to where their money was going; councillors did not have the administration or funds to operate effectively and the interests of the area varied widely. The area was split into three on 14 August 1856. The District Council of Payneham separated in the north-west of East Torrens, and the District Council of Burnside was formed by separation in a south-western portion of East Torrens. East Torrens council was further divided in 1858 with the secession of the District Council of Crafers. 1860s to 1900 The new Burnside District Council held its first meeting at the Greengate Inn, Tusmore on 19 August 1856. Due to the time it took to elect new councillors, it was not until 29 December that the council met again. Dr Christopher Penfold, chairman, met the rest of the representatives there: Daniel Ferguson of Glenunga, Alexander Ferguson of Monreith, John Townsend of Magill and James Grylls of Belle Vue. It was during this time that Kent Town decided against becoming a part of Burnside and instead applied to enter the Corporate Town of Kensington and Norwood. The council was to meet at the Inn or at Ferguson's home right up until December 1869, when the first council chambers were built. However, it was still able to operate and fulfill its obligations under the Local Government Act 1852. These included the management of minor roads, the administration of abattoir licences and public houses, and the prevention of the spread of the noxious Scotch thistle. The council was also obliged, under a different act of 1851, to encourage education. Much road and bridgework activity happened after the council had been formed—early residents were amazed at the influx of development and construction that occurred. At the same time, the council was almost overwhelmed by the amount of work requested, and was forced to ask individual ratepayers for monetary assistance when building bridges in their area. Much of Burnside's history has been observed and documented by institutions that have remained an important part of the lives of its residents: the school and the church. The first school to open in the area was in Magill during 1846, preceding a proper statewide education system. Magill Primary School was enlarged in November 1855, when 38 boys and 29 girls enrolled; they were taught reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, history, drawing and singing by a sole teacher. By 1865 there were two teachers. Glen Osmond Primary School was established in October 1858, preceding the Glen Osmond Institute, a centre for community debate and learning. Burnside Primary School was built in 1872, taking over from a small private institution. These primary schools, in the absence of proper libraries and similar institutions, received large collections of books and writings from the town's residents. Residents also took advantage of schools for frequent and heated debates on the future of the state and region, and these discussions often drew large crowds. However, even with this intellectual spirit, the adult population was still relatively disadvantaged in the sphere of education. The drive for learning continued until the Boer War placed more emphasis on physical activity and merit within society. Somewhat strangely, this development of learned activity was not replicated in Burnside's traditional centre near Tusmore, where the present Council Chambers, Community Centre and Library are located. By 1871 Burnside had grown significantly; it was now a mix of villages supporting a modest population of 1,557. By comparison, Kensington-Norwood, though smaller in area, had grown to 5,132 persons. Glen Osmond, still affected by its immense growth following the expansion of mining, was the largest single population centre with 343 residents. The District Council had also constructed its first council chambers in December 1869, finally concluding the haphazard meeting agreement. Two villages, Beulah Park (North Kensington) and Eastwood experienced booms in population growth and development between 1870 and 1880, providing both housing to new immigrants and investments for the wealthy Adelaide Establishment. Parkside Hospital (now Glenside), a mental health asylum was constructed in 1866 to replace a crowded building in the Parklands. Built on beautifully tended grounds and with an elaborate façade, it was an early Burnside architectural monument. In 1881 Thomas Cooper started brewing South Australia's first branded beer, 'Coopers', at Leabrook. During this era, Stonyfell saw economic expansion as well; its large quarry changed hands in 1867 and the Stonyfell Olive Co was founded in 1873. The late 19th century was a significant time of development in Burnside. This development, however, was brought to an abrupt end in the last decade, the 1890s, when depression stuck the economies of Australasia after decades of reckless expansion, hitting Burnside hard. Early twentieth century By the turn of the 20th century, Burnside was becoming more urbanised. Paddocks were still scattered throughout the area but the villages were steadily growing. Toorak Gardens, Dulwich and other near-city villages were gazetted and made open to settlements and advertised now as suburbs, moving on from earlier times. By 1920, the District Council had a population of 17,000, living in 4,000 houses. Ten per cent of the £60,000 budget consisted of commercial enterprise payments, while the rest was made up of ratepayer fees. The South Australian Government had enacted more laws in relation to local government, in particular, the Town Planning Act 1920 and the Building Act 1923. These assigned more responsibility to councils, but at a time of necessity; Adelaide was gradually expanding. Burnside councillors advised the State Government to acquire and manage pleasure resorts; a kiosk was opened at Waterfall Gully and the Morialta Conservation Park established on this advice. Burnside was treated with high regard by Adelaide newspapers in response to its elaborate greening and tree planting schemes. The council was preserving old trees and planting approximately 500 a year. A Burnside councillor, HES Melbourne, was adored in this period; he spent his own money acquiring reserves and land for residents due to a lack of funds during the Great Depression. He presided over lean but reasonable budgets and oversaw the planting of trees and foliage to beautify the city. Gordon Allen, a local resident who succeeded Melbourne as a councillor, described Melbourne: "No Council ever had a better man." Melbourne also oversaw the building of the Mount Osmond golf course, but his vision of constructing a Country Club was never realised. Development restrictions preceding the Hills Face Zone were established in the 1920s; the council was obligated to adhere to strict guidelines. 1928 saw the building of grand new Council Chambers at the corner of Greenhill and Portrush Roads; they are still in use today. Floods devastated Waterfall Gully in 1931. Burnside continued to grow; in 1935 the District Council of Burnside became the Municipality of Burnside. By 1941, only remained under cultivation. Post-war to 1970s In 1945, much of the area that formed Cleland Conservation Park (expanded and upgraded to Cleland National Park in November 2021) was purchased by the State Government, in large part because of the lobbying efforts of Professor Sir John Cleland. Most of this land, including the Waterfall Gully area, was later combined in 1963 to create the park that extends eastwards up into the hills to the summit of Mount Lofty and northwards to Greenhill Road. During 1943, the Municipality of Burnside was proclaimed the City of Burnside. Many of Burnside's sons fought in World Wars I and II; on their return they were honoured with memorials, and in particular, the name of Burnside's first community hospital. The Burnside War Memorial Hospital was opened in April 1949 in Toorak Gardens, built in a house donated by a local resident, Otto van Reiben. The present name was adopted in 1956. Memorials to the fallen can be found all over Burnside; in Hazelwood Park opposite the swimming centre, at schools and churches, in reserves. Like much of Australia, Burnside held true to the phrase "Lest We Forget", which is emblazoned on many of the community-erected memorials. In Rose Park on Alexandra Avenue, there is a large monument and statue of an Australian Imperial Force soldier with its plaque stating: "In Memory of the Fallen: World War II, Korea, Vietnam". Upon their arrival home the servicemen formed several Returned Services League clubs in the City of Burnside. When Australia celebrated the Golden Jubilee of the Federation of Australia in 1951, Burnside residents joined in the celebrations, and in 1956 commemorated the centennial of their own town. A post-war economic and baby boom under the Playford Government</ref> saw Burnside grow at a spectacular rate; from a population of 27,942 in 1947, it grew to 38,768 in 1961. As suburbs devoured the remaining paddocks, 1953 saw the building of a public ballroom, 1965 saw an Olympic Grandstand; both in Kensington Park. In 1963 the Cleland Conservation Park was founded on Burnside's eastern borders. Burnside's road system was completely bitumenised during the 1960s and 1970s through government-sponsored roadworks programmes. Plans were also laid out to replace the winding and dangerous Mount Barker Road. One of these proposals was the Burnside-Crafers Highway, which was strongly supported by council; it envisaged leaving Greenhill Road once reaching Hazelwood Park. It was then to pass through Hazelwood Park and Beaumont, wind around the hills of Waterfall Gully and then go over Eagle on the Hill to meet Crafers. The Burnside Council put much effort into this proposal, widening Linden Avenue (which runs north-west to south-east) in preparation for the highway. The proposal was eventually rejected in favour of upgrading Mount Barker Road and Linden Avenue remained a huge out-of-place road running through an otherwise peaceful suburb. Burnside gained a public library with a collection of 7,800 books in 1961 after it was first suggested in February 1959; the cost of establishing a library for the residents was more affordable since the Libraries Act 1955 had been passed. The Burnside Swimming Centre opened in 1966; the swimming centre was a pet project of then-Mayor George Bolton, who had a grand vision of what he wanted Hazelwood Park, where the centre was to be located, to become. Bolton met unprecedented public opposition in 1964 when the idea was first unveiled. The substantial elderly population of Burnside (15%) was wholly opposed to the idea, suggesting the influx of troublemakers and noise was hardly worth the effort. The cost was estimated at £75,000 (£ as of ). While architects were resigning over the scale of the proposed development and a number of residents were up in arms, the Adelaide newspapers had a ball; cartoonists throughout 1964 spent many of their daily cartoons covering the debacle. With the failure of a poll to decide the fate of the idea on 24 March the Sunday Mail published the headline "Burnside Says NO to Swim Pool". Mayor Bolton was not dismayed by the result; he pushed ahead with his idea and announced new plans in December. After a strong public campaign and minor changes to the project a poll in February 1965 voted strongly in favour of the idea. The Mayor had won his battle and it was named the George Bolton Swimming Centre in his honour upon opening. The Burnside Council decided on an ambitious goal in 1967: for every 1,000 in population, five hectares of reserves were to be set aside. Setting out to achieve this the council purchased Hazelwood Park from the State Government, the control of Beaumont Common was obtained by a 1973 amendment to the Local Government Act and parts of Mount Osmond were attained from the Highways Department. Before coming into the ownership of the council, Hazelwood Park was destined to be subdivided under a government initiative. When council heard of this, motions were put into place to take ownership and the deed was transferred in 1964. The council managed this only after discussions were held with Premier Thomas Playford IV. 1980s to 2010s A community centre was built alongside the council chambers in 1982, adjoining the library. The entire council complex was upgraded first in 1996, together with an upgrade of the Burnside Swimming Centre. Further upgrades took place in 2001, resulting in a modern library and community centre for residents. Burnside developed a new council logo in 1993, utilising the colours of green and purple. Green represented the lush parks and reserves in Burnside, and purple represented the prominent Jacaranda trees. The easterly adjacent Adelaide Hills suburbs of Skye and Auldana were merged into Burnside in 1999. Coopers Brewery moved out of Leabrook in 2001, relocating to Regency Park. The former premises of Coopers was converted into a retirement village. References Book sources Further reading Also available on Burnside Council website. (Preface to 3rd edition says 1st edition 1989; 2nd edition 2000; Amendment 1 2004; 3rd edition 2015.) External links Our History: City of Burnside Burnside, History of Burnside, History of City of Burnside
4622751	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20longest-living%20organisms	List of longest-living organisms	This is a list of the longest-living biological organisms: the individual(s) (or in some instances, clones) of a species with the longest natural maximum life spans. For a given species, such a designation may include: The oldest known individual(s) that are currently alive, with verified ages. Verified individual record holders, such as the longest-lived human, Jeanne Calment, or the longest-lived domestic cat, Creme Puff. The definition of "longest-living" used in this article considers only the observed or estimated length of an individual organism's natural lifespan – that is, the duration of time between its birth or conception, or the earliest emergence of its identity as an individual organism, and its death – and does not consider other conceivable interpretations of "longest-living", such as the length of time between the earliest appearance of a species in the fossil record and the present (the historical "age" of the species as a whole), the time between a species' first speciation and its extinction (the phylogenetic "lifespan" of the species), or the range of possible lifespans of a species' individuals. This list includes long-lived organisms that are currently still alive as well as those that are dead. Determining the length of an organism's natural lifespan is complicated by many problems of definition and interpretation, as well as by practical difficulties in reliably measuring age, particularly for extremely old organisms and for those that reproduce by asexual cloning. In many cases the ages listed below are estimates based on observed present-day growth rates, which may differ significantly from the growth rates experienced thousands of years ago. Identifying the longest-living organisms also depends on defining what constitutes an "individual" organism, which can be problematic, since many asexual organisms and clonal colonies defy one or both of the traditional colloquial definitions of individuality (having a distinct genotype and having an independent, physically separate body). Additionally, some organisms maintain the capability to reproduce through very long periods of metabolic dormancy, during which they may not be considered "alive" by certain definitions but nonetheless can resume normal metabolism afterward; it is unclear whether the dormant periods should be counted as part of the organism's lifespan. Biological immortality If the mortality rate of a species does not increase after maturity, the species does not age and is said to be biologically immortal. There are numerous plants and animals for which the mortality rate has been observed to actually decrease with age, for all or part of the life cycle. Hydra were observed for four years without any increase in mortality rate. If the mortality rate remains constant, the rate determines the mean lifespan. The lifespan may be long or short, though the species technically does not "age". Individuals of other species have been observed to regress to a larval state and regrow into adults multiple times. The hydrozoan species Turritopsis dohrnii (formerly Turritopsis nutricula) is capable of cycling from a mature adult stage to an immature polyp stage and back again. This means no natural limit to its lifespan is known. No single specimen has been observed for any extended period, however, and estimating the age of a specimen is not possible by any known means. At least one other hydrozoan (Laodicea undulata) and one scyphozoan (Aurelia sp.1) can also revert from a medusa stage into a polyp stage. Similarly, the larvae of skin beetles undergo a degree of "reversed development" when starved, and later grow back to the previously attained level of maturity. This cycle can be repeated many times. However, repeated cycles result in physiological deterioration, suggesting that these beetle larvae still age. Revived into activity after stasis If the definition of lifespan does not exclude time spent in metabolically inactive states, many organisms may be said to have lifespans that are millions of years in length. Various claims have been made about reviving bacterial spores to active metabolism after millions of years of dormancy. Spores preserved in amber have been revived after 40 million years, and spores from salt deposits in New Mexico have been revived after 250 million years, making these bacteria by far the longest-living organisms ever recorded. Similarly, in May 2022 prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms were found in crystals of halite; these could be over 800 million years old but it remains uncertain if they are alive or if they could be revived. In a related find, a scientist was able to coax 34,000-year-old salt-captured bacteria to reproduce. These results were subsequently duplicated independently. In July 2018, scientists from four Russian institutions collaborating with Princeton University reported that they had analyzed about 300 prehistoric nematode worms recovered from permafrost above the Arctic Circle in Sakha Republic, and that after being thawed, two of the nematodes revived and began moving and eating. One found in a Pleistocene squirrel burrow in the Duvanny Yar outcrop on the Kolyma River was believed to be about 32,000 years old, while the other, recovered in 2015 near the Alazeya River, was dated at approximately 30,000-40,000 years old. These nematodes were believed to be the oldest living multicellular organisms on Earth. In 2023, it was reported that nematodes of the previously undescribed Panagrolaimus kolymaensis were revived after 46,000 years in cryptobiosis. Like bacterial spores, plant seeds are often capable of germinating after very long periods of metabolic inactivity. A seed from the previously extinct Judean date palm was revived and managed to sprout after nearly 2,000 years. Named "Methuselah", it is currently growing at Kibbutz Ketura, Israel. Similarly, the flowering plant Silene stenophylla was grown from fruit found in an ancient squirrel's cache. The germinated plants bore viable seeds. The fruit was dated at 31,800 ± 300 years old. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), dated at roughly 1,300 ± 270 years old, was successfully germinated. During the 1990s, Raul Cano, a microbiologist at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, US, reported reviving yeast trapped in amber for 25 million years, although doubts were raised as to its antiquity. Cano founded a brewery and crafted an "amber ale" with a 45-million-year-old variant of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. List of longest-living organisms Microorganisms Some endoliths have extremely long lives. In August 2013, researchers reported evidence of endoliths in the ocean floor, perhaps millions of years old, with a generation time of 10,000 years. These are slowly metabolizing and not in a dormant state. Some Actinomycetota found in Siberia are estimated to be half a million years old. In July 2020, marine biologists reported that aerobic microorganisms (mainly), in "quasi-suspended animation", were found in organically poor sediments, up to 101.5 million years old, below the seafloor in the South Pacific Gyre (SPG) ("the deadest spot in the ocean"), and could be the longest-living life forms ever found. Clonal plant and fungal colonies As with all long-lived plant and fungal species, no individual part of a clonal colony is alive (in the sense of active metabolism) for more than a very small fraction of the life of the entire colony. Some clonal colonies may be fully connected via their root systems, while most are not interconnected but are nonetheless genetically identical clones that populated an area through vegetative reproduction. Ages for clonal colonies are estimates, often based on current growth rates. A huge colony of the sea grass Posidonia oceanica in the Mediterranean Sea near Ibiza, Spain, is estimated to be between 12,000 and 200,000 years old. The maximum age is theoretical, as the region it now occupies was above water at some point between 10,000 and 80,000 years ago. The sole surviving clonal colony of the shrub Lomatia tasmanica in Tasmania is estimated to be at least 43,600 years old. The Jurupa Oak colony in Riverside County, California, United States, is estimated to be at least 13,000 years old. Other estimates place it at 5,000 to 30,000 years old. Eucalyptus recurva clones in Australia have been claimed to be 13,000 years old. A box huckleberry bush in Perry County, Pennsylvania, United States, is thought to be around 13,000 years old. It may predate human settlements in Pennsylvania. King Clone is an individual creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) in the Mojave Desert of southern California, United States, estimated at 11,700 years old. Another creosote bush has been said to be 12,150 years old, but this is as yet unconfirmed. A Huon pine colony on Mount Read, Tasmania, is estimated at 10,000 years old, with individual specimens living over 3,000 years. Old Tjikko, a Norway spruce tree in the county of Dalarna, Sweden, is living on top of roots that have been radiocarbon-dated to 9,550 years old. The tree is part of a clonal colony that was established at the end of the last ice age. Discovered by Professor Leif Kullman of Umeå University, Old Tjikko is small, only in height. Pando is a clonal colony of Populus tremuloides (quaking aspen) trees in south-central Utah, United States, that is estimated to be several thousand years old, possibly as much as 14,000 years. Unlike many other clonal "colonies", the above-ground trunks of these trees remain connected to each other by a single massive subterranean root system. "Humongous Fungus", an individual of the clonal subterranean fungal species Armillaria solidipes in Oregon's Malheur National Forest, is thought to be between 2,000 and 8,500 years old. Apart from its extreme age, it is also thought to be the world's largest organism by area, at . A huge colony of the sea grass Posidonia australis in the Australian coast over Shark Bay, estimated to be over 4,500 years old and also the biggest known plant. Individual plant specimens Methuselah, a Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) in the White Mountains of California, has been measured by ring count to be years old. It is therefore the oldest known living individual non-clonal tree in the world. A specimen of Fitzroya cupressoides in Chile was measured by ring count as years old, meaning this species has the second-oldest verified age of any non-clonal tree species. The Cypress of Abarkuh, a Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) in Iran, is estimated to be between 4,000 and 5,000 years old. The Llangernyw Yew, an ancient yew (Taxus baccata) in the churchyard of the village of Llangernyw in North Wales, is believed to be between 4,000 and 5,000 years old. The President, located in Sequoia National Park, California, is the oldest known living giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) at approximately 3,200 years of age. Yareta is a tiny flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to South America, occurring in the Puna grasslands of the Andes in Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile, and western Argentina between in altitude. Some yaretas may be up to 3,000 years old. A Panke baobab (Adansonia digitata) in Zimbabwe was some 2,450 years old when it died in 2011, making it the oldest angiosperm ever documented, and two other trees of the same species – Dorslandboom in Namibia and Glencoe in South Africa – were estimated to be approximately 2,000 years old. A sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, is years old, having been planted in 288 BC. It is the oldest known living human-planted tree in the world. The Great sugi of Kayano, the cryptomeria deemed planted by humans in Kaga, Ishikawa, Japan, had an estimated age of 2,300 years in 1928. Jōmon Sugi, the cryptomeria naturally grown in Yakushima Island, Kagoshima, Japan, is 2,170 to 7,200 years old. A specimen of Lagarostrobos franklinii in Tasmania is thought to be about 2,000 years old. The Fortingall Yew, an ancient yew (Taxus baccata) in the churchyard of the village of Fortingall in Perthshire, Scotland, is one of the oldest known individual trees in Europe. Various estimates have put its age between 2,000 and 5,000 years, although it is now believed to be at the lower end of this range. Numerous olive trees are purported to be 2,000 years old or older. An olive tree in Ano Vouves, Crete, claiming such longevity, has been confirmed based on tree-ring analysis. Tāne Mahuta, a kauri tree (Agathis australis) in New Zealand, is believed to be between 1,250 and 2,500 years old. It is the oldest and largest standing kauri tree at present. Welwitschia is a monotypic genus of gymnosperm plant, composed solely of the distinct Welwitschia mirabilis. The plant is considered a living fossil. Radiocarbon dating has confirmed that many individuals have lived longer than 1,000 years, and some are suspected to be older than 2,000 years. Aquatic animals Glass sponges found in the East China Sea and Southern Ocean have been estimated to be more than 10,000 years old. Although this may be an overestimate, this is likely the longest lived animal on Earth. Specimens of the black coral genus Leiopathes, such as Leiopathes glaberrima, are among the oldest continuously living organisms on the planet: around 4,265 years old. The giant barrel sponge Xestospongia muta is one of the longest-lived animals, with the largest specimens in the Caribbean estimated to be more than 2,300 years old. The black coral Antipatharia in the Gulf of Mexico may live more than 2,000 years. The Antarctic sponge Cinachyra antarctica has an extremely slow growth rate in the low temperatures of the Southern Ocean. One specimen has been estimated to be 1,550 years old. A specimen, "Ming" of the Icelandic cyprine Arctica islandica (also known as an ocean quahog), a mollusk, was found to have lived 507 years. Another specimen had a recorded lifespan of 374 years. The tubeworm Escarpia laminata that lives in deep sea cold seeps regularly reaches the age of between 100 and 200 years, with some individuals determined to be more than 300 years old. Some may live for over 1000 years. The Greenland shark had been estimated to live to about 200 years, but a study published in 2016 found that a specimen was between 272 and 512 years old. That makes the Greenland shark the longest-lived vertebrate. The maximum lifespan of the freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) may be 210–250 years. Some confirmed sources estimate bowhead whales to have lived at least 211 years of age, making them the oldest mammals. Rougheye rockfish can reach an age of 205 years. Specimens of the Red Sea urchin Strongylocentrotus franciscanus have been found to be over 200 years old. Many sub-families of the marine fish Oreosomatidae, including the Allocyttus, Neocyttus, and Pseudocyttus (collectively referred to as the Oreos) have been reported to live up to 170 years, based on otolith-increment estimates and radiometric dating. The deepsea hydrocarbon seep tubeworm Lamellibrachia luymesi (Annelida, Polychaeta) lives for more than 170 years. Geoduck, a species of saltwater clam native to the Puget Sound, have been known to live more than 160 years. A Swedish man claimed that a European eel named Åle was 155 years old when it died in 2014. If correct, it would have been the world's oldest, having been hatched in 1859. Orange roughy, also known as deep sea perch, can live up to 149 years. George the lobster (an American lobster, Homarus americanus) was estimated to be about 140 years old by PETA in January 2009. The bigmouth buffalo (Ictiobus cyprinellus), a freshwater fish in the family Catostomidae, has a maximum longevity of at least 127 years based on otolith annulus counts and bomb radiocarbon dating. In 2012, a sturgeon estimated to be 125 years old was caught in a river in Wisconsin. Tardigrades, capable of cryptobiosis, have been shown to survive nearly 120 years in a dry state. The great white shark is estimated to live for 70+ years, making it one of the longest lived cartilaginous fishes currently known. An Orca of the "Southern Resident Community" identified as J2 or Granny was estimated by some researchers to have been approximately 105 years old at her death in 2017; however, other dating methods estimated her age as 65–80. A goldfish named Tish lived for 43 years after being won at a fairground in 1956. Humans Humans are the longest living land mammals. Jeanne Calment, a French woman, lived to the age of 122 years, 164 days, making her the oldest fully documented human who has ever lived. She died on August 4, 1997. Jiroemon Kimura (†116 years, 54 days), a Japanese man, died on 12 June 2013. The oldest known person alive today is Maria Branyas, a Spanish woman, at (born 4 March 1907). These are single examples; for a broader view, see life expectancy (includes humans). Other terrestrial and pagophilic animals Adwaita, an Aldabra giant tortoise, died at an estimated age of 255 in March 2006 in Zoological Garden, Alipore, Kolkata, India. If confirmed, the tortoise would have been the oldest known terrestrial animal to have ever existed. Tu'i Malila, a radiated tortoise, died at the age of 188 in May 1966, at the time the oldest verified vertebrate. This tortoise was born in 1777. Jonathan, a Seychelles giant tortoise living on the island of Saint Helena, is reported to be about years old, and may, therefore, be the oldest currently living terrestrial animal if the claim is true. Harriet, a Galápagos tortoise, died at the age of 175 in June 2006. Timothy, a Greek tortoise, born in Turkey died at the age of 165 on 3 April 2004 in the UK. The oldest known bird in the world was an Australian sulphur-crested cockatoo called Cocky Bennett, who lived to 120. He could recall phrases such as "one feather more and I'll fly" and "one at a time, gentlemen, please". He lived from 1796 to 1916 and traveled the world with various owners. The tuatara, a lizard-like reptile native to New Zealand, can live well over 100 years. Henry, a tuatara at the Southland Museum in New Zealand, mated for the first time at the estimated age of 111 years in 2009 with an 80-year-old female and fathered 11 baby tuatara. Dakshayani, a female Asian elephant, initially owned by the Travancore royal family and later by the Travancore Devaswom Board, was 88 or 89 years old when she died on February 5, 2019. She is believed to be the oldest elephant in captivity in Asia and was nicknamed ‘Gaja Muthassi’ (grandmother of elephants). Lin Wang, an Asian elephant, was the oldest elephant in the Taipei Zoo. He was born on January 18, 1917, and died on February 26, 2003, at 86 years, surpassing the previous record of 84. Normally, elephants live up to 50 years, while their maximum lifespan is generally estimated at 70. Hakuna, an African slender-snouted crocodile, was gifted to Blijdorp Zoo in Rotterdam, Netherlands, in 1929 by singer and dancer Josephine Baker, He lived there for 85 years until he died on 19 February 2015. He was the oldest crocodile in captivity ever. A greater flamingo named Greater died at Adelaide Zoo in January 2014 at the age of at least 83. Cookie (June 30, 1933 - August 27, 2016), an Australian-born Major Mitchell's cockatoo at Brookfield Zoo, Illinois, was the oldest member of his species in captivity, and died in August 2016 at a verified age of 83. Muja, an American alligator at Belgrade Zoo, is considered the oldest alligator in the world. Muja is more than 80 years old. Thaao, an Andean condor born , died at the age of 79 or 80 in 2010. A female Laysan albatross named Wisdom successfully laid an egg at Midway Atoll in December 2016, at the age of 66. As of 2017, she is the oldest known wild bird in the world. The oldest living horse on record, Ol' Billy, was allegedly born in the year 1760 in London, England. Bill died in 1822 at the age of 62. Henry Harrison, a resident of London during the time, had also allegedly known Ol' Billy for 59 years until Bill's death. Rod, an Egyptian vulture who lived at the Jurong Bird Park from 1971 to his death in 2022. Estimated to be 60 prior to his euthanasia, he may have been the oldest known individual of his species. Nonja, a Sumatran orangutan, died at the age of 55 in December 2007. She was claimed to be the oldest-living orangutan of her species. The oldest bear on record was Andreas, a European brown bear, living in the ARCTUROS bear sanctuary in northern Greece. He was at least 50 years old at the time of his death. On May 27, 1983, a splendor beetle emerged from a staircase in Essex, UK, after at least 47 years as a larva. A wild-born black rhino named Elly was the oldest in North America at an estimated 45 years of age, and resided in California's San Francisco Zoo from April 1974 until passing in May 2017. The oldest living spider, named Number 16 by researchers, was a 43-year-old female Gaius villosus armored trapdoor spider, at the North Bungulla Reserve, Tammin, Western Australia. Debby, the polar bear, an inhabitant of the Assiniboine Park Zoo in Winnipeg, Canada, was the oldest polar bear and third-oldest bear species on record when she died in 2008, at the age of 42. The oldest recorded bat, a Siberian bat (previously identified as a Brandt's bat), was at least 41 years old at the time of capture. Creme Puff, a cat owned by Jake Perry of Austin, Texas, was born on August 3, 1967, and died three days after her 38th birthday on August 6, 2005. The oldest goat was McGinty who lived to the age of 22 years and 5 months until her death in November 2003 on Hayling Island, UK. A wild rabbit named Flopsy was caught on August 6, 1964, and died 18 years and 10 months later in Tasmania, Australia. A bearded dragon owned by Nik Vernon, was 16 years 129 days old when he died on December 2, 2013. The oldest gerbil was a Mongolian gerbil named Sahara, she was born in May 1973 and died on 4 October 1981 aged 8 years and 4 months. A mouse named Patrick Stewart (in tribute to the actor) has been verified by Guinness World Records as the oldest living mouse in human care as well as the oldest mouse ever, aged 9 years 210 days as of 9 February 2023. A hamster owned by Karen Smeaton in Tyne & Wear, UK, reached 4 years and 6 months. Bobi, the longest-lived Rafeiro do Alentejo and oldest dog ever, died in 2023 at the age of 31. See also Biological immortality Earliest known life forms Immortality Largest organisms List of longest living dogs List of oldest cats List of oldest trees Lists of organisms by population Longevity Maximum life span Oldest people Regeneration References Further reading External links Rachel Sussman: World's oldest living things – TED Talk Live Science: Longest living animals (August, 2021). The latest version of AnAge database with longevity records and ageing information for >4,600 species (June, 2023) Senescence in non-human organisms Longest-living organisms Organisms, longest living Organisms by adaptation
4622896	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krull%20%28film%29	Krull (film)	Krull is a 1983 science fantasy swashbuckler film directed by Peter Yates and written by Stanford Sherman. It follows Prince Colwyn and a fellowship of companions who set out to rescue his bride, Princess Lyssa, from a fortress of alien invaders who have arrived on their home planet. The film stars Kenneth Marshall as Prince Colwyn, with a large ensemble cast including Lysette Anthony, Freddie Jones and Alun Armstrong. Development on the film began in 1980, when Columbia Pictures President Frank Price gave producer Ron Silverman the idea to produce a fantasy film. An international co-production of the United Kingdom and the United States, Krull was released in July 1983. The film was a box-office bomb upon release, and critical opinion has been mixed, both upon release and in retrospect. Numerous reviewers have highlighted its visual effects and soundtrack, while several critics have criticized its plot as being derivative and nonsensical. Plot A narrator tells of a prophecy that a king and queen who will rule their world, and then their son will rule the galaxy. The planet Krull is invaded by an entity known as the Beast and his army of Slayers, who travel the galaxy in a mountain-like spaceship called the Black Fortress. Prince Colwyn and Princess Lyssa plan to marry in the hope that their two kingdoms' combined forces can defeat the Beast's army. However, the Slayers attack before the wedding is completed, devastating the native Krull armies, wounding Colwyn, and kidnapping Lyssa. Colwyn is nursed back to health by Ynyr, the Old One. Ynyr tells Colwyn that the Beast can be defeated with the Glaive, an ancient, magical, five-pointed weapon resembling a large throwing star. Colwyn retrieves the Glaive from a mountain cave, and sets out to find the Black Fortress, which teleports to a new location every sunrise. As they travel, Colwyn and Ynyr are joined by the magician Ergo "the Magnificent" and a band of nine thieves and fighters: Torquil, Kegan, Rhun, Oswyn, Bardolph, Menno, Darro, Nennog, and Quain. The cyclops Rell later joins the group. Colwyn's group travels to the home of the Emerald Seer and his apprentice, Titch. The Emerald Seer uses a crystal to view where the Fortress will teleport next, but the Beast's remotely crushes the crystal with magic. The group travels to a swamp that the Beast's magic cannot penetrate, but Darro is lost to a Slayer attack, and Menno to quicksand. A changeling agent of the Beast kills the Emerald Seer and assumes its victim’s form, but the agent is discovered and killed by Rell and Colwyn. Another changeling is instructed by the Beast to seduce Colwyn. This is meant to convince Lyssa that Colwyn does not love her. However, he rejects the changeling's advances, and Lyssa – witnessing this through a vision provided by the Beast – affirms that love triumphs over might. The Beast, though, forces her to consider marrying him so that he will halt the Slayers’ attacks. Ynyr leaves the group to seek the Widow of the Web: an enchantress who loved Ynyr long ago and was exiled to the lair of the Crystal Spider for murdering their only child. The Widow reveals where the Black Fortress will be at sunrise. She also gives Ynyr an enchanted hourglass’s sand to keep the Crystal Spider at bay and the injured Ynyr alive. As the Crystal Spider attacks the Widow, Ynyr returns to the group to reveal the location of the Black Fortress. As he speaks, he loses the last of the sand and dies. The group captures and rides magical Fire Mares to reach the Black Fortress. The Slayers at the Fortress kill Rhun, while Rell sacrifices himself to hold open the crushing spaceship doors long enough to allow the others to enter. Quain, Nennog, and Kegan are killed as they make their way through the fortress. Ergo transforms into a tiger to save Titch from a Slayers' attack. Colwyn, Torquil, Bardolph, and Oswyn are trapped inside a large dome. The latter three fall through an opening and are trapped between walls studded with huge spikes, which kill Bardolph. Colwyn breaches the dome and finds Lyssa. He attacks the Beast with the Glaive, which becomes embedded in the Beast's body. With nothing to defend themselves, Lyssa and Colwyn quickly finish their wedding ritual. This gives them the power to manipulate fire, with which Colwyn slays the Beast. The Beast's death frees Torquil and Oswyn, and they rejoin Colwyn, Lyssa, Ergo and Titch. The survivors make their way out of the crumbling fortress, which is pulled into space. As the heroes return home, the narrator repeats the prophecy that the son of the queen and king shall rule the galaxy. Cast Ken Marshall as Colwyn, a prince who fights with a sword and the Glaive Lysette Anthony as Lyssa. Her voice was re-dubbed by American actress Lindsay Crouse as the producers wanted the Princess to have a more mature-sounding voice. Freddie Jones as Ynyr; also the film's narrator Alun Armstrong as Torquil, leader of a troop of bandits David Battley as Ergo, who has the shapeshifting ability to turn into various animals Bernard Bresslaw as Rell the Cyclops (credited as Cyclops), who uses a large trident. The character was designed by Nick Maley. Prosthetic makeup covered the actor's eyes while a radio controlled the character's "solo" eyeball on his forehead. Bresslaw was only able to look through one eye hole while in costume; he explained how, during the swamp scene, the other actors had to protect him from walking into the swamp. Liam Neeson as Kegan, a member of Torquil's troop who is an axe-wielding polygamist Dicken Ashworth as Bardolph, a member of Torquil's troop who favours daggers Todd Carty as Oswyn, a member of Torquil's troop who uses a staff Robbie Coltrane as Rhun (voice dubbed over by Michael Elphick), a member of Torquil's troop who fights with a spear John Welsh as the Seer Graham McGrath as Titch, the Seer's young apprentice Tony Church as Turold, Colwyn's father Bernard Archard as Eirig, Lyssa's father Belinda Mayne as Vella, Merith's friend Clare McIntyre as Merith, one of Kegan's many wives Francesca Annis as the Widow of the Web. A 23-piece aging makeup was applied to Annis's face for the role. Production Writing In 1980, Columbia Pictures president Frank Price asked producer Ron Silverman if he and his partner Ted Mann wanted to create a fantasy film. Silverman agreed to do so and hired Stanford Sherman to work on the screenplay. Sherman wrote the "bare bones" of the plot and Columbia quickly approved it. While the essence of the plot was never altered during development and production, the first draft of the film was titled The Dragons of Krull, where the Beast was initially planned to be a dragon; however, the creators changed the Beast to a more "reptilian" creature for the final film, leading to the final title Krull. Steve Tesich was brought in to write a "second version" of the script. Tesich's version of the screenplay was discarded as dialogue-heavy and lacking in special effects, so the first script was used and re-edited instead. There was one point in the writing process where it was planned that Lyssa would turn into the antagonist near the end of the story, but this was not part of the final screenplay, given that the production team didn't want her to be "less than pure". Lysette Anthony, the actress who played Lyssa, explained that she "thought that was a little boring". After the first draft was finished, the writing and production team considered Peter Yates to direct the film. Two months after they asked him to join the project and after he finished directing Eyewitness (1981), Yates read the screenplay of The Dragons in Krull. He was "intrigued" with what he read and accepted the position of directing the film as a "challenge". He reasoned in a 1983 interview that Krull would be one of those rare films that "can take full advantage of today's special effects techniques" and would differ from his more realistic previous works in that he would have to make the movie entirely based on his imagination. The film was in a year of pre-production, which involved Sherman editing the script, Yates creating storyboards, Stephen B. Grimes and Derek Meddings coming up with set concepts, and Ken Marshall and Anthony being cast as Colwyn and Lyssa, respectively. Despite persistent rumours that the film was meant to tie-in with the game Dungeons & Dragons, Gary Gygax stated, "To the best of my knowledge and belief the producers of Krull never approached TSR for a license to enable their film to use the D&D game IP." Filming Yates described making Krull as "complicated" and "just so enormous". Special effects artist Brian Johnson stated in a 2009 interview that Yates hated working on the film so much that in the middle of shooting, he took a vacation to the Caribbean, which led to the special effects artists taking a three-week break from the project. The production was initially arranged to be shot at several locations because Krull was first planned as a medieval-style motion picture. However, as it went through multiple drafts, the screenplay transformed into entirely fantasy, which meant most of the film would be shot on sound stages, and only a minority of the sequences would be filmed in actual locations in Italy and England for only a few weeks. A total of 23 huge sets were built and the film was shot at more than ten sound stages at Pinewood Studios. Krull was a very expensive film to produce, with a budget of $30 million. Marshall and Meddings reasoned that the huge budget was due to several changes of concepts in the script that led the designers to have to repeatedly alter the designs of the sets. Filming began on 25 January 1983. The first sequence shot was the scene where Ynyr (Freddie Jones) climbs a huge spider web in order to confront the Widow of the Web. Jones did not use any safety wires because the wires would have been visible. Stop-motion animator Steve Archer spent two weeks creating the first model of the spider in the scene, which was later changed. Yates's direction of the action scenes that take place at the beginning of Krull was inspired by swashbuckler films such as Captain Blood (1935). However, he wanted to figure out new weapons that gave the scenes a unique swashbuckling feel. Marshall practiced his moves for the sequences a week before filming began. However, by the time shooting of these scenes started, the costumes for the Slayers were recently finished, so much of the fight choreography was altered at the last minute based on the limitations of the costumes. Pinewood's 007 Stage, one of the largest sound stages in the world, was used for the swamp scene, wherein the Slayers and several changelings encounter Colwyn and his group. Yates described the swamp set as "quite nasty ... we always had people bumping into things." It was filmed during what Marshall described as a "very harsh winter", and the set was too big to be entirely heated, leading to the actors feeling cold and exhausted. The crew members had a hard time seeing through the mist, which led to them accidentally getting into water that consisted of "cork chips". Rehearsing the scene where Colwyn and his group are being chased by the Slayers in the Black Fortress involved stuntmen taking the part of Colwyn so that Marshall could conserve energy for filming. The scene involved Colwyn and his men encountering a corridor where the floor opened underneath them via two set pieces "the size of a small house" that were powered by liquid and broke apart before quickly slamming back together. Marshall explained that doing the sequence gave him nightmares after it was completed. When shooting of the scene began, Marshall took more time to say his lines than the production crew expected, leading to him not making it from the tunnel in the first take. Only one crew member noticed this and was able to stop the machines controlling the pieces, but Marshall "knew that if the machine didn't stop in five seconds, [he] would be dead". Another take of the sequence was shot the next day with Yates instructing that the speed of the machine be slower. However, Marshall insisted on the machine being sped up and, in the final take, was successful in getting away from the set pieces. Marshall explained, "I had no feeling in my heel for months afterward. It was really hard doing stunts afterwards, too." Special effects Meddings led the special effects department of Krull. British artist Christopher Tucker was also originally in the project but left due to creative differences. Nick Maley and his crew produced several effects six weeks before filming began. The effects department often went for challenging visual effects and designs that were unusual to achieve in the early 1980s. Meddings described how the special effects were made for the movie: Meddings created miniatures for the setting of the film's titular planet. The model Meddings constructed for Lyssa's castle was twenty feet high. Shots of it were done in Italy using forced perspective to make it look taller than it really was. The model of the Black Fortress was twelve feet high, and an electrical system was used to create the light within it. Because the Black Fortress disintegrates at the end of the film, it was constructed "like a jigsaw puzzle with parts able to be pulled apart on cue." In Krull, Ergo uses his magic to transform into creatures such as puppies and geese. Meddings used an effects strategy that showed these transformations differently from traditional cross dissolve methods, reasoning that it had "been done to death". He explained: Soundtrack The film score was composed by James Horner and performed by The London Symphony Orchestra and the Ambrosian Singers. It has been commended as part of the composer's best early efforts. The soundtrack is considered a high point of the film. Ryan Lambie, reviewing for Den of Geek wrote, "The 70s and 80s seemed to be the era of great sci-fi and fantasy themes, and Horner's is high up on the list of the best, providing the film a grandiose sweep to match the broad vistas of Krulls location photography." The score features traditional swashbuckling fanfares, an overtly rapturous love theme, and other musical elements that were characteristic of fantasy and adventure films of the 1980s, along with incorporating avant-garde techniques with string instruments to represent some of the monstrous creatures. Additionally, to accompany the main antagonists, the Beast and its army of Slayers, Horner utilised Holst-like rhythms and groaning and moaning vocals from the choir. Also of note is a recurring "siren call" performed by female voices that starts and bookends the score, and appears numerous times in the story to represent the legacy of the ancient world of Krull. Horner's score is reminiscent of earlier works, particularly Battle Beyond the Stars and Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. Some pieces of the music would later be reused in Aliens and The Rocketeer. Other segments would also be used for the ambiance of the Disneyland Paris attraction Space Mountain: Mission 2. The score has been released numerous times on album by various labels. The first was a 45-minute condensed edition released by Southern Cross Records in 1987, featuring most of the major action cues, three renditions of the love theme, and the music from the end credits; however, music from the main title sequence was omitted. Southern Cross Records later released special editions in 1992 and 1994 (the latter a Gold disc), expanding on the previously released tracks, featuring the main title music and other action cues. In 1998, Super Tracks released the complete recorded score in a two-CD set with elaborate packaging and extensive liner notes by David Hirsch. In 2010, La-La Land Records re-issued the Super Tracks album, with two bonus cues and new liner notes by Jeff Bond in a limited edition of 3,000 copies, which sold out within less than a year. La-La Land reissued an additional 2,000 copies of the album in 2015. The following is the track listing for the 1983 Southern Cross Records vinyl album: A-Side: "Riding the Fire Mares" "Slayer's Attack" "Widow's Web" "Colwyn and Lyssa (Love Theme)" B-Side: "Battle on the Parapets" "The Widow's Lullaby" "Destruction of the Black Fortress" "Epilogue and End Credits" This is the tracklist for the 1992 expanded CD release: Krull Main Title and Colwyn's Arrival (7:34) The Slayers Attack (9:17) Quest for the Glaive (7:22) The Seer's Vision (2:17) "The Battle in the Swamp" (2:40) Quicksand (3:37) Leaving the Swamp (1:59) The Widow's Web (6:17) Colwyn and Lyssa Love Theme (2:34) The Widow's Lullaby (5:01) Ynyr's Death (1:39) Ride of the Fire Mares (5:21) Battle on the Parapets (2:52) Inside the Black Fortress (6:14) Death of the Beast and Destruction of the Black Fortress (8:33) Epilogue and End Credits (4:52) The following is the tracklist for the 2010 La-La-Land Records album: Disc One: Main Title and Colwyn's Arrival (7:34) The Slayers Attack (9:18) Quest for the Glaive (7:23) Ride to the Waterfall (0:53) Lyssa in the Fortress (1:28) The Walk to the Seer's Cave (4:10) The Seer's Vision (2:18) The Battle in the Swamp (2:39) Quicksand (3:38) The Changeling (4:04) Leaving the Swamp (1:58) Disc Two: Vella (3:46) The Widow's Web (6:18) The Widow's Lullaby (5:01) Ynyr's Death (1:41) Ride of the Firemares (5:22) Battle on the Parapets (2:53) Inside the Black Fortress (6:13) The Death of the Beast and The Destruction of the Black Fortress (8:31) Epilogue and End Title (4:52) Colwyn and Lyssa Love Theme (2:35) The Walk to the Seer's Cave (Album Edit) (2:16) Theme from Krull (4:48) Reception Box office In the United States and Canada, Krull grossed $16.9million at the box office, against a reported budget of $27–30 million. Critical response Variety called Krull a "blatantly derivative hodgepodge of Excalibur meets Star Wars." They conclude that the "professionalism of director Peter Yates, the large array of production and technical talents and, particularly, the mainly British actors keep things from becoming genuinely dull or laughable." Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel, reviewing Krull on their show At the Movies, gave the film two thumbs down and called it "one of the most boring, nonsensical, illogical fantasies in a long time." Christopher John reviewed Krull in Ares Magazine #16 and commented that "It is a hot, hollow wind which only reminds us of what a pleasant breeze feels like, and angers us because it isn't one." Colin Greenland reviewed Krull for Imagine magazine, and stated that "If as much attention had been paid to the plot as to the visuals, instead of all this 'It is the time. I/we must go/stay alone/ together' stuff, perhaps it wouldn't be so hard to care what happens next." Critic Janet Maslin found Krull to be "a gentle, pensive sci-fi adventure film that winds up a little too moody and melancholy for the Star Wars set" and praised director Yates for "giving the film poise and sophistication, as well as a distinctly British air." Baird Searles described Krull as "an unpretentious movie ... with a lot of good things going for it." Retrospective response Despite its critical and box office failure, the film has gained a cult following over the years. A 2017 review by AllMovie journalist Jason Buchanan hailed it as "an ambitious sci-fi/fantasy that even in its failures can usually be forgiven for its sheer sense of bravado." Ryan Lambie, reviewing for Den of Geek in 2011, called it "among the most visually creative and downright fun movies of the enchanted 80s" and "an entire galaxy away from other cheap, quickly made knock-offs that showed up in the wake of Star Wars." In a 2006 retrospective, PopMatters critic Bill Gibron found many problems with Krull, but noted that it had an "amusement amalgamation" rare for a film released in the early 1980s, where "if you don't like one particular character or circumstance, just wait – something completely different is just around the corner." He summarized that it's "the perfect pick up film – a movie you can catch in snatches while it plays on some pay cable channel. No matter what point you come in on the story, no matter what sort of scene is playing out before you, the lack of continuity and context actually allows you to take pleasure in the individual moment, and if so inclined, to stick around for another exciting sample in just a few minutes." Writing about the film in 2009, Eric D. Snider summarized, "against all odds, Krull crams itself with magic, fantasy, and heroic quests, yet still manages to be boring. This is an impressive feat in and of itself. You'd almost have to be doing it on purpose." Cinematography A common critical praise of Krull was the visuals and special effects, Lambie describing them as "quite captivating". Buchanan wrote, "Even if it does seem overly familiar at times there is just enough originality injected into the visualization of the film that it's hard to dismiss it as just another Star Wars clone." Searles called the film "very beautiful, in fact, a neglected quality in these days when it seems to have been forgotten that film is a visual medium". Entertainment Weekly stated that Krull "had visual imagination to spare, including its sequences of flame-hoofed horses and a particularly scary pre-LOTR segment with a giant spider." Lambie called the Glaive "one of the coolest fantasy armaments of the decade", while Buchanan described it as "highly original". However, Watt-Evans disliked the weapon's name. He explained that an actual glaive was a "sort of pole-arm, a long stick with a long blade on the end" and not a "brass starfish". He stated that while "glaive" was a vague term and there wasn't an actual word that defined the weapon, "the writer should have made [another name] up rather than borrowing one which doesn't fit." The effects have also garnered detractors. The House Next Door critic Steven Boone stated that Krull "stands out because it has some of the clunkiness and uncertain production design of a cheapie like Beastmaster, but its visuals fairly pulse like something from the Spielberg–Lucas realm". Gibron wrote that the film doesn't have "the polished level of visuals that fans were used to (thanks to American companies like ILM)". In a 2001 DVD Talk review, Gil Jawetz called the effects "totally fake and funny" like most other 1980s films. Ian Nathan, in a 2015 Empire magazine piece, wrote that they "may have satisfied young boys at the time but have become frail and silly with age". He was especially critical towards the visuals of the ending, labeling them as "all too derivative", lacking "polish", and only "mildly distracting". However, Nathan also noted that the film did present some interesting designs and concepts, including doppelgängers that sneak into Colwyn's gang and a witch named The Widow of the Web trapped in "the heart of a web". Screenplay A frequent criticism in multiple reviews of Krull is of its writing. Lambie believed that Krull is "perhaps a little too derivative to earn a place in the major league of 80s fantasy movies". Gibron described Krull as a "forgettable battle between good, evil and a strange circular weapon", stating that its "confusing mythology left many an intended audience member scratching their adolescent head". This "confusing mythology" included the "dopey reasons" for the story's essential characters dying and parts of the story that "got lost inside all manner of interstellar/medieval malarkey". Writer Annie Frisbie opined that the film's representation of the relationship between Colwyn and Lyssa was "way too vague", reasoning that "the dialogue between Colwyn and Lyssa is so generic that it doesn't come close to achieving that odd blend of universality and intimacy that makes love stories sing". Snider described Krull as a "film that dares you not to laugh at it", opining that "its plot reads like an oral report on Lord of the Rings given by a student who hasn't read the book". Snider described one major problem in the film's writing: Many aspects of the plot—such as magical abilities, wizards, lands, and other individuals on Krull—are only mentioned by the characters but never elaborated, which was both praised and criticized in Watt-Evans's review of the film. He liked that it made the viewer have to solve mysteries on his own and gave the film "believability". However, he was dismayed by one scene in the film where Lyssa sees a projected image of the Beast murdering a girl: "We see the image of the girl die and vanish, but I would have liked a look at that directly, rather than through the image. How did it look to the people around the girl? Did she vanish, as the image did, or was there a body?" He described this part of the film as a "missed ... opportunity", reasoning that "such a scene would have told us something about the Beast's power, and the reactions of the people watching might have been informative, as well". He said Krull "drags in spots", such as in the moments Colwyn and his gang climb mountains, and described the film's ending as "singularly lacking in surprises". However, Lambie praised the ending for being the most exciting part of the film as well as "surprisingly harsh, with Colwyn losing allies at every turn. The Star Wars franchise never despatched quite so many characters in such a graphic manner." Characters and performances Responses to the characters and performances of Krull were varied. Some critics praised the antagonists of the film. Watt-Evans highlighted the Slayers' "cleverly designed double-ended weapons which provide some nice special effects and make for wonderfully chaotic battle scenes". He also noted they squeal and glow before they break apart when they get stabbed, describing such scenes as "quite alien and frightening". Lambie praised the Slayers' "ominous silhouette of their armour, and the worm-like creature that erupts from them when they're defeated, make them far less derivative than they may otherwise have been". Buchanan described the Slayers as "truly horrific", calling their death screams a "memorable touch", and labeled the Beast as being pulled "straight from the darkest of fairy tales". The Aurum Film Encyclopedia expressed admiration for the "engaging characters who surround the pallid hero and heroine" and also called the action scenes "nicely judged". Lambie called the characters "flat", Gibron said that the acting "seemed pitched just a tad too high for the relatively low brow material", while Buchanan described Marshall's performance as Colwyn as "somewhat wooden". Jawetz opined that "Marshall, who looks like the lovechild of Patrick Swayze and Bruce McCulloch, is not quite tough enough to pull off his warrior role, but the supporting cast seems more solid." Lambie praised David Battley's performance as Ergo, while Justine Elias, another journalist for The House Next Door, called Battley's character "awful", elaborating that "even the dullest child would find this unfunny. I pitied Ken Marshall when he was forced to react with hearty ha-ha-has to every crap magic trick." Accolades Nominee Best Fantasy Film – Saturn Awards Nominee Best Music (James Horner) – Saturn Awards Nominee Best Costumes (Anthony Mendleson) – Saturn Awards Nominee Grand Prize (Peter Yates) – Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival Won Worst Picture – Stinkers Bad Movie Awards Merchandise Book A novelization was written by Alan Dean Foster. A comic book adaptation by writer David Michelinie and artists Bret Blevins and Vince Colletta was published by Marvel Comics, both as Marvel Super Special No. 28 with behind-the-scenes material from the film, and as a two-issue limited series. Games In 1983, several games were released under license. Parker Brothers produced a board game and card game. An action video game was released in arcades by D. Gottlieb & Co. Gottlieb also designed a Krull pinball game that never went into production. Atari, Inc. published a different Krull video game for the Atari 2600. Home media The film was released in multiple home-media formats: VHS, Betamax, CED, LaserDisc, and DVD. The film was available on DVD as a "Special Edition" in 2008. The film was available for streaming through Starz and Netflix until June 2012. Mill Creek Entertainment, through a license from Sony, released Krull on Blu-ray for the first time on 30 September 2014. On 11 November 2019, HMV released Krull in the UK in dual-format Blu-ray and DVD under their Premium Collection label, with art cards & fold out poster. The previous release, the year before, was pulled due to an aspect ratio issue on the Blu-ray. The new release has the correct ratio. Legacy Combining elements of sword and sorcery and the space opera genre, Krull has a plot compared by critics to the works in the series of Star Wars, The Lord of the Rings, and, for its use of the Glaive, the legend of King Arthur. Watt-Evans explained that the Glaive is "just there, waiting for the right man to come and wield it". Though most of the characters say they know about the myths of the Glaive, they never reveal these stories to Colwyn before he obtains the weapon. He wrote, "Do any of the stories ever bother to explain who forged Excalibur, or how? No, it's just there, waiting for Arthur to come and get it. Similarly, the Glaive is just there, waiting for Colwyn." Watt-Evans analogized the look, story, and vibe of Krull as a superior version of The Dark Crystal (1982). He described the film's settings: Yates's concept for Krull was "sort of a fairy storybook that moves; a fairy tale with a life, a reality of its own. I very much wanted to make a movie with some old-fashioned romance to it, yet a movie where things always moved." Watt-Evans, categorizing Krull as a fairy tale, noted the film to be mythic to the point of making "no attempt at realism". He analyzed, "Lyssa and Colwyn, despite having apparently arranged the marriage for political reasons, fall madly in love at first sight." He continued, "although we're told that the Slayers have been burning villages, we never see a village, burned or otherwise." He wrote that establishing shots of castles show no residents or plot-unrelated extras passing by; this was an indication that the lands of Krull do not have an economic system or population, which was appropriate given that "it's traditional for the heroes of fairy tales to be unbothered by such necessities as food and shelter." He wrote that not much about the background of the characters is revealed because "this is not a film that explores the innermost secrets of the human heart, it's a glorious fairy tale for both adults and children." None of the characters who live on Krull explain the magical powers they use every day. Watt-Evans wrote that this lack of explanation "helps one to accept that these people are real people, living in a real world". He reasoned that magic powers are Krull's equivalent of automobiles: "in a movie set on Earth, does anyone bother to explain cars? No, they're just there. For Krull, magic is as much a part of the everyday world as automobiles are for us." Justin K. Thompson, director of Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse, revealed that the spider in the web scene was an influence on the design of the spider in Go Home Machine, which is also named after the character Ynyr. In popular culture The 2001 PC role-playing game Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura features a powerful throwing weapon called Azram's Star, which is modeled directly after the glaive from the film. The Krull glaive makes an appearance by intermittently floating up out of the lava in the tunnels preceding the Onyxia boss encounter in the 2004 MMO video game World of Warcraft. In the American Dad! episode "All About Steve" (2005), Snot holds up a fictional magazine which reads "500 reasons why Krull is better than sex!" The Krull glaive was spoofed in South Park, season 11, episode 5 ("Fantastic Easter Special", 2007). In the 2007 film The Air I Breathe, Brendan Fraser's character (Pleasure) refers to Rell, the Cyclops, as both characters have the ability to see into the future, though significantly different for each. In the 2008 Family Guy episode "Baby Not on Board", Carl tells Chris that he should not watch Krull after Chris expresses his view that the eagles are a major plot hole in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. In the episode "Meet the Quagmires", when Peter travels back to 1984, he tells Lois he would rather see Krull than Zapped!. In the 2008 game Dark Sector, the protagonist extensively uses a three-bladed weapon named the Glaive, with its design being reminiscent of Krull's glaive. The weapon also makes an appearance in Warframe, the game's spiritual successor. In 2008, the third entry in the Bloons Tower Defense series gave the Boomerang Monkeys the ability to throw Glaives. In the 2008 Robot Chicken episode "In a DVD Factory", a sketch shows Prince Colwyn promising to save everyone with his glaive; he then throws it in a cave, only for it to immediately boomerang back to him and jam inside his back, prompting him to ask rhetorically "The glaive is stuck in my back, isn't it?" The Cyclops and fire mares from Krull are emulated in the 2009 film Gentlemen Broncos. The 2009 film Bikini Bloodbath Christmas features two actors dressed up as Prince Colwyn and Rell, selling Glaives door to door. In the 2013 game Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon the player receives a weapon near the end of the game named the Killstar, with its design being very similar to the Krull Glaive. Sean Phillips, the reclusive central character of John Darnielle's novel Wolf in White Van (2014), buys an ex-rental VHS copy of the film and spends four pages musing on the film's story and themes. The glaive was used by Sho near the end of the 2018 film Ready Player One to cut off I-R0k's arm. It was spoofed by RiffTrax on December 28, 2018. Notes More commonly, the term glaive is used to describe a halberd-like weapon. References External links Nick Maley talks about making the film KRULL 1983 films 1980s fantasy adventure films 1980s science fiction action films British fantasy adventure films British science fiction action films American fantasy adventure films American science fantasy films American science fiction action films American space adventure films American sword and sorcery films Columbia Pictures films 1980s English-language films Films scored by James Horner Films adapted into comics Films directed by Peter Yates Films set on fictional planets Films set in castles Films shot in the Canary Islands Films shot at Pinewood Studios Films using stop-motion animation Sword and planet films 1980s American films 1980s British films
4623698	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20armyworm	African armyworm	The African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta), also called okalombo, kommandowurm, or nutgrass armyworm, is a species of moth of the family Noctuidae. The larvae often exhibit marching behavior when traveling to feeding sites, leading to the common name "armyworm". The caterpillars exhibit density-dependent polyphenism where larvae raised in isolation are green, while those raised in groups are black. These phases are termed solitaria and gregaria, respectively. Gregaria caterpillars are considered very deleterious pests, capable of destroying entire crops in a matter of weeks. The larvae feed on all types of grasses, early stages of cereal crops (e.g., corn, rice, wheat, millet, sorghum), sugarcane, and occasionally on coconut. The solitaria caterpillars are less active and undergo much slower development. The species is commonly found in Africa, but can also be seen in Yemen, some Pacific islands, and parts of Australia. African armyworm outbreaks tend to be devastating for farmland and pasture in these areas, with the highest-density outbreaks occurring during the rainy season after periods of prolonged drought. During the long dry seasons ("off-season"), the population densities are very low and no outbreaks are seen. Taxonomy and phylogeny Spodoptera exempta was first described by Francis Walker in 1856. The species of Spodoptera are distributed around the world, mostly inhabiting tropical and subtropical areas. There are 30 known species in the genus, and roughly half are considered agricultural pests. There are two final larval stages based on the mandible structure of the species: serrate-like mandibles and chisel-like mandibles. Along with S. exempta, the following species and subspecies have chisel-like mandibles that were evolved to consume silica-rich leaves: S. triturata, S. m. mauritia, S. m. acronyctoides, S. umbraculata, S. cilium, , and S. pecten. Like S. exempta, a few species are migratory as adults and travel downwind for hundreds of kilometers, namely S. exigua, S. frugiperda, and S. litura. Due to the broad distribution of the species, the origin of the genus is unknown. However, dating of phylogenic trees reveal that the common ancestor for the genus lived between 22 and 30.7 million years ago and began diversification during the Miocene Epoch. Geographic range The African armyworm is commonly found in the grasslands of Africa and Asia. Within Africa, it is mostly seen near the Sahara in the following countries: Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Somalia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and South Africa. Outside of Africa, the species also inhabits southwest Saudi Arabia, Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Habitat Akin to other species of the genus Spodoptera, S. exempta lives in tropical and subtropical environments near cereal crops and dense vegetation where the larvae of the species can easily feed. Because these larvae thrive in high-density populations, African armyworm outbreaks occur in which fields become overrun by caterpillars. The surrounding vegetation is then consumed in large amounts, often with devastating effects. While seasonal winds and rains allow adult S. exempta to migrate across countries and continents, they are often confined to coastal areas and marshes during dry seasons, where the occasional rainfall supports enough vegetation growth for the moth's survival. Food resources S. exempta larvae feed almost exclusively on Poaceae, also called Gramineae. Poaceae is a family of flowering grasses which includes cereal grasses and the grasses of grasslands and pastures. The species targets most cereal crops, including maize, sorghum, rice, millet, and other grasses. Young caterpillars are also known to feed on wheat and oat seedlings. The larvae eat the upper and lower surfaces of the plant tissue first, preferring to feed on younger and recently germinated crops. Studies have shown that two larvae can completely consume a 10-day-old maize plant with 6–7 leaves, indicating the devastating potential of a high-density outbreak. Life cycle Eggs The female can lay a maximum of about 1,000 eggs in her lifetime. She can lay 100–400 eggs per night, with an overall average of 150. The number of eggs females can lay is positively correlated with their pupal weight. African armyworms primarily lay their eggs in clusters on the lower side of leaves. Their eggs are relatively small at 0.5 mm in diameter. They are white when first laid, but will turn black prior to hatching. The eggs hatch into larvae within two to five days. Larvae S. exempta undergo six larval instars that altogether can last between 14 and 22 days depending on the temperature and vegetation in the environment. Fully grown sixth-instar larvae are 25–33 mm long. The larvae display density-dependent polyphenism where the appearance of the individual depends on the population density in which it was reared. The terms gregaria and solitaria were given to the caterpillars raised in groups and in solitude, respectively. These two phases can also be referred to as gregarious and solitary or crowded and isolated. Gregaria larvae have black bodies and thin yellow, horizontal stripes along their bodies. Solitaria larvae have green coloration with a brown stripe down their backs. This green coloration is due to both pigmentation and ingested plant material visible in the gut. The differences in appearance between the solitaria and gregaria phases become apparent in the third instar and remain until the last instar. The species is most damaging to crops during its gregaria phase because the black-bodied caterpillars are more active and densely concentrated than solitaria caterpillars. Solitaria larvae are less active and tend to stay curled up by the base of the crops, leading to less exposure to the sun. Because gregaria caterpillars have darker coloration and maintain positions higher up on the crops, they have increased exposure to the sun, resulting in more rapid development than solitaria caterpillars. Generally, African armyworms are not noticed by farmers until the caterpillars are ten days old and start exhibiting the gregaria phase. Larvae that are transferred from isolated to dense conditions or vice versa display the gregaria appearance. The darkness of the gregaria phase is positively correlated with the population density of the environment; two larvae raised together will have a dark brown appearance, while larvae raised in larger groups will be completely black. The caterpillar's phase is determined by non-species specific larval interaction but can be influenced by temperature. Isolated larvae that are raised in low temperatures can gain a darker appearance, while larvae raised in crowded groups at high temperatures will not be as dark as typical gregaria. Despite how sensitive the developing larvae are to larval contact, high densities of solitaria caterpillars have been recorded due to a vegetation-dense environment limiting interaction. Because the developmental and pupal stages for gregaria caterpillars are shorter than the solitaria caterpillars, gregaria-phase larvae tend to be smaller but have more efficient feeding behavior. Pupae Pupation occurs beneath the surface of host plants and away from bare ground, roughly 2–3 cm underground. This pupation event leads to a sudden synchronized disappearance of the larvae, especially if the soil is moist. Adults Adults emerge in 7 to 10 days and can live up to 14 days. The moths migrate over hundreds of kilometers from their emergence sites to their oviposition sites. This migration often causes outbreaks to occur suddenly in areas that were previously free of the pests. While polyphenism is observed in the larvae, the two phases lead to indistinguishable S. exempta adults. However, the two larval phases go on to display different migratory behavior. The gregaria larvae tend to produce adults that travel longer and further during the migration period. The adult moth wingspan is between 20 and 37 mm, with dull gray-brown forewings and off-white hindwings with visible veins. Females and males can be distinguished by the number of bristles on their frenulum, where males have a single bristle while females have multiple. Females are also identifiable due to their racquet-shaped abdomen tip and black scales. Males have been observed to mature earlier than females. Migrations When African armyworms first emerge after pupation, they allow their bodies to dry off and their wings to harden before climbing trees. The moths then fly hundreds of meters above the ground and rely on winds to carry them to their next location. Therefore, migration is based on winds brought by the Intertropical Convergence Zone, which move northwards or southwards depending on the season. The moths only travel during the day and descend during dusk to hide in the grass until dawn. This process is repeated for several days until an acceptable destination is reached or the moths encounter rain. Because rain causes the moths to descend, S. exempta are less likely to migrate during frequent rainfall. After the moths land back on the ground, they drink water, mate, and lay their eggs. Migration is beneficial because it allows the species to travel to a new location with fewer predators and less possibility of parasitism and infection. Outbreak behavior S. exempta are a serious pest for crops, often thriving during the wet seasons and leading to outbreaks. There are two types of African armyworm outbreaks: primary and secondary. Primary outbreaks occur with relatively inconspicuous, low-density populations that can survive without frequent rainfall. Secondary outbreaks occur when the moths from the primary outbreak are carried downwind and the adults mate and lay eggs in same location due to wind patterns. During these secondary outbreaks, gregaria larvae emerge from the ground synchronously, and their density may exceed 1,000 larvae per m2. These larvae display highly active feeding behavior, leading to excessive consumption of the nearby vegetation, especially the leaves of cereal crops and grasses. If extremely hungry, the gregaria larvae may also consume the stem and flowers of the plants. The high-density gregaria larvae may then pupate and emerge as adults, leading to a large migration event of moths that travel downwind together. These moths will then develop their eggs together, resulting in more outbreaks. The intensity of outbreaks also increases during the start of the wet season after a drought, which allows moths to lay eggs in areas of dense vegetation which supports the larval stage growth. Enemies Overview Natural enemies have limited effects on African armyworms due to the species' unpredictable migration paths and variable population densities. The large number of moths traveling during migration can also lead to predator swamping, overwhelming the predator by exceeding its capacity to eat the moths. Despite these challenges, S. exempta still faces predators, parasites, parasitoids, diseases, and viruses. During the pupal and pre-pupal stages, the species is susceptible to a cytoplasmic virus. High humidity and temperature lead to attacks from the fungi Nomuraea rileyi. Although parasitoids do not accumulate rapidly enough to kill a S. exempta population before migration occurs, if the moths happen to return to the same spot, high levels of parasitism are experienced. Most significantly, the species is infected by the species-specific baculovirus, S. exempta nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpexNPV). SpexNPV SpexNPV, abbreviated from S. exempta nucleopolyhedrovirus, is a baculovirus that can be transmitted vertically, from adults to offspring. SpexNPV can kill 90% of an African armyworm larvae population in their last instar; the high mortality rate is due to the vertically transmitted diseases' capability of traveling with the diseased individual during migration. Because vertically transmitted diseases benefit from the host species' survival and are less pathogenic than horizontally transmitted diseases, SpexNPV can persist in an individual with no symptoms. S. exempta attempt to reduce the risk of contracting SpexNPV via density-dependent prophylaxis, which allows the species to invest more in resisting disease and stimulate migration to less dense locations. Mating Female/male interactions Pheromones Virgin female S. exempta adults are observed to release pheromones that attract males. In particular, this includes the following six compounds: Z9-14:Ac (Z-9-tetradecenyl acetate), Z,E9,12-14:Ac ((Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienyl acetate), Z11-14:Ac (Z-11-tetradecenyl acetate), Z9-14:OH (Z-9-tetradecen-1-ol), Z9-14:Ald (Z-9-tetradecenal), and Z11-16:Ac (Z-11-hexadecenyl acetate). While the compounds Z9-14:Ac, Z,E9,12-14:Ac, Z11-14:Ac and Z9-14:OH are commonly found sex pheromones in Lepidoptera species, the latter two compounds have only been seen in other Spodoptera species. Physiology Thermoregulation While dark coloration in species usually indicates a thermoregulatory function, this does not appear to be true under normal conditions in S. exempta. The black gregaria larvae do not exhibit basking behavior which is usually present in dark-colored species that want to increase their body temperature via exposure to the sun. Although the gregaria larvae are shown to heat up more rapidly than the solitaria larvae, gregaria caterpillars have less body mass, which is the main contributing factor to the increased effect of temperature. However, darker coloration was favored in high temperatures when the species is more likely to overheat, suggesting that the coloration between the two phases could be more significant at extreme temperatures. Interactions with humans Pest control The gregaria phase of the S. exempta species are considered agricultural pests due to their high densities and feeding behavior. Because it is hard to identify and eliminate all primary outbreaks, the main focus for pest control has been to target secondary outbreaks. In the past, cheap, broad-use pesticides such as DDT, BHC, and dieldrin were commonly used to target the caterpillars. Now, newer insecticides such as azadirachtin and aqueous neem (Azadirachta indica) seed extracts are often applied, but these methods are dose dependent and have adverse side effects on both human health and crops. More focused, rapid, and environmentally friendly intervention techniques now exist to limit the spreading of S. exempta. For example, the S. exempta nucleopolyhedrovirus virus (SpexNPV), a naturally present disease that preys on the species, is now being investigated as a method of biological pest control. Infestations In mid-April 1999, an African armyworm infestation started in southern Ethiopia, spreading into the north the following month and into the Jubba Valley of Somalia in early May. Similar outbreaks affected the Rift Valley Province of Kenya and parts of Uganda at the same time. While Ethiopian officials had stocks of pesticides to treat 350,000 hectares of affected land, neither Kenyan nor Ugandan officials had sufficient supplies to combat the insect and no central government was present to respond to the emergency in Somalia. STAR radio in Liberia reported in January 2009 that Zota District in Bong County had been invaded by African armyworms, which had consumed vegetation, polluted creeks and running water, and were moving toward Guinea and Sierra Leone. On January 28, 2009, the president of Liberia declared a state of emergency to deal with the infestation of army worms in the country. December 2009 had an infestation of ten regions of Tanzania. The infested regions include three of the five main grain-producing regions. The other two major grain-producing regions were at risk of infestation. Tanzania has trained farmers in fighting armyworms since 2007, and responded to forecasts of the late 2009 infestation by sending out hundreds of liters of pesticides to rural farmers. The first infestation was reported on December 22 and quickly spread to surrounding regions. The previous growing season saw Tanzania produce 10.872 million tons of grain; after 10.337 million tons of domestic consumption, the remaining 0.534 million tons were exported. By December 31 almost of grain had been destroyed by armyworms in just the Lindi Region of Tanzania. In January 2015, armyworm outbreaks were reported in Zimbabwe, and by November there were reports of similar outbreaks in Botswana. In 2016, the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda, a species of American origin that behaves similarly) invaded maize crops in Zambia. By January 3, 2017, about 90,000 hectares were affected according to reports released by the Zambian government's Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit. The Zambia National Farmers Union indicated that some farms were completely wiped out. The Zambian president directed the air force to help airlift pesticides to fight the outbreak. In 2017, fall armyworm infestations were detected in more African countries such as Zimbabwe and South Africa. See also Common armyworm or true armyworm (Mythimna unipuncta) (North and South America) Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) (North and South America) Northern armyworm, Oriental armyworm, or rice ear-cutting caterpillar (Mythimna separata) (Asia) References External links Spodoptera Agricultural pest insects Moths of Cape Verde Owlet moths of Africa Moths of Japan Moths of Madagascar Moths of New Zealand Moths of the Middle East Moths described in 1856 Insect pests of millets
4624053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia%20Tann	Georgia Tann	Beulah George "Georgia" Tann (July 18, 1891 – September 15, 1950), was an American social worker and child trafficker who operated the Tennessee Children's Home Society, an adoption agency in Memphis, Tennessee. Tann used the unlicensed home as a front for her black market baby adoption scheme from the 1920s. Young children were kidnapped and then sold to wealthy families, abused, or—in some instances—murdered. A state investigation into numerous instances of adoption fraud led to the closure of the institution in 1950. Tann died of cancer before the investigation made its findings public. Tann's custom of placing children with influential members of society normalized adoption in the U.S., and many of her adoption policies (often designed to obfuscate the origin of her adoptees) have become standard practice. Early life and education Tann was born on July 18, 1891, in Philadelphia, Mississippi, to Beulah Isabella (née Yates) and George Clark Tann. She was older than her brother, Rob Roy Tann, by three years. Young Beulah was a school teacher during a time when it was uncommon for women to work outside of the home. Her father, Judge George Tann, reportedly had a "domineering" personality. He also had aspirations of his daughter becoming a concert pianist, and, beginning at the age of five, he put her in piano lessons that continued into adulthood. Nelli Kenyon with The Nashville Tennessean reported that Tann's childhood home in Hickory, Mississippi, was a popular neighborhood gathering spot. Judge Tann would sometimes bring abandoned or neglected children with him, remarking that he would need a minister, school teacher, and doctor to figure out what to do with the children. Tann attended Martha Washington College in Abingdon, Virginia, graduating with a degree in music in 1913, and took courses in social work at Columbia University in New York for two summers. However, she despised playing piano and, instead, desired to become a lawyer as her father had been. Under his tutelage, she read the law and passed the state bar exam in Mississippi. However, her father did not want her to practice law because it was unusual for women. With no apparent desire to get married or have children, she availed herself of one of the few careers available to unmarried women of her time, social work. Career Upon graduation, she briefly worked in Texas as a social worker, but quit after a short time. Mississippi Children's Home Society Tann found employment at the Mississippi Children's Home Society, working as the Receiving Director at the Kate McWillie Powers Receiving Home for Children. Ann Atwood, the daughter of a family friend, also worked at the home as a housemother; Ann was eight years Tann's junior. She had recently given birth to a son out of wedlock, and around this time appended Hollinsworth to her name, likely to give the impression that she had actually been widowed. It is unclear when they became a couple, but when Tann was terminated because of her questionable child-placing methods in 1924, she moved to Memphis, Tennessee with Atwood, Atwood's infant son, Jack, and her own adopted daughter, June. Tennessee Children's Home Society In Memphis, Tann was hired as the Executive Secretary at the Shelby County branch of the Tennessee Children's Home Society. Its offices were located on the fifth floor of the Goodwyn Building downtown. The society was the largest in the state, and had branches in Jackson, Knoxville, and Chattanooga. Tann used aggressive tactics to eventually take over the organization. In 1924, Tann began trafficking children. While Tennessee law permitted agencies to place children with appropriate applicants, in an effort to ban the selling of children, agencies could charge only for their services. In keeping with the law, the society charged about seven dollars for adoptions within Tennessee. However, Tann also arranged for out-of-state, private adoptions for which she charged a premium. As many as 80 percent of these adoptions were to parents in New York and California. Adoptions in states such as Mississippi, Arkansas, and Missouri could be arranged for $750. Records indicate that between 1940 and 1950, the agency placed 3,000 children in just those two states. "at a time when adoptions in Tennessee cost the princely sum of $7, some adoptions brokered by Tann cost as much as $5,000" Alma Walton and Regina Warner both worked for Tann, and made a trip every three weeks with four to six babies in tow: Walton to California and Warner to New York. They would rent hotel rooms where they would meet with prospective adoptive parents, most of whom were wealthy. Each couple would pay in a check made out to "Georgia Tann." Additionally, Tann might charge prospective parents for background checks she had never pursued, air travel costs at exorbitant rates, and adoption paperwork at five times the actual cost. The state of Tennessee itself was contributing a year to the agency, with 31 percent of that money going towards the Memphis branch. Profits were kept in a secret bank account under a false corporation name at the time. It is alleged that she pocketed 80 to 90 percent of the fees from these adoptions for her own personal use. She also failed to report the income to either the Society's board or the Internal Revenue Service. In a 1979 interview with the Los Angeles Times, Tennessee special prosecutor Robert Taylor reported that 1,200 children were adopted out of the home between 1944 and 1950, but only a few of them remained with Tennessee families. Notable personalities who used Tann's services included actress Joan Crawford (twin daughters, Cathy and Cynthia were adopted through the agency while daughter Christina Crawford and son Christopher were adopted through other agencies). June Allyson and husband Dick Powell also used the Memphis-based home for adopting a child, as did the adoptive parents of professional wrestler Ric Flair. New York Governor Herbert Lehman, who signed a law sealing birth certificates from New York adoptees in 1935, also adopted a child through the agency. Tann used a variety of methods to procure children. Through pressure tactics, threats of legal action, and other ways, she would dupe or coerce birth parents, mostly poor single mothers, to turn the children over to her custody, often under false pretenses. Alma Sipple, one of Tann's victims, described her as "a stern-looking woman with close-cropped grey hair, round wireless glasses and an air of utter authority." Tann also arranged for the taking of children born to inmates at Tennessee mental institutions and those born to wards of the state through her connections. To meet demand, she resorted to kidnappings. In a 1937 governmental report by Emma Annie Winslow, a prominent American home economist and researcher, she reported that the three homes for unwed mothers in Memphis, in cooperation with the local health department, had committed to keeping mothers with their infants for at least three months before seeking adoption, especially to complete breastfeeding. However, all three homes reported that, in practice, the Tennessee Children's Home would collect the children within weeks due to "court commitment." Winslow also reported that Tann had the practice of collecting children directly from their mothers at the hospital before the mother was even released, some mothers having signed the children over to the orphanage before the child was even born. Tann said she preferred to receive the children early "before they developed thrush or some other infection" in the hospital. Winslow also noted that, during 1933–1934, while there were no maternal deaths between the three homes, there was a large number of infant deaths due to an "epidemic" at Memphis General Hospital. The author noted that improvements in care in the hospital nursery had decreased infant mortality during previous years, and ultimately concluded that the uptick in infant deaths must have come from "non-resident" mothers from other areas who gave birth in Memphis. Tann was documented taking children born to unwed mothers at birth, claiming that the newborns required medical care. When the mothers asked about the children, Tann or her accomplices would explain that the babies had died, when they had actually been placed in foster homes or adopted. In some cases, single parents would drop their children off at nursery schools, only to be told that welfare agents had taken the children. In others, children would be temporarily placed in an orphanage because a family was experiencing illness or unemployment, only to find out later that the orphanage had adopted them out or had no record of the children ever being placed. Tann destroyed records of the children who were processed through the Society and conducted minimal background checks on the adoptive homes. As a result, the Child Welfare League of America dropped the Society from its list of qualifying institutions in 1941. Many of the files of the children were fictionalized before being presented to the adoptive parents, which covered up the child's circumstances prior to being placed with the society. When an adoptive parent discovered that the information on the child was incorrect, such as in cases of falsified medical histories, Tann often threatened the adoptive parents with possible legal action that would force a surrender of their children. Tann's threats were fulfilled with the aid of Shelby County Family Court Judge Camille Kelley, who used her position of authority to sanction Tann's tactics and activities. Tann would identify children as being from homes which could not provide for their care, and Kelley would push the matter through her dockets. Kelley also severed custody of divorced mothers, placing the children with Tann, who then arranged for adoption of the children into "homes better able to provide for the children's care." However, many of the children were placed into homes where they were used as child labor on farms, or with abusive families. In a letter drafted in 1947, Tann's attorney, Abe Waldauer, said that the prospective adoptive couple had "complete custody and control of a child for one year; may submit the child to any physical or mental examination they wish and take any steps they may desire to ascertain they have a healthy and normal child. If it is not, the Tennessee Children's Home takes it back without question." Bypassing Shelby County Probate Court, most of the adoption cases were handled in the counties of Dyer, Haywood, and Hardeman. Tann also had connections with former Memphis, Tennessee, mayor E.H. "Boss" Crump, who continued to have an influential political presence until his death. He had long been known to take bribes from unlawful establishments (e.g., brothels and gambling halls), a fact which Tann used to her advantage. She enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and was widely respected in the community, counting among her friends prominent families, politicians, and legislators. While in her care, the children were mistreated by Tann, with reports of neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and murder. With no housing facilities, the society held children awaiting placement in public facilities and foster homes. In the 1930s, Memphis had the highest infant mortality rate in the nation, largely due to Tann. In 1943, a wealthy businessman donated the mansion at 1556 Poplar Avenue to the society. The offices and intake rooms were put on the bottom floor, while the nurseries were upstairs. The all-female staff wore all-white nursing uniforms, despite the fact that they were mostly untrained and even substance abusers. The children were frequently sedated and those who were difficult to place were allowed to die of malnutrition. Tann regularly ignored doctors' recommendations for sick children, denying them care or medicine, which often led to preventable deaths from illnesses such as diarrhea. While some of her victims are known to be buried in Elmwood Cemetery in Memphis, Tennessee, other children were never accounted for, and the exact number of deceased children remains unknown, with estimates of about 500 deaths due to mistreatment. Investigation and criminal charges At the time, so-called "black market" adoptions were not illegal, but were considered ethically and morally wrong. Reasons of the day included the fact that young, unwed mothers were often coerced to give up wanted children, the suitability of the parents was often ignored, information about the child's heritage and medical history was lost, and adoptive parents were unaware of any physical or mental illness. The Tennessee governor of the time, Gordon Browning, launched an investigation into the society on September 11, 1950, after receiving reports that the agency was selling children for profit. He assigned Memphis attorney Robert Taylor to the case. Two days later, the story was published in the media nationwide, including in the Memphis, Tennessee Commercial Appeal and The New York Times. Public Welfare Commissioner J. O. McMahan accused Tann and her cohorts of receiving as much as in profits. The Tennessee Children's Home Society was closed in 1950. The state of Tennessee sued Tann's estate for $500,000. Aftermath Tann is estimated to have stolen over 5,000 children. New York and California vowed to take action, but the children's adoptions were never investigated, and no children were restored. Tann died of uterine cancer three days before the state filed charges against the society, thus escaping prosecution. For her part, Judge Kelley was believed to be receiving bribes for ruling in Tann's favor; however, a 1951 report to Browning by the Tennessee Department of Public Welfare said that while she had "failed on many occasions to aid destitute families and permitted family ties to be destroyed" she had not personally profited from the rulings. She resigned shortly after the start of the investigation, and died in 1955 without any charges having been brought against her. Over several decades, 19 of the children who died at the Tennessee Children's Home Society, due to the abuse and neglect that Tann subjected them to, were buried in a lot at the historic Elmwood Cemetery with no headstones. Tann bought the lot sometime before 1923 and recorded the children there by their first names (such as "Baby Estelle" and "Baby Joseph"). In 2015, the cemetery raised $13,000 to erect a monument to their memory. It reads, in part: "In memory of the 19 children who finally rest here unmarked if not unknown, and of all the hundreds who died under the cold, hard hand of the Tennessee Children's Home Society. Their final resting place unknown. Their final peace a blessing. The hard lesson of their fate changed adoption procedure and law nationwide." In her book, Rural Unwed Mothers: An American Experience, Mazie Hough makes the argument that the implementation of social work standards in Tennessee without providing the needed funding contributed to abuses in the system. The Tennessee Children's Home Society scandal resulted in adoption reform laws in Tennessee in 1951. Tann's custom of creating false birth certificates for adoptees (which she did to hide the origins of the child) became standard practice nationwide. In 1979, the state adopted legislation requiring the state to assist siblings who were trying to find each other, while a bill that extended this provision to birth parents did not pass. In 1996, the State of Tennessee enacted Chapter 532 of the Tennessee Public Acts of 1996, which revised the process of obtaining adoption records by releasing them to adult adoptees of the Tennessee Children's Home Society, upon receiving permission from any living birth parents. Prior to the 1920s, adoption was a rare practice in the United States, with the Boston Children's Aid Society placing only five children per year. By contrast, in 1928, Tann placed 206 children with adoptive families. Believing in class distinctions, Tann felt that children should be taken from poor families and placed with, what she called, "people of the higher type." Because of Tann's insistence on choosing wealthy adoptive families, the practice of adoption became associated with the famous and influential, removing much of the stigma it previously had in American culture. The current Tennessee Children's Home, which is accredited by the state of Tennessee, has no connection with Georgia Tann nor the society which she operated. Personal life In 1922, Tann adopted an infant girl; she named her June. In her book about Tann, Barbara Raymond recounted June's daughter Vicci saying, "Mother said Georgia Tann was a cold fish; she gave her material things, but nothing else. I don't know why she bothered to adopt her." While the cohabitation of two financially independent women, referred to as "Boston marriages", had once been socially acceptable, such arrangements had begun to be viewed as suspiciously homosexual. Tann and Atwood Hollinsworth hid the true nature of their relationship. Tann adopted Ann Atwood Hollinsworth on August 2, 1943, in Dyer County, Tennessee, a legal provision that same-sex couples used at the time to ensure that their partners would inherit their property. Tann died of uterine cancer on September 15, 1950, aged 59, three days before Governor Gordon Browning of Tennessee filed charges against Tann's home. Tann was buried in her family's plot in Hickory Cemetery. In the media Mommie Dearest; "Joan Crawford['s] ... Mommie Dearest daughter supposedly came from the Tennessee Children's Home Society". Missing Children: A Mother's Story (1982), was loosely based on the Tennessee scandal. Tann was the subject of aforementioned December 13, 1989, episode of the crime show Unsolved Mysteries. The made-for-TV film Stolen Babies debuted in 1993. Directed by Kim Moses, it tells the story of a social worker that Moses and her writing partners interviewed, Annie Beales, who was the whistleblower on the Society. Beales is played by Lea Thompson; Tann is played by Mary Tyler Moore, who won an Emmy for her performance. She was featured in an episode of Investigation Discovery's series Deadly Women titled "Above the Law" that aired September 13, 2013. She was the topic of the April 25, 2017, episode of the podcast Southern Hollows; the August 29, 2017, episode of the True Crime Brewery podcast titled "The Baby Thief: The Crimes of Georgia Tann"; the March 15, 2019, episode of the Criminal podcast titled "Baby Snatcher"; and the April 30, 2019, two-part episode of the Behind the Bastards podcast titled "The Woman Who Invented Adoption (By Stealing Thousands of Babies)". She is the subject of the 2007 nonfiction book The Baby Thief: The Untold Story of Georgia Tann, the Baby Seller Who Corrupted Adoption, by Barbara Bisantz Raymond. She is also featured in the 2017 novel about the scandal, Before We Were Yours, by Lisa Wingate. In October 2019, Wingate and Judy Christie released the book Before and After: The Incredible RealLife Stories of Orphans Who Survived the Tennessee Children's Home Society. It is a nonfiction companion to Wingate's novel. In 2010, Devereaux "Devy" Bruch Eyler published her memoir No Mama, I Didn't Die — My Life as a Stolen Baby to tell her story as a stolen baby and victim of Georgia Tann. She grew up knowing she was adopted, but did not know, until she was in her 70s, that she had been stolen from her birth mother—a mother who, Eyler had been told, was dead. Eyler met her sister, Patricia Ann Wilks of Germantown, Tennessee, for the first time in 2009. Tann is featured in the 2019 novel, The Pink Bonnet by Liz Tolsma. Notable cases In 1990, the Los Angeles Times published the story of Alma Sipple. Her daughter Irma had been taken by Georgia Tann in the spring of 1946 under the pretense of providing medical care, but a few days later, however, Tann informed Sipple that her daughter had died of pneumonia and already been buried. Sipple was devastated by her grief, but suspected the child was still alive. Her efforts to find her daughter at the time, however, were fruitless. Years later, in 1989, she happened to be watching Unsolved Mysteries, and recognized Georgia Tann as the woman who had taken her child. As the show suggested, she wrote to Tennessee's Right to Know, a volunteer agency in Memphis that reunites families separated by adoption. They soon found Irma, whose name was then Sandra Kimbrell, and the mother and daughter reunited by phone. Sipple's story was featured again in the podcast Criminal. To Be the Man (2004), the autobiography of Ric Flair, begins with the opening chapter "Black Market Baby"; Flair's parents obtained him from the Tennessee Children's Home Society. See also Adoption fraud Child laundering Child-selling Female serial killers References Citations Works cited General references PROFILE: Mary Margulis St. Louis Post – Dispatch St. Louis, Mo.: May 10, 1993. p. 1 Section: EVERYDAY MAGAZINE External links Edna Gladney or Georgia Tann?, an analysis comparing and contrasting, Edna Gladney and Georgia Tann, the two women's legacies on adoption 1891 births 1950 deaths 20th-century American LGBT people Adoption history Adoption workers American female serial killers American kidnappers American social workers Columbia University School of Social Work alumni Deaths from cancer in Tennessee Emory and Henry College alumni LGBT people from Mississippi People from Memphis, Tennessee People from Philadelphia, Mississippi
4624480	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Warhammer%20Fantasy%20characters	List of Warhammer Fantasy characters	This is a list of many important or pivotal fictional figures in the history of the Warhammer Fantasy universe. These characters have appeared in the games set in the Warhammer world, the text accompanying various games and games material, novels by GW and later Black Library and other publications based on the Warhammer setting by other publishers. Some have been produced as modelsm, others have appeared only in text. High Elves (Asur) Aenarion the Defender - The first Phoenix King, whose skills were unrivalled amongst other mortals or immortals. He was granted incredible abilities by his gods to combat the first Great Chaos Incursion. Perished alongside his dragon Indraugnir, after slaying four Greater Daemons while defending the creation of the Great Vortex. Astarielle - First (recorded) Everqueen and first wife of Aenarion. Killed during the Great Catastrophe. Caledor the Dragontamer - The greatest elven mage ever to have lived and the creator of the Great Vortex. Forged many powerful weapons and artifacts to combat Chaos during the Great Catastrophe. Alariellem the Radiant - Current Everqueen of Avelorn and spiritual leader of the High Elves. Alith Anarm - Known as the Shadow King of Nagarythe. Alith Anar is the ruler of the Shadow Warriors. Eltharionm the Grimdark - A Swordmaster, the Prince of Yvresse and the Warden of Tor Yvresse. Asarnilm the Dragonlord- An exiled prince and Dog of War, who rides the green dragon Deathfang. Finubar the Seafarer - the eleventh and current Phoenix King of the High Elves. Imrikm - Ruling Prince of the kingdom of Caledor, Imrik is a direct descendant of Caledor Dragontamer. Selafyn of the Annuliim, - Limited edition figure, A Warden of the Annulii and part of the Storm of Chaos event. Teclism - Most powerful wizard in this age of the world. Founder of the Colleges of Magic in Altdorf. Twin brother of Tyrion. Tyrionm - Twin brother of Teclis, and direct descendant of Aenarion through his son by Astarielle, Morelion, he is the greatest warrior of the High Elves. He is called the 'Defender of Ulthuan' and is second only to Archaon the Everchosen when it comes to strength at arms. Caradryanm - Marked by Asuryan and Captain of the Phoenix Guard. Dark Elves (Druchii) Malekithm - King of the Dark Elves and second son of Aenarion. Also known as the Witch King. Malus Darkbladem - A Dark Elf Noble, possessed by the daemon Tz'arkan. Morathim - The first Hag Queen and sorceress of Naggaroth. Second wife of Aenarion and Mother of Malekith. Shadowbladem - A highly skilled Dark Elf Assassin, favoured by Hellabron. Hellebronm - Religious leader of the Dark Elves and greatest among the 'Brides of Khaine'. Lokhir Fellheartm - an infamous captain of one of the Black Arks. Kouran Darkhand- captain of the Black Guard, the personal bodyguards of Malekith. Tullaris Dreadbringer- the captain of the Executioners, the sacred warriors of Khaine. Rakarthm - Called the 'Beastmaster' Wood Elves (Asrai) Arielm - Queen of Athel Loren. Is one of the most powerful wizards in all Warhammer World. Ariel is a demi-goddess and the avatar of Isha. Araloth - Lord of Talsyn. Craven in his youth, refusing to hunt that which could hunt him, overcame his fears and slew a daemon to save his goddess. Drycham - A forest spirit that blames the Asrai for all of Athel Loren's woes. Durthum - One of the oldest treemen in Athel Loren. Naestra & Arahanm - The mysterious Sister-twins of Athel Loren, who can command the forest. Orionm - King of Athel Loren is a demi-god and avatar of Kurnuos. Is the terror of many Bretonnian's towns because of his "Wild Hunt". Scarloc - An Asrai champion who, with the aid of his men, killed Morghur with "one hundred arrows". He is considered the greatest archer alive. Note: Both Ariel and Orion appear to be drawn from the fairy monarchs Oberon and Titania of William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. Chaos Aekold Helbrassm, - Once a knight of the Templar Order of the Jade Griffon, he pledged his eternal loyalty to Tzeentch. An'ggrath the Unbound - The most powerful Bloodthirster of Khorne, replaced Skarbrand as the Blood God's most favored minion. Noted for having a forked whip. Arbaal the Undefeatedm - Chosen champion of Khorne, he rides upon Khorne's personal hound and wields the Destroyer of Khorne, a powerful axe. Archaonm, - The Everchosen, Lord of the End Times. Archaon led the latest invasion of the Empire in the worldwide campaign Storm of Chaos. He dueled Valten, champion of Sigmar and Luthor Huss, in battle during the Battle of Middenheim - but was then defeated by the Black Orc warlord Grimgor Ironhide and forced to quit the battlefield. These events were later retconed in the end times story to have never occurred. Archeon proceeded to lead chaos to victory leading to the end of the world and was last scene tumbling into the abyss with Sigmar. Later on he emerged alive in age of sigmar. Azazel, Prince of Damnation m - Gerreon is the twin brother to one of Sigmar's dearest friends. Upon this twin's death in battle, Gerreon grew to hate Sigmar, eventually betraying Sigmar, nearly killing him; Sigmar's first love Ravenna, who was also Gerreon's older sister, died by Gerreon's blade. Later ascended to Daemonhood, known as Azazel. Be'lakorm - The Harbinger, He Who Heralds the Conquerors, The shadow master of Mordheim. The first Daemon Prince of Chaos, cursed by the god Tzeentch to crown the Everchosen. Crom the Conquerorm - A powerful warlord, Vardek Crom is allied with Archaon. During the Storm of Chaos, Crom led his army to attack the Empire from the east while Archaon attacked from the north. Vardek Crom also defeated WAAAGH! Grimgor in the beginning of the campaign. He is believed to have been slain by the undead forces of Mannfred von Carstein whilst trying to lead his army through Sylvania to attack the Empire from the south. Dechala the Denied Onem- Once a beautiful High Elf princess, Dechala's family gave her to a Daemon Prince of Slaanesh during Aenarion's time as a sacrifice to save themselves. Driven mad by betrayed hate, Dechala sold her soul to Slaanesh for the chance to exact revenge on her family. Slaanesh accepted, and with his aid, Dechala exacted a terrible and bloody vengeance on her kinsmen. Now she is a monstrous daemonic creature, with a beautiful humanoid upper body and the repulsive lower body of a gigantic snake. Egrimm von Horstmannm, - Von Horstmann was a wizard of the Light College who had pledged his soul to the Chaos god Tzeentch in return for increased magical power. He rose quickly through the ranks, and corrupted many of his brethren before being found out by the Light wizard Vespasian Kant. Facing the wrath of both the College of Light and the Church of Sigmar, he fled to the Chaos Wastes on the back of the twin-headed Chaos Dragon Baudros. He dwells there still, leading The Cabal, the most powerful cult of Tzeentch in the World. Feytor the Taintedm - One of Archaon's four lieutenants. A Chaos Lord devoted to the Plague Lord Nurgle. Festus the Leechlordm- Once the best doctor in the Imperial province of Nordland, Festus fell from grace after he sold his soul to Nurgle in exchange for knowing the cure to a disease he couldn't stop. He was left a deranged maniac, seeking only to experiment with the effect of disease on humanity. Galrauchm, - First of the Chaos Dragons, and Father of all that monstrous breeds. Originally a mighty and noble Star Dragon who aided the High Elves in their war against Chaos, he mutated into a Chaos dragon after he slew a greater daemon of Tzeentch, which possessed him afterwards. His noble spirit still battles for control of his body and from time to time resurfaces: it is rumoured one day Galrauch will overcome the evil within him. Gorthor m - A Beastlord that is unafraid of killing Shamans. He has a cloak made out of the flayed hides of shamans he has slain. With his vision and skills of persuasion, Gorthor raised an immense warherd and laid waste to two whole Imperial provinces before he was finally killed. Ghorros Warhoof m- A powerful Centigor who has fought in thousands of battles and sired countless offspring, Ghorros is treated with respect and familial loyalty by all Beastmen. On his brow, he wears the skull of Arsil the Prince of Unicorns, a Wood Elf lord whom Ghorros murdered many years ago. Haargroth the Blooded One - Haargroth was a peasant boy who proved his mettle in combat, and became a Chaos Lord devoted to the Blood God Khorne and one of Archaon's four lieutenants. He was slain by Ar-Ulric Valgeir during the Battle of Middenheim. Harald Hammerstormm - "Harry the Hammer" is a legendary chaos warrior, roaming the Chaos Wastelands searching for more of the undead to slay. He has an eternal grudge against any of the undead. This character was on the cover of Warhammer 1st Edition. Khazrak the One-Eye m - Said to be the most dangerous of all the beastlords in the Drakwald Forest. Kholek Suneater-One of the oldest, largest and most powerful Dragon Ogre Shaggoths in existence. Malagor the Dark Omenm Bourne aloft on feathered pinions, Malagor is viewed by mankind as an embodiment of the destruction of all civilisation, while to the Beastmen, he is the embodiment of Mankind's destruction. His mere presence inspires awe in his followers, and utter terror in his enemies. Morghur, Master of Skulls m - Spreads Chaos wherever he goes. His presence can cause those nearby to mutate horrendeously. Sigvald m - An incest spawned bastard, Sigvald murdered his father for trying to exile him after his excesses became too much to put up with. Sigvald, however, soon found a patron who not only approved of his cruel and debauched excesses, but openly rewarded him for them: Slaanesh. Skarbrand the Exiled Onem - Khorne's former favorite Bloodthirster, tricked by Tzeentch into attacking the Blood God in blind rage. After doing so the daemon was permanently banished from Khorne's forces and realm, forcing him into a mindless frenzy unable to distinguish friend from foe. Noted for being unable to fly and using two axes instead of the standard ax and whip arsenal of a typical Bloodthirster. Throggm- Also known as the 'Troll King', Throgg is an oddity in that he is much smarter than his trollish kin. With his superior intellect and great strength, he has made it his mission to overthrow the race of Men, and bring about a nightmare age of ice and darkness where he and his monstrous brethren will rule the world. U'Zuhl the Skulltakerm - Is the Blood God's immortal champion, the strongest of all Khorne's Bloodletters. Appearing before enemy armies he bellows a challenge at the greatest warriors present until one of them is foolish enough to answer. When a foe emerges, Skulltaker charges forward to claim another skull in the name of the Blood God. Valkia the Bloodym- When Queen Valkia was slain in battle, Khorne resurrected her into a form more pleasing to him. Now a twisted mix of beautiful woman and monstrous demon, Valkia fights now only to serve her diabolic paramour: Khorne himself. Vilitch the Curselingm- The smaller and weaker of two twins, Vilitich was mercilessly beaten and abused by his elder brother, Thomin. After begging Tzeentch to reverse their fates, he awoke to find he and his brother had been fused together. Better still, he had become a sorcerer of phenomenal power, while his brother was now but a shambling automaton. Now Vilitch is master of his tribe, using his brother's strength to kill those his sorcery can't destroy - a rare occurrence indeed. Wulfrik the Wandererm- After arrogantly boasting that he was the equal of any warrior in this world or the next, the Chaos Gods cursed Wulfrik to spend eternity wandering the world, proving his arrogant claim. Ku'gath plaguefather Ku'gath is the chosen greather demon of Nurgle. He brings plague wherever he goes and is the living embodiment of nurgle. Kairos fateweaverKairos is a twin headed lord of change. His right head see the future while his left sees the past. He knows about every spell in the old world and can read the past and future possibly better than tzeench himself. N'karim- N'kari is slanesh's champion and is always on the hunt for the greatest pleasure ever know. He also has a deep hatred for the twins of Ulthan Tyrion and Teclis Orcs and Goblins (Greenskins) 'Azhag the Slaughtererm - Orc warlord, victor of the Battle for Butcher's Hill, he retrieved the Crown of Sorcery (created by Nagash) from a Chaos Troll's hoard. Borgut Facebeaterm - Orc warrior of the Red Eye Mountain whose fighting spirit impressed Grimgor enough to now serve directly under the warboss instead of killing him as a potential rival. Gorbad Ironclawm - Orc Warboss, leader of the Ironskin Tribe. He destroyed the Imperial province of Solland, taking its Elector Count's Runefang and besieged the Imperial capital, Altdorf. He is proclaimed as the greatest orc that ever lived. Gorfang Rotgutm - Chieftain of the Orcs of Black Crag, the ancient Dwarf hold taken over by Orcs many years ago. Grimgor Ironhidem - Black Orc Warboss, Defeated Archaon the everchosen during storm of chaos. Grom the Paunchm - Goblin Leader, sacked the Empire and invaded Ulthuan. Morglum Necksnapperm - Black Orc Warlord. Skarsnik & Gobblam - Night Goblin warlord, self-proclaimed Warlord of Karak Eight Peaks, a Dwarf hold now inhabited by dwarves, skaven and goblins who fight with each other constantly for supremacy. Gobbla is his pet squig. Dwarfs (Dawi) Alaric the Mad - Runesmith, perhaps the greatest to ever live, he eventually went insane after crafting the Nemesis Crown. He created the 12 Runefangs given to the Elector Counts of the Empire. Sigmar was aided several times throughout his life by a dwarf named Alaric after he rescued the Dwarven King Kurgan Ironbeard, it was Kurgan who gave him Ghal-maraz(Skull-Splitter.) Due to his habit of aiding humans, other Dwarves dubbed him 'Alaric the Mad'. Alrik Ranulfssonm - King of Karak Hirn, even his fellow dwarfs consider him extremely dedicated to the customs and traditions of his ancestors. He rides upon his great-great-great-grandfather's shield into battle, carried by two dwarfs. Garagrim Ironfistm - The son of Ungrim Ironfist, Garagrim had devised a plan to rid his family line of its dishonour. By dying in combat as his father's champion, Garagrim believed he would prove the worthiness of the bloodline. He was killed when a chaos giant fell on him as it died, thus fulfilling his slayer vow. Gotrek Gurnissonm - Slayer whose exploits are chronicled in the Gotrek and Felix series of books. His companion is the human Felix Jaegerm. Grimnir - Ancient dwarf god, who legend says carried two huge axes and wandered into the chaos wastes to do battle. He was never seen again. One of his axes now belongs to the dwarf high king Thorgrim Grudgebearer, the other reputedly belongs to Gotrek Gurnisson. Grombrindal, the White Dwarfm - A white-bearded dwarf hero, suspected to be Snorri Whitebeard, the first High King of the Dwarfs. Taken from the emblem of White Dwarf magazine. Josef Bugmanm - The greatest dwarf master brewer of all time, his brewery was destroyed by a band of marauding Goblins and he now wanders the world with his band of rangers hunting and killing Goblins wherever they find them. King Kazador - Dwarf King of Karak Azul, the last of the once wealthy southern holds to remain in Dwarf hands. Malakai Makaissonm - Slayer Engineer. Possibly one of the most brilliant engineers alive, but also quite mad. He claims he will prove his theories or die trying. He took the slayers crest when his first experimental airship, the Indestructible, killed a score of dwarfs. During the Second Siege of Praag Malakai used his second airship, the Spirit of Grungni, to fight Chaos in two ways. First, he delivered at least 200 Slayers to help the besieged city. Second, the airship was heavily loaded with highly flammable liquids and bombs, which Malakai then dropped upon the Chaos forces massed around the city. Snorri Nosebiterm - Slayer who is friend to Gotrek Gurnisson and aids him occasionally. Noteworthy that for his baldness making it impossible for him to have the typical Slayer mohawk, so he instead uses orange painted nails driven into his skull. Thorek Ironbrowm - The master runelord of Karak Azul who seeks to restore lost dwarf relics. He fights his foes with his anvil of doom. Thorgrim Grudgebearerm - Dwarf High King and King of Karaz-A-Karak as well as Keeper of the Great Book of Grudges. Ungrim Ironfistm - Dwarf "Slayer King" and ruler of Karak Kadrin also known as the Slayer Keep. Bretonnia Alberic d'Bordeleaux - Alberic is the current Duke of Bordeleaux and is noted for keeping a small but well trained force as opposed to his neighboring lands. Armand d'Aquitainem - Armand is the Duke of Aquitaine. He only took the post after his brother died and Louen ordered him to fulfill his familial duty, as Armand preferred seeking glory as a Knight Errent. Bohemond Beastslayerm - Bohemond is the Duke of Bastonne, and although blood decedent of Gilles le Breton, he is fiercely loyal to Louen Leoncoeur. Chilfroy d'Artois - Chilfroy is the Duke of Artois, and is noted for his size and grim nature. Fay Enchantressm - The highest mage of the Bretonnian realm. Her fury is legendary. Rides a Unicorn. Although the Fay Enchantress is a Character that can be taken as part of the (Human) Bretonnian army, she is in fact a Wood Elf. The Green Knightm - A Spectre, whether he is the spirit of Bretonnia given form, or Gilles le Breton is debated. Louen Leoncoeurm - Current King of Bretonnia. Repanse de Lyonessem - Repanse was a Bretonnian Paladin before rising to the rank of Duchess of Lyonesse. She earned her rank due to her assault against a chaos invasion in the land. Roland le Marechalm - Roland is the captain in charge of defending Couronne's eastern frontier , a swamp-filled land between Bretonnia and Marienburg. Dogs of War Borgio the Besiegerm - Mercenary-prince of Miragliano in Tilea. Famed for being notoriously hard to kill, until his assassination with a poisoned toasting fork. Detlef Sierck - The greatest living playwright, slayer of Constant Drachenfels, and lover of Genevieve Dieudonne. Lietpold the Black - A mercenary captain and self-made ruler in the Boarder Princes lands. Lorenzo Lupom - Mercenary-prince of the city of Lucinni in Tilea. Possibly modeled on the Roman Hercules, for his incredible physique and training programmes. Lucrezzia Belladonnam - Lucresszzia is a Tilean noble known for her beauty and ability to keep control over the province of Pavona. The secret to her success is thought to be the careful "accidents" all surrounding poison. Marco Colombom - Great swimmer, not a fish out of water. Empire Aldebrand Ludenhofm - Aldebrand is the Elector Count of Hochland. Balthasar Geltm - Supreme Patriarch of the Colleges of Magic and Patriarch of the Gold Order. Boris Todbringerm - Elector Count of Middenland. Brunner - a ruthless, feared human bounty hunter known for not only his great skill in combat and tracking his quarry, but also for the variety of exotic and deadly weapons he wields (pistols, a magical sword, a stake capable of slaying a Tomb King, and a Skaven repeating crossbow amongst other, more powerful items). He is a character created by C.L. Werner's novels set in Warhammer Fantasy. Constant Drachenfels - The "Great Enchanter". One of the most powerful wizards who ever lived. Detlef Sierck - The greatest living playwright, slayer of Constant Drachenfels, and lover of Genevieve Dieudonne. Karl Franzm - Current Emperor of the Empire. Kurt Helborgm - Captain of the Reiksguard Knights, Reiksmarshall of the Imperial armed forces. Ludwig Schwarzhelmm - The Emperor's Champion and Imperial Standard Bearer. Luthor Hussm - Prophet of Sigmar. Took Valten under his wing and convinced the Emperor of Valten's divine blood. Spends his time preaching against the corruption in the upper ranks of the Sigmarites (never attacks the leader of the Sigmarites Volkmar Von Grimm). Magnus the Pious - the Emperor that re-unified the Empire and allowed the creation of the Colleges of Magic. Mathias Thulmann - a ruthless witch hunter that hunts down and slays all those thought to be in league with chaos or the undead - chronicled in the Witch Hunter books from Black Library Markus Wulfhart - the Huntsmarshal of the Empire, is a legendary scout. After slaying the Drakwald Cyclops, he was given a magical bow from the Imperial vaults and was then tasked by Karl Franz with recruiting a band of like-minded elite scouts. Marius Leitdorfm - Marius is the Elector Count of Averland, but is best known as the Mad Count of Averland. Known to have waged war against forests, bees, and imagined foes. He is, however, noted for his martial skill and bravery in battle. Karl Franz considers him a fast ally. Morgan Bernhardt - a Mercenary commander who once defeated gigantic hordes of Undead. Sigmar Heldenhammer - Deified founder of the Empire. Nowadays worshipped as a god. Thyrus Gormannm - Patriarch of the Bright College of Magic. Former Supreme Patriarch. Valtenm - The avatar of Sigmar. He was critically wounded by Archaon and went missing. The sickbed on which he had been resting was covered in blood, a Skaven symbol had been carved in the wall, and a "dark, glowing, serrated blade" had been stabbed into the bed. Valmir von Raukovm - Elector Count of Ostland. Volkmar 'the Grim' von Hindensternm - Grand Theologian of Sigmar. Holds a vote in the Imperial Electors Kislev Tzarina Katarinm - Current Queen of Kislev, titled the Ice Queen. Tzar Borism - Former Tzar of Kislev, father of Katarin. Undead Abhorash - The father of the Blood Dragon bloodline of vampires and the only master vampire to unwillingly take the elixir of eternal life. Abhorash scaled on top of a great mountain and a red dragon of immense size emerged from the crater and descended upon the Vampire Lord. The two fought the entire night and in the end the Vampire was victorious. As the dragon lashed in its death throes, Abhorash seized its throat with his fangs and drank deep. Intoxicated by the blood of the dragon Abhorash cast the carcass of the broken creature down from the mountain top. Because of the dragon's blood, he no longer needs the blood of human men. Arkhan the Blackm - Former lieutenant of Nagash when living, raised as undead and continued to serve. Constant Drachenfels the Great Enchanter alongside Nagash and Teclis possibly the most powerful magic-user of the Warhammer World, despite having been slain more than once he keeps resuscitating himself, his keep, the ominous "Schloss Drachenfels" (or Castle Drachenfels in English) also keeps "growing back" after each successive destruction, thanks to the magic Constant himself imbued in the very earth and stones of the place. Dieter Hellsnichtm, Doomlord of Middenheim - A necromancer and leader of an undead army around 1270 IC. Dread King - A giant necromancer that leads various types of undead and carries a large sword. Genevieve Dieudonné - A vampire who appears in a number of novels by Jack Yeovil. Unusual as an undead character as she can most often be found trying to preserve the realms of humans against evil, rather than destroy them. Hand of Ualapt - Servant of the Tomb King's vulture-headed god of scavengers and guardian in the Temple of the Vulture Lord located in the Land of the Dead in Warhammer Online. Heinrich Kemmler the Lichemasterm - A mighty necromancer. It is currently rumored that he is a puppet of Nagash. High Priest Herakh - High Priest of the Temple of the Vulture Lord located in the Land of the Dead in Warhammer Online. Khalida Neferherm, - High Queen of Tomb Kings. Krell, Lord of Undeathm - was a mighty Chaos Champion in the days before the birth of Sigmar, the ruler of a barbarian tribe that had been corrupted by the Chaos God Khorne. Though eventually slain by the Dwarf hero Grimbul Ironhelm during his assault on Karak Kadrin, Krell was returned to the mortal realm almost 1500 years later at the mercy of the great Necromancer, Nagash. Krell was finally defeated by Sigmar many years later and the resurrected by Heinrich Kemmler, the Lichemaster. Armed with the Black Axe - a terrifying weapon of immense proportions, Krell will cut a bloody swathe through all in his path. Lady Melissa d'Arques - A vampire who is over 1100 years old and is one of the oldest vampires in existence, she is also a member of the Vampire Council under Elder Honorio and is the Grandmother in Darkness of Genevieve Dieudonné who is her Grand Get. Melkhiorm - A powerful Necrarch vampire, student and slayer of W'Soran and former mentor of Zacharias the Everliving. Believed to have been destroyed by Zacharias. Luthor Harkon - a vampire of the Blood Dragon bloodline who was shipwrecked on the coast of Lustria and founded an undead realm using lost sailors in the area now known as the Vampire Coast. Nagashm, - First and greatest of necromancers, and one of the three greatest magic users in the entire world. Nagash created the entire scourge of undeath and introduced it to the world, and is likely the most powerful "undead" present. Neferatam - Mother of the Lahmia bloodline of vampires and previous queen of all the seven original vampire masters. She currently resides in the Silver Pinnacle. The Red Duke - The Red Duke is the former Duke of Aquitaine, who was betrayed and left for dead. Abhorash observed the man and offered to save him with his own blood dragon blood. From this blood, a new vampire was born, slaying his betrayers and friends alike. He was eventually defeated, but resurrected again, taking residence in Mousillion. Settram - The First and Eternal king of all Tomb Kings. he founded the liche priest cult and was the first king to be preserved. Hates all vampires. Ushoran - Father of the Strigoi bloodline of vampires. He is believed to be killed in the Orc invasion of the capital of his kingdom of Strigos. He in fact survived and lived on in the empire as the secret patron in of the strigony. He was asked by one of the strigony to exact vengeance on the men who slaughtered his caravan. He agreed to do it. After killing the soldiers. He went on to kill the noble who commanded them to kill the strigony. He continued on to kill the count of averland. Usirian's Keeper - Bone giant servant of Usirian, the faceless Tomb King god of the underworld, in the Temple of the Vulture Lord located in the Land of the Dead in Warhammer Online. the Von Carstein vampires Vladm - A powerful vampire count, killed at the Siege of Altdorf by the Grand Theogonist and the treachery of Mannfred. The father of the von Carstein bloodline of vampires. Relative of Nagash and originally a noble of Nehekhara. Holds the von Carstein ring allowing him to be continuously resurrected. Isabellam - The wife of Vlad von Carstein, who committed suicide at the Siege of Altdorf once she heard her beloved Vlad was killed. She did this as she did not wish to carry on her unlife without him. Mannfredm - A descendant of Vlad and a powerful magician defeated but not necessarily killed at the "Battle of Hel Fenn". Konradm - Another descendant of Vlad and utterly, irredeemably insane. Presumed dead. Walach - the favourite of Abhorash's minions, he ruled Blood Keep and was Grand Master of the Blood Knights until Blood Keep was razed by the templars and witch hunters of the Empire during a lengthy siege. W'soran - The father of the Necrarch bloodline of vampires and the only master vampire to stay loyal to Nagash. Melchiorm - A powerful Necrarch vampire, Zacharaias' teacher. Rumoured to be W'soran. Zacharias the Everlivingm, - A powerful Necrarch vampire. Count NoctilusHe is the leader of the blessed dread and a powerful warlord Cylostra Direfin - She is the maiden of the drowned deep who once was a famous Bretonnian court singer Aranessa Saltspite is the pirate queen of Sartosa, an island located in the south of Tilea, renowned for being one of the largest hideouts of pirates in the Old World. SkavenDeathmaster Snikchm, - Deathmaster Snikch is the chief assassin and prime agent of Lord Sneek, Lord of Decay and Nightlord of clan Eshin. Possible murderer of Valten.Grey Seer Thanquolm, - Thanquol is one of the most powerful and active of the Grey Seers. He is always accompanied by Boneripper, his mechanized undead Rat Ogre. Though he is supremely cunning and a masterful schemer, his plans are nearly always thwarted by Gotrek and Felix (the defeats are often compounded by Skaven cowardice and incompetence), and he hates and fears them in equal measure.Ikit Clawm - Ikit Claw has dedicated his long life to the study of all forms of magery, including the spells of Men and Elves. His loyalty is to clan Skryre.Lurk Snitchtongue - Grey Seer Thanquol's servant who secretly tries to double cross his master numerous times in the Gotrek and Felix series of novels. He later becomes mutated by sneaking aboard Malakai Makaisson's airship The Spirit of Grungi which ventured into the Chaos Wastes. Lurk eventually believes he is the chosen of the Horned Rat and leads a skaven rebellion.Plague Lord Nurglitchm - The first plague lord of clan Pestilens and member of the Council of Thirteen. It was his corrupting disease that now marks clan Pestilens members as different from the other clans.Lord Skrolkm - Skrolk was a simple Plague Monk at the beginning of his life, but his devotion to the Horned Rat aided him in the long struggle for power, eventually leading him to Skavenblight to offer his services to Nurglitch, the seventh Arch-Plaguelord.Skweel Gnawtoothm - Skweel is clan Moulder's greatest packmaster. Born a runt, his continual fight for survival eventually led to great skill in commanding the larger, more unstable rats like Rat Ogres.Thrott the Uncleanm - Master mutator of Clan Moulder. Possesses a warpstone eye and three arms, which prove an advantage in combat, as he can wield both a mancatcher and sword at onceTretch Craventailm - Tretch is the Clanchief of the Skaven clan Rictus and is known for his cunning and ability to survive any situation. He took his title as Clanchief by disguising himself as a stalactite and falling upon the previous Clanchief, splitting him in two.VerminLord Skreech verminking Lord skreech verminking is the avatar of the horned rat. He was part of the original council of thirteen and when they displeased the horned rat and were imprisoned skreech ate them and turned into the most powerful skaven of all time Warlord Queek headtakerm - Warlord Queek the Head-taker is the right claw of Warlord Gnawdwell, the ruler of Clan Mors and the City of Pillars. Gnawdwell is one of the Lords of Decay and without doubt one of the most powerful warlords in the Under-Empire. OgreGreasus Goldtoothm - Tradelord Greasus Tribestealer Drakecrush Hoardmaster Goldtooth the Shockingly Obese. Overtyrant of the Goldtooth tribe and the area surrounding his kingdom. The most successful tyrant yet in the Mountains of MournSkrag the Slaughtererm - a downcast Ogre Butcher and Prophet of the Great MawJhared the Red - the first true Ogre Hunter. Covered in thick red hair all over his bodyGolgfag Maneaterm - Mercenary captain and the first Ogre to coin the phrase ManeaterBragg the Gutsmanm - is the champion executioner of Ogrekind, a slayer of kings and heroes. To see him on the field of battle is to see death itself at work. Armed with the fearsome Great Gutgouger, a massive poleaxe, Bragg has an affinity for striking just the right point on his foe to cause maximum damage.Ghark Ironskin - Chieftain of the Ironskin Tribe and the first Ogre to claim a Rhinox as a personal mount. Allied with the Chaos Dwarves, who have built a mechanical mount to replace his slain Rhinox. LizardmenLord Mazdamundi - The most senior living Slann in the world. Speculated to have caused great damage to the early Dwarf empire in the distant past with his geomantic magics.Venerable Lord Kroakm, - Greatest of the first generation of the Slann, though his powers are a shadow of what they once were due to his death in ancient times where Khorne sent his 12 Greatest Bloodthristers with his most powerful anti-magic runes burned into their flesh smote him. Exists today only as a mummified relic within which his formidable spirit still lingers.Kroq-garm, - One of the greatest Saurus warriors and perhaps the greatest warrior in the world, he was spawned in Xhotl and hunts down chaos warriors as an outrider. He is worshipped in Albion as a wrathful God. Kroq-Gar has slain the chaos riding demon prince Vashnaar the Tormentor as well other great foes.Grymloqm - Is Kroq-Gars Carnosaur steed. Found as part of a brood feasting on a slain Thunder Lizard he was the most ferocious. He is his masters thirteenth steed to date and the most powerful, having slain chaos dragons as well as other warped beasts brought by the enemies of the Old Ones.Nakai - A Kroxigor from the first spawning, known to have killed legions of Chaos worshipers and Daemons as well as Dwarfs in the battles of Itza and Albion. Held the Bridge of Stars during the Great Fall against a horde of demons by himself. Thought dead he has reappeared many times during the Lizardmen's greatest hour of need, his scales are exceptionally tough even for other ancient Kroxigors.Tehenauinm - leads the faithful of Sotek in a ceaseless war against the vile Skaven of Clan Pestilens.Adohi-Tehga Lord of Tlaxtlan - A second generation Slann and second only in power to Mazdamundi.Chakaxm the eternity warden: The prime guardian of Xlanhuapec. As the eternity warden, he guards the Slanns' Chamber of Eternity against outside intrusion. Considered to the greatest bodyguard of all time, no one has ever fallen beneath his protection. Hundreds of skaven and dark elf assassins have been smashed by his great mace.Oxyotlm - An ancient Chameleon Skink whose temple city was sucked into the Realms of Chaos. Alone he sneaked and killed across the wastes for centuries before crossing Naggorth and finally coming back home to Lustria where thousands of years had passed in his wake. No Slann dare read his mind in case of being tainted.Tetto'Ekom - A venerable old Skink priest who is a loremaster of Celestial spells. He was given a palanquin like a slann's, in order to carry his frail body and other arcane artifacts.Tiktaq'Tom - A skink chieftain who rides a terradon. Helped to fight off the Chaos Horde and had command of the city of Hexoatl while Lord Mazdamundi was away.Ten Zlati - A skink terradon rider who is known as the Oracle of Kroak, due to the fact that Lord Kroak often uses this skink's body to vassal from. Gor-Rok - An ancient white Saurus known as the "Great White Lizard". He is the champion of Itza. Deities Elves Asuryan Vaul Kurnous Morai-Heg Isha Kaela Mensha Khaine Lileath Loec Hoeth Greenskins Gork and Mork The Great Spider (Forest Goblins Only) Dwarfs Grimnir* Grungni Valaya Rukh Morngrim Mordred Hrungnor Alfginnar Azram the Mighty Ogre The Great Maw Human Sigmar Ulric Morr Taal Chaos Khorne Slaanesh Tzeentch Nurgle Malal The Horned Rat Hashut Zuvassin Necoho LawSolkanAlluminasAriankaLizardmen/Slann/AmazonChotec, the Solar GodSotek, the Serpent GodQuetzl, the Protector GodHuanchi, the Jaguar GodTzunki, the Water GodTlazcotl, the ImpassiveTepok''', the Inscrutable Creatures Humanoids Dwarf. Halfling Human. Humans have many distinct cultures, including the men of The Empire, Bretonnia, Kislev, Norsca, Albion, Middenheim, Tilea, Estalia as well as more far of places such as Ind, Arabay, Nippon and Cathay. Oh and Of course Amazons. Elf: High Elves (7th)"/> As with Humans Elves have several different cultures, the main ones are the High Elf, Dark Elf and Wood Elf, although the High Elves have further subdivisions such as the Shadow Elves of Nagarythe and the Elves of Caledor who are culturally distinct. Ogre Giant Greenskins Orc Savage Orc Black Orc Goblin Common Goblin Night Goblin Forest Goblin Troglagob (Aquatic Goblin) Boggart (Marsh Goblin) Fire Kobold Dust Goblin (Undead Goblin) Greater Goblin (Also known as a Hill Goblin) Lesser Goblin (Also known as a Hill Goblin - these are also known as Gnoblars) Snotling Gnoblar Boglar (Aquatic Gnoblar) Hobgoblin Iron orc Squig Undead Skeleton Wraith - failed attempt of necromancer to become Lich, grim-reaper-like appearance Banshee Spectre Zombie Ghoul - former bestial humans who turned cannibalised Wight - "Skeleton" with mind, but not free-will Mummy Vampire Vhargulf - devolved feral Beast-like vampire Carrion - giant undead birds Tomb Scorpion Bone Giant Liche - powerful undead being with free-will, see Nagash Strigoi Zombie Dragon Beasts Dragon Green Dragon Forest Dragon Blue Dragon Sea Dragon White Dragon Black Dragon Red Dragon Wyvern - dragon like creature with wings but only two limbs Hydra Kharibdyss Chimera Griffin Hippogriff Taurus Lammasu Manticore Giant Scorpion Great Eagle Tuskgor Razorgor Mastiff Mournfang Rhinox Sabretusk Yhetee Cockatrice Stonehorn Thundertusk Cerberus Mammoth Elephant Daemons Chaos Undivided Chaos Spawn Wyrd Spawn Daemon Prince Chaos Fury Hellcannon - part machine, part-daemon of Khorne Bloodletter Bloodthirster Fleshhound Juggernaught of Nurgle Great Unclean One Nurgling Plaguebearer Beast of Nurgle of Slaanesh Daemonettes Fiends Keeper of Secrets Steeds of Slaanesh of Tzeentch Lord of Change Flamer Pink/Blue Horror Screamer Disk of Tzeentch Elementals Earth Elemental Death Elemental/Mardagg Life Elemental/Viydagg Water Elemental/Sea Elemental Fire Elemental Air Elemental Mud Elemental Wisentlich (WHFRP) Spirit Elemental Beast-humanoids Skaven - rat like humanoids Beastmen Minotaur - bull humanoids Dragon-Ogres Dragon-Ogre Shaggoths Bull-Centaurs - half chaos dwarf/half bull Rat-Ogre - giant bipedla rat creatures Centigor - centauroids with the upper body of a beastman atop a horse-like body Harpy Werewolf Centaur - half man/ half horse Ghorgon - four-armed bull giants Cygor - cyclopsian bull humanoids Ganeshan - four-armed giant elephant humanoids Lizard Zoat Troglodyte Saurus Skink Slann Stegadon Arcanadon Cold One Carnivorous Snapper/Cold One Warhound Carnosaur Beeka Salamander Winged Serpent Kroxigor Crocodile Sea monsters from Man O' War Triton - possibly a demi-god Sea Elemental Gargantuan - giant snake like creature Promethean - a giant crab Helldrake - created by dark Elves from dragons Kraken - a giant squid Megalodon - a giant shark Black Leviathan - a giant toothed fish Sea Dragon Behemoth Archelon Other Ushabti - Anubis-lookalike statues used as guards by Tomb Kings Troll Stone Troll River Troll Chaos Troll Cave Troll (From Advanced Hero Quest) Snow Troll (From the old Citadel Journal Norse Army List, and the LRB Blood Bowl Norse Team) Forest Troll (From the 7th Ed Orc and Goblin Army book Playtests, however the rules never made it canon) Lava Troll (White Dwarf April 2005. Can be used as a Dogs of War unit.) Fimir Treeman Dryad Treekin Gorger See also Games Workshop References Warhammer Fantasy Warhammer Fantasy
4625564	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracy%20Philipps	Tracy Philipps	James Erasmus Tracy Philipps (20 November 1888 – 21 July 1959) was a British public servant. Philipps was, in various guises, a soldier, colonial administrator, traveller, journalist, propagandist, conservationist, and secret agent. He served as a British Army intelligence officer in the East African and Middle Eastern theatre of the First World War, which led to brief stints in journalism and relief work in the aftermath of the Greco-Turkish War. Joining the Colonial Office, his reform-minded agenda as a District Commissioner in Colonial Uganda alienated superiors and soon resulted in the termination of his position. He worked as a foreign correspondent for The Times in Eastern Europe, and spent much of the Second World War in Canada attempting to build support among ethnic minorities for British war objectives. Following a frustrating experience helping to resettle displaced persons as a United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration official, and Cold War propaganda activities with the secretive Information Research Department, Philipps' attention was increasingly taken up by his longstanding interest in conservation. In the final years of his life he led efforts to create African National Parks as Secretary-General of the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The product of an old, upper-class family, Philipps possessed determination and high self-esteem as well as a great deal of ambition – though his personal eccentricity sometimes undermined his goals. Early life Tracy Philipps was the only child of the Rev. John Erasmus Philipps, originally from Haverfordwest in Pembrokeshire, and Margaret Louisa Everard (née ffolkes). The elder Philipps had been vicar of Wiston in Pembrokeshire, and later held curacies in Enstone in Oxfordshire and Staindrop in County Durham, where he was domestic chaplain to the 9th Baron Barnard. After his death in 1923 his widow Margaret married Harold Dillon, 17th Viscount Dillon. Tracy was born in Hillington, Norfolk, the traditional home of his wife's family. The younger Philipps enrolled at Abingdon School in May 1899. From September 1904 he boarded at Marlborough College, and left in December 1906. At Marlborough he played as a forward in inter-house rugby matches. In February 1907 he was one of a few dozen Old Marlburians accepted for membership of the Marlburian Club alumni association after a meeting of the club committee held in Old Queen Street, Westminster. According to the Christmas 1907 edition of The Abingdonian magazine Philipps was still undecided about which university he would attend but was nonetheless 'endeavouring to obtain a scholarship at Jesus, Cambridge' – an effort that was ultimately unsuccessful. For university he is said to have eventually studied at Oxford for a period of time, although sources on this are unclear. What is known for certain is that he entered Durham University in 1910. Like his father and uncle, he was a member of Hatfield Hall and graduated in 1912 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Classics. He was Secretary of Durham University Boat Club in 1911. He also served as President of the Durham Union for Epiphany term of 1912, and was Editor of The Sphinx – a student magazine with a lighthearted tone – in addition to participating in the Officers' Training Corps. As the President of the Union during the seventieth anniversary of its foundation, he chaired an inter-varsity debate held on Saturday 16 March 1912 at the Great Hall of University College, which featured teams from Oxford, Cambridge, Trinity College, Dublin, and Edinburgh University. Early career First World War After his time in the Officers' Training Corps at Durham, Philipps made his position in the British Army official. He was gazetted as a 2nd Lieutenant in the Infantry in February 1913. He joined the Rifle Brigade but was soon sent to East Africa on secondment in an intelligence role. When the First World War broke out he was on attachment to the Kings African Rifles (KAR) and was "one of the first Englishmen in action" when the war in Africa started in August 1914. Serving temporarily with the Indian Expeditionary Force B as an Assistant Intelligence Officer alongside Richard Meinertzhagen, he was involved in the disastrous Battle of Tanga. He was later wounded while serving with the KAR (for which he was mentioned in despatches) and also present as a political officer at the Battle of Bukoba (serving as part of the hastily formed Uganda Intelligence Department) in June 1915. The next year Philipps was awarded a promotion to captain, effective from 17 January 1916. With the newly formed Lake Force he took part in the Tabora Offensive (April – September 1916) and in the aftermath was awarded the Military Cross, gazetted February 1917, which he received for actions in conjunction with an intelligence section of the Belgian Force Publique. From November 1916 to March 1917, Philipps, by now the chief political officer for the Uganda region, was based in Ruanda-Urundi, a part of German East Africa recently captured by the Belgians. A September 1917 entry in The London Gazette noted that Philipps relinquished his Army commission earlier in the year, with no explanation provided. This decision was due to injury: his entry in the 1951 Who's Who describes being 'invalided', indicating wounds had rendered him unfit for further duty, and is further confirmed by a letter sent by Philipps to Reginald Wingate which suggests he had returned to Britain in March. Philipps quickly recovered and restored his commission: he was employed at the War Office in London with the Intelligence Staff, June–August 1917; then was similarly employed at the Admiralty, August–October 1917. By November 1917 he was in Abyssinia on a mission to investigate the extent of the slave trade. The next month he was reportedly present at the Capture of Jerusalem. In 1918 he began a posting at the Arab Bureau (a section of the Cairo Intelligence Department), operating as an Intelligence Officer at their headquarters in Cairo. This was a role generally based in Cairo, with spells in Palestine and Syria, working alongside Lawrence of Arabia in the final campaigns of the Arab Revolt. His work with the Bureau was interrupted by his taking part in a military expedition against the Turkana people (April–June 1918), who lived on the fringes of British East Africa and were notorious for raiding cattle. At some time either shortly before or shortly after the conclusion of the war, he left the Bureau to serve on attachment to the British Embassy in Rome. He also spent time with the British Legation in Athens. Years later, in February 1922, The London Gazette reported that Philipps, by now a captain in the Special List, was one of a number of British officers from the war who had been awarded the Belgian Order of Leopold. Aftermath Philipps returned to Africa and served as Acting District Commissioner in Kigezi District in Uganda from 1919 through 1920. One of his challenges was the threat posed by the Nyabinghi cult, popular with the Kiga people of Southern Uganda, and highly resistant to British rule. After cult leader Ntokibiri was killed by a posse, Philipps ordered that the head of Ntokibiri be sent to Entebbe as proof that the threat had been eliminated. Philipps worked to end the use of Baganda agents in areas populated by the Kiga and discouraged the use of the Luganda language in courts, instead introducing the Swahili language, which the Baganda people could not speak. In February 1920 Philipps briefly returned to Durham where he gave a public lecture on 'The Pygmies of East Central Africa', illustrated with slides, at Durham Town Hall. The following year he travelled on foot across Equatorial Africa, taking a circuitous route from east to west. On the way he discovered Lutra Paraonyx Philippsi, a subspecies of the African clawless otter that he recorded for science and named after himself. For one month he was joined by Prince Wilhelm of Sweden, whom Philipps helped to obtain photographs of pygmies and specimens of gorilla for the Swedish Museum of Natural History. As reported in The Morning Bulletin, Philipps had a caravan party of approximately 50 men for the seven-month journey, including two tribal chiefs lent to him by colonial authorities, Philippo Lwengoga and Benedikto Daki, who proved to be crucial in the success of the journey. Detouring into Abyssinia, Philipps stumbled upon a slave market, where he saw a 'half-caste auctioneer' selling young girls to the highest bidder. He was able to buy off the girl in the worst condition, who had been nearly beaten to death, and had her sent to a Christian mission. In Addis Ababa he encountered the Empress Zewditu, describing her as 'short and handsome, with a mass of barbaric robes encrusted with gold and jewels' and having 'black, rather curly hair' In the aftermath of the journey, Philipps took Lwengoga and Daki with him to London, where the trio visited the Zoological Society Gardens. The two Africans were reportedly astonished to see a zookeeper approach and feed an African Elephant without any fear. Philipps was assigned by Lord Halifax – who had recently been appointed Under-Secretary for the Colonies – to report on the activities of the 2nd Pan-African Congress, which was hosting several meetings in London, Brussels and Paris during August and September. During this mission he would meet W. E. B. DuBois, the organiser of the Congress and an American sociologist and Pan-Africanism advocate. Following the Paris conference, Philipps contacted Du Bois to seek a lunch meeting in London, specifically at The Holborn Restaurant, 129 Kingsway. Du Bois was unable to attend because he left Europe at the start of the month, but requested copies of any future articles that Philipps published, thus establishing a long-term correspondence between the two. With the Famine in Russia intensifying, Philipps travelled to Constantinople, then Moscow, as part of the International Committee for Russian Relief (ICRR) led by explorer Fridtjof Nansen. He then took a brief detour into journalism when he reported on the Greco-Turkish War for The Times newspaper. He may have decided to follow Nansen to Ottoman Turkey, who was in the country to negotiate the resettlement of Greek refugees. While stationed in Turkey he assumed the role of supply commissioner for the famine relief operation organised by the British Red Cross under the auspices of the League of Nations and Nansen's International Committee for Russian Relief (ICRR). This allowed him to travel through the Ukrainian and Russian countryside and become familiar with the people and their traditions, but also developed a permanent resentment of the Soviet system. He later reported seeing the remains of victims of human cannibalism. Colonial Service 1923–1930 From 1923 to 1925 Philipps was in Khartoum, occupying a position within the Sudan Political Service. In a letter written from Khartoum in November 1923 to the Labour Party politician Ben Spoor, Philipps related he was on a posting with the Colonial Office, arranged 'through the War Office', for a two-year period. Historian Bohdan S. Kordan described this job as being 'deputy director of intelligence' for Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. In the same letter to Spoor, Philipps reports a journey to Europe that may also be connected to intelligence gathering. He describes being on leave in the Balkans during the Summer of 1923: in Croatia, he stayed with Stjepan Radić, the leader of the Croatian People's Peasant Party, shortly before the latter left on an overseas trip. He moved to Bulgaria and met the Prime Minister Aleksandar Stamboliyski 'about ten days' before Stamboliyski was assassinated on 14 June. Following his experience in Sudan he pursued a full-time career in the Colonial Service in East Africa, where as a 'self-appointed scourge of the wicked' according to John Tosh, he exposed abuses and advocated for reform. He spent much of this period back in the Kigezi District of Uganda, where he was known for his energy as an administrator – attempting to develop native industries in iron smelting and using the sisal plant to make rope – and paying for many supplies out of his own pocket. During his time in Africa he was fond of exploring the tropical forests and writing his observations on the wildlife he encountered. In 1930, he met Julian Huxley in the forests of Western Uganda whilst accompanying entomologists on a scientific mission. His experiences led him to become an early advocate of the creation of large national parks in Equatorial Africa, believing that human encroachment on gorilla habitats engendered aggressive behaviour. 1931–1935 Philipps' career in the Colonial Service began to be interrupted by health problems. He had already spent part of 1931 back in England recuperating at Ditchley (the home of his father-in-law the Viscount Dillon) after a 'terrible ordeal' in Africa made worse through incompetent care provided by missionaries. By January 1932, having again fallen unwell the previous year, he was on leave for health reasons at the clinic of Auguste Rollier in Leysin, Switzerland. He noted in a letter to an American friend, Charles Francis de Ganahl, that his temperature had gone down and he had gained in weight, having 'dropped from 13 to 7 stone', or , the previous month. Since he was no longer in an assigned position in Africa, he considered seeking a transfer to somewhere in the Near East. Writing to de Ganahl from Clarens in April 1932, Philipps described being allowed to temporarily 'descend from Léysin's icy mountains into the cities of the plain' but could still only 'hobble about rather painfully' – nevertheless he mentioned plans to visit Corfu and Ithaca, having booked passage on a cargo ship leaving Venice on 1 May. Despite thoughts about going elsewhere, Philipps returned to Africa. His last assignment was as District Commissioner of the Lango District in Uganda. Philips was removed from duty after disagreeing with the governor on colonial administration:: he argued that the policy of 'indirect rule' (devolution of responsibility to native chiefs) brought out rampant corruption among the chiefs in power at the expense of the ordinary native population. Towards the end of 1933 he had submitted several highly critical reports concerning the quality of native administration, having chosen to bypass native courts during his inquiries and encouraged the local peasantry to submit their grievances to himself. He was replaced as District Commissioner in March 1934 and, under protest, forcibly retired from the Colonial Office the following year. Tosh noted that although his superiors agreed with many of his findings, because Philipps was by now associated with an 'anti-chief' mindset, the colonial authorities thought carrying out reform would be harder if Philipps was still in place. The verdict of Bernard Bourdillon, then Governor of Uganda, was that Philipps was a "brilliant man" who "did not exactly fit into Colonial administration". Diplomatic Correspondent, 1936–1939 In 1936 Philipps began working as a foreign correspondent in Eastern Europe and Turkey. He is known to have spent at least part of 1936 in Berlin, where he wrote a letter to the historian Arnold J. Toynbee concerning the local response to Toynbee's controversial private interview with Adolf Hitler, noting that it was "an eager topic of discussion everywhere". That decade he also married the pianist Lubka Kolessa. A July 1939 notice in The Times reported that the pair had married in Prague on 14 March, the eve of the German occupation of the country. Kolessa gave birth to a son, Igor (John), in Marylebone, London that same year. In 1938 Philipps travelled to South America with Kolessa, where he acted as manager for his wife's concert tour. The tour traveled to Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay and conducted 178 live performances. While in South America, he investigated the colonies developed by the Jewish Colonization Association to discover if they would be viable places to resettle the increasingly vulnerable Jewish population of Europe. In a 1939 letter to The Times he objected to the argument made by Chaim Weizmann that the "Hirsch Jewish land settlements" were unsuitable places for the "unwanted Jewish Germans and Jewish Poles" and wrote that, based on his own recent observations, they were in a "state of renaissance". A report on Philipps' visit was collected by the Foreign Office. Visits to Rome By October 1938 Philipps was in Rome, having been invited as one of the British delegates at that year's Volta Conference, where colonial policy was discussed. Recounting his experiences in an article printed in the Journal of the Royal African Society, he revealed that part of the hospitality provided was a trip to Italian Libya (the Governor-General, Marshal Balbo, was participating at the conference), and was impressed by what had been achieved by the mass migration of Italian settlers. Philipps himself spoke during the 16th session, on the afternoon of the final day of the conference, on ways in which shared participation and common goals in Africa could avert the path to war in Europe. He suggested to delegates that if the European powers could develop Africa 'as a field of opportunity, equal guarantee, and equal rights for all the nations of the European family' this could have the effect of 'resolidarising' Europeans in Europe itself. Essentially, Philipps was in favour of 're-admitting Germany as a partner at the table where tropical riches were to be re-distributed' in the hope this would avoid conflict in Europe. Philipps was once again in Rome in June 1939 to attend a conference held by the International Colonial Institute. He was one of the two British representatives – the other being Henry Gollan. The conference, chaired by Luigi Federzoni, was on three subjects, namely 'the nutrition of "Natives"', the 'juridical situation of "Native" women' and the 'financial contribution of "Natives" to the expenses of administration'. An italophile, Philipps enjoyed the luncheon arranged by Federzoni and Attilio Teruzzi, which was held outside in the shady surroundings of the Villa Borghese gardens, and praised the efforts of the workers involved in the reclamation of the Pontine Marshes: The Ukrainian Question During the 1930s Philipps became friendly with the Ukrainian Bureau, a lobbying centre formed in 1931 in London by Ukrainian-American Jacob Makohin to advocate for Ukrainian nationhood, promote the interests of Ukrainian minorities, and provide an outlet for information on Ukrainian issues that stood outside the Soviet sphere of influence. On several occasions in the 1930s he visited Ukraine and Russia (especially the latter) in the guise of a newspaper correspondent and thus kept up-to-date with political developments in these countries, though his motivation for travel may have been intelligence gathering rather than any duties as a journalist. Officials in the Foreign Office during this period were not as sympathetic as Philipps to the claims of Ukrainian nationalists, owing to a desire to avoid offending Poland and the Soviet Union, and did not think it worthwhile to press the Polish government over its annexation of Eastern Galicia in the aftermath of the Polish-Ukrainian War (1918–1919). Reports of atrocities committed by the Polish government during the Pacification of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia were collected and noted, but not acted upon. Whitehall civil servants concluded they could not encourage 'a movement of national liberation which we could in no circumstances support in anything but words' – effectively Britain's answer to the 'Ukrainian Question' during the interwar period. This disappointed lobbyists like Arnold Margolin, a Jewish Ukrainian lawyer, who insisted British failure to make promises of assistance to the Ukrainian cause would guarantee Ukrainians falling for the overtures of Nazi Germany in any upcoming war. While the British government was not motivated to intervene itself, it was still concerned with the designs of other European powers. British officials worried that Germany might strengthen itself by aligning with Ukrainian national aspirations before launching a conflict with the Soviet Union. Towards the end of 1938, Philipps' mentor Lord Halifax, by now Foreign Secretary, was being told that the 'Ukrainian question seems likely to boil up' very soon. Any such German plan would, however, require driving a wedge through Polish-held territory in order to reach Soviet Ukraine, something Poland was very unlikely to agree to. Consequently, some British analysts began to feel war between Germany and Poland was unavoidable, though Lord Halifax was also informed by experts that because the Poles would be unwilling to allow the Germans to move across their territory without a fight, Hitler would probably deploy his forces to the west first – a prediction that would turn out to be inaccurate. In 1939, in the aftermath of the British guarantee to Poland, Philipps, armed with briefs prepared for him by Vladimir Kysilewsky (Director of the Ukrainian Bureau) and vetted by the historian Robert William Seton-Watson, had lengthy conversations with Lord Halifax. According to Canadian historian Orest T. Martynowych, Philipps was seen as highly useful to the Ukrainian cause due to his "extensive personal and family connections in high places". Mission to Canada, 1940–1944 With the outbreak of the Second World War Philipps was eager to do something for his country, but carried injuries from the First World War that prevented him from rejoining the military. He claimed to be "ashamed to seem to be doing so very little" in a letter he wrote to Lord Halifax. Philipps disembarked in Montreal with his wife and son in June 1940, carrying letters of introduction from Lord Halifax. Used to high-living, he was furious with Thomas Cook agents for being assigned a second-class cabin and made his disgust known upon arrival. He had been sent to Canada as one of many propagandists, part of a Ministry of Information project to shape North American public opinion in favour of British war objectives. The Fall of France and a series of British reverses, leading to the evacuation of British forces from Dunkirk, made ensuring ongoing Canadian support vital. Philipps was specifically tasked with monitoring the viewpoints of minority groups in Canada, some of which were fascist in nature, and could potentially undermine the British war effort. The United Hetman Organization (UHO), a Ukrainian monarchist group led by Pavlo Skoropadskyi, was identified as the gravest concern due to its contacts in Berlin. He soon began travelling across Canada on a mission to gauge the loyalty of the foreign-born labour force, in the process sending various unsolicited reports to the mystified Canadian Deputy Minister of War Services T. C. Davis. He also reported regularly to Lord Halifax on various matters, including the reception of British evacuees in Canada and the possibility of evacuating the British government to Ottawa in the event of an expected German invasion. As fears of a German invasion grew, the British upper-classes rushed to secure evacuation berths for wives, children and servants. On this matter Philipps wrote to Lord Halifax in July on the assimilation of British children into Canadian homes; having already provided assistance to his cousin, Elsbeth Dimsdale, on planning the evacuation of her children. Philipps' travels across Canada have been described as a "frenetic itinerary of public speaking and factory inspections". Towards the public he maintained the pretense that he was in North America purely to go on a public speaking tour that had been arranged in advance under the auspices of the National Council of Education. He spoke to business clubs, local clubs, and the Canadian Institute of International Affairs and lectured on the Near East and Eastern Europe in the aftermath of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. While on this tour he was invited by organisers to give lectures to local immigrant groups on current events in Europe, and used this tour to relay information on the views of the European immigrant population in Canada to the British government. Ukrainians were of particular concern: they were divided into multiple organisations and did not agree on the political future of their homeland. Philipps himself was pleased with the reception he received from immigrant communities in the more remote parts of Canada, comparing it to what he had witnessed with Lawrence of Arabia among the Arab rebels during the Great War. Officials, perhaps sensitive to the hidden purpose of his "public speaking tour", denied Philipps had any connection with the Foreign Office. In April 1941, Davis offered Philipps the role of Director of the European Section the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) on a temporary basis, tasked with him helping to build unity behind the war effort amongst Canadian immigrant communities. His first major assignment was a trip to the United States to find out what was being done in that country to promote integration of the immigrant ethnic population, and how these communities regarded the federal authorities. He visited many cities on this tour, including Pittsburgh, Chicago, Atlanta and Washington, D. C.; sending detailed memoranda to his new superior Commissioner Stuart Wood from "virtually every stop" on his route. Philipps' extravagances, which included expenses claims for first-class rail travel and valet services, caused concerns with the frugal RCMP as he made his way across Canada and the United States to interview foreign-born workers. On the other hand, his suggestion of radio broadcasts to influence immigrant populations met with the approval of Commissioner Wood. In Atlanta he briefly interrupted his duties with the RCMP to attend W. E. B. Du Bois' First Phylon Conference at Fisk University. Asked by Du Bois to set out what effective decolonisation would look like, he suggested the British system of parliamentary democracy would be unsuitable for Africa due to the tribal loyalties of Africans. Following the conference, he reported to Gerald Campbell, his contact in the British Embassy to Washington, that his talk prompted "numerous questions"; these were generally hostile, which Philipps blamed on misrepresentation from communist sources. On his return journey to Canada he briefly visited New York and met with Michael Huxley at the Inter-Allied Information Committee on the fifth floor of the Rockefeller Center. Huxley was the director of this white propaganda outfit, launched in 1940 to win American support for Britain by casting British war aims in light of a new "internationalism" – intended to counteract American suspicions that Britain's true aim was to preserve its empire. Philipps was there to seek Huxley's views on a proposal of Count Vladislav Radziwill to have Poles trained in Canada for sabotage missions in occupied Poland. Huxley replied that he was "not competent to respond" and any suggestions from Philipps should be directed to Malcolm MacDonald, the High Commissioner to Canada. Huxley regarded Philipps with caution, and the latter would leave unaware of British Security Co-ordination (BSC), a covert black propaganda outfit, operating from the very same building in support of British interests. Philipps may have been left "in the dark" by Huxley as he had already earned a reputation with British officials in Canada for straying beyond his remit by sending intelligence reports on matters that had nothing to do with the foreign-born labour force, which irritated his superior MacDonald. In any case, his "explicit valorization of the old British Empire" was not in keeping with the internationalist rhetoric British intelligence was keen to project. Nationalities Branch After completing his work with the RCMP, he continued as an adviser to the Canadian Government on immigrant European communities, working to increase the loyalty of "new Canadians" at the newly formed Nationalities Branch. Also joining him was Vladimir Kysilewsky – the old Director of the Ukrainian Bureau in London – who would continue to be a close confidant in Ottawa. He became friendly with Oliver Mowat Biggar, the Director of Censorship. Philipps also received intelligence from Bermuda, where his cousin Charles des Graz was Director of Imperial Censorship. Nevertheless, his period with the Canadian Government was less successful than his spell with the RCMP. The Ukrainian Canadian Committee (UCC) – an attempt at bringing ethnic Ukrainians in Canada under a single body (which later developed into the Ukrainian Canadian Congress) – was successfully established after two days of intense negotiations in Winnipeg. However, its anti-communist nature, achieved by sidelining the communist elements during the negotiations, proved to be less useful once the Germans launched Operation Barbarossa in the summer of 1941 and Canada, alongside the rest of the British Empire, was allied with the Soviet Union. Philipps had, by the time of the formation of the UCC, already become known in Canada for his sympathy towards the idea of Ukrainian independence, earning him the permanent distrust of Ukrainian-Canadians with communist leanings. Beyond assuring the loyalties of ethnic Ukrainians in Canada he also hoped his efforts would help cement a British-Ukrainian alliance that would stand against Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. As far as he was concerned, Ukrainian nationhood was not only morally right, but, given the guarantee that the British government had previously made to Poland, politically fair and logical. For Philipps, the key principle of the Allies was a belief in political self-determination, which made a failure to support Ukraine inconceivable. Such support, he argued, would surely reflect well on both Britain's war aims and her moral reputation: He thought it wrong for Britain to make any guarantees of Ukrainian sovereignty it could not keep, but, as the war was apparently being fought for the right of nations to organise themselves, believed the Allies would eventually have to face up to this principle. Before the launch of Operation Barbarossa he had suggested that recognition of Ukrainian sovereignty might also be strategically necessary – fearing that Nazi Germany would make overtures to nationalist Ukrainians in exchange for military assistance in a future conflict against the Soviet Union. He worried that Hitler might offer the Ukrainians — This belief in the self-determination of Ukraine was not shared by the government in London, who wished to maintain normal relations with the Soviet Union, and had shown no appetite to prejudice relations even at the height of the state-sponsored Great Famine in 1933. While working at the Nationalities Branch Philipps gravitated towards his old contacts in the RCMP for information and, turning towards the United States, cultivated counterparts in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Office of Strategic Services (OSS), and the State Department. Of these, DeWitt Clinton Poole of the OSS was his most regular contact and closest U.S. equivalent. Alarmed by contacts reports that "daily Axis short-wave propaganda broadcasts" were influencing foreign-born workers, Philipps repeatedly encouraged the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) to introduce its own foreign language broadcasts. Giving in to Philipps' "incessant lobbying", the CBC began producing one fifteen minute programme in Italian, which earned Philipps the thanks of Italian Canadians, but otherwise stuck to its usual schedule of English and French-language broadcasting. Criticism Philipps and his wife had acrimoniously separated shortly after arriving in Ottawa, which hurt his reputation in the capital. By October 1941, as the Nationalities Branch was taking shape, mother and son were living with government press censor Ladislaus Biberovich and his wife. This was the catalyst for an ongoing feud between Philipps and Biberovich. Philipps' efforts in the Nationalities Branch were also damaged by his eccentricity and unorthodox personal style, which proved to be jarring for members of the Canadian establishment. Politicians Louis St. Laurent and Colin Gibson, fellow residents of the Roxborough Apartments, were often ambushed by Philipps, who would roam the corridors in his dressing gown. His position was further weakened by the new Minister of National War Services, General Leo LaFleche. LaFleche, who took an almost instant dislike to Philipps, found him so annoying that he had him barred from his office. Problems soon emerged for Philipps outside of politics. He suffered a painful back injury after being struck by a toboggan full of children on O'Connor Street during his walk to work. He was also the victim of a stinging character assassination in the autumn of 1942. An article had appeared in a New York paper The Hour (edited by Albert Kahn, a Stalinist agent) – and later reproduced in The New Republic – that accused him of being a Fascist sympathizer. This allegation was founded on his friendships with Lord Halifax, Lady Astor and other members of the controversial Cliveden set. Philipps defended himself in a November letter sent to The Globe and Mail but offered his resignation later that month. He was defended by T. C. Davis, Professor George Simpson of the University of Saskatchewan, and the diplomat Norman Robertson, who successfully argued he was the victim of unfair criticism; and consequently, Philipps would keep his job. Exit This episode forced him to retire from lecturing members of the public, but his distaste for communism continued to interrupt his work. In May 1943 he made a series of anti-Soviet speeches, which drew the ire of John Grierson, the new chairman of the Wartime Information Board. Grierson, determined to undermine both Philipps and the activities of the renegade Nationalities Branch, then started to meet with the Canadian Unity Council, an alliance of ethnic organisations that opposed Philipps. They argued Philipps saw himself as a "guardian" of "helpless and divided" ethnic communities that depended upon him to lead them towards Canadian identity – an attitude they regarded as patronising. Grierson's efforts would come to nought however, as General LaFleche refused to have Philipps removed despite his personal dislike for the man, or to transfer the Nationalities Branch to Grierson's control. LaFleche felt this would hurt ethnic minority outreach efforts and create an opening that "communist agitators" would take advantage of. UNRRA, 1944–1945 In 1944 Philipps successfully lobbied for a role at the United Nations. He was appointed Chief of Planning Resettlement of Displaced Persons with the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), working initially from New York, and later Germany. Philipps quickly became disillusioned by the forced repatriations of Soviet citizens at the conclusion of the war, which came as a consequence of the Yalta Agreement signed by the Allied Powers. He believed that displaced persons were entitled to choose, for political or economic reasons, not to return to their country of origin, and be informed of the consequences of their choice. He did not spend long in his UNRRA job and resigned in 1945. In a letter written in May that year to Watson Kirkconnell he compared the fate of refugees from the Soviet Union to slavery: Writing in his memoirs, Kirkconnell revealed that Philipps was suspicious of the eagerness with which some Allied officials carried out this policy and believed that the "officialdom" of the western Allies was "honeycombed with Communists and fellow-travellers" more than willing to help along the programme. In the same text he stressed how uneasy Philipps was with the ramifications of Yalta, revealing the contents of a 1948 letter from Philipps where he argued the following: Philipps was also critical of certain aspects in how the United Nations was organised, which he felt could "paralyze its actions and effectiveness", namely: the recruitment of staff according to a nationality quota, the use of multiple languages in all its operations, and the veto power of some states, including the Soviet Union. Post-war Advocacy In 1948 Philipps wrote to the Manchester Guardian to highlight the case of a group of ethnic Ukrainians from Poland who, having been brought to Britain as prisoners of war after being conscripted into the Wehrmacht, were allegedly threatened with deportation to Germany. He claimed the men, sixty among several thousand Ukrainians prisoners in Britain that served in some capacity with the Germans, were sick and set to be shipped to Germany on 12 June; he expressed special concern for a teenage boy who had gone blind and had no friends or relatives in Germany. In another letter sent a month later Philipps reported the affected men had not been deported after all, which he partly attributed to the publicity generated by the first letter, but emphasised the possibility of the men being "quietly shipped off by the July (or subsequent) ship when public opinion is thought to have died down". Press officer 'J. Cahill' of the Home Office replied a week later. Cahill stated that most Ukrainian prisoners would probably be deported somewhere at a later date (though no final decision had been taken), while a few currently working in agriculture could be given "civilian status" if found to be suitably qualified. He mentioned the difficulty of determining who had volunteered to fight with the Germans and who had done so through coercion. Regarding Philipps' account, Cahill claimed the "story of sixty sick men having been selected for removal to Germany is a canard", that a different set of prisoners had been selected for 12 June, and there was no intention to send the sixty men "on that occasion". Philipps rejected Cahill's reply, which he called "naturally bureaucratic", and reiterated his earlier point that no written assurance had been provided that the affected men would not eventually be deported. Information Research Department In the aftermath of the Second World War Philipps joined the Information Research Department (IRD), a secret branch of the Foreign Office tasked with countering Soviet propaganda in Western Europe. In this role he helped to recruit émigrés from Eastern Europe. Philipps' work in the IRD was intertwined with his membership of the Church of England Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), an anti-communist outfit whom the IRD collaborated with. Philipps was a member of both organisations. He argued in a 1949 CFR meeting that the persecution of Christians by other Christians (giving one example as the treatment of Protestants in Francoist Spain) should be downplayed, as all Christian groups and regimes needed to be enlisted in the propaganda war against Communism. On 1 December 1952 Philipps was appointed to a "Special Sub-Committee on Information about the Treatment of the Churches in Communist Countries", which explored methods of bringing to public attention the treatment of churches in Eastern Europe by communist authorities. Alongside journalist Ralph Murray, British Council founder Reg Leeper, Anglican priest Arthur Duncan-Jones, and George Bell, the Bishop of Chichester, he was one of the men behind the 1953 publication of Communist Faith, Christian Faith – a book, edited by Donald Mackinnon, intended to nurture Anglican opposition to Communism. He doubted churches in Britain could ever engage constructively with churches in the Soviet bloc during the Cold War, believing that the nature of the Soviet system rendered such efforts a waste of time. Drawing this conclusion in an article for the Quarterly Review, he wrote that "the British Christian can only pray and prepare to be able eventually to appeal in Russia to a more democratically sober civil authority less drunk with power". Conservation Philipps devoted his later years to conservation, and was keen to ensure that countries fast approaching self-government were prepared to conserve their wildlife and natural resources. As an early advocate of animal conservation and the founding of African national parks, he endorsed the creation of sanctuaries to protect the Gorilla population in a 1930 article for The Times. In February 1937 he visited the Swedish doctor Axel Munthe at his home on the island of Capri, the two of them discussing wildfowl conservation, which Philipps had also discussed with the Italian government. He was a long-standing member of the International Commission of the Belgian Research Institute on African National Parks. Writing in 1959, Lord Hurcomb remarked that his interest in Natural History and Zoology had been stimulated by the journey he took across Africa in 1921. In 1955 he was elected to succeed Jean-Paul Harroy as Secretary-General of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. He described this role as "the first job in my life that gives me real satisfaction because its aim is of real concern to the future of mankind and our planet". He did not take a salary, as the finances of the Union were in a poor state. He retired at the end of 1958 due to health concerns. Obituaries of Philipps generally highlighted this aspect of his career as opposed to his activities as a soldier and his time in the Colonial Service. Personal Philipps claimed to be descended from Richard Philipps, who was Governor of Nova Scotia from 1717 to 1749, although he was probably descended from the governor's nephew, Erasmus James Philipps, a resident of Annapolis Royal and a member of the Nova Scotia Council from 1730 to 1759. Governor Philipps did not have any children. Philipps met his wife, the Ukrainian pianist Lubka Kolessa, while travelling to Istanbul on the Orient Express, with the pair embarking on a "passionate affair" despite Philipps being considerably older. They moved in together in 1937. With his frequent travelling, Philipps did not own any property in London and Pall Mall clubs like the Army and Navy and the Travellers were effectively his 'residence' in the city. In 1937 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law from Durham University. According to Luther Evans, Philipps also held honorary awards from the Sorbonne, the University of Tehran, Al-Azhar University in Cairo, and the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome. A skilled linguist, he was conversant in up to 14 African languages and also fluent in Russian and Turkish. Views Politics Philipps was a member of the Conservative Party, and pessimistic regarding what became known in Britain as the Post-war consensus, feeling that while each country should be "a community of participant wills", there were signs that British society was denigrating toward "unparticipant obedience". According to friend and comrade from the Great War Richard Meinertzhagen, Philipps was sceptical of the idea of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, considering the concept impractical and unnecessary – which frustrated Meinertzhagen. Unconvinced by the proposals of the Zionist movement, he believed that geopolitically and historically, Palestine belonged to the Arab people and that "the honour, the power and the glory of the Jewry lies in the diaspora". Philipps was uncomfortable with casual antisemitism. He wondered "whether it has not become a public duty of citizens of our free countries, each time we hear Jews as a whole indiscriminately reviled, to not let the occasion pass without question". In 1947 he wrote a letter to The Spectator arguing that dispossessed Jews should be settled in England. Colonialism Philipps supported Frederick Lugard and his 'dual mandate' concept, that on the one hand the European powers should develop the economic resources of the lands they had conquered, but also had a moral responsibility to improve the lot of the native population and adapt them to the modern world. On the subject of race and intelligence he was reluctant to ascribe the technological backwardness of Africa to lack of intelligence, and cautioned Europeans not to "handicap ourselves collectively with too great a condescension or superiority-complex" Writing in 1922, Philipps noted a growing racial consciousness in Africa, which he blamed on propaganda spread by the Soviet Union and American black intellectuals. He declared that "the coloured peoples are awakening or re-awakening from an age-long sleep". Nonetheless, he felt what he regarded as the economic interdependence of Africa and the European powers made a retreat from imperialism unthinkable. By the following decade, he was willing to concede the possibility of decolonisation, but argued that the sudden application of European-style administration and democratic modes of government might be too much of a culture shock. In essence, Philipps believed that Africa's "inexperience in political terms" meant the imposition of full democracy was unwise, instead advocating a hybrid form of government built on partial endorsement of pre-colonial sources of authority; and crucially, implemented from a position of strength to ensure what was left behind was sympathetic to European interests. Death At the time of his death he was living in the country at East Hagbourne, Berkshire (now in Oxfordshire), with a second address in Brussels. He died on 21 July 1959 at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford, and is buried in Enstone, Oxfordshire. His funeral was held in East Hagbourne at St Andrew's parish church on 27 July. Selected publications "'Mufúmbiro': The Birunga Volcanoes of Kigezi-Ruanda-Kivu." The Geographical Journal, vol. 61, no. 4, 233–253 (1923) "The Azande: Vongara: Note on the Vongara Ruling Caste of the Zande (Niam-Niam) People." Journal of the Royal African Society, vol. 26, no. 101, 21–26 (1926) "Observations on Some Aspects of Religion Among the Azande ('Niam-Niam') of Equatorial Africa." The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 56, 171–187 (1926) "La nécessité d'une collaboration internationale pour la civilisation des peuples d'Afrique." English translation: "The need for international collaboration for the civilization of the peoples of Africa" Politique Étrangère, vol. 2, no. 1, 56–64 (1937) PDF "The Natural Sciences in Africa: The Belgian National Parks." The Geographical Journal, vol. 115, no. 1/3, 58–62 (1950) Honours Military Cross, 1917 Knight of the Order of Leopold, 1922 See also List of Old Abingdonians List of Durham University people Information Research Department Archives There is a Tracy Philipps fonds at Library and Archives Canada. The archival reference number is R2128. Notes References External links Some correspondence of Tracy Philipps, with particular reference to W. E. B. Du Bois 1890 births 1959 deaths Burials in Oxfordshire Military personnel from Norfolk Alumni of Hatfield College, Durham Durham University Boat Club rowers People from Hillington, Norfolk People from East Hagbourne People educated at Abingdon School People educated at Marlborough College British war correspondents British Army personnel of World War I Rifle Brigade officers King's African Rifles officers Recipients of the Military Cross Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society Arab Bureau officers Intelligence Corps officers Arab Revolt Officers' Training Corps officers Alumni of the University of Oxford MI6 personnel Presidents of the Durham Union Information Research Department British intelligence operatives Writers about the Soviet Union
4626230	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929%20Bahamas%20hurricane	1929 Bahamas hurricane	The 1929 Bahamas hurricane (also known as the Great Andros Island Hurricane) was a high-end Category 4 tropical cyclone whose intensity and slow forward speed led to catastrophic damage in the Bahamas in September 1929, particularly on Andros and New Providence islands. Its erratic path and a lack of nearby weather observations made the hurricane difficult to locate and forecast. The storm later made two landfalls in Florida, killing eleven but causing comparatively light damage. Moisture from the storm led to extensive flooding over the Southeastern United States, particularly along the Savannah River. Across its path from the Bahamas to the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, the hurricane killed 155 people. The storm's origins can be traced to tropical wave first noted near the Cabo Verde Islands on September 11, 1929. This tropical disturbance remained dormant as it tracked west until September 18, when an associated area of thunderstorms developed into a tropical depression northeast of Puerto Rico. Gradually strengthening, the depression reached tropical storm strength on September 22 and hurricane strength on September 23. Beginning on September 24, the storm took a slow and southwestward path through the Bahamas, passing over Nassau and Andros Island between September 25–26 with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (230 km/h). This southwestward trajectory was unprecedented for the islands. The storm then curved west and struck the Florida Keys at Key Largo on September 28 with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). Two days later, the cyclone moved ashore Apalachicola, Florida, as a minimal hurricane shortly before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone. This system tracked northeast along the interior of the East Coast of the United States before dissipating near the Saint Lawrence River on October 4. Poorly-built structures and ships were destroyed throughout the Bahamas. Andros Island was within the envelope of the storm's hurricane-force winds and storm surge for two days. Parts of the island were inundated by a surge that advanced inland, wiping out all crops and most fruit trees and livestock. A wind gust of was measured in Nassau, which also experienced the calm of the hurricane's eye for two hours. An estimated 73% of the city's homes and businesses sustained damage, leaving more than 5,000 people without homes. The hurricane was a heavy blow to the declining sponge industry on the islands. Following the storm, wild birds and crops were brought from the Caribbean to replenish their losses in the Bahamas. New building codes were enacted after the 1929 storm to prevent similarly extensive destruction. A storm surge battered the Florida Keys, washing out highways and sinking small fishing boats. At least five tornadoes struck Florida, representing some of the first verified reports of tornadoes caused by a tropical cyclone. One impacted Fort Lauderdale's business center and caused $100,000 in damage. The Apalachicola waterfront sustained heavy damage from the storm's final landfall, including the loss of nearly all wharves. Widespread flooding occurred throughout Georgia and The Carolinas due to the continuous influx of moisture from the slowly-moving hurricane. A maximum rainfall total of was registered in Glennville, Georgia. The Savannah River reached a record stage of at Augusta, Georgia, breaching a levee and inundating much of the surrounding floodplain. The damage toll in the United States totaled to at least $9.31 million. Background The Bahamas is an archipelago especially vulnerable to tropical cyclones due to its position within the storm tracks of Atlantic hurricanes. Approximately 80% of its landmass has an elevation within of mean sea level. Before 1929, the islands were hit by hurricanes in 1866, 1899, and 1926 that each killed over a hundred people. The Bahamas, at the time a Crown colony, was adversely affected by the Great Depression. The economic downturn was further compounded by a sharp reduction in demand in the colony's sisal and sponge after World War I, a weak Pound sterling relative to the American dollar, and a severe drought in the central and southern islands. Hurricane warning systems in the Bahamas were mostly non-existent in 1929; islanders relied on personal weather instruments or the behavior of clouds, tides, and fauna to assess risk. District officers were responsible for informing others of a storm's approach based on the barometer housed in their homes. Flags signaling a hurricane's approach were present at Bahamian forts but were raised arbitrarily and inconsistently. Meteorological history The hurricane can be traced back to a complex of disturbed weather near Cabo Verde on September 11, producing showers across the open waters of the Atlantic and directed westward by the Azores High. The disturbance remained a weak tropical wave for much of its early history, but over time gradually organized. By September 15, weather maps began to notate the system as a trough of low pressure north of the Lesser Antilles. A portion of this trough split off and moved northwest towards the South Atlantic states while the remaining disturbance continued to organize, becoming a tropical depression approximately 355 mi (570 km) northeast of San Juan, Puerto Rico, by September 18. Over the next three days, the system remained a tropical depression as it tracked slowly west. It reached tropical storm strength by September 22 while northwest of San Juan and curved northwest. Continuing to strengthen, the storm reached hurricane intensity the following day. On September 24, the hurricane began to slowly move southwest towards the Bahamas, traversing the Northeast Providence Channel. Until that point, few observations probed the core of the hurricane on its approach of the islands due to its small size. In 2010, the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project determined the storm had been rapidly intensifying during this period. On September 25, the steamship Potomac measured a central air pressure of 924 mbar (hPa; 27.30 inHg), suggesting wind speeds of 155 mph (250 km/h): a high-end on the Saffir–Simpson scale. At 00:30 UTC on September 25, the intense hurricane passed over Nassau with sustained winds of 145 mph (230 km/h); the capital city was within the calm of the eye for two hours. The next day, the storm crossed Andros Island south of Fresh Creek, moving at , and afterwards curved slowly towards the west-northwest over the Florida Straits towards Florida. A high-pressure area associated with cool temperatures over the United States had been responsible for the sudden southwest trajectory over the Bahamas. The United States Weather Bureau remarked that the storm's track was "one of the most erratic and abnormal during the last 50 years", with both the slow movement and inadequate observations contributing in the agency's difficulty in locating the center of the storm. The hurricane's winds lessened while its size grew on its Florida approach, and on the morning of September 28, it crossed the Florida Keys near Key Largo with winds of . A pressure of 948 mbar (hPa; 27.99 inHg) was estimated within a 10-minute lull near the eye's edge at Key Largo. Further weakening occurred as the hurricane accelerated northwestward into the eastern Gulf of Mexico, continuing this heading for two days. On September 30, the storm made an unexpectedly sharp turn towards the northeast, making landfall near Panama City, Florida, near midnight as a low-end hurricane with winds of . Positioned near a steep temperature gradient, the storm quickly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 1 shortly after landfall with cold air wrapping around the circulation. The extratropical cyclone quickly moved northeast across the Eastern Seaboard, eventually dissipating near the Saint Lawrence River by October 5. Effects in the Bahamas The 1929 hurricane brought catastrophic damage to parts of the Bahamas, killing 142 people. There, the storm has several monikers, including the "Storm of 1929" and the "Three-day Storm", among others. The storm's effects were exacerbated by the hurricane's slow motion, producing hurricane conditions for three days. Whereas the worst impacts of storms in the Bahamas were typically along coasts, the slow movement of the 1929 storm resulted in uniform destruction on both insular coasts and interiors. It was the first known instance of a storm approaching the islands from the northeast and the fifth hurricane overall to strike the island in three years. The unusual path placed Andros and New Providence islands within the strongest quadrant of the storm; the hurricane passed over these islands with an intensity equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the modern Saffir–Simpson scale. The swath of winds exceeding 100 mph (160 km/h) cut through much of the Bahamas, encompassing the entirety of Andros and New Providence islands and parts of Great Abaco Island and the Berry Islands. The weaker construction standards of the era succumbed to the force of the hurricane. Poorly-built structures were destroyed en masse by the storm. Many ships throughout the Bahamas were driven ashore and destroyed. The sponging industry, at the time the colony's most prominent economic activity, was badly affected; nearly all sponge warehouses and roughly 70% of sponge vessels were destroyed, with many other ships sustaining serious damage. Communication was lost between many of the islands in the Bahamas. Only a few radio stations remained in the Out Islands, with limited capacity for international communications. Crops sustained widespread losses and roads required significant repairs. Andros and New Providence experienced the heaviest blow in the Bahamas. Other islands in the Bahamas sustained lesser impacts as the force of winds was diminished farther out from the center of the storm. Great Abaco Island endured hurricane-force winds of up to 100 mph (160 km/h) for 36 hours, causing "minor to major damage". Nineteen homes and twelve boats were wrecked on the island. The steamship Wisconsin Bridge went aground along the southeastern tip of Abaco Island near the Hole-in-the-Wall lighthouse; all but one of the 34 crew chose not to evacuate, and those that did perished. The lighthouse was also damaged by the storm. The British freighter Domira went aground off Great Abaco on September 25. A colonial lighthouse tender was designated to render assistance but could not depart promptly due to the rough seas. Minor damage was also reported on Eleuthera and Cat Island. Communications on Eleuthera were disrupted after winds reached 50 mph (80 km/h). Strong but mostly non-damaging gale-force winds and squalls were reported in Great Exuma Island, Long Island, and Ragged Island; one schoolhouse collapsed in Ragged Island. Andros Island Andros Island experienced its worst storm in at least a century, with the entire island thoroughly devastated. At least 25 fatalities occurred on the island. As the storm's center progressed from the Tongue of the Ocean towards the west of the Bahamas, Andros Island endured hurricane-force winds and rough seas for nearly 48 hours. The onslaught was prolonged by the storm's slow motion— when it moved across Andros Island on September 26—and its expansion as it approached the island; the diameter of the region of hurricane-force winds expanded from upon the storm's initial entrance into the Northeast Providence Channel to atop Andros Island. A storm surge higher than swamped the island from Mangrove Cay southward, the winds driving the sea inland along the western and southern coasts of Andros Island and raking the land clear of vegetation. According to the annual report for the island submitted to the Bahamas House of Assembly, all crops and most fruit trees, livestock, and poultry on Andros Island perished. In some locations, the inundation was deep. Areas of the island farther north experienced less flooding. Several ships were lost in the storm at Andros Island. The British tanker Potomac, sailing from Havana, Cuba, encountered the core of the hurricane and broke into two on Andros Island after documenting the lowest pressure associated with the hurricane. Having transported a cargo of oil, the mangled vessel was at risk of an explosion; the captain of the ship took to the boiler room to shut off valves himself. Three ships bound for Andros Island were caught in the storm. Among them was the schooner Pretoria, which sank at the entrance to the Fresh Creek Harbor Channel, killing 35 people with only 3 surviving. The schooner Repeat sank near Grassy Creek with the loss of most lives. At Water Cay, at least sixteen ships lost their entire yields of sponges. Many other boats were destroyed or seriously damaged. Six large sloops and another large vessel undergoing repairs were destroyed at Mangrove Cay. Many other vessels were damaged. The wind and waves vacated the seas of any ships, depositing them inland several hundred feet from their anchorage. Ten people drowned at Mangrove Cay. Another 18 drowned en route to the district after their ship sank. Many communities on Andros Island lost homes and were littered by debris from destroyed buildings and storm-tossed boats. All churches on Andros Island were destroyed. Fresh Creek and Staniard Creek saw extensive damage from the hurricane. Six homes were razed and ten were badly damaged in Fresh Creek. Two jail cells were unroofed and the commissioner's office, residency, and outbuildings were damaged. The local telegraph station was knocked out of commission and the seawall was damaged. More than 20 people drowned following the sinking of four boats near the Andros Lighthouse at Fresh Creek. Twelve houses were destroyed in Staniard Creek; every remaining home was damaged. The local wharf and a recently completed bridge were washed away. People in the district were urged to seek shelter as water began to overtake the district. Seventy sought refuge at a Wesleyan mission house only for the building to be inundated by water, forcing the evacuees to relocate to the local schoolhouse. The house eventually held over 100 people; another 50 took shelter at a second school. A church collapsed during the storm with over a hundred inside, injuring one. Cargill Creek was abandoned after being entirely flooded, with only hills rising above the water. All homes were damaged in Blanket Sound, and 13 among them collapsed. Wrecked boats littered the area between Blanket Sound and Stafford Creek. All ships at Love Hill and Small Hope were damaged. Five homes were destroyed. Along Calabash Bay, seven houses were flattened. At the graveyard, 22 coffins were exhumed by the rough sea. Fifteen people went missing from Behring Point, where 12 homes were destroyed. Three homes remained in Rolle Town, with the rest destroyed. The wharf on Deep Creek was destroyed and its ships scattered. One ship was set adrift away. Only three of the twenty-seven homes in Black Point, which lies along Deep Creek, remained after the storm. The storm surge along Andros Island's west coast killed ten people tending their crops in Southern Bight. New Providence Island Nassau received its first bulletin from the U.S. Weather Bureau on the morning of September 25, shortly before the onset of gale-force winds by noon and hurricane-force winds that evening. Sustained winds at Nassau reached an estimated 120–140 mph (195–225 km/h), punctuated by a maximum gust of . The air pressure bottomed out at 936 mbar (hPa; 27.64 inHg). Radio contact between Florida and Nassau was lost between September 25 and the night of September 27. Few homes were left unscathed, with damage to private property "enormous" according to an Associated Press report and meteorologist Ivan Ray Tannehill. Many homes were unroofed, particularly in the colored quarter of Nassau. An estimated 73% of all homes and businesses in the city and 95% of churches were destroyed. Several of the remaining churches lost their roofs. The Government House's eastern wing was partially unroofed and the mansion of the Ministry of Education was razed. The police barracks and much of the prison lost their roofs; the prison's eventual repair was one of the costliest parts of the post-storm cleanup. Forty prisoners were released due to safety concerns. Parts of the Nassau hospital were damaged beyond repair, requiring demolition and reconstruction. The strength of the winds bent telephone poles at right angles to the ground and stripped the city's ceiba trees of their branches. Nassau was also inundated by the storm surge and heavy rainfall, submerging parts of the city's southern district with over of water for several days. One street was submerged under of water. Water reached the second floor of a hotel, where a boat was later found. Floodwaters in homes were deep in living rooms. Some people resorted to boring holes in the floors of their houses to drain the water. Potter's Cay was bifurcated by floodwaters. Fields, gardens, and orchards in Nassau were left in disarray. All poultry farms in Nassau were destroyed. On one chicken farm, only 90 of 500 chickens survived. Shipping in the Nassau area suffered a heavy blow. The hurricane wreaked havoc on Nassau Harbour, where many shipowners chose to remain on their ships, which were blown away and never recovered. The sponging fleet was a near-total loss. East Bay Street was littered by the remains of small boats. The mail steamer Princess Montagu was blown out of her harbor and stranded on Tony Rock. Her passengers and crew were rescued on September 25. Three other mail ships capsized in the hurricane, including the Priscilla, which serviced the Abaco Islands and Eleuthera; the Ollie Forde, which serviced Andres Island; and the Magic, which had also been fulfilling the Ollie Forde'''s duties. Long Wharf was also decimated by the storm. In total, nine people died in Nassau, including three drownings. The shores of New Providence Island were tattered by the storm and their structure altered by the force of the waves. Coastal streets were washed out and nearby homes were wrecked. Storm surge flooded roads and swept away homes and parts of the seawall. Boulders and mounds of sand piled up along the main street on Western Esplanade. Sixty-four ships of various types on New Providence Island were destroyed. Numerous buildings throughout the island sustained the collapse of walls and loss of roofs. On some streets, no home was left standing. In total, 456 houses were destroyed and another 640 sustained severe damage throughout New Providence Island. Of the 13,000 people who lived on the island in 1929, over 5,000 were left without homes. Most schools were damaged, and severe impacts were wrought to churches, stores, and shipping. The fruit trees that served as the principal export of the Fox Hill neighborhood were blown down. At Grant's Town, homes were destroyed or unroofed. The eastern wall at Fort Montagu collapsed. Virtually all trees near the fort were denuded of their leaves and branches. One baby was killed and thirty people were stranded on Athol Island just off New Providence, with many others injured. Homes on Hog Island were swept away. Aftermath With their homes lost, many of the 300 people who sheltered at a church in Grant's Town on New Providence Island remained there for several weeks. Schools delayed their typical opening in September to October 7. The House of Assembly of The Bahamas held a special session between October 16–24, 1929, authorizing relief funds for the islands after assessing the damage and reconstruction needs. The Bahamas Parliament passed The Poor People's Housing Hurricane Act of 1929, creating a hire purchase system through which the colonial government could lend £6,000 to individual tenants. The government could purchase homes for £40 each; at least 150 homes were provided to the homeless by the act. Approximately 77% of the Bahamian government's annual budgets in 1930 and 1931 were allocated towards repairing the damage caused by the hurricane. Relief efforts were organized by various groups, including the Bahamas Humane Society, Daughters of the Empire, Infant Welfare Association, and Wesleyan Methodist Missionary School. Aid from the central and southeastern islands in the Bahamas less seriously affected by the storm was hindered by an ongoing drought. New building codes were enacted to better withstand the effects of hurricanes. Compliance with these codes was intended to secure buildings against winds up to 185 mph (300 km/h), mandating hurricane straps, tar paper, and vertical columns of steel-reinforced concrete on new construction. A new Ministry of Education building in Nassau was constructed on the grounds of the one destroyed by the storm. The Government House was repaired and remodeled following the storm. Wild birds were brought to the Bahamas from Jamaica to repopulate avian life on New Providence Island. The Board of Agriculture requested early-maturing vegetables from Jamaica and Trinidad. Legislation was passed that standardized procedures for hoisting hurricane signal flags, issuing a set of flags to all lighthouses of the British Imperial Lighthouse Service. Along with a fungal disease that killed 99% of sponges in the Bahamas, the storm precipitated the demise of the sponging industry in the colony, leading to tourism becoming the islands' chief industry. The song "Run Come See Jerusalem" by calypso artist Blake Alphonso Higgs, recorded in 1951 and one of the most recognized and recorded folk songs from the Bahamas, recalls the events concerning three ships that were caught in the storm, including the sinking of the Pretoria. Effects in the United States and Canada Preparations The U.S. Weather Bureau began issuing advisories on the storm on September 23, and continued warning on the storm at least twice daily until September 30 after it moved ashore a final time. Storm bulletins were broadcast every 30 minutes by local radio stations. Storm warnings were first issued on the afternoon of September 24 for areas between Miami, Florida, and Charleston, South Carolina. Weather Bureau forecasters were forced to frequently change the scope of their warnings due to the hurricane's slow movement, unusual southwesterly track, and lack of observations in the region. The bureau stated it was "impossible to locate the exact center or direction of movement" on September 26, with their storm bulletins communicating this uncertainty. Hurricane warnings were ultimately issued for the Florida Keys once the hurricane reached the Florida Straits on September 27. Additional hurricane warnings were later issued for coastal extents between Mississippi and Apalachicola, Florida, in advance of the storm's final landfall. American and Cuban meteorologists initially anticipated the hurricane to strike Florida north of Miami. Although the storm was often erratic and difficult to precisely locate, its slow movement allowed for ample warning of potentially affected areas in Florida and time for storm preparations to be completed. In many Florida towns, all precautionary measures were in place by the night of September 25.p. 1 p.2 The Florida Department of Health prepared to dispatch health specialists in the risk area. The 124th Infantry Regiment, serving as the Florida National Guard, was mobilized to assist in the hurricane aftermath if necessary. Emergency relief groups were formed in Broward, Dade, Okeechobee, and Palm Beach counties. The windows of homes and businesses along the coast were boarded up. Storeowners moved vulnerable awnings and signage away to safeguard their stores. Pan American Airlines suspended service between Miami and Havana, Cuba, and also evacuated ten planes from Miami worth $700,000 total to Havana. A partial evacuation of the Everglades was conducted on September 25; several hundred people sought refuge in West Palm Beach while others fled to Arcadia and Sebring. Free travel on railroads was arranged for Pahokee residents evacuating to Fort Myers, Tampa, and Sebring. Evacuees also left West Palm Beach for points farther north. Residents lining the coasts of Lake Okeechobee evacuated for higher ground, with Sebring serving as their most common haven. Public buildings in the Fort Lauderdale area, such as the courthouse and public schools, were repurposed as shelters. Schools in the area dismissed at noon on September 26. Employees in both private businesses and municipal government were released early to allow individuals to prepare their personal property. In Miami, water reservoirs were filled to ensure adequate water supplies following the storm. Boats were moved into safer areas of harbor or out of the water, including ferries operating between West Palm Beach and Palm Beach. An emergency organization chaired by the American Red Cross and made of several committees was convened at the Comeau Building in West Palm Beach. Florida Power & Light increased its electricity supply to meet potential emergency demands for the West Palm Beach area. The municipal water and electricity plants in Lake Worth Beach suspended their operations during the storm's duration. Six hundred members of the American Legion around West Palm Beach were directed to convene and aid in emergency efforts under the supervision of the Red Cross. Another joint effort between the American Legion, Red Cross, and other volunteer groups was established in Miami. Similar units were formed in Jupiter and Lake Worth. The Red Cross designated the lobby of a hotel in West Palm Beach as an emergency hospital to process all medical and surgical cases during the storm. Preparations in parts of mainland Florida were scaled back once it became evident that the storm would mostly affect the Florida Keys, with many businesses reopening after two days of closure. Schools were reopened in Broward County on September 27. The Weather Bureau advised evacuees from the Everglades that it was potentially safe to return home. With the storm's threat now magnified farther south, the United States Coast Guard cutter Tallapoosa was dispatched to Key West to render aid to ships in the area. Ferry service between Matecumbe Key and No Name Key was discontinued. For the hurricane's landfall in the Florida panhandle, the Weather Bureau recommended the evacuation of residents living along the coast in the Pensacola area. Florida The hurricane's track through the southernmost regions of Florida spared the more densely populated Gold Coast from the storm's worst effects. The resulting damage was "remarkably small for a storm of this character" according to the Weather Bureau, with the state incurring $676,000 in losses; other accounts estimated $821,000, while a figure of $1 million was published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. Property losses stemmed from both agricultural and utility interests, with damage maximized near the storm's center. Damage to highways accounted for an estimated $300,000 of the toll. Many miles of the Florida East Coast Railway were damaged. Three deaths occurred in Florida, with one each in Marathon, Panama City, and Wewahitchka. Another eight deaths occurred offshore due to the loss of the fishing schooner Mercia Montgomery, which departed from Apalachicola on September 28. The storm's slow forward motion contributed to torrential rainfall over South Florida, peaking at 10.63 in (270 mm) in Miami on September 28. Low-lying areas of the city were flooded. Inundation as deep as occurred in Homestead. Damage in the Florida Keys was worst north of the hurricane's eye, such as in Cape Sable, Upper Matecumbe Key, southern Key Largo, and the Ten Thousand Islands. Storm surge heights reached in Garden Cove and washed out highways along the Keys out to Big Pine Key. A gust of was estimated in Key Largo, where the hurricane made landfall. Everglades City experienced winds of and of rainfall. Damage was wrought to 60–65 homes in both Everglades City and Dupont; they were all repaired within ten days. In Key West, small fishing boats in the upper harbor were overtaken by the high seas, and lighting and telephone service was disrupted; losses were estimated at a few thousand dollars. Railroad service in Key West was unavailable for a week, and mail was delivered to the city by the United States Coast Guard. In Miami, winds reached , blowing down electric lines throughout the area and causing power outages in Miami Beach. Damage along the southwestern Florida coast was generally minor, with only minimal impacts north of Punta Rassa to Cedar Key. South of Florida City, a -stretch of railway roadbed required repairs due to storm damage. An estimated 20–30 percent of oranges and half of grapefruits in Lee County were damaged. Collier had the highest damage toll of any Florida county, sustaining $295,000 in damage. Loss of timber accounted for $150,000 of the total. However, losses sustained by fruit crops in Dade County were ultimately greater, reaching $1.5 million according to monthly records maintained by the National Centers for Environmental Information. At least five tornadoes occurred in the hurricane's rainbands between Miami and Stuart, moving southeast to northwest with the storm's circulation. These were among the first verified reports of tornadoes occurring within a hurricane. Most of the tornadoes were short-lived and were limited to the coast, producing marginal damage. One tornado struck Fort Lauderdale, taking a long and wide path through the city's business center. Frame homes and garages were destroyed. Much of the roof and parapet of a 4-story concrete hotel was torn away by the twister. The tornado lifted within a minute of touching down and produced the severest impacts from the hurricane in Fort Lauderdale, inflicting $100,000 in damage and injuring 16 people. Gusts of accompanied the hurricane's landfall on the Florida panhandle, with winds near hurricane-force extending west to Pensacola where a peak gust of was recorded. The damage in Pensacola was estimated at $60,000. Docks and small craft were damaged, while trees and telegraph lines were downed. Citrus unshiu pine trees saw significant impacts. Along the Apalachicola waterfront, the storm surge destroyed nearly all wharves and damaged all coastal fish and oyster storehouses and canning plants. The surge inundated low-lying portions of the city, flooding additional inland warehouses. Parts of a newly built coastal highway west of Apalachicola were washed out by the waves. Panama City incurred $100,000–$150,000 in damage from destroyed wharves and fish storehouses. Apalachicola incurred a $66,000 damage toll, primarily to shipping. Eastern U.S. In Alabama, the damage was generally minor but most pronounced to crops. Coastal damage amounted to $1,800 excluding crop losses. The winds caused some damage to roofs and blew down fences. Citrus unshiu'' branches bearing fruit were torn from trees. Pecans suffered the same fate, though their quality remained at market-grade. While most cotton in Alabama's southeastern counties had already been harvested, extensive damage was wrought to the remaining crops. Crops and property sustained considerable damage along the central and southern U.S. Atlantic coasts. The storm supplied a continuous stream of moisture and rainfall into the region from September 20 to October 1, causing rivers to flood their banks. The first part of this heavy rainfall event was attributed to a convergence zone that remained over the southeastern U.S. from September 23–28, repeatedly drawing moisture from the hurricane. Rains between September 30–October 1 was associated with the interaction of tropical moisture and an eastward-moving cold front over the Southeastern U.S. The maximum rainfall total during the entire event was in Glennville, Georgia. Flooding in Georgia occurred in two episodes, with one on September 25 and the other from October 1–2. Two people were killed in the state. Flooding was widespread in Georgia's Lower Coastal Plain. Crops, especially cotton and corn, suffered a heavy blow in this region. The floods blocked highways and washed out railroads. One train engineer was killed after his train fell into a washout along the Central of Georgia Railway between Almira and Davisboro. The Savannah River was subject to a record flood. An average of of rain fell across its watershed in 34 hours. At Augusta, the river set a record river stage of on September 27. At this point, the river flow rate was also a record per second, 37 times greater than the river's flow rate at the onset of the rains. While most of Augusta was protected by a levee, a break south of the city led to the inundation of several streets and 40 city blocks to a depth of around . In lower areas the flooding was up to deep. The break occurred as the river was descending from its crest, lessening the potential damage; the flooding was relieved further by the opening of flood gates at Butlers Creek and a secondary levee breach nearby. Most homes in the flood zone were elevated and avoided significant damage. With the onset of the second episode of floods towards the beginning of October, police and fire departments ordered the evacuation of residents in low-lying areas, fearing that the earlier floods had significantly weakened flood mitigation systems. A crew of conscripts and volunteers was assembled to fortify the levees, successfully repairing broken segments before the Savannah River's second crest. Manufacturing and oil plants in low-lying areas north of Augusta were damaged by the floods. Much of the floodplain towards South Carolina was submerged by the swollen Savannah. Farms suffered a total loss of crops and farm equipment. Numerous heads of cattle, hogs, and mules drowned. The total cost of damage within a radius of Augusta was estimated at over $1 million, with $275,000 in damage in the city proper. In Columbia County, located north of Augusta, agricultural losses exceeded $200,000. Floods classified as "dangerous" by the Weather Bureau occurred along the Altamaha, Ocmulgee, and Oconee rivers; more moderate floods befell areas along the Aplachicola, Chattahoochee, and Flint rivers. Total losses in the Altamaha River basin amounted to $500,000. In the southwestern part of Georgia, damage from the storm was primarily wind-driven, and many pecans were blown from trees. A conservative estimate from the Weather Bureau appraised damage to agriculture, highways, and railroads at $3 million. Flood damage in South Carolina from heavy rains on September 26–27 were exacerbated by additional rains associated with the hurricane on September 30 and October 1. Heavy rains and strong winds swept across the Piedmont. The entire state recorded above-average rainfall for October due in part to the hurricane. In Hamburg, which lies across the Savannah River opposite Augusta, Georgia, many homes were swept away by floodwaters. Eight dams were breached in the Horse Creek Valley. Damage in the Santee River watershed totaled $1.1 million, with most due to property damage; $160,000 in property damage was estimated to have been mitigated by timely flood warnings. Total losses in South Carolina from flooding associated with the storm reached $3.829 million, of which $1.8 million was inflicted upon crops. Farming operations in South Carolina's northern and western counties were suspended across both uplands and lowlands. The Cape Fear River in North Carolina experienced its third highest flood on record, leading to $800,000 in losses. However, further losses were avoided as crops were already partly harvested. Areas downstream were also afforded clear conditions during which crops and other stocks were moved to safety as the bulge of floodwaters flowed downstream. October 1929 became the North Carolina's rainiest October on record upon its conclusion. In Virginia, highways and bridges were damaged by flooded streams. Southside and Southwest Virginia were the parts of the state most heavily impacted. High surf and damaging winds spread northward to the Mid-Atlantic states and New England, causing heavy damage. Trees were blown down in The Berkshires by strong winds enhanced by the local topography. In Maine, heavy rains up to flooded storm cellars and broke a prolonged dry spell in the state, though damage was minimal. Canada The extratropical remnants of the hurricane exhibited winds of 40 mph (65 km/h) as they passed over New Brunswick and Quebec. Heavy rainfall and flooding were reported in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. A peak rainfall total of 3.8 in (95 mm) was measured in Saint John, New Brunswick. Cellars and streets in the Saint John area had flood depths of . Streets were flooded and damaged in Digby and Truro, Nova Scotia. See also 1926 Nassau hurricane – passed directly over Nassau at a similar intensity Hurricane Betsy – took a similar southwestward path through the Bahamas and Florida Keys Hurricane Dorian – slow-moving Category 5 hurricane that caused catastrophic damage on Grand Bahama and Great Abaco islands Notes References Sources Citations External links 1929 Hurricane best track data 1929 Bahamas 1929 Bahamas 1929 Bahamas Bahamas Hurricane, 1929 1929 in Florida 1929 natural disasters in the United States 1929 meteorology
4626234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Minsk	History of Minsk	Early East Slavs settled the forested hills of today's Minsk by the 9th century. They had been migrating from further south and pushing the preceding Balts northwards. The valley of Svislach river was settlement boundary between two Early East Slavs' tribal unions – Krivichs and Dregovichs. By 980 the area was incorporated into the early medieval Principality of Polatsk, one of the earliest East Slav states along with the principalities of Kiev and Novgorod. Overview There is no exact historical record for the date when Minsk was founded. It was first mentioned (as Mensk) in the Primary Chronicle in 1067. That year the chronicle recorded a bloody battle between troops of Polatsk and Kiev princes on the banks of Niamiha river (tributary of Svislach). Minsk, which was a Principality of Polatsk town, was burnt down by the Kievan army during a war between Kiev and Polatsk. 1067 is now widely attributed as a founding year of Minsk, though the town (by then fortified by wooden walls) should have existed for some time before it could have been burnt down. Some historians believe, that Minsk evolved from an earlier village, which may have been founded as early as the 9th or 10th centuries. Recent archeological excavations support this idea. There is a theory, that initially Minsk was located 16 km to the southwest, on the banks of Menka river. According to this view, Kievan troops first seized the town and then marched to the mouth of Niamiha, location of a small fort, where the chronicle battle occurred. Later the fort was rebuilt and renamed Mensk . There are several theories on the origin of the name. The settlement on the banks of Menka river to the southwest of today's Minsk. Remnants of a 10th-century settlement on the banks of the Menka were found by archeologists in the 1930s. There is a legend of a giant man with a name Menesk who lived in the area and gave the name to a settlement. The city name comes from Slavonic word "мена" ("miena" – "barter" or "trade" in English"), as Minsk initially served as a trading settlement around a marketplace. However, it is less likely, as Slavs rarely used names for trade or craft for their towns. Most towns and cities have been named after rivers or governing princes. Niamiha river may have had another name then, possibly Meniha. This would explain why a settlement on its banks would be named Mensk. Governance timeline Early history After the town was rebuilt after the 1067 battle, it was located 100–150 to the south of Niamiha and Svislach confluence. It was centred on a wooden fort, surrounded by a flooded ditch and by an earth mound. This area of Minsk later evolved into Zamchyshcha, or 'Citadel'. It included a church and several living quarters. In the later years Minsk grew southwards on the right bank of Svislach. Outside the town walls craftsmen and traders were building wooden houses along narrow streets with wooden flooring. Trading settlement formed the Nizhni Rynak ('Lower Market') quarter, now area around Niamiha metro station. In the early 12th century Principality of Polatsk disintegrated into smaller fiefs. Principality of Minsk was established by one of the Polatsk dynasty princes. First Prince of Minsk was Hleb Usiaslavavich (died in 1119), who expanded the town and built its first stone church (reconstructed basement of the Church of Virgin Mary is now unearthed and can be found near Svislach embankment). During Prince Hleb's reign Minsk was twice besieged (in 1104 and in 1115) by troops of Kiev and other principalities, but withstand the invaders. In 1129 Principality of Minsk was annexed by Kiev, the dominant city of Kievan Rus', however in 1146 the Polatsk dynasty regained control of the principality. By 1150 Minsk has rivaled Polatsk as the major city in the former Principality of Polatsk. Princes of Minsk and Polatsk were engaged in years of struggle trying to unite all lands previously under the rule of Polatsk. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Minsk escaped the Mongol invasion of Rus in 1237–1239. However, in later years it was attacked by nomadic invaders from the Golden Horde, who turned many principalities of disintegrated Kievan Rus' into their vassal states. Trying to avoid the Tatar yoke, the Principality of Minsk sought protection from Lithuanian princes to the west, who had been consolidating their power in the region. In 1242 Minsk became a part of the expanding Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was annexed peacefully and local elites enjoyed high ranking in the society of the Grand Duchy. For instance, a treaty between Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the city of Novgorod was signed for Lithuanian Prince Gediminas by Vasily, the then ruler of Minsk. In 1441 Lithuanian prince Kazimierz IV Jagiellon included Minsk into a list of cities enjoying certain privileges. During the reign of his son Aleksander Jagiellon Minsk received its town privileges (Magdeburg law) in 1499. The city was governed by a magistrate headed by an appointed governor, usually an influential local landlord. By 1450 Minsk was among 15 largest cities of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with about the population of 5,000. It was an important and wealthy trading city profiting from its favourable location. It was on the ancient trading roads connecting Smolensk and Moscow in the east to Poland and Central Europe in the west, and linking Novgorod and Vilnius in the north and northwest respectively with Ukraine. Historical records suggest that Minsk contributed large sums to the treasury of the Grand Duchy. Minsk was often a target for foreign invasions. In 1505 it was raided by Crimean Khanate army, in 1508 besieged by the troops of Muscovy, who also raided the vicinity of Minsk in 1514 and 1519. To restore the wealth of the city, Sigismund II Augustus extended town privileges in 1552, allowing trade fairs, and transferred some agricultural lands around the city to Minsk. After the Union of Lublin In 1569 after the Union of Lublin the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland merged into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while still maintaining themselves as two separate entities legally, militarily and socially. Since then, a Polish community settled in Minsk – government clerks, officers and craftsmen. By the middle of the 16th century Minsk was an important economic and cultural centre of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The city contained several guilds of craftsmen and was an important trading centre. Minsk merchants exported wood, tar, wax, blacksmith's work, glass, skins and furs. They brought in salt, wine, spices, fabrics and metals. Minsk had a thriving merchant port on Svislach river, which connected the city with Kiev and Smolensk. Minsk was an important centre for Eastern Orthodox Church and boasted seven Orthodox religious brotherhoods. After the Union of Brest there was a rise of influence of both Uniate church and Roman Catholic Church. They were wealthier under the Polish rule and received funding for building new monasteries and churches. In the 16th century Minsk was an important cultural centre with schools and printing works. It was also in this time that Jews began the settle in the city. In 1591 Minsk received its first coat-of-arms, depicting Virgin Mary and the angels. By the early 17th century Minsk had some stone houses in Verkhni Horad (Uppert Town) and was surrounded by new earth mound with stone fortifications. There were two suburbs outside the city walls – Traetskae suburb on the left bank of the Svislach and Rakauskaye suburb to the west of the city, on the trading route to Vilnius and Warsaw. In 1654 Minsk was conquered by troops of Tsar Alexei of Russia. Russians governed the city until 1667, when it was regained by the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania John II Casimir Vasa. By the end of the Deluge, Minsk had only about 2,000 residents and just 300 houses. Other cities and towns of Lithuania were also heavily devastated by the war. The second wave of devastation occurred during the Great Northern War when Minsk was occupied in 1708 and 1709 – by the Swedish army of Charles XII and then by the Russian army of Peter the Great. Minsk paid large retributions to both foreign armies. The last decades of the Polish-Lithuanian rule were indicated by decline or very slow development. Minsk was a small provincial town of little economic or military significance. By 1790 it had population of 6,500–7,000 and was slowly rebuilding to the city limits of 1654. In 1785 the city magistrate was also complemented with an elected city council. Most of Minsk residents were Jews and Poles, while Belarusians were a minority. There was also a small minority of Belarusian-speaking Tartars living in Tatarskaya Slabada to the northwest of the then city limits. Russian rule Minsk was annexed by Russia in 1793 as a consequence of the Second Partition of Poland. In 1796 it became centre of the Minsk Governorate (province). All Polish street names were changed to Russian ones, however spelling of the city's name remained unchanged. In 1805 a municipal garden was established by the Minsk governor for the enjoyment of local residents. By 1811 Minsk had about 11,000 residents. Its development was interrupted by Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. During the French occupation there was a struggle between the Polish and Belarusian elites for the control of the city. Poles strove for a revival of the Kingdom of Poland while Belarusians hoped for their national homeland. By the end of the French occupation Minsk had only 3,500 residents and large parts of the city were completely destroyed during the fighting between the French and the Russian armies. In 1830 was one of the centres of the November Uprising in the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After 1831, the use of Belarusian and Polish languages has been banned, and Russian was the only official language. In 1835 Minsk was officially included into the Pale of Settlement, which later led to a rise in Jewish population. Throughout the 19th century the city grew and significantly improved. In the 1830s major streets and squares of Minsk were cobbled and paved. A first public library was opened in 1836, a fire brigade was put into operation in 1837. In 1838 first local newspaper, Minskie gubernskie vedomosti ("Minsk province news") went into circulation. First theatre was established in 1844. By 1850 Minsk had a dozen of schools and two colleges. By 1860 Minsk was an important trading city with population of 27,000. There was a construction boom which led to building 2- and 3-storey brick and stone houses in Upper Town. Minsk was one of the Belarusian cities, which supported the January Uprising in Poland, Lithuania and in Belarus in 1863–64. It was under Russian martial law from 1863 to 1870. The suppression of the uprising led to increased repressions against use of the Polish and Belarusian languages, particularly in education and newspapers. Development of the city was boosted by improvements in transportation. In 1846 Moscow-Warsaw road was laid though Minsk. In 1871 railway link between Moscow and Warsaw ran via Minsk, and in 1873 a new railway from Romny in Ukraine to the Baltic Sea port of Libava (Liepāja). Thus Minsk became an important rail junction and a manufacturing hub. Municipal water supply was introduced in 1872, telephone – in 1890, horse tram – in 1892, and first power generator – in 1894. By 1900 Minsk had 58 factories employing 3,000 workers. The city had theatres, cinemas, newspapers, schools and colleges, as well as numerous monasteries, churches, synagogues and a mosque. According to the 1897 Russian census the city had 91,494 inhabitants, the majority of them Jews. Other large groups were Poles and Russians. Belarusians made only 8% of Minsk's then population (some historians believe, many Belarusians were counted as Russians to boost the number of the latter). 20th century In the early years of the 20th century, Minsk was a major centre for the worker's movement within Belarus. It was also one of the major centres of Belarusian national revival, along with Vilnius. World War I affected the development of Minsk tremendously, by 1915 Minsk was on the front lines. Some factories were closed down and residents began evacuating to the east. Minsk became the headquarters of the Western Front of the Russian army, while also housing military hospitals and military supply bases. The Russian Revolution had an immediate effect in Minsk. A Worker's Soviet was established in Minsk in October 1917 and it drew its support from disaffected soldiers and workers. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk German forces occupied Minsk in February 1918. On 25 March 1918 Minsk was proclaimed capital of the Belarusian People's Republic. The republic was short-lived: in December 1918 Minsk was taken over by the Red Army and in January 1919 Minsk was proclaimed the capital of Byelorussian SSR. In 1919 (see Operation Minsk) and again in 1920 the city was controlled by the Second Polish Republic in the course of the Polish-Bolshevik war. Under the terms of the Peace of Riga Minsk was handed to Soviet Russia and became the capital of the Byelorussian SSR, one of the constituent republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. During World War I, the Russian Revolution and the Polish-Bolshevik war, Minsk suffered significant damage. A programme of reconstruction and development was started in 1922. By 1924 there were 29 factories in operation; schools, museums, theatres, libraries were opening. In 1921 Belarusian State University, now a major university of Belarus, was founded in Minsk. In 1929 an electric tramway was put into operation, and in 1934 the airport (Minsk-1) was opened. Throughout the 1920s and the 1930s Minsk saw rapid development with dozens of new factories built, new schools, colleges, higher education establishments, hospitals, theatres and cinemas opened. Throughout the 1920s and the early 1930s Minsk was a centre for development of both Belarusian language and culture. By 1935 it was virtually bilingual, with Belarusian being the major language of newspapers, theatres and education. In the late 1930s the trend had been reversed with a Russification policy. Minsk was the center of Communist repression in Belarus in the late 1930s. The NKVD murdered people in Kamarouka, and later in Kurapaty near Minsk. Thousands of Minsk residents from various social and ethnic backgrounds were killed. Soviet authorities particularly oppressed the Belarusian, Polish and Jewish national intelligentsia. Before World War II Minsk had a population of 300,000 people. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in Operation Barbarossa Minsk came under immediate attack. The city was bombed on the first day of the war and taken over by the Germans four days later. However, some factories, museums and thousands of civilians had been evacuated to the east. The Germans made Minsk the administrative centre of the Reichskomissariat Ostland and repressed the local population. Communists and sympathisers were killed or imprisoned; thousands were forced into slave labour, both locally and in Germany. Homes were expropriated to house German occupying forces. Thousands starved as rations were expropriated and paid work was scarce. At the same time, some residents supported the Germans, especially in the earlier years. Some Belarusian nationalists hoped for a formation of a Belarusian national state under the German protectorate, and as a result the city was divided. By 1942 Minsk became a major centre of Soviet partisan resistance against the German occupation during the Great Patriotic War. For this role Minsk was awarded the title Hero City in 1974. Minsk was the site of one of the largest Nazi-run ghettos in the World War II, the Minsk ghetto, which held over 100,000 Jews. A living space of 1.5 square meters was allotted for each person, with none for children. As new Jews were brought to the ghetto from the west, the existing Jewish residents were slaughtered—2,000 Jews were killed on 7 November 1941, 30,000 Jews were murdered over three days in July 1942, and tens of thousands more were killed at other times, even as more Jews were forced into the ghetto. Only a handful survived. Minsk was re-taken by the Soviet troops on 3 July 1944 during the Operation Bagration. The city was the centre of German resistance to the Soviet advance and was a site of heavy fighting between German and Soviet troops; by mid-1944, the city was in ruins. Factories, municipal buildings, power stations, bridges, most roads, and 80% of housing were reduced to rubble. Some churches which survived the fighting were later demolished by the Soviet authorities. In 1944 Minsk's population was down to 50,000, with most residents (especially Jewish residents) having been evacuated or killed. After World War II Minsk was re-built, but not re-constructed. The historical centre was substituted in the 1940s and 1950 by Stalinist architecture, which favoured grand buildings, broad avenues and wide squares. In the following years the city grew rapidly as a result of massive industrialisation. This generated the so-called Minsk Phenomenon in the 1960s and 1970s (the phenomenon was caused by combining R&D-intensive manufacturing, research institutions and highly skilled labour, which resulted in high rates of output expansion). Minsk became an important centre for manufacturing (trucks, tractors, refrigerators, television sets, military equipment, optical, etc.) and science. It was home to the Belarusian Academy of Sciences, dozens of R&D institutes in both academic and applied sciences and several universities. Since the 1960s Minsk's population has grown rapidly, reaching 1 million in 1972 and 1.5 million in 1986. Rapid population growth was primarily driven by mass migration of young unskilled workers from rural areas of Belarus as well as migration of skilled workers from other parts of the Soviet Union. To house the expanding population, Minsk grew dramatically. Its surrounding villages were absorbed and rebuilt as mikroraions, districts of high-density apartment housing. They were normally known as sleeping districts, as they contained few workplaces and entertainment venues. Among the mikroraions, Chyzhouka was built in the 1960s, Serabranka, Zahad, Kurasoushchyna (expanded), Paudnyovy Zahad, Uskhod in the 1970s, Kuntsaushchyna, Malinauka and Uruchcha in the 1980s. To link mikroraions and the city centre, public transportation was developed. It consisted of buses, trolleybuses, trams, and since 1984 of metro system (see Minsk Metro). Minsk Circular Road has been built to provide a bypass for through traffic. International airport (Minsk-2) was built in 1982. In the late 1980s Minsk once again became a centre for Belarusian national movement. Manifestations and protests during Perestroika called for a return to the use of the Belarusian language and other reforms. In early 1990 Minsk was a location of unexpected industrial action by thousands of workers calling for both economic and political reform. In December 1991 Minsk played an important role in the dissolution of the Soviet Union, as the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus met there for dissolution talks. Since 1991 Minsk has been the capital of the independent Republic of Belarus. Recent developments Throughout the 1990s the city has continued to change. Becoming capital of a newly independent country required obtaining attributes of a capital city. Embassies have been opened, a number of administrative buildings have been turned over into government buildings. During the early and mid-1990s Minsk was hit by the economic crisis – many development projects have been halted, unemployment and underemployment was high. Since the late 1990s there have been improvements in transport infrastructure and arrival of a housing boom, especially after 2002. On the outskirts of Minsk new microraions of residential development have been built. Metro lines have been extended, road system (including the Minsk ring road) have been renovated. Due to small proportion of the private sector in Belarus most of the development has been financed by the government. Minsk has become one of the centers of the 2020 Belarusian protests. On 9 August 2020 police and soldiers were transported to Minsk to crack down the protests. Security forces were dropping grenades near people, and some people received critical injuries. Technology timeline 1871 – railway 1874 – water supply 1889 – telegraph 1890 – telephone 1892 – horse tram 1894 – power supply 1929 – tram 1933 – airport 1952 – trolleybus 1984 – metro 1993 – internet Population growth Historical names Mensk, Miensk (Менск), the historical name. Polish: Mińsk, Mińsk Litewski, Mińsk Białoruski, used when Belarus was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. See also Timeline of Minsk Mińsk Voivodeship References Bibliography External links Belarus National Republic – the Belarusian Government in exile History of Minsk – the big article in English about Minsk history Stary Hetman – Belarusian history forums Belarusian diaspora Jews in Minsk. Poland-Lithuania – czarist rule – enlightenment, labour movement, and Herzl Zionism – Soviet rule until 1941 – Holocaust – Soviet rule (Encyclopaedia Judaica 1971) Historical dates of Minsk
4626577	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre%20Intime	Theatre Intime	Theatre Intime is an entirely student-run dramatic arts not-for-profit organization operating out of the Hamilton Murray Theater at Princeton University. Intime receives no direct support from the university, and is entirely acted, produced, directed, teched and managed by a board of students that is elected once a semester. "Students manage every aspect of Theatre Intime, from choosing the plays to setting the ticket prices." History Theatre Intime was founded in 1920 by a group of Princeton undergraduates; in 1922 it took over the Hamilton Murray Theater as its stage. It has presented the American premieres of several plays by prominent creators, including Jean Cocteau's The Typewriter and W. H. Auden's Age of Anxiety. Members of the troupe have included Jimmy Stewart, Joshua Logan, Larry Strichman, William Hootkins, John C. Vennema, Roger Berlind, Mark Feuerstein, Charles Scribner, Clark Gesner, Richard Greenberg, Winnie Holzman, Mark Nelson, and Wentworth Miller. In the late 1920s, the group spawned a summer theater project, the University Players, whose early members included Stewart, Logan, and Henry Fonda. Later, a semi-professional summer company was founded by Charles Bernstein, class of 1967, and Jon Lorrain and Geoff Peterson, class of 1969. It was called 'Summer Intime.' In its first season the company produced The Night of the Iguana, Amphitryon 38, The Trial and Arms and the Man. It paid salaries to its acting company by selling subscriptions to the Princeton community. Some years later the name of the summer company was changed to Princeton Summer Theater. In November 2022, Theatre Intime celebrated its centennial after delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Board The Intime board is composed entirely of current undergraduates. It is divided into two levels, the Managing Board, which includes roles such as Costumes Manager and House Manager and is elected every semester, and the Executive Board, which is headed by the General Manager and Production Manager and is elected once a year at the beginning of the spring term. The board is responsible for the maintenance and running of the theater as well as choosing the season every year from a list of submitted proposals. Seasons Current season 2022-2023 Celebration and Party Time by Harold Pinter Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare Autumn Rewind by Le'Naya Wilkerson '25 Torch Song by Harvey Fierstein Past seasons 2021-2022 Sniper by Bonnie Culver Much Ado About Nothing by William Shakespeare A Doll's House by Henrik Ibsen The Laramie Project by Moises Kaufman Shrek the Musical by Jeanine Tesori and David Lindsay-Abaire 2020-2021 The 2020-2021 season was interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The Mainstage season was supplemented by a number of original festivals. As You Like It by William Shakespeare 2019-2020 Eurydice by Sarah Ruhl Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare Antigonick by Anne Carson Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike by Christopher Durang Sweeney Todd by Stephen Sondheim (music and lyrics) and Hugh Wheeler (book) 2018-2019 The Moors by Jen Silverman Iphigenia at Aulis by Euripides Iphigenia and Other Daughters by Ellen McLaughlin The Luck of the Irish by Kirsten Greenidge Cowboy vs. Samurai by Michael Golamco Richard III by William Shakespeare Seascape by Edward Albee 2017-2018 The Flick by Annie Baker Arcadia by Tom Stoppard She Kills Monsters by Qui Nguyen Stop Kiss by Diana Son A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum by Stephen Sondheim (lyrics), Burt Shevelove (book), and Larry Gelbart (music) 2016-2017 Blue Heart by Caryl Churchill California Suite by Neil Simon Speech & Debate by Stephen Karam Agamemnon by Aeschylus Mud by Maria Irene Fornes 2015-2016 Gidion's Knot by Johnna Adams Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo by Rajiv Joseph When Dawn Breaks (an adaptation of One Thousand and One Nights) by Nico Krell '18 Harvey by Mary Chase Oleanna by David Mamet 2014-2015 Red by John Logan Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare The Little Dog Laughed by Douglas Carter Beane La Cage aux Folles by Harvey Fierstein (book) and Jerry Herman (music and lyrics) How the Other Half Loves by Alan Ayckbourn 2013-2014 Fuddy Meers by David Lindsay-Abaire All My Sons by Arthur Miller Frankenstein by Robert Sandberg The Language Archive by Julia Cho Venus in Fur by David Ives The Drowsy Chaperone by Bob Martin and Don McKellar (book), Lisa Lambert and Greg Morrison (music and lyrics) Everything In Isolation by Ava Geyer '15 2012-2013 Gruesome Playground Injuries by Rajiv Joseph Wait Until Dark by Frederick Knott Sight Unseen (play) by Donald Margulies The Baltimore Waltz by Paula Vogel Circle Mirror Transformation by Annie Baker Sexy Imaginary Friend by Mark Watter '14 June Groom by Rick Abbot 2011-2012 Lost in Yonkers by Neil Simon Rock 'n' Roll by Tom Stoppard The Pavilion by Craig Wright Dead Man's Cell Phone by Sarah Ruhl Private Lives by Noël Coward Admissions by Clayton Raithel, Dan Abromowitz, and Nora Sullivan 7 Stories by Morris Panych 2010-2011 Red Herring by Michael Hollinger This Is Our Youth by Kenneth Lonergan Garden District by Tennessee Williams Recent Tragic Events by Craig Wright Brighton Beach Memoirs by Neil Simon The Elephant Man by Bernard Pomerance Amateurs by Tom Griffin 2009-2010 Proof by David Auburn Venting by Mara Nelson-Greenberg Crime and Punishment by Marilyn Campbell and Curt Columbus The Tempest by William Shakespeare Copenhagen by Michael Frayn Reefer Madness by Kevin Murphy (books and lyrics) and Dan Studney (music) Catch Me If You Can by Jack Weinstock and Willie Gilbert 2008-2009 Crimes of the Heart by Beth Henley Some Things You Need to Know Before the World Ends by Larry Larson and Levi Lee Boy Gets Girl by Rebecca Gilman Metamorphoses by Mary Zimmerman King Lear by William Shakespeare Hey Boy Wonder! The Other Adventures of Ultraman by Shawn Fennell Our Town by Thornton Wilder 2007-2008 The Violet Hour by Richard Greenberg Topdog/Underdog by Suzan-Lori Parks The Skin of Our Teeth by Thornton Wilder Macbeth by William Shakespeare The Pillowman by Martin McDonagh Arabian Nights by Mary Zimmerman The Foreigner by Larry Shue 2006-2007 Boston Marriage by David Mamet Cuchulain Comforted by W.B. Yeats Equus by Peter Schaffer Terra Nova by Ted Talley Valentine at Bellevue by Joshua Williams Under Milk Wood by Dylan Thomas Glengarry Glenn Ross by David Mamet 2005-2006 Buried Child by Sam Shepard Too Much Light Makes the Baby Go Blind by The Neo-Futurists Wonderland Salvage by Joshua Williams Fences by August Wilson The Goat, or Who Is Sylvia? by Edward Albee College: The Musical by Scott Elmegreen and Drew Fornarola All My Sons by Arthur Miller 2004-2005 Fair Game by Karl Gajdusek Rumors by Neil Simon The Real Thing by Tom Stoppard A Chorus Line by James Kirkwood & Nicholas Dante (book), Marvin Hamlisch (music), Edward Kleban (lyrics) Cymbeline by William Shakespeare The Bald Soprano and The Chairs by Eugène Ionesco Hannah and Martin by Kate Fodor 2003-2004 Hysteria by Terry Johnson The Laramie Project by Moisés Kaufman and the Tectonic Theater Project No Exit by Jean-Paul Sartre The Clouds by Aristophanes The Trestle at Pope Lick Creek by Naomi Wallace Cabaret by John Kander (music), Fred Ebb (lyrics), and Joe Masteroff (book) The Master and Margarita adapted by Peter Morris 2002-2003 Betty's Summer Vacation by Christopher Durang Men Without Shadows by Jean-Paul Sartre The Hothouse by Harold Pinter Six Degrees of Separation by John Guare The Water Engine by David Mamet Bums and Monkeys by David Brundige The Fix by John Depsey (book) and Dana P. Rowe (music) 2001-2002 The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds by Paul Zindel The Real Inspector Hound by Tom Stoppard The Shadow Box by Michael Christopher Man of La Mancha by Dale Wasserman (book), Joe Darion (lyrics), and Mitch Leigh (music) The American Dream and The Zoo Story by Edward Albee Stop Kiss by Diana Son Rhinoceros by Eugene Ionescu Student Playwrights Festival Plaza Suite by Neil Simon 2000-2001 Noises Off by Michael Frayn Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? by Edward Albee Hedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen Death and the Maiden by Ariel Dorfman Picasso at the Lapin Agile by Steve Martin The House of Yes by Wendy MacLeod Macbeth by William Shakespeare 1999-2000 Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead by Tom Stoppard Educating Rita by Willy Russell Mad Forest by Caryl Churchill Jeffrey by Paul Rudnick Assassins by Stephen Sondheim (music, lyrics) and John Weidman (book) J.B. by Archibald MacLeish Beyond Therapy by Christopher Durang Student Playwrights Festival 1998-1999 I Hate Hamlet by Paul Rudnick Arms and the Man by George Bernard Shaw Tartuffe by Molière Extremities by William Mastrosimone The Mousetrap by Agatha Christie The Colored Museum by George C. Wolfe Arcadia by Tom Stoppard Student Playwrights Festival 1997-1998 Brighton Beach Memoirs by Neil Simon The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams Oh Dad, Poor Dad, Mamma's Hung You in the Closet and I'm Feelin' So Sad by Arthur Kopit Company by Stephen Sondheim Hay Fever by Noel Coward FOB (play) by David Henry Hwang Student Playwrights Festival 1996-1997 An Actors Nightmare and Sister Mary Ignatious Explains It All for You, by Christopher Durang Pippin by Stephen Schwartz (music, lyrics) and Roger o. Hirson (book) Guest Production: Murder, Mystery, Mayhem, by Marvin Cheiten '65, directed by Dan Berkowitz '70 Keely and Du by Jane Martin Crimes of the Heart by Beth Henley All in the Timing by David Ives A Few Good Men by Aaron Sorkin The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde 1995-1996 Six Degrees of Separation by John Guare Gatsby, adapted and directed by Erik Brodnax '96 from the novel Burn This by Lanford Wilson, directed by Suzanne Agins '97 The Bacchae by Euripides Dime Store Zen, organized by Joseph Hernandez-Kolski Bent by Martin Sherman Daughters of Survival, 50 year memorial of female experience in Auschwitz, written and directed by Jennifer Huang '97 True West by Sam Shepherd Student Playwrights Festival 1994-1995 Lips Together, Teeth Apart by Terrence McNally Sexual Peversity in Chicago by David Mamet Ducks by David Mamet Across Jordan by Merle Field and Margaret Pine: Guest Production and World Premiere Les Liaisons Dangereuses by Christopher Hampton The Marriage of Bette and Boo by Christopher Durang Grotesque Lovesongs by Don Nigro Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard Our Country's Good by Timberlake Wertenbaker Dime Store Zen, a festival of scenes, dances and monologues organized by Kiersten Van Horne '95 The Maids by Jean Genet Student Playwrights Festival 1993-1994 Vampire Lesbians of Sodom by Charles Busch The Shadow Box by Michael Christopher Hamlet by Pirandello Buried Child by Sam Shepherd The Tempest Steel Magnolias by Robert Harling Student Plays Great Tuna by Gaston, Sears and Howard 1992-1993 Little Footsteps by Ted Tally Master Harold and the Boys by Atho Fugard The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde The House of Blue Leaves by John Guare Noises Off by Michael Frayn Another Antigone by A.R. Gurney Suddenly Last Summer by Tennessee Williams Solitary Confinement by Jeff Gothard '95 1991-1992 Here Lies Jeremy Troy by Jack Sharkey Drinking in America by Eric Bogosian The Foreigner by Larry Shue Deathtrap by Ira Levin As You Like It The Gospel of Luke by Bruce Kuhn The Rehearsal by Jean Anouilh Find Me by Olwen Wynmark Cyrano de Bergerac by Edmond Rostand The Cherry Orchard Student plays 1990-1991 White Stones by Bill Boesky '88 Laundry and Bourbon by James McLure Talk Radio by Eric Bogosain Hurlyburly by David Rabe Rhinoceros by Ionesco Amadeus by Peter Schaffer Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett Student Plays Biloxi Blues by Neil Simon 1989-1990 Luv by Murray Schisgal No Exit by Jean-Paul Sartre Uncommon Women by Wendy Wasserstein A Lesson from Aloes by Athol Fugard Burn This by Lanford Wilson Orphans by Lyle Kessler Fool For Love by Sam Shepard Student Plays Dusa, Fish, Stas and Vi 1988-1989 Brilliant Traces by Cindy Lou Johnson Sister Mary Ignatius Explains Its All For You by Christopher Durang Benefactors by Michael Frayn In the Jungle of the Cities by Bertolt Brecht Hair by Geronme Ragnim James Rando and Galt MacDermot Blood Relations by Sharon Pollock Old Times by Harold Pinter Student Plays The Day Room by Don Delilo 1987-1988 Private Scenes Play/ Come and Go/ What, Where, by Samuel Beckett, directed by Elizabeth Quainton '89 and Colgate grad Russel Reich Equus by Peter Schaffer The Promise by Alexei Arbuzov The Prisoner of Second Avenue by Neil Simon The Serpent by Jean Claude van Itallie Aunt Dan and Lemon by Wallace Shawn Student Plays Mousetrap by Agatha Christie 1986-1987 Condemned by Tennessee Williams Alternative Voices in American Theater, led by Kevin Teal and Ilze Thielman The Dutchman and The Sound of a Voice by David Hwang Happy Birthday Wanda June by Kurt Vonnegut The Real Thing by Tom Stoppard Crimes of the Heart by Beth Henley Extremities by William Mastrosimone The Time by Paul Schiff Berman '88 1985-1986 Home Free by Lanford Wilson The Maids by Jean Genet Shivaree by William Mastrosimone Blue Window by Craig Lucas Twelfth Night Dracula Agnes of God by John Pielmeier Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck 1984-1985 Lone Star by Kevin Groome '85 A Night Out by Harold Pinter Performing by Michael Kaplan '85 The Diviners by Jim Leonard The Lion in Winter by James Goldman Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead by Tom Stoppard Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf by Edward Albee Sexual Perversity in Chicago Suddenly Last Summer by Tennessee Williams Julius Caesar 1983-1984 The American Dream by Edward Albee Silence by Harold Pinter Miss Julie by Strindberg The House of Blue Leaves by John Guare Curiculo by Plautus Pippin by Roger O. Hirson and Stephen Schwartz The Cocktail Party by T.S. Eliot Nuts by Tom Topor Dead Give-Away by Michael Rosenfeld '84, directed by Veronica Brady Feiffer's People by Jules Feiffer 1982-1983 Jack, or The Submission by Ionesco The Bear by Anton Chekhov On the Harmfulness of Tobacco by Anton Chekhov A Marriage Proposal by Anton Chekhov As You Like It They Are Dying Out by Peter Handke Adaptation by Elaine May Plants and Waiters by William Anastasi Brussels by Jacques Brel The Rimers of Eldritch by Lanford Wilson Born Yesterday by Garson Kanvin A Soldier's Tale by Igor Stravinsky The Odd Couple by Neil Simon 1981-1982 Feiffer's People by Jules Feiffer The Loveliest Afternoon of the Year by John Guare The Dumwaiter by Harold Pinter Camino Real by Tennessee Williams Misanthrope by Molière Godspell by Stephen Schwartz Black Comedy by Peter Schaffer Lysistrata by Aristophanes Stage Directions by Israel Horowitz Aria de Capo by Edna St. Vincent Millay Scenes from American Life by A.R. Gurney 1980-1981 The Birdbath by Leonard Malfi No Exit by Jean-Paul Sartre The Lesson by Eugène Ionesco The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde The Fifth Column by Ernest Hemingway Harvey by Mary Chase Man is Man by Bertolt Brecht The Impresario by Gian Lorenzo Bernini Lovers by Brian Friel The Zoo Story by Edward Albee A Child's Guide to American History One woman show based on the life of Edna St. Vincint Millay, by Kelly Easterling '81 1979-1980 A Jaques Brel by Jaques Brel Welcome to Andromeda by Ron Whyte Home Free by Lanford Wilson The Birthday Party by Harold Pinter The Norman Conquests by Alan Ayckbourn Hedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen A Day in the Death of Joe Egg by Peter Nichols Antigone by Jean Anouilh MIT Shakespeare Ensemble in Residence, performing The Winter's Tale 1978-1979 Anatol by Arthur Schnitxler Romeo and Juliet The Typists by Murray Schisgal 27 Wagons of Cotton, by Tennessee Williams On the Harmfulness of Tobacco by Chekhov Patience by Gilbert and Sullivan Aeneas in Flames by Billy Aronson '79, directed by Carol Elliott The Children's Hour by Lillian Hellman Troilus and Cressida MIT Shakespeare Ensemble in Residence. 1977-1978 The Tiger Anyone Can Whistle by Stephen Sondheim, directed by Geoff Rich '78 When You Comin' Back Red Ryder? by Mark Medoff House of Blue Leaves by John Guare On the Harmfulness of Tobacco by Chekhov The Bear by Chekhov The Chorus Girl by Chekhov This Property is Condemned by Tennessee Williams Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let me Listen by Tennessee Williams Loot by Joe Orten 1976-1977 How He Lied to Her Husband by George Bernard Shaw Old Times by Harold Pinter The Tempest Don Juan by Molière Sea Fantasy by Billy Aronson Tonight at 8.30 by Noël Coward The Vise by Pirandello The Birdbath by Leonard Malfi Ring Around the Moon by Jean Anouilh, directed by Geoff Rich '78 Endgame by Samuel Beckett 1975-1976 The Golden Fleece by A.R. Gurney The Public Eye by Peter Schaffer, director Kate Stewart '77 The Private Ear by Peter Schaffer, director by Mitchell Ivers '77 All's Well That Ends Well Lysistrata by Aristophanes We're on the One Road The Marriage of Bette and Boo by Christopher Durang 1974-1975 The Typists by Murray Schisgal The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon-Marigolds by Paul Zindel The Real Inspector Hound by Tom Stoppard After Magritte by Tom Stoppard Lovers by Brian Friel Ubu Cuckold by Alfred Jarry The Puppet Show by Alexander Blok The Caucasian Chalk Circle by Bertolt Brecht The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams 1973-1974 The Lover by Harold Pinter Adaptation by Elaine Mat Next by Terrence McNally Balls by Paul Foster The Successful Life of 3 by Maria Irene Fornes Measure for Measure Slow Dance on the Killing Ground by William Hanley The American Dream by Edward Albee The Sandbox by Edward Albee Citizen Kong 'Tis Pity She's a Whore by John Ford 1972-1973 The Hundred and First by Kenneth Carmon As you Like It Electra by Euripides Ten Little Indians by Agatha Christie Squanto by Jim Magnuson, directed by Professor Robert Knapp Hay Fever by Noël Coward 1971-1972 Dracula adapted from Tod Browning's film by Daniel Blackmon '73 and William Bowman '74 Frogs! by Aristotle Phaedra by Racine The two Executioners by Arrabal The Hostage by Brendan Behan Woyzeck by Georg Buchner The Philanderer by George Bernard Shaw 1970-1971 Zoo Story by Edward Albee Swan Song by Chekhov Three Penny Opera by Brecht The Physicists by Friedrich Dürrenmatt Endgame by Samuel Beckett Henry IV Part I Beyond the Fringe 1969-1970 The Red Eye of Love by Arnold Weinstein A Man for All Seasons by Robert Bolt The Happy time by Samuel Taylor Marat/Sade 1968-1969 The Dumbwaiter by Harold Pinter The Lesson by Eugène Ionesco The Clouds by Aristophanes The Killer by Eugène Ionesco, Directed by Professor Frederic O'Brady The World of Carl Sandburg Long Day's Journey Into Night by Eugene O'Neill Slow Dance on the Killing Ground, by William Hanley, directed by Professor Robert Knapp The Alchemist by Ben Jonson An Irish Faustus by Lawrence Durrell, directed by Dan Berkowitz '70 Moby Dick Rehearsed by Orson Welles The Knack by Ann Jellicoe The Madness of Lady Bright by Lanford Wilson 1967-1968 Under Milk Wood by Dylan Thomas The Balcony by Jean Genet Incident at Vichy by Arthur Miller The Misanthrope by Molier, Directed by Professor Frederic O'Brady The Dumbwaiter by Harold Pinter Hamlet Luv by Murray Schisgal Once Upon a Mattress by Jay Thompson, Marshall Baker and Dean Fuller Miracle by Max Kerpelman and Barry Miles, directed by Geoff Peterson '69 1965-1966 Th White Devil by John Webster Sophocles' King Oedipus by W.B. Yeats The Bespoke Overcoat by Wolf Mankowitz You Can't Take It with You, by George Kaufman and Moss Hart Little Mary Sunshine by Rick Besoyan The Caretaker by Harold Pinter The Taming of the Shrew Those that I Fight by Joanna Russ The Cat and the Canary by John Willard, directed by Geoff Peterson '69 Cat on a Hot Tin Roof by Tennessee Williams Thurber Carnival by James Thurber The Romanticks (Les Romanesques), Edmond Rostand 1964-1965 Inherit the Wind by Lawrence and Robert Lee Passion, Poison, and Petrification by George Bernard Shaw Mister Roberts by Joshua Logan, Princeton '31 and Thomas Heggen Escurial by Michel de Gheldore The Dumbwaiter by Harold Pinter A Man's a Man by Bertolt Brecht 1963-1964 The Potholder by Alice Gerstenberg The Skin of Our Teeth Kind Lady by Edward Choderate Zoo Story by Edward Albee The American Dream by Edward Albee Billy Budd by Herman Melville 1962-1963 Hello Out There by William Saroyan Bedtime Story by Sean O'Casey A Streetcar Named Desire by Tennessee Williams The Devil's Disciple by George Bernard Shaw 1961-1962 The Fisherman by Jonthon Tree Passion, Poison, and Petrification by George Bernard Shaw Charley's Aunt by Brandon Thomas Henry IV by Pirandello Look Back in Anger by John Osbourne Calvary by W.B. Yeats A Night of the Trojan War by John Drinkwater Passion, Poison and Petrification 1960-1961 Purgatory by W.B. Yeats Professor Taranna by Arthur Adamov Recollections by Arthur Adamov The Jew of Malta by Christopher Marlowe Woyzeck by Georg Buchner Twenty-Seven Wagons Full of Cotton by Tennessee Williams The Purification by Tennessee Williams La Ronde by Arthur Schnitzler 1958-1959 A Masque of Reason by Robert Frost World Without End Beyond the Horizon by Eugene O'Neill The Revenger's Tragedy by Cyril Trourneur Ondine by Jean Giraudoux Student Plays 1957-1958 Hello OutThere by William Saroyan Sweeney Agonistes by T.S. Eliot The Rainmaker by Richard Nash The Alchemist by Ben Jonson The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams Mother Loves me: A Freudian Fable by Clark Gesner, class '60, author of You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown 1956-1957 Alcestis by Euripides Androcles and the Lion by George Bernard Shaw Measure for Measure Bound East for Cardiff by eugene O'Neil Student Plays The Caine Mutiny by Herman Wouk 1955-1956 Liliom by Feremc Molnar Clash by Night by Clifford Odets Student Plays The Braggart Warrior by Plautus 1954-1955 Murder in the Cathedral The Victors by Jean-Paul Sartre The Knight of the Burning Pestle by William Congreve Student Plays Love for Love by William Congreve 1953-1954 An Evening of Readings Arms and the Man by George Bernard Shaw Henry IV, Part I Student Plays Tartuffe by Molière 1952-1953 Antigone by Jean Anouilth Othello The White Rooster, film adapted by Charles Robinson '54 Student Plays The Drunkard by Anonymous 1951-1952 The Trojan War Will Not Take Place by Jean Giraudoux Student Plays, including A Modern Romance by Edwin Conquest, directed by Roger Berlind Princeton, '52 The Searching Sun by John O'Hara 1950-1951 The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde The Petrified Forest by Robert Sherwood Henry IV Volpone by Ben Jonson Student Plays 1949-1950 The School for Scandal by Sheridan The Typewriter by Jean Cocteau King Lear Student Plays Captain Brassbound's Conversion by George Bernard Shaw 1948-1949 Yes Is for a Very Young Man by Gertrude Stein The Cenci by Percy Shelly A Christmas Carol Heartbreak House by George Bernard Shaw Student Plays Boy Meets Girl by Bella dn Samuel Spewack 1947-1948 High Tor by Maxwell Anderson The Imaginary Invalid by Molière Richard II One on the House 1946-1947 Blithe Spirit by Noël Coward The Critic by Sheridan The Scheming Lieutenant by Sheridan Twilight Bar Make Mine Sherry 1945-1946 Break the Ice 1941-1942 Jim Dandy by William Saroyan Three White Leopards Gabbatha Give the Earth a Little Longer by Jules Romains Come What April 1940-1941 Our Boys by Bryon Troilus and Cressida Time of Their Lives by Robert Nail, Princeton '33 The Lawyer by Ferenc Molnár Raise your Six 1928-1929 Much Ado About Nothing Crocadiles Are Happy Tsar Fyodor Ivanovitch by Alexei Tolstoy The Torchbearers by George Kelly The Old Timer by Charles Mather 1927-1928 Caesar and Cleopatra by George Bernard Shaw Open Collars by Erik Barnouw '29 The Wild Duck by Henrik Ibsen The Truth About Blayds by A.A. Milne The Devil's Disciple by George Bernard Shaw 1926-1927 Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe Student Plays Saint Joan by George Bernard Shaw Outward Bound by Sutton Vane Hamlet[13][14] 1925-1926 Where the Cross is Made by Eugene O'Neill Wurzel-Flummery by A.A. Milne The Proposal by Chekhov Two Crooks and a Lady by Eugene Pillot A Good Woman by Arnold Bennett Candida by George Bernard Shaw The Green Goddess by William Archer 1919-1920 Le Ballet Intime Ghost by Ibsen (last act) Macbeth Hamlet The Glittering Gate by Lord Dunsany Fame and the Poet by Lord Dunsany Swine by Lewis Laflin '26 A Game of Chess by Kenneth Sawyer Goodman Sampson and Delilah by Ralph Kent '21 and Reginald Lawrence '21 Interlude by A. Hyatt Mayor '22 Isle of Paradise by Henry Hart '23 and Louis Laflin '26 The Caine Mutiny by Herman Wouk References Sources Dorgers, Edward (1950) A History of Dramatic Production in Princeton NJ. New York University: NLB Princeton University. "Theatre Intime Facility To Be Renovated." 2000, https://pr.princeton.edu/news/00/q2/0427-intime.htm. Accessed 7 Mar 2019. External links Theatre Intime - Official website Princeton University Theater - Lewis Center for the Arts Theatre~Intime Records 1919-2011 at Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library Princeton News - Theatre Intime facility to be renovated Curtain will rise in fall on newly renovated Theatre-Intime Princeton University - Drawings unveiled for new theater at McCarter From Princeton to Primetime, 'Prison Break' star Wentworth Miller '95 remembers his time on campus- The Daily Princetonian Princeton Summer Theater- Official Website Princeton University
4626624	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu%20War	Han–Xiongnu War	The Han–Xiongnu War, also known as the Sino–Xiongnu War, was a series of military conflicts fought over two centuries (from 133 BC to 89 AD) between the Chinese Han Empire and the nomadic Xiongnu confederation, although extended conflicts can be traced back as early as 200 BC and ahead as late as 188 AD. The Chinese civilization initially clashed with nomadic tribes that would later become the Xiongnu confederation during the Warring States period, and various northern states built elongated fortifications (which later became the Great Wall) to defend against raids from the Mongolian Plateau. The unified Qin dynasty, who conquered all other states under the First Emperor, dispatched General Meng Tian in 215 BC in a successful campaign to expel the Xiongnu from the Ordos region. However, the subsequent civil wars following Qin dynasty's collapse gave the Xiongnu tribes, who were then unified into a large confederacy under Modu Chanyu, the opportunity to reinvade the Ordos region. After the Western Han dynasty was established in 202 BC, Emperor Gao tried to fight off Xiongnu invasions but had himself trapped in an ambush during the Battle of Baideng, and a truce was negotiated. Decades of de jure "peace" then ensued then followed with the Chinese gifting "marriage alliance" to appease the Xiongnu, who still raided Chinese borderlands routinely. However, starting from the reign of the seventh Han ruler, Emperor Wu, the Han Empire began to change from a relatively passive foreign policy to a proactively offensive strategy seeking to permanently remove the northern threat. The tension fully escalated in 133 BC when the Han army unsuccessfully tried to ambush Xiongnu raiders at Mayi, and retaliatory raids intensified. Emperor Wu then started deploying newer generations of military commanders and launched several expeditions to control the Ordos Loop, Hexi Corridor and Western Regions, eventually pushing the Xiongnu north beyond the Gobi Desert with a decisive campaign in 119 BC. After the death of Emperor Wu in 87 BC, the war winded down to mostly smaller border conflicts, although Emperor Xuan and Yuan had each sanctioned major offensives against the Xiongnu during their reigns. The overall strategic Han successes against the Xiongnu allowed the Chinese to project their influence deeply into Central Asia, which eventually led to the establishment of a regional protectorate in 60 BC. For the Xiongnu, the situation deteriorated with each setback, leading to erosion of the chanyu's prestige and dominance, and the subsequent internal power struggles further weakened the confederation, fracturing it into various self-ruling factions. Han Empire then began adhere to a divide and rule strategy, using marriage alliances (such as that of Wang Zhaojun to Huhanye) to recruit some against others. During the interregnum Xin dynasty, Wuzhuliu chanyu waged war in 11 AD after Wang Mang, who usurped the Han throne, attempted to split the Xiongnu by instating 15 new chanyu. Wang Mang mobilized 300,000 troops against Xiongnu and forced Goguryeo, Wuhuan and various Western Regions city-states to send conscripts and provisions, which led to the mass defection of these vassal states. After the Eastern Han dynasty was established in 25 AD, the Chinese initially found their hands full after the chaotic civil war and could not afford any full-scale mobilizations against the Xiongnu raids, therefore resorted to continue lobbying among different Xiongnu faction rulers instead. This continued for another two decades until 46 AD, when repeated natural disasters severely weakened the Xiongnu and forced them to flee north from an attack by Wuhuan. Xiongnu then permanently split in 48 AD into two groups, known as the Northern and Southern Xiongnu, respectively. The Southern Xiongnu eventually submitted to the Han Empire and became auxiliaries/mercenaries against the Northern Xiongnu, who continued to resist and was eventually evicted westwards by the further expeditions by the Han Empire and its vassals, as well as the rise of other hostile Donghu states like Xianbei. In 89 AD, General Dou Xian led 50,000 cavalries on an expedition that decisively defeated the Northern Xiongnu main force, causing it to split further. In 91 AD, Northern Chanyu was defeated in the Battle of the Altai Mountains, and the Northern Xiongnu fled west into Dzungaria, where they continued causing sporadic troubles until 151 AD when a 4,000-strong Han militia was enough to defeat them, causing them to flee further west into Central Asia and since disappeared from historical records. Southern Xiongnu, on the other hand, continued cycles of "rebel then resubmit" under the Eastern Han dynasty til as late as the Yellow Turban Rebellion, but from 89 AD onwards the Han Empire's main concern had already switched to the Qiang people, who had become an increasingly bigger headache than the Xiongnu. Background During the Warring States period, the Qin, Zhao, and Yan states conquered various nomadic territories inhabited by the Xiongnu and other Hu peoples. They strengthened their new frontiers with elongated wall fortifications. By 221 BC, the Qin ended the chaotic Eastern Zhou period by conquering all other states and unifying China proper. In 215 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered General Meng Tian to set out against the Xiongnu tribes, situated in the Ordos region, and establish a frontier region at the Ordos Loop. Believing that the Xiongnu were a possible threat, the emperor launched a pre-emptive strike against the Xiongnu with the intention of expanding his empire. Later that year (215 BC), General Meng Tian succeeded in defeating the Xiongnu and driving them from the Ordos region, seizing their territory as result. After the catastrophic defeat at the hands of Meng, Touman Chanyu and his followers fled far into the Mongolian Plateau. Fusu (Prince of Qin) and General Meng Tian were stationed at a garrison in Suide and soon began the construction of the walled defences, connecting them with the old walls built by Qin, Yan and Zhao states. The fortified walls ran from Liaodong to Lintao, thus enclosing the conquered Ordos region, safeguarding the Qin empire against the Xiongnu and other northern nomadic people. Due to the northward expansion, the threat that the Qin empire posed to the Xiongnu ultimately led to the state formation of the many tribes towards a confederacy. However, after the sudden death of Qin Shi Huang, the ensuing political corruption and chaos during the short reign of Qin Er Shi would lead to various anti-Qin rebellions, eventually bringing about the collapse of the Qin dynasty. A massive civil war then erupted between various reinstated states, with Liu Bang eventually victorious to establish the Han dynasty. During the transitional years between Qin and Han, while the Chinese were mainly focused towards the interior of their nation, the Xiongnu took the opportunity to retake the territory north of the wall. The Xiongnu frequently led incursions to the Han frontier and had considerable political influence over the border regions. In response, Emperor Gaozu led a Han army against the Xiongnu in 200 BC, pursuing them as far as Pingcheng (present-day Datong, Shanxi) before being ambushed by Modu Chanyu's cavalry. His encampment was encircled by the Xiongnu, but Emperor Gaozu escaped after seven days. After realizing that a military solution was not feasible for the time being, Emperor Gaozu sent Liu Jing to negotiate peace with Modu Chanyu. In 198 BC, a marriage alliance was concluded between the Han and the Xiongnu, but this proved far from effective as the incursions in the frontier regions continued. Course Onset By the reign of Emperor Wu, the Han empire was prospering and the national treasury had accumulated large surpluses. However, burdened by the frequent Xiongnu raids at the frontier of the Han empire, the emperor abandoned the policies of his predecessors to maintain peace with the Xiongnu early in his reign. In 136 BC, after continued Xiongnu incursions near the northern frontier, Emperor Wu had a court conference assembled. The faction supporting war against the Xiongnu was able to sway the majority opinion by making a compromise for those worried about stretching financial resources on an indefinite campaign: in an engagement along the border near Mayi, Han forces would lure Junchen Chanyu over with wealth and promises of defections in order to eliminate him and cause political chaos for the Xiongnu. Emperor Wu launched his military campaigns against the Xiongnu in 133 BC. In 133 BC, the Xiongnu forces led by the Chanyu were lured into a trap at Mayi, while a Han army of about 300,000 troops laid in ambush against the Xiongnu. Wang Hui (王恢) led this campaign and commanded a force of 30,000 men strong, advancing from Dai with the intention of attacking the Xiongnu supply route. Han Anguo (韓安國) and Gongsun He (公孫賀) commanded the remaining forces and advanced towards Mayi. Junchen Chanyu led his army of 100,000 men towards Mayi, but he became increasingly suspicious of the situation. When the ambush failed, because Junchen Chanyu realized he was about to fall into a trap and fled back north, the peace was broken and the Han court resolved to engage in full-scale war. In light of this battle, the Xiongnu became aware of the Han court's intentions to go to war. By that point the Han empire was long consolidated politically, militarily, and economically, and was led by an increasingly pro-war faction in the imperial court. Skirmishes at the northern frontier In the autumn of 129 BC, a Han force of 40,000 cavalrymen launched a surprise attack against the Xiongnu in the frontier markets, where masses of Xiongnu people visited to trade. In 128 BC, General Wei Qing led 30,000 men to battle at the regions north of Yanmen and came out victorious. The next year (127 BC), the Xiongnu invaded Liaoxi, killing its governor, and advanced towards Yanmen. Han Anguo mobilized 700 men, but was defeated and withdrew to Yuyang. Thereafter, Wei Qing moved out with a force and captured some Xiongnu troops, causing the main force of the Xiongnu to withdraw. Meanwhile, Li Xi had led a force across the frontier and also captured some of the Xiongnu troops. Early campaigns by the Han empire Between 127 and 119 BC, Emperor Wu ordered the generals Wei Qing and Huo Qubing to lead several large-scale military campaigns against the Xiongnu. Leading campaigns involving tens of thousands of troops, General Wei Qing captured the Ordos Desert region from the Xiongnu in 127 BC and General Huo Qubing expelled them from the Qilian Mountains in 121 BC, gaining the surrender of many Xiongnu aristocrats. The Han court also sent expeditions, ranging to over 100,000 troops, into Mongolia in 124 BC, 123 BC, and 119 BC, attacking the heart of Xiongnu territory. Following the successes of these 127–119 BC campaigns, Emperor Wu wrote edicts in which he heavily praised the two generals for their achievements. Ordos Loop In 127 BC, General Wei Qing invaded and retook full control of the Ordos region. Earlier that year, he had departed from Yunzhong towards Longxi to invade the Xiongnu in Ordos. After the conquest, about 100,000 people resettled in the Ordos. In the region, two commanderies were established, Wuyuan and Shuofang. With the old Qin walled fortifications in their control, the Han set out to repair and extend the walls. In 126 BC, the Xiongnu sent out three forces of 30,000 troops each to raid Dai, Dinxiang, and Shang. In that same year (126 BC), General Wei Qing advanced from Gaoque into Mongolia with 30,000 men and inflicted defeat to the Xiongnu forces of the Tuqi King and captured 15,000 men along with 10 tribal chiefs. In the autumn of 126 BC, the Xiongnu raided Dai once again; they took some prisoners and killed a Han military commander. Southern Gobi Desert During the spring of 123 BC, General Wei Qing set off to Mongolia with an army to attack the Xiongnu; they marched back victorious to Dingxiang. Two months later, the Han army advanced towards the Xiongnu again, but this time the Xiongnu were prepared for the invasion by the Han forces. However, hereafter, due to the military expeditions that the Han empire undertook, the Xiongnu moved their capital and retreated to the far northern regions of the Gobi Desert. Hexi Corridor In the Battle of Hexi (121 BC), the Han forces had inflicted a major defeat to the Xiongnu. Emperor Wu desired to place firm control over the Hexi Corridor and decided to launch a large military offensive to purge the Xiongnu from the area. The campaign was undertaken in 121 BC by General Huo Qubing. Departing from Longxi that year, General Huo Qubing led light cavalry through five Xiongnu kingdoms, conquering the Yanzhi and Qilian mountain ranges from the Xiongnu. In the spring of 121 BC, Huo set out from Longxi and advanced into the territory of the Xiutu King (休屠王), beyond the Yanzhi Mountains. About 18,000 Xiongnu cavalry were captured or killed. That summer (121 BC), Huo advanced into the Anshan Desert to invade the regions at the Qilian Mountains. At the Qilian Mountains, the Hunye King (渾邪王) saw the deaths of over 30,000 troops in battle against the Han, while 2800 of his troops were captured. Distraught by the huge losses and fearing the wrath of the Xiongnu Chanyu, the Xiutu King and the Hunye King planned to surrender to the Han forces of General Huo Qubing. However, the Xiutu King suddenly changed his mind and fled with his followers. General Huo Qubing and the Hunye King gave chase and killed Xiutu and his 8000 troops. In the end, the Hunye King and 40,000 Xiongnu soldiers surrendered, which also led to the Xiongnu tribes of Hunye and Xiutu submitting to the rule of the Han empire. Due to the series of victories, the Han had conquered a territory stretching from the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur, thus cutting the Xiongnu off from their Qiang allies. In 111 BC, a major Qiang–Xiongnu allied force was repelled from the Hexi Corridor. Hereafter, four commanderies were established in the Hexi Corridor—Jiuquan, Zhangye, Dunhuang, and Wuwei—which were populated with Han settlers. North of the Gobi The Battle of Mobei (119 BC) saw Han forces invade the northern Gobi Desert, as well as areas north of the Gobi. In 119 BC, two separate expeditionary forces led by the Han generals Wei Qing and Huo Qubing mobilized towards the Xiongnu. The two generals led the campaign to the Khangai Mountains and the Orkhon Valley, where they forced the Chanyu to flee north of the Gobi Desert. The two forces together comprised 100,000 cavalrymen, 140,000 horses, and few hundred thousand infantry. They advanced into the desert in pursuit of the main force of the Xiongnu. The military campaign was a major Han military victory against Xiongnu, where the Xiongnu were driven from the Gobi Desert. The Xiongnu casualties ranged from 80 to 90 thousand troops, while the Han casualties ranged from 20 to 30 thousand troops. In the aftermath, the Han forces had lost around 100,000 horses during the campaign. During this campaign, Huo Qubing's elite troops had set off from Dai to link up with Lu Bode's forces in Yucheng, after which they advanced further and engaged the Tuqi King of the Left and his army. Huo Qubing's army encircled and overran their enemy, killing around 70,000 Xiongnu, including the Tuqi King of the Left. He then went on to conduct a series of rituals upon arrival at the Khentii Mountains to symbolize the historic Han victory, then continued his pursuit as far as Lake Baikal. Wei Qing's army, setting off from Dingxiang, encountered Yizhixie Chanyu's army. Wei Qing ordered his troops to arrange heavy-armoured chariots in a ring formation, creating mobile fortresses that provided archers, crossbowmen, and infantry protection from the Xiongnu's cavalry charges, and allowing the Han troops to utilize their ranged weapons' advantages. A 5000-strong cavalry was deployed to reinforce the array against any Xiongnu attack. The Xiongnu charged the Han forces with a 10,000-strong vanguard cavalry. The battle solidified into a stalemate until dusk, when a sandstorm obscured the battlefield. Subsequently, Wei Qing sent in his main forces and overwhelmed the Xiongnu. The Han cavalry used the low visibility as cover and encircled the Xiongnu army from both flanks, but Yizhixie Chanyu and a contingent of troops broke through and escaped. Control over the Western Regions With the Han conquest of the Hexi Corridor in 121 BC, the city-states at the Tarim Basin were caught in between the onslaught of the war, with much shifting of allegiance. There were several Han military expeditions undertaken to secure the submission of the local kings to the Han empire; the Han took control of the regions for strategic purposes while the Xiongnu needed the regions as a source of revenue. Due to the ensuing war with the Han empire, the Xiongnu were forced to extract more crafts and agricultural foodstuffs from the Tarim Basin urban centres. By 115 BC, the Han had set up commanderies at Jiuquan and Wuwei, while extending the old Qin fortifications from Lingju to the area west of Dunhuang. From 115 to 60 BC, the Han and Xiongnu competed for control and influence over these states, which saw the rise of power of the Han empire over eastern Central Asia with the decline of that of the Xiongnu's. The Han empire brought the states of Loulan, Jushi (Turfan), Luntai (Bügür), Dayuan (Ferghana), and Kangju (Soghdiana) into tributary submission between 108 and 101 BC. The long-walled defence line that now stretched all the way to Dunhuang protected the people, guided caravans and troops to and from Central Asia, and served to separate the Xiongnu from their allies, the Qiang people. In 115 BC Zhang Qian was once again dispatched to the Western Regions to secure military alliances against the Xiongnu. He sought out the various states in Central Asia, such as the Wusun. He came back without achieving his goals, but he gained valuable knowledge about the Western Regions like in his previous travels. Emperor Wu received reports from Zhang about the large and powerful horses of Ferghana. These horses were known as "heavenly horses" or "blood-sweating horses". Zhang brought back some of these horses to the Han empire. The emperor thought that the horses were of high importance to fight the Xiongnu. The refusal of the Dayuan kingdom, a nation centred in Ferghana, to provide the Han empire with the horses and the execution of a Han envoy led to conflict; the Han forces brought Dayuan into submission in 101 BC. The Xiongnu, aware of this predicament, had tried to halt the Han advance, but they were outnumbered and suffered defeat. General Zhao Ponu (趙破奴) was sent on an expedition in 108 BC to invade Jushi (Turfan), a critical economic and military stronghold of the Xiongnu in the Western Regions. After he conquered the region, the Han forces repelled all Xiongnu attacks to regain control over Jushi. When King Angui acceded the throne of Loulan, the kingdom—which was the easternmost state of the Western Regions—became increasingly apprehensive towards the Han. Their policies became somewhat anti-Han in nature and supportive towards the Xiongnu, such as allowing the killing of passing Han envoys to happen and revealing Han military logistics. In 77 BC, King Angui received the Han emissary Fu Jiezi and held a banquet for the envoy, who came under the guise of bringing many coveted gifts. During the banquet, Fu Jiezi requested a private discussion with King Angui, which was a pretence for the assassination of the Loulan ruler by two of Fu Jiezi's officers. Amid the cries of horror, Fu Jiezi proclaimed an admonition to the Loulan aristocracy and beheaded the dead king. The Han court informed Weituqi—who was an ally of the Han—of his brother's death, had him escorted back from Chang'an to Loulan, and installed him as the new monarch of the kingdom, which was renamed Shanshan. Thereafter, the royal seat was relocated to the southern parts of Shanshan (present-day Kargilik or Ruoqiang), outside the sphere of Xiongnu influence. The Xiongnu practised marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General Li Ling after he surrendered and defected. The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling. Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu. Decline of the Xiongnu Due to the many losses inflicted on the Xiongnu, rebellion soon broke out and former enslaved people rose up in arms. Around 80 BC, the Xiongnu attacked the Wusun in a punitive campaign and soon the Wusun monarch requested military support from the Han empire. In 72 BC, the joint forces of the Wusun and Han invaded the territory of the Luli King of the Right. Around 40,000 Xiongnu people and many of their livestock were captured before their city was sacked after the battle. The very next year, various tribes invaded and raided the Xiongnu territory from all fronts; Wusun from the west, Dingling from the north, and Wuhuan from the east. The Han forces had set out in five columns and invaded from the south. According to Hanshu, this event marks the beginning of Xiongnu decline and the dismantlement of the confederation. Internal discord between the Xiongnu As the Xiongnu economic and military situation deteriorated, the Xiongnu were willing to renew peace during the reigns of Huyandi Chanyu (r. 85–69 BC) and Xulüquanqu Chanyu (r. 68–60 BC), but the Han court gave only one option, tributary submission. After Xulüquanqu Chanyu's death in 60 BC, a Xiongnu civil war broke loose in 57 BC over the succession, which fully fragmented the Xiongnu confederation with many contenders. In the end, only Zhizhi Chanyu and Huhanye Chanyu survived the struggle to power. After Zhizhi Chanyu (r. 56–36 BC) had inflicted serious losses against his rival Huhanye Chanyu (r. 58–31 BC), Huhanye and his supporters debated whether to request military protection and become a Han vassal. In 53 BC, Huhanye decided to do so and surrendered to the reign of the Han empire. General Chen Tang and Protector General Gan Yanshou, acting without explicit permission from the Han court, killed Zhizhi Chanyu at his capital city (present-day Taraz, Kazakhstan) in 36 BC. Taking the initiative, Chen Tang had forged an imperial decree, which led to the mobilization of 40,000 troops in two columns. The Han forces besieged and defeated the forces of Zhizhi Chanyu, and afterwards beheaded him. His head was sent to the Han capital Chang'an. On return to Chang'an, the two officers faced legal enquiries for forging a decree, but were pardoned. Chen and Gan received modest rewards, although the Han court was reluctant to do so due to the precedent that this event set. Collapse of power In 9 AD, the Han official Wang Mang usurped the Han throne and proclaimed a new Chinese dynasty, known as Xin. He regarded the Xiongnu as lowly vassals and relations rapidly deteriorated. During the winter 10 to 11 AD, Wang amassed 300,000 troops along the northern frontier, which forced the Xiongnu to back down from launching large-scale attacks. Although Han rule was restored in August 25 AD by Emperor Guangwu, its grip over the Tarim Basin had weakened. The Xiongnu had namely taken advantage of the situation and gained control over the Western Regions. The first half of the 1st century BC witnessed several succession crises for the Xiongnu leadership, allowing the Han empire to reaffirm its control over the Western Regions. Huduershi Chanyu was succeeded by his son Punu (蒲奴) in 46 AD, thus breaking the late Huhanye's orders that only a Xiongnu ruler's brother was a valid successor. Bi (比), the Rizhu King of the Right and Huduershi's nephew, was outraged and was declared a rival Chanyu by eight southern Xiongnu tribes in 48 AD. The Xiongnu confederation fell apart in the Northern Xiongnu and Southern Xiongnu, and Bi submitted to the reign of the Han empire in 50 AD. The Han took control of the Southern Xiongnu under Bi, which had 30–40 thousand troops and a population of roughly twice or thrice the size. Between 73 and 102 AD, General Ban Chao led several expeditions in the Tarim Basin, re-establishing Han control over the region. At the capital of Shanshan by Lop Nur, Ban Chao and a small party of his men slaughtered a visiting Northern Xiongnu embassy to Shanshan. Ban Chao presented their heads to King Guang of Shanshan, who was overwhelmed by the ordeal, whereupon he sent hostages to Han. When Ban Chao traveled further to Yutian (Khotan), King Guangde received him with little courtesy. The king's soothsayer told the king that he should demand Ban Chao's horse, so Ban Chao killed the soothsayer for the insult. Impressed by the ruthlessness that he witnessed, the king killed a Xiongnu agent and offered submission to Han. Going further westward, Ban Chao and his party arrived at Shule. Earlier, King Jian of Qiuci had deposed the former king and replaced him with his officer Douti. In 74 AD, Ban Chao's forces captured King Douti of Kashgar (Shule 疏勒), both a puppet of Kucha (Qiuci 龜玆) and an ally of the Xiongnu. Local opponents to the new regime had offered support to the Han. Tian Lü (Ban Chao's officer) took Douti captive and Ban Chao put Zhong (a prince of the native dynasty) on the throne. Ban Chao, insisting on leniency, send Douti back to Qiuci unharmed. In 73 AD, General Dou Gu and his army departed from Jiuquan and advanced towards the Northern Xiongnu, defeating the Northern Xiongnu and pursuing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami. In 74 AD, Dou Gu retook Turfan from the Xiongnu. The Han campaigns resulted in the retreat of the Northern Xiongnu to Dzungaria, while Ban Chao was threatening and bringing the city-states at the Tarim Basin to submission under the Han empire once again. In 74 AD, the King of Jushi submitted to the Han forces under General Dou Gu as the Xiongnu were unable to engage the Han forces. Later in the year (74 AD), the kingdoms of Karasahr (Yanqi 焉耆) and Kucha were forced to surrender to the Han empire. Although Dou Gu was able to evict the Xiongnu from Turfan in 74 AD, the Northern Xiongnu soon invaded the Bogda Mountains while their allies from Karasahr and Kucha killed the Protector General Chen Mu and his men. As a result, the Han garrison at Hami was forced to withdraw in 77 AD, which was not reestablished until 91 AD. Final stages In 89 AD, General Dou Xian led a Han expedition against the Northern Xiongnu. The army advanced from Jilu, Manyi, and Guyang in three great columns. In the summer of 89, the forces—comprising a total of 40,000 troops—assembled at Zhuoye Mountain. Near the end of the campaign, Dou's forces chased the Northern Chanyu into the Altai Mountains, killing 13,000 Xiongnu and accepting the surrender of 200,000 Xiongnu from 81 tribes. A light cavalry of 2000 was sent towards the Xiongnu at Hami, capturing the region from them. General Dou Xian marched with his troops in a triumphal progress to the heartland of the Northern Xiongnu's territory and engraved an inscription commemorating the victory on Mount Yanran, before returning to Han. The Han victory in the campaign of 89 AD resulted in the destruction of the Xiongnu state. In 2017, a joint Sino-Mongolian archaeological expedition rediscovered the Inscription of Yanran in the Khangai Mountains of central Mongolia. Aftermath In 90 AD, General Dou Xian had encamped at Wuwei. He sent Deputy Colonel Yan Pan with 2000 light cavalry to strike down the final Xiongnu defenses in the Western Regions, capturing Yiwu and receiving the surrender of Jushi. Major Liang Feng was dispatched to capture the Northern Chanyu, which he did, but he was forced to leave him behind as Dou Xian had already broken camp and returned to China. In the tenth month of 90 AD, Dou Xian sent Liang Feng and Ban Gu to help the Northern Chanyu make preparations for his planned travel as he wished to submit to the Han court in person the following month. However, this never came to be as Dou Xian dispatched General Geng Kui and Shizi of the Southern Xiongnu with 8000 light cavalry to attack the Northern Chanyu, encamped at Heyun (河雲), in 90 AD. Once the Han forces arrived at Zhuoye Mountains, they left their heavy equipment behind to launch a swift pincer movement towards Heyun. Geng Kui attacked from the east via the Khangai Mountains and Ganwei River (甘微河), while Shizi attacked from the west via the Western Lake (西海). The Northern Chanyu—said to be greatly shocked by this—launched a counterattack, but he was forced to flee as he left his family and seal behind. The Han killed 8000 men and captured several thousands. In 91 AD, General Geng Kui and Major Ren Shang with a light cavalry of 800 advanced further via the Juyan Gol (Juyansai) into the Altai Mountains, where the Northern Chanyu had encamped. At the Battle of Altai Mountains, they massacred 5000 Xiongnu men and pursued the Northern Chanyu until he escaped to an unknown place. By 91 AD, the last remnants of the Northern Xiongnu had migrated west towards the Ili River valley. The Southern Xiongnu—who had been situated in the Ordos region since about 50 AD—remained within the territory of the Han empire as semi-independent tributaries. They were dependent to the Han empire for their livelihood as indicated by a memorial from the Southern Chanyu to the Han court in 88 AD. Following the military successes against the Xiongnu, General Ban Chao was promoted to the position of Protector General and stationed in Kucha in 91 AD. At the remote frontier, Ban Chao reaffirmed absolute Han control over the Western Regions from 91 AD onwards. Impact Military Chao Cuo was one of the first known ministers to suggest to Emperor Wen that Han armies should have a cavalry-centric army to counter the nomadic Xiongnu to the north, since Han armies were still primarily infantry with cavalries and chariots playing a supporting role. He advocated the policy of "using barbarians to attack barbarians", that is, incorporating surrendered Xiongnu and other nomadic tribes into the Han military, a suggestion that was eventually adopted, especially with the establishment of dependent states of different nomads living on the Han empire's frontiers. In a memorandum entitled Guard the Frontiers and Protect the Borders that he presented to the throne in 169 BC, Chao compared the relative strengths of Xiongnu and Han battle tactics. In regards to the Han armies, Chao deemed the Xiongnu horsemen better prepared for rough terrain due to their better horses, better with horseback archery, and better able to withstand the elements and harsh climates. However, on level plains, he regarded Xiongnu cavalry inferior especially when faced with Han shock cavalry and chariots as the Xiongnu are easily dispersed. He emphasized that the Xiongnu were incapable of countering the superior equipment and weaponry. He also noted that in contrast the Han armies were better capable to fight in disciplined formations. According to Chao, the Xiongnu were also defenseless against coordinated onslaughts of arrows—especially long-ranged and in unison—due to their inferior leather armour and wooden shields. When dismounted in close combat, he believed that the Xiongnu, lacking the ability as infantry, would be decimated by Han soldiers. During Emperor Jing's reign, the Han court initiated breeding programs for military horses and established 36 large government pastures in the border regions, extending from Liaodong to Beidi. In preparation for the military use of the horses, the best breeds were selected to partake military training. The Xiongnu frequently raided the Han government pastures, because the military horses were of great strategic importance for the Han military against them. By the time of Emperor Wu's reign, the horses amounted to well over 450,000. At the start of Emperor Wu's reign, the Han empire had a standing army comprising 400,000 troops, which included 80,000 to 100,000 cavalrymen, essential to the future campaigns against the Xiongnu. However, by 124 BC, that number had grown to a total of 600,000 to 700,000 troops, including 200,000 to 250,000 cavalrymen. In order to sustain the military expeditions against the Xiongnu and its resulting conquests, Emperor Wu and his economic advisors undertook many economic and financial reforms, which proved to be highly successful. In 14 AD, Yan Yu presented the difficulties of conducting extended military campaigns against the Xiongnu. For a 300-day campaign, each Han soldier needed 360 liters of dried grain. These heavy supplies had to be carried by oxen, but experience showed that an ox could only survive for about 100 days in the desert. Once in the territory of the Xiongnu, the harsh weather would also prove to be very inhospitable for the Han soldiers, who could not carry enough fuel for the winter. For these reasons, according to Yan Yu, military expeditions seldom lasted longer than 100 days. For their western campaigns against the Xiongnu, the Han armies exacted their food supplies from the Western Regions. This placed a heavy burden to the western states, thus the Han court decided to initiate agricultural garrisons in Bugur and Kurla. During Emperor Zhao's reign (r. 87–74 BC), the agricultural garrison in Bugur was expanded to accommodate the heavy Han military presence which was the natural result of the empire's westward expansion. During Emperor Xuan's reign (r. 74–49 BC), the farming soldiers in Kurla were increased to 1500 under Protector-General Zheng Ji's administration in order to support the military expeditions against the Xiongnu in Turfan. Immediately after the Han conquest of Turfan, Zheng established an agricultural garrison in Turfan. Even though, the Xiongnu unsuccessfully tried to prevent the Han from making Turfan into a major economic base by military force and threats. Diplomacy In 162 BC, the Xiongnu troops of Laoshang Chanyu had invaded and driven the Yuezhi from their homeland; the Chanyu had the Yuezhi monarch executed and his skull fashioned into a drinking cup. Thus the Han court decided it was favourable to send an envoy to the Yuezhi to secure a military alliance. In 138 BC, the diplomat Zhang Qian left with an envoy and headed towards the Yuezhi encampments. However, the envoy was captured by the Xiongnu and held hostage. A decade went by, until Zhang Qian and some of his convoy escaped. They travelled to the territories of Ferghana (Dayuan 大宛), Soghdiana (Kangju 康居), and Bactria (Daxia 大夏), ultimately finding the Yuezhi forces north of the Amu River. Despite their efforts, the envoy could not secure a military alliance. As the Yuezhi had settled in those new lands for quite some time, they had almost no desire to wage a war against the Xiongnu. In 126 BC, Zhang Qian headed to the Hexi Corridor in order to return to his nation. While traveling through the area, he was captured by the Xiongnu, only to escape a year later and return to China in 125 BC. The Xiongnu attempted to negotiate peace several times, but every time the Han court would accept nothing less than tributary submission of the Xiongnu. Tributary relations with the Han comprised out of several things. Firstly, the Chanyu or his representative was required to come pay homage to the Han court. Secondly the heir apparent or a prince needed to be delivered to the Han court as hostage. Thirdly, the Chanyu had to present tribute to the Han emperor and in return will receive imperial gifts. Accepting the tributary system meant that the Xiongnu were lowered to the status of outer vassal, while the marriage alliance meant that the two nations were regarded as equal states. In 119 BC, Yizhixie Chanyu (126–114) sent an envoy, hoping to achieve peaceful relations with the Han. However, the peace negotiations collapsed, since the Han court disregarded his terms and gave him the option to become an outer vassal instead, which infuriated Yizhixie Chanyu. In 107 BC, Wuwei Chanyu (114–105) also attempted to negotiate peaceful relations and even halted the border raids. In response, the Han disregarded his terms and demanded that the Chanyu sent his heir apparent as a hostage to Chang'an, which once again led to the breakdown of the peace negotiations. In 53 BC, Huhanye Chanyu decided to submit to the Han court. He sent his son Zhulouqutang (朱鏤蕖堂), the Tuqi King of the Right, as hostage to the Han court in 53 BC. In 52 BC, he formally requested through the officials at the Wuyuan commandery to have an audience with the Han court to pay homage. Thus, the next year (51 BC), he arrived at court and personally paid homage to Emperor Xuan during the Chinese New Year. In 49 BC, he traveled to the Han court for a second time to pay homage to the emperor. In 53 BC, Zhizhi Chanyu also sent his son as hostage to the Han court. In 51 and 50 BC, he sent two envoys respectively to Han to present tribute, but failed to personally come to the Han court to pay homage. Therefore, he was rejected by the Han court, leading to the execution of a Han envoy in 45 BC. In 33 BC, Huhanye Chanyu came to the Han court to pay homage again. During his visit, he asked to become an imperial son-in-law. Instead of granting him this request, Emperor Yuan decided to give him a court lady-in-waiting. Thus, the Han court allowed Huhanye Chanyu to marry Lady Wang Zhaojun. Yituzhiyashi (伊屠智牙師), the son of Huhanye and Wang Zhaojun, became a vocal partisan for the Han empire within the Xiongnu realm. Although peaceful relations were momentarily achieved, it fully collapsed when the Han official Wang Mang came to power. When Bi, the Southern Chanyu, decided submit to the Han in 50 AD, he sent a princely son as hostage to the Han court and prostrated to the Han envoy as he received the imperial edict from them. During the Eastern Han period, the tributary system had made some significant changes, which placed the Southern Xiongnu more tightly under regulation and supervision of the Han. The Chanyu was required to send tribute and a princely hostage annually, while an imperial messenger would be dispatched to escort the previous princely hostage back. The Southern Xiongnu were resettled inside the empire at the northern commanderies and were overseen by a Han prefect, who acted as an arbiter in their legal cases and monitored their movements. Attempts by Punu, the Northern Chanyu, to establish peaceful relations with the Han empire always failed, because the Northern Xiongnu were unwilling to come under Han's tributary system and the Han court had no interest to treat them along the same lines as the Southern Xiongnu instead of dividing them. Geography In 169 BC, the Han minister Chao Cuo presented to Emperor Wen a memorandum on frontier defence and the importance of agriculture. Chao characterized the Xiongnu as people whose livelihood did not depend on permanent settlement and were always migrating. As such, he wrote, the Xiongnu could observe the Han frontier and attack when there were too few troops stationed in a certain region. He noted that if troops are mobilized in support, then few troops will be insufficient to defeat the Xiongnu, while many troops will arrive too late as the Xiongnu will have retreated by then. He also noted that keeping the Xiongnu mobilized will be at a great expense, while they will just raid another time after dispersing them. To negate these difficulties, Chao Cuo elaborated a proposal, which in essence suggested that military-agricultural settlements with permanent residents should be established to secure the frontier and that surrendered tribes should serve along the frontier against the Xiongnu. When Emperor Wu made the decision to conquer the Hexi Corridor, he had the intention to separate the Xiongnu from the Western Regions and from the Qiang people. In 88 BC, the Xianling tribe of the Qiang people sent an envoy to the Xiongnu, proposing a joint-attack against the Han in the region as they were discontented that they had lost the fertile lands at Jiuquan and Zhangye. It had often been the meeting place between the Xiongnu and the Qiang before the Han empire had conquered and annexed the Hexi Corridor. In 6 BC, Wang Shun (王舜) and Liu Xin noted that the frontier commanderies of Jiuquan, Zhangye, and Dunhuang were established by Emperor Wu to separate the then-powerful Chuoqiang tribe of the Qiang people from the Xiongnu. The Chuoqiang tribe and its king, however, eventually submitted to the Han empire and took part in the campaigns against the Xiongnu. In 119 BC, when the Xiongnu suffered a catastrophic defeat by the Han armies, the Chanyu moved his court (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) to another location north. This had the desired result that the Xiongnu were separated from the Wuhuan people, which also prevented the Xiongnu from exacting many resources from the Wuhuan. The Han court placed the Wuhuan in tributary protection and resettled them in five northeastern commanderies, namely Shanggu, Yuyang, Youbeiping (present-day Hebei), Liaoxi, and Liaodong (present-day Liaoning). A new office, the Colonel-Protector of the Wuhuan, was established in Shanggu in order to prevent contact between the Wuhuan with the Xiongnu and to use them to monitor the Xiongnu activities. Nevertheless, the effective Han control over the Wuhuan was lacking through much of the Western Han period, since the Xiongnu had considerable military and political influence over the Wuhuan while relations between the Wuhuan and Han often remained strained at best. This can be exemplified by a situation in 78 BC, when the Xiongnu led a punitive campaign against the Wuhuan, resulting in General Fan Mingyou (范明友) leading a Han army to impede further incursions. When they learned that the Xiongnu had left by the time the army arrived, the Han court ordered Fan to attack the Wuhuan instead, killing 6000 Wuhuan men and three chieftains, since the Wuhuan had recently raided Han territory. Only in 49 AD, when 922 Wuhuan chieftains submitted during Emperor Guangwu's reign, did many of the Wuhuan tribes come under tributary system of the Han empire. The Han court provided for the Wuhuan and in return the Wuhuan tribes guarded the Han frontier against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples. When the Hunye King surrendered to the Han in 121 BC, the Han court resettled all the 40,000 Xiongnu people from the Hexi Corridor into the northern frontier regions. The Hexi Corridor proved to be an invaluable region, since it gave direct access and became the base of military operations into the Western Regions Possession of the Western Regions was economically critical to the Xiongnu, since they exacted many of their necessary resources from the western states. The diplomat Zhang Qian suggested to the emperor to establish diplomatic relations with the western states. He proposed to try convince the Wusun in reoccupying their former territory in the Hexi Corridor and to form an alliance with them against the Xiongnu. In 115 BC, Zhang Qian and his men were sent towards the Western Regions, but they did not succeed in convincing the Wusun to relocate. They were, however, successful in establishing contact with the many states, such as Wusun, Dayuan (Ferghana), Kangju (Soghdiana), Daxia (Bactria), and Yutian (Khotan). Although the Han empire tried to diplomatically sway the western states over the years, it met with little success due to the Xiongnu's influence over the Western Regions at the time. Therefore, from 108 BC onwards, the Han resorted to conquest in order to bring the western states to submission. Since Loulan (Cherchen) was the closest western state to Han, it was key for the Han empire's expansion into Central Asia. Turfan (Jushi), on the other hand, was the Xiongnu's entrance into the Western Regions. By conquering Loulan and Turfan, the Han empire would gain two critical locations in the Western Regions, achieving direct access to the Wusun in the Ili River valley and Dayuan (Ferghana) between Syr and Amu Darya. This happened in 108 BC, when General Zhao Ponu conquered these two states. The farthest-reaching invasion was Li Guangli's campaign against Ferghana. If the Han armies succeeded in conquering Ferghana, the Han empire would demonstrate certain military might to the western states and consolidate its control, while gaining many of the famed Ferghana horses. The Xiongnu were aware of the situation and attempted to stop the invasion, but they were defeated by Li Guangli's forces. After a campaign that lasted four years, Li Guangli conquered Ferghana in 101 BC. The control over Turfan, however, often fluctuated due to its proximity to the Xiongnu. In 90 BC, General Cheng Wan (成娩) led the troops of six western states against Turfan to prevent it from allying the Xiongnu. The fact that the forces used comprised solely from the troops of the western states was, as remarked, a clear indication of the political influence that the Han empire had over the region. Cheng was a former Xiongnu king himself, but he had submitted to the Han and was ennobled as Marquis of Kailing (開陵侯). As a result of the expedition, the Han court received the formal submission of Turfan later in the year (90 BC). This victory was significant in the sense that Turfan's location was the closest to the Xiongnu of all the western states, thereby they lost their access into the Western Regions with this Han conquest. In 67 BC, the Han empire gained absolute control over the Turfan Depression after inflicting a significant defeat to the Xiongnu. During the former Xiongnu rule of the Western Regions, the area was under the jurisdiction of the Rizhu King (日逐王) with the office "Commandant in Charge of Slaves". However, in 60 BC, the Rizhu King surrendered to Protector General Zheng Ji. Afterwards (60 BC), the Han imperial court established the Protectorate of the Western Regions. The Han empire, now in absolute control of the Western Regions, placed it under the jurisdiction of its Protector General. As its dominance of the area was established, the Han were effectively controlling the trade and shaping the early history of what would be known as the Silk Road. In 25 AD, Liu Xiu was established as Emperor Guangwu, restoring the Han throne after a usurpation by the Han official Wang Mang, thus initiating the Eastern Han period. During his reign, the Han empire began to abandon its offensive strategy against the Xiongnu, which allowed the latter to frequently raid the northern frontier. It resulted in large migrations southwards, which led to the depopulation of the frontier regions. During the Eastern Han period, various nomadic peoples were resettled in these frontier regions, serving the Han empire as cavalry against the Xiongnu. With his primary focus still towards the interior of the empire, Emperor Guangwu declined several requests from the western states to re-establish the office of Protector-General of the Western Regions. Early in Emperor Guangwu's reign, King Kang of Yarkand united neighbouring kingdoms to resist the Xiongnu. At the same time, he protected the Han officials and people of the former Protector-General, who were still left behind after Wang Mang's reign. In 61 AD, Yarkand was conquered by Khotan and the western states fell in conflict with each other. Taking this opportunity, the Northern Xiongnu recovered their control over the Western Regions, which threatened the security of the Hexi Corridor. In 73 AD, General Dou Gu was sent on a punitive expedition to the Xiongnu and inflicted them a considerable defeat. Immediately, the fertile lands of Hami (Yiwu) was reoccupied and an agricultural garrison established. The next year (74 AD), he expelled the Xiongnu from Turfan and reoccupied the state. The recovery of Hami and Turfan facilitated the re-establishment of the Protector-General, since these important locations were key points to control the Western Regions. See also Book of Han, a classical historiographical work covering the early history of the Han empire Han–Nanyue War, a military campaign launched by Emperor Wu against Nanyue Gojoseon–Han War, a military campaign launched by Emperor Wu against Gojoseon The Emperor in Han Dynasty, a 2005 Chinese television series based on the life story of Emperor Wu Li Ling, a Han military leader and defector to the Xiongnu Records of the Grand Historian, a classical historiographical work written in this era Sima Qian, author of the Records of the Grand Historian who was punished for defending Li Ling Su Wu, a Han statesman and diplomat who was a captive of the Xiongnu for about two decades Notes References Bibliography Further reading Yap, Joseph P. (2019). The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu. . 2nd-century BC conflicts 1st-century BC conflicts Wars involving the Han dynasty Wars involving the Xiongnu Wars involving Mongolia
4627140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%20Army%20Airfield	Hamilton Army Airfield	Hamilton Field (Hamilton AFB) was a United States Air Force base, which was inactivated in 1973, decommissioned in 1974, and put into a caretaker status with the Air Force Reserves until 1976. It was transferred to the United States Army in 1983 and was designated an Army Airfield until its BRAC closure in 1988. It is located along the western shore of San Pablo Bay in the southern portion of Novato, in Marin County, California. History Hamilton Field was named after First Lieutenant Lloyd Andrews Hamilton of the 17th Aero Squadron. Hamilton was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for "extraordinary heroism in action" in Varsenare, Belgium, where he led a low level bombing attack on a German airdrome behind enemy lines on August 13, 1918. Thirteen days later, Hamilton died in action near Lagnicourt, France. Origins What would eventually become Hamilton Air Force Base has its origins in the late 1920s, when the airfield was first established. It was first unofficially named; the Marin County Air Field, Marin Airfield, Marin Meadows Air Field, and the Army Air Base at Marin Meadows. It was officially termed from 1929 until 1932 the "Air Corps Station, San Rafael." With formal development beginning, it was named Hamilton Field on July 12, 1932. Construction of the airfield began about July 1, 1932, with the airfield being originally designed to accommodate four bomb squadrons and their personnel. Captain Don L. Hutchins, later Colonel Don L. Hutchins in WWII, of the Army Air Corps reported on duty as the first commanding officer of the new field on June 25, 1933, and Captain John M. Davies' 70th Service Squadron arrived that December as the first squadron assigned to the base. The Hamilton Field Station Complement replaced the 70th Service Squadron on March 1, 1935. The original construction program was completed on May 12, 1935, at which time the field was ceremonially handed over to Brigadier General Henry 'Hap' Arnold, commanding the 1st Wing, by Governor Frank Merriam of California. The U.S. Weather Bureau had an official cooperative weather station on the base from 1934 to 1964. Bomber mission Hamilton Field was originally a bomber installation. On May 5, 1934, the first planes assigned to Hamilton were Martin B-10 and B-12 bombers of the 7th Bombardment Group, having been transferred from March Airfield. Shortly thereafter, amphibious reconnaissance aircraft of the 88th Observation Squadron were assigned to Hamilton. The B-12 bombers housed at Hamilton Field were phased out in 1937, and the 7th Bomb Group was re-equipped with the Douglas B-18 Bolo. The B-18 was a standard two-engine short-range bomber, and was capable of airlifting combat-equipped troops en masse, an important advance in combat techniques at the time. The next step forward in bomber technology was the development of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, a four-engine airplane that was bigger, faster, and heavier than any previous bomber and required a longer and stronger runway to operate. Because the runway at Hamilton Field was not adequate for the B-17, the larger planes had to go elsewhere. In 1939, the 7th Bombardment Group was designated a "heavy" bomb group and was moved to Fort Douglas, Utah on September 7, 1940, to train with B-17s. Fighter mission Hamilton became a fighter base under the USAAC Air Force Combat Command in December 1940, becoming the home of the 9th, 10th and 11th Pursuit Wings. The 9th PW was reassigned from March Field, bringing the 14th and 51st squadrons equipped with the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. Two other pursuit wings, the 10th, with the 20th and 35th Pursuit Groups, and the 11th, with the 51st, 54th and 55th Pursuit Groups, were activated at Hamilton in December 1940, all equipped with P-40s, the Republic P-43 Lancer, and a scattering of older Curtis P-36 Mohawks. The arrival of the pursuit wings and their crews caused crowding at the base and initiated the first of many housing problems. Hamilton was assigned to the USAAC 4th Air Force, on December 7, 1941, and the airfield was designated an air defense base for the West Coast as part of the Western Defense Command on January 5, 1942. Attack on Pearl Harbor In response to the growing crisis in the Pacific, on December 6, 1941, the 38th Reconnaissance Squadron (30th Bombardment Group) with four B-17Cs and two new B-17Es left Hamilton Field bound for Hickam Field, Hawaii on their way to Clark Field in the Philippines to reinforce the American Far East Air Force there. None were armed. After leaving Hamilton, and flying all through the night, the bombers arrived over Oahu on the morning of December 7, 1941, and faced an unusual welcome. The B-17s had arrived over Oahu during the Japanese air attack on Hawaii which triggered American entry into World War II. They arrived at Pearl Harbor at the height of the attack (radar operators mistakenly thought that the Japanese attack force was this flight arriving from California). Two of the planes managed to land at a short fighter strip at Haliewa, one made a belly-landing at Bellows, one set down on the Kahuku Golf Course, and the remainder landed at Hickam under the strafing of Japanese planes. The B-17Es of the 7th Bombardment Group were moved back to Hamilton from Utah for deployment to the Far East. Six of them arrived in Hawaii just after the Pearl Harbor attack, but the rest of them were ordered to remain in California and were sent south to Muroc AAF near Rosamond. World War II During World War II, Hamilton was an important West Coast air training facility. Its mission was that of an initial training base for newly formed fighter groups. The airfield was rapidly expanded to a wartime status, with construction of additional barracks, mess halls, administration buildings, warehouses, Link trainer buildings, schools, hospital and other structures. The following units trained at Hamilton: Auxiliary training fields used by Hamilton Field during World War II were: Montague Air Force Auxiliary Field Napa Army Airfield Willows Municipal Airport Redding Army Airfield Siskiyou County Army Airfield In addition, the Air Transport Command (ATC) used Hamilton as a major aerial port and transshipment facility for troops and cargo heading to the Pacific and CBI Theaters. The ATC West Coast Wing was headquartered at the airfield, with the 64th Transport Group being assigned early in 1942. The 1503rd AAF Base Unit was also stationed here. Postwar use In the initial postwar years, Hamilton remained Air Transport Command's primary West Coast facility until 1948 when Military Air Transport Service (MATS) moved most activities to nearby Travis AFB. During this time Hamilton functioned also as a major separation center for returning troops. MATS, and later Military Airlift Command (MAC), retained a presence at Hamilton through the Air Force Reserve, which based several Air Transport, and later Military Airlift wings at the base until it closed in 1976. Strategic Air Command also assigned several reserve reconnaissance groups to Hamilton in the late 1940s, flying photographic missions with RB-29 Superfortresses. Tactical Air Command assigned the F-84 Thunderjet-equipped 349th Fighter-Bomber Wing in the mid-1950s to Hamilton also as part of its reserve forces. However, the new Air Defense Command, was the major presence at Hamilton after World War II, using the base as headquarters for the air defense of the Pacific Coast. The base went through a series of command redesignations during this period. In the United States Army Air Forces reorganization of 1946 it was assigned to Air Defense Command (ADC). Later, in 1948 the base was assigned to Continental Air Command (CONAC), then back to Air Defense Command in 1951, then, as its usefulness waned, to the Air Force Reserve in 1973. 325th Fighter Group/Wing The initial Air Defense Command major unit at Hamilton was the 325th Fighter Group which was reassigned from Mitchel AAF, New York on April 9, 1947. Squadrons of the 325th FG were the 317th and 318th Fighter Squadrons, both being initially equipped with the Northrop P-61 Black Widow. The units mission was air defense training missions along the West Coast. In the immediate postwar years, the Black Widow was pressed into service as an air defense interceptor in response to the USAAF's problems in developing a useful jet-powered night/all-weather fighter. The war-weary P-61s were soon replaced in May 1948 by the North American F-82F Twin Mustang, and on May 10 the Wing and component groups and squadrons were redesignated as All Weather. The 325th was the first Air Defense Command group to receive the F-82. The 325th Fighter Wing (All Weather) also was established on May 10, 1948, as part of the "one base, one wing" concept, with the 325th Fighter Group becoming a subordinate unit of the wing. The unit was transferred on June 27, 1948, to Moses Lake AFB, Washington for the purpose of defending the Hanford Nuclear site. 78th Fighter Wing With the departure of the 325th for Washington, the 78th Fighter Wing was activated at Hamilton on November 16, 1948, with the 78th Fighter Group being reassigned from Mitchel AFB as its subordinate operational unit. During World War II, the 78th Fighter Group trained at Hamilton with P-38 Lightnings in 1942 and served as part of its air defense organization. Although briefly inactivated between 1952 and 1956, the 78th Fighter Wing was the host unit at Hamilton until it was inactivated in 1969. The 78th Fighter Group's initial operational fighter squadrons were the 82d, 83d, and 84th (Jet). The 82d and 83d squadrons were equipped with F-51D Mustangs, while the 84th flew the Republic F-84B Thunderstreak. As its predecessor, the 325th, the mission of the 78th Fighter Wing was the air defense of the Pacific coast. The wing and subordinate units were redesignated as the 78th Fighter-Interceptor Wing on January 20, 1950. The first production Northrop F-89B Scorpion interceptor was accepted by the USAF during February 1951, and entered service with the 84th Fighter Interceptor Squadron. However, in retrospect, the F-89B was rushed into squadron service too rapidly. There were not enough trained pilots and radar operators, and there were not enough maintenance personnel who knew the intricacies of the complex and troublesome Hughes E-1 fire control system. The in-service rate of the F-89B was appallingly low, and crashes were all too frequent. In 1949, the ADC Western Air Defense Force (WADF) was established at Hamilton on September 1 and the 28th Air Division (28th AD) was activated December 8. The WADF was responsible for the air defense of the Western United States, and controlled air defense units in Washington, Oregon, California, Arizona, Nevada, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Montana and New Mexico. Its subordinate 28th AD controlled the operational air defense Groups and Squadrons. 566th Air Defense Group As part of a reorganization of Air Defense Command, on February 6, 1952, the 78th FIW was inactivated and in its place, the 4702d Defense Wing stood up at Hamilton. The 4702d was a placeholder unit until the 566th Air Defense Group of the 28th Air Division assumed control of the base on November 7, 1952. Units of the 566th ADG at Hamilton were: 83d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (February 6, 1952 – August 18, 1955) (F-86F) 84th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (February 6, 1952 – August 18, 1955) (F-86F) 325th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (April 1954 – August 18, 1955) (F-86D) Reassigned from Travis AFB, California 496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (March 20, 1953 – August 1954) (F-86D) When the 78th FIW was inactivated, the 82d FIS was transferred to the 4703d Defense Wing at Larson AFB, Washington. During its time at Hamilton, the 325th FIS sponsored the "Sabre Knights" aerial demonstration team. In August 1955 the 325th unit designation was transferred to Truax Field, Madison, Wisconsin. The 496th FIS was activated on March 20, 1953, as a fighter-interceptor squadron at Hamilton as part of the west coast air defense forces. Partially equipped at first with six F-51Ds, the squadron soon transitioned to F-86D aircraft and prepared to move to Europe. In August 1954 the 496th FIS was transferred to Hahn Air Base West Germany to stand air defense alert. Although based at Hahn, the 496th FIS was assigned to the USAFE 86th Fighter-Interceptor Wing at Ramstein Air Base. On August 18, 1955, the 78th Fighter Group (Air Defense) was reactivated at Hamilton under the 28th AD with the 83d and 84th Fighter-Interceptor Squadrons flying F-86D Sabres. 78th Fighter Wing (Air Defense) In 1956, it was decided to elevate the operational units at Hamilton back to a Wing level, and the 566th ADG was inactivated, and the 78th was redesignated as the 78th Fighter Wing (Air Defense) on September 14, being reactivated on October 18. The reactivated wing consisted of the 83d and 84th Fighter-Interceptor Squadrons. F-86Ds The 78th Fighter Wing was initially equipped with the North American F-86D interceptor version of the Sabre. Although, in reality it was a quite different aircraft than the F-86H model, the predominant version used after the Korean War. In the late 1950s, the F-86D served as the main air defense weapon against Soviet bomber attacks. In retrospect, the Soviet bomber threat was grossly exaggerated, but it cannot be denied that the presence of the F-86D interceptor was an important deterrent. F-104As The Lockheed F-104A had originally been scheduled to replace the North American F-100 Super Sabres of the Tactical Air Command beginning in 1956. However, by the time that the F-104A was finally ready for delivery, Air Force requirements had changed. The Starfighter's relatively low endurance and its lack of ability to carry a significant offensive weapons load made it no longer suitable for TAC. Consequently, the TAC lost all interest in the F-104A even before it was scheduled to enter service. This might ordinarily have been the end of the line for the F-104A. However, delays in the delivery and development of the Convair F-106A Delta Dart Mach 2+ fighter-interceptor for ADC Command had at that time become worrisome, and the USAF decided to go ahead and accept the F-104As originally destined for the TAC and assign them to the ADC as a stopgap measure. The selection of the F-104A for the ADC was sort of curious, since it had not been originally designed as an interceptor and it lacked an adequate endurance and had no all-weather capability. However, its high climb rate made it attractive to the ADC and it was hoped that the Starfighter could fill in until the F-106 became available. First to get the F-104A was the 83rd Fighter Interceptor Squadron at Hamilton, replacing the F-86Ds and became operational with the type on February 20, 1958. In October 1958, twelve F-104As of the 83rd FIS were crated and airlifted by C-124 transport to Taiwan, where they served temporarily with the Republic of China Air Force during the Quemoy crisis. The crisis was peacefully resolved, and the aircraft were returned to the USA. The F-104A was not very well suited for service as an interceptor. Its low range was a problem for North American air defense, and its lack of all-weather capability made it incapable of operating in conjunction with the SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) system. The F-104As were replaced by the end of 1960 by more heavily armed all-weather McDonnell F-101B Voodoos. The F-104As were then transferred in 1960 to Air National Guard squadrons. F-101B/Fs With the relative failure of the F-104A in the interceptor role, the 84th FIS was re-equipped with the McDonnell F-101B Voodoo in 1959 and the 83d FIS in 1960. The F-101Bs were modified versions of the SAC F-101A nuclear attack aircraft (designed for one-way missions carrying tactical nuclear weapons) by modifying the avionics systems and fire control systems for air-to-air missiles. The last F-101Bs were delivered in March 1961, and once the teething troubles with its fire control system issues were corrected, the F-101B proved to be a quite successful interceptor. However, it was outshone by the faster and more maneuverable Convair F-106A Delta Dart when that interceptor finally entered service. Along with the F-101Bs, the dual-seat F-101F trainer was also flown at Hamilton. F-101Fs were equipped with dual controls, but carried the same armament as the F-101B and were fully combat-capable. F-106As The Convair F-106A Delta Dart replaced the F-101 at Hamilton during 1968. The F-106 was considered by many as being the finest all-weather interceptor ever built. It served with the 84th FIS until 1987, nearly 20 years. On September 30, 1968, the 498th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was transferred to Hamilton from Paine AFLD, Washington and was inactivated, with its F-106s being reassigned to the 84th FIS. NORAD On April 1, 1966, in addition to reactivating the Fourth Air Force, U.S. Air Force, the Headquarters Western NORAD Region (North American Air Defense Command) was activated at Hamilton AFB. This headquarters was not only responsible for the aerospace defense of 11 western states, but also controlled defense forces in two western Canadian provinces. NORAD was a joint U.S. Air Force/Royal Canadian Air Force (Canadian Forces after February 1968) organization. The new Western NORAD Region command combined the 25th, 26th and 27th NORAD Divisions, which were headquartered at McChord AFB Washington, Corvallis Oregon, and Luke AFB Arizona, respectively. West coast radar stations were under the command of headquarters at Hamilton AFB. Data was fed to the NORAD SAGE Combat Center (SCC-5) blockhouse at HAFB via the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) system. The SAGE Combat Center utilized a three-string AN/GSA-51 computer system. Headquarters Western NORAD Region was inactivated at Hamilton Air Force Base on December 31, 1969. 1st Fighter Wing (Air Defense) On December 31, 1969, the 1st Fighter Wing (Air Defense) was reassigned from Selfridge AFB, Michigan as a result of its closing, replacing the 78th Fighter-Interceptor Wing which was inactivated. Its operational squadron was the 84th Fighter Interceptor Squadron which was reassigned from the inactivating 78th FIW. The 84th FIS continued to fly the F-106. At Hamilton the 1st FW was an administrative organization of the ADC 26th Air Division. Although an Air Defense Command wing since the founding of ADC in 1946, the 1st Fighter Wing had long and deep traditions as a Tactical Air organization since its World War I origin in 1918. As the Vietnam War wound down, Headquarters Tactical Air Command was directed to preserve the lineage of many units which had command-controlled designations that gave them no history or traditions. HQ ADC transferred the 1st FW without personnel or equipment to TAC on October 1, 1970 to replace and absorb all assets of the 15th Tactical Fighter Wing at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida. 26th Air Division (ADC/ADTAC) With the transfer of the 1st FW, the 84th FIS continued to operate at Hamilton until August 30, 1973 directly under the Aerospace Defense Commands 26th Air Division. The 84th FIS was reassigned to Castle Air Force Base near Merced, California on September 1, 1973, as part of Hamilton's closedown, transferring its F-106s and effectively ending the air defense role of Hamilton AFB. At Castle, the 84th FIS continued to fill the Air Defense role throughout the 1970s, eventually retiring its F-106s in 1981. The squadron was redesignated the 84th Fighter Interceptor Training Squadron on July 1, 1981, flying T-33s as its primary aircraft for live electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) training. Participated in live flying exercises as targets for various Tactical Air Command ADTAC air divisions and for the F-15s of the 49th TFW at Holloman AFB, New Mexico. The 84th FITS also flew target missions for the weapons controller training program. The 84th FITS was inactivated on February 27, 1987. United States Air Force Reserve Units 349th Military Airlift Wing Along with its air defense mission, Hamilton AFB was Headquarters for the 349th Military Airlift Wing, an Air Force Reserve unit which was activated on May 10, 1949, and operated at Hamilton through July 25, 1969 with the exception of a brief period during 1951/52. The wing was assigned to Continental Air Command (ConAC), however when activated the wing was allocated to Military Air Transport Service/Military Airlift Command. The 349th was bestowed the history and lineage of the World War II 349th Troop Carrier Group, which had been part of the Ninth Air Force IX Troop Carrier Command in Europe. Units attached to the 349th MAW (under various designations) were the 349th Troop Carrier Group, Medium (June 27, 1949 – April 2, 1951) and 310th, 311th, 312th and 313th Troop Carrier Squadrons. It was known as the "Golden Gate Wing" and flew the Curtiss-Wright C-46 Commando. During the Korean War, the reserve personnel of the 349th were called to active duty and used as fillers in other wings that were not up to combat strength. Consequently, the 349th TCW was inactivated on April 2, 1951. 349th Fighter-Bomber Wing With the reconstruction of reserve forces on May 26, 1952, the unit was reorganized as a Tactical Air Command fighter-bomber wing and it was reactivated on June 13 as the 349th Fighter-Bomber Wing. Its operational squadrons were the 310th, 312th, 313th, 313th and 8649th squadrons (August 20, 1954 – February 6, 1956). As a tactical fighter-bomber wing, the 349th flew the North American F-51 Mustang (1952–1954), Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star (1952–1956), and the Republic F-84 Thunderstreak (1956–1957). 349th Troop Carrier/Military Airlift Wing In September 1957, the unit was redesignated as the 349th Troop Carrier Wing, Medium, with the following squadrons: (97th, 312th, 313th, 314th Troop Carrier Squadrons) and assigned to Tactical Air Command. The 349th flew the Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar. The wing was ordered to active service on October 28, 1962, during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The 349th, like the other reserve troop carrier wings, was completely equipped and ready to move with only a few hours notice as was the case during the Cuban call-up. Only four hours after the first call to report for duty was made, 95 percent of the wing's flying personnel had checked in and were ready to move. With the cessation of the crisis, the wing was relieved from active duty on November 28. The 349th was redesignated the 349th Military Airlift Wing on June 1, 1966, when the unit was reallocated to Military Airlift Command. The Wing controlled four (921st, 938th, 939th and 941st) airlift groups. The unit flew the Douglas C-124 Globemaster II. A recall to active duty was again initiated on January 26, 1968, in response to the seizure of the USS Pueblo by North Korea. During the Vietnam War, the wing airlifted many thousands of tons of cargo across the Pacific to support U.S. forces throughout the Southeast Asia and Pacific theaters of operations, as well as points in Europe and the Middle East. On July 25, 1969, the 349th MAW was transferred to Travis AFB. 452d Military/Tactical Airlift Wing On January 1, 1972, the Air Force reassigned the Air Force Reserve's 452d Military Airlift Wing from March AFB, California to Hamilton AFB. At Hamilton, the wing converted to C-130B Hercules on April 1, was redesignated the 452d Tactical Airlift Wing (452 TAW). In October 1973, the 452 TAW became the "host wing" for Hamilton AFB. As a result of the base closure decision regarding Hamilton, the 452 TAW transferred back to March AFB in 1976 for redesignation as the 452nd Air Refueling Wing (452 ARW) and transition to the KC-135E Stratotanker. Closure The active Air Force ceased its activities on the base after October 1, 1973, when the 452d was relieved of host base responsibility, with most of the flight line facilities being transferred to the U.S. Army. The National Strike Force's Pacific Strike Team of the U.S. Coast Guard took up residence in two of the historic hangars. The housing was transferred to the U.S. Navy and a parcel of the base was transferred to the General Services Administration (GSA) for public sale. The 452d TAW operated at a low level of activity until January 11, 1976, when an agreement was finally reached to close Hamilton as part of the post-Vietnam War drawdown of the military. The base was placed in a caretaker status on that date pending final disposition. A controversy then developed over future civilian use between those supporting its adaptation into a major civilian airport, those bitterly opposed to its continued use as an airfield at all, and those holding varying intermediate degrees of opinion. From 1980 to 1983, Hamilton AFB was home to the Refugee Transit Center, an operation of the International Organization for Migration for the processing of refugees from Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Afghanistan. Three former Air Force barracks were used as temporary housing, in addition to three other smaller buildings for administration. As many as 180,000 refugees were given overnight rest at Hamilton before moving on to other parts of the country. The GSA public sale occurred in 1985, and finally, in December 1988, the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission recommended closure of the last of government land at what was then called Hamilton Army Airfield. In 1995, the acreage held by the Army was transferred to the New Hamilton Partnership and public/private redevelopment of the former air base commenced; the name was soon changed back to its original "Hamilton Field." As a consequence of BRAC 1993's closure decisions regarding all of the U.S. Navy's San Francisco area bases (NAS Alameda, NAS Moffett Field, Mare Island Naval Shipyard, NAVSTA Treasure Island), the Navy vacated its Hamilton housing in 1996. Major commands to which assigned Headquarters, United States Army Air Corps, July 12, 1932 GHQ Air Force, March 1, 1935 Redesignated: Air Force Combat Command, December 18, 1940 4th Air Force, December 7, 1941 – January 5, 1942 Western Defense Command, January 5, 1942 Fourth Air Force, September 18, 1942 IV Fighter Command San Francisco Fighter Wing, May 1, 1942 – December 15, 1944 Continental Air Forces, December 15, 1944 Air Defense Command, March 21, 1946 Continental Air Command Air Defense Command (Agency), December 1, 1948 – July 1, 1950 Air (later Aerospace) Defense Command, July 1, 1950 Air Force Reserve, October 1, 1970 – January 30, 1976 Major units assigned 1st Wing 7th Bombardment Group, December 5, 1934 – November 5, 1935; May 22, 1937 – September 7, 1940 9th Pursuit Wing, December 18, 1940 – December 7, 1941 14th Pursuit (later Fighter) Group, January 15, 1941 – June 10, 1941; February 7 – July 16, 1942 51st Pursuit (later Fighter) Group, January 15, 1941 – June 20, 1941 10th Pursuit Wing, December 18, 1940 – December 7, 1941 20th Pursuit (later Fighter) Group, September 10, 1940 – February 2, 1942 35th Pursuit (later Fighter) Group, September 10, 1940 – December 5, 1941;December 9, 1941 – January 12, 1942 11th Pursuit Wing, December 18, 1940 – June 1, 1941 54th Pursuit Group, January 15 – May 21, 1941 55th Pursuit Group, January 15 – May 21, 1941 I Tactical Air Division, September 11, 1941 – February 1942 4th (later Fourth) Air Force, December 7, 1941 – January 5, 1942;June 19, 1946 – September 1, 1960;April 1, 1966 – September 30, 1969 4th (later IV) Bomber Command, December 8, 1941 – January 9, 1942 Air Transport Command, West Coast Wing, January 1, 1942 – June 1, 1948 64th Transport Group, February 1 – June 18, 1942 329th Fighter Group, July 10–13, 1942 354th Fighter Group, November 10, 1942 – January 18, 1943 357th Fighter Group, December 1, 1942 – March 4, 1943 372d Fighter Group, October 28 – December 7, 1943 363rd Fighter Group, March 1 – August 1943 367th Fighter Group, July 15 – October 11, 1943 369th Fighter Group, August 1 – November 5, 1943; March 16–28, 1944 372nd Fighter Group, October 28 – December 7, 1943 478rd Fighter Group, December 1–12, 1943 325th Fighter (later All-Weather) Group, April 9, 1947 Established as 325th Fighter Wing, (All Weather), June 9, 1948 – November 26, 1948 325th Fighter Group (All Weather) assigned as subordinate unit 317th Fighter (later All-Weather) Squadron, November 24, 1947 – November 26, 1948 318th Fighter (later All-Weather) Squadron, December 2, 1947 – November 26, 1948 1117th Special Air Missions Squadron, July 19, 1948 – December 31, 1951 78th Fighter Group, May–November 1942 Established as 78th Fighter Wing (various designations), November 16, 1948 – February 6, 1952; August 18, 1955 – December 31, 1969 78th Fighter Group assigned as subordinate unit 82d Fighter Squadron (Various Designations), November 24, 1948 – February 6, 1952 83d Fighter Squadron (Various Designations), November 24, 1948 – July 27, 1952; August 18, 1955 – December 31, 1969 84th Fighter Squadron (Various Designations), November 24, 1948 – December 31, 1969 Assigned to 1st Fighter Wing (Air Defense), December 31, 1969 – October 1, 1970 Assigned to 26th Air Division, October 1, 1970 – September 1, 1973 398th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, November 18, 1956 – February 8, 1957 Scheduled to receive F-104s. Before personnel or equipment were in place, unit inactivated. 498th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, September 30, 1968 Immediately inactivated and personnel and equipment reassigned to the 84th FIS. Headquarters, Western Air Defense Force (WADF), September 1, 1949 – July 1, 1960 28th Air Division, December 8, 1949 – April 1, 1966 566th Air Defense Group 325th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, February 10, 1954 – August 18, 1955 496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, March 20, 1953 – July 4, 1954 Headquarters Western NORAD Region, April 1, 1966 – December 31, 1969 1st Fighter Wing (Air Defense), December 31, 1969 – October 1, 1970 Air Force Reserve Units 68th Reconnaissance Group (SAC), April 9, 1947 – June 27, 1949 72d Reconnaissance Group (SAC), July 12, 1947 – June 27, 1949 329th Troop Carrier Group (MATS), June 27, 1949 – April 2, 1951 Redesignated: 349th Fighter-Bomber Wing (TAC), June 13, 1952 – September 1, 1957 Redesignated: 349th Military Airlift Wing (MATS/MAC), September 1, 1957 – July 25, 1969 452d Military Airlift Wing (MAC), January 1, 1972 – January 12, 1976 Inactivated as host unit after October 1, 1973, although limited presence maintained until reassigned. Hamilton today Following its closure, many of the facilities at the airfield have been reclaimed by the city of Novato and county of Marin for public use. The airfield is also part of tidal wetland restoration effort currently underway by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (San Francisco District), California Coastal Conservancy, and the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission. This multi-agency construction and environmental restoration effort is called the Hamilton Wetland Restoration Project and is funded by federal, state, and regional burses. Most non-original structures have been removed and replaced with housing subdivisions. Seven of the nine original hangars have been converted into offices, retaining their façade while being renovated on the inside. In July, 2017, a proposed tenth hangar is set to be built to match the look and feel of the original nine hangars. This part of the base is now called Hamilton Landing. Several of the original base buildings designed by Capt. Nurse and built in the early '30s have been renovated, including the former base headquarters, three of the large airmen's barracks, and the Firehouse. Others, such as the War Dept. Theatre, the base hospital, the Bachelor Officers' Quarters, and the Officers' Club remain intact either awaiting renovation or demolition. The Discovery Channel show MythBusters has used hangar space at Hamilton to carry out some of their experiments. Some scenes for the 1984 film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom were filmed at Hamilton, as were some scenes from the 1983 film The Right Stuff, and the television show Emergency! in 1978. The U.S. Coast Guard currently owns 282 Spanish-style duplexes and homes; these units were part of the old Hamilton Air Force Base housing. Due to the buildings' age, there is a need for maintenance, and many housing units are vacant, boarded up and in caretaker status. Many issues experienced with older homes (e.g. insufficient wiring and water damage) are currently experienced by Coast Guard tenants. The Coast Guard planned to sell all or most of their 50 acres of land and homes through a GSA sale in 2020. Since the Coast Guard property was not included in the base environmental studies, this area will need environmental review. The base's environmental conditions were extensively studied as part of the redevelopment and wetlands restoration effort. Contaminated soil was removed or treated as needed. An underground methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) plume was discovered near the former gas stations. A small number of homes were cautioned against planting fruit trees. This plume has since dissipated and the warning is no longer in effect. Architectural significance The base was originally built via contract awarded December 5, 1933; most of the buildings were complete by late 1934. Captain Howard B. Nurse, Construction Quartermaster, supervised the design and construction. He departed from traditional base design by rendering the buildings in the Spanish eclectic style then popular in California. Churrigueresque elements adorn the more important buildings. Reinforced concrete walls were covered in stucco to appear similar to earlier California missions; mission tile roofs topped the buildings. Recessed porches, cantilevered balconies, polychrome tile bands and wrought iron grillework complement the designs. In 1993 and 1994, the Historic American Buildings Survey documented many of the structures within Hamilton Field, assessing each one for historic value. Gallery See also California World War II Army Airfields Air Transport Command (World War II) Notes References Donald, David (2004) Century Jets: USAF Frontline Fighters of the Cold War. AIRtime Maurer, Maurer (1983). Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. . Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. . United States Air Force Historical Research Agency Research Division, Organizational History Branch Joe Baugher's Encyclopedia Of Military Aircraft External links California State Military Museum: Hamilton Air Force Base Hamilton Field, Hamilton AFB, Hamilton Army Airfield California State Coastal Conservancy - Hamilton/Bel Marin Keys Wetlands Restoration US Army Corps of Engineers - Hamilton Airfield Wetland Restoration City of Novato Parks & Facilities: Hamilton Field History Museum Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in California Buildings and structures in Marin County, California Defunct airports in California Military facilities in the San Francisco Bay Area Novato, California San Pablo Bay Airfields of the General Headquarters Air Force Airfields of the United States Army Air Corps Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command in North America Initial United States Air Force installations Semi-Automatic Ground Environment sites Geography of Marin County, California History of Marin County, California Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in California National Register of Historic Places in Marin County, California Historic American Buildings Survey in California Military installations closed in 1988 1930 establishments in California 1976 disestablishments in California Spanish Colonial Revival architecture in California
4627429	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi%20Armed%20Forces	Iraqi Armed Forces	The Iraqi Armed Forces ( romanized: Al-Quwwat Al-Musallahah Al-Iraqiyyah) (Kurdish: هێزە چەکدارەکانی عێراق) are the military forces of the Republic of Iraq. They consist of the Iraqi Army, the Iraqi Air Force, and the Iraqi Navy. Along with these three primary service branches, there exists the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Service and the Popular Mobilization Forces. The President of Iraq acts as the supreme commander as outlined by the constitution. The armed forces of Iraq have a long history but generally politicized and unsuccessful history. They were initially formed in the early 1920s. Six military coup d'états were mounted by the Army between 1936 and 1941. The armed forces first saw combat in the Anglo-Iraqi War of 1941. They fought against Israel in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, in the 1967 Six-Day War, and in the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Two wars with the Kurds were fought from 1961 to 1970 and in 1974–1975. A much larger conflict was the Iran–Iraq War, initiated by the Iraqis in 1980, which continued until 1988. Thereafter Iraq began the invasion of Kuwait, which led to the Gulf War of 1991, which led in turn to confrontations over the Iraqi no-fly zones during the 1990s, and finally the Iraq War of 2003. The latest major conflict in which Armed Forces of the country participated is the war against ISIS. Logistics and combat engineering have been traditional strong points. Iraqi soldiers have also usually fought hard in difficult situations. The armed forces are administered by the Ministry of Defence (MOD). Since the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, which toppled the Saddam Hussein regime, the Iraqi Armed Forces received substantial assistance from the United States Armed Forces. Since the implementation of the U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement on January 1, 2009, the Iraqi Armed Forces and the forces of the Iraqi interior ministry are responsible for providing security and upholding law and order throughout most of Iraq. The Iraqi Army was historically one of the more competent militaries in the Arab world. However, during Saddam Hussein's dictatorship and interference in military organization, the competence of the Army severely declined. The Army, in particular, is one of the most trusted national institutions of Iraq. Iraqi Armed Forces deficiencies have been identified in enabling functions, such as, e.g., logistics and military intelligence. In high-end conventional operations, Iraqi capabilities are currently limited by lack of artillery and air power. Role Legal standing Article 9 of the Constitution of Iraq establishes the legal basis of the Iraqi Armed Forces. Much of the wording of Article 9 draws upon Article 27 of the 2004 Transitional Administrative Law. Part A, First Section, Article 9 states that 'The Iraqi armed forces and security services will be composed of the components of the Iraqi people with due consideration given to their balance and representation without discrimination or exclusion. They shall be subject to the control of the civilian authority, shall defend Iraq, shall not be used as an instrument to oppress the Iraqi people, shall not interfere in political affairs, and shall have no role in the transfer of authority.' Parts B and C prohibit the formation of military militias outside the framework of the armed forces and prohibit armed forces personnel from standing for political office or campaigning for political candidates. Part C expressively notes that military personnel are allowed to vote in elections. Part E expressively states the Iraqi Government's commitment to the respect and implementation of Iraq's international obligations regarding the non-proliferation, non-development, nonproduction, and non-use of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. The Second Section says that military service shall be regulated by law. Iraq's legislation on defence dates from the Coalition Provisional Authority period of 2003–2004. CPA Order 22 established the New Iraqi Army on August 18, 2003, and CPA Order 67 renamed the New Iraqi Army the Iraqi Armed Forces on March 21, 2004. In the process, the New Iraqi Army was expanded to include an Army, Air Force, Coastal Defense Force, reserve forces, and other elements. Iraq does not appear to have publicly issued a national defence review or white paper. Much of defence policy since 2003 has been set by the United States. For example, one mission objective for Multi-National Force-Iraq was an "Iraq that has a security force that can maintain domestic order and deny Iraq as a safe haven for terrorists". To do this, the U.S. aimed to train and equip Iraq's security forces and gradually transition security responsibilities to them. In 2010 there are at least three major defence tasks. They are the suppression of the insurgency, the resolution of the Kurdish Peshmerga forces' status in relation to the Iraqi Armed Forces themselves, and longer-term, the growth of the armed forces so that they can defend Iraq from external threats. History The armed forces of Iraq began to be formed by the United Kingdom after they assumed mandated control over Iraq after 1917. During the March 1921 Cairo conference, it was agreed that an Iraqi Army would be created along British lines, with British training and equipment. King Faisal wanted an army of 15,000–20,000 men. The army actually grew from 3,500 in 1922 to 7,000 in 1927 and then to 11,500 in 1932. The army became a modernising influence in the country. In 1931, the Iraqi Air Force was founded with a small number of pilots. Six Army coups took place, with one in 1936 being led by Bakr Sidqi and the last being the Rashid Ali coup of 1941. Following the persecution of the Assyrians, which culminated in the Simele massacre of 1932, a conscription law was introduced, which strengthened the Iraqi Army at the expense of the tribal sheiks. In 1938–1939, Iraqi Army forces were concentrated near the Kuwaiti border, as the military portion of a policy by then-King Ghazni to encourage its union with Iraq. British forces later defeated the Iraqis in the short Anglo-Iraqi War of May 1941, during the Second World War. The Iraqi Air Force used British aircraft until the 14 July Revolution in 1958, where the new Iraqi government began increased diplomatic relationships with the Soviet Union. The Iraqi Air Force used both Soviet and British aircraft throughout the 1950s and 1960s. In 1961, Iraqi forces were again amassed along the Kuwaiti border, and Iraqi again threatened to invade. A quick British deployment of troops, aircraft, and naval vessels, called Operation Vantage, deterred any move though. Iraqi forces fought in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, a first war against the Kurds from 1961 to 1970, and then in the Six-Day War of 1967. Iraqi participation in the Six-Day War was limited, principally owing to the slow reaction of the Iraqi 3rd Armoured Division, which had been stationed in eastern Jordan. The 3rd Armoured Division did not organise itself and reach the front line before the Jordanians ceased operations. Therefore, Iraqi participation was limited to a Tu-16 bomber raid on Israel, which did not locate its targets, and a return Israeli air raid on the H-3 airbase, which was around 435 kilometers from Bagdad in western Iraq, near the H-3 oil pumping station. The Israelis reportedly destroyed 21 Iraqi aircraft for the loss of three of their own. After the first Kurdish war ended with a Peshmerga victory, the Armed Forces began to implement a number of changes. They concluded that Soviet equipment and methods did not meet their needs and that many western weapons were superior to their Soviet counterparts. Also the Soviet Union was trying to influence Iraqi policy by holding up arms deliveries. Despite the large amount of Soviet equipment that Iraq continued to receive (shown by the SIPRI Arms Transfers Database, Iraq 1973–1990), Iraq sought Western military equipment. Purchases from France included 64 Mirage F1 fighter-attack aircraft in 1976 and 200 AMX-30 tanks in 1977. That same year, Iraq ordered ten frigates and corvettes from Italy and in 1978 it purchased 200 Cascavel APCs from Brazil. While Iraqi generals supported a complete changeover to Western equipment, Western countries were reluctant to sell large amounts of weaponry to Iraq. Western weapons were more expensive than Soviet ones, and they took longer to train personnel on, so there was a reluctance to make a complete equipment reversal. However, more weapons were bought from various non-communist countries, supplementing their largely Soviet arsenal, and a reliance on Soviet doctrine reduced. In most cases, the Iraqis went back to British doctrine, while in others, they melded British and Soviet doctrine. Iraq's logistics capability was also improved, with the purchase of 2,000 heavy equipment transporters. Iraqi participation in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 took the part of a 60,000 strong Iraqi Army expeditionary force which operated on the Syrian front. However, the force did not perform very well, and the Iraqi Air Force did not do well either, losing 26 of the 101 fighter aircraft sent to Syria without shooting down any Israeli aircraft. The Kurds started the second Kurdish war of 1974–75, but the war ended in a Kurdish defeat after the Iranian–Iraqi Algiers agreement cut off Iranian support to the Kurds. From 1973 to 1980, Saddam largely relieved the armed forces of internal security functions by creating new paramilitary forces, such as the Iraqi Popular Army. He also guaranteed the military's loyalty to the regime by promoting loyal officers and purging questionable ones. However, this had the effect of filling the senior officer ranks with incompetents. Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) The Iran–Iraq War (; ) was a protracted armed conflict that began on 22 September 1980 when Iraq invaded neighbouring Iran. The war lasted almost eight years, ending in a stalemate on 20 August 1988 when Iran accepted a UN-brokered ceasefire. Iraq's rationale for the invasion was primarily to cripple Iran and prevent Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini from exporting the 1979 Iranian Revolution movement to Shia-majority Iraq and threaten the Sunni-dominated Ba'athist leadership. Iraq had also wished to replace Iran as the dominant state in the Persian Gulf, which was before this point not seen as feasible by the Iraqi leadership due to pre-revolutionary Iran's colossal economic and military might, as well as its close alliances with the United States and Israel. The war followed a long-running history of border disputes, as a result of which Iraq had planned to annex Iran's oil-rich Khuzestan Province and the east bank of the Shatt al-Arab (also known in Iran as the Arvand Rud). Although Iraq hoped to take advantage of Iran's post-revolutionary chaos and expected a decisive victory in the face of a severely weakened Iran, Iraq only made progress for three months. By December 1980 the invasion had stalled. In fierce fighting, the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran started to gain momentum and regained virtually all lost territory by June 1982, pushing the Iraqis back to the pre-war border lines. Following this, the next five years saw Iran go on the offensive until Iraq took back the initiative in mid-1988, and whose major offensives led to the final conclusion of the war. There were a number of proxy forces operating for both countries—most notably the People's Mujahedin of Iran, which had sided with Iraq and the Iraqi Kurdish militias of the KDP and PUK, which had sided with Iran. The United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, France, and most Arab countries provided an abundance of financial, political and logistical support for Iraq, while Iran was largely isolated. Gulf War (1990–1991) Saddam Hussein had also poured massive resources into regime protection agencies, like the Republican Guard (Iraq), that later took on a battlefield role. Losses during the Persian Gulf War from the United States-led coalition resulted in the reduction of Iraq's ground forces to 23 divisions and the air force to less than 300 aircraft. The Iraqi Popular Army was also disbanded. Military and economic sanctions prevented Iraq from rebuilding its military power. What rebuilding was done was concentrated on the Republican Guard and the new Special Republican Guard, created after the war ended. Iraq maintained standing armed forces about 375,000 strong. Armed force intelligence was provided by the Directorate of General Military Intelligence. Under Saddam Hussein, Iraq had a growing domestic arms producing industry that produced everything from rifle bullets to ballistic missiles, advanced naval mines, the Lion of Babylon (tank), remote-piloted "drone" aircraft, sophisticated cluster-bomb, infrared and television-guided bombs and laser-guided missiles. At that time, Iraq was believed to be way ahead of its then rival Iran's arms producing industry. During the 1990s, the Iraqi Armed Forces were involved in suppressing the 1991 uprisings in Iraq, which led to refugees fleeing north in 1991. The U.S. launched Operation Provide Comfort with allied aid to provide assistance to these refugees. This involved some confrontations with the Iraqi armed forces. The Iraqi no-fly zones were established partially due to these operations. Operation Southern Watch dominated Iraqi airspace in the southern part of Iraq while Operation Northern Watch did the same in the north. As a result of Iraqi actions, cruise missile strikes on Iraq were launched in June 1993. Kuwait was then threatened with Republican Guard divisions in October 1994, which resulted in a major U.S. protective deployment designated Operation Vigilant Warrior. Operation Vigilant Sentinel was a later 1995–2007 operation of the same nature. More cruise missile strikes on Iraq were launched in 1996. Iraq was bombed again in Operation Desert Fox in 1998. As U.S. preparations for an attack on Iraq gathered pace in 2002, Operation Southern Focus was launched, further damaging Iraqi air defences in the southern part of the country. Iraq War (2003-2011) In the 1980s and 1990s, Iraq built and used an arsenal of chemical and biological weapons, some of which have been alleged to come from the United States and its allies. These weapons were ordered destroyed by United Nations Security Council Resolutions. After a protracted and problematic weapons inspection process, the majority of these type of weapons were considered to be destroyed and their facilities sealed under UN weapons inspections. A new round of weapons inspections was performed in early 2003 by United Nations weapons inspectors led by Hans Blix, which searched Iraqi sites again, but found no new weapons or weapons programs. However, the Bush Administration decided that Saddam Hussein's regime must be removed, and it gave an ultimatum to that effect. Saddam's government did not respond to the ultimatum in the way that the Bush Administration wanted them to. On March 19, 2003, the United States, with British, Australian, and Polish assistance began the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In the process, Saddam's armed forces were defeated. In the south, the U.S. Combined Forces Land Component Command drove north with the Army's V Corps, and I Marine Expeditionary Force (which included a British Army division). They defeated the Iraqi 3rd Corps, the Republican Guard, and much of the Fedayeen Saddam. In the north, the special operations-led Task Force Viking, defeated the 1st Corps and 5th Corps plus parts of the Republican Guard. Significant battles included the Battle of Nasiriyah and the Battle of Baghdad. The British Army controlled the southern regions of Iraq and fought there until their withdrawal on 30 April 2009. The United States controlled Northern and Central Iraq. After the invasion, the Coalition Provisional Authority was established to administer the occupation. War in Iraq (2013-2017) In December 2013, the insurgency which began following withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq in 2011, escalated into a large scale warfare between Islamic State and its allies against Iraqi state. By the end of summer of 2014, Islamic State was able to capture huge swaghts of territory in the north and the west of the country including several major cities like Mosul, Tikrit, Fallujah, Tal Afar, Ramadi with IS coming within 25 kilometers from the capital city of Baghdad. Several divisions of Iraqi army were destroyed as well. The war resulted in the forced resignation of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki in 2014, as well as an international intervention by the United States and a dozen other countries in support of the Iraqi military in form of airstrike campaign. As well as participation of American and Canadian troops (predominantly special forces) in ground combat operations, a $3.5 billion U.S.-led program to rearm the Iraqi security forces, a U.S.-led training program that provided training to nearly 200,000 Iraqi soldiers and police, the participation of the military of Iran, including troops as well as armored and air elements, and military and logistical aid provided to Iraq by Russia. On 9 December 2017, Prime Minister Haider al-Abadi announced victory over the Islamic State. The Islamic State switched to guerrilla "hit and run" tactics in an effort to undermine the Iraqi government's effort to eradicate it. This conflict is interpreted by some in Iraq as a spillover of the Syrian Civil War. Rebuilding the Armed Forces The Armed Forces were formally disbanded and the Iraqi Ministry of Defense was dissolved shortly after the invasion, by Coalition Provisional Authority Order Number 2 of May 23, 2003. On June 25, 2003, the Vinnell Corporation was awarded a contract to train the first nine battalions, or 9,000 recruits, of a 44,000 person-strong "New Iraqi Army." MPRI was given the military training subcontract. The Department of Defense created the Coalition Military Assistance Training Team under Major General Paul Eaton to oversee the process. On August 2, 2003, the first battalion of new Iraqi Army (IA) recruits started a nine-week training course at a training base in Qaraqosh. They graduated on October 4, 2003. In the interim, the new army had been formally established by Coalition Provisional Authority Order 22 of August 18, 2003. Then on September 3, 2003, Coalition Provisional Authority Order Number 28 established the Iraqi Civil Defense Corps as a temporary security agency to complement Coalition military operations in Iraq. In April 2004, an Iraqi battalion refused to fight insurgents in Fallujah. Soon afterwards, U.S. forces in Iraq were reorganised. Multi-National Force-Iraq (MNF-I) was created under General George W. Casey, Jr. For the new Iraqi armed forces, the most important move was the creation of Multi-National Security Transition Command - Iraq (MNSTC-I) as a subordinate command to MNF-I, under Major General David Petraeus. MNSTC-I was given the task of building up the new Iraqi Armed Forces, as well as the Ministry of Interior (Iraq) (MOI) and other security forces. A new force generation plan aimed to create ten army divisions. On 22 April 2004, under Coalition Provisional Authority Order Number 73 all personnel, facilities, and equipment of the Iraqi Civil Defense Corps were transferred to the Iraqi Ministry of Defence as a component of the Iraqi Armed Forces. After the dissolution of the Coalition Provisional Authority on June 28, 2004, the U.S. and its allies remained in Iraq, receiving authorisation to do so under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546. For periods immediately after the invasion, U.S. Army forces had seen the fighting as conventional 'fighting in built up areas,' rather than as an insurgency. After a review of the Iraq War strategy in the end of 2004, General Casey directed the Coalition forces to shift their focus from fighting insurgents to training Iraqis. This was to be the strategy until 2006. The aim was a small Coalition footprint and a rapid handover of security responsibilities to new Iraqi forces. Developing indigenous military forces became a cornerstone of the 2006 United States counter-insurgency doctrine. However, after the national elections in December 2005, the Iraqi insurgency shifted focus from a resistance against the occupation towards a sectarian conflict. Accelerated by the Golden mosque bombing in February 2006, the levels of sectarian violence rose dramatically. In Baghdad, a cycle of sectarian violence accelerated in which Al-Qaeda-affiliated Sunni insurgents carried out suicide-bombings in Shia districts and Shia militias retaliated with killings in Sunni districts. It became evident that the Iraqi Armed Forces and the various MOI forces were incapable of putting a lid on the sectarian violence and protecting the population, and MNF-I had to adjust plans again for a security transition. Though Iraqi forces had received initial training and been equipped, they had not developed the capabilities needed to plan, conduct and sustain effective counter-insurgency operations. There were also challenges at the ministerial level, within the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Interior, and these ministries could not sustain their forces in terms of logistics, intelligence, communications and procurement. The Iraq War troop surge of 2007 allowed Iraqi forces more time for training and leadership development, as well as more Coalition partnering with Iraqi units. The commander of the Iraqi Assistance Group, General Dana Pittard, said in June 2007 that Coalition forces should not draw down too quickly and that the transitioning of security responsibilities would take time. In July 2006, a milestone was achieved when the first Iraqi province transferred to Provincial Iraqi Control. Al Muthanna Governorate was the first province to be transferred. Twelve further governorates were transferred to Provincial Iraqi Control from September 2006 to October 2008. The Iraqi Army launched its first solely planned and executed high-profile division-level operation March 25, 2008 in the Battle of Basra (2008). The IA received Coalition support only in air support, logistics and via embedded advisors. A British infantry brigade stationed at Basra International Airport was ready in a tactical overwatch role, but it did not intervene. On January 1, 2009, the Provincial Iraqi Control process was superseded by the U.S.-Iraqi Security Agreement (see also U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement), which transferred all provinces' security responsibilities to the Iraqi government. Five provinces were transferred at once as a result. Structure The Ministry of Defense (MOD) oversees the forces, as well as the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Bureau, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of Iraq, which oversees the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Service. MOD forces include the Iraqi Army, the Army Aviation Command, the Iraqi Air Force, the Iraqi Navy, the Iraqi Air Defence Command (Arabic: قيادة الدفاع الجوي), the Special Security Division (Green Zone protection), and also reportedly the Special Forces Command. The MOD also runs a Joint Staff College, training army, navy, and air force officers, with support from the NATO Training Mission - Iraq. The college was established at Ar Rustamiyah on September 27, 2005. The center runs Junior Staff and Senior Staff Officer Courses designed for first lieutenants to majors. The Peshmerga, since September 2009 the 'Armed Forces of the Kurdistan Region,' are a separate armed force loyal to the Kurdistan Regional Government. The force is quite sizable. The KDP and PUK both had around 100,000 peshmerga (totalling 200,000) as of January 2010. Two divisions of the army are included in this figure; the regional government and the central government disagree as to whether they are under Baghdad's authority and to what extent. Iraqi military intelligence has been rebuilt since the army was dissolved in 2003. However it has suffered from political interference. In mid 2009 Prime Minister al-Maliki reportedly dismissed Major General Jamal Suleiman, the director of military intelligence, and took on the job himself. The Prime minister had reportedly dismissed the director of Iraqi national intelligence at the same time. Iraqi Army The Iraqi Army, officially the Iraqi Ground Forces (Arabic: القوات البرية العراقية), is the ground force component of the Iraqi Armed Forces. It was known as the Royal Iraqi Army up until the coup of July 1958. The Iraqi Army in its modern form was first created by the United Kingdom during the inter-war period of British control of Mandatory Iraq. Following the invasion of Iraq by U.S. forces in 2003, the Iraqi Army was rebuilt along U.S. lines with enormous amounts of U.S. assistance at every level. After the Iraqi insurgency coalesced shortly after the invasion, the Iraqi Army was redesigned as a counter-insurgency force. After the withdrawal of U.S. troops in 2010, Iraqi forces assumed full responsibility for the country's security. A New York Times article suggested that, between 2004 and 2014, the U.S. had provided the Iraqi Army with $25 billion in training and equipment in addition to an even larger sum from the Iraqi treasury. The Iraqi Army was designed as a counter-insurgency force that was developed under United States Army tutelage from 2003 to 2009. The force generation plan as of November 2009 includes 14 divisions, each consisting of 4 brigades. The Iraqi Army was described as the most important element of the counter-insurgency fight. The tactic is to provide security and other services on a local level by using infantrymen on dismounted patrols. As insurgents lose passive or active support from the local population, they will more easily be defeated, it was believed. Light infantry brigades are equipped with small arms, machine guns, RPGs, body armor and light armored vehicles. Mechanized infantry brigades are equipped with T-54/55 main battle tanks and BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicles. The Hungarian Defence Forces donated 77 Soviet-made T-72 tanks from their own arsenal. The tanks were refurbished by Hungarian specialists and were delivered in fully battle-ready condition in 2004. Training of personnel was also provided to the newly forming Iraqi Army. Iraq was planned to receive 280 M1A1M tanks from 2010 and 2013. The Army extensively collaborated with Iraqi Popular Mobilization Forces during anti-ISIL operations. From its creation in 1922 to 2003, the army suffered from a number of serious difficulties, junior tactical leadership among them. "Iraqi forces consistently had problems because of a dearth of technical skills and a limited exposure to machinery." However it also had significant strengths, particularly in two areas: logistics and combat engineering. Two impressive logistical accomplishments of the army included the ability to sustain an armoured corps in Syria during the Yom Kippur War/1973 Arab–Israeli War and their ability to move formations of corps size from one end of the country to another in days during the Iran–Iraq War. Since 2003, creation of combat forces has been the priority, and logistical support was initially supplied in one way or another by the coalition. As of mid 2008, logistical problems included a maintenance crisis and ongoing supply problems. Logistical capabilities have been developing, however, and the build-up of a nationwide logistical structure, with the Taji National Depot at its centre, is now well under way. Iraqi Air Force The Iraqi Air Force (IQAF or IrAF) (Arabic: القوات الجوية العراقية, Al Quwwat al Jawwiya al Iraqiya) is the aerial warfare service branch of the Iraqi Armed Forces, responsible for the policing of international borders and surveillance of national assets. The Air Force also supports the Iraqi Navy and the Iraqi Army. The Royal Iraqi Air Force was founded in 1931, during the period of British control in Iraq after their defeat of the Ottomans in the First World War, with only a few pilots. The Air Force considered its founding day as 22 April 1931, when the first pilots flew in from training in the United Kingdom. Before the creation of the new air force, the RAF Iraq Command was in charge of all British Armed Forces elements in Iraq in the 1920s and early 1930s. The RIrAF was based at the airport in the Washash neighborhood of Baghdad, and consisted of five pilots, aeronautics students trained at the RAF College Cranwell, and 32 aircraft mechanics. The original five pilots were Natiq Mohammed Khalil al-Tay, Mohammed Ali Jawad, Hafdhi Aziz, Akrem Mushtaq, and Musa Ali. During the early years of the Royal Iraqi Air Force, it mainly received aircraft from the United Kingdom as well as Breda Ba.65 attack planes and SM-79 bombers from Italy. In the years following Iraqi independence, the Air Force was still dependent on the Royal Air Force. The Iraqi government allocated the majority of its military expenditure to the Army and by 1936 the Royal Iraqi Air Force had only 37 pilots and 55 aircraft. The following year, the Air Force increased its number of pilots to 127. The air force used both Soviet and British aircraft throughout the 1950s and 1960s. When Saddam Hussein came to power in 1979, the air force grew quickly when Iraq ordered more Soviet and French aircraft. The air force's peak came after the long Iran–Iraq War, which ended in 1988, when it consisted of 1029 aircraft of all types (of which 550 were combat aircraft), becoming the largest air force in the region. Its downfall came during the Gulf War (1990–91) and continued as U.S. and allied forces enforced no-fly zones. The remains of Iraq's air force were destroyed during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. After the invasion, the Air Force was rebuilt, receiving most of its training and aircraft from the United States. In 2007, Iraq asked Iran to return some of the scores of Iraqi fighter planes that flew there to escape destruction during the Gulf War in 1991. As of 2014, Iran was receptive to the demands and was working on refurbishing an unspecified number of aircraft. Iraqi Navy The Iraqi Navy (Arabic: القوات البحرية العراقية) is one of the components of the Armed Forces. Its primary responsibilities are the protection of Iraq's coastline and offshore assets. It was formed in 1937 as a small four-ship force headquartered in Basra. Between 1937 and 1958, it was primarily a riverine force. Following the 14 July Revolution of 1958, the Iraqi Navy began to expand. Based in the port of Umm Qasr, the Arabic Gulf Academy for Sea Studies was established in Basra, which offered a bachelor's degree in war and engineering naval studies. By 1988, the Navy grew to a force of 5,000, but played a relatively small role during the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War. Much of the Navy was destroyed during Operation Pearl. Between 1977 and 1987, the Iraqi Navy received eight s, armed with P-15 Termit ("Styx") anti-ship missiles, from the Soviet Union. It also purchased four s and six s from Italy, although these were never delivered because of international sanctions following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990. The Iraqi Navy was almost completely destroyed by the Royal Navy during the Gulf War of 1991. The force had 19 ships sunk and 6 vessels damaged. In total, more than 100 Iraqi ships were destroyed. The Navy was not rebuilt and played little part in the Iraq War (2003). One Soviet patrol boat was destroyed. One exception was two mine warfare vessels captured by US Navy and Coast Guard units during the assault on Al Faw; The tug Jumariya, towing a well camouflaged minelaying barge, and the tug Al Raya, which had been outfitted as a minelayer itself. Of the units that remained by late 2002, most were in a poor state of repair and the crews were in a poor state of readiness. Whatever units that remained after 1991 were used primarily for safeguarding Saddam's palaces on the Tigris river. The Navy "was reformed in 2003 around five Taiwanese-built 28-meter Predator -class patrol boats, calling itself the Iraqi Coast Guard until December 2004, when it assumed the navy title." By the time the force "assumed its new identity as the Iraqi Navy in December [2004], it had mustered a force of 600, including 200 naval infantry who guard" Iraq's two oil platforms." In July 2008 it was reported that the Iraqi Navy was building a second Marine battalion. As of February 2011, the navy had approximately 5,000 sailors and marines which formed an operational headquarters, five afloat squadrons, and two marine battalions. Headed by Rear Admiral Muhammad Jawad, the navy had plans to build six Al Uboor-class patrol boats in Baghdad, with the first of the boats to enter service in September 2005. This project however, was ultimately canceled. Additionally, two Assad-class corvettes built for Iraq in the 1980s by Italy were originally planned to be delivered sometime around 2006–2007. The ships however, were found to be in a worse state than originally believed, forcing the Iraqi navy to reconsider the deal and instead buy 4, newer, smaller modified-Diciotti class vessels. The Iraqi Navy is designed for coastal water protection; preventing the smuggling of people, oil and weapons; and to protect the country's oil platforms. As a result, it mainly needs patrol boats. These may be backed up by fast attack craft. The patrol boats need to have the ability to launch Rigid-hulled inflatable boat for boarding ships and also possibly be able to accommodate a helicopter which would increase their patrol capability. In 2016 the Iraqi Navy awarded money to a ship maintenance company to sustain its current fleet of ships. Challenges for the armed forces Poor levels of internal security have stifled attempts to build any national banking or credit systems. In lieu of such organizations, Iraqi units operate at any given time with an estimated 10–20% absenteeism rate due to soldiers temporarily leaving their units to deliver their pay back to their families. This can be especially grueling if the unit is on deployment outside of their home province as the absenteeism time is naturally increased. In addition, all military hospitals under the Saddam regime were looted and abandoned during the 2003 invasion of Iraq; thus as of April 2007 the Army had no military hospitals. There is only one military prosthetics facility in the country and virtually no mental health or burn treatment services. Wounded Iraqi soldiers are expected to receive treatment either at civilian hospitals or if possible, at Coalition medical facilities. Corruption practices spurred partly by over-taxation at these civilian hospitals significantly drive up costs to the soldier. Due to overwhelming red tape within the Iraqi military compensation system, it is commonplace for the soldier to end up bearing the financial brunt of medical expenses. Purchases from U.S. Industry U.S. foreign military sales (FMS) to Iraq during the fiscal year 2020 included: AeroVironment unmanned aircraft systems, maintenance, and training BAE Systems Inc. MK90 grain Chemring cartridge actuated devices/propellant actuated devices, which can be used in ejection seats General Dynamics vehicle logistics support and training in Taji, Iraq Lockheed Martin long range radar systems Lockheed Martin Integrated Air Defense System sustainment Navistar Defense transport trucks, recovery vehicles, and spare parts Northrop Grumman ATK contractor logistic support for Iraq's Textron Cessna 208 and Cessna 172 fleet Rapiscan Systems contractor logistics support for M60 mobile scanning vehicle systems Scientia Global digital mobile radio equipment and training Spartan Air Academy contractor logistics support for T-6A aircraft at Balad Air Base and M16A4 rifles from Colt and FN America LLC. Defense industry under Saddam Hussein Under Saddam Hussein's presidency, Iraq had constructed state-of-the-art production facilities for the rocket propellant at Hillah, south of Baghdad, and assembled the missiles at Falluja, west of the Iraqi capital. At the time, Iraq was believed to be way ahead of its then rival Iran's arms producing industry. The Iraqis were producing a ground-to-ground missile with a 400-mile range known as the Husayn, a variant of the Soviet Scud rocket. They lobbed dozens of these terrifying missiles into Tehran in the late stages of their war with Iran during the so-called "War of the Cities." In addition, the Iraqis were believed to have the best stocks of rocket artillery in the Third World. They were producing a rocket with a 35-mile range modeled on the Brazilian Astros 2, a copy of the Soviet Frog 7, and their own 55-mile-range Liath rocket that was reportedly capable of carrying a chemical warhead. The Iraqis were also building a 30-mile-range surface-to-surface rocket known as the Ababil, which was designed to carry a sophisticated cluster-bomb warhead. Other Iraqi munitions projects included Lion of Babylon tank, infrared and television-guided bombs and laser-guided missiles. Baghdad was working on advanced naval mines and remote-piloted "drone" aircraft for battlefield surveillance. They had also developed indigenous radar planes similar to the U.S. airborne warning and control system (AWACS) surveillance aircraft. Iraq also had embarked upon an undertaking known as Project 395, a $400-million program to produce solid-fuel surface-to-surface ballistic missiles. Also under President Saddam Hussein, Project Babylon was launched to build a series of "superguns". Notable ballistic missiles of Iraq produced under Hussein included Al Hussein and Al-Samoud 2. Other notable weapons of Iraq produced under Saddam Hussein included the Tabuk Sniper Rifle, and the Al-Fao self-propelled artillery system. At sea the Iraqis built the LUGM-145 naval moored contact mine. There was an Iraqi biological weapons program (not to be confused with Iraqi chemical weapons program) under Saddam Hussein until the end of 1991 Gulf War. By the time Iraqis were testing biological warheads (containing anthrax and botulinum toxin) in Iraq's deserts, the 1980 to 1988 Iran–Iraq war had come to an end. In December 1990 the Iraqis had filled 100 R-400 bombs with botulinum toxin, 50 with anthrax, and 16 with aflatoxin. In addition, 13 Al Hussein missile warheads were filled with botulinum toxin, 10 with anthrax, and 2 with aflatoxin. These weapons were deployed in January 1991 to four locations for use against the U.S. forces only as "weapons of last resort" in case they stormed the gates of Baghdad. Since this never happened in 1991, Saddam found their use unnecessary. Iraq destroyed its biological arsenal after the 1991 war. The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) in Britain published in September 2002 a review of Iraq's military capability, and concluded that Iraq could assemble nuclear weapons within months if fissile material from foreign sources were obtained. Dr. Mahdi Obeidi, who created Saddam's nuclear centrifuge program that had successfully enriched uranium to weapons grade before the 1991 Gulf War, stated in an op-ed in The New York Times that although Iraqi scientists possessed the knowledge to restart the nuclear program, by 2002 the idea had become "a vague dream from another era." Iraqi scientists under Saddam Hussein included Nassir al-Hindawi, Rihab al-Taha and Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash as weapons designers. International military cooperation From 2003 to 2010, the United States Armed Forces took the major role in assuring Iraq's exterior defense. The U.S. command responsible was initially Combined Joint Task Force 7, then Multi-National Force – Iraq, and is now United States Forces – Iraq. USF-I was established on January 1, 2010, and withdrew on December 31, 2011. Residual assistance efforts were then managed by the Office of Security Cooperation, Iraq, headed by Lieutenant General Robert L. Caslen. OSC-Iraq was established on October 1, 2011. Lt Gen Bednarek succeeded Caslen. In 2010, U.S. Army Major General Tony Cucolo mentioned Operation Bright Star as an example of a possible joint training exercise component of a future U.S.–Iraq military-to-military relationship. While Iran has been accused of involvement in the Iraqi insurgency, the Iranian government also publicly offered help to build up the Iraqi armed forces. Then-Iraqi Defence Minister Saadoun al-Dulaimi met with his Iranian colleague Rear Admiral Ali Shamkhani in Tehran in 2005, and the Iranians pledged to give assistance. See also List of current equipment of the Iraqi Armed Forces Uniforms of Iraqi Armed Forces Military ranks of Iraq Notes References Bibliography Rathmell, Andrew, Olga Oliker, Terrence K. Kelly, David Brannan, and Keith Crane, eds. Developing Iraq’s Security Sector: The Coalition Provisional Authority’s Experience. MG-365-OSD. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2005. Further reading Jane's Pointer, 'Iraq changes command structure,' 1993 Michael Eisenstadt, 'The Iraqi Armed Forces Two Years On,' Jane's Intelligence Review, March 1993, p. 121–127 Hemphill, Paul (1979) `The Formation of the Iraqi Army, 1921–33', in Abbas Kelidar (ed.) The Integration of Modern Iraq, pp. 88–110. London: Croom Helm. Kenneth M. Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948–91, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln/London, 2002 Andrew Rathmell, 'Iraq's Military: Waiting for Change,' Jane's Intelligence Review, Vol. 7, No.2, February 1995, p. 76–80 (one callmark UA853.I72 ALM) Sean Boyle, 'In wake of Desert Fox, Saddam moves to tighten his grip,' Jane's ChemBio Web/Geopolitical Resources (also Jane's Intelligence Review), 2 February 1999. Iraqi PMO. "رئيس مجلس الوزراء @MAKadhimi يؤكد أنّ تطوير المؤسسات الأمنية واصلاحها هي من أولويات المنهاج الوزاري الذي ينصّ على تعزيز أداء الأجهزة الأمنية المختلفة وتحقيق التكامل المطلوب بينها، والعمل بمبدأ أنَّ كلَّ القوات العسكرية والأمنية في خدمة الشعب وتطلعاته ووحدته وأمنه ... Pic.twitter.com/TYAN3Au34v." Twitter, 28 May 2020, twitter.com/IraqiPMO/status/1265950977829601282. External links Ministry of Defence Ministry of Defence Law enforcement in Iraq Military of Iraq 1921 establishments in Iraq
4627888	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual%20federalism	Dual federalism	Dual federalism, also known as layer-cake federalism or divided sovereignty, is a political arrangement in which power is divided between the federal and state governments in clearly defined terms, with state governments exercising those powers accorded to them without interference from the federal government. Dual federalism is defined in contrast to cooperative federalism ("marble-cake federalism"), in which federal and state governments collaborate on policy. United States Constitutional origin The system of dual/joint federalism in the United States is a product of the backlash against the Articles of Confederation, ratified in 1781, which established a very weak federal government with the powers to declare war, make treaties, and maintain an army. Fueled by Shays' Rebellion and an economy faltering under the inability of the federal government to pay the debt from the American Revolution, a group later known as the Federalists generated support for a strong central government and called for a Constitutional Convention in 1787 to reconsider the Articles. In 1787, the Convention almost immediately dropped its original purpose of editing the Articles and instead drafted a new Constitution of the United States. Rejecting both confederal and unitary systems, they based the new American government on a new theory of federalism, a system of shared sovereignty that delegates some powers to the federal government and reserves other powers for the states. Among other powers, the federal legislature could now tax citizens and maintain a standing military, and had exclusive power over regulating interstate commerce and coining currency. In addition, while Article Six of the Constitution stipulated that federal law in pursuit of constitutionally assigned ends overrode any contradictory state law, the power of the national government was held in check by the Bill of Rights – particularly the Tenth Amendment, which limited federal governmental powers to only those specified in the Constitution. Importantly, at the Convention, there was large debate over the structure of the legislative branch, eventually solved by the Connecticut Compromise. In the traditional understanding of the discussion, the larger states proposed the Virginia Plan, which allocated representation to each state proportional to its population. The smaller states, fearing a tyranny of the larger states, propose the New Jersey Plan, which gave each state equal representation in the legislative body. The states' motives for such a debate have been largely understood as a method for ensuring a strong voice in the federal government so as to maintain a desired degree of sovereignty. Further, political scientist Martin Diamond interprets the argument through a federalist vs antifederalist lens, discounting the question of state size. Specifically, he argues that the pure federalism of the New Jersey Plan and the pure nationalism of the Virginia Plan eventually came together to form the system of bicameralism that the framers settled on. However, his theory largely goes against the usual understanding, which some have argued is based on stronger historical evidence. Powers Exclusive powers of United States Federal Government Lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises To pay the debts Provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States Borrow money Regulate interstate and international commerce Establish immigration and naturalization law Regulate bankruptcies To coin money Establish weights and measures Prosecute counterfeiting Establish a post office and post roads Regulate patents, copyrights, and trademarks Establish inferior courts Regulate cases in admiralty and offences against the laws of nations Declare war Grant letters of marque and reprisal Regulate the capture of prisoners of war Raise an army Maintain a navy Make rules regulating the military Provide for calling forth, regulating, and disciplining the militia Plenary authority over the capital district Regulating the manner of establishing full faith and credit between states Admittance of new states Plenary authority over all territories Exclusive powers of state and local governments Regulation of intrastate commerce Conduct elections Ratification of amendments to the U.S. Constitution To exercise powers neither delegated to the national government nor prohibited from the states by the Constitution as per Amendment X Property laws Inheritance laws Commercial laws Banking laws Corporate laws Insurance Family law Morality law Public health Education Land management Criminal Law Elections Local government Licensing Create its own Constitution 19th-century Supreme Court cases Since the initial division of state and federal powers – collectively, the system of dual federalism – put forth by the Constitution, several seminal court cases have helped further clarify the purview of the federal government. One such case, McCulloch v. Maryland, concerned the constitutionality of a federally chartered bank, which bankers and many legislators in Maryland opposed. Although the ability to charter a bank had not been explicitly granted to the federal government in the Constitution, federalist proponents argued such action as necessary for the federal government to exercise its constitutional power to “tax, borrow, and regulate interstate commerce.” The Supreme Court, in essence, backed Alexander Hamilton's interpretation of the Constitution over Thomas Jefferson. Thus, the bank's legitimacy was ensured by the Necessary and Proper Clause. A second major case regarding the respective rights of the state and federal government was Gibbons v. Ogden (1824). In 1808, the Fulton-Livingston Company had been granted exclusive steamboat rights by the New York legislature, who in turn had leased ferry rights within a portion of New York to Aaron Ogden. Ogden, citing the monopoly granted to him by the Fulton-Livingstone Company, had successfully prevented Thomas Gibbons from operating a ferry service between Manhattan and New Jersey. Chief Justice Marshall’s majority opinion sided with Gibbons, stating that Ogden's monopoly of the ferry service overstepped states’ ability to regulate trade. While the constitutionality of some aspects implied by the case remained vague, the decision once more reaffirmed the supremacy of federal law and diminished the power of state-sanctioned protectionism. State challenges to federal supremacy In the decades before the Civil War, both Northern and Southern states clashed with the national government over perceived overreaches in its power. These conflicts struck at the heart of dual federalism, and reflected a fundamental disagreement about the division of power between the national and state levels. While these political battles were ostensibly solved either through legislative compromise or Supreme Court decisions, the underlying tensions and disagreements about states’ rights would later help set the stage for the Civil War. South Carolina's nullification doctrine In 1828, the so-called "Tariff of Abominations" passed the U.S. House. It was meant as a protectionist measure to help the relatively industrialized New England states against international products, but this had grave implications for the largely agrarian South. In protest and spearheaded by Vice President John Calhoun, South Carolina formulated a "nullification doctrine", in effect claiming a state's ability to ignore federal law, and rejected the tariff. The situation became especially serious when President Jackson ordered federal troops into Charleston, though crisis was averted by the drafting of a new tariff to which both sides agreed. The crisis illustrated an example of conflicting ideologies on state and federal power that was not resolved through the courts, but with discussion between elected officials. Prigg v. Pennsylvania While some Southern states resisted economic actions of the federal government, several Northern states balked at federal requirements regarding slavery. In 1842, the case of Prigg v. Pennsylvania concerned Edward Prigg, who had been found guilty of kidnapping a former slave residing in Pennsylvania, Margaret Morgan, and her children and bringing them to her former owner in Maryland. Prigg was charged according to Pennsylvania law, which considered such an action a felony, while Prigg argued that he had been duly appointed for the task and was within the bounds of the federal Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. The U.S. Supreme Court declared the Pennsylvania law unconstitutional, striking the abolitionist law and heightening tensions between slaveholding and non-slaveholding states. Nullification by Wisconsin A similar situation arose when, in 1854, the state Supreme Court of Wisconsin declared the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 unconstitutional. The U.S. Supreme Court overturned the Wisconsin Supreme Court while the Wisconsin legislature, echoing the rhetoric of South Carolina during the 1828 crisis, nullified the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision. Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) In 1857, continuing the debate between the national government and free states, the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford held that all Americans of African descent were not legally citizens, and therefore could not file suit. Thus Mr. Scott, a slave who had been brought to the free state of Illinois but later returned to slave-holding jurisdictions, and who had pursued emancipation through the federal courts, remained a slave. Though the decision was largely welcomed in the South, the decision outraged abolitionists and non-slaveholding states as another affront on states' rights. Federal power during the Civil War The Civil War brought to a head many of the fundamental disagreements concerning the extent of state and federal powers which presidential candidates Lincoln and Douglas had debated between 1858 and 1860. Douglas, an advocate of federal government limited by a strict interpretation of the Constitution, championed the vision of America as “the confederation of the sovereign states". Lincoln, meanwhile, envisioned a more active federal government and more integrated national community, with the purview of states limited to only "those things that pertain exclusively to themselves—that are local in their nature, that have no connection with the general government". Many of these questions would be resolved by actions taken by the North’s federal government during the course of the fighting during the years after the debates. Actions taken by the North during the war, including the conscription of soldiers into a national army, as provided by the Enrollment Act of March 1863, and expanded federal control over banking with the 1863 National Banking Act, resulting in a much more robust national government in postbellum America. There exists debate over whether this increase in federal power was achieved against states’ will or whether such expanded powers were granted by the states. After the Civil War, the federal government began expanding its powers, primarily concerning itself with regulating commerce and civil rights, originally considered the domain of state governments. Reconstruction After the Civil War, Congress amended the Constitution to guarantee certain rights for citizens. This period brought about debate on whether the federal government could make these amendments, some arguing that this was an infringement on states' rights. However, during this time period the public began to believe that the federal government was responsible for defending civil liberties even though previously the idea was that a strong central government would be the biggest detriment to personal freedom. Regardless, the Supreme Court verified states' rights to require literacy tests in Williams v. Mississippi, effectively allowing states to discriminate against black voters. In addition, the Court ruled in favor of states' rights to mandate racially segregated accommodations, so long as they were "separate but equal" in Plessy v. Ferguson. Although Law Professor Eugene Gressman views these rulings as a "judicially directed perversion" of what the abolitionists meant to accomplish, within historical context the Supreme Court decisions seem more occupied with sustaining the system of dual federalism. In making these decisions, the Supreme Court aimed to keep in line with the idea of federalism as it then existed, balancing states' rights with the protection of civil liberties, rather than simply opposing the new amendments. For instance, in Strauder v. West Virginia the Court sided with those who wished to overturn the law that excluded black citizens from juries, which suggests that the Court was beginning to build a set of cases that enumerated rights based on the new amendments. However, in other aspects the Supreme Court reasserted states' rights in relation to the 14th Amendment in particular. In the Slaughter-house cases and Bradwell v. Illinois the Court supported the view that the amendment regulated states rather than individuals practicing discrimination. Both of these cases allowed states to enforce laws that infringed on individual rights. End of dual federalism The general consensus among scholars is that dual federalism ended during Franklin Roosevelt's presidency in 1937 when the New Deal policies were decided constitutional by the Supreme Court. Industrialization, economic modernization, and conditions surrounding the Great Depression elevated commerce to a more national level, so there was an overlap in the powers of the federal government and the states. The federal government, using the Commerce Clause, passed national policies to regulate the economy. The Interstate Commerce Act and Sherman Antitrust Act solidified Congress's authority to regulate commerce between states and expanded its role. This, in addition to the New Deal policies, led to the federal government and the states working together more, ending the era of dual federalism and moving America into cooperative federalism. However, political scientists have argued different theories concerning the end of dual federalism. As opposed to a clear transition from dual federalism to cooperative federalism, some political scientists say there was a much more complicated relationship between the states and the federal government. Rather than a competition for power, the powers of the state and federal government change according to national political movements and their agendas; a dynamic that existed both before and after the New Deal. Other political scientists see dual federalism ending much earlier than the New Deal; This would have been the beginning of cooperative federalism as the federal government identified a problem, set up the basic outline of the program to address the problem, and make money available to fund that program, and then turning over much of the responsibility for implementing and running the program to the states and localities. Daniel Elazar argues that there was substantial cooperation among the states and federal government beginning in the 19th century, leading up to the Civil War and several political scientists assert that starting from the 1870s and throughout the Progressive Era, the federal government and states worked together to create national policies. Outside the United States The governments of Argentina, Austria, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Comoros, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Micronesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Spain, Switzerland, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela also operate through federalism. The federations of Australia, Canada, and Switzerland most closely resemble the model of American dual federalism in which fundamental governmental powers are divided between the federal and state governments, with the states exercising broad powers. While the American federalist system allocates both legislative and administrative powers to each division of government, European federations have historically allocated legislative powers to the federal government and left constituents to administer and implement these laws. Most western federalist systems in recent years have drifted away from autonomous levels of governments with strong state powers and moved toward more centralized federal governments, as seen in the American government's transition from dual to cooperative federalism. The Canadian and Australian federal systems closely resemble the American construct of dual federalism in that their legislative and executive powers are allocated in the same policy area to a single level of government. In contrast, some federal structures, such as those of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, consist of federal governments exercising broad legislative powers and constituent governments allocated the power to administer such legislation in a style similar to cooperative federalism. Constitutions with delegations of broad powers to the state level of government that resemble the Constitution of the United States include the Constitution of Australia and the Constitution of Canada. The Australian Constitution was designed to enumerate a limited range of federal powers and leave the rest to the states. The Canadian Constitution, in contrast, assigned all residual powers to the federal government and enumerated a complete list of provincial powers. The Austrian Constitution, Constitution of Germany, and Swiss Constitution enumerate few policy fields exclusive to the states, but enumerate extensive concurrent powers. The federations operate chiefly through legislation produced by the federal government and left to the Länder or state governments to implement. Since 1991, Russia may also be considered a dual federation. Origins of "layer cake" metaphor In his second term, President Dwight D. Eisenhower organized the Commission on National Goals to broadly outline national objectives. Included in their 1960 report Goals for Americans: The Report of the President's Commission on National Goals was "The Federal System", a report by political scientist Morton Grodzins. In this report, Grodzins first coined the terms "layer cake federalism" and "marble cake federalism." He used the metaphor of a layer cake to describe the system of dual federalism, the separated layers of the cake symbolizing how distinct spheres of power that the state and federal governments have not been inhabited. He contrasted this with marble cake, which he saw as descriptive of federalism's status in 1960, the swirling indistinct boundaries of the cake symbolizing the overlapping and concurrent duties of the state and federal governments. See also Federalism Federalism in the United States Anti-Federalism Cooperative federalism Footnotes Further reading Elazar, Daniel J. The American Partnership: Intergovernmental Cooperation in the Nineteenth-Century United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. Pascal, Elizabeth. Defining Russian Federalism. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003. Warmington-Granston, Nicole. FEDERALISM IN LATIN AMERICA. Williams, Norman (August 2007).The Commerce Clause and the Myth of Dual Federalism UCLA Law Review. Federalism in the United States Political theories
4627929	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl%20Jam%20Official%20Bootlegs	Pearl Jam Official Bootlegs	See full list in :Category:Pearl Jam Official Bootlegs. The Pearl Jam "official" bootlegs are a large, continually growing series of live albums by the American alternative rock band Pearl Jam. Pearl Jam noted the desire of fans to own a copy of the shows they attended and the popularity of bootleg recordings. They had been open in the past about allowing fans to make amateur recordings, and these "official bootlegs" were an attempt to provide a more affordable and better quality product. The official bootlegs are a complete record of almost every show the band plays, excluding club "warm-up" dates. The band has sold more than 13.5 million copies of shows since launching the bootleg series in 2000. 2000–2001 Pearl Jam's official bootleg program was begun for the band's 2000 Binaural Tour. 72 of the "bootlegs" were released to stores in three waves in late 2000 and early 2001, with the 25 European bootlegs coming first. Every show was released in a cardboard sleeve containing two CDs, with the exception of the 72nd and final show on the tour, November 6, 2000, at KeyArena in Seattle, Washington. The Seattle show was released as a triple-disc set, and was the highest-charting of the series, peaking at number 98 on the Billboard 200, and was called an "essential live document" by Allmusic. Eighteen shows from the tour were chosen by the band as "Ape/Man" shows, which, according to bassist Jeff Ament, were shows the band found "really exciting." With the release of these official bootlegs, Pearl Jam would set a record for most albums to debut in the Billboard 200 at the same time. 2000 official bootlegs * Asterisk denotes Ape/Man shows Europe BootlegsReleased: September 26, 2000 1 5/23/00, Estádio do Restelo, Lisbon, Portugal 2 5/25/00, Palau Sant Jordi, Barcelona, Spain (Catalonia) 3 5/26/00, Velodromo de Anoeta, San Sebastian, Spain (Basque Country) 4 5/29/00, Wembley Arena, London, England 5 5/30/00, Wembley Arena, London, England 6 6/1/00, The Point Theatre, Dublin, Ireland 7 6/3/00, SECC, Glasgow, Scotland 8 6/4/00, Manchester Evening News Arena, Manchester, England 9 6/6/00, Cardiff International Arena, Cardiff, Wales 10 6/8/00, Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy, Paris, France 11 6/9/00, Rock am Ring, Nürburg, Germany 12 6/11/00, Rock im Park, Nuremberg, Germany 13 6/12/00, Pinkpop, Landgraaf, Netherlands 14 6/14/00, Paegas Arena, Prague, Czech Republic 15 6/15/00, Spodek, Katowice, Poland 16 6/16/00, Spodek, Katowice, Poland 17 6/18/00, Residenzplatz, Salzburg, Austria 18 6/19/00, Hala Tivoli, Ljubljana, Slovenia 19 6/20/00, Arena di Verona, Verona, Italy 20 6/22/00, FILA Forum Arena, Milan, Italy 21 6/23/00, Hallenstadion, Zurich, Switzerland 22 6/25/00, Wuhlheide, Berlin, Germany 23 6/26/00, Alsterdorfer Sporthalle, Hamburg, Germany 24 6/28/00, Sjöhistoriska Museet, Stockholm, Sweden 25 6/29/00, Spektrum, Oslo, Norway North America Leg 1 BootlegsReleased: February 27, 2001 26 8/3/00, GTE Virginia Beach Amphitheater, Virginia Beach, Virginia 27 8/4/00, Blockbuster Pavilion, Charlotte, North Carolina 28 8/6/00, Greensboro Coliseum, Greensboro, North Carolina 29 8/7/00, Philips Arena, Atlanta, Georgia 30 8/9/00, Mars Music Amphitheatre, West Palm Beach, Florida 31 8/10/00, Mars Music Amphitheatre, West Palm Beach, Florida 32 8/12/00, Ice Palace, Tampa, Florida 33 8/14/00, New Orleans Arena, New Orleans, Louisiana 34 8/15/00, Pyramid Arena, Memphis, Tennessee 35 8/17/00, AmSouth Amphitheater, Antioch, Tennessee 36 8/18/00, Deer Creek Music Center, Noblesville, Indiana 37 8/20/00, Riverbend Music Center, Cincinnati, Ohio 38 8/21/00, Polaris Amphitheater, Columbus, Ohio 39 8/23/00, Jones Beach Amphitheater, Wantagh, New York 40 8/24/00, Jones Beach Amphitheater, Wantagh, New York 41 8/25/00, Jones Beach Amphitheater, Wantagh, New York 42 8/27/00, Saratoga Performing Arts Center, Saratoga Springs, New York 43 8/29/00, Tweeter Center Boston, Mansfield, Massachusetts 44 8/30/00, Tweeter Center Boston, Mansfield, Massachusetts 45 9/1/00, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 46 9/2/00, Blockbuster Music Entertainment Centre, Camden, New Jersey 47 9/4/00, Merriweather Post Pavilion, Columbia, Maryland 48 9/5/00, Post-Gazette Pavilion, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania North America Leg 2 BootlegsReleased: March 27, 2001 49 10/4/00, Molson Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada 50 10/5/00, Air Canada Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 51 10/7/00, The Palace of Auburn Hills, Auburn Hills, Michigan 52 10/8/00, Alpine Valley Music Theatre, East Troy, Wisconsin 53 10/9/00, Allstate Arena, Rosemont, Illinois 54 10/11/00, Riverport Amphitheater, Maryland Heights, Missouri 55 10/12/00, Sandstone Amphitheater, Bonner Springs, Kansas 56 10/14/00, Cynthia Woods Mitchell Pavilion, The Woodlands, Texas 57 10/15/00, Cynthia Woods Mitchell Pavilion, The Woodlands, Texas 58 10/17/00, Smirnoff Music Centre, Dallas, Texas 59 10/18/00, United Spirit Arena, Lubbock, Texas 60 10/20/00, Mesa Del Sol Amphitheatre, Albuquerque, New Mexico 61 10/21/00, Desert Sky Pavilion, Phoenix, Arizona 62 10/22/00, MGM Grand Arena, Las Vegas, Nevada 63 10/24/00, Greek Theatre, Los Angeles, California 64 10/25/00, San Diego Sports Arena, San Diego, California 65 10/27/00, Selland Arena, Fresno, California 66 10/28/00, Blockbuster Pavilion, Devore, California 67 10/30/00, Sacramento Valley Amphitheater, Marysville, California 68 10/31/00, Shoreline Amphitheatre, Mountain View, California 69 11/2/00, Rose Garden Arena, Portland, Oregon 70 11/3/00, Idaho Center, Nampa, Idaho 71 11/5/00, KeyArena, Seattle, Washington 72 11/6/00, KeyArena, Seattle, Washington Chart positions 2003 The CDs continued for the 2003 Riot Act Tour, but they were not available in stores at first. They had to be ordered through the band's official website, and were mailed out. The bootlegs were made available within a week of each show date. After each leg of the tour, however, certain standout shows were released in stores: February 23, 2003, in Perth, Australia; March 3, 2003, in Tokyo, Japan; May 3, 2003, in State College, Pennsylvania; July 8, 2003, and July 9, 2003, in New York City; and July 11, 2003, in Mansfield, Massachusetts. The State College show was a three-hour, triple disc show, which vocalist Eddie Vedder vowed to make "the longest Pearl Jam show ever played." It was surpassed by the Mansfield show, from the Tweeter Center Boston, in which the band played 45 songs, including an acoustic set. The New York shows, from Madison Square Garden, were released both separately and as a boxed set. The July 8, 2003 show was also released as the Live at the Garden DVD. In 2004, Pearl Jam released Live at Benaroya Hall, and while it came in similar packaging to the bootlegs, it is not considered to be part of the series. 2003 official bootlegs * denotes a bootleg released to retail stores on June 10, 2003 denotes a bootleg released to retail stores on July 15, 2003 * denotes a bootleg released to retail stores on September 16, 2003 **** denotes a bootleg released as a special edition to retail stores only in Mexico Note: Number 53 in the series was to have been the band's show at the Riverbend Music Center in Cincinnati, Ohio, however the show was cancelled. Australia/Japan Bootlegs 1 2/8/03, Brisbane Entertainment Centre, Brisbane, Australia 2 2/9/03, Brisbane Entertainment Centre, Brisbane, Australia 3 2/11/03, Sydney Entertainment Centre, Sydney, Australia 4 2/13/03, Sydney Entertainment Centre, Sydney, Australia 5 2/14/03, Sydney Entertainment Centre, Sydney, Australia 6 2/16/03, Adelaide Entertainment Centre, Adelaide, Australia 7 2/18/03, Rod Laver Arena, Melbourne, Australia 8 2/19/03, Rod Laver Arena, Melbourne, Australia 9 2/20/03, Rod Laver Arena, Melbourne, Australia 10 2/23/03, Burswood Dome, Perth, Australia 11 2/28/03, Izumity 21, Sendai, Japan 12 3/1/03, Pacifico Yokohama, Yokohama, Japan 13 3/3/03, Nippon Budokan, Tokyo, Japan 14 3/4/03, Kosei Nenkin Kaika, Osaka, Japan 15 3/6/03, Nagoyashi Kokaido, Nagoya, Japan North America Leg 1 Bootlegs 16 4/1/03, Pepsi Center, Denver, Colorado 17 4/3/03, Ford Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 18 4/5/03, Verizon Wireless Amphitheater, San Antonio, Texas 19 4/6/03, Cynthia Woods Mitchell Pavilion, The Woodlands, Texas 20 4/8/03, UNO Lakefront Arena, New Orleans, Louisiana 21 4/9/03, Oak Mountain Amphitheater, Pelham, Alabama 22 4/11/03, Sound Advice Amphitheater, West Palm Beach, Florida 23 4/13/03, St. Pete Times Forum, Tampa, Florida 24 4/15/03, Alltel Pavilion at Walnut Creek, Raleigh, North Carolina 25 4/16/03, Verizon Wireless Amphitheater, Charlotte, North Carolina 26 4/18/03, AmSouth Amphitheater, Antioch, Tennessee 27 4/19/03, HiFi Buys Amphitheatre, Atlanta, Georgia 28 4/21/03, Rupp Arena, Lexington, Kentucky 29 4/22/03, Savvis Center, St. Louis, Missouri 30 4/23/03, Assembly Hall, Champaign, Illinois 31 4/25/03, Gund Arena, Cleveland, Ohio 32 4/26/03, Mellon Arena, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 33 4/28/03, First Union Spectrum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 34 4/29/03, Pepsi Arena, Albany, New York 35 4/30/03, Nassau Coliseum, Uniondale, New York 36 5/2/03, HSBC Arena, Buffalo, New York 37 5/3/03, Bryce Jordan Center, University Park, Pennsylvania North America Leg 2 Bootlegs 38 5/28/03, Adams Fieldhouse, University of Montana-Missoula, Missoula, Montana 39 5/30/03, GM Place, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 40 6/1/03, Shoreline Amphitheatre, Mountain View, California 41 6/2/03, Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre, Irvine, California 42 6/3/03, Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre, Irvine, California 43 6/5/03, San Diego Sports Arena, San Diego, California 44 6/6/03, MGM Grand Arena, Las Vegas, Nevada 45 6/7/03, Cricket Pavilion, Phoenix, Arizona 46 6/9/03, Smirnoff Music Centre, Dallas, Texas 47 6/10/03, Alltel Arena, Little Rock, Arkansas 48 6/12/03, Verizon Wireless Amphitheater, Bonner Springs, Kansas 49 6/13/03, Mid-America Center, Council Bluffs, Iowa 50 6/15/03, Fargodome, Fargo, North Dakota 51 6/16/03, Xcel Energy Center, Saint Paul, Minnesota 52 6/18/03, United Center, Chicago, Illinois 54 6/21/03, Alpine Valley Music Theater, East Troy, Wisconsin 55 6/22/03, Verizon Wireless Music Center, Noblesville, Indiana 56 6/24/03, Polaris Amphitheater, Columbus, Ohio 57 6/25/03, DTE Energy Music Theatre, Clarkston, Michigan 58 6/26/03, DTE Energy Music Theatre, Clarkston, Michigan 59 6/28/03, Molson Amphitheatre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 60 6/29/03, Bell Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada 61 7/1/03, Nissan Pavilion, Bristow, Virginia 62 7/2/03, Tweeter Center Boston, Mansfield, Massachusetts 63 7/3/03, Tweeter Center Boston, Mansfield, Massachusetts 64 7/5/03, Tweeter Center at the Waterfront, Camden, New Jersey 65 7/6/03, Tweeter Center at the Waterfront, Camden, New Jersey 66 7/8/03, Madison Square Garden, New York, New York 67 7/9/03, Madison Square Garden, New York, New York 68 7/11/03, Tweeter Center, Mansfield, Massachusetts 69 7/12/03, Hersheypark Stadium, Hershey, Pennsylvania 70 7/14/03, PNC Bank Arts Center, Holmdel, New Jersey 71 7/17/03, Palacio de los Deportes, Mexico City, Mexico 72 7/18/03, Palacio de los Deportes, Mexico City, Mexico 73 7/19/03, Palacio de los Deportes, Mexico City, Mexico Chart positions 2005–2006 Pearl Jam took a year-long touring break until the 2004 Vote for Change tour, but the band elected not to release bootlegs for the six shows from that tour. The band took yet another year off until a fall 2005 tour of Canada and South America. For the first time, the bootlegs were MP3-only, again only available through the band's official website. The music downloads were accompanied by pictures from individual shows. The MP3-only format expanded to include lossless FLAC format for the band's 2006 summer tour for its self-titled eighth album. The digital bootlegs were typically made available within 2–3 days of each show date. The bootlegs were available through the band's official download website, which has since been discontinued. 2005 official bootlegs North America bootlegs 1 9/1/05, The Gorge, George, Washington 2 9/2/05, General Motors Place, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 3 9/4/05, Pengrowth Saddledome, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 4 9/5/05, Rexall Place, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 5 9/7/05, Credit Union Centre, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada 6 9/8/05, MTS Centre, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada 7 9/9/05, Fort William Gardens, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada 8 9/11/05, Memorial Auditorium, Kitchener, Ontario, Canada 9 9/12/05, John Labatt Centre, London, Ontario, Canada 10 9/13/05, Copps Coliseum, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada 11 9/15/05, Bell Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada 12 9/16/05, Corel Centre, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 13 9/19/05, Air Canada Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 14 9/20/05, Colisee Pepsi Arena, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada 15 9/22/05, Metro Centre, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada 16 9/24/05, Mile One Stadium, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada 17 9/25/05, Mile One Stadium, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada 18 9/30/05, Borgata Events Center, Atlantic City, New Jersey 19 10/1/05, Borgata Events Center, Atlantic City, New Jersey 20 10/3/05, Wachovia Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Latin America bootlegs 21 11/22/05, Estadio San Carlos de Apoquindo, Santiago, Chile 22 11/23/05, Estadio San Carlos de Apoquindo, Santiago, Chile 23 11/25/05, Ferrocarril Oeste Stadium, Buenos Aires, Argentina 24 11/26/05, Ferrocarril Oeste Stadium, Buenos Aires, Argentina 25 11/28/05, Gigantinho Gymnasium, Porto Alegre, Brazil 26 11/30/05, Pedreira Paulo Leminski, Curitiba, Brazil 27 12/2/05, Pacaembu, São Paulo, Brazil 28 12/3/05, Pacaembu, São Paulo, Brazil 29 12/4/05, Apoteose, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil 30 12/7/05, Auditorio Coca Cola, Monterrey, Mexico 31 12/9/05, Palacio de los Deportes, Mexico City, Mexico 32 12/10/05, Palacio de los Deportes, Mexico City, Mexico 2006 official bootlegs North America Leg 1 bootlegs 1 5/9/06, Air Canada Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 2 5/10/06, Air Canada Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 3 5/12/06, Pepsi Arena, Albany, New York 4 5/13/06, New England Dodge Music Arena, Hartford, Connecticut 5 5/16/06, United Center, Chicago, Illinois 6 5/17/06, United Center, Chicago, Illinois 7 5/19/06, Van Andel Arena, Grand Rapids, Michigan 8 5/20/06, Quicken Loans Arena, Cleveland, Ohio 9 5/22/06, Palace of Auburn Hills, Detroit, Michigan 10 5/24/06, TD Banknorth Garden, Boston, Massachusetts 11 5/25/06, TD Banknorth Garden, Boston, Massachusetts 12 5/27/06, Tweeter Waterfront, Camden, New Jersey 13 5/28/06, Tweeter Waterfront, Camden, New Jersey 14 5/30/06, MCI Center, Washington, D.C. 15 6/1/06, Continental Airlines Arena, East Rutherford, New Jersey 16 6/3/06, Continental Airlines Arena, East Rutherford, New Jersey North America Leg 2 bootlegs 17 6/23/06, Mellon Arena, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 18 6/24/06, US Bank Arena, Cincinnati, Ohio 19 6/26/06, Xcel Energy Center, Saint Paul, Minnesota 20 6/27/06, Xcel Energy Center, Saint Paul, Minnesota 21 6/29/06, Marcus Amphitheatre, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 22 6/30/06, Marcus Amphitheatre, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 23 7/2/06, Pepsi Center, Denver, Colorado 24 7/3/06, Pepsi Center, Denver, Colorado 25 7/6/06, MGM Grand, Las Vegas, Nevada 26 7/7/06, Cox Arena, San Diego, California 27 7/9/06, The Forum, Inglewood, California 28 7/10/06, The Forum, Inglewood, California 29 7/13/06, Santa Barbara Bowl, Santa Barbara, California 30 7/15/06, Bill Graham Civic Auditorium, San Francisco, California 31 7/16/06, Bill Graham Civic Auditorium, San Francisco California 32 7/18/06, Bill Graham Civic Auditorium, San Francisco California 33 7/20/06, Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall, Portland, Oregon 34 7/22/06, The Gorge Amphitheatre, George, Washington 35 7/23/06, The Gorge Amphitheatre, George, Washington Europe bootlegs 36 8/23/06, The Point, Dublin, Ireland 37 8/25/06, Leeds Festival, Leeds, England 38 8/27/06, Reading Festival, Reading, England 39 8/29/06, Gelredome, Arnhem, Netherlands 40 8/30/06, Sportpaleis, Antwerp, Belgium 41 9/1/06, Pavello Olimpic de Badalona, Barcelona, Spain 42 9/2/06, Azkena Rock Festival, Vitoria, Spain 43 9/4/06, Pavilhao Atlantico, Lisbon, Portugal 44 9/5/06, Pavilhao Atlantico, Lisbon, Portugal 45 9/7/06, Palacio de Deportes, Madrid, Spain 46 9/9/06, Le Dome de Marseille, Marseille, France 47 9/11/06, Bercy, Paris, France 48 9/13/06, Bern Arena, Bern, Switzerland 49 9/14/06, PalaMalaguti, Bologna, Italy 50 9/16/06, Arena di Verona, Verona, Italy 51 9/17/06, Forum, Milan, Italy 52 9/19/06, Palaisozaki, Torino, Italy 53 9/20/06, Duomo Square, Pistoia, Italy 54 9/22/06, Sazka Arena, Prague, Czech Republic 55 9/23/06, Wuhlheide, Berlin, Germany 56 9/25/06, Stadthalle, Vienna, Austria 57 9/26/06, Dom Sportova, Zagreb, Croatia 58 9/30/06, OAKA Sports Hall, Athens, Greece Australia/Hawaii bootlegs 59 11/7/06, Acer Arena, Sydney, Australia 60 11/8/06, Acer Arena, Sydney, Australia 61 11/10/06, Entertainment Center, Brisbane, Australia 62 11/11/06, Entertainment Center, Brisbane, Australia 63 11/13/06, Rod Laver Arena, Melbourne, Australia 64 11/14/06, Rod Laver Arena, Melbourne, Australia 65 11/16/06, Rod Laver Arena, Melbourne, Australia 66 11/18/06, Acer Arena, Sydney, Australia 67 11/19/06, Newcastle Entertainment Centre, Newcastle, Australia 68 11/21/06, Adelaide Entertainment Centre, Adelaide, Australia 69 11/22/06, Adelaide Entertainment Centre, Adelaide, Australia 70 11/25/06, Subiaco Oval, Perth, Australia 71 12/2/06, Blaisdell Center, Honolulu, Hawaii Online archival releases 11/30/93, Aladdin Theater, Las Vegas, Nevada 2008-2011 The band elected not to release official bootlegs for its 2007 European Tour. Official bootlegs are available for the band's 2008 U.S. Tour through the band's official website in FLAC, MP3, and CD formats. The 2008 bootlegs were released through Kufala Recordings. Pearl Jam released bootlegs of shows from their 2009-2010 Backspacer Tour exclusively on its website. The bootlegs are available for digital download in MP3 and FLAC format as well as burn-to-order compact disc formats with the CD orders fulfilled by Kufala Records. 2008 official bootlegs 1 6/11/08, Cruzan Amphitheatre, West Palm Beach, Florida 2 6/12/08, St. Pete Times Forum, Tampa, Florida 3 6/14/08, Bonnaroo, Manchester, Tennessee 4 6/16/08, Colonial Center, Columbia, South Carolina 5 6/17/08, Verizon Amphitheatre, Virginia Beach, Virginia 6 6/19/08, Susquehanna Bank Center, Camden, New Jersey 7 6/20/08, Susquehanna Bank Center, Camden, New Jersey 8 6/22/08, Verizon Center, Washington, D.C. 9 6/24/08, Madison Square Garden, New York, New York 10 6/25/08, Madison Square Garden, New York, New York 11 6/27/08, Dodge Amphitheater, Hartford, Connecticut 12 6/28/08, Comcast Center, Mansfield, Massachusetts 13 6/30/08, Comcast Center, Mansfield, Massachusetts 2009 official bootlegs 1 8/8/09, Virgin Festival, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 2 8/11/09, Shephard’s Bush Empire, London, England 3 8/13/09, Sportspaleis Ahoy, Rotterdam, Netherlands 4 8/15/09, Wuhlheide, Berlin, Germany 5 8/17/09, Manchester Evening News Arena, Manchester, England 6 8/18/09, O2 Arena, London, England 7 8/21/09, Molson Amphitheatre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 8 8/23/09, United Center, Chicago, Illinois 9 8/24/09, United Center, Chicago, Illinois 10 8/28/09, Outside Lands Festival, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California 11 9/21/09, KeyArena, Seattle, Washington 12 9/22/09, KeyArena, Seattle, Washington 13 9/25/09, GM Place, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 14 9/26/09, Clark County Amphitheare, Ridgefield, Washington 15 9/28/09, E Center, Salt Lake City, Utah 16 9/30/09, Gibson Amphitheater, Universal City, California 17 10/01/09, Gibson Amphitheater, Universal City, California 18 10/04/09, Austin City Limits Music Fest, Austin, Texas 19 10/06/09, Gibson Amphitheater, Universal City, California 20 10/07/09, Gibson Amphitheater, Universal City, California 21 10/09/09, San Diego State University, Viejas Arena, San Diego, California 22 10/27/09, Wachovia Spectrum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 23 10/28/09, Wachovia Spectrum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 24 10/30/09, Wachovia Spectrum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 25 10/31/09, Wachovia Spectrum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 26 11/14/09, Member Equity Stadium, Perth, Australia 27 11/17/09, Adelaide Oval, Adelaide, Australia 28 11/20/09, Etihad Stadium, Melbourne, Australia 29 11/22/09, Sydney Football Stadium, Sydney, Australia 30 11/25/09, QSAC Stadium, Brisbane, Australia 31 11/27/09, Mt Smart Stadium, Auckland, New Zealand 32 11/29/09, AMI Stadium, Christchurch, New Zealand 2010 official bootlegs North America Bootlegs 1 5/1/10, New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival, New Orleans, Louisiana 2 5/3/10, Sprint Center, Kansas City, Missouri 3 5/4/10, Scottrade Center, St. Louis, Missouri 4 5/6/10, Nationwide Arena, Columbus, Ohio 5 5/7/10, Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre Indiana, Noblesville, Indiana 6 5/9/10, Quicken Loans Arena, Cleveland, Ohio 7 5/10/10, HSBC Arena, Buffalo, New York 8 5/13/10, Jiffy Lube Live, Bristow, Virginia 9 5/15/10, XL Center, Hartford, Connecticut 10 5/17/10, TD Garden, Boston, Massachusetts 11 5/18/10, The Prudential Center, Newark, New Jersey 12 5/20/10, Madison Square Garden, New York, New York 13 5/21/10, Madison Square Garden, New York, New York Europe Bootlegs 14 6/22/10, The 02, Dublin, Ireland 15 6/23/10, Odyssey Arena, Belfast, Northern Ireland 16 6/25/10, Hyde Park, London, England 17 6/27/10, Goffertpark, Nijmegen, Holland 18 6/30/10, Wuhlheide, Berlin, Germany 19 7/1/10, Heineken Open'er Festival, Gdynia, Poland 20 7/3/10, Town Square, Arras, France 21 7/4/10, Werchter Festival, Werchter, Belgium 22 7/6/10, Heineken Jammin' Festival, Venice, Italy 23 7/9/10, BBK Live Festival, Bilbao, Spain 24 7/10/10, Alges, Oeiras, Portugal 2011 official bootlegs Canada bootlegs 1 9/7/11, Montreal 2 9/11/11, Toronto 3 9/12/11, Toronto 4 9/14/11, Ottawa 5 9/15/11, Hamilton 6 9/17/11, Winnipeg 7 9/19/11, Saskatoon 8 9/21/11, Calgary 9 9/23/11, Edmonton 10 9/25/11, Vancouver Latin America bootlegs 11 11/3/11, Sao Paulo, Brazil 12 11/4/11, Sao Paulo, Brazil 13 11/6/11, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil 14 11/9/11, Curitiba, Brazil 15 11/11/11, Porto Alegre, Brazil 16 11/13/11, Buenos Aires, Argentina 17 11/16/11, Santiago, Chile 18 11/18/11, Estadio San Marcos, Lima, Peru 19 11/20/11, San Jose, Costa Rica 2012-2018 Official bootlegs for the band's 2012 Tour were available through the band's official website in MP3, FLAC, 24-bit/96 kHz FLAC formats, as well as physical compact discs. The CD orders are fulfilled by nugs.net. In addition, ALAC and 24-bit/96 kHz ALAC formats are available on the nugs.net website. The 2012 bootlegs each premiered one week before their official release on SiriusXM Pearl Jam Radio. Bootlegs in this format continued to be released on subsequent Pearl Jam tours from 2013 through to 2018. 2012 official bootlegs Europe bootlegs 1 6/20/12, Manchester Arena, Manchester, England 2 6/21/12, Manchester Arena, Manchester, England 3 6/23/12, Isle of Wight Festival, Isle of Wight, England 4 6/26/12, Ziggo Dome, Amsterdam, Netherlands 5 6/27/12, Ziggo Dome, Amsterdam, Netherlands 6 6/29/12, Rock Werchter, Werchter, Belgium 7 6/30/12, Main Square Festival, Arras, France 8 7/2/12, O2 Arena, Prague, Czech Republic 9 7/4/12, O2 World Berlin, Berlin, Germany 10 7/5/12, O2 World Berlin, Berlin, Germany 11 7/7/12, Ericsson Globe, Stockholm, Sweden 12 7/9/12, Spektrum, Oslo, Norway 13 7/10/12, Forum, Copenhagen, Denmark North America bootlegs 14 9/21/12, Deluna Festival, Pensacola, Florida 15 9/22/12, Music Midtown, Atlanta, Georgia 16 9/30/12, Adams Center, Missoula, Montana 2013 official bootlegs South America bootlegs 1 3/31/13, Lollapalooza Brazil, Sao Paulo, Brazil 2 4/3/13, El Festival Mas Grande, Buenos Aires, Argentina 3 4/6/13, Lollapalooza Chile, Santiago, Chile North America bootlegs 4 10/11/13, Consol Energy Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 5 10/12/13, First Niagara Center, Buffalo, New York 6 10/15/13, DCU Center, Worcester, Massachusetts 7 10/16/13, DCU Center, Worcester, Massachusetts 8 10/18/13, Barclays Center, Brooklyn, New York 9 10/19/13, Barclays Center, Brooklyn, New York 10 10/21/13, Wells Fargo Arena, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 11 10/22/13, Wells Fargo Arena, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 12 10/25/13, XL Center, Hartford, Connecticut 13 10/27/13, 1st Mariner Arena, Baltimore, Maryland 14 10/29/13, John Paul Jones Arena, Charlottesville, Virginia 15 10/30/13, Time Warner Cable Arena, Charlotte, North Carolina 16 11/1/13, Voodoo Festival, New Orleans, Louisiana 17 11/15/13, American Airlines Center, Dallas, Texas 18 11/16/13, Chesapeake Energy Arena, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 19 11/19/13, Jobing.com Arena, Phoenix, Arizona 20 11/21/13, Viejas Arena, San Diego, California 21 11/23/13, LA Sports Arena, Los Angeles, California 22 11/24/13, LA Sports Arena, Los Angeles, California 23 11/26/13, Oracle Arena, Oakland, California 24 11/29/13, Rose Garden, Portland, Oregon 25 11/30/13, Spokane Arena, Spokane, Washington 26 12/2/13, Scotiabank Saddledome, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 27 12/4/13, Rogers Arena, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 28 12/6/13, Key Arena, Seattle, Washington 2014 official bootlegs Australia/New Zealand bootlegs 1 1/17/14, Big Day Out, Western Springs Stadium, Auckland, New Zealand 2 1/19/14, Big Day Out, Metricon Stadium, Gold Coast, Australia 3 1/24/14, Big Day Out, Flemington Racecourse, Melbourne, Australia 4 1/26/14, Big Day Out, Sydney Fairgrounds, Sydney, Australia 5 1/31/14, Big Day Out, Bonython Park, Adelaide, Australia 6 2/2/14, Big Day Out, Arena Joondalup, Perth, Australia Europe bootlegs 7 6/16/14, Ziggo Dome, Amsterdam, Netherlands 8 6/17/14, Ziggo Dome, Amsterdam, Netherlands 9 6/20/14, San Siro Stadium, Milan, Italy 10 6/22/14, Nereo Rocco Stadium, Trieste, Italy 11 6/25/14, Stadthalle, Vienna, Austria 12 6/26/14, Wuhlheide, Berlin, Germany 13 6/28/14, Friends Arena, Stockholm, Sweden 14 6/29/14, Telenor Arena, Oslo, Norway 15 7/3/14, Open'er Festival, Gdynia, Poland 16 7/5/14, Rock Werchter Festival, Werchter, Belgium 17 7/8/14, First Direct Arena, Leeds, UK 18 7/11/14, Milton Keynes Bowl, Milton Keynes, UK North America bootlegs 19 10/1/14, U.S. Bank Arena, Cincinnati, Ohio 20 10/3/14, Scottrade Center, St. Louis, Missouri 21 10/5/14, Austin City Limits Music Festival, Austin, Texas 22 10/8/14, BOK Center, Tulsa, Oklahoma 23 10/9/14, Pinnacle Bank Arena, Lincoln, Nebraska 24 10/12/14, Austin City Limits Music Festival, Austin, Texas 25 10/14/14, FedExForum, Memphis, Tennessee 26 10/16/14, Joe Louis Arena, Detroit, Michigan 27 10/17/14, iWireless Center, Moline, Illinois (No Code full album show) 28 10/19/14, Xcel Energy Center, St. Paul, Minnesota 29 10/20/14, BMO Harris Bradley Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin (Yield full album show) 30 10/22/14, Pepsi Center, Denver, Colorado 2015 official bootlegs Latin America bootlegs 1 11/4/2015, Estadio Nacional, Santiago, Chile 2 11/7/2015, Estadio Ciudad de La Plata, La Plata, Argentine 3 11/11/2015, Arena do Grêmio, Porto Alegre, Brazil 4 11/14/2015, Estadio do Morumbi, Sao Paulo, Brazil 5 11/17/2015, Estádio Nacional Mané Garrincha, Brasilia, Brazil 6 11/20/2015, Estadio Mineirão, Belo Horizonte, Brazil 7 11/22/2015, Maracanã Stadium, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 8 11/25/2015, Simón Bolívar Park, Bogota, Colombia 9 11/28/2015, Foro Sol Satdium, Mexico City, Mexico 2016 official bootlegs North America bootlegs 1 4/8/2016, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 2 4/11/2016, Tampa, Florida 3 4/9/2016, Miami, Florida 4 4/13/2016, Jacksonville, Florida 5 4/16/2016, Greenville, South Carolina 6 4/18/2016, Hampton, Virginia 7 4/21/2016, Columbia, South Carolina 8 4/23/2016, New Orleans, Louisiana 9 4/26/2016, Lexington, Kentucky 10 4/28/2016, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 11 4/29/2016, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 12 5/1/2016, New York, New York 13 5/2/2016, New York, New York 14 5/5/2016, Quebec City, Quebec 15 5/8/2016, Ottawa, Ontario 16 5/10/2016, Toronto, Ontario 17 5/12/2016, Toronto Ontario 18 6/11/2016, Bonnaroo, Manchester, Tennessee 19 7/9/2016, Telluride, Colorado 20 7/17/2016, Pemberton, British Columbia 21 8/5/2016, Boston, Massachusetts 22 8/7/2016, Boston, Massachusetts 23 8/20/2016, Wrigley Field, Chicago, Illinois 24 8/22/2016, Wrigley Field, Chicago, Illinois 2018 official bootlegs Latin America bootlegs 1 3/13/2018, Santiago, Chile 2 3/16/2018, Santiago, Chile 3 3/21/2018, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 4 3/24/2018, Sao Paulo, Brazil Europe bootlegs 5 6/12/2018, Amsterdam, Netherlands 6 6/13/2018, Amsterdam, Netherlands 7 6/15/2018, Landgraaf, Netherlands 8 6/18/2018, London, England 9 6/22/2018, Milan, Italy 10 6/24/2018, Padova, Italy 11 6/26/2018, Rome, Italy 12 7/1/2018, Prague, Czech Republic 13 7/3/2018, Krakow, Poland 14 7/5/2018, Berlin, Germany 15 7/7/2018, Rock Werchter Festival, Werchter, Belgium 16 7/10/2018, Barcelona, Spain 17 7/14/2018, Lisbon, Portugal 18 7/12/2018, Madrid, Spain 19 7/17/2018, London, England North America bootlegs 20 8/08/2018, Seattle, Washington 21 8/10/2018, Seattle, Washington 22 8/13/2018, Missoula, Montana 23 8/18/2018, Chicago, Illinois 24 8/20/2018, Chicago, Illinois 25 9/2/2018, Boston, Massachusetts 26 9/4/2018, Boston, Massachusetts 2021-2023 Official bootlegs for the band's 2021-2023 Tours were available through the band's official website in MP3, FLAC, 24-bit/96 kHz FLAC formats, as well as physical compact discs. The CD orders are fulfilled by nugs.net. In addition, ALAC and 24-bit/96 kHz ALAC formats are available on the nugs.net website. The 2022 and 2023 bootlegs each premiered on the day of their official streaming broadcast release on SiriusXM Pearl Jam Radio. 2021 official bootlegs 1 9/18/2021, Sea Hear Now Festival, Asbury Park, New Jersey 2 9/26/2021, Ohana Festival, Dana Point, California 3 10/01/2021, Ohana Festival, Dana Point, California 4 10/02/2021, Ohana Festival, Dana Point, California 2022 official bootlegs North America Leg 1 bootlegs 1 5/3/22, Viejas Arena, San Diego, California 2 5/6/22, The Forum, Inglewood, California 3 5/7/22, The Forum, Inglewood, California 4 5/9/22, Gila River Arena, Glendale (Phoenix), Arizona 5 5/12/22, Oakland Arena, Oakland, California6 5/13/22, Oakland Arena, Oakland, California7 5/16/22, Save Mart Center, Fresno, CaliforniaEurope bootlegs 8 6/18/2022, Pinkpop, Landgraaf, Netherlands9 6/21/2022, Waldbühne, Berlin, Germany10 6/23/2022, Hallenstadion, Zurich, Switzerland11 6/25/2022, Autodromo Internazionale Enzo e Dino Ferrari, Imola, Italy12 6/28/2022, Festhalle, Frankfurt, Germany13 6/30/2022, Rock Werchter Festival, Werchter, Belgium14 7/3/2022, Lollapalooza Stockholm, Gärdet, Stockholm, Sweden15 7/5/2022, Royal Arena, Copenhagen, Denmark16 7/8/2022, Hyde Park, London, England17 7/9/2022, Hyde Park, London, England18 7/12/2022, Papp László Sportaréna, Budapest, Hungary19 7/14/2022, Tauron Arena, Kraków, Poland20 7/17/2022, Lollapalooza Paris, Hippodrome de Longchamp, Paris, France21 7/25/2022, Ziggo Dome, Amsterdam, NetherlandsNorth America Leg 2 bootlegs 22 9/1/2022, Videotron Centre, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada23 9/3/2022, Canadian Tire Centre, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada24 9/6/2022, FirstOntario Centre, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada25 9/8/2022, Scotiabank Arena, Toronto, Ontario, Canada26 9/11/2022, Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York27 9/14/2022, Freedom Mortgage Pavilion, Camden, New Jersey28 9/16/2022, Bridgestone Arena, Nashville, Tennessee29 9/17/2022, Kentucky Expo Center, Louisville, Kentucky30 9/18/2022, Enterprise Center, St. Louis, Missouri31 9/20/2022, Paycom Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma32 9/22/2022, Ball Arena, Denver, Colorado2023 official bootlegs 1 8/31/2023, Xcel Energy Center, St. Paul, Minnesota2 9/2/2023, Xcel Energy Center, St. Paul, Minnesota3 9/5/2023, United Center, Chicago, Illinois4 9/7/2023, United Center, Chicago, Illinois5 9/13/2023, Dickies Arena, Ft. Worth, Texas6 9/15/2023, Dickies Arena, Ft. Worth, Texas7 9/18/2023, Moody Center, Austin, Texas8 9/19/2023, Moody Center, Austin, TexasReferences External links 2000 European Bootleg series review by Rolling Stone'' All Official Bootlegs Series releases at pearljam.com 2000s live albums 2010s live albums 2020s live albums
4628340	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch%20Brazil	Dutch Brazil	Dutch Brazil (), also known as New Holland (), was a colony of the Dutch Republic in the northeastern portion of modern-day Brazil, controlled from 1630 to 1654 during Dutch colonization of the Americas. The main cities of the colony were the capital Mauritsstad (today part of Recife), Frederikstadt (João Pessoa), Nieuw Amsterdam (Natal), Saint Louis (São Luís), São Cristóvão, Fort Schoonenborch (Fortaleza), Sirinhaém, and Olinda. From 1630 onward, the Dutch Republic conquered almost half of Brazil's settled European area at the time, with its capital in Recife. The Dutch West India Company (GWC) set up its headquarters in Recife. The governor, John Maurice of Nassau, invited artists and scientists to the colony to help promote Brazil and increase immigration. However, the tide turned against the Dutch when the Portuguese won a significant victory at the Second Battle of Guararapes in 1649. On 26 January 1654, the Dutch surrendered and signed the capitulation, but only as a provisional pact. By May 1654, the Dutch Republic demanded that New Holland was to be given back. On 6 August 1661, New Holland was formally ceded to Portugal through the Treaty of The Hague. While of only transitional importance for the Dutch, this period was of considerable importance in the history of Brazil. This period also precipitated a decline in Brazil's sugar industry, since conflict between the Dutch and Portuguese disrupted Brazilian sugar production, amidst rising competition from British, French, and Dutch planters in the Caribbean. Early Iberian-Dutch relations The Habsburg family had ruled the Low Countries from 1482; the area became part of the Spanish Empire under the Spanish Habsburgs in 1556; however, in 1568 the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) broke out, and the Dutch established the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands in 1581. As part of the war, Dutch raiders attacked Spanish lands, colonies, and ships. In 1594 Philip II, who was both king of Spain and (from 1580) of Portugal, gave permission for Dutch ships bound for Brazil to sail together once a year in a fleet of twenty ships. In 1609 the Habsburgs and the Dutch Republic signed the Twelve Years' Truce, during which the Dutch Republic was allowed to trade with Portuguese settlements in Brazil (Portugal was in a dynastic union with Habsburg Spain from 1580 to 1640). Portugal's small geographic size and small population meant that it needed "foreign participation in the colonization and commerce of its empire", and the Dutch had played such a role, which was mutually beneficial. As part of the truce of 1609-1621 the Dutch also agreed to delay the establishment of a West India Company (GWC), a counterpart to the already existing Dutch East India Company. By the end of the truce, the Dutch had vastly expanded their trade networks and gained over half of the carrying trade between Brazil and Europe. The northern Netherlands operated 29 sugar refineries by 1622, versus 3 in 1595. In 1621, the twelve-year peace treaty expired and the United Netherlands immediately chartered a Dutch West India Company. The Dutch–Portuguese War, which had started in 1602, resumed, and through the new company the Dutch now started to interfere with the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas. Unsuccessful 1624 invasion As part of the Groot Desseyn plan, admiral Jacob Willekens led a GWC force to Salvador in December 1623, which was then the capital of Brazil and the center of a captaincy famous for its sugarcane. The expedition consisted of 26 ships and 3,300 men. They arrived on 8 May 1624, whereupon the Portuguese governor Diogo Tristão de Mendonça Furtado surrendered. However, on 30 April 1625, a combined Spanish and Portuguese force consisting of 52 ships and 12,500 men recaptured the city. The city would then play a critical role as a base of the Portuguese struggle against the Dutch for the control of Brazil. In 1628, the seizure of a Spanish silver convoy by Piet Heyn in Matanzas Bay provided the GWC the funds for another attempt to conquer Brazil at Pernambuco. Northeastern Brazil in the Golden Age of Dutch rule Establishment of Dutch Brazil Successful 1630 invasion In the summer of 1629, the Dutch coveted a newfound interest in obtaining the captaincy of Pernambuco, the largest and richest sugar-producing area in the world. The Dutch fleet of 65 ships was led by Hendrick Corneliszoon Loncq; the GWC gained control of Olinda by 16 February 1630, and Recife (the capital of Pernambuco) and António Vaz by March 3. Consolidation of Dutch control Matias de Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor of Pernambuco, led a strong Portuguese resistance which hindered the Dutch from developing their forts on the lands which they had captured. By 1631, the Dutch left Olinda and tried to gain control of the Fort of Cabedello on Paraíba, the Rio Grande, Rio Formoso, and Cabo de Santo Agostinho. These attempts were also unsuccessful, however. Still in control of António Vaz and Recife, the Dutch later gained a foothold at Cabo de Santo Agostinho. By 1634, the Dutch controlled the coastline from the Rio Grande do Norte to Pernambuco's Cabo de Santo Agostinho. They still maintained control of the seas as well. By 1635, many Portuguese settlers were choosing Dutch-occupied land over Portuguese-controlled land. The Dutch offered freedom of worship and security of property. In 1635, the Dutch conquered three strongholds of the Portuguese: the towns of Porto Calvo, Arraial do Bom Jesus, and Fort Nazaré on Cabo de Santo Agostinho. These strongholds gave the Dutch increased sugar lands which led to an increase in profit. Dutch Brazil under Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen In 1637, the GWC gave control of its Brazilian conquests, now called "Nieuw Holland," to John Maurice of Nassau, the great-nephew of William the Silent. Within the year, Maurice of Nassau captured the captaincy of Ceará and sent an expedition to capture the West African trading post of Elmina Castle, which became the capital of the Dutch Gold Coast. In 1641, the Dutch captured the captaincy of Maranhão, meaning that Dutch control now extended across the entire coastline between the Amazon and São Francisco Rivers. Governance under Maurits Maurice claimed to have always loved Brazil due to its beauty and its people, and under his rule, the colony thrived. His patronage of Dutch Golden Age painters to depict Brazil, such as Albert Eckhout and Frans Post, resulted in works showing different races, landscapes, and still lifes. He also invited naturalists Georg Marcgrave and Willem Piso to Brazil. They collected and published a vast amount of information on Brazil's natural history, resulting in the 1648 publication of Historia Naturalis Brasiliae, the first organized European compendium of knowledge on the Americas, which was hugely influential in learned European scientific circles for well over a century. Maurits organized a form of representative local government by creating municipal councils and rural councils with both Dutch and Portuguese members to represent the population. Maurits worked through the councils to begin modernizing the country with streets, bridges, and roads in Recife. On the island of António Vaz, he founded the town of Mauritsstad (also known as Mauricia), where he created an astronomic observatory and a meteorological station, which were the first created by Europeans in the Americas. Under Maurits, protection for Portuguese Jews, who had been ostracized to that point, was increased. He allowed former Jews who had been forced to convert to Christianity to return to their former faith. Non-Catholic Christians, such as Calvinists, were also allowed to practice their faith as part of religious toleration. Furthermore, the Catholic majority in Dutch Brazil was allowed to practice their faith freely, at a time in history in which there was extreme religious conflicts such as the Thirty Years' War between Catholics and Protestants. This was formed into the new law of Dutch Brazil in the peace accord signed after the conquest of the captaincy of Paraiba. The monastic orders of the Franciscans, Carmelites, and Benedictines were quite prominent in the former Portuguese colony. They were also allowed to retain all of their friaries and monasteries and allowed to practice and preach Catholicism among the population. Population of Dutch Brazil Although there were Dutch immigrants to Brazil, the majority of the population was Portuguese and Brazilian-born Portuguese, African slaves, and Amerindians, with Dutch rule an overlay on pre-existing social groups. The colony of Dutch Brazil had a difficult time of attracting Dutch colonists to immigrate and colonize Brazil, as the main attraction of the colony was the extreme riches one could reap from starting a sugar plantation, as it was one of the few major market exporters of sugar to Europe at the time. This would also most likely entail the buying of African slaves, and as such only rich men could afford to start a plantation. There was also very significant risk with border contention and skirmish with the Portuguese from the parts of Brazil still under their control and the nonexistent loyalty of the local Portuguese to the Dutch colony. Most of the Dutchmen employed in the Dutch West India Company went back to the Netherlands after they were relieved of duty and did not stay to settle the colony. As such, the Dutch were a ruling minority with a Portuguese and Brazilian-born Portuguese population. The Dutch settlers were divided into two separate groups, the first of which was known as dienaren (servants). The dienaren were soldiers, bureaucrats, and calvinist ministers employed by the GWC. Vrijburghers (freemen) – or vrijluiden – were the second group of Dutch settlers who did not fit into the category of dienaaren. The vrijburghers were mostly soldiers formerly employed by the GWC but who then began to settle down as farmers or engenho lords. Others who did not fit the vrijburgher or dienaren categories included Dutch who left the Netherlands to find a new life in Nieuw Holland as traders. Most trade in Nieuw Holland was under the control of this group. The end of Dutch Brazil Departure of Maurits In 1640, John, 8th Duke of Braganza, declared Portuguese independence from Spain, ending the six decade-long Iberian Union. As a result, the threat of further Spanish intervention against Dutch Brazil declined, since Brazil was originally and had remained a Portuguese colony. In 1641–1642, the new Portuguese regime concluded a truce with the Dutch, temporarily ending hostilities, but the Dutch remained in Brazil. In 1643, Maurice of Nassau equipped the expedition of Hendrik Brouwer that unsuccessfully attempted to establish an outpost in southern Chile. In 1644, the GWC recalled Maurice to Europe in an attempt to cut military expenditures, following the cession of hostilities. Demise of Dutch West India Company in Brazil A year after Maurice was summoned back by the GWC board, the GWC faced a major uprising of Portuguese planters in June 1645. The Portuguese planters around Pernambuco had never fully accepted Dutch rule and had also resented the high interest rates charged by Dutch moneylenders for loans to rebuild their plantations following the initial Dutch conquest. In August, the planters revolted and prevailed over Dutch forces in a minor battle fought outside Recife, effectively ending Dutch control over the colony. That year, the Portuguese gained Várzea, Sirinhaém, Pontal de Nazaré, the Fort of Porto Calvo, and Fort Maurits. By 1646, the GWC only controlled four toeholds along the Brazilian coast, chief among them being Recife. In the spring of 1646, the Dutch sent a relief expedition to Recife consisting of 20 ships with 2000 men, temporarily forestalling the fall of the city. Back in Europe, the collapse of Dutch Brazil accelerated Dutch efforts to end its longstanding conflict with Spain, the Eighty Years' War. In August 1647, representatives from the Dutch province of Zeeland (the final holdout against peace with Spain) acquiesced to the Peace of Munster ending the war with Spain. In return, Zeeland obtained promises from the other Dutch provinces to support a second, larger relief expedition to reconquer Brazil. The expedition, consisting of 41 ships with 6,000 men, set sail on 26 December 1647. In Brazil, the Dutch had already abandoned Itamaracá on 13 December 1647. The new expeditionary force arrived late at Recife, with many of its soldiers either dead or mutinous from lack of pay. In April 1648, the Portuguese routed the expeditionary force at the First Battle of Guararapes, fought outside Recife. The Portuguese had sent an armada of 84 ships, including 18 warships to recapture Recife. The Dutch were dealt a further blow by the decisive Portuguese victory in the Recapture of Angola, which crippled the Dutch colony in Brazil as it couldn't survive without the slaves from Angola. In February 1649, the Portuguese again routed the Dutch at the Second Battle of Guararapes. Recapture of Recife The Recapture of Recife was a military engagement between the Portuguese forces under Francisco Barreto de Meneses and the Dutch forces of Captain Walter Van Loo. After the Dutch defeats at Guararapes, their surviving men, as well as other garrisons of New Holland, joined in the area of Recife in order to make a last stand. However, after fierce fighting, the Portuguese victoriously entered the city and the remaining Dutch were ousted from Brazil. The Dutch finally lost control of Recife on 28 January 1654, leaving to the Portuguese their colony of Brazil and putting an end to New Holland. Role of the Amerindians and Africans Although the historical focus is usually on the European rivals in the conflict, the local indigenous population was drawn into the conflict as allies on both sides. Most sided with the Dutch, but there were some notable exceptions. One was a Potiguara chieftain who came to be known as Dom Antônio Filipe Camarão, who was rewarded for his loyalty to the Portuguese by being made a knight of the Order of Christ. In the aftermath of the conflict when the Dutch were expelled, there were reprisals against their Amerindian allies. Both the Dutch and the Portuguese used African slaves in the conflict, sometimes with the promise of freedom for fighting. On the Portuguese side, one name went down in history, Henrique Dias, who was awarded noble status by the monarch, but not the knighthood in the Order of Christ as promised. Aftermath In the aftermath of the Dutch occupation, Portuguese settled scores with Amerindians who had supported the Dutch. There were tensions between Portuguese who had fled the area under occupation and those who had lived under Dutch occupation. The returnees attempted to litigate so as to regain the properties they had abandoned, which in this sugar-producing area included sugar mills and other buildings, as well as cane fields. The litigation dragged on for years. The conflict in Brazil's northeast had severe economic consequences. Both sides had practiced a scorched earth policy that disrupted sugar production, and the war had diverted Portuguese funds from being invested in the colonial economy. After the war, Portuguese authorities were forced to spend their tax revenues on rebuilding Recife. The sugar industry in Pernambuco never fully recovered from the Dutch occupation, being surpassed by sugar production in Bahia. Meanwhile, the British, French, and Dutch Caribbean had become a major competitor to Brazilian sugar due to rising sugar prices in the 1630s and 1640s. After the GWC evacuated Pernambuco, the Dutch brought their expertise and capital to the Caribbean instead. In the 1630s, Brazil provided 80% of the sugar sold in London, while it only provided 10% by 1690. The Portuguese colony of Brazil did not recover economically until the discovery of gold in southern Brazil during the 18th century. The Dutch period in Brazil was "a historical parenthesis with few lasting traces" in the social sphere. Dutch artistic production in Brazil, particularly by Albert Eckhout and Frans Post left an important visual record of the local people and places in the early 17th century. Peace treaty Seven years after the surrender of Recife, a peace treaty was organized between the Dutch Republic and Portugal. The Treaty of the Hague was signed on 6 August 1661, and it demanded that the Portuguese would pay 4 million réis over the span of 16 years in order to help the Dutch recover from the loss of Brazil. See also Colonial Brazil Dutch West India Company Camarão Indians' letters 17th century Dutch Brazil: Georg Marcgrave Willem Piso Caspar Barlaeus Frans Post Albert Eckhout Zacharias Wagenaer Isaac Aboab da Fonseca Historia Naturalis Brasiliae (1648) Recife and Pernambuco: Ricardo Brennand Institute References Bibliography Barlaeus, The History of Brazil Under the Governorship of Count Johan Maurits of Nassau, 1636-1644. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 2011. Boxer, C.R., The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654, The Clarendon press, Oxford, 1957. Boogaart, Ernst Van den, et al. Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen, 1604-1679: A Humanitst Prince in Europe and Brazil. The Hague: Johan Maurits van Nassau Stichting 1979. Boxer, C.R., The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654, The Clarendon press, Oxford, 1957. Dutra, Francis A. "Dutch in Colonial Brazil" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996, vol. 2, pp. 414–420. Feitler, Bruno. "Jews and New Christians in Dutch Brazil, 1630-1654," in Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan, eds. Atlantic Diasporas. Jews, conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500-1800. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 2009, 123-51. Groesen, Michiel van. "Lessons Learned: The Second Dutch Conquest of Brazil and the Memory of the First," Colonial Latin American Review 20-2 (2011) 167-93. Groesen, Michiel van, Amsterdam's Atlantic: Print Culture and the Making of Dutch Brazil, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 2017. Groesen, Michiel van (ed.), The Legacy of Dutch Brazil, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2014. Israel, Jonathan I. "Dutch Sephardi Jewry, Millenarian Politics, and the Struggle for Brazil (1645-54)." In Diasporaporas Winthin a Disapora. Jonathan I. Israel, ed. Leiden: Brill 2002. Israel, Jonathan, Stuart B. Schwartz, and Michiel van Groesen. The expansion of tolerance: religion in Dutch Brazil (1624-1654). Amsterdam University Press, 2007. Joppien, Rüdger. "The Dutch Vision of Brazil: Johan Maurits and His Artists," in Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen, 1604-1679: A Humanist Prince in Europe and Brazil, ed. Ernst van den Boogaart, et al. 297-376. The Hague: Johan Maurits van Nassau Stichting, 1979. Klooster, Wim. “The Geopolitical Impact of Dutch Brazil on the Western Hemisphere.” In The Legacy of Dutch Brazil, edited by Michiel van Groesen, 25-40. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. Novinsky, Anita. “A Historical Bias: The New Christian Collaboration with the Dutch Invaders of Brazil (17th Century).” In Proceedings of the 5th World Congress of Jewish Studies, II.141-154. Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 1972. Schmidt, Benjamin, Innocence Abroad: The Dutch Imagination and the New World, 1570-1670, Cambridge: University Press, 2001. Wiznitzer, Arnold. Jews in Colonial Brazil. New York: Columbia University Press, 1960. External links Facsimiles of 20 manuscripts from the Dutch West India Company Relating about the events in Brazil in the 17th century (PT & NL) Guararapes Birth of the Brazilian Nationality Brazilian Armed Forces site The Dutch in Brazil History of Dutch Brazil and Guiana The New Holland Foundation World Statesmen – Brazil History of Portuguese America, in Portuguese, by Sebastião da Rocha Pita Former colonies in South America Brazil 1630s in Brazil 1640s in Brazil 1650s in Brazil States and territories established in 1630 States and territories disestablished in 1654 1630 establishments in Brazil 1654 disestablishments in Brazil 1630 establishments in the Dutch Empire 1654 disestablishments 17th-century disestablishments in the Dutch Empire 1630 establishments in South America 1654 disestablishments in South America Former settlements and colonies of the Dutch West India Company 17th century in the Dutch Empire
4628401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining%20in%20Cornwall%20and%20Devon	Mining in Cornwall and Devon	Mining in Cornwall and Devon, in the southwest of Britain, is thought to have begun in the early-middle Bronze Age with the exploitation of cassiterite. Tin, and later copper, were the most commonly extracted metals. Some tin mining continued long after the mining of other metals had become unprofitable, but ended in the late 20th century. In 2021, it was announced that a new mine was extracting battery-grade lithium carbonate, more than 20 years after the closure of the last South Crofty tin mine in Cornwall in 1998. Historically, tin and copper as well as a few other metals (e.g. arsenic, silver, and zinc) have been mined in Cornwall and Devon. Tin deposits still exist in Cornwall, and there has been talk of reopening the South Crofty tin mine. In addition, work has begun on re-opening the Hemerdon tungsten and tin mine in southwest Devon. In view of the economic importance of mines and quarries, geological studies have been conducted; about forty distinct minerals have been identified from type localities in Cornwall (e.g. endellionite from St Endellion). Quarrying of igneous and metamorphic rocks has also been a significant industry. In the 20th century, the extraction of kaolin was important economically. Geology The intrusion of granite into the surrounding sedimentary rocks gave rise to extensive metamorphism and mineralisation. As a result, Cornwall was one of the most important mining areas in Europe until the early 20th century. It is thought that tin ore (cassiterite) was mined in Cornwall as early as the Bronze Age. Over the years, many other metals (e.g. lead and zinc) have been mined in Cornwall. Alquifou (based, along with the word alcohol, on the Arabic word "al-kuhl") is a lead ore found in Cornwall, and used by potters to give pottery a green glaze. As a result of both natural and human processes, heavy metal contamination is present across much of the county, with arsenic levels varying in accordance with geological formations and their subsequent exploitation in the 19th and 20th centuries. Although arsenic has historically been extracted for use in paint, weedkillers and insecticides (most notably at Botallack in the late 19th century), it was generally a by-product of tin and copper processing. Arsenic and other unwanted heavy metals were often deposited in mine waste tips close to the mine from which they were extracted. History Cornwall and Devon provided most of the United Kingdom's tin, copper, and arsenic until the 20th century. Originally tin was found as alluvial deposits of cassiterite in the gravels of stream beds. Eventually tin was mined underground; the first designed tin mines being invented by Matthew James Bullen sprang up as early as the 16th century. Tin lodes were also found in outcroppings of cliffs. Prehistoric period Stone Age and early Bronze Age Tin is one of the earliest metals to have been exploited in Britain. Chalcolithic metal workers discovered that by putting a small proportion of tin (5 – 20%) in molten copper, the alloy bronze was produced. The alloy is harder than copper. The oldest production of tin-bronze is in Turkey about 3500 BC, but exploitation of the tin resources in Britain is believed to have started before 2000 BC, with a thriving tin trade developing with the civilisations of the Mediterranean. The strategic importance of tin in forging bronze weapons brought the south west of Britain into the Mediterranean economy at an early date. Later tin was also used in the production of pewter. Mining in Cornwall has existed from the early Bronze Age Britain around 2000 BC. Cornwall was traditionally thought to have been visited by Phoenician metal traders from the eastern Mediterranean, but this view changed during the 20th century, and Timothy Champion observed in 2001 that "The direct archaeological evidence for the presence of Phoenician or Carthaginian traders as far north as Britain is non-existent". Britain is one of the places proposed for the Cassiterides, that is "Tin Islands", first mentioned by Herodotus. The tin content of the bronze from the Nebra Sky Disc dating from 1600 BC, was found to be from Cornwall. Originally it is likely that alluvial deposits in the gravels of streams were exploited, but later underground mining took root. Shallow cuttings were then used to extract ore. Expansion of trade As demand for bronze grew in the Middle East, the accessible local supplies of tin ore (cassiterite) were exhausted and searches for new supplies were made over all the known world, including Britain. Control of the tin trade seems to have been in Phoenician hands, and they kept their sources secret. The Greeks understood that tin came from the Cassiterides, the "tin islands", of which the geographical identity is debated. By 500 BC Hecataeus knew of islands beyond Gaul where tin was obtained. Pytheas of Massalia travelled to Britain in about 325 BC where he found a flourishing tin trade, according to the later report of his voyage. Posidonius referred to the tin trade with Britain around 90 BC but Strabo in about 18 AD did not list tin as one of Britain's exports. This is likely to be because Rome was obtaining its tin from Hispania at the time. William Camden, in his Britannia of 1607, identified the Cassiterides with the Scilly Isles and first gave currency to the belief that the Phoenicians traded to Britain. However, there is no evidence of tin mining on the Scilly Isles apart from minor exploratory excavations. Timothy Champion found it likely that the trade of the Phoenicians with Britain was indirect and under the control of the Veneti of Brittany. Champion, discussing Diodorus Siculus's comments on the tin trade, states that "Diodorus never actually says that the Phoenicians sailed to Cornwall. In fact, he says quite the opposite: the production of Cornish tin was in the hands of the natives of Cornwall, and its transport to the Mediterranean was organised by local merchants, by sea and then over land through France, well outside Phoenician control." There is isotopic evidence to support that tin ingots found off the coast of Haifa, Israel were supplied from Cornwall. Diodorus Siculus's account In his Bibliotheca historica, written in the 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus described ancient tin mining in Britain. "They that inhabit the British promontory of Belerion by reason of their converse with strangers are more civilised and courteous to strangers than the rest are. These are the people that prepare the tin, which with a great deal of care and labour, they dig out of the ground, and that being done the metal is mixed with some veins of earth out of which they melt the metal and refine it. Then they cast it into regular blocks and carry it to a certain island near at hand called Ictis for at low tide, all being dry between there and the island, tin in large quantities is brought over in carts." Pliny, whose text has survived in eroded condition, quotes Timaeus of Taormina in referring to "insulam Mictim", "the island of Mictim" [sic], where the m of insulam has been repeated. Several locations for "Ictin" or "Ictis", signifying "tin port" have been suggested, including St. Michael's Mount, but, as a result of excavations, Barry Cunliffe has proposed that this was Mount Batten near Plymouth. A shipwreck site with ingots of tin was found at the mouth of the River Erme not far away, which may represent trade along this coast during the Bronze Age, although dating the site is very difficult. Strabo reported that British tin was shipped to Marseille. Legend of Joseph of Arimathea Ding Dong mine, reputedly one of the oldest in Cornwall, in the parish of Gulval is said in local legend to have been visited by Joseph of Arimathea, a tin trader, and that he brought a young Jesus to address the miners, although there is no evidence to support this. Iron Age archaeology There are few remains of prehistoric tin mining in Cornwall or Devon, probably because later workings have destroyed early ones. However, shallow cuttings used for extracting ore can be seen in some places such as Challacombe Down, Dartmoor. There are a few stone hammers, such as those in the Zennor Wayside Museum. It may well be that mining was mostly undertaken with shovels, antler picks, and wooden wedges. An excavation at Dean Moor on Dartmoor, at a site dated at 1400–900 BC from pottery, yielded a pebble of tin ore and tin slag. Rocks were used for crushing the ore and stones for this were found at Crift Farm. There have been finds of tin slag on the floors of Bronze Age houses, for example at Trevisker. Tin slag was found at Caerloges with a dagger of the Camerton-Snowhill type. In the Iron Age bronze continued to be used for ornaments though not for tools and weapons, so tin extraction seems to have continued. An ingot from Castle Dore is probably of Iron Age date. Roman and Post-Roman periods The tin resources are said to have been a reason the Romans invaded Britain, but they had control of mines in Spain and Brittany in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Later production in Spain was curtailed, probably by raiding. Production in Britain increased in the 3rd century, for use in coinage, and there was extensive use of tin in pewter manufacture, at Camerton in Somerset for example. Cornwall and West Devon were less Romanised than many other parts of Britain, and tin mining may have been in local hands, with tin purchased by the imperial authority. A possible official stamp has been identified on the Carnington tin ingot. A number of tin ingots have been found in Roman contexts, such as 42 found in a wreck at Bigbury Bay in 1991–92. A site in the Erme Valley, Devon, shows sediment aggregation in late Roman and Post-Roman times due to tin mining on Dartmoor. There is a peak in activity between the 4th and 7th centuries. Tin slag at Week Ford in Devon has been dated to 570–890 AD. St Piran (patron saint of tinners) is said to have landed at Perranporth from Ireland about 420 AD. Medieval and modern mining Middle Ages There is no record of tin mining in Domesday Book, possibly because the rights were Crown property. During the first half of the 12th century Dartmoor provided most of the tin for Europe, exceeding the production of Cornwall. The Pipe Roll of Henry II gives the annual tin production of Dartmoor as about 60 tons. In 1198 he agreed that "all the diggers and buyers of black tin, and all the smelters of tin, and traders of tin in the first smelting shall have the just and ancient customs and liberties established in Devon and Cornwall." This shows that mining had been going on for a long time. A charter confirming the miners' rights was granted by King John in 1201. The alluvial silt record in the Erme Valley, Devon, shows a build-up of tin waste between 1288 and 1389. Following the transfer of power to the Norman lord Robert, Count of Mortain, who held the manor of Trematon, silver mining became a major industry, particularly in the Tamar valley around Bere Ferrers in Devon. Established in 1292 by the Crown under Edward I, skilled labour was initially imported from Derbyshire and North Wales, with specialist expertise from Germany and capital from Italy. Profits from rights to the silver mines for the Crown led to the rise of the ancient Cornish Edgcumbe family at Cotehele and later Mount Edgcumbe. In 1305 King Edward I established separate stannaries for Devon and Cornwall. Water was used to operate stamps to crush the ore, the lighter waste being washed away. The mineral "black tin" was placed in furnaces and layered with peat. The molten metal was poured into granite moulds which produced ingots of tin. These were taken on pack horses to the stannary towns for assaying. Usable deposits in Devon became worked out, and so Cornwall became the centre of tin production. In 1337 Cornish tin production was 650 tons, but in 1335 it had been reduced to 250 tons by the Black Death. In 1400 Cornish production rose to 800 tons. The production in Devon was only 25% of that of Cornwall in 1450–1470. The tin works of Devon and Cornwall were of such importance that the medieval kings established stannary courts and stannary parliaments to administer the law in Cornwall and part of Devon. Up to the mid 16th century, Devon produced about 25–40% of the amount of tin that Cornwall did, but the total amount of tin production from both Cornwall and Devon during this period was relatively small. Under the stannary system, tin was brought to coinage towns to be coined in coinage halls. The stannary towns in Cornwall were originally: Helston, Liskeard, Truro, Lostwithial and later Penzance. In Devon, the coinage towns were: Ashburton, Plympton, Chagford and Tavistock. The Cornish Rebellion of 1497 originated among Cornish tin miners who opposed the raising of taxes by Henry VII to make war on Scotland. This levy was resented for the economic hardship it would cause; it also intruded on a special Cornish tax exemption. The rebels marched on London, gaining supporters as they went, but were defeated at the Battle of Deptford Bridge. Quarrying was of very limited importance in medieval Cornwall. Stone for church building was very rarely imported from outside the county: they used whatever stone could be found within a short distance. For some ornamental features such as doorways, pillars and fonts good use was made of varieties of elvan (e.g. Polyphant and Catacleuze). The granite was not quarried but collected from the moorlands and worked on site. Quarrying of slate developed in north Cornwall in the later Middle Ages and later developed in early modern times into larger undertakings. Early modern period After the 1540s, Cornwall's production increased rapidly and Devon's production was only about 10–11% of that of Cornwall. From the mid-16th century the Devon stannaries generated very little income for the Crown, and they were sidelined under the Privilege of Parliament Act 1512. The first Crockern Tor stannary parliament in Devon was held in 1494 and the last in 1748. At Combe Martin several disused silver mines are located on the eastern ridge and evidence of tunnels can still be seen, as well as the remains of a wheelhouse used to lift ore from the mine. There are items in the Crown Jewels made from Combe Martin silver. A second tin boom came around the 16th century when open cast mining was used. German miners who had knowledge of the techniques were employed. In 1689, Thomas Epsley, a Somerset man, developed a method to blast the very hard granite rock loose, using gunpowder with quill fuses. It revolutionised hard rock mining. Six days' work with a pick could be accomplished with one blast. There was a third boom in the 18th century when shafts were dug to extract the ore. Later modern period In the 19th century Cornish mining reached its zenith, before foreign competition depressed the price of copper, and later tin, to a level that made the extraction of Cornish ore unprofitable. The areas of Cornwall around Gwennap and St Day and on the coast around Porthtowan were among the richest mining areas in the world. At its height the Cornish tin mining industry had around 600 steam engines working to pump out the mines (many mines reached under the sea and some went down to great depths). Adventurers put up the capital, hoping that the mine would return them a profit, but the outcomes were very uncertain. Caradon Hill had the most productive mine in east Cornwall. The South Caradon Copper Mine, 1 km to the southwest of the Caradon Hill transmitting station, was the largest copper mine in the UK in its heyday in the second half of the 19th century. Other disused copper and tin mines are scattered around the base of the hill. By the mid-19th century Looe had become a major port, one of Cornwall's largest, exporting local tin, arsenic, and granite, as well as hosting thriving fishing and boatbuilding industries. At Callington arsenic was found with copper ores and was processed by crushing and condensing; the poisonous nature of dust containing arsenic made the work very hazardous. Numerous precautions were taken but the workers tended to die in middle age. Menheniot was a centre of lead mining and is now surrounded by disused shafts and engine houses. Lead seams were discovered in the 1840s and Menheniot became the centre of a mining boom which lasted until the 1870s. During this period the population doubled. Kit Hill Country Park is steeped in mining history. Metals extracted included tin, silver, copper, and tungsten. The main mines were Kit Hill Summit Mines (which included a windmill near the present stack) (started about 1826; Kit Hill United closed in 1864); East Kit Hill Mine, worked from 1855 to 1909; Hingston Down mine (which worked westwards towards Kit Hill, may have started in the 17th century, it closed in 1885; and South Kit Hill Mine, worked from 1856 to 1884. The last Cornish Stannary Parliament was held at Hingston Down in 1753, and the Devon Stannary Parliament last met in 1748. The Stannary Courts of Devon and Cornwall were combined in 1855 and their powers transferred to local authorities in 1896. By the middle and late 19th century, Cornish mining was in decline, and many Cornish miners emigrated to developing mining districts overseas, where their skills were in demand: these included South Africa, Australia and North America. Cornish miners became dominant in the 1850s in the iron and copper districts of northern Michigan in the United States, as well as in many other mining districts. In the first six months of 1875, over 10,000 miners left Cornwall to find work overseas. 20th century and after During the 20th century, various ores were briefly profitable, and mines were reopened, but today none remain. Dolcoath mine (Cornish for Old Ground), the 'Queen of Cornish Mines', was deep, and was for many years the deepest mine in the world, not to mention one of the oldest before its closure in 1921. The last working tin mine in Europe was South Crofty, near Camborne, until its closure in March 1998. After an attempt was made to reopen it, it was abandoned. There were local media reports in September 2006 that South Crofty was being considered for re-opening as the price of tin had soared, but the site was subject to a compulsory purchase order (October 2006). On the wall outside the gate is some graffiti dating from 1999: (This is from the chorus of the song 'Cornish Lads' by Cornish singer/songwriter Roger Bryant, written at the time of the closure of Geevor Mine. See CD "The Writing's on the Wall" by Roger Bryant. Other recordings by Jinks' Stack and Mike Nicholson.) The collapse of the International Tin Council in 1986 was the end for Cornish and Devonian tin mining. The most recent mine in Devon to produce tin ore was Hemerdon Mine near Plympton in the 1980s. The last Cornish tin mine in production at South Crofty closed in 1998. The Hemerdon tungsten and tin mine in south-west Devon re-opened as Drakelands Mine in 2015. In 1992, Geevor mine was acquired by Cornwall County Council as a heritage museum, which is now run by Pendeen Community Heritage. Both Geevor Tin Mine and Morwellham Quay have been selected as "anchor points" on the European Route of Industrial Heritage. The extraction of china clay (kaolin) continues to be of considerable importance: the larger works are in the St Austell district. The amount of waste in proportion to kaolin is so great that huge waste mounds were created whose whiteness in the early years means that they can be seen from afar. The Eden Project has been developed on the site of a former china clay and tin quarry. Extraction of slate and roadstone by quarrying still continues on a reduced scale: it was formerly an important industry, and has been carried on in Cornwall ever since the Middle Ages. Several quarries have been productive enough to need their own mineral railways. Granite of high quality has been extracted from many Cornish quarries such as De Lank and Porthoustock. Some granite has been taken very long distances for use in building. There are also some important quarries in Devon, such as Meldon (a source of railway ballast for the Southern Railway) and granite quarries on Dartmoor such as Merrivale. In 2017, plans were reported to extract lithium reserves from beneath Cornwall by Cornish Lithium, who had signed agreements to develop potential deposits. In April 2019, a British-based company, MetAmpère Limited, drilled six lithium exploration holes in the UK at a site near St Austell. MetAmpère has successfully extracted lithium from hard rock at a laboratory scale, resulting in plans for a further 20 drill holes. In 2021, a new mine was extracting battery-grade lithium carbonate. Disasters In the metalliferous mines of Cornwall, some of the worst accidents were at East Wheal Rose in 1846, where 39 men were killed by a sudden flood; at Levant Mine in 1919, where 31 were killed and many injured in a failure of the man engine; 12 killed at Wheal Agar in 1883 when a cage fell down a shaft; and seven killed at Dolcoath mine in 1893, when a large stull collapsed. Main mining areas Cornwall Penwith St Just in Penwith and Zennor Camborne, Redruth and Illogan Gwennap and the Carnon Valley in west Cornwall Wendron area in Kerrier St Agnes and Porthtowan North Cornwall (a few mines but no tin) A large area bounded by St Austell, Wadebridge, Bodmin and Callington in mid and east Cornwall River Tamar Tamar Valley - copper, tin, lead, silver, and arsenic. See Morwellham Quay. Particularly in the nineteenth century, ores were internationally traded through Plymouth Dock Devon Lydford – an ancient Saxon burh; the early medieval location of the most westerly silver mint and later ceremonial parliament and prison of the Stannary Court for Dartmoor Bere Ferrers – a unique Crown-operated medieval silver (and lead) mine Combe Martin – lead/silver deposits Exmoor and Brendon Hills – iron lead, silver, copper Dartmoor – ancient stannary towns include Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford and later Plympton West Devon Bampfylde Mine, North Molton Blackdown Hills – copper deposits Methods and processing See Dartmoor tin-mining Study and education The Royal Geological Society of Cornwall was founded in 1814 to promote the study of the geology of Cornwall, and is the second oldest geological society in the world. The Cornish Institute of Engineers was begun by mechanical engineers. Mining is an important area in which it is active. Camborne School of Mines Because of the importance of metal mining to the Cornish economy, the Camborne School of Mines (CSM), founded in 1888, developed as the only specialist hard rock education establishment in the United Kingdom. It continues to teach mining as well as many other earth-related subjects (e.g. engineering geology) relevant to the Cornish economy. CSM now forms part of the University of Exeter, and has relocated to the University's Tremough campus in Penryn. Despite this move, the School continues the use of "Camborne" in its name. CSM graduates are to be found working in the mining industry all over the world. Terminology and symbolism Several Cornish mining words are still in use in English language mining terminology, such as costean, gunnies, vug, kibbal, gossan, mundic and kieve. Fish, tin, and copper together are sometimes used as a symbol of Cornwall because they show the three main traditional industries of Cornwall. Tin has a special place in the Cornish culture, the Stannary Parliament, and 'Cornish pennies' are a testament to the former power of the Cornish tin industry. Cornish tin is highly prized for jewellery, often of mine engines or Celtic designs. The houses at Penair School are named after four notable tin mines. Among the pubs whose names refer to tin mining are the Tinner's Arms in Zennor and the former Jolly Tinners pub in St Hilary. The pub sign at Zennor pictures a tin miner at work, testimony to its origins. The Jolly Tinners building at St Hilary was at one time used to accommodate the St Hilary Children's Home. Three hares The three hares is a circular motif which appears in sacred sites from the Middle and Far East to the churches of south west England (where it is often referred to as the "Tinners' Rabbits"). It occurs with the greatest frequency in the churches of the West Country of England. The motif appears in architectural wood carving, stone carving, window tracery, and stained glass. In South Western England there are nearly thirty recorded examples of the Three Hares appearing on 'roof bosses' (carved wooden knobs) on the ceilings in medieval churches in Devon, (particularly Dartmoor). There is a good example of a roof boss of the Three hares at Widecombe-in-the-Moor, Another exemplary roof boss can be found in the town of Tavistock, in Dartmoor, on the edge of the moor. Tinners' Rabbits is the name of a dance of many forms involving use of sticks and rotation of three, six or nine dancers. World Heritage Site In 1999, the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape was added to the UK government's tentative list for submission to the World Heritage list. It was announced on 13 July 2006 that the bid had been successful. This World Heritage Site is unique in that it covers a technique exported worldwide, including Mexico and Peru, and will consist of a trail linking mining sites from Land's End in Cornwall, through Porthtowan and St Agnes up the spine of the county to the Tamar Valley forming the border with Devon. There, the exporting port of Morwellham is being developed alongside the Devon Great Consols Mine to demonstrate the nature and scale of the operations, with the Eastern Gateway to the World Heritage Site being anchored in the ancient stannary town of Tavistock, the base for Devon's own 19th-century gold rush. Heartlands, the £35m National Lottery funded regeneration project, and gateway to the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape World Heritage Site, opened to the public on 20 April 2012. This free visitor attraction had been 14 years in the planning (since South Crofty mine closed in 1998). In 2014, work was completed to preserve the iconic New Cooks Kitchen Headframe at South Crofty tin mine. at an approximate cost of £650,000. Individual mines Hemerdon Mine Hemerdon Mine, alternatively known as the Drakelands Mine or Hemerdon Ball or Hemerdon Bal Mine, is a historic tungsten and tin mine, NE of Plymouth, near Plympton, in Devon. It lies to the north of the villages of Sparkwell and Hemerdon and adjacent to the large china clay pits near Lee Moor. The mine, which had been out of operation since 1944, except for the brief operation of a trial mine in the 1980s, hosts one of the largest tungsten and tin deposits in the world. It restarted production in 2015. South Crofty Mine In November 2007 it was announced that South Crofty mine, near Camborne, may restart production in 2009. When it closed in 1998 it was Europe's last tin mine. Its owners Baseresult Holdings Ltd, which bought the mine in 2001, have created a new company, Western United Mines Limited (WUM), to operate it and has said it will be spending in excess of £50m on restarting the mine. The company claims that rising tin prices had given the mine, first opened in the late 16th century, another 80 years of life. More than £3.5m will be spent during the next seven months on continuing the mine development. Crofty Developments, a partner of the new company, still has to resolve a row with the South West Regional Development Agency (RDA) over use of more than of land surrounding the site. The RDA wants to make a compulsory purchase order on the site for leisure, housing and industry, but Crofty Developments has been fighting in the High Court to retain the site. The Cornish mining industry, started in 2000 BC, reached its peak in the 19th century, when thousands of workers were employed in up to 2,000 mines, before the industry collapsed when ores began to be produced more cheaply abroad. Partial list of Cornish mines Railways Note: The term "mineral railway" is usually understood to mean a railway operated in direct association with a single mine or a group of mines. An ordinary railway might convey the traffic of any consignor. However the terminology is not exact. Cornwall Minerals Railway The Cornwall Minerals Railway opened in 1874, connecting harbours at Fowey and Newquay and sites of mineral extraction in the area between them, in particular in the Bugle and St Dennis areas. The railway absorbed and extended several existing short mineral lines. East Cornwall Mineral Railway The ECMR connected copper extractive industries in the Kit Hill area to a quay at Calstock on the Tamar. Hayle Railway The Hayle Railway opened in 1837, serving engineering works and copper quays at Hayle and the copper mines of Redruth and Camborne. List of mineral railways in Cornwall See also Bal maidens, female ore dressers Beam engine Come, all ye jolly tinner boys Cornish emigration Cornish engine Cornish Foreshore Case Cornish Mines & Engines Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape, a World Heritage Site Dartmoor tin-mining Geology of Cornwall Hayle, centre of copper smelting John Taylor, inventor of the Cornish rolls Kenneth Hamilton Jenkin, historian Knocker, said to inhabit the mines Lostwithiel Stannary Palace Mineral Tramway Trails Morwellham Quay, inland port Robert Hunt, mineralogist and statistician Tin sources and trade in ancient times Welcome Stranger (a notable nugget of gold found by two Cornish miners in Victoria, Australia) William Jory Henwood, mining geologist Williams family of Caerhays and Burncoose, mining entrepreneurs Scorrier House, seat of the Williams family Tin coinage Helston Coinage hall Stannary References Bibliography Gerrard, S. The Early British Tin Industry, Tempus, 2000. Penhallurick, R. Tin in Antiquity. 1986. Penhallurick, R. Europe Tin Deposits. 1998. Further reading Barton, D. Bradford (1961) A History of Copper Mining in Cornwall & Devon. Truro: Truro Bookshop; 2nd ed. Truro, 1968; 3rd ed. Truro, 1978 Booker, Frank (1967) The Industrial Archaeology of the Tamar Valley. Newton Abbot: David & Charles; Revised impression 1971 Brooks, Tony (2001) Castle-an-Dinas 1916–1957: Cornwall's premier tungsten mine with brief comparative histories of other wolfram mines in Cornwall & West Devon. St. Austell, Cornwall : Cornish Hillside Publications Burt, Roger, with Raymond Burnley, Michael Gill and Alasdair Neill (2014) Mining in Cornwall & Devon: Mines and Men. Exeter: University of Exeter Press Collins, J. H. (1897) The Miner in Cornwall and Devon. (Cited by A. C. Todd (1972); p. 11.) Cunliffe, Barry "Ictis is it here?"; Oxford Journal of Archaeology 2/1, pp. 123–126, 1983. Hatcher, John English Tin Production and Trade before 1550. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. Hawkes, C. "Ictis disentangled and the British tin trade" in: Oxford Journal of Archaeology; 3/2, pp 211–234, 1984. Hammersen, L. The Control of Tin in South West Britain from the 1st Century AD to the Late 3rd Century AD. MA thesis, North Carolina University, 2007. Jenkin, Kenneth Hamilton The Cornish Miner: an account of his life above and underground from early times. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1927: three editions, including 3rd edition, 1962 (reprinted by David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1972 ; reprinted in facsimile with an introduction by John H. Trounson, Launceston: Westcountry, 2004 ) Jenkin, Kenneth Hamilton Mines and Miners of Cornwall in 16 volumes, vols. 1–14 originally published by the Truro Bookshop, 1961 onwards and reprinted by various organisations: Pt. I. Around St. Ives Pt. II. St. Agnes, Perranporth Pt. III. Around Redruth Pt. IV. Penzance-Mount's Bay Pt. V. Hayle, Gwinear and Gwithian Pt. VI. Around Gwennap Pt. VII. Perranporth-Newquay Pt. VIII. Truro to the clay district Pt. IX. Padstow, St Columb and Bodmin Pt. X. Camborne and Illogan Pt. XI. Marazion, St Hilary and Breage Pt. XII. Liskeard area Pt. XIII. The Lizard-Falmouth-Mevagissey Pt. XIV. St Austell to Saltash Pt. XV. Calstock, Callington and Launceston Penzance: Federation of Old Cornwall Societies, 1969 (reprinted Bracknell: Forge Books, 1976) Pt. XVI. Wadebridge, Camelford and Bude Penzance: Federation of Old Cornwall Societies, 1970 Index to Mines and Miners of Cornwall: Volumes 1–16. St. Austell: Federation of Old Cornwall Societies, 1978 Jenkin, Kenneth Hamilton Mines of Devon. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1974 Volume 1: South Devon Volume 2: Mines of Devon, north and east of Dartmoor: Sydenham Damerel, Lydford, Wheal Betsy, Wheal Friendship, Okehampton, Sticklepath, Chagford, Buckfastleigh, Ashburton, Ilsington, Teign Valley, Newton St. Cyres, and Upton Pyne. (Reprinted by Devon Libraries 1981 ) Both volumes reprinted by Landmark, 2005 Jenkin, Kenneth Hamilton Wendron Tin (commissioned by Poldark Mine), 1978 Laing, L. R. "A Greek tin trade with Cornwall" in: Cornish Archaeology; 7, 1968, pp. 15–22. Lewis, G. R. : The Stannaries: a study of the English tin miner. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1924. Lewis, Jim (2006) "Cornish copper mining 1795-1830: economy, structure and change", in: Cornish Archaeology; ser. II, vol. 14, ; pp. 164–86. Murray, John, publisher (1859) Handbook for Devon and Cornwall. London: John Murray Pearce, Susan C. Bronze Age Metalwork of South West Britain. (BAR; 190). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1983. Quinell, H. Cornwall in the Iron and Roman Ages. Rickard, T. A. Man and Metals: a history of mining in relation to the development of civilisation (2 vols). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1932. Stanier, Peter Mines of Cornwall and Devon: an historic photographic record. Truro: Twelveheads Press, 1998 Todd, A. C. & Laws, Peter (1972) The Industrial Archaeology of Cornwall. Newton Abbot: David & Charles Trounson, J. H. (1980, 1981) Mining in Cornwall, 1850-1960. 2 vols. Ashbourne: Moorland & Trounson, J. H. (1999) Mining in Cornwall; rev. & enlarged ed. compiled by J. H. Trounson and L. J. Bullen Stroud: Tempus Vol. 1: The central district; vol. 2: The county explored. (v. 1) & (v. 2); Trounson, J. H. (1989) The Cornish Mineral Industry: past performance and future prospect, a personal view 1937–1951; edited by Roger Burt and Peter Waite. Exeter: University of Exeter in association with the National Association of Mining History Organisations Trounson, J. H. (1993) Cornwall's Future Mines: areas of Cornwall of mineral potential. Exeter: University of Exeter Press Devon Thorneycroft, V. R., Pirrie, D. and Brown, A. (2004) "Alluvial records of medieval and prehistoric tin mining on Dartmoor, southwest England" in: Geoarchaeology; 19/3, pp 219–236, Feb 2004. United States Cornish, Joseph H. The History and Genealogy of the Cornish Families in America. Higginson Book Company. 2003. ASIN: B0006S85H6. Ewart, Shirley. Highly Respectable Families: the Cornish of Grass Valley, California 1854–1954 (Nevada County Pioneers Series). Comstock Bonanza Press. October 1998. . Magnaghi, Russell M. Cornish in Michigan (Discovering the Peoples of Michigan Series). Michigan State University Press. October 2007. . Payton, Philip The Cornish Overseas. Cornwall Editions Limited. April 2005. . Rowse, A. L. The Cornish in America. Redruth: Dyllansow Truran. June 1991. . Todd, Arthur C. The Cornish Miner in America: the Contribution to the Mining History of the United States by Emigrant Cornish Miners: the Men Called Cousin Jacks. Arthur H. Clark (publisher). September 1995. . White, Helen M. Cornish Cousins of Minnesota, Lost and Found: St. Piran's Society of Minnesota. Minnesota Heritage Publications. 1997. ASIN: B0006QP60M. External links Cornish Mining History of Cornwall Cornwall Cornish Mining Tin mining Cornwall
4628528	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car%20of%20Tomorrow	Car of Tomorrow	The Car of Tomorrow (abbreviated as CoT) was the common name used for the chassis of the NASCAR Cup Series (2007 – 2012) and Xfinity Series (since 2011 full-time) race cars. The car was part of a five-year project to create a safer vehicle following several deaths in competition, particularly the crash at the 2001 Daytona 500 that killed Dale Earnhardt. Used as the fifth generation car style for the Cup Series, the original Car of Tomorrow body design was larger and boxier than the design it replaced, and criticized for its generic appearance and poor handling characteristics. The CoT, however, implemented dramatic safety improvements, cost less to maintain, and was intended to make for closer competition. The car was introduced in the 2007 Cup Series season at the Food City 500 on March 25 and ran a partial schedule of 16 races. The plan was to require all teams to use the new car in 2009, but NASCAR officials moved the date up to the 2008 season as a cost-saving measure. The Car of Tomorrow body style was retired by NASCAR after the 2012 Ford EcoBoost 400. The sixth-generation car, which featured the additional chassis safety improvements as well as improved body designs, debuted in 2013; many teams simply removed the CoT car bodies, added the new chassis safety improvements, and installed a sixth-generation car body. The chassis was used until the end of the 2021 season before eventually replaced with the Next Gen car in 2022. In 2010, the Xfinity Series (then the Nationwide Series) debuted its own version of the CoT in a partial schedule, using the same chassis but different bodies and a shorter wheelbase; teams could take old Sprint Cup cars, change the bodies, and run them in the Nationwide Series, provided they passed recertification. The car was required for full-time competition in 2011. No deaths have occurred in NASCAR Cup Series competition since the Car of Tomorrow was introduced. Design On January 11, 2006, NASCAR revealed the Car of Tomorrow, also referred to as the "Car of the Future" during its development, after a five-year design program sparked mainly by the death of Dale Earnhardt Sr. in a final-lap crash during the 2001 Daytona 500. During the prior season, three drivers (Adam Petty, Kenny Irwin Jr. and Tony Roper) had perished in on-track accidents. The then-current cars were based on a design by Holman Moody first used for the 1966 Ford Fairlane. The primary design considerations for the new car were "safety innovations, performance and competition, and cost efficiency for teams." The CoT incorporated several safety improvements in comparison to the older car. The driver's seat was moved four inches toward the center, and the roll cage shifted three inches to the rear, while the car was designed two inches taller and four inches wider. Larger crumple zones, designed to absorb impact energy, and impact absorbing foam were built into the car on both sides. Replacing the front valance was an adjustable splitter, a piece of fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP, "fiberglass") used on the bottom front of the car to produce downforce. The car's exhaust exits on the right (passenger) side, which diverts heat from the driver. The fuel cell was strengthened using thicker material, with a smaller capacity , down from , which as of 2007 had become standard in all cars. NASCAR officials initially claimed the car was less dependent on aerodynamics, comparing its performance to the trucks of the Craftsman Truck Series. It initially featured a detached wing, which had not been used since the Dodge Charger Daytona and Plymouth Superbird in 1970, in place of a rear spoiler. The windshield was more upright to prevent collapse in the event of a rollover, with the added effect of increased drag. The radiator air intake was placed below the front bumper of the car, to reduce overheating caused by debris-clogged grilles. The front bumper itself was more box-like and the front airdam was gapped, as opposed to being a flush piece on the older cars, to reduce aerodynamics and slow down the cars. All cars were required to fit the same set of templates (with minor differences between the makes), using a laser inspection system (LIS) device nicknamed "the claw" that was designed to fit over the new cars. In the first two races at Bristol and Martinsville Speedway, the garages were opened one day early and the inspections took up to 10 hours so that everyone (teams, officials, etc.) could get a better grip on the new unified template. NASCAR's old rules had a different set of templates for each manufacturer (Ford, Chevrolet, Dodge, and Toyota). During the CoT era, NASCAR attempted to eliminate "gray area" and ambiguity within the rule book, and frequently adjusted the rules to ensure that different car manufacturers have relatively equal cars; one such instance of rule book changes against gray areas occurred after the 2008 Sprint All-Star Challenge, in which Sam Hornish, Jr. ran a car with skewed setup to finish second in the Showdown and advance to the All-Star Race, as well in 2012 after Hendrick Motorsports' teams ran with skewed sway bars to win five races during the spring portion of the season. With the transition to the Generation 6 car, the claw continues to be used along with manufacturer-specific templates until 2018, when both was replaced by the laser-based Optical Scanning System (OSS). On January 15, 2010, Cup Series director John Darby informed teams that NASCAR would transition back to the spoiler, to increase downforce and prevent airborne accidents the rear wing was believed to cause. Car models Although initially branded as the Monte Carlo SS (the same as the Generation 4 model), Chevrolet's Car of Tomorrow debuted as the Impala SS (later the Impala). After using the Charger name on the old car since 2005, Dodge utilized the Avenger name on the CoT, coinciding with the model's reintroduction into the production market. However, for 2008 the Charger name returned for use on the CoT. Ford continued to use the Fusion model while Toyota continued to use the Camry. Dimensions This chart lists the CoT's dimensions compared with the dimensions of their production car counterparts. *Weight displays the curb weight of the least expensive trim level available for model year 2008 unless otherwise specified. The Holden Commodore listed is a 2012 VE model with a V8 and manual transmission (which road-cars were imported for the US market). The VF Commodore debuted for the 2014 model year in early 2013 as the Chevrolet SS. Testing The Car of Tomorrow was first tested in December 2005 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Next it tested at the 2.5-mile Daytona International Speedway, then on NASCAR's two shortest tracks, Bristol (0.533 mi) and Martinsville (0.526 mi.), the 1.5-mile Charlotte Motor Speedway, the 2.66 mile Talladega Superspeedway, and 2.0-mile Michigan International Speedway. Former NASCAR driver, and former Cup Series pace car driver and Director of Cost Research Brett Bodine also tested the prototype car against cars prepared by current NASCAR teams. Drivers tested the CoT concurrently with the old car at some NASCAR tests and at special NASCAR-authorized sessions. Other testing sessions occurred at the half-mile Greenville-Pickens Speedway, Caraway Speedway in Asheboro, NC, and the one-mile North Carolina Speedway (now Rockingham Speedway), none of which were Cup Series tracks at the time (North Carolina Speedway was a regular venue until 2005), and therefore did not fall under NASCAR's restrictions. Implementation The Car of Tomorrow was first raced at the 2007 Food City 500 at Bristol Motor Speedway, the season's fifth race. The tracks that saw the CoT twice in 2007 besides Bristol and Martinsville International Speedway were Phoenix Raceway, Richmond Raceway, Dover International Speedway, and New Hampshire Motor Speedway. Other than Talladega (for the fall event), Darlington Raceway and the road course races at Sonoma Raceway and Watkins Glen (N.Y.) International ran the CoT once each in 2007. Original implementation plans called for the CoT to be used at 26 events in 2008, starting with both races at Daytona, including the season-opening Daytona 500 and related events (Budweiser Shootout and Gatorade Duels), the spring race at Talladega and Michigan, both races at Auto Club Speedway, Pocono Raceway and the event at Indianapolis Motor Speedway. Based on the success of the February 28 test at Bristol, NASCAR considered requiring the CoT for the full schedule in 2008 in order to avoid applying two sets of rules (as supported by a survey of NASCAR owners, with 80% favoring the switch), adding all three events (including the all-star event) at Charlotte Motor Speedway, as well as both races at Atlanta and Texas Motor Speedway, and single races at Chicagoland Speedway, Kansas Speedway, Las Vegas Motor Speedway and Homestead-Miami Speedway one year earlier than scheduled. This was confirmed on Tuesday, May 22, 2007, by NASCAR. Had NASCAR continued with the original schedule of implication, the other tracks would have been added in 2009. Apparently 2008 was not going to be when the CoT would make its debut. It was initially going to debut in mid to late 2005, and possibly 2004 according to NASCAR's R&D at the time. But the tests with this version plus negative driver comments led to the creation of the splitter and the wing, thus delaying implementation until 2007. Debut On March 25, 2007, the CoT debuted in its first NASCAR-sanctioned race. Kyle Busch won the race, the first win for the Chevrolet Impala since Wendell Scott's historic race in 1963. Reactions to the CoT's performance were mixed. Dale Earnhardt Jr., after finishing 7th, said, "It wasn't a disaster like everybody anticipated. It worked out, I reckon. Racing was about the same." Drivers were also impressed with the car's ability to bump other competitors without causing a spin (bumper heights were equalized due to street car development, and nose-to-rear bumper contact caused spins that pre-1988 cars would not cause), and NASCAR officials were pleased with the improvements in safety. Several drivers and pundits expressed distaste for the car and what they perceived as a less exciting style of racing created by it. Kyle Busch, despite winning at Bristol, commented that "they suck" during his victory lane interview. Retired driver and TV analyst Rusty Wallace stated on ESPN that the car created a boring, single-file racing environment with little of the passing, action, or crashing that has made NASCAR popular, though after NASCAR announced the CoT would run the full schedule, he stated that it was "one of the best decisions NASCAR had ever made." Drivers who placed well at Bristol, Jeff Gordon and Jeff Burton, claimed that the car allowed the use of a second passing lane not usually present at Bristol. A major problem with the car's initial race was its front splitter. One car's splitter running into the tire of another car beside it sometimes punctured the second car's tire. There were no problems with the splitter causing tire failure at the car's second race. Another major problem was that the safety foam used in the side of the car would catch fire, engulfing the driver's cockpit with smoke. NASCAR decided to make modifications before the April 21 Subway Fresh Fit 500 in Avondale, Arizona. An additional side effect of the foam occurred during side-impacts, as Brian Vickers experienced at Watkins Glen, when the foam would be sheared out of the car leaving debris on the racetrack. During the 2007 UAW-Ford 500, the CoT's debut on a superspeedway track at Talladega, NASCAR assigned a restrictor plate to allow the engines to run at around 8,800 RPM due to the less aerodynamic design of the CoT. The previous generation car's engine would normally run around 7,000 RPM with a plate. This was the most open restrictor plate (in terms of air flow) to race at Talladega since 1988. History, criticisms, and redesigns of the COT First generation body (Generation 5) Criticisms of the CoT began with its first tests, with the magazine Speedway Illustrated noting the car's poor performance in traffic (February 2006 issue). The Winston-Salem Journal also noted extensive criticism of the project during 2006 testing, with drivers becoming more vocal by July 2007 and most fans rejecting the model, citing the falsity of many of its technical claims; one angle of criticism was the differing philosophies of NASCAR officials Gary Nelson and John Darby, with Darby a particularly ardent supporter of the CoT based on a misreading of the sport's competition packages. Jeff Gordon and Matt Kenseth were pointedly critical of the car's poor performance in traffic, with Gordon stating after the 2007 New England 300, "I'd like to know who it was who said this car would reduce the aero push because I could have told you from when I first drove this car that it would be worse." Kyle Busch, who won the very first race with the car at Bristol in 2007, proclaimed that the car "sucks" afterward and expanded on this criticism at Dover in 2008 in noting how the CoT was "hitting a wall of air" in the wake of a leading car, thus neutralizing ability to close up on leaders. On April 4, 2008, while in a qualifying run for the 2008 Samsung 500 at Texas Motor Speedway, Michael McDowell's right-front sway bar broke, and he proceeded to lose control of his car and proceeded to strike the wall outside of Turn 1 head-on at 185 MPH. Michael's car subsequently barrel-rolled eight times as fire came from the engine compartment and came to a stop at the exit of Turn 2. McDowell emerged from the Toyota unharmed. The car, along with the SAFER barrier on the track wall, was praised for its safety, as the speed upon impact of the crash was about 30 miles an hour more than Dale Earnhardt's fatal accident. In the 2008 Brickyard 400, the longest run under green flag conditions was 12 laps due to extreme wear on right-side tires, especially the right rear. The CoT, in its first use at Indianapolis Motor Speedway, created no improvement of the conditions on the track, which is well known for its rough surface. The lack of downforce on the car and its higher center of gravity created conditions that made it very hard on the right side tires. During the race, the tires used on the cars generally lasted no more than 10 laps at a time. It has been claimed that the bulky rear wing that was affixed to the rear of the car from 2007 to early 2010 increased the severity of many on-track incidents by causing cars to flip over or go airborne at high speeds. On the final lap of the 2009 Aaron's 499 at Talladega, leader Carl Edwards attempted to block Brad Keselowski in order to prevent Keselowski from passing; when Keselowski didn't give, Edwards was turned into the air and Edwards's car bounced off of the hood of Ryan Newman's car and flipped into the catch fence, then came to a rest in the middle of the track further down. Edwards was uninjured, but the crash was compared to an accident at Talladega in 1987 where Bobby Allison went airborne and hit the catch fence in a similar location. Allison's crash (coming at speeds 20 MPH faster than Edwards' crash) ripped out a 100-foot section of the catch fence, while Edwards' crash only bent the support poles. Seven spectators were injured in Edwards' accident from debris. The aftermath of the accident spawned questions about the aerodynamic features of the CoT, the nature of pack racing with restrictor plates, and the safety features of Talladega Superspeedway. Video replay showed that despite deploying, the car's roof flaps did nothing to stop the car from flipping – a common failing of the devices dating to their very first month in use – and the second hit from Newman flipped the car higher. In the 2009 AMP Energy 500 – the fall race at Talladega, Ryan Newman was spun backwards at high speed in a late race crash, and then flipped backwards (landing upside down on Kevin Harvick's hood) and ended up on his roof. Mark Martin also barrel rolled in a crash during the same race, but instead of lifting in the air like Newman, his car was hit from behind, causing the weight of the car to shift to one side and pull the car onto its roof, rolling once. At the 2010 Kobalt Tools 500 at Atlanta – the second to last race to use the rear wing – Carl Edwards made deliberate contact with Brad Keselowski (in retaliation for several events including the Talladega race the prior season), causing Keselowski to turn backwards and once more flip over despite the roof flaps being deployed. Keselowski flipped over once and crashed on his side door. Edwards was parked for the rest of the race and put on three-race probation. These three accidents – as well as the general consensus that the wing made the car look like a sports car rather than a stock car – were factors in NASCAR's eventual decision, in February 2010, to replace the wing with a more traditional rear spoiler starting at Martinsville in late March. Denny Hamlin won the first race with the new/old spoiler, beating out Jeff Gordon and Matt Kenseth. For the 2011 season, the car's splitter and nose configuration were redesigned: the splitter's braces were removed, and the splitter was made nonadjustable. The nose as a whole was given a cleaner, rounder look that resembled that of NASCAR's previous model (now dubbed the fourth-generation car) and manufacturers were given free rein to construct the lower grille area to reflect that of their NASCAR models' production-car counterparts. In the past, all cars were required to run the same exact grille arrangement, allowing for very little, if any, real differentiation between them. The first racing with the redesigned car was the 2011 Daytona 500 and its supporting races (Budweiser Shootout and Gatorade Duels), all held on brand new pavement for Daytona International Speedway. The Daytona 500 broke long-standing records for leaders and lead changes, as 22 drivers changed the lead 74 times. It also saw a first time winner, rookie Trevor Bayne, go to victory lane. But the story of the new car was a phenomenon of lock-bumper superdrafts – two cars would literally lock together and push into a clear lead, with speeds up to 10 MPH faster than with a conventional draft (on numerous occasions 2-car superdrafts topped 206 MPH); this phenomenon had debuted at Talladega Superspeedway in the spring of 2008 when Denny Hamlin discovered he could push Kevin Harvick all the way around the track during practice, resulting in a lap time about a half a second faster than the rest of the field. Hamlin used the move multiple times in that race to get the lead, and by the next spring the technique was used by the majority of the field throughout the entire race. The phenomenon also led to a new level of "team" racing reminiscent of the team orders ethos common to Formula One; drivers would communicate with each other over radio to coordinate "swaps" instead of actually fighting for position. This was present in the 2011 Aaron's 499 at Talladega, leading to a three-wide finish with three drafting teams contending for the win: Clint Bowyer (pushed by Kevin Harvick), Jeff Gordon (who was being pushed by Mark Martin, but separated before the finish line), and winner Jimmie Johnson (pushed by Dale Earnhardt Jr.), who won by two-thousandths of a second over Bowyer. A fourth drafting team, consisting of Roush-Fenway teammates Carl Edwards and Greg Biffle (Biffle was pushing), squeezed in between the Bowyer/Harvick tandem and the wall, but only finishing 6th (Edwards) and 7th (Biffle). Dale Earnhardt Jr. and veteran drivers such as Richard Petty and David Pearson were sharply critical of this new style of racing, especially in the wake of a race-record sixteen caution flags, most of them for crashes caused when pushing cars spun out leaders; Earnhardt Jr. himself crashed during an attempt at a green-white-checker finish in the 500. To dissuade the two-car tandem and return to pack racing, a new superspeedway package was introduced for the 2012 season, including a curved spoiler and a lower and longer rear bumper. The tandem remained prevalent in the Nationwide Series until 2014, when pushing was prohibited after a massive crash at the end of the 2013 DRIVE4COPD 300, in which 28 spectators were injured by flying debris off of Kyle Larson's airborne car. In the same year, fuel injection replaced the carburetor as the fuel distribution system. In spite of strong criticisms of the CoT's handling characteristics and the racing styles it created, it also produced one of the most competitive periods of time in NASCAR history. the first four CoT races in 2007 produced more "quality passes" (a pass of a top-15 car under green-flag conditions) than their 2006 counterparts. From 2007 to 2012, 28 different drivers scored a victory (in 196 races), including several first-time winners. Following the elimination of the CoT in 2013, NASCAR Chairman and CEO Brian France identified the model as his biggest failure as the head of the sport due to the lack of manufacturer identity. Second generation body (Generation 6) For 2013, NASCAR allowed manufacturers to design a brand-new body style for the COT chassis that resembled a given production car even more. The changes were largely cosmetic, with hopes of returning mechanical grip to drivers. At the 2012 Ford Championship Weekend the body of the car made it the Gen 6 car by NASCAR. During the 2012 season, it was announced that Ford would use the Mk.V Ford Mondeo, known as the Fusion in the Americas, Toyota would continue to use the 2013 Camry, while the Holden VF Commodore, rebadged in North America as the Chevrolet Super Sport (SS), replaced the Chevrolet Impala and Dodge announced they would use the Charger. However, soon after, Dodge announced their withdrawal from the sport, after being unable to convince other teams to switch to Dodge to replace Penske Racing (which returned to Ford). Key among the changes for the car included a carbon fibre hood and decklid, shaving 160 pounds from Cup cars, and new improved safety bars added to the roll cage. The roof flaps were increased in size to prevent the airborne accidents that marked the CoT's early life. This new "Generation 6" racecar debuted at the 2013 Daytona 500 and its supporting races. The testing and design of the car began in May 2010 and involved an unusual level of cooperation between the manufacturers (Chevrolet, Ford, and Toyota) involved. The 500 and subsequent race at Phoenix Raceway, however, caused controversy, as passing was limited and drivers such as Brad Keselowski and Denny Hamlin were critical of the car's ability to pass; the controversy was exacerbated when NASCAR fined Hamlin $25,000 over his comments. The view was also expressed that the car's slow development time and lack of available parts made drivers reluctant to take chances, with improvement expected with more time invested into the car. The Generation 6 car was succeeded by the Next Gen car in 2022. NASCAR Xfinity Series The Nationwide Series (now Xfinity Series) debuted its own version of the CoT in July 2010 at Daytona International Speedway, running four races that season before fully implementing the car in 2011. The Xfinity car used the same chassis as the Cup Series, but featured an extended wheelbase of . The second-tier series also utilizes different body style, primarily marketing American pony cars such as the Ford Mustang. NASCAR K&N Pro Series/ARCA Menards Series In 2015, NASCAR's regional series, the then-K&N Pro Series East and West along with the ARCA Racing Series (which NASCAR purchased in 2018, followed with rebranding of the East and West Series under the ARCA banner in 2020), the final series to still use the Generation 4 style body, introduced a new body style based on the Generation 6 Cup Series cars. Unlike the Generation 6 cars, the K&N Pro Series/ARCA car continues to use a front valence instead of a splitter. Again, three bodies are available—the Camry, Commodore, and Fusion; these cars continue to use be based on their 2013-spec body styles even with changes to their Cup Series counterparts. In 2022, a Ford Mustang bodystyle (based on the 2021 Generation 6 body) also became available. See also Cup Series cars References Footnotes General "Car of Tomorrow on track for Bristol debut", February 1, 2007, nascar.com, Retrieved March 16, 2007 NASCAR.com article, includes photographs NASCAR.com article on the first test at Daytona 2000 article about a UniTemplate car Benefits of Car of Tomorrow External links New Chevrolet Car of Tomorrow pictures with Impala SS front end 2000s in NASCAR 2010s in NASCAR NASCAR terminology NASCAR Xfinity Series NASCAR Cup Series Vehicles introduced in 2007 NASCAR controversies 2012 endings
4629005	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification%20of%20the%20Japonic%20languages	Classification of the Japonic languages	The classification of the Japonic languages and their external relations is unclear. Linguists traditionally consider the Japonic languages to belong to an independent family; indeed, until the classification of Ryukyuan as separate languages within a Japonic family rather than as dialects of Japanese, Japanese was considered a language isolate. Among more distant connections, the possibility of a genetic relationship to languages like Austronesian and or Kra–Dai, are discussed. A relation between Japonic and Koreanic is also considered plausible by some linguists, while others reject this idea. Independent of the question of a Japonic–Koreanic connection, both the Japonic and Koreanic languages are sometimes included in the now largely discredited Altaic family. Primary language family The currently most supported view is that the Japonic languages (sometimes also "Japanic") are their own primary language family, consisting of Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages. The Hachijō language is sometimes classified as a third branch of the Japonic language family, but it is otherwise seen to be a very divergent dialect of Eastern Japanese. It has been suggested that the linguistic homeland of Japonic may be located somewhere in southern, south-eastern, or eastern China prior to a hypothetical migration of proto-Japanese to the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese archipelago. Miyamoto suggests a homeland further north, around modern day Liaoning. Koreanic speakers, then established in Manchuria, expanded southward to the Korean peninsula, displacing Japonic speakers that had been living there and causing the Yayoi migrations into Japan. Vovin suggests that Japonic languages were spoken in parts of Korea, especially southern Korea, and were then replaced and assimilated by proto-Korean speakers. Similarly, Whitman (2012) suggests that Japonic is not related to Korean but that Japonic was present on the Korean peninsula during the Mumun pottery period (Yayoi people). According to him, Japonic arrived in the Korean peninsula around 1500 BC and was brought to the Japanese archipelago by the Yayoi at around 950 BC. In this scenario, the language family associated with both Mumun and Yayoi culture is Japonic. Koreanic arrived later from Manchuria to the Korean peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Most linguists today see the Japonic languages as their own distinct family, not related to Korean, but acknowledge an influence from other language families (and vice versa). Vovin (2015) shows evidence that the early Koreans borrowed words for rice cultivation from Peninsular Japonic. According to him, the middle Korean word psʌr (rice) is loaned from Peninsular Japonic wasar. Juha Janhunen (2003) proposed that the Japonic languages originated on the coast of the Shandong Peninsula, and that they originally had similar typological characteristics to the Sinitic languages before they acquired Altaic typological features through contact with the Koreanic languages on the Korean Peninsula. The linguists Yurayong and Szeto in 2020 analyzed the stages of convergence between Japonic and other languages. They concluded that "our results indirectly speak in favour of a "Paleo-Asiatic" origin of the Japonic languages". Chaubey and van Driem (2020) propose that the Japonic languages may have already been present in Japan during the early Jōmon period. They suggest that the Japonic languages were already present within the Japanese archipelago and coastal Korea, before the Yayoi period, and can be linked to one of the Jōmon populations of southwestern Japan, rather than the later Yayoi or Kofun period rice-agriculturalists. Japonic-speakers then expanded during the Yayoi period, assimilating the newcomers, adopting rice-agriculture, and fusing mainland Asian technologies with local traditions. Possible external relations Japonic-Koreanic theory There is disagreement over the protohistorical or historical period during which this expansion occurs, ranging from the Korean Bronze Age period to the Three Kingdoms of Korea period. As there is disagreement among experts when the expansion of Koreanic languages started, there is room for interpretation on the proto-historical and historical extent of the Japonic language presence in the central and southern Korean peninsula. Similarities between Japanese and Koreanic languages History Japanese and Korean languages also share some typological similarities, such as an agglutinative morphology, a subject–object–verb (SOV) normal word order, important systems of honorifics (however, the two languages' systems of honorifics are different in form and usage; see Japanese honorifics and Korean honorifics), besides a few lexical resemblances. Factors like these led some historical linguists to suggest a genetic relationship between the two languages. William George Aston suggested in 1879 in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society that Japanese is related to Korean. A relationship between Japanese and Korean was endorsed by the Japanese scholar Shōsaburō Kanazawa in 1910. Other scholars took this position in the twentieth century (Poppe 1965:137). Substantial arguments in favor of a Japanese–Korean relationship were presented by Samuel Martin, a leading specialist in Japanese and Korean, in 1966 and in subsequent publications (e.g. Martin 1990). Linguists who advocate this position include John Whitman (1985) and Barbara E. Riley (2004), and Sergei Starostin with his lexicostatistical research, The Altaic Problem and the Origins of the Japanese Language (Moscow, 1991). A Japanese–Korean connection does not necessarily exclude a Japanese–Koguryo or an Altaic relationship. The two languages are thought to not share any cognates (other than loanwords), for their vocabularies do not phonetically resemble each other. However, a recent 2016 paper proposing a common lineage between Korean and Japanese claims to trace around 500 core words that show a common origin including several numerals such as 5 and 10. Evidence Martine Robbeets and Remco Bouckaert from the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History used in 2018 for the first time a Bayesian phylogenetic inference analysis about "Transeurasian". Their study resulted in a "high probability" for a "Koreano-Japonic" group, but has not gained acceptance among mainstream linguists. Criticism This theory has been criticized for serious methodological flaws, such as rejecting mainstream reconstructions of Chinese and Japanese, for less accepted alternatives. Other critics, like Alexander Vovin and Toh Soo Hee, argued that the connections between Japanese and Goguryeo are due to earlier Japonic languages that were present in parts of Korea, and that the Goguryeo language was closer to Sillan, and by extension, Korean. Further studies (2019)[by whom?] deny and criticize a relation between Korean and Japanese. Vovin also argues that the claimed cognates are nothing more than early loanwords from when Japonic was still spoken in southern Korea. Similarly Whitman (2012) concluded that the proto-Koreans arrived in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexist with the native descendants of the Japonic Mumun rice-cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families, making them more similar. Thus Whitman sees a possible relation between Japonic and Koreanic as unlikely. The idea of a Japanese–Korean relationship overlaps the extended form of the Altaic hypothesis (see below), but not all scholars who argue for one also argue for the other. For example, Samuel Martin, who was a major advocate of a Japanese–Korean relationship, only provided cautious support to the inclusion of these languages in Altaic, and Talat Tekin, an Altaicist, includes Korean, but not Japanese, in Altaic (Georg et al. 1999:72, 74). Possible connection between Japonic and Koguryoic The Japanese–Koguryoic proposal dates back to Shinmura Izuru's (1916) observation that the attested Goguryeo numerals—3, 5, 7, and 10—are very similar to Japanese. The hypothesis proposes that Japanese is a relative of the extinct languages spoken by the Buyeo-Goguryeo cultures of Korea, southern Manchuria, and Liaodong. The best attested of these is the language of Goguryeo, with the more poorly attested Koguryoic languages of Baekje and Buyeo believed to also be related. A monograph by Christopher Beckwith (2004) has established about 140 lexical items in the Goguryeo corpus. They mostly occur in place-name collocations, many of which may include grammatical morphemes (including cognates of the Japanese genitive marker no and the Japanese adjective-attributive morpheme -sa) and a few of which may show syntactical relationships. He postulates that the majority of the identified Goguryeo corpus, which includes all of the grammatical morphemes, is related to Japanese. Altaic theory The Altaic language family is a theoretical group composed of, at its core, languages categorized as Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic. G.J. Ramstedt's Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft ('Introduction to Altaic Linguistics') in 1952–1957 included Korean in Altaic. Roy Andrew Miller's Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages (1971) included Japanese in Altaic as well. The most important recent work that favored the expanded Altaic family (i.e. that Korean and Japanese could both be included under the Altaic language family) is An Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages (3 volumes) by Sergei Starostin, Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (2003). Robbeets (2017) considers Japonic to be a "Transeurasian" (Altaic) language that is genetically unrelated to Austronesian, and argues that lexical similarities between Japonic and Austronesian are due to contact. The Altaic proposal has largely been rejected (in both its core form of Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic as well as its expanded form that includes Korean and/or Japanese). The best-known critiques are those by Gerard Clauson (1956) and Gerhard Doerfer (1963, 1988). Current critics include Stefan Georg and Alexander Vovin. Critics attribute the similarities in the putative Altaic languages to pre-historic areal contact having occurred between the languages of the expanded group (e.g. between Turkic and Japonic), contact which critics and proponents agree took place to some degree. Linguists agree today that typological resemblances between Japanese, Korean and Altaic languages cannot be used to prove genetic relatedness of languages, as these features are typologically connected and easily borrowed from one language to the other (e.g. due to geographical proximity with Manchuria). Such factors of typological divergence as Middle Mongolian's exhibition of gender agreement can be used to argue that a genetic relationship with Altaic is unlikely. Robbeets (2017) According to Robbeets (2017) Japanese and Korean originated as a hybrid language around the region of Liaoning in China, incorporating an Austronesian-like language and Altaic (trans-Eurasian) elements. She suggests that proto-Japanese had an additional influence from Austronesian on the Japanese archipelago. She lists the following agricultural vocabulary in proto-Japonic with parallels in Austronesian languages: mortar proto-Japonic usu '(rice and grain) mortar' proto-Austronesian lusuŋ '(rice) mortar' rice proto-Japonic kəmai 'dehusked rice' proto-Austronesian Semay 'cooked rice' Old Chinese C.maj 'rice gruel; destroy, crush' early ripening crop proto-Japonic wasara ~ wǝsǝrǝ 'early ripening crop, early ripening rice' proto-Austronesian baCaR 'broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum)' proto-Koreanic pʌsal 'hulled variety of grain, rice' Proposals relating Japonic languages to Southeast Asian language families Several linguists have proposed that the Japonic languages are genetically related to the Austronesian languages. Some linguists think it is more plausible that Japanese was instead influenced by Austronesian languages, perhaps by an Austronesian substratum. Those who propose the latter scenario suggest that the Austronesian family once covered most of southern Japan. The phonological similarities of Japanese to the Austronesian languages, and the geographical proximity of Japan to Formosa and the Malay Archipelago have led to the theory that Japanese may be a kind of mixed language, with a Korean (or Altaic) superstratum and an Austronesian substratum. Similarly Juha Janhunen claims that Austronesians lived in southern Japan, specifically on Shikoku, and that modern Japanese has an "Austronesian layer". The linguist Ann Kumar (2009) believes that some Austronesians migrated to early Japan, possibly an elite group from Java, and created the "Japanese-hierarchical society", and identifies 82 plausible cognates between Austronesian and Japanese. The morphology of Proto-Japanese shows similarities with several languages in South East Asia and southern China. However, Kumar's theory was criticized for archaeological, genetic, and linguistic contradictions. Itabashi (2011) claims that similarities in morphology, phonology and basic vocabulary point towards "a strong genealogical connection between Japanese and Austronesian". Paul K. Benedict (1992) suggests a genetic relation between Japanese and the Austro-Tai languages, which include Kra-Dai and Austronesian. He proposes that Kra-Dai and Japanese form a genetic mainland group while Austronesian is the insular group. Vovin (2014) says that there is typological evidence that Proto-Japonic may have been a monosyllabic, SVO syntax and isolating language; which are features that the Kra-Dai languages also exhibit. He notes that Benedict's idea of a relation between Japanese and Kra-Dai should not be rejected out of hand, but he considers the relationship between them not to be genetic, but rather a contact one. According to him, this contact must be quite old and quite intense, as the borrowed words belong partially to a very basic vocabulary. He further says that this evidence refutes any genetic relations between Japanese and Altaic. Possible Austroasiatic substrate In a discussion of ten reconstructed Proto-Japanese agricultural terms, Vovin (1998) proposes an Austroasiatic origin for three of these terms: *(z/h)ina-Ci 'rice (plant)' koma-Ci '(hulled) rice' pwo 'ear of grain' According to him early Japanese assimilated Austroasiatic tribes and adopted some vocabulary about rice cultivation. On the other hand, John Whitman (2011) does not support that these words were loanwords into proto-Japonic, but that these words are of Japonic origin and must be rather old. Other hypotheses Sino-Tibetan hypothesis Another theory was raised by the Japanese linguist Īno Mutsumi (1994). According to him, Japanese is closely related to the Sino-Tibetan languages, especially to the Lolo-Burmese languages of southern China and Southeast-Asia. Because of similar grammar rules (SOV word order, syntax), similar non-loan basic vocabulary and the fact that some Sino-Tibetan languages (including proto-Sino-Tibetan) were non-tonal, he proposed the "Sinitic" origin theory. Proto-Asian hypothesis The "Proto-Asian hypothesis" (Larish 2006) argues for a relation between languages of Southeast and East Asia. Japanese is grouped together with Korean as one group of the descendants of Proto-Asian. The proposal further includes the Austric languages, Kra-Dai, Hmong-Mien and Sino-Tibetan Dravidian hypothesis A more rarely encountered hypothesis is that Japanese (and Korean) are related to the Dravidian languages. The possibility that Japanese might be related to Dravidian was raised by Robert Caldwell (cf. Caldwell 1875:413) and more recently by Susumu Shiba, Akira Fujiwara, and Susumu Ōno (n.d., 2000). The Japanese professor Tsutomu Kambe claimed to have found more than 500 similar words about agriculture between Tamil and Japanese in 2011. Uralic hypothesis The Japanese linguist Kanehira Joji believes that the Japanese language is related to the Uralic languages. He based his hypothesis on some similar basic words, similar morphology and phonology. According to him early Japanese was influenced by Chinese, Austronesian and Ainu. He refers his theory to the "dual-structure model" of Japanese origin between Jōmon and Yayoi. Ainu hypothesis The Japanese linguist Tatsumine Katayama (2004) found many similar basic words between Ainu and Japanese. Because of a great amount of similar vocabulary, phonology, similar grammar, and geographical and cultural connections, he and Takeshi Umehara suggested that Japanese was closely related to the Ainu languages, and was influenced by other languages, especially Chinese and Korean. A linguistic analysis in 2015 proposed that the Japonic languages were related to the Ainu languages and to the Austroasiatic languages. However, similarities between Ainu and Japonic are also due to extensive past contact. Analytic grammatical constructions acquired or transformed in Ainu were likely due to contact with Japanese and the Japonic languages, which had heavy influence on the Ainu languages with a large number of loanwords borrowed into the Ainu languages, and to a smaller extent, vice versa. Today, a relation between Ainu and Japanese (or Austroasiatic) is not supported and Ainu remains a language isolate. See also Linguistic reconstruction Comparison of Japanese and Korean Eurasiatic languages Nostratic languages References Bibliography Works cited Beckwith, Christopher I. 2004. Koguryo: The Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages. Leiden: Brill. Caldwell, Robert. 1875. A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages, second edition. London: Trübner. Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis Manaster Ramer, and Paul J. Sidwell. 1999. "Telling general linguists about Altaic." Journal of Linguistics 35, 65-98. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, 2 volumes. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Greenberg, Joseph H. 2005. Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method, edited by William Croft. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kanazawa, Shōsaburō. 1910. The Common Origin of the Japanese and Korean Languages. Tokyo: Sanseidō. Ōno, Susumu. n.d. "The genealogy of the Japanese language: Tamil and Japanese." Ōno, Susumu. 2000. 日本語の形成. 岩波書店. . Poppe, Nicholas. 1965. Introduction to Altaic Linguistics. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Riley, Barbara E. 2003. Aspects of the Genetic Relationship of the Korean and Japanese Languages. PhD thesis, University of Hawaii. Shibatani, Masayoshi. 1990. The languages of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Starostin, Sergei A. 1991. Altajskaja problema i proisxoždenie japonskogo jazyka, 'The Altaic Problem and the Origin of the Japanese Language'. Moscow: Nauka. Starostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak. 2003. Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages, 3 volumes. Leiden: Brill. (Also: database version.) Trombetti, Alfredo. 1922–1923. Elementi di glottologia, 2 volumes. Bologna: Nicola Zanichelli. Vovin, Alexander. 2003. 日本語系統論の現在：これからどこへ 'The genetic relationship of the Japanese language: Where do we go from here?'. In 日本語系統論の現在 'Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese Language', edited by Alexander Vovin and Toshiki Osada. Kyoto: International Center for Japanese Studies. . Whitman, John Bradford. 1985. The Phonological Basis for the Comparison of Japanese and Korean. PhD thesis, Harvard University. Further reading Francis-Ratte, Alexander Takenobu. 2016. Proto-Korean-Japanese: A New Reconstruction of the Common Origin of the Japanese and Korean Languages. PhD dissertation: Ohio State University. Katsumi, Matsumoto. 2007. 世界言語のなかの日本語 Sekaigengo no nakano Nihongo, 'Japanese in the World's Languages'. Tokyo: 三省堂 Sanseido. Martin, Samuel E. 1968. "Grammatical elements relating Korean to Japanese." In Proceedings of the Eighth Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences B.9, 405-407. Martin, Samuel E. 1975. "Problems in establishing the prehistoric relationships of Korean and Japanese." In Proceedings, International Symposium Commemorating the 30th Anniversary of Korean Liberation. Seoul: National Academy of Sciences. Martin, Samuel E. 1991. "Recent research on the relationships of Japanese and Korean." In Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages, edited by Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Martin, Samuel E. 1996. Consonant Lenition in Korean and the Macro-Altaic Question. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Miller, Roy Andrew. 1980. Origins of the Japanese Language: Lectures in Japan during the Academic Year 1977-78. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Miller, Roy Andrew. 1996. Languages and History: Japanese, Korean and Altaic. Oslo: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. Robbeets, Martine. 2004a. "Belief or argument? The classification of the Japanese language." Eurasia Newsletter 8. Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University. Robbeets, Martine. 2004b. "Swadesh 100 on Japanese, Korean and Altaic." Tokyo University Linguistic Papers, TULIP 23, 99–118. Robbeets, Martine. 2005. Is Japanese related to Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic? Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Classification Japanese
4629012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karim%20Benzema	Karim Benzema	Karim Mostafa Benzema (born 19 December 1987) is a French professional footballer who plays as a striker for Saudi Pro League club Al-Ittihad. Regarded as one of the best strikers of all time, he is a creative forward renowned for his goal-scoring ability, as well as his technical skills, vision, and versatility on the field. He is Real Madrid's all-time second-highest goalscorer and top assist provider. Benzema won 24 trophies with Real Madrid, including four La Liga, three Copa del Rey, and five UEFA Champions League titles. Born in Lyon to parents of Algerian descent, Benzema began his career with hometown club Olympique Lyonnais in 2005, contributing sporadically to three Ligue 1 title wins. In 2008, he was named the league's Player of the Year and in the Team of the Year having finished as the league's top goalscorer and winning his fourth league title and first Coupe de France. In 2009, Benzema was the subject of a then-French record football transfer when he joined Real Madrid in a deal worth €35 million. After struggling to establish himself in his debut season, he eventually achieved a consistent goalscoring rate with the club, notably being part of a highly rated trio alongside Cristiano Ronaldo and Gareth Bale — dubbed BBC — who were integral to four Champions League wins from 2014 to 2018. Following Ronaldo's departure in 2018, Benzema transitioned from the false 9 position into a sole striker. He was named in the La Liga Team of the Season for four consecutive years from 2018 to 2022, won La Liga Best Player twice and the Pichichi Trophy for the first time in 2022. Benzema finished as Champions League top scorer as he won his fifth title in 2022, and subsequently captained the club in his final season before signing for Al-Ittihad the following year. A French international, Benzema won the 2004 UEFA European Under-17 Championship and made his senior debut for France in 2007, at age 19. He earned 97 caps, including scoring in three and appearing in four major tournaments, and ranks as France's sixth-highest all-time top goalscorer. Benzema was controversially left out of the squad for the 2010 World Cup and did not play for France for over five years after being implicated in a blackmailing scandal in 2015; he later returned to the squad before announcing his international retirement in December 2022. He has been named French Player of the Year by France Football four times. For his performances in 2021 and 2022, Benzema was awarded the UEFA Player of the Year and the Ballon d'Or, becoming the fifth French player to have won the Ballon d'Or. At 34 years and 302 days old, he is the second-oldest winner of the award, after Stanley Matthews. Club career Early career Benzema began his football career at his hometown club Bron Terraillon SC at the age of eight. While at the club, he was nicknamed Coco by friends and, after scoring two goals in an under-10 match against the Lyon youth academy, began attracting attention from the biggest club in the city. According to Serge Santa Cruz, who was president of Bron Terraillon in the 1990s, Lyon officials had visited him directly in an attempt to sign the youngster; however, Santa Cruz refused. After talking with Benzema's father, the club allowed the player to undergo a trial with Lyon. Following the trial, Benzema officially joined Lyon and was inserted into the club's academy. Lyon Benzema quickly ascended up the youth categories in the academy. He served as a ballboy during Lyon senior team matches and performed well in school being described as a student who was "discreet and respectful". At under-16 level, Benzema scored 38 goals in the Championnat National des 16 ans, the domestic league for under-16 youth players in France. Ahead of the 2004–05 season, Benzema was promoted to the club's reserve team, which was playing in the Championnat de France amateur, the fourth division of French football. Despite only playing with the team during the autumn campaign, he scored a team-high ten goals as the Lyon reserve team finished second in its group. 2004–2007: Breakthrough and three league titles Benzema was called up to the senior team for the first time under manager Paul Le Guen during the break leading up to the second half of the season. As is customary with new players arriving at Lyon, the young striker had to stand up and speak to his new teammates, which at that time included the likes of Michael Essien, Sylvain Wiltord, Florent Malouda and Eric Abidal. While speaking, Benzema was subjected to jokes and laughter, which prompted the youngster to declare, "Do not laugh, I'm here to take your place." He made his professional debut on 15 January 2005 against Metz, appearing as a substitute for Pierre-Alain Frau. Lyon won the match 2–0 as Benzema provided the assist of the second goal scored by Bryan Bergougnoux. He signed his first professional contract the same month, agreeing to a three-year deal. After making three more appearances as a substitute, on 2 April Benzema made his first professional start in a 1–0 win over Lens. He finished the campaign with six appearances as Lyon won their fourth-straight league title. Benzema began the 2005–06 season under the tutelage of new manager Gérard Houllier. Under Houllier, he struggled for meaningful minutes due to the presence of newly signed Brazilian striker Fred, as well as Sylvain Wiltord. Benzema made his season debut on 2 October 2005 in a league win over Rennes, appearing as a substitute. On 6 December, he made his UEFA Champions League debut in Lyon's final group stage match against Norwegian club Rosenborg. On his competition debut, he scored his first professional goal in a 2–1 win. A month later, Benzema scored his first professional double in a 4–0 win over Grenoble in the Coupe de France. On 4 March 2006, Benzema scored his first professional league goal against Ajaccio in a 3–1 win. Benzema began earning more playing time in the 2006–07 season and made his competitive season debut in the 2006 Trophée des Champions against Paris Saint-Germain. In the French Supercup, Benzema converted a penalty which drew the match at 1–1. Lyon later won the league curtain-raiser 5–4 on penalties. Benzema opened the league campaign on a quick note scoring in the team's first match of the season against Nantes. Three weeks later, on 26 August 2006, Benzema appeared as a substitute and scored two goals in a 4–1 away win over Nice. He also converted two goals in the Champions League group stage against Romanian outfit Steaua București and Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv. After appearing regularly during the autumn campaign, on 10 November, Benzema suffered a severe thigh injury. The injury resulted in the striker missing three months of action before returning in February 2007. Benzema failed to score a goal until the final league match of the season against Nantes as Lyon recorded its sixth consecutive league title. 2007–2009: Club talisman For the 2007–08 season, with Florent Malouda, John Carew and Sylvain Wiltord all departing from the club, Benzema switched to the number 10 shirt and was inserted into the lead striker role. After forming a special relationship with new manager Alain Perrin, he responded with 31 goals in 51 games. He topped the league with 20 goals, scored four goals in the Champions League, one in the Coupe de la Ligue and totaled six goals in six Coupe de France matches, helping Lyon win their first ever double. Some of his more dazzling performances that season included a hat-trick against Metz on 15 September, an equalizing goal in the 90th minute from a free kick against Derby du Rhône rivals Saint-Étienne, and a goal against Lens that was nominated for goal of the season by fans. In the Champions League, Benzema scored an important double against Rangers at Ibrox Stadium on the last match day of the group stage. The 3–0 victory assured Lyon progression to the knockout rounds. In the knockout rounds, Lyon faced Manchester United and Benzema continued to score, this time it was from outside the penalty box in the first leg match which ended in a 1–1 draw and United eventually won the tie 1–2 on aggregate. Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson and players praised Benzema for his performance. Lyon club president Jean-Michel Aulas later accused Ferguson of tapping-up Benzema. On 13 March 2008, Benzema extended his contract with Lyon until 2013 with a one-year extension option. After signing his new contract, Benzema became one of the highest paid footballers in France. For his efforts that season, he was named the Ligue 1 Player of the Year, selected to the Team of the Year and awarded the Trophée du Meilleur Buteur for being the league's top scorer. He won the 2008 Bravo Award given to the most outstanding young footballer playing in Europe, and was also shortlisted by French magazine France Football for the 2008 Ballon d'Or award, eventually won by Cristiano Ronaldo. Benzema got off to a good start for the 2008–09 season, scoring twice in Lyon's opening league match against Toulouse. The following three weeks, he scored goals against Rhône-Alpes rivals Grenoble and Saint-Étienne and scored a goal against Nice, converting a penalty in the dying seconds. Lyon won all three matches. As a result of his early goals, Lyon club president Jean-Michel Aulas quelled the many transfer rumors surrounding Benzema by placing a €100 million price tag on the striker. He was also nominated alongside Franck Ribéry to be featured on the French cover of the video game FIFA 09. He scored his seventh goal of the league on 29 October, scoring in the 2–0 win over Sochaux. Benzema scored again the following weekend in a 2–0 win over Le Mans. He was among the top scorers in the Champions League group stage, scoring five goals, a double against Steaua București, two goals in two matches against Fiorentina, and a goal against the eventual group winners Bayern Munich on the final match day. Following the winter break, Benzema endured a rough patch going scoreless the first three games before recording his 11th goal of the season against Nice in a 3–1 victory. Two weeks later, he scored his 12th goal against Nancy in a 2–0 victory. The next nine matches, both Benzema and Lyon's form dwindled losing four matches, drawing three and winning only two with Benzema scoring only two goals in that stretch, both of them against Le Mans in a 3–1 victory. The bad form resulted in Lyon losing their grip on first-place position and eventually falling out of the title race, thus ending their streak of seven consecutive Ligue 1 titles. Benzema was a part of four of those title runs. Despite losing the title, Benzema got back on track scoring his 15th and 16th goals of the season on 17 May in a 3–1 away victory over rivals Marseille, the first goal being a penalty. He scored his 17th goal the following weekend against Caen in a 3–1 victory moving him into third place among Ligue 1 top scorers. Real Madrid 2009–10: Transfer and adapting to Spain On 1 July 2009, it was announced that Lyon had reached an agreement with Spanish club Real Madrid for the transfer of Benzema. The transfer fee was priced at €35 million with the fee rising to as much as €41 million based on incentives. On 9 July, Benzema successfully passed his medical and signed his contract, a six-year deal, later that afternoon. He was presented officially as a Real Madrid player later that night at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, similarly to the previous signings of Kaká and Cristiano Ronaldo. Benzema made his Real Madrid debut on 20 July in the club's opening pre-season friendly against Irish team Shamrock Rovers in Dublin, appearing as a half-time substitute. He scored the lone goal in the club's 1–0 win, scoring in the 87th minute. On 24 August, Benzema netted two goals in Real Madrid's 4–0 victory over Norwegian club Rosenborg in an annual friendly tournament organized for the Santiago Bernabeu Trophy. The goals brought his total tally in the pre-season with Real Madrid to five, making him the joint top scorer alongside fellow striker Raúl. Benzema made his league debut for Madrid on 29 August 2009 against Deportivo La Coruña. He started the match, but was substituted out in the second half as Madrid won 3–2. A month later, he scored his first goal for the club in a 5–0 victory against newly promoted Xerez. After missing the mid-week match against Villarreal, against Tenerife at the weekend, Benzema scored his first double for Madrid in a 3–0 home victory. He made his Champions League debut for the club on 30 September in a group stage tie against Marseille. After failing to score a goal in the month of October, in the team's first match in November against Italian club Milan in the Champions League, Benzema scored the opener to give Madrid a 1–0 lead. His goal was later cancelled out by a Ronaldinho penalty. In late November, Benzema began appearing mainly as a substitute as manager Manuel Pellegrini preferred Gonzalo Higuaín in the lead striker role. To coincide with his benching, the striker was also being criticized by the Spanish media for his under-performance and difficulties settling in the country as he had not yet begun learning the Spanish language. He was even declared the "new Anelka" by a Spanish newspaper Marca blogger, referring to former Real Madrid striker Nicolas Anelka who had a tumultuous year at the club before being sold. Benzema was defended by his compatriot Zinedine Zidane, who admitted "after two months, I was also criticized" and that Benzema was "a talented player and talented players in Madrid must win". On 5 December, Benzema appeared as a substitute for Rafael van der Vaart and scored the third goal in a 6–0 romp of Almería. The day after the match against Almería, Benzema responded to the criticism by stating, "I am totally integrated and very happy at Real Madrid", and, "Yes, I have improved my adaptation. I have a new home and I'm learning Spanish to understand myself better with my teammates." After nearly a month coming off of the bench, he started alongside Higuaín away to Valencia on 12 December. A week later, Benzema returned to the bench. Following an injury to Higuaín in early January 2010, Pellegrini inserted Benzema back into the starting lineup. After failing to score in his first two starts in the absence of Higuaín, against Deportivo La Coruña on 30 January, he scored a double in an important 3–1 away win. Following the return of Higuaín, Benzema was relegated back to a substitute's role and finished the campaign by making eight consecutive appearances off the bench. Included in one of those appearances was his final goal of the season against Athletic Bilbao in a 5–1 win. 2010–11: First-team mainstay Ahead of the 2010–11 season, Benzema switched to the number 9 shirt as Real Madrid were under the tutelage of new incoming manager José Mourinho. The striker immediately drew the ire of Mourinho who declared to reporters during a pre-season media session that "Benzema must understand that he is extremely talented, but that in itself is not enough", while also stating that "[Madrid] need a striker who is sparky, not one that is listless". Mourinho sentiments were later echoed by incoming France national team coach Laurent Blanc who acknowledged that Benzema was "not used to working". Blanc also stated that the striker needed to shed weight in order to fulfill his potential. Due to Mourinho preferring Ronaldo and Higuaín as his forwards, Benzema began the campaign as a substitute coming off the bench in the team's opening league match of the season against Mallorca. Following the September international break, he made his first start in a 1–0 win over Osasuna. On 21 September, Benzema made a substitute appearance and scored his first goal of the season in a 3–0 home win against Espanyol. Afterwards, the striker failed to score a domestic goal for nearly two months. On 10 November, Benzema scored his second goal of the campaign against Real Murcia in the 2010–11 edition of the Copa del Rey. In late November, Benzema was inserted into the starting eleven following a severe back injury to Higuaín, along with the team's lack of senior strikers. In his first match since being inserted into the starting lineup permanently, he scored his first Champions League goal of the season in a group stage fixture against Dutch club Ajax. In Madrid's final group stage tie against French outfit Auxerre, Benzema scored his first hat trick for the club in a 4–0 win. The first goal he scored was Real Madrid's 300th goal in the Champions League era. Two weeks later, Benzema converted another hat trick, this time in an 8–0 thrashing of Levante in the Copa del Rey. In late January, for the first time in his Real Madrid career, Benzema scored goals in back-to-back matches. On 23 January, he scored the only goal in a 1–0 win at home against Mallorca. Three days later, Benzema repeated his efforts scoring the only goal in a win over Sevilla in the first leg of the team's Copa del Rey semi-final tie. Real Madrid later advanced to its 37th Copa del Rey final in club history after beating Sevilla 2–0 in the second leg. Following the arrival of Emmanuel Adebayor on loan, Benzema went unused in two consecutive league matches in February 2011. He returned to the starting lineup on 19 February and embarked on a run in which he scored ten goals in eight matches. Included in those ten goals were doubles in three straight matches against Málaga, Racing de Santander and Hércules, as well as a goal in the first leg of Madrid's Round of 16 tie against former club Lyon. The strike against his hometown club was the 100th goal of his professional career, and also the first goal for Real Madrid at the Stade de Gerland in six years, though despite the honours associated with netting the goal, Benzema did not celebrate out of respect for his former club. On 19 March, he scored the opener in the El Derbi madrileño as Real Madrid went on to win the match 2–1. Despite his form, Benzema appeared in only one of the four highly anticipated matches against El Clásico rivals Barcelona, in which the two clubs met in the league, the 2011 Copa del Rey Final and the Champions League knockout stage. In between those clashes, on 23 April 2011, Benzema scored a goal in a 6–3 win over Valencia. On 30 April, he scored a goal in the team's 3–2 loss to Real Zaragoza. It was the only match of the campaign that Real Madrid lost, in which Benzema scored. To close out the campaign, Benzema scored another double in an 8–1 win over Almería. He finished the campaign second on the team behind Ronaldo with 26 goals as Real Madrid captured the Copa del Rey giving Benzema his first honour with the club. For his performances during the campaign, particularly during the second half, Benzema was praised by Mourinho, club officials Florentino Pérez and Emilio Butragueño, as well as national team manager Laurent Blanc. 2011–12: First La Liga championship Prior to the start of the 2011–12 season, Benzema, taking the advice of compatriots Blanc and Zidane, ventured to Merano, Italy, to attend a high performance clinic where he underwent treatment to reduce his weight. The spell at the clinic was ultimately a success after the striker arrived at pre-season lighter. While at the clinic, Benzema also underwent physical training to build up his muscle mass. The striker was impressive in the pre-season scoring eight goals in seven matches. His performances during the pre-season resulted in Mourinho naming him the starting lead striker for the new campaign. Mourinho was later credited with Benzema's transformation, but denied full responsibility and, instead, gave credit to the striker himself. In the second leg of the 2011 Supercopa de España against Barcelona, and with Madrid trailing 4–3 on aggregate late in the match, Benzema scored the equalizing goal to even the tie at 4–4. However, six minutes later, a Lionel Messi strike gave Barcelona the supercup. In the team's second league match of the season against Getafe, Benzema scored a double in a 4–2 victory. After going goalless in three consecutive league matches, he scored his third league goal of the campaign against Rayo Vallecano in a 4–2 win. In the team's ensuing match against Ajax in the Champions League, Benzema scored Madrid's third goal in a 3–0 home win. In the club's next Champions League match against Lyon, Benzema scored again by netting the opener in a 4–0 win against Lyon. In November 2011, Benzema scored five goals; three in the league and two in Europe. In the league, he converted his three goals in wins over Osasuna and Valencia, while he scored his two Champions League goals in a 6–2 group stage win over Croatian club Dinamo Zagreb. On 10 December 2011, Benzema scored the opener in Madrid's 3–1 defeat to Barcelona in the El Clásico. The goal, scored just 21 seconds into the match, was the fastest goal ever scored in a match between the two rivals. Three days after his record-breaking goal, for his performances during the 2011 calendar year, Benzema was named the France Football French Player of the Year, beating out Barcelona defender Eric Abidal and Lyon goalkeeper Hugo Lloris. He became only the second French player based in Spain to win the award, and also the second Real Madrid player to capture it. Zidane was the first to achieve both honorable mentions. Benzema expressed gratitude at winning the award, stating, "It is a pleasure to win an individual trophy. When I see the previous winners – Zidane, Henry and other major players – it makes me proud to join them on the list." In the team's next match after winning the award, against Sevilla, Benzema assisted two goals in a 6–2 triumph. Benzema opened the 2012 portion of the campaign in positive form. He scored goals against Granada and Málaga. Benzema scored against the latter club in the Copa del Rey in each leg of the Round of 16. The 4–2 aggregate win advanced Real Madrid to the quarter-finals where the club faced Barcelona. After failing to score in the first leg, which ended 2–1 in favour of Barça, in the second leg on 25 January 2012, Benzema scored his third goal of the season against the Blaugrana, but Madrid failed to win the tie losing 4–3 on aggregate. On 12 February, Benzema scored his first league goal in over a month against Levante. A week later, he scored a double in a 4–0 shutout of Racing Santander. On 24 March, Benzema scored two goals in a league win over Real Sociedad. The two goals made him the top French scorer in La Liga history surpassing Zidane. Three days later, Benzema scored another double in a 3–0 first leg away win over Cypriot team APOEL in the Champions League quarter-finals. On 29 April, Benzema put in a masterful performance scoring two goals and assisting another in a 3–0 win over Sevilla. The double was his seventh of the season and allowed Madrid to close in on its first Primera Division title in four years. Los Blancos captured their 32nd league title the following week cruising to a 3–0 win over Athletic Bilbao. Benzema appeared as a second-half substitute in the match. 2012–2016: Sustained continental success On the first matchday of the Champions League, Benzema scored an equalizer against Manchester City in 3–2 win at Santiago Bernabéu. On 4 October 2012, Benzema scored a bicycle kick goal off a cross by Kaká in a 4–1 win against Ajax in Amsterdam. On 18 December, one day before his 25th birthday, his fine form saw him earn the award for best French footballer of 2012, for the second year running. On 2 March 2013, Benzema opened the scoring against Barcelona in the league game at the Santiago Bernabéu. Real went on to win the game 2–1, the second time they beat Barcelona in a week. Ahead of the 2013–14 season, Benzema became part of a trio alongside Cristiano Ronaldo and newly signed Gareth Bale — dubbed BBC. Benzema started the season by scoring in a 2–1 win over Real Betis at the Santiago Bernabéu. After four matches without scoring (two with Real Madrid and two with France), he returned to goal-scoring form by netting twice in a 6–1 away win over Galatasaray in Champions League. On 18 January 2014, he scored his 100th goal for Madrid in a 5–0 victory at Real Betis. On 23 March, Benzema scored two goals against fierce rivals Barcelona in El Clásico at the Bernabéu from two crosses by Ángel Di María, taking his goal tally in La Liga to 17 goals, though Barcelona won the match 4–3. Benzema was part of Real Madrid's starting eleven in the 2014 Copa del Rey Final on 16 April at the Mestalla Stadium, and assisted Di María's opening goal before Gareth Bale hit the winner for Madrid in a 2–1 victory. One week later, on 23 April, Benzema scored the only goal of the game to win the first leg of a Champions League semi-final against Bayern Munich, 1–0. The club went on to win the final in May. Real Madrid's attacking trio of Bale, Benzema and Cristiano, dubbed "BBC", finished the season with 97 goals. On 6 August 2014, Real Madrid announced that Benzema had signed a new five-year deal that will keep him at the club until 2019. On 12 August 2014, Benzema played the whole 90 minutes in Real Madrid's 2–0 win against Sevilla in Cardiff to claim the UEFA Super Cup. On 16 September, Benzema scored Real Madrid's 1,000th goal in European competition after netting a goal in a 5–1 victory over FC Basel in the first match of the Champions League group stage. He scored the winning goal in Real Madrid's 2–1 away victory against Ludogorets Razgrad in the Champions League after coming on as a second-half substitute. The next weekend, he scored a brace in the 5–0 victory against Athletic Bilbao in La Liga. In 2014, Benzema won France Football's award for French Player of the Year for the third time; only Thierry Henry has won this award on more occasions. Benzema was chosen as La Liga Player of the Month for October 2014, with his manager Carlo Ancelotti winning the equivalent award. He scored three of Real Madrid's 13 goals of the month, in which they won three matches and only conceded just one goal. On 8 December 2015, Benzema scored a hat trick in an 8–0 thrashing against Malmö FF. On 20 December, he scored another hat trick in a 10–2 victory over Rayo Vallecano. He was a regular starter when the team won the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League. 2016–2018: European threepeat and second league title In December 2016, Benzema was called up in Real Madrid's squad for 2016 FIFA Club World Cup in Japan. In the semi-final match against América on 15 December, Benzema scored in the last moments of the first half, helping the team to progress in the final by winning 2–0. In the final three days later against Kashima Antlers, Benzema opened the score in the 9th minute, and also assisted Ronaldo's second goal, as Real Madrid won 4–2 in extra time after the regular time finished 2–2 to claim their second title. It was Benzema's tenth title with Real Madrid, and finished the competition as joint-second topscorer with two goals in two matches. On 15 February 2017, in the first leg of 2016–17 UEFA Champions League round of 16 against Napoli, Benzema scored Real Madrid's first goal in an eventual 3–1 home win, which was his 51st goal in this competition, overtaking Thierry Henry on the list of all-time Champions League top scorers. It was his first goal in six matches and for this performance he was voted Man of the Match. He was a regular starter, and scored the last goal of the season which gave him eleven for the campaign, when Madrid won the 2016–17 La Liga and the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League. On 20 September 2017, Benzema signed a contract extension that will keep him at the club until 2021. Later on 6 March of the following year, Benzema made his 100th UEFA Champions League appearance by playing in the 2–1 win at Parc des Princes against Paris Saint-Germain in the second leg of 2017–18 UEFA Champions League round of 16 as Real Madrid progressed to the next round 5–2 on aggregate. Benzema played his 400th match in all competitions for Real Madrid on 31 March in the 3–0 win at Las Palmas, captaining the team and netting the second goal with a penalty. On 1 May, Benzema scored twice in a 2–2 draw against Bayern Munich in the return leg of the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League semi-final, as Real progressed to the final on a 4–3 aggregate. On 26 May, Benzema scored the first goal of the match in 2018 UEFA Champions League Final by intercepting Loris Karius's throw in a 3–1 victory over Liverpool, when Madrid won their third consecutive and 13th overall Champions League title. 2018–2021: Club talisman, third league title and the return of Zidane With the departure of Cristiano Ronaldo to Juventus in July 2018, Benzema became Real Madrid's new goal-getter – scoring 30 goals in all competitions in 2018–19 as the club's top scorer for the campaign. His prominence in Real Madrid's squad significantly increased. On 7 November 2018, Benzema scored a brace in the 5–0 win at Viktoria Plzeň in the UEFA Champions League group stage, reaching the 200th goal milestone with the club, becoming only the seventh Madrid player to achieve the feat. He scored three goals in six matches, all of them against Plzeň, helping Real Madrid topping Group G. Later on 13 February of the following year, in the first leg of the competition's round of 16, Benzema scored the opener of a 2–1 away win over Ajax, reaching 60 Champions League goals, becoming only the fourth player to do so. Benzema scored Madrid's first competitive goal of the 2019–20 season on 17 August in the 3–1 away win over Celta Vigo in the opening La Liga match. Later, on 6 November, he scored a brace in Madrid's 6–0 crushing of Galatasaray, achieving two new milestones: he become the second player after Lionel Messi to score in 15 consecutive Champions League seasons and also the third Madrid player to score 50 goals in the competition. His performances were praised by manager Zinedine Zidane, who called him a legend and also compared him with Cristiano Ronaldo. Three days later, in the next league match, he scored a first-half brace in a 4–0 win at Eibar, overtaking Ferenc Puskás as the club's sixth all-time goalscorer in La Liga with 157 goals from 323 appearances. In February 2020, Benzema extended his contract with Real Madrid until 2022. On 1 March, he made his 500th appearance for Real Madrid in a 2–0 home win over Barcelona in El Clásico, becoming the fourteenth player in the club's history to achieve this milestone. At the end of the season, Real Madrid won the 2019–20 La Liga, while scoring over 20 goals. When La Liga restarted after a three-month hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Benzema scored a brace against Valencia in Real Madrid's second game back at the Alfredo Di Stéfano Stadium on 18 June – his first goals at Madrid's new temporary home ground. Benzema's brace saw him surpass Ferenc Puskás as Real Madrid's fourth All-Time Top Scorer with 304 goals. On 16 July, Benzema's brace against Villarreal secured Real Madrid's 34th La Liga title, after a 2–1 win at the Di Stefano – their 10th consecutive league win after the lockdown. On 7 August, Benzema scored Madrid's only goal at the Etihad as they went crashing out of the Champions League to Manchester City (2–4 on aggregate) to end the campaign. For the second consecutive season, Benzema finished as the club's top scorer with 27 goals in all competitions. Benzema opened his goal account for 2020–21 on 4 October, away to Levante in La Liga, netting his 250th goal for Real Madrid in all competitions. On 27 October, he scored an acrobatic over-the-head goal in a 2–2 draw against Borussia Mönchengladbach at Borussia-Park in the Champions League, to become the second player in history after Lionel Messi to score in 16 consecutive Champions League seasons. On 9 December, he scored a brace in a 2–0 win over Borussia Mönchengladbach to send Real Madrid to the Champions League knockout stages as group winners. On 21 April, Benzema scored a brace and assisted another in a 3–0 away win at Cádiz, which meant he scored against all 35 teams he has played against in La Liga. 2021–22: Vice-captaincy, fourth league title, UCL top scorer and Ballon d'Or With the departure of Sergio Ramos to PSG, Benzema was promoted as Real Madrid's vice-captain for the 2021–22 season under Ancelotti. On 14 August, Benzema scored a brace against Alaves as Los Blancos kicked off the league season with a 1–4 away win to sit at the top of the table. Benzema's first half volley was the first official goal under Ancelotti in his second stint. Six days later, Benzema signed a contract extension with Real Madrid, keeping him at the club until 2023. Benzema scored his first hat-trick in three seasons in a 5–2 win over Celta Vigo on 12 September as Madrid returned to the Bernabeu for the first time since March 2020. Wearing the armband, Benzema was the first Madrid captain to score a hat-trick since Raul in 2008. One week later, Benzema and Vini Jr would combine twice in the last few minutes against Valencia at the Mestalla to complete a comeback to earn Madrid their first win at the Mestalla in four seasons. On 22 September, Benzema scored a brace and provided another two assists in a 6–1 win over Mallorca at the Bernabeu. Benzema's brace allowed him to become only the fourth Madrid player in history to score 200 La Liga goals after Di Stefano, Raul and Cristiano Ronaldo. On 28 September, Benzema became the first the player in history to score in 17 consecutive Champions League seasons after scoring his first penalty in the competition in a 1–2 home loss against Sheriff in the group stage. On 22 October, Benzema scored Madrid's 1000th Champions League goal at the Bernabéu against Shakhtar Donetsk. In the process, Benzema scored his 291st and 292nd goals for the club, making him their fourth highest all-time top scorer, overtaking Santillana. With his goal against Sevilla in La Liga on 28 November, he became the highest French goalscorer in club football matches, overtaking Thierry Henry. On 8 January, Benzema scored his 300th goal for Madrid, converting a penalty in a 4–1 win at home in La Liga against Valencia. On 9 March, he scored a hat-trick within 17 minutes in a remarkable comeback against Paris Saint-Germain in the Champions League round of 16. At the age of 34, Benzema became the oldest player to score a hat-trick in the Champions League era. With the three goals, Benzema brought his tally to 309, overtaking Alfredo Di Stéfano as Real Madrid's third-highest all-time goalscorer. On 14 March, Benzema scored a brace in a La Liga match against Mallorca and broke Henry's record, becoming all-time top French goalscorer with 413 goals. On 6 April, he scored another hat-trick in the Champions League in a 3–1 away win over Chelsea in the first leg of the quarter-finals. Benzema became only the second player (after Cristiano Ronaldo) to score back-to-back hat-tricks in successive Champions League knockout matches. One week later in the second leg at the Santiago Bernabéu, Benzema scored a 96th minute header in extra time which proved pivotal, as Madrid lost to Chelsea 2–3 on the night but qualified for the semi-finals 5–4 on aggregate. On 30 April 2022, he helped Real clinch their 35th Spanish title with a goal in a 4–0 win against Espanyol at the Bernabéu. On 4 May, he scored a decisive goal from the penalty spot in extra time in the second leg against Manchester City and helped Real Madrid reach their 17th European Cup final. By the end of the 2021–22 La Liga season, Benzema won his first Pichichi Trophy with 27 goals in 32 matches. On 28 May, he won his fifth Champions League title after a 1–0 win over Liverpool in the final, and finished the tournament as top scorer with 15 goals in total. On 31 May, Benzema was named the inaugural Champions League player of the season. On 13 August, he was nominated for the Ballon d'Or, widely considered a favourite to win it. In recognition of his performances that season, Benzema was awarded the Ballon d'Or on 17 October. 2022–23: Captaincy, all-time second top scorer and departure With the departure of Marcelo, Benzema was promoted to captain as the most senior member of the squad. By scoring in the 2022 UEFA Super Cup against Eintracht Frankfurt on 10 August 2022, Benzema brought his tally to 324 goals, overtaking Raúl as Real Madrid's all-time second-highest goalscorer. On 2 April 2023, Benzema scored a hat-trick in 6 minutes and 30 seconds in a 6–0 win over Real Valladolid, to become the third fastest hat-trick scorer in his club's history in La Liga, only behind Pahiño who netted three goals in 4 minutes in 1950 and Fernando Hierro who scored them in 6 minutes in 1992. Just three days later, he scored a back-to-back hat-trick in a 4–0 away victory against Barcelona in the Copa del Rey semi-finals, to become the second Real Madrid player to achieve this feat in El Clásico after Iván Zamorano in 1995 and the second Real Madrid player to score a hat-trick at the Camp Nou after Ferenc Puskás in 1963. On 6 May, Benzema was part of the team that won against Osasuna in the Copa del Rey final. On 4 June, Real Madrid confirmed that Benzema would depart from the club following the conclusion of the 2022–23 season. Benzema was given a rapturous reception by Madrid fans in his last game against Athletic Bilbao, in which he scored. Benzema was substituted for Luka Modric in the 74th minute, leaving the field to an ovation from the Madrid supporters. Al-Ittihad On 6 June 2023, Saudi Professional League club Al-Ittihad announced the signing of Benzema on a free transfer. Two days later, Al-Ittihad formally presented him as their new signing at an elaborate ceremony. This event, hosted at the King Abdullah Sports City, was attended by a large number of fans. He scored a goal and provided an assist on his debut on 27 July in a 2–1 victory over Espérance de Tunis during the Arab Club Champions Cup. International career Youth Benzema is a former France youth international having earned caps at all levels for which he was eligible, excluding the under-16 team. He is a member of the group, commonly known in France as the Génération 1987, a youth class that produced current internationals Hatem Ben Arfa, Jérémy Ménez and Samir Nasri, alongside himself. Benzema was the last of the four to make his youth international debut under coach Philippe Bergeroo and officially joined the team ahead of the 2004 UEFA European Under-17 Championship that was played on home soil. In the competition, he appeared in two matches. On his tournament debut, Benzema scored the opening goal in a 3–1 win over Northern Ireland. His lone other appearance in the competition was in a 1–0 group stage win over Spain as France went on to win the tournament defeated the same team in the final. Benzema was a regular starter in the team at under-18 level. He made his debut with the team at a local tournament in the Czech Republic. Benzema scored his first goal at under-18 level in the competition against Poland in the team's final group stage match. In the final against the hosts, he scored the opening goal in a 2–0 win as France were declared champions of the competition. On 30 September 2004, Benzema was one of three goalscorers in France's 3–0 away win over Norway. In the team's next match against Russia, he scored a double in a 3–1 victory. Due to France winning the 2004 U17 European title, the under-18 team was allowed participation in the 2005 Meridian Cup. Benzema was called up to the team for the competition and played in all four matches, scoring a tournament-high five goals as France were crowned champions of the tournament. He opened the tournament by scoring two goals in a 7–0 victory over Cameroon. After going scoreless in the team's next match against Sierra Leone, Benzema responded by scoring a goal in a shutout victory over Nigeria and netting another double in a 4–1 win against Egypt. On 19 May 2005, in the team's final match of the season against Slovakia, Benzema scored all four goals in a 4–1 victory. He finished the under-18 campaign with 18 appearances and a team-high 14 goals and was, subsequently, praised by Bergeroo who, following the campaign, declared that Benzema was "quite efficient". The foursome of Benzema, Ben Arfa, Ménez and Nasri returned to international play together for under-19 duty. The four were joined by Issiar Dia, Blaise Matuidi and Serge Gakpé with the objective of winning the 2006 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. The team opened the campaign with two friendly matches against Norway. Over the course of the two matches, Benzema scored one goal, which came in the first match, a 4–0 win. In the first round of qualification for the UEFA-sanctioned tournament, he scored his only goal in the final group match against Austria. France won the match 2–0, which resulted in the team progressing to the Elite Round. In the ensuing round, France were placed in a relatively easy group alongside Scotland, Bulgaria, and Belarus. In the opening group game against Bulgaria, Benzema scored a double converting a penalty and scoring in play as France won 4–0. Both of his goals were scored within a minute of each other. After surprisingly drawing 0–0 with Belarus, France faced Scotland in the final group stage match. Benzema opened the scoring in the 11th minute, but his goal was cancelled out by Steven Fletcher in the second half. The match ultimately finished 1–1 and, despite finishing the round undefeated, France were eliminated after being beaten on points by the Scots. Benzema made his under-21 debut for Les Espoirs under coach René Girard in the team's first match following the 2006 UEFA European Under-21 Championship against Belgium. He started the match and was replaced at half-time by Yoann Gourcuff. He featured in qualification matches for the 2007 UEFA European Under-21 Championship and appeared as a starter and substitute in the first leg and second leg, respectively, of the team's surprising defeat to Israel in the qualifying playoffs. Despite still being eligible to represent the under-21 team until 2009, his appearance in the second leg defeat to Israel was Benzema's last with the team and he finished his under-21 career with five appearances and no goals. Prior to representing France at senior international level, Benzema was courted by the Algerian Football Federation (FAF) who sought for the player to represent Algeria at senior international level. In December 2006, the striker was approached by former federation president Hamid Haddadj and then-national team coach Jean-Michel Cavalli, but turned down the invitation citing his desire to continue his international career with France. Benzema later told French radio station Radio Monte Carlo "Algeria is my parents' country and it is in my heart, but football-wise, I will only play for the French national team". Senior Euro 2008 Benzema was called up for the first time to the senior national team by Raymond Domenech on 9 November 2006 for the team's friendly match against Greece that would be played on 15 November. Benzema described the call-up as "a reward", while also stating "I am pleased, of course, me and my family. A (the senior national team), is the national team's highest honor". Two days before the match, he was forced to withdraw from the team due to a thigh injury, which he suffered while playing domestically for Lyon. After failing to make the squad for the team's February 2007 match against Argentina, Benzema returned to the team in March for a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against Lithuania and a friendly against Austria. After failing to appear in the qualifier, he made his international debut on 28 March 2007 against Austria. Benzema appeared as a half-time substitute for Djibril Cissé and scored the only goal of the match after a free-kick from Samir Nasri. On 13 October, Benzema scored a double in a 6–0 win against the Faroe Islands. After appearing regularly in the team for the rest of the 2007–08 season, he was named to the 23-man squad to participate in UEFA Euro 2008. Benzema made his debut in the competition on 9 June 2008 in the team's opening match against Romania. Benzema started the match, but was substituted out for Nasri in the second half after a frustrating performance. The match finished 0–0 and Benzema was, subsequently, criticized by the French media for his performance with newspaper Le Point declaring that Benzema was "unrecognizable" and that he "symbolized the impotence of France in the attack". The newspaper also cited his lack of international experience for his subdued performance. In the team's next group game against the Netherlands, Benzema played no part in the 4–1 defeat. He returned to the team in its final group game against Italy and was given a place in the starting lineup. However, France lost 2–0 and were eliminated from the competition. In November 2008, Benzema, among several other young players in the team, was accused of being insolent during the team's campaign at the European Championship. The accusation came from international teammate William Gallas who inserted the charge in his autobiography. Though most of Gallas' accusations were directed at Nasri, during the competition, it was reported by newspaper Le Parisien that several of the national team players described Benzema as "arrogant" and that the striker was scolded by midfielder Claude Makélélé following the team's loss to the Netherlands. 2010 World Cup omission Despite the reports from after Euro 2008, Benzema remained a regular in the team and, ahead of qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, switched to the number ten shirt after previously wearing the number nine. In the team's first match following its elimination from Euro 2008, Benzema scored a goal in a 3–2 friendly win over Sweden in Gothenburg. Two months later, he scored another goal in a 3–1 victory against Tunisia at the Stade de France. On 5 June 2009, Benzema converted the only goal of the match, a penalty shot, in a 1–0 win over Turkey at the Stade de Gerland, his home stadium. He scored his first World Cup qualification goals in victories over the Faroe Islands and Austria in October 2009. His cap against Austria would be his last of the Domenech era as he failed to make France's preliminary 30-man squad for the World Cup. Domenech cited Benzema's struggle for form with his new club Real Madrid, rather than his alleged involvement in a sex scandal as his reason for leaving the striker out. Prior to the list being unveiled, Benzema informed Radio Monte Carlo that if he was not selected he would be "very disappointed, but not killed" and "I will support the France team no matter what". Euro 2012 Following the World Cup, Benzema returned to the national team under the reign of new coach Laurent Blanc. Blanc, an admirer of Benzema, sought to build the attack around the striker and, after going almost a year without representing France, Benzema made his return to the team in its 2–1 defeat to Norway in Oslo. Alongside Gourcuff, Benzema led the team in scoring in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012, netting three. He scored his three goals in wins over Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg, and Albania. On 17 November 2010, Benzema scored the opening goal in France's 2–1 win over England at Wembley Stadium. In the team's next match against Brazil in February 2011, he scored the only goal for France in a 1–0 win. After appearing regularly in qualifying for Euro 2012, on 29 May 2012, Benzema was named to the squad to participate in the competition. On 5 June, in the team's final warm-up friendly ahead of the European Championship, Benzema scored two goals in a 4–0 shutout win over Estonia. At Euro 2012, Benzema started the team's opening match against England, which ended in a 1–1 draw. In the team's ensuing group stage match against Ukraine, he assisted both the goals in a 2–0 win. 2014 World Cup On 11 October 2013, Benzema scored his first goal for the France national team since June 2012 in a friendly against Australia, thus ending a scoring drought for his national team which had lasted 1,222 minutes. In that match played at the Parc des Princes in Paris, which France won 6–0, Benzema scored France's sixth and final goal in the 50th minute after turning home Franck Ribéry's left-wing cross. In the second leg of the 2014 World Cup qualification play-off against Ukraine held on 19 November 2013 at the Stade de France, Benzema scored France's second goal in the 34th minute to level the aggregate score at 2–2. Benzema scored his goal when he side-footed home after a huge scramble in the Ukrainian penalty box, although he was shown on television replays to be offside by almost one metre when the ball took a final touch off Mathieu Valbuena's chest. Benzema had four minutes earlier been denied a legitimate goal, the offside flag wrongly raised when he turned in Ribéry's low cross into the net with his torso a metre from the Ukrainian goal-line. Ukraine had won the first leg of the play-off 2–0 in Kyiv just four days earlier. France would eventually win the second leg 3–0 to advance to the 2014 World Cup finals in Brazil with a 3–2 aggregate scoreline. On 6 June 2014, Benzema was named in France's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, making his debut in the tournament. In the team's first match, a 3–0 win against Honduras in Porto Alegre on 15 June, he scored a goal in each half, the first from a penalty kick. He also took part in the team's second goal, when his shot rebounded off the post and was fumbled over the goal-line by Honduran goalkeeper Noel Valladares for an own goal, the first World Cup goal given by goal-line technology. He was named by FIFA as man of the match for his performance. In the second group fixture, he scored and had a penalty saved in a 5–2 defeat of Switzerland, as Les Bleus all but secured qualification to the knockout stage. France were later knocked out by eventual winners Germany in the quarter-final stage of the tournament. 2016–2020 exclusion After last featuring for France in a 4–0 win against Armenia on 8 October 2015, French Football Federation announced on 13 April 2016 that Benzema would not be picked for Euro 2016 tournament on home soil. This happened after a blackmailing affair involving fellow French team player Mathieu Valbuena (see §Controversies and legal issues). He responded on 1 June 2016 in Marca, in an interview entitled 'Benzema: "Deschamps folded due to pressure from France's racist element"'. Benzema was also left off the roster for the 2018 World Cup in Russia. Directing his frustration at FFF president Noël Le Graët, Benzema later tweeted: "Mr Le Graët, with all due respect, you've lost an opportunity to remain silent. I've discovered your true face, and this isn't the one that said he appreciated me and wouldn't discuss the subject of team selections!" In November 2019, Benzema replied to Le Graët's comments that his career with France was over, by saying: "If you think I'm done, let me play with one of the other countries I am eligible for and we'll see". Return to the squad, Nations League victory and retirement On 18 May 2021, following speculation from the media, Benzema was officially included in France's 26-man squad for UEFA Euro 2020, his first call-up to the national team in over five years. He made his first appearance since his return on 2 June, in a 3–0 home win over Wales, in a friendly warm-up match before the final tournament, during which he missed a penalty, but was later also involved in the final goal scored by Antoine Griezmann. On 23 June 2021, he scored a brace in a 2–2 draw against Portugal, to be his first goals in the European Championship. He subsequently scored another brace in France's round-of-16 match against Switzerland, where France were knocked out of the tournament on penalties after a 3–3 draw. With four goals in as many games, Benzema won the Euro 2020 bronze boot. In the 2021 UEFA Nations League semi-final on 7 October, Benzema scored France's first goal in the second half as they came from behind to defeat Belgium 3–2. He overtook Zidane in the France scoring records as he scored his 32nd goal for Le Blues to become the 6th top scorer in their history. In the Final three days later, he scored the temporary equaliser as France went on to clinch the title for the first time with a 2–1 victory over Spain; he was named "Player of the Match" by UEFA for his performance in the final. With two goals, he was the joint–top scorer of the Nations League Finals, along with Spain's Ferran Torres and teammate Kylian Mbappé, who won the top scorer trophy due to having also provided two assists – Benzema won the bronze boot due to playing more minutes than Torres. The Nations League was Benzema's first trophy with France's senior team and his 27th of his career, making him the most decorated Frenchman in football history. On 13 November 2021, Benzema scored his first goals in the 2022 World Cup qualifiers with a brace in an 8–0 win over Kazakhstan as France booked their place for Qatar 2022. His brace saw him over-take David Trezeguet to become Les Bleus' fifth all-time top scorer with 35 goals. Although he was included in France's final squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, on 19 November, the French Football Federation stated that Benzema would be forced to miss the tournament due to a thigh injury. Despite not taking part in the tournament, Benzema was still awarded the silver medal as he was not replaced by another player unlike Christopher Nkunku, who was replaced by Randal Kolo Muani. On 19 December, Benzema announced his retirement from the national team. Style of play Generally known for both his finishing and playmaking, Benzema is regarded as one of the best strikers of all time. He is a creative, skillful, quick, agile, and prolific forward, who is good in the air and capable of playing off the shoulders of the last defender, and has been described as an "immensely talented striker" who is "strong and powerful" and "a potent finisher from inside the box" with either foot, as well as his head, despite being naturally right footed. He is considered to be one of the best strikers of his generation, with his Real Madrid manager Ancelotti describing him "the best striker in the world" in 2021. An atypical number 9, although he is usually deployed as a centre forward, and can operate as an out-and-out striker, Benzema is also capable of playing in several other offensive positions, and has been used on the wing, or even as a playmaker behind the main striker, either in the number 10 role as an attacking midfielder, or as a deep-lying forward. In addition to his goalscoring, Benzema is known for his willingness and ability to drop into deeper or wider positions, and either link-up play with midfielders, or use his strength and technical ability to hold up the ball with his back to goal to provide assists for teammates, courtesy of his vision, creativity, passing, and eye for the final ball; his playing style led one commentator to describe him as a "nine and a half". Highlighting his prolific goalscoring and his creative abilities, Benzema ranks as Madrid's all-time second-highest goalscorer and top assist provider, with 328 goals and 104 assists respectively. During his time at Madrid, Benzema has also been praised by pundits for his work-rate and tactical intelligence off the ball, as well as his positional sense and attacking movement as a forward, which often draws opposing defenders out of position, and in turn creates spaces for his teammates; as such, he formed a strong offensive partnership with Cristiano Ronaldo during the latter's time with the club. Indeed, Benzema's movement drew defenders away and created space for Ronaldo to make attacking runs into the centre of the area from the left wing, which essentially saw the Frenchman act as a false 9. Following Ronaldo's departure in 2018, he took on a new role as the club's main striker, playing with his back to goal less frequently, and instead receiving the ball facing the goal and taking more touches inside the penalty area; in this position, he also often drifted out wide onto the left flank, while he was able to utilise his control and touch on the ball effectively to create goalscoring opportunities for himself inside the box. The positional change saw an increase in his goalscoring output for the club and an improvement in his shooting, for which he had occasionally come under criticism from the press in the past, as demonstrated by the variety of his goals, his conversion rate, and his clinical finishing with his feet as well as his head; however, in addition to taking over the role of the team's main goalscorer, he also still continued to serve as link-up player for the team's front line by creating chances for his teammates. Personal life Benzema was born in Lyon to French nationals of Algerian descent. His grandfather, Da Lakehal Benzema, lived in the village of Tigzirt, located in the northern town of Aït Djellil in Algeria before migrating to Lyon, where he eventually settled in the 1950s. Benzema's father, Hafid, was born in Tigzirt, while his mother, Wahida Djebbara, was born and raised in Lyon; her family originated from Oran. Benzema is the third youngest in the family and grew up with eight other siblings in Bron, an eastern suburb of Lyon. His younger brothers Gressy and Sabri are also footballers. The former plays at the amateur level with Vaulx-le-Velin in the Division d'Honneur, the sixth division of French football, while the latter plays in the youth academy of a club in the family's hometown of Bron. On 3 February 2014, his then-girlfriend Chloé de Launay gave birth to their daughter Mélia in Madrid. On 5 May 2017, his girlfriend Cora Gauthier gave birth to their son Ibrahim. A practicing Muslim, Benzema observes fasting during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. He has spoken about his faith saying: "My faith helps me to be focused every day. It brings me benefits and it's my strength for me, my family, as well as for my work – for literally everything." In October 2023, Benzema expressed solidarity with the victims of Israeli airstrikes in Gaza. Benzema has been dating American model Jordan Ozuna since 2022, and confirmed their relationship on Instagram. Ozuna is the mother of Benzema's fourth child. In 2023, Ozuna converted to Islam. Since evolving internationally, Benzema has participated in numerous advertising campaigns. He was chosen as an ambassador of the American video game publisher Electronic Arts for the FIFA series. He has signed several sponsorship contracts, notably with the Korean automobile manufacturer Hyundai, the French telephone operator SFR and its subsidiary BuzzMobile, the French bank LCL and the sports betting company bwin. Benzema is sponsored by Adidas. In 2017, his documentary film Le K Benzema was released. In 2020, Benzema started his own YouTube channel, uploading videos of his everyday life, as well as interviews and fan Q&As. In 2022, Benzema was named official ambassador of the Fendi Faster sneaker line. Controversies and legal issues On 6 December 2006, he told RMC about his possible selection for the Algerian team: "It's my parents' country, it's in my heart. But well, from a sporting perspective, it's true I'll play in the French team. I'll always be available for the French team [...] It's more for the sporting side, because Algeria is my country, you see, my parents come from there. France, on the other hand ... it's more of a sport thing, that's it." Benzema drew some criticism for these comments, as well as for his reluctance to sing the French national anthem, "La Marseillaise", before each match with the national team. On 18 April 2010, French television channel M6 reported that four members of the French national team were being investigated for their roles as clients in a prostitute ring operated inside of a Paris nightclub, with some of the women possibly being underage. The players were eventually revealed to be Franck Ribéry, Sidney Govou, Hatem Ben Arfa and Benzema. Benzema was alleged to have had a sexual rendezvous with a prostitute when she was 16 years of age, an act Benzema denied through his lawyer. On 20 July, Benzema was questioned by Paris police and indicted on the charge of "solicitation of a minor prostitute". In November 2011, prosecutors asked for the cases against Ribéry and Benzema to be dropped, saying that the players were not aware that the escort, identified as Zahia Dehar, was 16 years old. However, the case did go on to trial. In January 2014, the judge in the case dropped the charges against both Ribery and Benzema saying there was lack of sufficient evidence that the pair knew the prostitutes were underaged. On 4 November 2015, Benzema was arrested by French police for his alleged part in blackmailing fellow France international player Mathieu Valbuena over the alleged recording of a sex-tape on a mobile phone. During the investigation over the blackmail plot, French Prime Minister Manuel Valls stated, "A great athlete should be exemplary. If he is not, he has no place in the France team. There are so many kids, so many youngsters in our suburbs that relate to great athletes. They wear the blue jersey, the colours of France, which are so important in these moments." On 10 December 2015, the president of the FFF Noël Le Graët announced the provisional suspension of the striker from the French team until a new development in the affair. On 17 February 2016, the judicial review was lifted by the investigating judge who allowed Benzema to get in touch again with Valbuena. On 11 July 2017, the Court of Cassation issued a judgment in which it invalidated a decision of the Court of Appeal of Versailles, which had validated the procedure by which Benzema had been indicted for complicity of attempted blackmail. This decision was made on the basis of contesting the legality of the phone calls recording by the police, and the judgement did not disprove the veracity of the blackmail attempt on Valbuena by Benzema. On 7 January 2021, the public prosecutor's office in Versailles announced that Benzema would face trial for his alleged involvement in the blackmail attempt. On 24 November 2021, Benzema was found guilty of conspiring to blackmail Valbuena with a sex tape. The judge gave him a one-year suspended sentence and fined him €75,000. His lawyers said they will appeal his conviction. He was sentenced in this case in June 2022 to a one-year suspended sentence and a fine of £63,000, after having abandoned the appeal procedure. Benzema's lawyer indicated their intention to appeal the verdict. In March 2020, during an Instagram livestream with YouTuber and internet personality Mohamed Henni, Benzema made controversial remarks about French player Olivier Giroud, who replaced Benzema in the France national team. He called Giroud "karting" while he referred to himself as "Formula 1". On 10 March 2023, France head coach Didier Deschamps stated in an interview with Le Parisien that he had told Benzema following his injury prior to the 2022 FIFA World Cup that there was "no emergency" and that he could "organize his return" from injury with the team manager. Deschamps then claimed that Benzema made the decision to leave the France team himself, saying "when I woke up, I learned that he had left". However, Benzema responded on his Instagram story by reposting the Deschamps statement in the interview with the caption "but what audacity". He posted a further story of French Snapchat personality Ritchie repeating the phrase "liar, you are a liar". Career statistics Club International Scores and results list France's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Benzema goal Honours Lyon Ligue 1: 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08 Coupe de France: 2007–08 Trophée des Champions: 2006, 2007 Real Madrid La Liga: 2011–12, 2016–17, 2019–20, 2021–22 Copa del Rey: 2010–11, 2013–14, 2022–23 Supercopa de España: 2012, 2017, 2021–22 UEFA Champions League: 2013–14, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2021–22 UEFA Super Cup: 2014, 2016, 2017, 2022 FIFA Club World Cup: 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2022 France U17 UEFA European Under-17 Championship: 2004 France UEFA Nations League: 2020–21 FIFA World Cup runner-up: 2022 Individual Ballon d'Or: 2022 UEFA Men's Player of the Year: 2021–22 Golden Player Man Award: 2022 Onze d'Or: 2020–21, 2021–22 French Player of the Year: 2011, 2012, 2014, 2021 UEFA Champions League Player of the Season: 2021–22 UEFA Champions League top goalscorer: 2021–22 FIFA FIFPRO World 11: 2022 La Liga Player of the Season: 2019–20, 2021–22 La Liga Best Player (voted by Marca fans): 2019–20, 2020–21, 2021–22 Trofeo Alfredo Di Stéfano: 2019–20, 2021–22 Pichichi Trophy: 2021–22 UEFA Champions League top assist provider: 2011–12 UEFA Champions League Team of the Season: 2020–21, 2021–22 IFFHS Men's World Team: 2022 Globe Soccer Awards Men's Player of the Year: 2022 La Liga Team of the Season: 2018–19, 2019–20, 2020–21, 2021–22, 2022–23 UEFA La Liga Team of the Season: 2019–20 Bravo Award: 2008 Ligue 1 top scorer: 2007–08 Coupe de France top scorer: 2007–08 UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Month: January 2008, April 2008 UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year: 2007–08 UNFP Ligue 1 Team of the Year: 2007–08 UNFP Best French Player Playing Abroad: 2019, 2021, 2022, 2023 Golden Lion for the best Lyon sportsman: 2007, 2008 French Rookie of the Year: 2006 Étoile d'Or: 2007–08 La Liga Player of the Month: October 2014, June 2020, March 2021, September 2021, April 2022 Supercopa de España top scorer: 2021–22, 2022–23 Real Madrid Player of the Season (voted by supporters): 2015–16, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2021–22 AS Player of the Year: 2021 Kicker Player of the Season: 2022 Madrid Sports Press Association Award (APDM) ESM Team of the Year: 2020–21, 2021–22 L'Équipe's Team of the Year: 2020, 2021, 2022 2005 UEFA–CAF Meridian Cup top scorer UEFA European Championship Bronze Boot: 2020 UEFA Nations League Finals Bronze Boot: 2021 UEFA Nations League Finals Goal of the Tournament: 2021 Member of Guinness World Records 2021: Player with the most consecutive seasons in the UEFA Champions League (qualified for and played in the competition without interruption since 2005) See also List of footballers with 100 or more UEFA Champions League appearances Notes References External links 1987 births Living people Footballers from Lyon French men's footballers Men's association football forwards Olympique Lyonnais players Real Madrid CF players Al-Ittihad Club (Jeddah) players Ligue 1 players La Liga players Saudi Pro League players UEFA Champions League winning players UEFA Champions League top scorers France men's youth international footballers France men's under-21 international footballers France men's international footballers UEFA Euro 2008 players UEFA Euro 2012 players 2014 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Euro 2020 players 2022 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Nations League-winning players Ballon d'Or winners Pichichi Trophy winners French expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Spain French expatriate sportspeople in Spain Expatriate men's footballers in Saudi Arabia French expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia French Muslims French sportspeople of Algerian descent French people of Kabyle descent
4629177	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord%20Speedway	Concord Speedway	Concord Speedway was a motorsports facility located in the town of Midland, North Carolina, southeast of Concord, North Carolina. The complex featured a -mile asphalt tri-oval and a -mile asphalt oval. The complex was built in 1982 by Henry Furr, originally with the big track as a dirt -mile oval. The track was later paved, and then reconfigured in 1991 as a -mile tri-oval. The primary divisions for the half-mile shifted between Super Late Models, and Late Model Stock Cars. The small track was built first as a -mile layout for go-kart racing in the mid to late 1980s, the track was reconfigured to add a 1/4-mile asphalt oval layout in the mid '90s – the bigger layout featured was loosely egg shaped around the -mile oval – this layout traditionally hosted INEX Legends & INEX Bandoleros as the primary weekly division. The half-mile track was especially known for the Big 10 Series for Super Late Models, and the North-South Shootout event (featuring multiple divisions – the marquee being a 125-lap Tour-type Modified race). The track closed in July 2019, and was sold to Copart. History Precursor In total, there were 3 tracks under the Concord Speedway name, this facility being the third. The first track to use the Concord Speedway moniker was built in the 1950s and was built off of Poplar Tent Rd. – located at the end of Old Speedway Dr. NW, this track held seven NASCAR Grand National (now known as the NASCAR Cup Series) events between 1956 and 1959. The track was left abandoned after the closure. The second track was also built off of Poplar Tent Rd. (located near Eva Drive & Channing Circle) – also in the 1950s. This track was a -mile dirt oval, and also was named Harris Speedway, Concord International Speedway & New Concord Speedway throughout its history. NASCAR held five Grand National races between 1962 and 1964. This track ran throughout the 1970s, it hosted the debut season of the National Dirt Racing Association – which was won by Rodney Combs on May 26, 1979. The NDRA race was also the final race at the Eva Dr. facility. Both properties of the first 2 tracks are now housing developments. However, it wasn't the first track to be built in Concord or Cabarrus County. The first track in Concord was called the Concord Fairgrounds, and was located off of Highway 29 at the former Cabarrus District Fairgrounds. This half mile dirt oval facility was originally built for horse racing, and was first used for auto racing in 1925. The track ran until 1934 & also hosted 2 AAA Contest Board Sprint Car races (1931 & 1934). Other notable tracks in the county include famed Charlotte Motor Speedway complex, the Midland Dustbowl - which held racing from 1948 to the 1950s, Twin City Speedway (in Kannapolis) - which held stock car racing on a 1/4 mile dirt oval up to 1964 and Two Flags Speedway (off of Gold Hill Rd.) - which hosted Micro Sprints & Go-Kart racing from 1976 to 1997. Results Fairgrounds (1924–1932) AAA Sprint Cars 1932 - Johnny Sawyer 1934 - Floyd Davis Poplar Tent Road location (1949–1959) NASCAR Grand National NASCAR held 7 Grand National races on the original dirt half mile located on Old Speedway Drive (near Poplar Tent Road) in Concord. 1956 - Speedy Thompson 1957 (race 2) - Marvin Panch 1957 (race 5) - Jack Smith 1957 (race 51) - Fireball Roberts 1958 - Lee Petty 1959 (race 5) - Curtis Turner 1959 (race 44) - Jack Smith NASCAR Convertible Series NASCAR held one Convertible Series race on the original dirt half mile. 1957 - Curtis Turner Eva Drive location (1949–1979) NASCAR Grand National - NASCAR held 5 Grand National races on the second dirt half mile track located off of Eva Drive (near Popular Tent Road) in Concord. The main entrance driveway for the track is now called Speedway Drive, and is a part of a housing complex. 1962 (race 1) - Jack Smith 1962 (race 6) - Joe Weatherly 1962 (race 20) - Joe Weatherly 1964 (race 1) - Ned Jarrett 1964 (race 29) - Richard Petty USAC Stock Car United States Auto Club held two stock car races at the second facility in 1961 and 1963. Both races were 200 lap affairs. 1961 - Don White 1963 - Bill Cheesbourg National Dirt Racing Association - NDRA held a single race on the second dirt 1/2 mile track in 1979. 1979 (May 26) - Rodney Combs A new beginning The current track was built by race promoter Henry Furr in 1982, Furr was looking to build a track following the sale of the previous 1/2 mile dirt track that he promoted. The track was originally a four-tenths of a mile oval, it hosted 3 races for the NDRA dirt late model touring series in 1983 - including the season finale, those were won by Larry Moore (July 4), dirt modified ace Kenny Brightbill (September 3) & Mike Duvall (October 8th). The first few years, the track featured no walls on the outside corners, those were added in by 1984 or 1985. Pavement era Furr paved the track in August 1986, the track was reconfigured in 1991, adding a true dog-leg to the backstretch. The track now is a half-mile with three unique turns, all with unique banking. The shape of the new layout was similar to Pocono Raceway, and Sanair Super Speedway. Pit road entrance is located in the tri-oval prior to turn three, grandstand seating held over 12,000 fans. The track started the Big 10 Series for Super Late Models in 1987, Jack Sprague won the first series title. The series became very popular with the fans, as it was highly competitive. David Laton purchased the track following the 1996 season. The Big 10 Series didn't return in 1997 for the first season under new ownership & Late Model Stock Cars became the main weekly championship of the half-mile. Laton made several capital improvements to the facility including a repave (done in 1999), replaced barriers & fencing, a Hubbell lighting system & several fan amenities. Grandstand seating was also downsized, as most of the Alan Kulwicki Grandstand became a dirt berm, with only the portion near the turn 1 gate staying intact - being replaced with metal bleachers. The track brought back the Super Late Models for the Big 10 Series in 2003, the championship lasted until 2005. Freddie Query is the track's all-time leader in wins and claimed the Big 10 series championship in 2004 and 2005. Late Model Stock Cars returned as the main track championship, until 2009 when the track added Pro Late Models to the weekly card. One of the track's more popular events, the North South Shootout was started in 2003 at the half-mile tri-oval. The event featured a 125-lap race for Tour-type Modifieds, along with several other marquee divisions such as Supermodifieds & the ARCA/CRA Super Series. The event stayed at Concord until 2010, it was originally going to move to Myrtle Beach Speedway for 2011 - however Caraway Speedway hosted the annual event following the death of original race promoter Charles Kepley. Half Mile uncertainty & revival The track stopped weekly racing on the half-mile tri-oval in 2012, only the quarter-mile oval has hosted weekly racing since. The quarter-mile weekly program features INEX Legends, INEX Bandoleros, along with Davis Mini Cups, go-karts, and quarter midgets on select nights. The quarter-mile traditionally featured racing from March to May, and August to early October – with a 2-month break in June and July. Previously, this layout also featured USAC Speed2 Eastern Midgets during the summer months (2008–2010). In 2015, racing returned to the half-mile tri-oval after not hosting any touring series for the past 2 years, the opening event featured the PASS South Super Late Models and Koma Unwind Modified Madness Series running on Memorial Day weekend. That season also saw the return of the North-South Shootout event in November. Alongside the John Blewett III Memorial 125 for the Tour-type Modifieds, other touring series such as the PASS South Super Late Models were a part of the event. CARS Tour also returned that year – now in the dual series format for Super Late Models & Late Model Stock Cars. CARS Tour ran for 3 seasons until the end of 2017. On May 5, 2018, the track hosted the Minimizer Bandit Big Rig Series. Defending series champion Ricky Rude got the lead on lap #6 & won the A-main feature. Closure On January 9, 2019, North-South Shootout promoter Darren Hacket announced that the event would move away from the facility to Hickory Motor Speedway due to the uncertain future of the Concord Speedway complex. The track would continue to host the INEX Legend Cars & INEX Bandoleros on the quarter-mile track. On July 2, 2019, it was announced that the track would be sold, and that leaders in each of the weekly series point standings would be awarded championship trophies for the year. The buyer was later reported to be Copart. Notable competitors Winners and competitors at the track include Greg Pope, Freddy Query, Dale Earnhardt Jr., Jack Sprague, Ernie Irvan, Bobby Labonte, Denny Bennet, Justin Labonte, Clay Rogers, Jimmy Simpson, Bobby Gill, Dale Earnhardt Sr., Bobby Measmer Jr., Ryan Preece, Daniel Hemric, Buster Bennet, Jeff Melton, Sonny Schoffen, Kenny Brooks, Shane Huffman and Josh Hogan Statistics The park consists of two tracks: a -mile tri-oval and a -mile oval. Originally the -mile oval was a -mile oval and the -mile was added later. The -mile is still there but only used for Davis Mini Cups and quarter midgets. The tri-oval seats 8,500 fans with room for 28 RVs, while the 1/4 mile track seats 2,050. Additionally, the track has several air-conditioned suites located behind the main grandstand. The track is active as a site for the filming of several television commercials, television shows, movies, and music videos. Events Former touring series & events (half-mile) ALL PRO Super Series (1987) Allison Legacy Race Series (1997, 2004, 2006–2008, 2010–11, 2017–18) ARCA/CRA Super Series - Southern Division (2010) ASA National Tour (2001, 2003) ASA Late Model Series - Southern Division (2008–09) Hooters Pro Cup Series 1998-2008 CARS Late Model Stock Tour (2015-–2017) CARS Super Late Model Tour (2015–2017) CARS Pro Cup Series (1998–2000, 2002–2011) ISMA Supermodifieds (1993) ISCARS Dash Touring Series (2010) KOMA Unwind Modified Madness Series (2015) Lucas Oil Pro Pulling League Mid-Atlantic Limited Late Model Series (2016) Mid-Atlantic Street Stock Championship (2015–2016, 2018) Minimizer Bandit Big Rig Series (2018) NASCAR NASCAR Goodys Dash Series (1989–1990, 1997–1998) NASCAR AutoZone Elite Division, Southeast Series (1997–1998) NASCAR Whelen Southern Modified Tour (2009, 2016) NDRA Stroh's Pro National Series (1983) Pro All Stars Series PASS South Super Late Model Series (2007, 2012, 2015–2017) PASS Pro Late Model Series (2015) PASS Super Limited Late Models (2012) PRA Tours 602 Modified Tour (2017) 602 Super Limiteds Tour (2017 & 2018) Southern Modified Racing Series (2016–2018) Rolling Thunder Modifieds (2007, 2010) SMART Modified Tour (1991, 1998–1999, 2002–2004) Southern All Star Asphalt Series (1998) Southern Outlaw Street Stock Tour (2016) UARA STARS Late Model Series (2007–2012) USAC Racing USAC AMSOIL National Sprint Car Championship (2006) USAC NOS Energy National Midgets (2006) USAC Speed2 Eastern Midgets (2006) USCS Outlaw Thunder Tour (2001–2002, 2005) Virginia Mini Cups (2002–2005) BIG 10 Super Late Model Series (1987–1996, 2003–2005) North South Shootout (2003–2010, 2015–2018) Tour-type Modifieds - John Blewett III Memorial 125 in memory of Charles Kepley (2003–2010, 2015–2018) PRA 602 Super Limited Tour (2018) PRA 602 Modified Tour (2018) Street Stocks (2008, 2015–2016, 2018) Mini Stocks (2015–2018) PASS South Super Late Models (2015–2017) SK Modifieds (2005–2010, 2015–2017) Limited Late Models (2015–2017) Chargers (2017) Mid-Atlantic Limited Late Model Series (2016) Southeastern Super Trucks (2015) Vintage Modifieds / Sportsman / Flatheads (2003–2010, 2015–2016) CRA Super Series - Southern Division (2010) USA Modifieds (2010) TBARA Sprint Cars (2009) Supermodifieds (2007–2008) SK Light / Crate Modifieds (2006–2007) Four Cylinders (2006–2007) Pro 4 Modifieds (2006) Late Model Stock Cars (2004) INEX Thunder Roadsters (2004–2005) Pro Trucks (2003) Former touring series & special events (quarter-mile) USAC Racing USAC Speed2 Eastern Midgets (2008-2012) USAC Speed2 Eastern Midgets - Young Guns (2010 & 2011) Carolina Asphalt Racing Kart Series (-2006) North South Shootout (2006) USAC Speed2 Eastern Midgets Mini Stocks INEX Legends Former weekly divisions (half-mile) Late Model Stock Cars (−2012) Street Stock (2012) Fast & Furious 4's (2007–2012) Vintage Sportsman (2012) Sportsman (2012) Pure Stock (2003–2011) Pro Late Model (2009 & 2010) Thunderstox (2010) INEX Thunder Roadsters (2009) Limited Late Models (2004–2008) Super Late Models (1987–1996, 2003–2005) Mini Stocks (–2005) Hornets (–2005) Limited Stock Cars (–2003) Pro Trucks (–2003) X-Cars (2001–2002) Road Hawgs Super Stocks Former weekly divisions (quarter mile) INEX WIX Filters Legends Cars (–2019) – (Young Lions/Semi-Pro/Pro/Masters) INEX Bandoleros (–2019) – (Beginners Bandits/Bandits/Outlaws) Davis Mini Cups Go-karts Quarter midgets Note: data only goes back to 2001 Results North South Shootout the North South Shootout was held 12 times at Concord, with the marquee race being the Tour-type Modified - John Blewett III Memorial 125 in memory of Charles Kepley. Other divisions of the event included: ARCA/CRA Super Series, PASS South Super Late Models, Supermodifieds, SK Modifieds, Vintage cars & other regional divisions from the east coast. Tour-type Modifieds Super Late Models ASA National Tour ASA held two ASA National Tour races on the paved half mile. 2001 - Johnny Sauter 2003 - Davin Scites CARS Tour CARS Tour held races on the paved half mile with the CARS Pro Cup Series (then USAR Pro Cup) between 1998 & 2011, and the current dual series format for Super Late Models & Late Model Stock Cars between 2015 & 2017. NASCAR Whelen Southern Modified Tour NASCAR held two Whelen Southern Modified Tour races on the paved half mile, and the SMART Modified Tour (precursor to the Whelen Southern Modified Tour) also held 6 races at the track. PASS South Super Late Models PASS held 10 races at Concord between 2007 & 2017. UARA STARS UARA STARS Late Model Series held 9 races at the half-mile track from 2007 to 2012. Track Champions Half Mile Track Big 10 Series (Super Late Models) 1987 - Jack Sprague 1988 - Larry Raines 1989 - Jack Sprague 1990 - Robbie Faggart 1991 - Rich Bickle 1992 - Rich Bickle 1993 - Freddie Query 1994 - Freddie Query 1995 - Mike Thomas 1996 - Eddie Massengill 2003 - Eddie Massengill 2004 - Freddie Query 2005 - Freddie Query Pro Late Models 2009 - Cooper Faassen 2010 - Colt James Late Model Stock Cars 1988 - Freddie Query 1989 - Jack Sprague 1990 - Freddie Query 1991 - Freddie Query 1992 - Freddie Query 1993 - Greg Pope 1994 - Jack Sprague 1995 - Greg Pope 1996 - Lance Moss 1997 - Mike Herman Jr. 1998 - Mike Herman Jr. 1999 - Kevin Love 2000 - Kevin Love 2001 - Kevin Love 2002 - Chris Beach 2003 - Shaun Mangum 2004 - Todd Bardburry 2005 - Travis Sharpe 2006 - Shane Brafford 2007 - Chuck Crump 2008 - Kevin Love 2009 - Steve Ackerly 2010 - Jay Payne 2011 - Bobby Measmer Jr. 2012 - Kenny Brooks Late Model Sportsman 1997 - Terry Brooks Limited Late Models 2004 - Terry Brooks Jr. 2005 - Terry Hoggard 2006 - Ben Hinson 2007 - Bobby Measmer Jr. 2008 - Mike Terry Pro Truck 2000 - Jeremy Moore 2001 - Roger Lee Newton 2002 - Terry Brooks Jr. 2003 - Terry Brooks Jr. Limited Stock 2001 - Kenneth Cook 2002 - Jeff Melton 2003 - David Kepley Pure Stock 2003 - Mark Harris 2004 - Luke Nickels 2005 - Brian Love 2006 - Steve Irvin 2007 - Ben Smith 2008 - Charles Hutto 2009 - Jeff Melton 2010 - Jeff Melton Street Stock 1997 - Dave Berry 1999 - Mike Glover Fast & Furious Fours 2007 - Tracy Mullis 2008 - Chad Miller 2009 - Wayne Harrington 2010 - Chad Miller Mini Stocks 1997 - David Pennell. 1998- Randy Freeze 2001 - Jeff Whitley 2002 - Roy Maness 2003 - Randy Freeze 2004 - Adam Beaver 2005 - David Pennell Hornets 2002 - Mark Harris 2003 - Mark Harris 2004 - Chad Miller 2005 - Bobby Measmer Jr. Thunderstox 2010 - Rusty Drye INEX Thunder Roadsters 2004 - Matt Lassiter 2005 - Kyle Beattie 2009 - Adam Welch X-Carz 2001 - Guy Bacelo 2002 - Junior Cress In popular culture Concord was noted for being used as a filming & production location, especially within the racing industry given the close proximity to most NASCAR teams. Some of the notable movies & shows filmed at the facility included: 3: The Dale Earnhardt Story & Shaq Vs. (as the opening show of season 2 where Shaquille O'Neal held a match race with NASCAR star & former Concord regular Dale Earnhardt Jr.) Many commercials were filmed at Concord as well, among the companies & brands that used the track included: Allstate, AAA Insurance, Blimpie, Coors Light, ESPN, Gilette, National Guard, Mountain Dew, Pizza Hut, TBS (promotion featuring country music duo Brooks & Dunn for the Coca-Cola 600 in 1998) & Wrangler Jeans. Among video games, Concord was included in several video games. Most notable of those is iRacing.com - which was one of their first tracks that the group laser scanned in 2005. The track is currently a part of iRacing's base content package. It was also featured in the USAR Hooters Pro Cup game by Infogrames (released in 2002 for the PC). Among modding circles for various PC racing games, it was also recreated for several Papyrus Design Group NASCAR games such as NASCAR Racing 2003 Season, and also for NASCAR Heat. Concord was also used for some inspiration for a fictional track in several NASCAR console games by EA Sports. The fictional track - called Levi Strauss Signature Speedway debuted in NASCAR 2005: Chase for the Cup References Plemmons, Mark (July/August 2009) Family-friendly, "grassroots racing" is going on all summer long at Concord Speedway. Cabarrus Living Magazine, p. 12. External links Official Website Concord Speedway archive at Racing-Reference Sports venues in Cabarrus County, North Carolina Motorsport venues in North Carolina Concord, North Carolina Tourist attractions in Cabarrus County, North Carolina 1982 establishments in North Carolina Sports venues completed in 1982 NASCAR tracks
4629503	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar%20of%20saints%20%28Lutheran%29	Calendar of saints (Lutheran)	The Lutheran Church has, from the time of the Reformation, continued the remembrance of saints. The theological basis for this remembrance may be best illustrated in the words of the Epistle to the Hebrews: "Seeing we also are compassed about with so great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight, and the sin which doth so easily beset us, and let us run with patience the race that is set before us." The Apology of the Augsburg Confession states that the remembrance of the saints has three parts: "The first is thanksgiving. For we ought to give thanks to God because He has shown examples of mercy; because He has shown that He wishes to save men; because He has given teachers or other gifts to the Church. And these gifts, as they are the greatest, should be amplified, and the saints themselves should be praised, who have faithfully used these gifts, just as Christ praises faithful business-men (Matt. 25:21, 23). The second service is the strengthening of our faith; when we see the denial forgiven Peter, we also are encouraged to believe the more that grace truly superabounds over sin (Rom. 5:20). The third honor is the imitation, first, of faith, then of the other virtues, which every one should imitate according to his calling." As a result, the Lutheran reformers retained a robust calendar of saints to be commemorated throughout the year. In addition to the saints found in Holy Scripture, such saints as Saint Lawrence and Saint Martin of Tours were retained on the calendar, as were even extra-Biblical commemorations like the Assumption of Mary. Following the Reformation, most especially in the latter half of the twentieth century, many names were added to the calendar, both new and restored pre-Reformation commemorations. The Calendar found below is a listing which aims to give a sense of the primary annual festivals and events that are celebrated liturgically by various Lutheran Churches in the English-speaking world. The calendars of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) in their present forms are listed below, as found in the 2006 Lutheran Service Book of the LCMS, and the 2006 Evangelical Lutheran Worship of the ELCA. In addition to these, some historic observances not currently found on the aforementioned calendars but appearing in earlier Lutheran uses are also provided. While extensive, the Lutheran sanctoral calendar is not presently as strictly ranked as that of the Roman Catholic Church. Principal festivals are marked with BOLD CAPS and lesser festivals with bold text. If applicable, the country where a particular observed is also noted, if it is not commonly observed on that date in North America. For individuals, the date given is generally the date of their death or "heavenly birthday." The liturgical color for vestments and paraments is noted as follows: White (W), Red (R) or Violet (V). Commemorations specific to the LCMS, ELCA, or an earlier source are noted following each entry. Commemorations and festivals held in common are not annotated. January 1 Circumcision and Name of Jesus (LCMS) Name of Jesus (ELCA) (W) 2 Johann Konrad Wilhelm Löhe, pastor, renewer of the church, 1872 (W) 3 4 5 6 THE EPIPHANY OF OUR LORD (W) 7 8 9 10 St. Basil the Great, Bishop of Caesarea, 379; Gregory of Nazianzus, Bishop of Constantinople, c. 389; Gregory, Bishop of Nyssa, c. 385 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 11 12 13 Octave of the Epiphany - The Baptism of Our Lord (W) - historic, now commonly observed on the Sunday within the Octave of the Epiphany 14 Eivind Berggrav, Norwegian Lutheran bishop (Commemoration) W - ELCA 15 Martin Luther King Jr., renewer of society, martyr, 1968 (Commemoration) R – ELCA 16 17 Anthony of Egypt, renewer of the church, c. 356 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Pachomius, renewer of the church, 346 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 18 Confession of Peter (W) Week of Prayer for Christian Unity Begins - ELCA 19 Henry, Bishop of Uppsala, missionary to Finland, martyr, 1156 (Commemoration) R – ELCA 20 Sebastian, Martyr (R) - Historic Sarah, matriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS 21 Agnes, Virgin and Martyr (R) 22 23 24 Saint Timothy, pastor (Lesser Festival) W - LCMS 25 Conversion of Paul the Apostle (W) Week of Prayer for Christian Unity Ends - ELCA 26 Timothy, Titus, and Silas, missionaries (Commemoration) W – ELCA Saint Titus, pastor (Lesser Festival) W - LCMS 27 John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, 407 (W) – LCMS Lydia, Dorcas, and Phoebe, witnesses to the faith (Commemoration) W – ELCA 28 Thomas Aquinas, teacher, 1274 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 29 30 31 February 1 2 Presentation of our Lord (W) 3 Ansgar, Archbishop of Hamburg, missionary to Denmark and Sweden, 865 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 4 5 The Martyrs of Japan, 1597 (Commemoration) R – ELCA Jacob, patriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS 6 7 8 9 10 Silas, apostle (Commemoration) W – LCMS 11 12 13 Aquila, Priscilla, and Apollos (Commemoration) W – LCMS 14 Cyril, monk, 869; Methodius, bishop, 885; missionaries to the Slavs (Commemoration) W – ELCA Valentine, martyr, 270 (Commemoration) R – LCMS 15 Philemon and Onesimus (Commemoration) W – LCMS 16 Philipp Melanchthon, confessor, 1560 (Commemoration) R – LCMS 17 18 Martin Luther, doctor and confessor, renewer of the church, 1546 (Commemoration) W 19 20 21 22 23 Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, martyr 156 (Commemoration) R 24 Matthias, Apostle (R) – LCMS (25th February in leap years) 25 Elizabeth Fedde, deaconess, 1921 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 26 27 28 29 March 1 George Herbert, priest, hymnwriter, 1633 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 2 John Wesley, 1791; Charles Wesley, 1788; priests, renewers of the church (Commemoration) W – ELCA 3 4 5 6 7 Perpetua and Felicity and companions, martyrs at Carthage, 202 (R) 8 9 10 Harriet Tubman, 1913; Sojourner Truth, 1883; renewers of society (Commemoration) W – ELCA 11 12 Gregory the Great, Bishop of Rome, 604 (W) 13 14 15 16 17 Patrick, bishop, missionary to Ireland, 461 (Commemoration) W 18 19 Joseph, Guardian of Jesus (W) 20 21 Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, martyr, 1556 (Commemoration) R – ELCA 22 Jonathan Edwards, teacher, missionary to American Indians, 1758 (Commemoration) W - ELCA 23 24 Oscar Arnulfo Romero, Bishop of El Salvador, martyr, 1980 (Commemoration) R – ELCA 25 Annunciation of Our Lord (W) 26 27 28 29 Hans Nielsen Hauge, renewer of the church, 1824 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 30 31 John Donne, priest, poet, 1631 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Joseph, patriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS April 1 Amalie Sieveking, philanthropist and social activist – (Germany) 2 3 4 Benedict the African, confessor, 1589 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 5 6 Albrecht Dürer, 1528; Lucas Cranach, 1553; artists (Commemoration) W Matthias Grünewald, artist, 1529 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Michelangelo, artist, (Commemoration) W – LCMS 7 8 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer, theologian, martyr, 1945 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 10 Mikael Agricola, Bishop of Turku, 1557 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Olaus Petri, priest, 1552; Laurentius Petri, Archbishop of Uppsala, 1573; renewers of the church (Commemoration) W – ELCA 20 Johannes Bugenhagen, pastor, 1558 (Commemoration) – LCMS 21 Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, theologian, 1109 (Commemoration) W 22 Day of Creation [Earth Day] (Lesser Festival) W – ELCA 23 Toyohiko Kagawa, renewer of society, 1960 (Commemoration) W - ELCA 24 Johann Walter, musician, 1570 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 25 Mark, Evangelist (R) 26 27 28 29 Catherine of Siena, theologian, 1380 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 30 May 1 Philip and James, Apostles (R) 2 Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, 373 (Commemoration) W 3 4 Monica, mother of Augustine, 387 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Friedrich Wyneken, pastor, missionary, 1864 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 5 Frederick the Wise, Christian ruler, 1525 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 6 7 Carl F. W. Walther, pastor, theologian, 1887 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 8 Julian of Norwich, renewer of the Church, c. 1416 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 9 Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, renewer of the church, hymnwriter, 1760 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Job, patriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS 10 11 Cyril, 869 and Methodius, 885, missionaries to the Slavs (Commemoration) W – LCMS 12 13 14 Matthias, apostle (Lesser Festival) R – ELCA 15 16 17 18 Erik, King of Sweden, martyr, 1160 (Commemoration) R – ELCA 19 20 21 Helena, mother of Constantine, c. 330 (W) Emperor Constantine, Emperor of Rome, 337 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 22 23 24 Nicolaus Copernicus, 1543; Leonhard Euler, 1783; scientists (Commemoration) W – ELCA Esther, matriarch, (Commemoration) W – LCMS 25 Bede, theologian, 735 (Commemoration) R – LCMS 26 27 John Calvin, renewer of the church, 1564 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 28 29 Juraj Tranovský, hymnwriter, 1637 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 30 31 Visit of Mary to Elizabeth -- minor festival (W) - modern date June 1 Justin, martyr at Rome, c. 165 (Commemoration) R 2 3 Martyrs of Uganda, 1886 (Commemoration) R – ELCA John XXIII, Bishop of Rome, 1963 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 4 5 Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz, missionary to Germany, martyr, 754 (Commemoration) R 6 7 Seattle, chief of the Duwamish Confederacy, 1866 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 8 9 Columba, 597; Aidan, 651; Bede, 735; teachers, renewers of the church (Commemoration) W – ELCA 10 11 Barnabas, Apostle (R) 12 First Ecumenical Council, 325 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 13 14 Basil the Great, Bishop of Caesarea, 379; Gregory of Nazianzus, Bishop of Constantinople, c. 389; Gregory, Bishop of Nyssa, c. 385 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Macrina, theologian, c. 379 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Elisha, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Onesimos Nesib, translator, evangelist, 1931 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 22 23 24 John the Baptist (W) 25 Presentation of the Augsburg Confession, 1530 (Commemoration) W Philipp Melanchthon, renewer of the church, 1560 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 26 John and Paul, Martyrs - LCMS Jeremiah, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 27 Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, 444 (Commemoration) W 28 Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, c. 202 (Commemoration) W 29 Peter and Paul, Apostles (R) 30 Commemoration of Paul the Apostle (R) - Historic July 1 Catherine Winkworth, 1878; John Mason Neale, 1866; hymn translators (Commemoration) W – ELCA 2 3 Thomas, apostle (Lesser Festival) R – ELCA 4 5 6 Jan Hus, martyr, 1415 (Commemoration) R – ELCA Isaiah, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 7 8 9 10 11 Benedict of Nursia, Abbot of Monte Cassino, c. 540 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 12 Nathan Söderblom, Archbishop of Uppsala, 1931 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 13 14 15 The Division of the Holy Apostles (R) - Historic 16 Ruth, matriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS 17 Bartolomé de Las Casas, missionary to the Indies, 1566 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 18 19 20 Elijah, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 21 Ezekiel, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 22 Mary Magdalene, (W) 23 Birgitta of Sweden, renewer of the church, 1373 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 24 25 James, Apostle (R) 26 27 28 Johann Sebastian Bach, 1750 W Heinrich Schütz, 1672; George Frederick Handel, 1759; musicians (Commemoration) W – ELCA 29 Saint Martha, Virgin (W) Mary, Martha, and Lazarus of Bethany (Commemoration) W Olaf, King of Norway, martyr, 1030 (Commemoration) R – ELCA 30 Robert Barnes (martyr), confessor and martyr (Commemoration) R – LCMS 31 Joseph of Arimathea (Commemoration) W – LCMS August 1 2 3 Joanna, Mary, and Salome, myrrh-bearing women (Commemoration) W – LCMS 4 5 6 Transfiguration of Our Lord (W) - More commonly observed on the last Sunday after Epiphany 7 8 Dominic, priest, founder of the Order of Preachers (Dominicans), 1221 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 9 10 Lawrence, deacon, martyr 258 (Commemoration) R 11 Clare, Abbess of San Damiano, renewer of the Church, 1253 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 12 13 Florence Nightingale, 1910; Clara Maass, 1901; renewers of society (Commemoration) W – ELCA 14 Maximilian Kolbe, 1941; Kaj Munk, 1944; martyrs (Commemoration) R – ELCA 15 Assumption of Mary (W) (modern:Mary, Mother of Our Lord)< 16 Isaac, patriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS 17 Johann Gerhard, theologian, 1637 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 18 19 Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, hymnwriter, theologian 1153 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 20 Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, hymnwriter, theologian, 1153 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Samuel, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 21 22 23 24 Bartholomew, Apostle (R) 25 26 27 Monica, mother of Augustine 387 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 28 Augustine, Bishop and Doctor, 430 (W) Moses the Black, monk, martyr, c. 400 (Commemoration) R - ELCA 29 The Martyrdom of John the Baptist (R) – LCMS 30 31 September 1 Joshua, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 2 Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig, bishop, renewer of the church, 1872 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Hannah, matriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS 3 Gregory the Great, Bishop of Rome, 604 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 4 Moses, prophet (Commemoration)) R – LCMS 5 Zechariah, prophet Elizabeth, matriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS 6 7 8 Nativity of Mary (W) - LCMS (19th century) 9 Peter Claver, priest, missionary to Colombia, 1654 (Commemoration) – ELCA 10 11 12 13 John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, 407 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 14 Holy Cross Day (R) 15 16 Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, martyr, c. 258 (Commemoration) R 17 Hildegard, Abbess of Bingen, 1179 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 18 Dag Hammarskjöld, renewer of society, 1961 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 19 20 Nelson Wesley Trout, bishop, 1996 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 21 Matthew, Apostle and Evangelist (R) 22 Maurice and Companions, Martyrs (R) - Historic Jonah, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Michael and All Angels (W) 30 Jerome, translator, teacher, 420 (Commemoration) W October 1 2 3 4 Francis of Assisi, renewer of the church, 1226 (Commemoration) W – ELCA Theodor Fliedner, renewer of society, 1864 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 5 6 William Tyndale, translator, martyr, 1536 (Commemoration) R – ELCA 7 Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, pastor in North America, 1787 (Commemoration) W 8 9 Abraham, patriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS 10 Massie L. Kennard, renewer of the church, 1996 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 11 Phillip, deacon (Commemoration) W – LCMS 12 13 14 15 Teresa of Ávila, teacher, renewer of the church, 1582 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 16 17 Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, martyr, c. 115 (Commemoration) R 18 Luke, Evangelist(R) 19 20 21 22 23 James of Jerusalem, brother of Jesus and martyr, c. 62 (Lesser Festival) R 24 25 Lydia, Dorcas (Tabitha), and Phoebe, faithful women (Commemoration) – LCMS 26 Philipp Nicolai, 1608; Johann Heermann, 1647; Paul Gerhardt, 1676; hymnwriters (Commemoration) W 27 28 Simon and Jude, Apostles(R) 29 30 31 Reformation Day (Lesser Festival) R November 1 All Saints' Day(W) 2 **Daniel Payne, teacher, 1893 (Commemoration) – ELCA 3 Martín de Porres, renewer of society, 1639 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 4 5 6 7 John Christian Frederick Heyer, 1873; Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg, 1719; Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen, 1918; missionaries (Commemoration) W – ELCA 8 Johann von Staupitz, priest, 1524 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 9 Martin Chemnitz, pastor and confessor, 1586 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 10 11 Martin of Tours, Bishop, 397 (W) Søren Aabye Kierkegaard, teacher, 1855 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 12 13 14 Emperor Justinian, confessor, emperor of New Rome, 565 (Commemoration) W – LCMS 15 16 17 Elizabeth, renewer of society, 1231 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 18 19 Elizabeth of Hungary, 1231 (W) – LCMS 20 21 22 23 Clement, bishop of Rome, c. 100 (Commemoration) W Miguel Agustín Pro, priest, martyr, 1927 (Commemoration) R – ELCA 24 Justus Falckner, 1723; Jehu Jones, 1852; William Passavant, 1894; pastors in North America (Commemoration) W – ELCA 25 Catherine of Alexandria, Martyr (R) - historic Isaac Watts, hymnwriter, 1748 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 26 27 28 29 Noah, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 30 Andrew, Apostle (R) December 1 2 Dorothy Kazel, Ita Ford, Maura Clarke and Jean Donovan, martyrs of El Salvador, 1980 (Commemoration) R - ELCA 3 Francis Xavier, missionary to Asia, 1552 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 4 John of Damascus, theologian and hymnwriter, c. 749 (Commemoration) W 5 6 Nicholas, bishop of Myra, c. 342 (Commemoration) W 7 Ambrose, bishop of Milan, 397 (Commemoration) W 8 9 10 11 12 13 Lucy, martyr, 304 (Commemoration) R 14 John of the Cross, renewer of the church, 1591 (Commemoration) W – ELCA 15 16 17 Daniel and the Three Young Men, prophets, (Commemoration) R – LCMS 18 19 Adam and Eve, patriarch and matriarch (Commemoration) W – LCMS 20 Katharina von Bora Luther, renewer of the church, 1552 (Commemoration) W 21 Thomas, Apostle(R) – LCMS 22 23 24 VIGIL OF THE NATIVITY OF OUR LORD (W) 25 NATIVITY OF OUR LORD (W) 26 Stephen, Deacon and Martyr (R) 27 John, Apostle and Evangelist (W) 28 The Holy Innocents, Martyrs (R) 29 Thomas of Canterbury, Martyr (R) - Historic David, prophet (Commemoration) R – LCMS 30 31 See also Moveable feast List of saints Liturgical calendar (Lutheran) References Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Evangelical Lutheran Worship - Final Draft. Augsburg Fortress Press, 2006. Lutheran liturgy and worship Lutheran Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod
4629580	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%20Horford	Al Horford	Alfred Joel Horford Reynoso (born June 3, 1986), nicknamed Big Al, is a Dominican-Bahamian professional basketball player for the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Horford is a five-time NBA All-Star and is the highest paid Latin American basketball player. Horford played college basketball for the Florida Gators and was the starting center on their back-to-back National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) national championships teams in 2006 and 2007. He was drafted with the third overall pick in the 2007 NBA draft by the Atlanta Hawks, a team he played nine seasons with before signing with the Celtics as a free agent in the 2016 off-season. After playing three seasons with the Celtics, Horford signed with the 76ers in the 2019 off-season and played a season with the team before being traded in the 2020 off-season to the Thunder. Prior to the 2021 season, Horford was traded to the Celtics, with whom he reached the NBA finals. Early years and high school career Horford was born in Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic. His father, Tito Horford, played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for three years and several more in other countries. In 2000, Horford and his family moved to Lansing, Michigan, where he attended Grand Ledge High School in Grand Ledge, Michigan, and was a star on its basketball team. Horford holds seven school records, including most career points (1,239). As a senior, Horford was named "Class A Player of the Year" after averaging 21 points, 13 rebounds and five blocks per game. While at Grand Ledge, Horford played AAU basketball for the Michigan Mustangs, who were runners-up in the Adidas Big Time National Tournament. Considered a four-star recruit by Rivals.com, Horford was listed as the No. 7 power forward and the No. 36 player in the nation in 2004. College career Horford accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida, choosing the Gators over Michigan, Michigan State, and Ohio State. There, he played for coach Billy Donovan and teamed up alongside Joakim Noah, Corey Brewer and Taurean Green. Horford made an immediate impact for the Gators in 2004–05, starting at center in the front court with David Lee, and helped the Gators win the 2005 Southeastern Conference tournament championship. The Gators surged through the 2005–06 season, winning the SEC championship for a second straight year. They entered the 2006 NCAA tournament as the No. 3 seed. The Gators swept through the first four rounds to reach the Final Four. There they defeated George Mason to reach the final. In the final, they defeated UCLA for the 2006 championship behind Horford's 14 points and seven rebounds. In December 2006, midway through his junior year, Horford missed a series of games due to injury. Coach Donovan held him out of a game against Stetson in hopes that he would be adequately healed for a game in Gainesville against the third-ranked Ohio State Buckeyes on December 23. The day before the game, Donovan announced that Horford would be unable to play, but Horford entered the game from the bench to guard Ohio State player Greg Oden, a highly touted 7'0" freshman. Oden scored just seven points, well below his season average of 15. Horford scored 11 points and added 11 rebounds in limited action, as the Gators defeated the Buckeyes. In the final home game of the season, on March 4, 2007, against Kentucky, Horford became the fourth player on his team to score 1,000 career points. He required 14 points during the game to reach the milestone, and scored exactly 14. On April 2, 2007, the Gators became the first team to repeat as national champions since the 1991–92 Duke Blue Devils, and the first ever to do so with the same starting lineup. They defeated Oden and Ohio State in a rematch from the regular season, 84–75. Three days later, Horford, Joakim Noah, Corey Brewer and Taurean Green all declared for the NBA draft. Professional basketball career Atlanta Hawks (2007–2016) All-Rookie honors (2007–2008) On June 28, 2007, Horford was selected by the Atlanta Hawks with the third overall pick in the 2007 NBA draft. On July 9, he signed his rookie scale contract with the Hawks. As a rookie in 2007–08, Horford was the only player unanimously selected to the NBA All-Rookie First Team; he was also runner-up for Rookie of the Year honors and was named Rookie of the Month on four occasions. Horford became the first Atlanta draftee to earn first team honors since Stacey Augmon in 1991–92. Horford averaged 10.1 points, 9.7 rebounds, 1.5 assists, 0.9 blocks, 0.7 steals and 31.4 minutes in 81 games (77 starts). The Hawks finished the regular season with a 37–45 record and entered the playoffs as the eighth seed in the Eastern Conference. In their first round match-up with the Boston Celtics, Horford helped the Hawks take the eventual champions to seven games, losing the series 4–3. In the series, Horford averaged 12.6 points and 10.4 rebounds per game. Back-to-back All-Star selections (2008–2011) In 2008–09, Horford started all 67 games he played in, averaging 11.5 points, 9.3 rebounds, 2.4 assists, 1.4 blocks and 0.8 steals in 33.5 minutes. With a 47–35 record, the Hawks entered the playoffs as the fourth seed in the East. Horford helped the Hawks advance to the second round where they were swept by the Cleveland Cavaliers; Horford missed Game 2 of the series due to injury. Horford had an outstanding season in 2009–10, becoming the first Hawks draft pick to earn an All-Star berth since Kevin Willis did so in 1992. Horford contributed 14.2 points, 9.9 rebounds, 2.3 assists, 1.1 blocks and 0.7 steals in 35.1 minutes (.551 FG%, .789 FT%), appearing in 81 games. He ranked eighth in the NBA in field goal percentage, 10th in rebounds, tied for ninth in offensive rebounds (2.9), and 26th in blocks. He had a team-leading 39 double-doubles, which was tied for 11th in the NBA. Playing alongside Mike Bibby, Jamal Crawford, Joe Johnson, Josh Smith and Marvin Williams, the Hawks entered the playoffs as the third seed in the East with a 53–29. However, the team failed to get past the second round for a second straight year, getting swept again, this time by the Orlando Magic. On November 1, 2010, Horford signed a five-year, $60 million contract extension with the Hawks. During the 2011 NBA All-Star Weekend, Horford was an All-Star for the second straight year, and he was also a member of the Atlanta team that won the Shooting Stars Competition. In 77 games in 2010–11, Horford posted averages of 15.3 points, 9.3 rebounds, 3.5 assists, 1.0 blocks and 0.8 steals (.557 FG%, .500 3FG%, .798 FT%). He ranked fifth in the NBA in field goal percentage, 28th in blocks and 16th in efficiency (22.5). Horford was also one of the top all-around rebounders in the league, finishing 11th in rebounds, seventh in defensive rebounds (7.0) and tied for 24th in offensive rebounds (2.4). He had 36 double-doubles (tied for ninth in NBA), including one 20/20 game. He was named Third-Team All-NBA. With a 44–38 record, the Hawks entered the playoffs as the fifth seed in the East. They made it through to the second round again, this time losing 4–2 to the Chicago Bulls. Injury-shortened season (2011–2012) Due to the 2011 NBA lockout, the 2011–12 season did not begin until December 25, 2011. Horford appeared in the Hawks' first 11 games of the season before missing the final 55 due to a torn left pectoral muscle, an injury suffered on January 11, 2012, against the Indiana Pacers. On January 17, he underwent surgery to repair the muscle and was ruled out for three-to-four months. With a 40–26 record, the Hawks entered the playoffs as the fifth seed in the East. Horford missed an additional three playoff games before returning to action in Game 4 of the Hawks' first round series against the Boston Celtics. He played out the series, a series the Hawks lost 4–2. Career-best season (2012–2013) In 2012–13, Horford started all 74 games he played in, averaging a career-high 17.4 points, career-high 10.2 rebounds, 3.2 assists, 1.1 blocks and career-high 1.1 steals in 37.2 minutes. He recorded 43 double-doubles (20 20-point/10-rebound games), including one in points and assists. Horford scored 20-plus points in nine consecutive games (February 11 – March 3) for the first time in his career. On November 26, 2012, Horford was named Eastern Conference Player of the Week for the first time in his career. On February 27, 2013, Horford scored a career-high 34 points in a 102–91 win over the Utah Jazz. With a 44–38 record, the Hawks entered the playoffs as the sixth seed in the East. In their first round match-up against the Indiana Pacers, the Hawks were defeated 4–2 despite a playoff career-high 16.7 points per game from Horford over the six games. Second injury-shortened season (2013–2014) Over the first 29 games of the 2013–14 season, Horford posted nine double-doubles and scored in double-figures 28 times, including 13 20-point outings and one 30-point game. Over this stretch, he averaged a career-best 18.6 points per game. However, another shoulder injury suffered on December 26, 2013, sidelined Horford for the rest of the season. Initially considered a "bruised right shoulder", the injury turned out to be a complete tear of his right pectoral muscle, and required season-ending surgery. Horford did not play in the postseason, where the Hawks lost in the first round to the Indiana Pacers. Return to All-Star form (2014–2016) In 2014–15, Horford played in 76 regular season games, the most since the 2010–11 season. On December 22, 2014, he was named Eastern Conference Player of the Week for games played Monday, December 15 through Sunday, December 21. Horford earned the award for just the second time in his career. On January 13, 2015, Horford recorded his first career triple-double with 21 points, 10 rebounds and 10 assists in a 105–87 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. Six days later, Horford was named Eastern Conference Player of the Week for games played Monday, January 12 through Sunday, January 18. On January 29, he earned his third All-Star nod as a reserve for the Eastern Conference in the 2015 NBA All-Star Game. In a brilliant stretch of play from December 7 to January 31, Horford scored in double digits in 28 consecutive games. Between December and January, the Hawks went 28–2 and had a franchise-best 19 game winning streak. Behind Horford and fellow All-Star teammates Paul Millsap, Kyle Korver and Jeff Teague, the Hawks finished the regular season with the best record in the East at 60–22, and advanced through to the Eastern Conference Finals for the first time since the 1960s, when the franchise was located in St. Louis. There, they were defeated by the Cleveland Cavaliers in four games. In 2015–16, Horford played in all 82 regular season games for the first time in his career. On November 11, 2015, Horford scored 26 points and made a career-high four three-pointers in a 106–98 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. On December 4, Horford scored 16 points against the Los Angeles Lakers to extend his streak of double-digit games to 22, setting a career high. Horford's streak came to an end at 23 after scoring nine points against the Oklahoma City Thunder in the Hawks' 24th game of the season on December 10. On February 12, 2016, Horford was named to replace the injured Chris Bosh on the 2016 Eastern Conference All-Star team, thus marking his fourth All-Star selection. On February 28, Horford recorded his 200th career double-double with 13 points and 16 rebounds in an 87–76 win over the Charlotte Hornets. With a 48–34 record, the Hawks entered the playoffs as the fourth seed in the East. They advanced through to the second round where they were swept by the Cavaliers for the second straight year. Boston Celtics (2016–2019) On July 1, 2016, Horford became an unrestricted free agent. The Hawks were optimistic they could reach a new deal with Horford, but after the team committed much of their salary cap to pick up Dwight Howard, it would have taken a max offer to land Horford. Horford signed a four-year, $113 million contract with the Boston Celtics on July 8, and said he was looking forward to working with Celtics head coach Brad Stevens and the rest of the team to bring a championship trophy back to Boston. Horford made his Celtics debut in their season opener on October 26, 2016, scoring 11 points in a 122–117 win over the Brooklyn Nets. Horford appeared in the team's first three games of the season, but then missed nine straight games with a concussion. He returned to action on November 19 and had 18 points and 11 rebounds in a 94–92 win over the Detroit Pistons. On March 19, 2017, Horford scored a season-high 27 points in a 105–99 loss to the Philadelphia 76ers. In Game 1 of the Celtics' second-round playoff series against the Washington Wizards, Horford nearly had a triple-double with 21 points, 10 rebounds and nine assists in a 123–111 win. The Celtics went on to reach the Eastern Conference Finals, where they were defeated 4–1 by the Cleveland Cavaliers. On November 12, 2017, Horford returned from a two-game absence with a concussion and scored 21 points on 8-of-9 shooting to help the Celtics hang on to beat the Toronto Raptors 95–94 for their 12th straight victory. On December 2, he recorded 14 points and a career-best 11 assists in a 116–111 win over the Phoenix Suns. Two days later, Horford recorded 20 points, nine rebounds and eight assists in a 111–100 win over the Milwaukee Bucks. On February 4, 2018, he made a 15-foot fadeaway jumper at the buzzer to lift the Celtics to a 97–96 win over the Portland Trail Blazers, finishing with 22 points and 10 rebounds. In Game 1 of the Celtics' first-round playoff series against the Bucks, Horford had 24 points and 12 rebounds in a 113–107 overtime win. In Game 7, Horford had 26 points and eight rebounds in a 112–96 win over the Bucks. The Celtics went on to reach the Eastern Conference Finals, where they were defeated in seven games by the Cavaliers. On October 19, 2018, Horford had 14 points, 10 rebounds and nine assists in a 113–101 loss to the Raptors. In December, he missed seven games with a sore left knee. On December 29, Horford scored 18 points with a career high-tying five three-pointers in a 112–103 win over the Memphis Grizzlies. On February 21, 2019, he recorded 21 points and a season-high 17 rebounds in a 98–97 loss to the Bucks. On April 1, Horford recorded his second career triple-double with 19 points, 11 rebounds, and 10 assists in a 110–105 win over the Miami Heat. Philadelphia 76ers (2019–2020) On July 10, 2019, Horford signed with the Philadelphia 76ers. An unrestricted free agent, Horford signed a four-year, $97 million (with $12 million in bonuses) contract. On October 23, Horford made his 76ers debut, recording 16 points, two rebounds and three assists in a 107–93 win over the Boston Celtics. On November 4, Horford scored a season-high 32 points, alongside five rebounds, four assists and two steals, in a 114–109 loss to the Phoenix Suns. The 76ers faced the Celtics during their first-round playoff series, but they were eliminated in a four-game sweep, with Horford only averaging 7.0 points per game. Oklahoma City Thunder (2020–2021) On December 8, 2020, Horford was traded, alongside a 2025 first-round pick and the draft rights to Théo Maledon and Vasilije Micić, to the Oklahoma City Thunder in exchange for Terrance Ferguson, Danny Green and Vincent Poirier. Horford's arrival came three months after his former college coach, Billy Donovan, departed the Thunder. Horford made his Thunder debut on December 26, recording three points, a season-high 13 rebounds and three assists in a 109–107 win over the Charlotte Hornets. On February 5, 2021, Horford scored a season-high 26 points, alongside seven rebounds, eight assists, two steals and three blocks, in a 106–103 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves. On March 27, the Thunder announced that Horford would sit out the rest of the season as the team prioritized developing its younger players. Return to the Celtics (2021–present) On June 18, 2021, Horford was traded, alongside Moses Brown and a 2023 second-round pick, to the Boston Celtics in exchange for Kemba Walker, the 16th overall pick in the 2021 NBA draft, and a 2025 second-round pick. On March 3, 2022, Horford helped the Celtics to a win over the Memphis Grizzlies, with a season-high 21 points and 15 rebounds. On May 7, 2022, in Game 3 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals, Horford scored 22 points along with 16 rebounds, five assists, two blocks and zero turnovers in a 103–101 loss against the reigning champion Milwaukee Bucks. Two days later, Horford scored a playoff career-high 30 points, along with eight rebounds on 11-of-14 shooting from the field and had a playoff career-high 5-of-7 shooting from three-point range in a 116–108 Game 4 win to tie the series at 2–2. On May 29, 2022, Horford reached the NBA Finals for the first time in his 15-year career when the Celtics defeated the Miami Heat in Game 7 of the Eastern Conference Finals, 100–96. Before doing so, Horford set a record for the most playoff games without a Finals appearance, with 141. Horford also became the first Dominican to reach the NBA Finals. In Game 1 of the Finals, Horford led the Celtics to a 120–108 win over the Golden State Warriors with 26 points and six rebounds. During the game, he hit six three-pointers, setting an NBA record for most threes made by a player in his Finals debut. The Celtics took a 2–1 series lead, but eventually lost in six games despite Horford's 19-point, 14-rebound outing in the 103–90 close-out loss in Game 6. On December 1, 2022, Horford signed a two-year, $20 million extension with the Celtics. National team career Horford has been a member of the Dominican Republic national team since 2008. In 2011, he won a bronze medal at the FIBA Americas Championship and earned All-Tournament Team honors. Horford was selected for the country's 30-man extended list ahead of the 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup. Career statistics NBA Regular season \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 81 \|\| 77 \|\| 31.4 \|\| .499 \|\| .000 \|\| .731 \|\| 9.7 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .7 \|\| .9 \|\| 10.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 67 \|\| 67 \|\| 33.5 \|\| .525 \|\| .000 \|\| .727 \|\| 9.3 \|\| 2.4 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 11.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 81 \|\| 81 \|\| 35.1 \|\| .551 \|\| 1.000 \|\| .789 \|\| 9.9 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .7 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 14.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 77 \|\| 77 \|\| 35.1 \|\| .557 \|\| .500 \|\| .798 \|\| 9.3 \|\| 3.5 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 15.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 11 \|\| 11 \|\| 31.6 \|\| .553 \|\| .000 \|\| .733 \|\| 7.0 \|\| 2.2 \|\| .9 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 12.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\| Atlanta \| 74 \|\| 74 \|\| 37.2 \|\| .543 \|\| .500 \|\| .644 \|\| 10.2 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 17.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 29 \|\| 29 \|\| 33.1 \|\| .567 \|\| .364 \|\| .682 \|\| 8.4 \|\| 2.6 \|\| .9 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 18.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 76 \|\| 76 \|\| 30.5 \|\| .538 \|\| .306 \|\| .759 \|\| 7.2 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .9 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 15.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 82* \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 82* \|\| 32.1 \|\| .505 \|\| .344 \|\| .798 \|\| 7.3 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 15.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 68 \|\| 68 \|\| 32.3 \|\| .473 \|\| .355 \|\| .800 \|\| 6.8 \|\| 5.0 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 14.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 72 \|\| 72 \|\| 31.6 \|\| .489 \|\| .429 \|\| .783 \|\| 7.4 \|\| 4.7 \|\| .6 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 12.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 68 \|\| 68 \|\| 29.0 \|\| .535 \|\| .360 \|\| .821 \|\| 6.7 \|\| 4.2 \|\| .9 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 13.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Philadelphia \| 67 \|\| 61 \|\| 30.2 \|\| .450 \|\| .350 \|\| .763 \|\| 6.8 \|\| 4.0 \|\| .8 \|\| .9 \|\| 11.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Oklahoma City \| 28 \|\| 28 \|\| 27.9 \|\| .450 \|\| .368 \|\| .818 \|\| 6.7 \|\| 3.4 \|\| .9 \|\| .9 \|\| 14.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 69 \|\| 69 \|\| 29.1 \|\| .467 \|\| .336 \|\| .842 \|\| 7.7 \|\| 3.4 \|\| .7 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 10.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 63 \|\| 63 \|\| 30.5 \|\| .476 \|\| .446 \|\| .714 \|\| 6.2 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .5 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 9.8 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 1,013 \|\| 1,003 \|\| 32.1 \|\| .513 \|\| .374 \|\| .759 \|\| 8.1 \|\| 3.3 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 13.4 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|All-Star \| 5 \|\| 0 \|\| 12.0 \|\| .667 \|\| .200 \|\| 1.000 \|\| 4.4 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .4 \|\| .4 \|\| 6.2 Playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2008 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 7 \|\| 7 \|\| 39.6 \|\| .472 \|\| \|\| .741 \|\| 10.4 \|\| 3.6 \|\| .4 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 12.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2009 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 28.0 \|\| .424 \|\| .000 \|\| .667 \|\| 5.8 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .7 \|\| .7 \|\| 6.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2010 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 11 \|\| 11 \|\| 35.3 \|\| .523 \|\| 1.000 \|\| .839 \|\| 9.0 \|\| 1.8 \|\| .7 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 14.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2011 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 12 \|\| 12 \|\| 39.0 \|\| .423 \|\| .000 \|\| .769 \|\| 9.6 \|\| 3.5 \|\| .4 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 11.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2012 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 3 \|\| 2 \|\| 36.0 \|\| .588 \|\| \|\| .750 \|\| 8.3 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 15.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2013 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 6 \|\| 6 \|\| 36.3 \|\| .494 \|\| \|\| .667 \|\| 8.8 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .8 \|\| 16.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2015 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 16 \|\| 16 \|\| 32.6 \|\| .507 \|\| .222 \|\| .750 \|\| 8.6 \|\| 3.7 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 14.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2016 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 10 \|\| 10 \|\| 32.7 \|\| .466 \|\| .393 \|\| .938 \|\| 6.5 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 13.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2017 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 18 \|\| 18 \|\| 33.9 \|\| .584 \|\| .519 \|\| .759 \|\| 6.6 \|\| 5.4 \|\| .8 \|\| .8 \|\| 15.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2018 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 19 \|\| 19 \|\| 35.7 \|\| .544 \|\| .349 \|\| .827 \|\| 8.3 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 15.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2019 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 34.4 \|\| .418 \|\| .409 \|\| .833 \|\| 9.0 \|\| 4.4 \|\| .4 \|\| .8 \|\| 13.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2020 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Philadelphia \| 4 \|\| 3 \|\| 32.0 \|\| .480 \|\| .000 \|\| .571 \|\| 7.3 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .3 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 7.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2022 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 23 \|\| 23 \|\| 35.4 \|\| .523 \|\| .480 \|\| .778 \|\| 9.3 \|\| 3.3 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 12.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2023 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 20 \|\| 20 \|\| 30.8 \|\| .386 \|\| .298 \|\| .750 \|\| 7.2 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 6.7 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 167 \|\| 165 \|\| 34.2 \|\| .495 \|\| .396 \|\| .778 \|\| 8.2 \|\| 3.4 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 12.5 College \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2004–05 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Florida \| 32 \|\| 25 \|\| 22.8 \|\| .480 \|\| \|\| .582 \|\| 6.5 \|\| .9 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 5.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2005–06 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Florida \| 39 \|\| 39 \|\| 25.9 \|\| .608 \|\| .000 \|\| .611 \|\| 7.6 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 11.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2006–07 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Florida \| 38 \|\| 36 \|\| 27.8 \|\| .608 \|\| .000 \|\| .644 \|\| 9.5 \|\| 2.2 \|\| .7 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 13.2 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2" \|Career \| 109 \|\| 100 \|\| 25.7 \|\| .586 \|\| .000 \|\| .619 \|\| 7.9 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .9 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 10.3 Personal life Horford's father, Tito Horford, also played basketball. Tito, whose father was a Bahamian immigrant, was recruited by Marian Christian High School in Houston and attended Louisiana State and Miami before being drafted in the second round of the 1988 NBA draft. Tito played three years in the NBA and several more overseas. His uncle, Kelly Horford, played at Florida Atlantic University in the early 1990s, while his brother, Jon Horford, played at Michigan and Florida. Horford also has two sisters and three younger brothers. Horford married 2003 Miss Universe Amelia Vega in Santo Domingo on December 24, 2011. Horford and Vega have five children together. Horford is a member of the Church of God Ministry of Jesus Christ International. See also List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders List of second-generation National Basketball Association players Dominican-Americans in Boston References External links Florida Gators bio 1986 births Living people Afro-Dominican (Dominican Republic) All-American college men's basketball players Atlanta Hawks draft picks Atlanta Hawks players Boston Celtics players Centers (basketball) Dominican Republic men's basketball players Dominican Republic people of Bahamian descent Florida Gators men's basketball players Members of the Church of God Ministry of Jesus Christ International National Basketball Association All-Stars National Basketball Association players from the Dominican Republic Oklahoma City Thunder players People from Grand Ledge, Michigan People from Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic Philadelphia 76ers players Power forwards (basketball) Basketball players from Lansing, Michigan
4629650	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation%20of%20United%20Kingdom%20legislation	Citation of United Kingdom legislation	Citation of United Kingdom legislation includes the systems used for legislation passed by devolved parliaments and assemblies, for secondary legislation, and for prerogative instruments. It is relatively complex both due to the different sources of legislation in the United Kingdom, and because of the different histories of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom. Citation of primary legislation as a whole Each piece of legislation passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom ("Westminster") is known as an Act of Parliament. Each modern Act of Parliament has a title (also known as a "long title") and a short title. A short title provides a convenient name for referring to an individual Act, such as "Jamaica Independence Act 1962". The long title is more comprehensive in scope, providing a sometimes very detailed description of the Act's provisions that is too unwieldy for convenient citation; for example, the long title of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 is around 400 words. Acts are today split between three series, public general Acts, local Acts, and personal Acts, and cited accordingly. Each Act within each series is numbered sequentially with a chapter number, identifying it as a chapter of the (notional) statute book. Since 1 January 1963, chapter numbers in each series are organised by calendar year. The first public general Act passed in a year is "c. 1", the second is "c. 2", and so on; the first local Act of a year is "c. i", the second is "c. ii", and so on; while the first personal Act of a year is "c. 1", the second is "c. 2", and so on (note the use of italics). Chapter numbers for Acts passed before the Acts of Parliament Numbering and Citation Act 1962 are not by calendar year, but instead by the year(s) of the reign during which the relevant parliamentary session was held; thus the Jamaica Independence Act 1962 is cited as "10 & 11 Eliz. 2. c. 40", meaning the 40th Act passed during the session that started in the 10th year of the reign of Elizabeth II and which finished in the 11th year of that reign. The regnal numeral – the 2 of Eliz. 2 – is an Arabic rather than a Roman numeral, although historically this was not the case. Earlier practice was to specify the parliamentary session by the year in which it started only – and sometimes to date its Acts accordingly. So, for example, the Adventurers' Act was passed by the session 16 Cha. 1 in 1642 and is cited as 16 Cha. 1. c. 33. That session began in 1640. In consequence the Act is often referred to as the Adventurers' Act 1640: despite being passed in response to events in 1641. Short titles were only introduced in the middle of the nineteenth century, and it was only by the late 1890s that every individual Act of Parliament had one. Some earlier Acts that originally lacked a short title were given one by later legislation, most notably by the Short Titles Act 1896; also, since the independence of the Irish state in 1922, an Act may have a different short title in the United Kingdom and in the Republic of Ireland because of the different legislation passed in the two states. Older Acts may also have a "conventional" short title, such as "Crewe's Act". Historic legislation The Parliament of the United Kingdom came into being on 1 January 1801; before that date, legislation was passed either by the Parliament of Great Britain or the Parliament of Ireland. Similarly, the Parliament of Great Britain came into being on 1 May 1707 (OS); before that date, legislation was passed either by the Parliament of England or the Parliament of Scotland. Acts passed by each of these parliaments, except for the Parliament of Scotland, are cited in the same way as pre-1963 Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom; i.e., by parliamentary session and chapter number. Acts passed by the Parliament of Scotland are cited by calendar year and chapter number. Acts of the last session of the Parliament of Great Britain and the first session of the Parliament of the United Kingdom are both cited as "41 Geo. 3". The numbering runs straight through, effectively merging the sessions: that is, the numbers for the Parliament of Great Britain's Acts continue unbroken from the numbers for the Parliament of England's. Some individual Acts from these parliaments have more than one citation, depending on the edition in which the Act is printed. Modern practice for the Parliaments of England and Great Britain is to follow the citations used in The Statutes of the Realm, while for Scotland the citations used are those in The Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland (both of which are considered legally authoritative). These latter citations are also used in the official Chronological Table of the Statutes. Only a small number of Acts passed by these parliaments have been given a short title by later legislation. Primary legislation passed by devolved bodies All legislation passed by the various devolved parliaments and assemblies has both a short title and a long title. Parliament of Northern Ireland (1921 to 1972) Each piece of legislation passed by the former Parliament of Northern Ireland (Stormont) was also known as an Act of Parliament. The system of citation of Northern Ireland Acts of Parliament is almost identical to that for the Westminster Parliament, except that the change to numbering by calendar year happened earlier (starting in 1943), and that Northern Ireland Acts are cited in Westminster legislation with "(N.I.)" appended to the chapter number. There is a difference in naming convention between Acts passed in Northern Ireland and Acts passed at Westminster but relating to Northern Ireland. Thus, the Criminal Evidence Act (Northern Ireland) 1923 is an Act passed at Stormont, but the Criminal Appeal (Northern Ireland) Act 1930 is an Act passed at Westminster (note the different placement of "(Northern Ireland)" in the two). Northern Ireland Assembly (since 1999) Acts passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly are cited by calendar year and chapter number. Scottish Parliament (since 1999) Each Act of the Scottish Parliament is cited by calendar year and the acronymic "asp" number ; e.g., the Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000 is "2000 asp 5". National Assembly for Wales (since 1999) Measures of the National Assembly for Wales (2003–2011) are cited by calendar year and the acronymic "nawm" number; e.g., the Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 is "2011 nawm 1" ("" in Welsh). Acts of the National Assembly for Wales (2012–2020) are cited by calendar year and acronymic "anaw" number; e.g. the National Assembly for Wales (Official Languages) Act 2012 is "2012 anaw 1" ("" in Welsh). Acts of the Senedd Cymru (2020–) are cited by calendar year and acronymic "asc" number; e.g. the Wild Animals and Circuses (Wales) Act 2020 is "2020 asc 2" ("" in Welsh). Church of England legislation (since 1920) Measures passed by the General Synod of the Church of England (formerly the Church Assembly) follow the numbering conventions used for Westminster legislation, except that each Measure has a "Number" rather than a chapter number. For example, the New Parishes Measure 1943 is cited as "6 & 7 Geo. 6 No. 1". Citation of secondary legislation as a whole With the exception of Northern Ireland secondary legislation, each piece of secondary legislation made in the United Kingdom since 1948 has been numbered as a Statutory Instrument (or SI). Most individual SIs have what is generally referred to as a "short title" (despite none having a "long title"). Each SI is centrally registered and issued with a number; the numbering resumes from "1" at the start of each calendar year. Thus, the Northern Ireland Negotiations (Referendum) Order 1998 is cited as "SI 1998 No. 1126", or more simply as "SI 1998/1126". Commencement orders are also numbered separately as part of a "C." sub-series; this number is appended to the main number. Statutory Instruments relating to Scotland were similarly numbered as part of an "S." sub-series until the series of Scottish Statutory Instruments began (for which, see below). The system for Statutory Rules and Orders in place from 1894 to 1947 was less comprehensive. However, those instruments centrally registered and issued with a number follow the same pattern; thus the Trinidad and Tobago (Constitution) Order in Council 1950 is numbered as "SI 1950 No. 510". The annual volumes of SIs before 1961, and all those for SR&Os, were organised by subject matter rather than by instrument number. This means that these instruments should ideally be cited by both number and page reference; thus the full citation for the Trinidad and Tobago (Constitution) Order in Council 1950 would be "SI 1950 No. 510 (SI 1950 Vol. II p. 1156)". Some prerogative instruments are also printed in appendices to the annual volumes of SIs. These instruments are not numbered, and are thus cited by page number only; e.g., the Fiji (Appeal to Privy Council) Order in Council 1950 is cited as "SI 1950 Vol. II p. 1555". Older secondary legislation frequently lacks a short title. An example of an incorrect citation as a result of this can be found in regulation 3 of the Cremation (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (SI 2006/92). Reference is made to "the Regulations as to Cremation (1930)", but the Joint Committee on Statutory Instruments, the body which oversees SI drafting, noted that the correct way to cite these regulations would have been, "the Regulations made by the Secretary of State under section 7 of the Cremation Act 1902 and section 10 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1926 and dated 28th October 1930". This longer form of citation was used when the 1930 regulations were revoked by schedule 2 to the Cremation (England and Wales) Regulations 2008 (SI 2008/2841). Scottish Statutory Instruments A statutory instrument made by the Scottish Government is called a Scottish Statutory Instrument (or SSI). Each of these is separately numbered, with the numbering resuming from "No. 1" at the start of each calendar year; thus the Radioactive Substances Exemption (Scotland) Order 2011 is cited as "SSI 2011 No. 147", or more simply as SSI 2011/147. Acts of Sederunt made by the Court of Session or Acts of Adjournal made by the High Court of Justiciary are numbered as Scottish Statutory Instruments. Welsh Statutory Instruments A statutory instrument made by the Welsh Government is called a Wales Statutory Instrument. Each of these is numbered as part of the sequence of UK SIs but is also numbered separately as part of a "W." series, with the numbering resuming from "W. 1" at the start of each calendar year. Thus, the Isle of Anglesey (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2012 is cited as "SI 2012 No. 2676 (W. 290)" (" in Welsh). Statutory Instruments relating to Northern Ireland Statutory instruments made by Order in Council as primary legislation for Northern Ireland are numbered as part of the main UK series of SIs, but are also numbered separately as part of an "NI" series, with the numbering resuming from "NI 1" at the start of each calendar year. Legislation passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly cites these instruments by the "NI" number only. Secondary legislation made by the Northern Ireland Executive is numbered sequentially as part of the Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland, with the numbering resuming from "No. 1" at the start of each calendar year. The numbering mirrors that used for the UK's main series of SIs; thus the Prohibition of Traffic (Ardoyne, Belfast) Order (Northern Ireland) 2011 is cited as "SR 2011 No. 270". Previously this type of secondary legislation was numbered as "Statutory Rules and Orders (Northern Ireland)". Citation of specific provisions within an Act or other instrument Primary legislation Each distinct "enactment" within an Act of Parliament is called a section (abbreviated "s.", plural "ss."). Each section has a distinct number, in continual sequence from "s. 1" (section one) onwards. If a section is subdivided or has subordinate elements, then these are known as subsections, each of which has a bracketed number; e.g., "s. 1(4)" is subsection 4 of section 1. Subsections are subdivided in turn into paragraphs, which are identified by an italicised letter; e.g., "s. 1(4)(c)". Subparagraphs are identified with lower-case Roman numerals; e.g., "s. 1(4)(c)(viii)". The section sign is not used in citation. In schedules to an Act of Parliament, each distinct numbered element is called a paragraph (abbreviated "para."), which is subdivided in turn into subparagraphs. The sections within a lengthy or complex Act are sometimes grouped together for convenience to form a Part. A "Part" may in turn be subdivided into "chapters". Other groupings are occasionally found as well. When an amendment to an Act requires the insertion of a new section part of the way through a numerical sequence, then sequential capital letters are used following the appropriate number; thus, a new section inserted between s. 1 and s. 2 will be numbered "s. 1A". The terminology for the structure of Acts and Measures of the devolved parliaments and assemblies follows that used for Westminster legislation. Parliamentary Bills During its passage through the Westminster Parliament, each proposed enactment forming part of a Bill is known as a clause, rather than as a section. For Scottish legislation, the term "section" is used for Bills as for Acts of the Scottish Parliament. Secondary legislation The terminology used for the equivalent in secondary legislation of sections of an Act of Parliament depends upon the particular type of instrument; however, the numbering system follows the same pattern. A comparison of terms and abbreviations is shown in the table below. Comparative table The naming and citation of provisions included in a schedule is the same across all forms of legislation as the system used for Westminster legislation, and has therefore been omitted from this table. Interpretation of citations by year, statute, session, chapter, number or letter Section 19(1) of the Interpretation Act 1978 provides: Section 19(1)(b) refers to the edition commonly known as The Statutes of the Realm. See also Numbering of bills Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities ("OSCOLA") The Bluebook, for American citations References Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities. Fourth Edition. Hart Publishing. 2012. George Chowdharay-Best, "The Citation of Acts of Parliament" (2000) 21 Statute Law Review 126 to 141. OUP. C T Carr. "Citation of Statutes: The Mansfield Park Standard". Cambridge Legal Essays. W Heffer & Sons. 1926. Pages 71 to 81. Google Carr. "The Present Method of Citation of Statutes". Reviewed at (1926) 45 Law Notes 124. B, "Correct Mode of Describing a Statute" (1842) 6(2) The Jurist 111 (No 273, 2 April 1842). Owen Hood Phillips. "Citation" in "Statutes". A First Book of English Law. Fourth Edition. Sweet & Maxwell Limited. New Fetter Lane, London. 1960. Pages 98 to 101. Theodore F T Plucknett. "The Citation of Statutes". A Concise History of the Common Law. Fifth Edition. 1956. Reprinted. Lawbook Exchange. 2001. Pages 326 and 327. See further page 423. Craies and Hardcastle. "Citation". Treatise on the Construction and Effect of Statute Law. 2nd Ed. 1892. Chapter 3. Section 6. Pages 57 to 61. Dane and Thomas. "Citation of Statutes". How to Use a Law Library. 2nd Ed. Sweet & Maxwell. 1979. Section 3-3. Page 44 et seq. Moys. "Citation of statutes". Manual of Law Librarianship. 2nd Ed. 1987. p 97. Colquhoun. "Citation of Statutes". Finding the Law: A Handbook for Scots Lawyers. T & T Clark. 1999. Chapter 5.3. Page 52. Google "Proof and Citation of Statutes". Halsbury's Laws of England. 3rd Ed. 1952. Volume 36. Section 5. Page 379 et seq. Halsbury's Statutes of England. 2nd Ed. 1950. Vol 17. p 186. Cairns, Pugh and Mustoe; assisted by Holland. "Citation" in "Statutes". Chitty (ed). The English and Empire Digest. Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Limited. London. 1929. Volume 42. Part 10. Section 2. Page 779. Numbers 2090 to 2093. (1927) 163 The Law Times 568 (25 June 1927) Cheney (ed). A Handbook of Dates: For Students of British History. New Edition. Revised by Jones. Cambridge University Press. 2000. Pages 107 to 109. [Citation of statutes by date, session and chapter]. Byron D Cooper, "Anglo-American Legal Citation: Historical Development and Library Implications" (1982) 75 Law Library Journal 3 at 6, 7, 9, 14, 16, 17 and 28. Maurer School of Law. Edgar Stewart Fay. Discoveries in the Statute-Book. Sweet & Maxwell. 1939. pp 62 & 63. [Hanged by a Comma: The Discovery of the Statute Book. Lovat Dixon. 1937.] Glanville William. "Statutes". Learning the Law. 1st Ed. Stevens. 1945. pp 30 & 32. Derek J Way. The Student's Guide to Law Libraries. Oyez Publications. 1967. Pages 15 to 17. D J Way, "The Lawyer in the Library: A Short Account of English Legal Literature" (1961) 63 Library Association Record 236 at 237 (No 7, July 1961) "Books of the Month" (1964) 9 The Journal of the Law Society of Scotland 181 Peter Meijes Tiersma. Parchment, Paper, Pixels: Law and the Technologies of Communication. University of Chicago Press. 2010. Page 155. [Medieval citation]. Peter Butt. "Citation of Legislation". The Lawyer's Style Guide: A Student and Practitioner Guide. Hart Publishing. 2021. Pages 131 to 133. Webb, Maughan, Maughan, Keppel-Palmer and Boon. "Citing Legislation". Lawyers' Skills. Oxford University Press. 20th Ed. 2015. Section 5.8.1.1. pp 90 & 91. 21st Ed. 2017. pp 90 & 91. Elkington, Holtam, Shield and Verlander. "How do I cite Legislation?". Skills for Lawyers 2021/2022. CLP Legal Practice Guides. Section 6.2. Hanson, Kliem and Waters. "How to understand citations for domestic legislation". Learning Legal Skills and Reasoning. 5th Ed. Routledge. 2022. Askey and McLeod. "Citing statutes". Studying Law. Macmillan Study Skills. Red Globe Press. 2014. 2019. pp 92 & 93. Denman. "Citing Statutes". A Digest of the Law, Practice and Procedure Relating to Indictable Offences. Sweet and Maxwell. 1912. pp 108 & 109. Watt and Johns. Concise Legal Research. 6th Ed. Federation Press. 2009. Chapter 1. Section 5(d). p 24. Woods, G D. "A Note on Citations of Statutes". A History of Criminal Law in New South Wales: The Colonial Period, 1788-1900. Federation Press. 2002. p xiii. "2.0 Legislation" in "United Kingdom". Guide to Foreign and International Legal Citation. 2nd Ed. Aspen Publsihing. 2009. External links Screencast introduction to OSCOLA Legal citation Law of the United Kingdom
4629685	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby%20union%20in%20Ireland	Rugby union in Ireland	Rugby union () is a popular team sport on the island of Ireland, organised on an all-Ireland basis, including players and teams from both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Its governing body, the Irish Rugby Football Union (IRFU), was founded in 1879, making it the third oldest rugby union in the world after the RFU (England) and the SRU (Scotland). The Ireland national team is currently third in the World Rugby Rankings, and has won the Six Nations Championship (and its predecessor competitions) fifteen times, including four Grand Slams, the most recent being a Grand Slam in 2023. Ireland has four professional provincial teams, Leinster, Munster, Ulster and Connacht, who compete in the United Rugby Championship, the European Rugby Champions Cup and the EPCR Challenge Cup. Munster are the reigning champions of the 2022–23 United Rugby Championship. Fifty club sides compete in the five divisions of the All-Ireland League, of which Terenure College RFC are the current champions. Governing body The Irish Rugby Football union was formed in 1879, after the merger of the Irish Football Union, which controlled rugby in Leinster, Munster and parts of Ulster, and the Northern Football Union of Ireland, which controlled in the game in the Belfast area. As part of this amalgamation, the IRFU established three provincial branches to run the game in Leinster, Munster and Ulster; a fourth branch was founded for Connacht in 1885. The IRFU was a founding member of the International Rugby Board (now called World Rugby) in 1986. Despite the partition of Ireland in 1921, the IRFU continues to run the game on an all-island basis. International rugby The Ireland national team represents the whole Island of Ireland, selecting players from both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Its first international match was a 7-0 defeat by England in 1875. Since 1995 the Ireland national team has been fully professional. They play their home games at the Aviva Stadium in Dublin. They compete in the annual Six Nations Championship, the four-yearly Rugby World Cup, and various mid-year and autumn international matches. The national team has won several Triple Crowns and three Grand Slams and is able to play at a competitive level with the world's rugby giants, having beaten all including New Zealand in the last five years. Development teams As with all top-tier rugby nations, and many lower-tier countries, Ireland field an "A" national side, a second-level national selection primarily intended to develop younger talent for possible future duty on the senior national team. Since February 2010, the IRFU have rebranded the A side as Ireland Wolfhounds. The Wolfhounds generally play "A" teams of the other major European powers and senior sides of lower-tier nations. Ireland also field an occasional development team, Emerging Ireland, used to try out promising young players. The Ireland national under-20 rugby union team competes in the annual Six Nations Under 20s Championship and World Rugby U20 Championship tournaments. The Ireland national schoolboy rugby union team competes in the Rugby Europe Under-18 Championship. IQ Rugby (formerly the Irish Exiles) is a development programme to identify potential Ireland players from the Irish diaspora. Ireland Sevens The Ireland national rugby sevens team competes in the World Rugby Sevens Series and the Rugby World Cup Sevens. Unlike the national team, sevens players are not selected from the provincial teams, although some go on to play for the provincial teams. Ireland Women The Irish Women's Rugby Football Union (IWRFU) was founded in 1991, and the Ireland women's national rugby union team made their international debut in 1993. The IWRFU became affiliated to the IRFU in 2001, and was incorporated into the IRFU in 2008. The Ireland women's team have competed in the Women's Rugby World Cup since its second edition in 1994, and the Women's Six Nations Championship (and its predecessor competitions) since 1996. Ireland hosted the 2017 Women's Rugby World Cup, and lost to Wales 17–27 in the eighth place play off. Provincial rugby The four branches of the IRFU each organise a provincial team: Leinster, based at the RDS Arena in Dublin; Munster, based at Thomond Park in Limerick; Ulster, based at Ravenhill in Belfast; and Connacht, based at the Sportsgrounds in Galway. In the amateur era, they were representative teams, selected from the best club players in the province, and competed in the annual IRFU Interprovincial Championship, as well as playing against international touring teams. After rugby union was declared open to professionalism in 1995, they were developed into professional teams. Today, they compete in the United Rugby Championship (URC) alongside teams from Scotland, Wales, Italy and South Africa, and the European Rugby Champions Cup and EPCR Challenge Cup, which also include teams from France and England. All four provinces have been champions of the URC (or its predecessor competitions), Leinster eight times, most recently in 2021; Munster four times, most recently in 2023; Ulster once in 2006; and Connacht once in 2016. Leinster have won the Champions Cup four times, most recently in 2018; Munster twice, most recently in 2008; and Ulster once in 1999. Leinster have won the Challenge Cup once, in 2012. To encourage the development of Irish talent, the provinces are allowed only three non-Irish-qualified players in their squads. Each province has an academy programme to develop young players from local schools and clubs to professional level. Regular internationals are signed on central contracts to the IRFU, meaning that they, and not the provinces, control when the players play and when they rest. Each province also has a women's team which competes in the annual IRFU Women's Interprovincial Series. Club rugby Since 1990, the top club sides in Ireland have competed in the All-Ireland League. It originally featured nineteen clubs in two divisions, and currently has fifty clubs in five divisions, 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B and 2C, with promotion and relegation between them. The bottom team in Division 2C is relegated to their province's Junior League. Playoffs are held between the winners of the four provincial Junior Leagues to decide who will replace them. The Bateman Cup is played for annually by the winners of the provincial Senior Cups. The Women's All-Ireland League was founded in 1992 has one division containing nine clubs. The provincial branches each organise a pyramid of league and cup competitions for both men's and women's teams. Schools rugby Each province has a senior schools' tournament: the Leinster Schools Rugby Senior Cup; the Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup; the Ulster Schools' Cup; and the Connacht Schools Rugby Senior Cup; and an under-15 tournament: the Leinster Schools Junior Cup; the Munster Schools Junior Cup; the Ulster Medallion Shield; and the Connacht Schools Junior Cup. Demographics Playing numbers The last report on the number of players playing rugby union conducted by World Rugby in 2019 showed 79,000 registered players (ie those registered with clubs, including the 21,000 adult players) and an overall total of 196,000, incorporating women’ players, schools, sevens etc. Stadiums and attendance The professional era and the advent of the competitions now known as United Rugby Championship and the European Rugby Champions Cup have seen rugby union become a major spectator sport in Ireland. European Cup games are generally well supported in all the provinces, with sellouts the norm and massive crowds in Dublin's Lansdowne Road for quarterfinal and semifinal matches. Ulster, Munster and Leinster have all won the Heineken Cup. In the past Ulster led the then-Celtic League attendances for 3 years in the row and Connacht, Munster and Leinster's crowds have grown year on year and with the later two setting new world records for province/club attendance. Munster extensively renovated and expanded their traditional home of Thomond Park in a project that was completed in 2008. The Royal Dublin Society expanded their RDS Arena in the same time period, which prompted Leinster to make it their primary home while they were planning to expand their own traditional ground at Donnybrook. After the Donnybrook plans fell through, Leinster chose to remain at the RDS and in 2023 Leinster embarked on renovation plans to increase the capacity of the arena. Connacht completed ground expansion and renovation works in time for the 2011/2012 season with the construction of the Clan Terrace. And in 2014, Ulster completed the complete reconstruction of Ravenhill Stadium into a modern 18,000 capacity stadium. Munster are currently in the process of construing a new stand at their secondary home of Musgrave Park. Before the opening of Aviva Stadium, Ireland international games sold out against all but the weakest opposition, and with the team playing at Croke Park during the reconstruction of Lansdowne Road, attendances regularly topped 80,000. However, the Aviva saw disappointing attendance during its first Tests in 2010, with no match selling out; media reports indicated that this was largely due to an IRFU ticketing strategy that made little sense in an uncertain economy. More recent Tests have seen crowds much closer to capacity, including sellouts or near-sellouts for all of Ireland's Six Nations home fixtures. History Early years Rugby clubs started to appear in Ireland in the mid-19th century. Dublin University Football Club was in existence by 1855, giving it a strong claim to being the world's oldest extant football club of any code. Other early clubs still in existence include Wanderers (founded 1869), Queen's University (1869), Lansdowne (1873), Dungannon (1873) and University College Cork (1874). Ballinasloe, founded in 1875, merged with Athlone in 1994 to form Buccaneers; North of Ireland, founded in 1868, merged with Collegians in 1999 to form Belfast Harlequins. The Irish Football Union was founded to govern the game in Leinster, Munster and parts of Ulster in December 1874. The Northern Football Union of Ireland was founded in January 1875, and controlled the game in the Belfast area The two unions amalgamated to form the IRFU in 1879, but not before the first interprovincial match, between Ulster and Leinster, and Ireland's first international match against England, both in 1875. Ireland played their home games at Lansdowne Road in Dublin from 1878. The earliest competitions include the Ulster Schools' Cup, first held in 1876, and the Dublin Hospitals Rugby Cup, first held in 1881. The amateur era Club rugby The Leinster Challenge Cup, later known as the Leinster Senior Cup, was first played in 1882, won by Dublin University. Senior Cup competitions followed in the other provinces: the Ulster Senior Cup was first won by North of Ireland in 1885; the Munster Senior Cup was first won by Bandon in 1886; and the Connacht Senior Cup was first won by Galway Town in 1896. Ulster was the first province to establish a provincial league, the Ulster Senior League, first won by Queen's in 1891. The Munster Senior League followed, first won by Garryowen in 1903; the Connacht Senior League was first won by Galwegians in 1926; the Leinster Senior League was not founded until 1971, and was first won by St. Mary's College in 1972. The All-Ireland League, featuring clubs from all four provinces, was founded in 1990, and was first won by Cork Constitution. Provincial rugby The IRFU Interprovincial Championship, between the provincial representative teams of Ulster, Leinster, Munster and Connacht, was first played in 1946, with Ulster being the first champions. International rugby The Home Nations Championship, ancestor of today's Six Nations Championship, was first played in 1883, between the Ireland, England, Scotland and Wales national teams. It became the Five Nations Championship in 1910 with the addition of France. Ireland first won the competition in 1926, jointly with Scotland. Their first outright win, and Grand Slam, came in 1948. The Rugby World Cup was first held in 1987; Ireland were knocked out by Australia in the quarter-finals. In the 1991 Rugby World Cup, they again went out to Australia in the quarter-finals. In the final World Cup of the amateur era in 1995 they were knocked out in the quarter-finals once more, this time by France. Ireland's most capped players of the amateur era include North of Ireland centre Mike Gibson (69), Ballymena lock Willie John McBride (63), Blackrock flanker Fergus Slattery (61), Dungannon lock Paddy Johns (59), and Old Wesley prop Philip Orr (58). Dublin University centre Brendan Mullin is Ireland's top try scorer of the amateur era with 17; Dolphin centre Michael Kiernan is top points scorer with 308. The professional era On 26 August 1995, rugby union was declared open to professionalism by the International Rugby Board. The IRFU had been opposed to this, and rugby in Ireland was poorly prepared for professionalism. Amid fears that Irish players could be signed up by English clubs, they began by offering contracts to international players. Provincial rugby The Heineken Cup, now known as the European Rugby Champions Cup, was launched the same year. Ireland was given three places, and rather than enter clubs, the IRFU entered three of the four provincial teams, Munster, Ulster and Leinster. This led to the development of the provincial sides as professional teams, starting with match fees, and later contracts for provincial players. Ulster won the competition in 1999. Munster have won it twice, in 2006 and 2008, and Leinster four times, in 2009, 2011, 2012 (defeating Ulster), and 2018. In addition, Leinster won the European Challenge Cup in 2013 after having parachuted in from that season's Heineken Cup. The Celtic League, featuring all four Irish provinces alongside teams from Scotland and Wales, was launched in 2001. The IRFU Interprovincial Championship was discontinued. The League expanded to a 22-match schedule in 2003, and for the first time the Irish provinces could operate as full-time professional teams, with players only rarely able to play for their clubs. The competition was renamed the Pro12 in 2011 with the addition of two teams from Italy; the Pro14 in 2017 with the addition of two teams from South Africa; and the United Rugby Championship in 2021 with the incorporation of four South African teams. Irish provinces have won the competition fourteen times in 22 seasons, and all four provinces have won it at least once. Leinster won the league in 2002, 2008, 2013, 2014 and 2018; Munster won in 2003, 2009, 2011 and 2023; Ulster won it in 2006; and Connacht won it in 2016. International rugby The Five Nations became the Six Nations Championship in 2000 with the addition of Italy. Ireland's first win of the professional era came with a Grand Slam in 2009. They won it again in 2014, 2015, 2018 and 2023 (the last two also being Grand Slams). They went out in the quarter-finals of the World Cup in 1999 (to Argentina); 2003 (to France); at the group stage in 2007; and in the quarter-finals in 2011 (to Wales), 2015 (to Argentina), and 2019 (to New Zealand). After a victorious tour of New Zealand in 2022, Ireland go into the 2023 Rugby World Cup as one of the favourites. The old Lansdowne Road stadium was demolished in 2007, and the new Aviva Stadium, built on the same site, opened in 2010. In the meantime, home internationals were played at the Gaelic Athletic Association's stadium, Croke Park. Ireland's most-capped players of the professional era include Leinster centre Brian O'Driscoll (133), Munster out-half Ronan O'Gara (128), Leinster prop Cian Healy (125), Ulster hooker Rory Best (123) and Leinster out-half Johnny Sexton (116). O'Driscoll is Ireland's record try scorer with 46; Sexton is their leading points scorer with 1095. Irish society and politics Although rugby has traditionally been associated with the more anglophile elements of Irish society, it has not been without its following in the nationalist and republican communities. For example, the longest serving taoiseach, Éamon de Valera was a former player, and lifetime fan of the game. At the age of sixteen, De Valera won a scholarship to Blackrock College, County Dublin. It was at Blackrock College that de Valera began playing rugby. Later during his tenure at Rockwell College, he joined the school's rugby team where he played fullback on the first team, which reached the final of the Munster Senior Cup. De Valera was a close friend of the Ryan brothers at Rockwell who played on Ireland's Triple Crown-winning team in 1899. De Valera remained a lifelong devotee of rugby, attending numerous international matches up to and towards the end of his life despite near blindness. Other notable politicians, from very different backgrounds, who have played rugby for Ireland include Tyrone Howe (a former Unionist Party councillor), Trevor Ringland (a Unionist Parliamentary candidate) and Dick Spring (former Tánaiste and Labour Party TD). Nowadays, rugby is played by both nationalists and unionists. Historically, it tended to be popular with different social groups in different parts of Ireland, although generally speaking it is regarded as a middle-class sport in Ireland and further afield. In Limerick city, it is enjoyed across the social spectrum, while in Leinster and Cork City it remains very much a middle-class game. Rugby traditionally isn't as prevalent in Connacht, although it is less defined there by social class. In Northern Ireland it is traditionally played in mainly-middle-class Protestant grammar schools. The changing climate in Northern Ireland politics has altered this perceived tradition with the introduction of rugby into an increasing number of Roman Catholic grammar and secondary schools which were previously exclusively associated with Gaelic games. Rugby and the GAA During the late 19th century, in response to the perceived encroachment of English sports, including rugby, Irish nationalist Michael Cusack set up the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). Rule 42 of the GAA's Official Guide prohibited the playing of non-Gaelic games in GAA stadiums, including rugby until it was lifted in 2007. However, the rule was relaxed while Lansdowne Road was being redeveloped, and rugby was played in Croke Park including a match between Leinster and Munster that broke the club rugby attendance record; see List of non-Gaelic games played in Croke Park for exceptions to this rule. The first game to take place under the relaxed Rule 42 took place on 11 February 2007. It was a Six Nations Championship rugby match between Ireland and France which Ireland lost 17–20. The following match against England generated some controversy, since it involved the playing of God Save the Queen at a ground where British soldiers had killed fourteen spectators on Bloody Sunday, 1920. There was a small protest by Republican Sinn Féin outside the ground which included a man holding a sign saying No to foreign games while ironically wearing a Celtic FC tracksuit. A Heinkeen Cup semi-final was played in Croke Park on 2 May 2009, when Leinster defeated Munster 25–6. The attendance of 82,208 set a new world record attendance for a club rugby union game. References Richards, Huw A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union (Mainstream Publishing, Edinburgh, 2007, ) Rugby Union, Irish Nationalism and National Identity in Northern Ireland IRB statistics for Ireland External links Irish Rugby Football Union Rugby news from RTE Irish rugby union news from Planet Rugby Sports league systems
4629780	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgamesh%20in%20the%20arts%20and%20popular%20culture	Gilgamesh in the arts and popular culture	The Epic of Gilgamesh has directly inspired many manifestations of literature, art, music, and popular culture, as identified by Theodore Ziolkowski in the book Gilgamesh Among Us: Modern Encounters With the Ancient Epic (2011). It was only during and after the First World War that the first reliable translations of the epic appeared that reached a wide audience, and it was only after the Second World War that the epic of Gilgamesh began to make itself felt more broadly in a variety of genres. In the years following World War II, Gilgamesh, formerly an obscure figure known only by a few scholars, gradually became increasingly popular with modern audiences. The Epic of Gilgameshs existential themes made it particularly appealing to German authors in the years following the war. In his 1947 existentialist novel Die Stadt hinter dem Strom, the German novelist Hermann Kasack adapted elements of the epic into a metaphor for the aftermath of the destruction of World War II in Germany, portraying the bombed-out city of Hamburg as resembling the frightening Underworld seen by Enkidu in his dream. In Hans Henny Jahnn's magnum opus River Without Shores (1949–1950), the middle section of the trilogy centers around a composer whose twenty-year-long homoerotic relationship with a friend mirrors that of Gilgamesh with Enkidu and whose masterpiece turns out to be a symphony about Gilgamesh. The Quest of Gilgamesh, a 1953 radio play by Douglas Geoffrey Bridson, helped popularize the epic in Britain. In the United States, Charles Olson praised the epic in his poems and essays and Gregory Corso believed that it contained ancient virtues capable of curing what he viewed as modern moral degeneracy. The 1966 postfigurative novel Gilgamesch by Guido Bachmann became a classic of German "queer literature" and set a decades-long international literary trend of portraying Gilgamesh and Enkidu as homosexual lovers. This trend proved so popular that the Epic of Gilgamesh itself is included in The Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature (1998) as a major early work of that genre. In the 1970s and 1980s, feminist literary critics analyzed the Epic of Gilgamesh as showing evidence for a transition from the original matriarchy of all humanity to modern patriarchy. As the Green Movement expanded in Europe, Gilgamesh's story began to be seen through an environmentalist lens, with Enkidu's death symbolizing man's separation from nature. Theodore Ziolkowski, a scholar of modern literature, states, that "unlike most other figures from myth, literature, and history, Gilgamesh has established himself as an autonomous entity or simply a name, often independent of the epic context in which he originally became known. (As analogous examples one might think, for instance, of the Minotaur or Frankenstein's monster.)" The Epic of Gilgamesh has been translated into many major world languages and has become a staple of American world literature classes. Many contemporary authors and novelists have drawn inspiration from it, including an American avant-garde theater collective called "The Gilgamesh Group" and Joan London in her novel Gilgamesh (2001). The Great American Novel (1973) by Philip Roth features a character named "Gil Gamesh", who is the star pitcher of a fictional 1930s baseball team called the "Patriot League". Believing that he can never lose, Gil Gamesh throws a violent temper tantrum when an umpire goes against him and he is subsequently banished from baseball. He flees to the Soviet Union, where he is trained as a spy against the United States. Gil Gamesh reappears late in the novel as one of Joseph Stalin's spies and gives what American literary historian David Damrosch calls "an eerily casual description of his interrogation training in Soviet Russia." In 2000, a modern statue of Gilgamesh by the Assyrian sculptor Lewis Batros was unveiled at the University of Sydney in Australia. Starting in the late twentieth century, the Epic of Gilgamesh began to be read again in Iraq. Saddam Hussein, the former President of Iraq, had a lifelong fascination with Gilgamesh. Hussein's first novel Zabibah and the King (2000) is an allegory for the Gulf War set in ancient Assyria that blends elements of the Epic of Gilgamesh and the One Thousand and One Nights. Like Gilgamesh, the king at the beginning of the novel is a brutal tyrant who misuses his power and oppresses his people, but, through the aid of a commoner woman named Zabibah, he grows into a more just ruler. When the United States pressured Hussein to step down in February 2003, Hussein gave a speech to a group of his generals posing the idea in a positive light by comparing himself to the epic hero. Literature The City beyond the River (1947) by Hermann Kasack. The epic becomes a metaphor for post-war Germany. River without Shores (1949–50) by Hans Henny Jahnn. The middle section is an analogy to the relationship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Charles Olson wrote about the epic in his essay "The Gate and the Center" and in such poems as "La Chute" and "Bigmans" (1950s and 60s). Gregory Corso, poems (1950s). The Time Masters (1953/1971) and Time Bomb by Wilson Tucker. The protagonist, Gilbert Nash, has a mysterious past. Gilgamesh: Romanzo (1959) by Gian Franco Gianfilippi. The first in a wave of historical novels based on the epic. A wave including works in Italian (Paola Capriola), English (Robert Silverberg, Stephan Grundy), German (Harold Braem, Thomas Mielke), French (Jacques Cassabois), and Spanish (José Ortega). Gilgamesch (1966) by Guido Bachmann. An early classic of a genre Germans called "queer literature", it would inspire other works that examined the idea of a possible homosexual relationship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Other works include: Denmark (Henrik Bjelke), Germany (Thomas Mielke, Christian Kracht), France (Jacques Cassabois), and England (Edwin Morgan). In The Great American Novel (1973), a novel by author Philip Roth, the Gilgamesh myth is reworked into the tale of a fictional baseball player, Gil Gamesh, whose immortal aspirations are achieved by disappearing after his final game. In Lucifer's Hammer by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, Gilgamesh is used to set the early timeline of events. Ölümsüzlük Ardında Gılgamış (Gilgamesh in Search of Immortality) (1981), a poetry book by Turkish poet Melih Cevdet Anday. Gilgamesh the King (1984) and To the Land of the Living (1986) by Robert Silverberg. Silverberg also contributed works of short fiction concerning Gilgamesh to the Heroes in Hell shared world series of Bangsian fantasy. Contact (1985) by Carl Sagan. Chapter 22 is titled "Gilgamesh". It describes the efforts made by Hadden in his pursuit of immortality. In the Skin of a Lion (1987) by Michael Ondaatje. The title is a quote from Gilgamesh. Timewyrm: Genesys (1991), by John Peel, is the first of the New Doctor Who Adventures published by Virgin. The book describes the Doctor meeting Gilgamesh, and relates the epic of Gilgamesh as a Doctor Who story. "Gilgamesh and the Homeboys" (1991), by Harry Turtledove, a time-displaced Gilgamesh meets Los Angeles street gangs. This short story was published in an obscure magazine and has never been reprinted as of 2018. How Like a God (1997) by Brenda Clough is based on the epic. In The Eternal Footman (1999) by James K. Morrow, a traveling troupe enacts a play based on the Gilgamesh canon. Gilgamesh (1999), historical fiction by Stephan Grundy which retells the legend. ghIlghameS (2000), a translation into the Klingon language. In Jane Lindskold's Athanor novels (1998–9), Gilgamesh and Enkidu are immortals who inspire legends under other names, including King Arthur and Sir Bedivere, respectively. 1001 Nights of Bacchus (2000), a graphic novel by Eddie Campbell, features a six-page collage story in which Gilgamesh is a Scottish-accented soccer hooligan near-incomprehensibly recounting the entire epic. The story also appeared, in color, on the back covers of issues 22–26 of Campbell's Bacchus magazine. Gilgamesh (2001) by Joan London, a postfiguration in which the epic becomes the structural key for a world torn by politics and betrayal (modern Armenia). 1979 (novel) (2001) by Christian Kracht, in which the epic provides the pattern for the homoerotic theme set against the background of the Iranian Revolution. Fate/stay night (2004), a Japanese visual novel written by Kinoko Nasu and developed by Type-Moon features Gilgamesh as a major antagonist. He serves as the primary antagonist of the Unlimited Blade Works route. Fate/Zero (2006), a Light Novel authored by Gen Urobuchi, illustrated by Takashi Takeuchi and written in collaboration with Type-Moon, features Gilgamesh as one of the summoned servants. Bartimaeus (book series), the titular Djinn was a servant to Gilgamesh (his first master) and aided him alongside the wildman Enkidu in defeating the giant Humbaba in addition to also assisting the demi-God king in building the walls of Uruk, a feat originally attributed to Gilgamesh alone. Stargate SG-1: Blood Ties (2007) by Sonny Whitelaw and Elizabeth Christensen has Doctor Daniel Jackson consult the Epic of Gilgamesh for clues about the threat that the characters are currently facing. Like Mayflies in a Stream (2009) by Shauna S. Roberts () is a novelization of the first half of the epic from the viewpoint of Shamhat, who tamed Enkidu. The Sorceress: The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel (2009), a novel in The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel series by Michael Scott (). Gilgamesh the King is described as a homeless man, immortal, and extraordinarily forgetful. He helps the twins, Sophie and Josh, to learn the magic of Water. "Long Time" by Rick Norwood, The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Jan/Feb 2011, a retelling of the Gilgamesh legend by a cynical immortal soldier serving in Gilgamesh's army. Warm Bodies by Isaac Marion 2011. The Epic of Gilgamesh is mentioned as "one of the earliest known works of literature. Humanity's debut novel, you could say. Love, sex, blood and tears. A journey to find eternal life. To escape death." Fate/strange fake (2015), a Light Novel written by Ryōgo Narita, illustrated by Morii Shizuki, a spin-off of both Fate/stay Night and Fate/Zero that originated as an April fool's joke in 2008 as Fate/states night. In Children of Time (novel) (2015), a science fiction novel written by Adrian Tchaikovsky, the main characters travel across space in a ship named the Gilgamesh. Fearless Inanna, by Jonathan Schork (2015), is loosely structured after the original Epic in twelve "books" and borrows translated passages in chapter 10. The Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, by Simo Parpola (Eisenbrauns, 1997), is listed in the bibliography. Thick as Thieves (2017) by Megan Whalen Turner features a main character from a fictionalized version of the Persian empire who, throughout the course of the novel, recites from an ancient poem loosely based on the Epic of Gilgamesh. The two characters in the novel come to represent the main characters of the epic, known as Immakuk and Ennikar (Gilgamesh and Enkidu). "Enkidu", the opening story of Even That Wildest Hope (2019) by Seyward Goodhand, is a modern retelling of the Epic of Gilgamesh from the point of view of Enkidu. "Smokepit Fairytales" (2016) a science fiction novel by Tripp Ainsworth. A Marine and a Sailor accidentally stumble upon Utnapishtim's garden while deployed to Iraq and inadvertently become immortal. The novel pulled heavily from Gilgamesh as inspiration. City of the Plague God (2021) a fantasy novel by Sarwat Chadda under the Rick Riordan Presents imprint, features protagonist Sikander "Sik" Aziz meeting Gilgamesh in the present day where Gilgamesh reveals that he really did become immortal, but had lied in the Epic of Gilgamesh and faked his death in order to keep other people from discovering the secret of immortality. Gilgamesh has become a pacifist dedicated to gardening and helps Sik create a cure for the plague spread by the Mesopotamian deity Nergal. Using his powers as the demigod son of Ninsun, Gilgamesh generates a hurricane over Manhattan for Sik to spread the cure in the form of rain. He later sends Sik his royal seal as a gift. Classical music The Epic of Gilgamesh, 1955 choral work by the Czech composer Bohuslav Martinů Gilgamesh, 1962–64 Turkish language opera by Nevit Kodallı Gilgamesh, 1964–70 Turkish language opera by Ahmet Adnan Saygun Gilgamesh, 1971–72 Danish language opera by Per Nørgård Gilgamesh, 1986 Serbian language opera by Rudolf Brucci Gilgamesh, 1992 Italian language opera by Franco Battiato Bilgamesh, 2009-12 opera-ballet in Sumerian and Akkadian by Ashot Ariyan ABUBU - The Great Flood, 2023 oratorio by Enjott Schneider Pop music Girugamesh, name of Japanese rock band is a transliteration of Gilgamesh, some of their song names allude to the epic as well. "The Mesopotamians", a song by They Might Be Giants, features Gilgamesh, along with Sargon, Hammurabi, and Ashurbanipal (other rulers of Mesopotamia). He Who Saw the Deep, an album by iLiKETRAiNS, takes its title from an original styling of The Epic of Gilgamesh. "Gilgamesh", from the album Rapconteur by rap artist Baba Brinkman is a modern retelling of the epic in hip hop form. Gilgamesh, 2010 album from Australian alternative pop duo Gypsy & The Cat. Gilgamesh, 2015 album based on the epic by the Iraqi heavy metal band Acrassicauda. "Gilgameš", from the album Κατά τον δαίμονα εαυτού by extreme metal band Rotting Christ. "Golem II: The Bionic Vapour Boy" from the album California by Mike Patton's band Mr. Bungle mentions Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh, name of British jazz fusion band in the 1970s. "The Edge of the World", from the album Reaching into Infinity by English power metal band DragonForce. "Gilgamesh", from the 2020 album Ascension by American singer Sufjan Stevens. Lost in the Cedar Wood, the 2021 album by British singer-songwriter Johnny Flynn and British nature writer Robert Macfarlane, is loosely based on the Epic of Gilgamesh, aiming to compare the themes of the ancient work with the modern world in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Theatre 1988 Girugameshu, a play by the Japanese scholar Takeshi Umehara. That play inspirated the Hayao Miyazaki's 1997 anime epic Princess Mononoke. 1989 Turn left at Gilgamesh, a play by New York playwright Rory Winston. 2007 (September/October). Gilgamesh in Uruk: GI in Iraq, adapted by Blake Bowden. Directed by Regina Pugh, with original music composed by Grammy-nominee, Steve Goers, and original puppetry by Aretta Baumgartner. 2007 (July). Chronicles – the custom of lamenting, based on the adaptation and completed Polish translation of Gilgamesh by Robert Stiller. Directed by Grzegorz Brai with original music based on Albanian and Greek polyphonic laments. Produced by Song of the Goat Theatre in Poland. 2007 (April). Gilgamesh, adapted by Yusef Komunyakaa and Chad Gracia. Original music composed and performed by Billy Atwell. This project was a part of the New York Institute for the Humanities "War Music Festival." Produced by the Classical Theatre of Harlem. 2007 (March/April). Gilgamesh, adapted by Stephen Sachs. Directed by Sachs and Jessica Kubzansky. Produced by The Theatre @ Boston Court in Pasadena, California. 2017 (October). Gilgamesh, adapted by Piers Beckley. Directed by Ray Shell. Produced by White Bear Theatre in Kennington, London. 2017 (October). Broken Stones, by Fin Kennedy. Directed by Seth Rozin. Produced by Interact Theatre Companyin Philadelphia. Inspired by a true story, this meta-theatrical play follows a former U.S. Army Reservist who broke military protocol to safeguard the Baghdad Museum of Antiquities (the Iraq Museum) from being looted during the Iraq War. This museum houses Gilgamesh tablets, and the story references Gilgamesh. As the ex-soldier tells his harrowing saga to a Hollywood ghost writer, his story is manipulated into a more palatable narrative. Film The Epic of Gilgamesh, or This Unnameable Little Broom (1985) by the Quay Brothers is an animated short based on the Epic of Gilgamesh. In the film adaptation of the Unlimited Blade Works route of Fate/Stay Night, Gilgamesh is the main antagonist who, with Kirei Kotomine, attempts a ritual to bring the Holy Grail into existence. This route has also been adapted as an anime series In the Heaven's Feel route of Fate/Stay Night, Gilgamesh is a minor character as a servant in the Holy Grail War in which he is easily defeated by Angra Mainyu who is possessing the heroine Sakura Matou. He is a main character in the other two routes, which have been adapted as two anime series and a movie. The Hayao Miyazaki's 1997 anime film Princess Mononoke is partially based on the Cedar Forest episode of The Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh, upcoming Argentinean animated film. Where Is Gilgamesh?, upcoming Kurdish feature film based on the Epic of Gilgamesh, directed by Karzan Kardozi and filmed in Iraqi Kurdistan. After a priceless tablet of Gilgamesh is stolen from the Sulaymaniyah Museum, a security guard vows to do whatever it takes to get it back from a group of smugglers. Television Gilgamesh is referenced in both the prologue and epilogue of the 1964 episode of The Outer Limits, "Demon With a Glass Hand". Gilgamesh appears in an episode of Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, revealed to have turned his back on the gods after his family died while he was fighting their war. In his despair, he began worshipping the demon Dahak in a bid to have the gods destroyed as revenge. He manages to kill Hercules’ best friend Iolaus as a sacrifice for the demon, before Hercules kills Gilgamesh. He is a half-brother to another character in the series named Nebula. "Darmok", episode 2 of season 5 of Star Trek: The Next Generation, is a self-referential adaptation of Gilgamesh in a science fiction setting. Jean-Luc Picard references the epic directly as he attempts to communicate with a member of an alien species whose language consists entirely of allegory which references mythological and historical people and events from his culture. Gilgamesh anime, directed by Masahiko Murata. The Epic is seen in The Secret Saturdays, though with some alterations. Instead of telling the story of Gilgamesh's quest for immortality, it depicts his battle against an ancient Sumerian cryptid known as Kur. Gilgamesh is one of the Servants in the Holy Grail War of the Fate/Zero, Fate/stay night and the Fate/stay night: Unlimited Blade Works anime, in all three of which, he serves as a final antagonist who has an obsession with Saber; he merely desires to possess Saber and the Holy Grail (for the sake of it being a treasure) in the former two while he wants to destroy the world using the Holy Grail to rule over those who survive the cataclysm in the latter. He also appears in Fate/Grand Order - Absolute Demonic Front: Babylonia as the king of Uruk and a main character of the story. A child version of Gilgamesh appears in the anime series Fate/kaleid liner Prisma☆Illya Gilgamesh is comically referenced in Futurama season 7 episode 18 titled "The Inhuman Torch". Bender is compared to Gilgamesh after saving the earth from an evil personified flame. In Batman: The Animated Series, reference is made to Project Gilgamesh, from which the character Bane is born. (Season 3, Episode 1) Gilgamesh is referenced during a street play based on his story, in the Indian television series Bharat Ek Khoj episode 2, based on The Indus Valley Civilisation. The Smiths must rescue Steve after he is kidnapped and taken to the North Pole, which is revealed to be the frozen over remains of the Cedar Forest. There, Santa Claus is using children to mine for precious stones from the Epic of Gilgamesh that he needs to perform an ancient ritual to revive Humbaba and claim his powers. American Dad (season 12, episode 7) In The Tower of Druaga anime, the king of Babylim and the first person to climb the tower was named Gilgamesh. Comics Gilgamesh II, a satirical graphic novel by Jim Starlin in which an infant (the last of his doomed race) is rocketed to Earth Superman-fashion, but whose life follows the trajectory of the Gilgamesh legends. ASIN B00071S7T8 The Epic of Gilgamesh (2018), is a graphic novel covering the full Gilgamesh epic; rendered by Kent H. Dixon and illustrated by his son, Kevin H. Dixon. In the final issue of Mage II: The Hero Defined (1999), Matt Wagner uses the Epic of Gilgamesh as a parallel to the life of Kevin Matchstick, who was previously compared to King Arthur. The Argentine comic book Gilgamesh the Immortal turns Gilgamesh into an immortal whose life spans across all human history and a post-apocalyptic future. In Marvel Comics Gilgamesh is one of the Eternals, a race of immortal beings that live on Olympia and have been mistaken for Gods over the millennia. Gilgamesh has performed many heroic feats, and has been mistaken for other heroes, such as Hercules. He is known as the Forgotten One after Zuras, the Leader of the Eternals, caused everybody on Earth to forget about him. The webcomic Abominable Charles Cristopher by Karl Kerschl features Gilgamesh as an adventurous king, who is initially trying to slay the unwitting protagonist when he approaches Gilgamesh's kingdom. Later their relationship evolves. The Unwritten by Mike Carey and Peter Gross, issue 32.5 (Feb 2012), retells part of the Epic in a way that fits the series' examination of story-telling in human history. Archer and Armstrong #0, written by Fred Van Lente and published by Valiant Comics features a retelling of the Epic of Gilgamesh from the point of view of one of the principal characters of the series, the immortal Aram Anni-Padda. Video games In Namco's action role-playing game Tower of Druaga, Gilgamesh is known as Gil and is the main hero who must ascend the floors of Druaga's tower to rescue Ki. The game spawned the Babylonian Castle Saga franchise. The pre-designed game packaged with Electronic Arts' Adventure Construction Set, Rivers of Light, follows the Epic of Gilgamesh. In Serious Sam: The Second Encounter, the eighth level was named as "Courtyards of Gilgamesh". The Final Fantasy series of video games includes, in some of its installments, a boss enemy named Gilgamesh and his "faithful sidekick" Enkidu. There are actually several variants of Gilgamesh in Final Fantasy, as the series has no shared in-universe continuity, though there is usually some reference to him being a fierce warrior who collects swords and many iterations of him have as many as six arms. Gilgamesh is the leader of the Sumerian civilization in the Civilization III Conquests expansion pack, Civilization IV Beyond the Sword expansion pack, and Civilization VI. In Namco's video game Tales of Phantasia, one of Cress Albaine's titles is Gilgamesh, which can be obtained finding particular objects. In Capcom's video game Devil May Cry 4 Gilgamesh is a pair of boots and gauntlets that are worn and used by second protagonist Dante, possibly in reference to a similar weapon featured in earlier games in the series, named after Beowulf, another epic poem. In the Sir-Tech game Wizardry: Proving Grounds of the Mad Overlord, players construct their adventure party at Gilgamesh's Tavern. In the Type-Moon visual novel game Fate/stay night, Gilgamesh is one of the antagonists of the series. He also appears in the sequel game, Fate/hollow ataraxia, as both his main self and as a child version of himself; and in "Fate/Extra CCC" and Fate/Extella: The Umbral Star as a playable character. In the Japanese collectible card game Shadowverse, Gilgamesh is an uncommon playable card. In the WonderPlanet inc. mobile-game Crash Fever, Gilgamesh is an obtainable unit in an ultimate wizard quest. In the mobile game Fate/Grand Order, Gilgamesh appears as a summonable servant in three different variants: as a child, in his Fate/Stay Night form prior to meeting Enkidu, and a wiser version from his time as king after the conclusion of The Epic. He is one of the main protagonists in the game's Seventh Singularity, which takes place in Ancient Mesopotamia, the arcade version of the game also has a babylonian singularity, in which Gilgamesh is cloned and Nebuchadnezzar II is summoned into his clone's body by the Beast of 666. In Assassin's Creed: Origins (2017), a sword originated from Mesopotamia known as "Humbaba's Fang" was carved by Gilgamesh from the tooth of Humbaba. In Hades (2020), the fourth aspect of the Twin Fists of Malphon is the Aspect of Gilgamesh. In Smite, the second 2021 Babylonian god is Gilgamesh, who battles Tiamat in the story. Children's literature Gilgamesh. (1967). Written and illustrated by Bernarda Bryson. Henry Holt & Co. . 1st edition is out of print. Gilgamesh: Man's First Story (2005). Written and illustrated by Bernarda Bryson Shahn. Whole Spirit Press , 2nd edition reissue. Gilgamesh the King (1991). Written and illustrated by Ludmila Zeman. Tundra Books. (0-88776-283-2). The Revenge of Ishtar (1993). Written and illustrated by Ludmila Zeman. Tundra Books. (0-88776-315-4). The Last Quest of Gilgamesh (1995). Written and illustrated by Ludmila Zeman. Tundra Books. (0-88776-328-6). Gilgamesh the Hero (2003). Retold by Geraldine McCaughrean, illustrated by David Parkins. Eerdmans Books for Young Readers. . Lugalbanda: The Boy who got Caught up in a War (2006). by Kathy Henderson, illustrated by Jane Ray. Candlewick. . References Bibliography Mythology in popular culture Works based on the Epic of Gilgamesh Ancient Mesopotamia in popular culture
4629920	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20South%20Carolina%20state%20elections	2006 South Carolina state elections	The 2006 South Carolina State Elections took place on November 7, 2006, and included the gubernatorial election. All nine popularly elected constitutional officers were up for reelection, and all races except the Attorney General's were contested. The entire South Carolina House of Representatives, one state senator and six state circuit solicitors were also up for election. Several constitutional amendments were also on the ballot. Filing for the major parties closed on March 28, 2006, and filing for minor parties closed on August 15. The primaries for both parties were held on June 13, and run-offs were held June 27. All results are taken from the South Carolina Election Commission's official results. Percentages may not add up to 100 because of rounding. Constitutional Officers Governor Republican primary Mark Sanford - incumbent Governor, former realtor and U.S. Representative Oscar Lovelace - physician Lovelace's candidacy was largely quixotic, although it did garner some interest from disaffected Republicans and Democrats. The Prosperity doctor emphasized working across party lines, health care reform, opposition to school vouchers and job creation. Sanford largely ignored Lovelace's campaign, even refusing to attend a South Carolina Educational Television (SCETV) debate with his opponent. Although Lovelace made a stronger than expected showing in the primary, his loss was not surprising. Democratic primary Tommy Moore - State Senator from Aiken County and businessman Frank Willis - mayor of Florence C. Dennis Aughtry - attorney Kenneth Lamar Holland (withdrew) - former U.S. Representative Moore obtained the support of much of the state party months in advance, having declared his candidacy early. Moore ran on a platform that stressed his experience in state government and support for consensus-building politics. Willis largely self-financed his campaign, highlighting his history fighting crime in Florence and bringing economic development to the Pee Dee. Aughtry was a late entrant in the race, and based almost his entire campaign off the idea of legalizing casino gambling in the state to boost revenues. Holland briefly entered the race, but left when it became apparent he could not raise enough money to be an effective candidate. His name was not on the primary ballot. Moore won with an absolute majority, avoiding a run-off. General Election Before the general election campaign, major issues in the race were expected to likely be South Carolina's property tax, cigarette tax, and school vouchers. However, the race had surprisingly low visibility, with the only major issue being the governor's combative relationship with the legislature. Job creation and public school investment were minor issues in the campaign. Despite being named one of the worst Governors in the country by Time Magazine a year before the election and generally being seen as ineffective, Sanford defeated Moore in the general election by ten points. State Senator Jake Knotts considered mounting an independent candidacy for governor, and collected enough petition signatures to theoretically qualify for the ballot, but decided not to run. Lieutenant governor Republican primary André Bauer (Incumbent) - former state Representative from Lexington County and businessman Mike Campbell - son of former Governor Carroll Campbell, businessman Henry Jordan - frequent candidate The Republican primary was expected to be messy and close between Bauer and Campbell, but the former's plane crash and resulting public sympathy late in the race stymied negative campaigning. Campbell relied upon a base of support in the Upstate, where support for his father was strong, while Bauer made stops all across the state in a traditional face-to-face campaign. Campbell received an endorsements from former president George H. W. Bush, support that was the basis of one of his television ads. Jordan, a late entrant, went negative against both camps in radio and internet ads, but never gained traction outside of Anderson. No candidate received 50% of the votes in the primary, and thus Campbell and Bauer faced each other in a run-off, which Bauer won. General Election The Lieutenant Governor's race was dominated by the missteps of Bauer, the incumbent. Bauer came under criticism for multiple citations for speeding and flamboyant personality. His controversial public image, and the fundraising prowess of his opponent, Robert Barber, who did not face a primary, kept the race close in public polling throughout the campaign. In late May, a two-passenger plane which Bauer was piloting crashed in the Upstate. Bauer's ankle was shattered, but otherwise he and the passenger in the plane survived with minimal injuries. The plane crash was later determined to have been caused by faulty bolts in the plane's construction. Barber later suffered from his own personal problems with his James Beard Award winning restaurant, Bowen's Island, burned late in the campaign. Bauer eventually won the general election with less than one percent over the vote after a recount. Secretary of State Republican Primary Mark Hammond (Incumbent) Bill McKown - Surfside Beach Town Councilman L. W. Flynn (withdrew) - 2004 candidate for the State House of Representatives Hammond initially faced little opposition from Flynn and McKown and far out fundraised both. However, Flynn withdrew from the race and endorsed McKown, whose campaign picked up traction based on questioning Hammond's conservatism and support for the governor. Hammond eventually defeated McKown. Although Flynn received 6.5% of the vote in the primary, his votes were not officially tallied. General Election Mark Hammond faced Democratic challenger Cheryl Footman, who did not face a primary. In a rather bizarre moment in the race, Footman attempted to burst into patriotic song at the end of her SCETV debate with Hammond, but was quickly cut off by the moderator. Hammond easily won re-election. State Treasurer Republican Primary Thomas Ravenel - 2004 Senate Republican primary candidate and businessman Greg Ryberg - 2002 Treasurer candidate, state Senator from Aiken Rick Quinn - former SC House Majority Leader Jeff Willis - real estate developer The Republican treasurer's race was hotly contested. Ryberg and Quinn were initially seen to be the front-runners, and Ryberg, the 2002 Republican nominee, made an early $2 million loan to his campaign. Ultimately, Ravenel defeated his opponents in the primary just short of the necessary 50 percent total to prevent a run-off. Ryberg and Quinn both withdrew from the run-off, citing the need for party unity behind Ravenel. Ravenel easily defeated Willis in the run-off. General Election The treasurer's race pitted Thomas Ravenel, a young millionaire and emerging politician, against Grady Patterson, a nine-term incumbent who did not face primary opposition. The race was largely fought over the state of South Carolina's employee pension fund, with Ravenel taking issue with the state's projected unfunded liability and its failure to invest the fund in equity funds, which he claims would boost returns. Patterson retorted by pointing out Ravenel's inexperience and accusing Ravenel of using the race as a platform to run against incumbent Senator Lindsey Graham, which Ravenel denied was his intention. Thomas Ravenel won the election, but was indicted on June 19, 2007, on cocaine charges, and has been suspended as Treasurer. Attorney general The incumbent, Henry McMaster, did not face a primary and ran unopposed in the general election. Comptroller General Neither party held a primary for the race. The incumbent, Richard Eckstrom, was challenged by Drew Theodore, businessman and son of former Lieutenant Governor Nick Theodore. The only public issue in the race was incumbent Richard Eckstrom's use of a state-owned car to drive himself to Minnesota a year earlier, and also his use of state funds to refurbish his state offices upon taking office in 2003. The race got some national attention when Saturday Night Live aired a sketch September 30, lampooning President Bush's low popularity by portraying Eckstrom as the only Republican running for office who was willing to be seen campaigning with the president. Eckstrom eventually won reelection. Superintendent of Education Republican Primary Karen Floyd - former Spartanburg County County Council Chair, attorney Bob Staton - businessman, former chair of the SC Education Oversight Committee Mike Ryan - teacher Elizabeth Moffly - businesswoman Kerry Wood (withdrew) - computer programmer The crowded Republican primary was dominated by Floyd's campaign from the start. Floyd was able to gain the endorsements of the governor, both Senators, Republican Congressmen and state legislators early in the race, when it was presumed that she would be running against incumbent Inez Tenenbaum. When Tenenbaum announced she would not be running, more serious candidates began eyeing the race, and Bob Staton eventually became the viable alternative to Floyd. His race emphasized an opposition to school vouchers and support for existing aspects of public education. The other, more minor candidates, were largely united in an anti-voucher position. Ryan distinguished himself by straying from attacks on the state's standardized test regime, the PACT, instead supporting the idea of standardized testing as a way to create standards in education. Just before the election, Wood withdrew from the race and endorsed Staton, but despite this his votes were officially tallied after the race. Floyd won the primary, barely surpassing the 50 percent threshold to avoid a run-off. Democrats Jim Rex - former Columbia College president, former teacher Cecil Taliaferro (withdrew) - former COO of Allen University Ed Murray (withdrew) - teacher Although Tenenbaum began preparing for a campaign in 2005, she eventually decided against running and withdrew from the race. Cecil Taliaferro and Ed Murray, two Democrats, then entered the race. Frank Holleman, Tenenbaum's campaign manager in her 2004 Senate run and former Deputy Secretary of Education, considered a run but did not enter the race. When Rex announced his candidacy, he received wide acclaim from the party, and Taliaferro and Murray withdrew before filing. Since, Tenenbaum, Holleman, Murray and Elizabeth Moffly have endorsed Rex's candidacy. Third parties Arnold E. Karr (Green Party) - correctional educator and union activist Tim Moultrie (Libertarian Party) - teacher, 1998 Libertarian gubernatorial candidate Ralph Linblad (Constitution Party) - machinist, briefly 2006 Constitution gubernatorial candidate Tony Fayyazi (independent) - educator Tim Moultrie won the nomination of the Libertarian Party at their Lowcountry convention, fending off Rebekah Sutherland, the Libertarian Party's 2004 candidate for US Senate. Karr has received the endorsement of the South Carolina AFL-CIO and affiliated unions. His campaign is stressing the independence of the Superintendent's Office from that of the Governor, empowerment of public educators, and funding equity for all school districts in the state. He has proposed using SC lottery proceeds to subsidize poorer districts until the General Assembly enacts a permanent funding plan. Lindblad has pledged to dissolve the SC Department of Education if elected and eliminate the office of Superintendent entirely, claiming that bureaucracy is the biggest impediment to effective education. Fayyazi believes that the state superintendent should be an educator with knowledge of how public education works on the ground. General Election The Superintendent race was one of the more high-profile and competitive races. The incumbent, Inez Tenenbaum, opted not to run for re-election after her defeat in the 2004 Senate election against Jim Demint. Republican Karen Floyd declared her candidacy early and posted strong fundraising numbers, avoiding a run-off in her primary against three opponents. The Democrat, college president Jim Rex, also showed himself to be an apt fundraiser, and gained the financial support of large segments of the education community. Rex eventually won the general election in a close election that was decided after a month-long recount. Adjutant General The Adjutant General campaign, the only one of its kind in the nation, was interesting not only for its novelty but also because of the entrance of an Iraq War veteran as a Democratic challenger to the incumbent, Stan Spears, a former businessman. The Democrat, Glenn Lindmann, was critical of the decreasing size of the state's national guard contingent over Spears' time in office, and also wanted to make the position an appointed one instead of an elected one. Spears countered that the size decrease is due to a national policy decision, not a state one, and said the position should remain elected. Spears won re-election. Commissioner of Agriculture Republican Primary Hugh Weathers (Incumbent) William Bell - farmer, 1994 candidate One of the major issues in the Republican primary was whether the commissioner should be elected or appointed. Bell was an advocate for election, while Weathers supported appointment. General Election The Commissioner elected in 2002, Charles Sharp, was convicted in 2004 for accepting bribes from a cockfighting ring to help them avoid prosecution. He lost his office and was replaced by Weathers, the interim commissioner. Weathers was challenged by Democrat Emile DeFelice, an organic hog farmer and State Food Policy Council Chairman. DeFelice did not face a primary. DeFelice promoted raising consumption of locally grown foods over food from other states or countries and adopted an anti-subsidy platform that would limit direct subsidies to South Carolina farmers. Weathers won the general election. Constitutional Amendments Amendment 1 Amendment 1 added Section 15 Article XVII of the state constitution, denying recognition of any domestic union other than a marriage between one man and one woman in South Carolina and all its political subdivisions. This also abolished common-law marriages and civil unions in the state. The amendment easily passed, although state statute already defined marriage as only between a man and a woman. Amendments 2A and 2B These amendments modified Article III. 2A amended Section 9 to allow the State Senate to, at any point, recess for up to 30 days with a simple majority vote, or recess for more than 30 days with a 2/3 majority vote. This basically extended to the Senate the same powers of recess already possessed by the House. 2B deleted a legal prohibition from Section 21 that prevented either legislative body from adjourning for more than 3 days without the consent of the other. Both easily passed. Amendments 3A and 3B 3A modified Article X, Section 16 to allow state retirement funds to be invested in equity securities. 3B modified the same section, deleting language providing for a State Retirement Systems Investment Panel, an advisory body that oversees the investment of state retirement funds. Both easily passed Amendment 4 This amended Articles III and X of the constitution, allowing the General Assembly to cap changes in reassessment of property values for tax purposes at 15% over a five-year period. This amendment was part of a tax reform plan introduced by state Republicans during the summer of 2006, that centered around cutting property taxes and replacing them with an increased sales tax. Essentially, this amendment limited increases or decreases in millage to 15% of the property's pre-assessment value. Amendment 5 Amendment 5 amended Article I, Sections 13 and 17, and Article XIV, Section 5, to limit the circumstances in which local governments can use eminent domain to seize private property. This amendment was part of a national political movement to limit the powers of eminent domain following the famous 2005 Kelo v. City of New London Supreme Court case, in which the Supreme Court backed the power of governments to seize land for the use of private development projects. The amendment prevented governments in South Carolina from doing so, as well as eliminating constitutional clauses that give certain counties slum-clearing and redevelopment power. See also 2006 South Carolina gubernatorial election References South Carolina
4630125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20cell	Artificial cell	An artificial cell, synthetic cell or minimal cell is an engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a biological cell. Often, artificial cells are biological or polymeric membranes which enclose biologically active materials. As such, liposomes, polymersomes, nanoparticles, microcapsules and a number of other particles can qualify as artificial cells. The terms "artificial cell" and "synthetic cell" are used in a variety of different fields and can have different meanings, as it is also reflected in the different sections of this article. Some stricter definitions are based on the assumption that the term "cell" directly relates to biological cells and that these structures therefore have to be alive (or part of a living organism) and, further, that the term "artificial" implies that these structures are artificially built from the bottom-up, i.e. from basic components. As such, in the area of synthetic biology, an artificial cell can be understood as a completely synthetically made cell that can capture energy, maintain ion gradients, contain macromolecules as well as store information and have the ability to replicate. This kind of artificial cell has not yet been made. However, in other cases, the term "artificial" does not imply that the entire structure is man-made, but instead, it can refer to the idea that certain functions or structures of biological cells can be modified, simplified, replaced or supplemented with a synthetic entity. In other fields, the term "artificial cell" can refer to any compartment that somewhat resembles a biological cell in size or structure, but is synthetically made, or even fully made from non-biological components. The term "artificial cell" is also used for structures with direct applications such as compartments for drug delivery. Micro-encapsulation allows for metabolism within the membrane, exchange of small molecules and prevention of passage of large substances across it. The main advantages of encapsulation include improved mimicry in the body, increased solubility of the cargo and decreased immune responses. Notably, artificial cells have been clinically successful in hemoperfusion. Bottom-up engineering of living artificial cells The German pathologist Rudolf Virchow brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell; "Omnis cellula e cellula". Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free transcription and translation reactions allow the expression of many genes, but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell. A bottom-up approach to build an artificial cell would involve creating a protocell de novo, entirely from non-living materials. As the term "cell" implies, one prerequisite is the generation of some sort of compartment that defines an individual, cellular unit. Phospholipid membranes are an obvious choice as compartmentalizing boundaries, as they act as selective barriers in all living biological cells. Scientists can encapsulate biomolecules in cell-sized phospholipid vesicles and by doing so, observe these molecules to act similarly as in biological cells and thereby recreate certain cell functions. In a similar way, functional biological building blocks can be encapsulated in these lipid compartments to achieve the synthesis of (however rudimentary) artificial cells. It is proposed to create a phospholipid bilayer vesicle with DNA capable of self-reproducing using synthetic genetic information. The three primary elements of such artificial cells are the formation of a lipid membrane, DNA and RNA replication through a template process and the harvesting of chemical energy for active transport across the membrane. The main hurdles foreseen and encountered with this proposed protocell are the creation of a minimal synthetic DNA that holds all sufficient information for life, and the reproduction of non-genetic components that are integral in cell development such as molecular self-organization. However, it is hoped that this kind of bottom-up approach would provide insight into the fundamental questions of organizations at the cellular level and the origins of biological life. So far, no completely artificial cell capable of self-reproduction has been synthesized using the molecules of life, and this objective is still in a distant future although various groups are currently working towards this goal. Another method proposed to create a protocell more closely resembles the conditions believed to have been present during evolution known as the primordial soup. Various RNA polymers could be encapsulated in vesicles and in such small boundary conditions, chemical reactions would be tested for. Ethics and controversy Protocell research has created controversy and opposing opinions, including critics of the vague definition of "artificial life". The creation of a basic unit of life is the most pressing ethical concern. The most widespread worry about protocells is their potential threat to human health and the environment through uncontrolled replication. However, artificial cells made through a top-down approach, or any other manipulated forms of existing living cells, are much more likely to be able to exist and reproduce outside of a laboratory and therefore to pose such a threat. International Research Community In the mid-2010s the research community started recognising the need to unify the field of synthetic cell research, acknowledging that the task of constructing an entire living organism from non-living components was beyond the resources of a single country. In 2017 the NSF-funded international Build-a-Cell large-scale research collaboration for the construction of synthetic living cell was started,. Build-a-Cell has conducted nine interdisciplinary workshopping events, open to all interested, to discuss and guide the future of the synthetic cell community. Build-a-Cell was followed by national synthetic cell organizations in several other countries. Those national organizations include FabriCell, MaxSynBio and BaSyC. The European synthetic cell efforts were unified in 2019 as SynCellEU initiative. Top-down approach to create a minimal living cell Members from the J. Craig Venter Institute have used a top-down computational approach to knock out genes in a living organism to a minimum set of genes. In 2010, the team succeeded in creating a replicating strain (named Mycoplasma laboratorium) of Mycoplasma mycoides using synthetically created DNA deemed to be the minimum requirement for life which was inserted into a genomically empty bacterium. It is hoped that the process of top-down biosynthesis will enable the insertion of new genes that would perform profitable functions such as generation of hydrogen for fuel or capturing excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The myriad regulatory, metabolic, and signaling networks are not completely characterized. These top-down approaches have limitations for the understanding of fundamental molecular regulation, since the host organisms have a complex and incompletely defined molecular composition. In 2019 a complete computational model of all pathways in Mycoplasma Syn3.0 cell was published, representing the first complete in silico model for a living minimal organism. Heavy investing in biology has been done by large companies such as ExxonMobil, who has partnered with Synthetic Genomics Inc; Craig Venter's own biosynthetics company in the development of fuel from algae. As of 2016, Mycoplasma genitalium is the only organism used as a starting point for engineering a minimal cell, since it has the smallest known genome that can be cultivated under laboratory conditions; the wild-type variety has 482, and removing exactly 100 genes deemed non-essential resulted in a viable strain with improved growth rates. Reduced-genome Escherichia coli is considered more useful, and viable strains have been developed with 15% of the genome removed. A variation of an artificial cell has been created in which a completely synthetic genome was introduced to genomically emptied host cells. Although not completely artificial because the cytoplasmic components as well as the membrane from the host cell are kept, the engineered cell is under control of a synthetic genome and is able to replicate. Artificial cells for medical applications History In the 1960s Thomas Chang developed microcapsules which he would later call "artificial cells", as they were cell-sized compartments made from artificial materials. These cells consisted of ultrathin membranes of nylon, collodion or crosslinked protein whose semipermeable properties allowed diffusion of small molecules in and out of the cell. These cells were micron-sized and contained cells, enzymes, hemoglobin, magnetic materials, adsorbents and proteins. Later artificial cells have ranged from hundred-micrometer to nanometer dimensions and can carry microorganisms, vaccines, genes, drugs, hormones and peptides. The first clinical use of artificial cells was in hemoperfusion by the encapsulation of activated charcoal. In the 1970s, researchers were able to introduce enzymes, proteins and hormones to biodegradable microcapsules, later leading to clinical use in diseases such as Lesch–Nyhan syndrome. Although Chang's initial research focused on artificial red blood cells, only in the mid-1990s were biodegradable artificial red blood cells developed. Artificial cells in biological cell encapsulation were first used in the clinic in 1994 for treatment in a diabetic patient and since then other types of cells such as hepatocytes, adult stem cells and genetically engineered cells have been encapsulated and are under study for use in tissue regeneration. Materials Membranes for artificial cells can be made of simple polymers, crosslinked proteins, lipid membranes or polymer-lipid complexes. Further, membranes can be engineered to present surface proteins such as albumin, antigens, Na/K-ATPase carriers, or pores such as ion channels. Commonly used materials for the production of membranes include hydrogel polymers such as alginate, cellulose and thermoplastic polymers such as hydroxyethyl methacrylate-methyl methacrylate (HEMA- MMA), polyacrylonitrile-polyvinyl chloride (PAN-PVC), as well as variations of the above-mentioned. The material used determines the permeability of the cell membrane, which for polymer depends on the is important in determining adequate diffusion of nutrients, waste and other critical molecules. Hydrophilic polymers have the potential to be biocompatible and can be fabricated into a variety of forms which include polymer micelles, sol-gel mixtures, physical blends and crosslinked particles and nanoparticles. Of special interest are stimuli-responsive polymers that respond to pH or temperature changes for the use in targeted delivery. These polymers may be administered in the liquid form through a macroscopic injection and solidify or gel in situ because of the difference in pH or temperature. Nanoparticle and liposome preparations are also routinely used for material encapsulation and delivery. A major advantage of liposomes is their ability to fuse to cell and organelle membranes. Preparation Many variations for artificial cell preparation and encapsulation have been developed. Typically, vesicles such as a nanoparticle, polymersome or liposome are synthesized. An emulsion is typically made through the use of high pressure equipment such as a high pressure homogenizer or a Microfluidizer. Two micro-encapsulation methods for nitrocellulose are also described below. High-pressure homogenization In a high-pressure homogenizer, two liquids in oil/liquid suspension are forced through a small orifice under very high pressure. This process divides the products and allows the creation of extremely fine particles, as small as 1 nm. Microfluidization This technique uses a patented Microfluidizer to obtain a greater amount of homogenous suspensions that can create smaller particles than homogenizers. A homogenizer is first used to create a coarse suspension which is then pumped into the microfluidizer under high pressure. The flow is then split into two streams which will react at very high velocities in an interaction chamber until desired particle size is obtained. This technique allows for large scale production of phospholipid liposomes and subsequent material nanoencapsulations. Drop method In this method, a cell solution is incorporated dropwise into a collodion solution of cellulose nitrate. As the drop travels through the collodion, it is coated with a membrane thanks to the interfacial polymerization properties of the collodion. The cell later settles into paraffin, where the membrane sets, which is then suspended using a saline solution. The drop method is used for the creation of large artificial cells which encapsulate biological cells, stem cells and genetically engineered stem cells. Emulsion method The emulsion method differs in that the material to be encapsulated is usually smaller and is placed in the bottom of a reaction chamber where the collodion is added on top and centrifuged, or otherwise disturbed in order to create an emulsion. The encapsulated material is then dispersed and suspended in saline solution. Clinical relevance Drug release and delivery Artificial cells used for drug delivery differ from other artificial cells since their contents are intended to diffuse out of the membrane, or be engulfed and digested by a host target cell. Often used are submicron, lipid membrane artificial cells that may be referred to as nanocapsules, nanoparticles, polymersomes, or other variations of the term. Enzyme therapy Enzyme therapy is being actively studied for genetic metabolic diseases where an enzyme is over-expressed, under-expressed, defective, or not at all there. In the case of under-expression or expression of a defective enzyme, an active form of the enzyme is introduced in the body to compensate for the deficit. On the other hand, an enzymatic over-expression may be counteracted by introduction of a competing non-functional enzyme; that is, an enzyme which metabolizes the substrate into non-active products. When placed within an artificial cell, enzymes can carry out their function for a much longer period compared to free enzymes and can be further optimized by polymer conjugation. The first enzyme studied under artificial cell encapsulation was asparaginase for the treatment of lymphosarcoma in mice. This treatment delayed the onset and growth of the tumor. These initial findings led to further research in the use of artificial cells for enzyme delivery in tyrosine dependent melanomas. These tumors have a higher dependency on tyrosine than normal cells for growth, and research has shown that lowering systemic levels of tyrosine in mice can inhibit growth of melanomas. The use of artificial cells in the delivery of tyrosinase; and enzyme that digests tyrosine, allows for better enzyme stability and is shown effective in the removal of tyrosine without the severe side-effects associated with tyrosine depravation in the diet. Artificial cell enzyme therapy is also of interest for the activation of prodrugs such as ifosfamide in certain cancers. Artificial cells encapsulating the cytochrome p450 enzyme which converts this prodrug into the active drug can be tailored to accumulate in the pancreatic carcinoma or implanting the artificial cells close to the tumor site. Here, the local concentration of the activated ifosfamide will be much higher than in the rest of the body thus preventing systemic toxicity. The treatment was successful in animals and showed a doubling in median survivals amongst patients with advanced-stage pancreatic cancer in phase I/II clinical trials, and a tripling in one-year survival rate. Gene therapy In treatment of genetic diseases, gene therapy aims to insert, alter or remove genes within an afflicted individual's cells. The technology relies heavily on viral vectors which raises concerns about insertional mutagenesis and systemic immune response that have led to human deaths and development of leukemia in clinical trials. Circumventing the need for vectors by using naked or plasmid DNA as its own delivery system also encounters problems such as low transduction efficiency and poor tissue targeting when given systemically. Artificial cells have been proposed as a non-viral vector by which genetically modified non-autologous cells are encapsulated and implanted to deliver recombinant proteins in vivo. This type of immuno-isolation has been proven efficient in mice through delivery of artificial cells containing mouse growth hormone which rescued a growth-retardation in mutant mice. A few strategies have advanced to human clinical trials for the treatment of pancreatic cancer, lateral sclerosis and pain control. Hemoperfusion The first clinical use of artificial cells was in hemoperfusion by the encapsulation of activated charcoal. Activated charcoal has the capability of adsorbing many large molecules and has for a long time been known for its ability to remove toxic substances from the blood in accidental poisoning or overdose. However, perfusion through direct charcoal administration is toxic as it leads to embolisms and damage of blood cells followed by removal by platelets. Artificial cells allow toxins to diffuse into the cell while keeping the dangerous cargo within their ultrathin membrane. Artificial cell hemoperfusion has been proposed as a less costly and more efficient detoxifying option than hemodialysis, in which blood filtering takes place only through size separation by a physical membrane. In hemoperfusion, thousands of adsorbent artificial cells are retained inside a small container through the use of two screens on either end through which patient blood perfuses. As the blood circulates, toxins or drugs diffuse into the cells and are retained by the absorbing material. The membranes of artificial cells are much thinner those used in dialysis and their small size means that they have a high membrane surface area. This means that a portion of cell can have a theoretical mass transfer that is a hundredfold higher than that of a whole artificial kidney machine. The device has been established as a routine clinical method for patients treated for accidental or suicidal poisoning but has also been introduced as therapy in liver failure and kidney failure by carrying out part of the function of these organs. Artificial cell hemoperfusion has also been proposed for use in immunoadsorption through which antibodies can be removed from the body by attaching an immunoadsorbing material such as albumin on the surface of the artificial cells. This principle has been used to remove blood group antibodies from plasma for bone marrow transplantation and for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia through monoclonal antibodies to remove low-density lipoproteins. Hemoperfusion is especially useful in countries with a weak hemodialysis manufacturing industry as the devices tend to be cheaper there and used in kidney failure patients. Encapsulated cells The most common method of preparation of artificial cells is through cell encapsulation. Encapsulated cells are typically achieved through the generation of controlled-size droplets from a liquid cell suspension which are then rapidly solidified or gelated to provide added stability. The stabilization may be achieved through a change in temperature or via material crosslinking. The microenvironment that a cell sees changes upon encapsulation. It typically goes from being on a monolayer to a suspension in a polymer scaffold within a polymeric membrane. A drawback of the technique is that encapsulating a cell decreases its viability and ability to proliferate and differentiate. Further, after some time within the microcapsule, cells form clusters that inhibit the exchange of oxygen and metabolic waste, leading to apoptosis and necrosis thus limiting the efficacy of the cells and activating the host's immune system. Artificial cells have been successful for transplanting a number of cells including islets of Langerhans for diabetes treatment, parathyroid cells and adrenal cortex cells. Encapsulated hepatocytes Shortage of organ donors make artificial cells key players in alternative therapies for liver failure. The use of artificial cells for hepatocyte transplantation has demonstrated feasibility and efficacy in providing liver function in models of animal liver disease and bioartificial liver devices. Research stemmed off experiments in which the hepatocytes were attached to the surface of a micro-carriers and has evolved into hepatocytes which are encapsulated in a three-dimensional matrix in alginate microdroplets covered by an outer skin of polylysine. A key advantage to this delivery method is the circumvention of immunosuppression therapy for the duration of the treatment. Hepatocyte encapsulations have been proposed for use in a bioartificial liver. The device consists of a cylindrical chamber imbedded with isolated hepatocytes through which patient plasma is circulated extra-corporeally in a type of hemoperfusion. Because microcapsules have a high surface area to volume ratio, they provide large surface for substrate diffusion and can accommodate a large number of hepatocytes. Treatment to induced liver failure mice showed a significant increase in the rate of survival. Artificial liver systems are still in early development but show potential for patients waiting for organ transplant or while a patient's own liver regenerates sufficiently to resume normal function. So far, clinical trials using artificial liver systems and hepatocyte transplantation in end-stage liver diseases have shown improvement of health markers but have not yet improved survival. The short longevity and aggregation of artificial hepatocytes after transplantation are the main obstacles encountered. Hepatocytes co-encapsulated with stem cells show greater viability in culture and after implantation and implantation of artificial stem cells alone have also shown liver regeneration. As such interest has arisen in the use of stem cells for encapsulation in regenerative medicine. Encapsulated bacterial cells The oral ingestion of live bacterial cell colonies has been proposed and is currently in therapy for the modulation of intestinal microflora, prevention of diarrheal diseases, treatment of H. Pylori infections, atopic inflammations, lactose intolerance and immune modulation, amongst others. The proposed mechanism of action is not fully understood but is believed to have two main effects. The first is the nutritional effect, in which the bacteria compete with toxin producing bacteria. The second is the sanitary effect, which stimulates resistance to colonization and stimulates immune response. The oral delivery of bacterial cultures is often a problem because they are targeted by the immune system and often destroyed when taken orally. Artificial cells help address these issues by providing mimicry into the body and selective or long term release thus increasing the viability of bacteria reaching the gastrointestinal system. In addition, live bacterial cell encapsulation can be engineered to allow diffusion of small molecules including peptides into the body for therapeutic purposes. Membranes that have proven successful for bacterial delivery include cellulose acetate and variants of alginate. Additional uses that have arosen from encapsulation of bacterial cells include protection against challenge from M. Tuberculosis and upregulation of Ig secreting cells from the immune system. The technology is limited by the risk of systemic infections, adverse metabolic activities and the risk of gene transfer. However, the greater challenge remains the delivery of sufficient viable bacteria to the site of interest. Artificial blood cells as oxygen carriers Nano sized oxygen carriers are used as a type of red blood cell substitutes, although they lack other components of red blood cells. They are composed of a synthetic polymersome or an artificial membrane surrounding purified animal, human or recombinant hemoglobin. Overall, hemoglobin delivery continues to be a challenge because it is highly toxic when delivered without any modifications. In some clinical trials, vasopressor effects have been observed. Artificial red blood cells Research interest in the use of artificial cells for blood arose after the AIDS scare of the 1980s. Besides bypassing the potential for disease transmission, artificial red blood cells are desired because they eliminate drawbacks associated with allogenic blood transfusions such as blood typing, immune reactions and its short storage life of 42 days. A hemoglobin substitute may be stored at room temperature and not under refrigeration for more than a year. Attempts have been made to develop a complete working red blood cell which comprises carbonic not only an oxygen carrier but also the enzymes associated with the cell. The first attempt was made in 1957 by replacing the red blood cell membrane by an ultrathin polymeric membrane which was followed by encapsulation through a lipid membrane and more recently a biodegradable polymeric membrane. A biological red blood cell membrane including lipids and associated proteins can also be used to encapsulate nanoparticles and increase residence time in vivo by bypassing macrophage uptake and systemic clearance. Artificial leuko-polymersomes A leuko-polymersome is a polymersome engineered to have the adhesive properties of a leukocyte. Polymersomes are vesicles composed of a bilayer sheet that can encapsulate many active molecules such as drugs or enzymes. By adding the adhesive properties of a leukocyte to their membranes, they can be made to slow down, or roll along epithelial walls within the quickly flowing circulatory system. Unconventional types of artificial cells Electronic artificial cell The concept of an Electronic Artificial Cell has been expanded in a series of 3 EU projects coordinated by John McCaskill from 2004 to 2015. The European Commission sponsored the development of the Programmable Artificial Cell Evolution (PACE) program from 2004 to 2008 whose goal was to lay the foundation for the creation of "microscopic self-organizing, self-replicating, and evolvable autonomous entities built from simple organic and inorganic substances that can be genetically programmed to perform specific functions" for the eventual integration into information systems. The PACE project developed the first Omega Machine, a microfluidic life support system for artificial cells that could complement chemically missing functionalities (as originally proposed by Norman Packard, Steen Rasmussen, Mark Beadau and John McCaskill). The ultimate aim was to attain an evolvable hybrid cell in a complex microscale programmable environment. The functions of the Omega Machine could then be removed stepwise, posing a series of solvable evolution challenges to the artificial cell chemistry. The project achieved chemical integration up to the level of pairs of the three core functions of artificial cells (a genetic subsystem, a containment system and a metabolic system), and generated novel spatially resolved programmable microfluidic environments for the integration of containment and genetic amplification. The project led to the creation of the European center for living technology. Following this research, in 2007, John McCaskill proposed to concentrate on an electronically complemented artificial cell, called the Electronic Chemical Cell. The key idea was to use a massively parallel array of electrodes coupled to locally dedicated electronic circuitry, in a two-dimensional thin film, to complement emerging chemical cellular functionality. Local electronic information defining the electrode switching and sensing circuits could serve as an electronic genome, complementing the molecular sequential information in the emerging protocols. A research proposal was successful with the European Commission and an international team of scientists partially overlapping with the PACE consortium commenced work 2008–2012 on the project Electronic Chemical Cells. The project demonstrated among other things that electronically controlled local transport of specific sequences could be used as an artificial spatial control system for the genetic proliferation of future artificial cells, and that core processes of metabolism could be delivered by suitably coated electrode arrays. The major limitation of this approach, apart from the initial difficulties in mastering microscale electrochemistry and electrokinetics, is that the electronic system is interconnected as a rigid non-autonomous piece of macroscopic hardware. In 2011, McCaskill proposed to invert the geometry of electronics and chemistry : instead of placing chemicals in an active electronic medium, to place microscopic autonomous electronics in a chemical medium. He organized a project to tackle a third generation of Electronic Artificial Cells at the 100 µm scale that could self-assemble from two half-cells "lablets" to enclose an internal chemical space, and function with the aid of active electronics powered by the medium they are immersed in. Such cells can copy both their electronic and chemical contents and will be capable of evolution within the constraints provided by their special pre-synthesized microscopic building blocks. In September 2012 work commenced on this project. Artificial neurons Jeewanu Jeewanu protocells are synthetic chemical particles that possess cell-like structure and seem to have some functional living properties. First synthesized in 1963 from simple minerals and basic organics while exposed to sunlight, it is still reported to have some metabolic capabilities, the presence of semipermeable membrane, amino acids, phospholipids, carbohydrates and RNA-like molecules. However, the nature and properties of the Jeewanu remains to be clarified. Semi-artificial cyborg cells See also Protocell Synthetic biology Artificial life Targeted drug delivery Respirocyte Chemoton Jeewanu Build-a-Cell References Artificial cell Emerging technologies Synthetic biology it:Cellula artificiale
4630134	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%20Wainwright	Adam Wainwright	Adam Parrish Wainwright (born August 30, 1981), nicknamed "Waino" and "Uncle Charlie", is an American former professional baseball pitcher who spent his entire career with the St. Louis Cardinals. The Atlanta Braves selected him 29th overall in the first round of the 2000 amateur draft from Glynn Academy in Brunswick, Georgia. His performance in the minor leagues made him one of the Braves' top pitching prospects. After the 2003 season, the Braves traded him to the Cardinals for outfielder J. D. Drew. Wainwright made his MLB debut on September 11, 2005, and spent the rest of the season as a relief pitcher. The next year, he briefly assumed closer duties, saving the series-clinching games of the 2006 National League Championship Series and the 2006 World Series over the Detroit Tigers. In 2007, he returned to starting pitching, a role in which he has since remained. He missed the 2011 season due to Tommy John surgery, but emerged as an ace, leading the National League multiple times in wins, innings pitched, and games started. He also has multiple top-ten finishes in earned run average, strikeouts, walks plus hits per inning pitched, and complete games. In 2014, Wainwright became the first pitcher in Major League history to post nine of his first 18 starts with seven innings pitched and no runs allowed. In his career, Wainwright has won 200 games, received three All-Star selections and two Gold Glove Awards, and finished in the top three in the Cy Young Award balloting four times. With 2,202 career strikeouts, Wainwright is second to Bob Gibson (3,117) in Cardinals franchise history. Wainwright and longtime teammate Yadier Molina are the most successful battery in Major League history, having both the most wins and starts together. On September 18, 2023, he became the third Cardinals' pitcher to win 200 games, joining Bob Gibson (251), and Jesse Haines (210), and the 122nd in baseball history. With three strikeouts, he also became the 66th pitcher in baseball history with at least 2,200 strikeouts. Early life Wainwright was born in Brunswick, Georgia, to Bill, an attorney, and Nancy Wainwright, a real estate agent. His parents divorced when he was seven years old and his father moved to Florida, leaving only Wainwright's mother to raise him and his older brother Trey, now an attorney in Atlanta. Wainwright credits Trey, seven years his senior, with teaching him everything he knows about sports after their father left, including building a pitcher's mound in their back yard to teach him how to pitch. Wainwright also participated in the Cub Scouts, Boy Scouts, and numerous church activities, and grew up an Atlanta Braves fan. High school Wainwright attended high school at Glynn Academy in his native Brunswick, where he was an athletic and academic standout. With a fastball over 90 mph and batting average at times over .500, Wainwright was named Gatorade Georgia Player of the Year in 2000. He also played football, in which he was named to the All-State team as a wide receiver his junior and senior years as well as All-Region honors as a placekicker. Various colleges and universities, including Georgia Tech, offered him academic and baseball scholarships. Professional career Draft and minor leagues (2000–05) Atlanta Braves organization (2000–03) The Atlanta Braves selected Wainwright 29th overall in the first round of the 2000 MLB draft, using a compensatory pick from the Arizona Diamondbacks for signing Russ Springer in the offseason. Wainwright chose to forgo college to go straight to the pros, signing a contract that included a $1.25 million bonus. The Braves had been his favorite team growing up. Less than two weeks after high school graduation, Wainwright reported to the Braves rookie team and soon advanced to Atlanta's Class A Danville Braves in the Appalachian League. He pitched for the Macon Braves in the South Atlantic League in 2001, where he broke the team record for strikeouts, previously held by Bruce Chen, with 184. Wainwright spent the 2002 season in the Carolina League and also participated in that season's All-Star Futures Game. In 2003, Wainwright advanced to the Braves' Double-A club, Greenville. He was Baseball America's top Braves prospect in 2003. In December of that year, the St. Louis Cardinals acquired Wainwright and pitchers Jason Marquis and Ray King in a trade that sent outfielder J. D. Drew and utility player Eli Marrero to the Braves. St. Louis Cardinals (2005–2023) Wainwright pitched just 12 games for the Triple-A Memphis Redbirds in 2004 before he was shut down for nearly the entire rest of the season with an elbow strain. There, he had a 4–4 win–loss record (W–L) with a 5.37 earned run average (ERA) in innings pitched (IP). He struck out 64 batters and allowed 68 hits and 28 walks (BB). In the Arizona Fall League, he returned to pitch 10 innings. He spent the next season with Memphis, starting 29 games, completing 182 IP, allowing 204 hits and 51 BB while striking out 147. His win–loss record was 10–10. After two somewhat uneven seasons in the Cardinals' minor league system, Wainwright made his MLB debut for St. Louis on September 11, 2005. 2006 Wainwright made the Cardinals' Opening Day roster as a relief pitcher after having been a starter for his entire minor league career. On May 24, 2006, he hit a home run on the first pitch he saw as batter in the major leagues against the San Francisco Giants' Noah Lowry; he became the 22nd batter, and only the seventh pitcher, in Major League history and 11th National Leaguer to hit a home run off the first pitch thrown in his first at-bat. Wainwright pitched capably as a middle reliever, but when incumbent closer Jason Isringhausen underwent season-ending hip surgery in September, Wainwright was pressed into service as the closer. He saved two crucial games on September 27 and 30 as St. Louis held off the Houston Astros' late charge and won the NL Central Division championship. Despite their unexceptional 83–78 regular-season record, the Cardinals rolled through October to win the 10th world championship in franchise history. As the closer, Wainwright closed out the final game of the Cardinals' National League Division Series, ending the New York Mets' season and propelling the Cardinals to the 2006 National League Championship Series, where he famously struck out Carlos Beltrán in Game 7 to send the Cardinals to the World Series. In Game 5 of the 2006 World Series, Wainwright struck out Detroit Tigers third baseman Brandon Inge to win the championship. 2007 Wainwright moved from the bullpen to the starting rotation for 2007. Shortly after losing ace Chris Carpenter for the year due to elbow surgery, Wainwright emerged as the Cardinals' most reliable starter. On August 10, he threw the first complete game of his career, a 2–1 loss to Los Angeles, and the only nine-inning complete game for the Cardinals that season. By September, Wainwright had established himself as the staff ace in Carpenter's absence, going 9–6 with a 2.94 ERA from mid-May to the end of the season. He finished his first year by leading the club in almost every pitching category—games started, innings pitched, strikeouts, and wins—while compiling a 3.70 ERA and a 14–12 record. His 14 wins were the most in franchise history for a first-year starter. His 2.71 ERA after the All-Star break was third-best in the NL. 2008 In March 2008, Wainwright signed a four-year deal with the Cardinals worth $21 million, with two club options for 2012 and 2013 that made the potential aggregate value $36 million. He gave up four runs or less in each of his first seven starts. However, the Cardinals lost to the Brewers 8–3 in Wainwright's eighth start, on May 13, as Ryan Braun hit two home runs off him. He suffered a strain on the middle finger of his pitching hand in June, causing him to miss months of the season. In 20 starts, he finished 11–3 with a 3.20 ERA. 2009 On August 19, 2009, at Dodger Stadium, Wainwright had a no-hitter going against the Los Angeles Dodgers for innings before Orlando Hudson broke it up with a clean single to left field. In his next start against the Astros, he pitched eight shutout innings to pick up his then-league-leading 15th win in a 1–0 victory. It was Wainwright's 25th straight start with at least six innings pitched. In five August starts that season, he completed IP with just one walk and 22 SO. On September 26, Wainwright pitched eight innings and struck out eleven for a 6–3, NL Central division-clinching victory against the Colorado Rockies at Coors Field for his 19th win. Wainwright finished with a 19–8 record and a 2.63 ERA, leading the National League in wins, games started (34), and innings pitched (233). He also struck out a major-league high 140 batters on third-strike curveballs. On October 28, Wainwright won the Players Choice Award as the NL Most Outstanding Pitcher. He won his first Gold Glove Award on November 11, 2009. Wainwright was a top contender for the Cy Young Award along with teammate Chris Carpenter and eventual winner Tim Lincecum. He became only the second pitcher ever—Trevor Hoffman was the first—to get the most first-place votes and not win the award. 2010 Pitching in his first All-Star Game, Wainwright completed one inning. He faced five batters, throwing 17 pitches for ten strikes and seven balls, and allowed no runs with just one hit—a double off the glove of fellow Cardinal All-Star Matt Holliday—one walk, and two strikeouts. In one 11-game stretch preceding August 16, he compiled IP in nine of those starts and allowed two earned runs for a 0.27 ERA. Wainwright finished the 2010 season 20–11 with a 2.42 ERA, five complete games, 213 strikeouts, 56 walks, 15 home runs allowed, and a WHIP of 1.05, in IP. His win, strikeout, complete game, and shutout totals were all career-bests. His win total and ERA were both good for second place in the National League (behind only Josh Johnson's 2.30 ERA and Roy Halladay's 21 wins). He also pitched the first two shutouts of his career in 2010—one against the Milwaukee Brewers on June 4 and a two-hitter against the Florida Marlins on August 6. Wainwright was the runner-up for the 2010 NL Cy Young Award, finishing second in voting behind unanimous winner Halladay. Wainwright picked up 28 of 32 second-place votes. Near the end of the season, he had experienced elbow discomfort and nerve swelling. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan cleared him after the season. 2011 Shortly after reporting to spring training, Wainwright experienced discomfort in his right elbow while pitching batting practice on February 21. Three days later, the Cardinals announced that Wainwright would miss the entire 2011 season—and possibly the first three months of the next season—after finding that ulnar collateral ligament damage necessitated Tommy John surgery (TJS). George Paletta, the team physician, performed the surgery on February 28 in St. Louis and it was deemed "a success". Former clients for the same surgery included teammates Chris Carpenter, Jaime García, and Kyle McClellan. Wainwright's contract featured options for 2012 and 2013 totaling $21 million with a provision that they would not automatically vest if he ended the 2011 season on the disabled list. The Cardinals made the playoffs as a wild card entry, overtaking the Braves on the final day of the season. They eventually won the World Series, defeating the Texas Rangers four games to three. The Cardinals awarded Wainwright his second World Series ring, despite not pitching the entire season. 2012 Fully recovered after TJS and rehabilitation, Wainwright was ready ahead of schedule for spring training. Statistically, the 2012 season proved to be an overall disappointment by Wainwright's standards, as he wound up 14–13 with a 3.94 ERA. However, it was encouraging in regards to the health of his right arm, as he completed the entire season without any issues. In addition, pitchers recovering from TJS often find it challenging at first to throw with the same command as before the surgery, and thus to achieve post-surgery results equal to pre-surgery results. This was the case at first with Wainwright. On May 22, he threw his first complete-game shutout since August 6, 2010, and the third of his career in his ninth complete game. It was a four-hit, 4–0 win at home against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and walking only one. Wainwright reached his 1,000th career inning on July 29. The May 22 start marked a turning point in the season. During a 13-start stretch through August 3, he pitched innings, striking out 83 while allowing just four home runs and 17 BB. Wainwright attributed the improvement to be able to sustain the usual finishing movement on his pitches through late innings, which earlier in the season, had eluded him, thus making his pitches easier to hit. He also corrected a subtle flaw that had developed on the grip of his curveball during a bullpen session prior to the start against San Diego. The flaw made it increasingly difficult to throw the curveball for consistent strikes. 2013 On March 28, 2013, the Cardinals announced they and Wainwright had agreed to a five-year contract extension. At the time, he was under the last year of his previous contract, so the new deal extended him through 2018. With a total value of $97.5 million, it was the largest contract ever for a Cardinals pitcher. On April 18, he became the first pitcher in baseball since 1900 to achieve 28 strikeouts and zero walks in his first four starts of a season. Slim Sallee established the franchise record exactly 100 years earlier by not issuing a walk in his first 40 innings. Wainwright's streak ended in a start at Washington on April 23 after innings and 133 batters faced. The first MLB pitcher to post 10 wins on June 13, Wainwright put up seven scoreless innings in a 2–1 defeat of the Mets at Citi Field. Moreover, his strikeout of David Wright was his first of the game and the 1,000th of his career. He allowed six hits and struck out a total of four. Wainwright became the NL Pitcher of the Month for June with a 4–2 record and 1.77 ERA. With 40 strikeouts for the month, Wainwright issued just six walks while holding opposing batters to a .220 average. Through that point in the season, he was 11–5 with a 2.22 ERA, and was the MLB leader with four complete games and a 9.5 strikeout-to-walk ratio. In successive starts against the Reds in late August, Wainwright allowed 15 runs, both losses. He struck out eight in seven shutout innings on September 7 at home in a 5–0 win over the first-place Pirates in earning his 16th victory of the season. The Pirates, Reds, and Cardinals were all close contenders for the Central division title in September. The win gave the Cardinals first place over the Pirates by a half-game, and games over the Reds. Wainwright's seven strikeouts increased his career total to 1,103, passing Dizzy Dean (1,095) for second place among Cardinals' pitchers. Only Bob Gibson (3,117 in 528 games) had more. In a 60-inning stretch following the All-Star break Wainwright had walked 14, compared with 15 in IP before the break. When fellow starter Shelby Miller defeated Nationals' starter Jordan Zimmermann on September 26, he denied Zimmermann his 20th victory. Two days later, Wainwright, who was second in the league with 18 entering the game, defeated the Chicago Cubs in his final start of the season to tie Zimmerman for the lead in wins at 19. Wainwright also became just the third pitcher in franchise history to twice lead the league in wins, joining Dizzy Dean (1934–35) and Mort Cooper (1942–43). He also led the NL in games started (34), innings pitched (), hits allowed (223), and batters faced (956), and was third in strikeouts. The Cardinals faced the Boston Red Sox in the World Series, and called upon Wainwright to start Game 1 against Jon Lester. It was Wainwright's first World Series appearance since 2006 and first start. He allowed five runs and St. Louis lost, 8–1. In Game 5, a rematch against Lester, the Cardinals again lost, this time 3–1. Wainwright struck out 10 in seven innings, becoming the first Cardinal to reach double digits in strikeouts in a World Series game since Gibson against the Detroit Tigers in 1968. After the Cardinals took a 2–1 Series lead, the Red Sox won the final three games to take the title. Wainwright won his second Gold Glove award in 2013. In the Cy Young balloting, Wainwright placed second, his second such ranking, and finished 23rd in the NL MVP voting. 2014 Starting for the Cardinals against the Reds on Opening Day, March 31, 2014, Wainwright won his 100th career decision. In seven innings, he struck out nine and gave up just three singles in a 1–0 win. At Nationals Park against Washington on April 17, he pitched a two-hit shutout, winning 8–0. Wainwright gave up the first hit in the second inning on a high infield chopper, but none after until two outs into the ninth. He walked three and struck out eight. It was his seventh career shutout. In an April 27 start against the Pirates, Wainwright tallied eight scoreless innings to extend a streak to 25 innings as the Cardinals won, 7–0, but was pulled before he could get a complete game due to concerns over his April 22 hyperextended right knee injury. His streak of 25 scoreless innings ended in the first inning on May 2 in a loss against the Cubs, to whom he allowed six runs. On May 20, Wainwright pitched a one-hitter against the Diamondbacks. He retired the first 11 batters before giving up a double to Paul Goldschmidt in the fourth inning. After the hit, Wainwright retired the final 16 batters, facing only 28, one over the minimum for a perfect game. He walked none and struck out nine, throwing 115 pitches, 86 for strikes. It was Wainwright's seventh win of the year, tying for the National League lead, and his 106th career victory against 59 losses. It also tied him for eighth place with Sallee on the all-time Cardinals' pitching win list and was his eighth career shutout. Wainwright followed that effort with eight more scoreless innings on May 25. Between those two starts, he gave up just one walk and struck out a major-league-leading 21 batters in 17 scoreless innings. He was named NL Co-Player of the Week with Dodgers starter Josh Beckett, who threw a no-hitter on May 25. However, he missed his June 16 against the Mets due to elbow tendinitis, but an MRI showed no structural damage to the Tommy John surgically repaired ligament. After leading the NL with a 1.79 ERA and 11 wins through July 6, Wainwright was selected to his third All-Star Game at Target Field in Minneapolis, Minnesota. He was selected as the NL's starting pitcher for the first time in his career. Besides two starts in which he gave up seven runs to the Giants and six to the Cubs, Wainwright had allowed 13 runs in 16 of his first 18 starts. Nine of those starts included totals with seven or more innings pitched and zero earned runs allowed. Per the Elias Sports Bureau (ESB), it was the first time in Major League history that any pitcher achieved that feat in his first 18 starts of the season. When the Cardinals defeated the Brewers 10–2 on July 12, Wainwright finished his pre-All Star break total with a 12–4 record and a 1.83 ERA. Further, he joined Hall of Fame member Steve Carlton as the only Cardinals to post an ERA less than 2.00 and at least 12 wins before the All-Star break (1969). In that game, Wainwright posted his Major League-leading 15th start of the season with at least seven innings pitched and two or fewer runs allowed. At the plate, his RBI-single scored rookie Oscar Taveras for his 100th career hit. In the All-Star Game, Wainwright incurred controversy over his remarks about facing leadoff hitter Derek Jeter. Jeter, who was retiring after the season, doubled on Wainwright's second pitch of the game. During interviews, he admitted that he gave Jeter an easy pitch to hit. "I was gonna give him a couple of pipe shots. He deserved it," Wainwright said. "I didn’t know he was gonna hit a double or I might have changed my mind." Wainwright later recanted, stating that it was in humor and that he was "not intentionally giving up hits out there". Conversely, Jeter was appreciative. "He grooved them? The first one was a little cutter that he threw down and away. He probably assumed I was swinging. So he didn't groove the first one. The second was about 90, a two-seamer that stayed on a really good ... No, I don't know, man," he paused and smiled, drawing laughs from reporters. "I have no idea. If he grooved it, thank you. You still got to hit it." Following the All-Star break, Wainwright temporarily struggled to keep the consistency of the first half of the season due to frequent elbow irritation. In June, he gave up just four earned runs in 31 IP for a 1.16 ERA, and followed that up with a 1.62 ERA in July. His results reversed in August when he allowed 22 ER in IP for a 5.17 ERA. However, in September, he posted a 1.38 ERA in 39 IP with 29 SO and a 5–0 W–L. He was subsequently named the NL Pitcher of the Month for September. After the season, Wainwright had a procedure to remove part of the cartilage of the right elbow on October 24. At times—commencing in June—he had altered his mechanics to mitigate the discomfort. In his third-to-last and second-to-last starts of the season—which were in the NLDS against the Dodgers and NLCS against the Giants—Wainwright was unable to complete five innings in both starts. This led to speculation Wainwright was pitching with pain, which he denied. Through the 2014 season he had a career 132 ERA+, third-highest for an active pitcher who has a minimum of 1,000 innings, and a winning percentage, fourth-highest for active pitchers. Wainwright finished third in the Cy Young voting for 2014, his third such placing, and fourth time he was positioned in the top three. 2015 The Cardinals selected Wainwright to make his fourth career Opening Day start, and the season-opening game for MLB in 2015, in what was also the first-ever MLB Opening Night game. He was credited with the win as the Cardinals defeated the Cubs at Wrigley Field, 3–0. On April 25, Wainwright left the game against the Brewers in the top of the fifth after suffering an ankle injury while batting. The next day, the Cardinals placed him on the 15-day disabled list, and announced the following day that he had an Achilles tendon rupture and would likely miss the remainder of the season. He underwent successful surgery to repair the tendon on April 30. With a recovery initially expected to take nine to twelve months, Wainwright had made four appearances through that point in the season, going 2–1 with a 1.44 ERA. As the season progressed, he consistently stated his goal was to return to pitching before the end of the season. After working diligently to accelerate his recovery, the Cardinals announced on September 21 that he was cleared to resume baseball activities, two weeks prior to the conclusion of the regular season. His actual recovery took five months. Making his first appearance of the season since April, Wainwright pitched a scoreless inning of relief in the first game of a doubleheader against Pittsburgh on September 30, an 8–2 loss. It was his first relief appearance since the 2006 World Series. Wainwright was named the Hutch Award winner for 2015. 2016 The Cardinals announced before spring training that Wainwright would be the Opening Day starter in 2016, his fifth time. For the three previous seasons, he had gone 41–19 with a 2.61 ERA. For the second consecutive season, the Cardinals opened the MLB season, this time at PNC Park against the Pittsburgh Pirates on April 3. The Cardinals lost the game, 4–1, with Wainwright taking the first loss of the season. He hit his first home run of season in a 10–3 win over the Philadelphia Phillies on May 2, also being credited with his second win. In each of four consecutive plate appearances spanning April 27 to May 7, he became the first Cardinal pitcher since 1900 to garner an extra base hit while batting, per Elias Sports Bureau. On the mound, he struggled early, yielding a 5.04 ERA in his first 16 starts of the season. Wainwright pitched a three-hit, complete-game shutout and 5−0 win against Miami on July 15, 2016; the first hit he allowed was a double to Adeiny Hechavarria in the sixth inning. With four RBI against Colorado on September 20, Wainwright increased his season total to 18, the highest total for all pitchers in the designated hitter era – since 1973 – and the most since Ferguson Jenkins drove in 20 for the Cubs in 1971. 2017 On April 21, 2017, Wainwright struck out nine and hit a home run with four RBI as the Cardinals defeated the Milwaukee Brewers, 6−3. His May 27 appearance was the 330th of his career, tying him with Larry Jackson (1955−1962) for tenth place in games pitched for the Cardinals. while passing Al Hrabosky. Wainwright pitched six scoreless innings versus Los Angeles on June 1, while hitting a two-run home run facing Brandon McCarthy, for a 2−0 win. On July 17, he passed Bill Doak for fifth place in wins (145) for the Cardinals. On the same day, Wainwright became the only active major league pitcher with multiple seasons of 10+ RBI (2016–17). The Cardinals placed Wainwright on the 10-day DL on July 25 due to mid-back tightness, retroactive to July 23. It was the fourth time in his career that he had been placed on the DL. Wainwright was activated from the DL on August 6, and totaled 11 innings in three starts. On August 18, the Cardinals placed him back on the DL for right elbow impingement. Wainwright reported pain in his right elbow for the second consecutive season and displayed a precipitous decline in velocity in his most recent starts. Treatments on the right elbow that Wainwright received during the season included trimming cartilage and an injection of platelet-rich plasma into the joint. In 23 games he had started, he allowed a 5.12 ERA with a 12−5 W−L record. Wainwright returned to pitch on September 18 from the bullpen for the remainder of the season. In 2017, Wainwright won his first career Silver Slugger Award, the first Cardinal pitcher to win the award since Bob Forsch (1980 and 1987) and Jason Marquis (2005). He batted .262/.279/.452, a career-high .731 OPS, and two home runs. Wainwright led all pitchers with seven runs scored and 11 RBI, and, among all with at least 40 plate appearances, in slugging percentage and OPS. He also hit .462 with runners in scoring position. After the season, Wainwright underwent right elbow surgery to remove a cartilage flap, the first surgery on the elbow since having Tommy John surgery in 2011. The cartilage flap was believed to have caused a bone bruise which led to reduced velocity and efficacy of his breaking pitches. Recovery time was expected to take six weeks with full readiness in time for the 2018 season. 2018 Wainwright began the 2018 season on the 10-day disabled list with a left hamstring sprain. He was reactivated on April 5 but placed on the disabled list again with right elbow inflammation on April 22. Wainwright was activated once again on May 13 and started that same day against the San Diego Padres. He gave up two runs and walked six batters in innings as San Diego beat St. Louis 5–3. Two days later, Wainwright was placed back on the 10-day DL before being transferred to the 60-day DL on May 17. 2019 Wainwright signed a one-year, $2 million contract extension with the Cardinals prior to the 2019 offseason. On April 24, 2019, Wainwright picked up his 150th win in a 5–2 victory against the Brewers. Over 31 starts during the regular season, he went 14–10 with a 4.19 ERA, striking out 153 over innings. In the 2019 MLB postseason, Wainwright struck out 19 over innings and had a 1.62 ERA. 2020 On November 12, 2019, Wainwright and the Cardinals agreed to a one-year contract for the 2020 season. On his 39th birthday, Wainwright pitched his first complete game since 2016 against the Cleveland Indians in a 7–2 win. He pitched a second, albeit 7-inning complete game against the Milwaukee Brewers on September 16. Over 10 starts for the 2020 season, Wainwright went 5–3 with a 3.15 ERA and 54 strikeouts over innings. 2021 On January 28, 2021, Wainwright signed a one-year, $8 million contract to stay with the Cardinals. On April 26, Wainwright pitched a complete game against the Philadelphia Phillies in a 2–1 loss as Rhys Hoskins hit two solo home runs off him. It was the second such occurrence in his career to pitch a 9-inning complete game and lose since a 2–1 loss to the Los Angeles Dodgers in 2007. Wainwright picked up his first win of the season in a 6–5 win over the New York Mets on May 3, while also picking up his 1,000th career strikeout at Busch Stadium; joining Bob Gibson as the only Cardinals pitchers with 1,000 strikeouts at their home ballparks. On June 14, Wainwright picked up his 1,900th strikeout against the Miami Marlins. On Father's Day, June 20, he pitched his second complete game of the year, albeit 7 innings in the first game of a doubleheader against the Atlanta Braves; striking out 11 while allowing just one run. On August 10, Wainwright pitched his first shutout since 2016, and his first ever Maddux against the Pittsburgh Pirates at PNC Park in a 4–0 Cardinals win, throwing 88 pitches. At 39, he became the oldest pitcher to record a shutout since Bartolo Colón in 2015. He was subsequently named National League Pitcher of the Month for August after going 5–1 with a 1.45 ERA, striking out 36 while walking just six over 44 innings. On September 3, Wainwright started against the Brewers with battery mate Yadier Molina, marking their 300th start as a battery. They are the fourth battery in MLB history to make 300 starts. The Cardinals won the game 15–4, with Wainwright picking up the win. While facing the Milwaukee Brewers on September 23, Wainwright recorded his 2,000th career strikeout against Luis Urías. Wainwright became the second pitcher in franchise history alongside Bob Gibson to reach the milestone. On October 1, the Cardinals and Wainwright agreed on a one-year deal for the 2022 season. Statistically for 2021, Wainwright had his best season since 2014, going 17–7 with a 3.05 ERA and 174 strikeouts in innings. Wainwright was second in MLB in wins (17), third in innings pitched (), tied for first in complete games (3) and tenth in walks and hits per inning pitched (1.057). He led the major leagues in sacrifice hits, with 14. Wainwright finished seventh in the 2021 NL Cy Young Award voting. 2022 On October 4, 2021, Wainwright and the Cardinals agreed to a one-year, $17.5 million deal for the 2022 season On April 7, 2022, Wainwright won his 100th game at Busch Stadium on Opening Day in a 9–0 win against the Pittsburgh Pirates, pitching six shutout innings with six strikeouts. On May 15, 2022, Wainwright and Molina made history claiming their 203rd win together, becoming the most successful battery in MLB history. Later that season on September 14, Wainwright and Molina set another MLB record by starting alongside one another for the 325th time, surpassing Mickey Lolich and Bill Freehan of the Detroit Tigers for the most starts by a battery. In November 2022, it was announced that Wainwright intended to represent Team USA in the 2023 World Baseball Classic. 2023 Wainwright announced that the 2023 season would be his last. On March 30, Wainwright sang the national anthem before the opening day game. In 21 starts for the Cardinals, Wainwright struggled to a 5–11 record and 7.40 ERA with 55 strikeouts in 101.0 innings of work. On September 18, pitching at home against the division-leading Milwaukee Brewers, he won his 200th game, 1-0, pitching seven scoreless innings, giving up only four hits, walking two, striking out three. His 2,202 career strikeouts make him the 66th pitcher to have at least 2,200 strikeouts. His 200 wins make him the 122nd pitcher in baseball history to reach that milestone. His 200 wins, all with the Cardinals, rank him third in the team's history, joining Bob Gibson (251) and Jesse Haines (210). At home on September 29, he batted for the first time since October 6, 2021. In the sixth inning with the team trailing 14-2, he pinch-hit for designated hitter Luken Baker. On the second pitch, he grounded out sharply to second base. It was his only at-bat that night. Over his career, he has 10 home runs, 75 RBIs, and a .193 batting average. He has five seasons batting over .200. Annual statistical achievements Notes: Through 2019 season. Per Baseball-Reference.com. Pitching style Wainwright has a sinkerball, throwing it in the range. He also throws a good deal of cutters and curveballs that have dropped more than 8 inches before from top to bottom of the pitch. Less commonly, he also throws a four-seam fastball and an changeup. He uses all of his pitches against left-handed hitters, but he does not use the changeup against right-handers. Wainwright's most-used pitch in two-strike counts is his curveball. In spring training of 2013, he started incorporating an elevated four-seam fastball, making his curveball more effective. Outside baseball Big League Impact A fantasy football enthusiast, Wainwright created and hosts a fantasy football network in eight cities called Big League Impact, designed to raise money for various charities. In 2015, the organization raised more than $1 million total. Other major leaguers, including David Wright, Hunter Pence, and John Smoltz host in their respective cities. The concept officially opened in July 2013 with the launch of a website called WainosWorld.com. In an interview with Fox Sports Midwest, Wainwright remarked that the program combined his love of fantasy football with his passion for helping the less fortunate. For a registration fee, all of which goes to charity, fans can assemble their own fantasy team and compete throughout the season against not only Wainwright but his current and former Cardinals teammates Allen Craig, David Freese, and Matt Holliday. Those with the best team records at season's end will receive prizes. The league raised $100,000 in 2013 and supported Operation Food Search and Water Missions International. Wainwright was the recipient of the 2020 Roberto Clemente Award due to his work with Big League Impact alongside his contributions in helping build Haiti's Ferrier Village Secondary School. As an actor With longtime aspirations to host an episode of Saturday Night Live, Wainwright made his film debut in the 2016 comedy-drama Proximity, directed by Dan Steadman and filmed in the St. Louis area. The majority of the work done was completed in 2015, after the opportunity presented to Wainwright due in part to the Achilles tendon injury he had suffered early in the season. Broadcasting Adam Wainwright made his national TV broadcasting debut on October 6, 2020, calling the 2020 NLDS with the Miami Marlins facing the Atlanta Braves on Fox Sports 1 with Adam Amin and former teammate A. J. Pierzynski. Wainwright joined Amin and Pierzynski again for the 2023 ALDS between the Houston Astros and Minnesota Twins. Musician On March 30, 2023, Wainwright surprised his teammates by performing the national anthem prior to the Cardinals' home opener against the Toronto Blue Jays. After he accomplished his musical goal, he nervously admitted, "I didn't mess the words up." An aspiring country music singer when his baseball career concludes after this season, Wainwright held a concert in Springfield, Illinois, in January 2023 for approximately 500 fans. Personal life Wainwright married his high school sweetheart, Jenny Curry, in 2004. In a quirk of fate, he was in the midst of proposing to Curry in December 2003, when a telephone call interrupted him to inform him he'd been traded from the Braves to the Cardinals. Jenny holds a degree in interior design from Georgia Southern University. In the off-season, the Wainwrights reside on St. Simons Island, Georgia, with their four daughters and a son, whom they adopted in 2019. Wainwright has openly expressed his Christian faith, and is active in the Fellowship of Christian Athletes. See also List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders List of Major League Baseball annual shutout leaders List of Major League Baseball career putouts as a pitcher leaders List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders List of Major League Baseball players with a home run in their first major league at bat List of St. Louis Cardinals team records List of World Series starting pitchers St. Louis Cardinals award winners and league leaders References Footnotes Source notes External links 1981 births Living people Gold Glove Award winners Silver Slugger Award winners Major League Baseball pitchers Baseball players from Atlanta National League All-Stars St. Louis Cardinals players National League wins champions Sportspeople from Brunswick, Georgia Danville Braves players Greenville Braves players Gulf Coast Braves players Macon Braves players Memphis Redbirds players Myrtle Beach Pelicans players Team USA players Mesa Solar Sox players Springfield Cardinals players People from St. Simons, Georgia 2023 World Baseball Classic players
4630168	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20manifesto	Art manifesto	An art manifesto is a public declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of an artist or artistic movement. Manifestos are a standard feature of the various movements in the modernist avant-garde and are still written today. Art manifestos are sometimes in their rhetoric intended for shock value, to achieve a revolutionary effect. They often address wider issues, such as the political system. Typical themes are the need for revolution, freedom (of expression) and the implied or overtly stated superiority of the writers over the status quo. The manifesto gives a means of expressing, publicising and recording ideas for the artist or art group—even if only one or two people write the words, it is mostly still attributed to the group name. In 1855 Gustave Courbet wrote a Realist manifesto for the introduction to the catalogue of his independent, personal exhibition. And in 1886 the Symbolist Manifesto was published in the French newspaper Le Figaro by the poet and essayist Jean Moréas. The first art manifesto of the 20th century was introduced with the Futurists in Italy in 1909, followed by the Cubists, Vorticists, Dadaists and the Surrealists: the period up to World War II created what are still the best known manifestos. Although they never stopped being issued, other media such as the growth of broadcasting tended to sideline such declarations. Due to the internet there has been a resurgence of the form, and many new manifestos are now appearing to a potential worldwide audience. The Stuckists have made particular use of this to start a worldwide movement of affiliated groups. Manifestos typically consist of a number of statements, which are numbered or in bullet points and which do not necessarily follow logically from one to the next. Tristan Tzara's explanation of the manifesto (Feeble Love & Bitter Love, II) captures the spirit of many: Concept Before the early 20th century, the manifesto was almost exclusively a declaration with political aims. The intention of artists adopting the form, therefore, is to indicate that they are employing art as a political tool. The art manifesto has two main goals. The first is to define and criticize a paradigm in contemporary art or culture; the second is to define a set of aesthetic values to counter this paradigm. Often, manifestos aspire to be works of art in their own right; for instance, many manifesto writers intend for their texts to be performed. Other manifestos cannot be fully appreciated simply as written statements because they rely heavily on graphic design for communication, a common feature in Dada manifestos. Several artists have written manifestos about artistic mediums not their own. Historically, there has been a strong parallel between the art manifesto and the political manifesto. It was not uncommon for manifesto writers of the early 20th century to also be politically active. In Italy, Futurist founder Filippo Tomasso Marinetti ran for office, and both Russian and Italian Futurists issued political manifestos. In England, Vorticist Wyndham Lewis supported the Suffragettes, while in France, Surrealist André Breton supported the Communist party. Often, however, these political organizations rejected the artists’ attention; in other cases, artists were censored and persecuted by European authoritarian governments, like Fascist Italy and Communist Russia, which institutionally rejected the avant-garde. Pre-1900 Realist Manifesto 1855 Gustave Courbet wrote a Realist manifesto for the introduction to the catalogue of his independent, personal exhibition, 1855, echoing the tone of the period's political manifestos. In it he asserts his goal as an artist "to translate the customs, the ideas, the appearance of my epoch according to my own estimation." Symbolist Manifesto 1886 In 1886 the Symbolist Manifesto was published in the French newspaper Le Figaro by the poet and essayist Jean Moréas. It defined and characterized Symbolism as a style whose "goal was not the ideal, but whose sole purpose was to express itself for the sake of being expressed." It names Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Paul Verlaine as the three leading poets of the movement. Seminal 1909–45 Futurist Manifesto 1909, 1914 The Futurist Manifesto, written by the Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, was published in the Italian newspaper Gazzetta dell'Emilia in Bologna on February 5, 1909, then in French as Manifeste du futurisme in the newspaper Le Figaro on February 20, 1909. It initiated an artistic philosophy, Futurism, that was a rejection of the past, and a celebration of speed, machinery, violence, youth and industry; it was also an advocation of the modernization and cultural rejuvenation of Italy. Since the founding manifesto did not contain a positive artistic programme, the Futurists attempted to create one in their subsequent Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting (1914). This committed them to a "universal dynamism", which was to be directly represented in painting and sculpture. Objects in reality were not separate from one another or from their surroundings: "The sixteen people around you in a rolling motor bus are in turn and at the same time one, ten four three; they are motionless and they change places... The motor bus rushes into the houses which it passes, and in their turn the houses throw themselves upon the motor bus and are blended with it." Cubist Manifesto 1912 Du "Cubisme", written in 1912 by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger, was the first major theoretical text on Cubism. The book was illustrated with works by Gleizes, Metzinger, Paul Cézanne, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Francis Picabia, Marcel Duchamp, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, André Derain and Marie Laurencin. In this highly influential treatise Gleizes and Metzinger explicitly related the concept of 'multiple perspective' to the Bergsonian sense of time. The faceted treatment of physical objects and space blurred the distinctions between subject and abstraction, between representation and non-objectivity. Effects of non-Euclidean geometry were used to convey a psychophysical sense of fluidity of consciousness. Du "Cubisme" introduced the concept of 'simultaneity' into the theoretical framework of Cubism. It was in part a concept born out of a conviction based on the authors understanding of Henri Poincaré and Bergson that the separation or distinction between space and time should be comprehensively challenged. It was based both on philosophical and scientific ideas, on Riemannian geometry and the relativity of knowledge, contradicting notions of absolute truth. These ideas were disseminated and debated in the widely available publication, and read by writers and artists associated with the advent of modernism. The Art of Noise 1913 Manifeste de l'école amorphiste 1913 Published in Les Homme du jour in 1913, it has never been clear whether this was a sincere manifesto of the new school of amorphism, or a parody. Vorticist Manifesto 1914 Extracts from the Vorticists' BLAST manifesto were published in their magazine Blast, number 1, on June 20, 1914, and then in Blast, number 2, in July 1915. Suprematist Manifesto 1915 In 1915, Kazimir Malevich laid down the foundations of Suprematism when he published his manifesto, From Cubism to Suprematism. Dada Manifesto 1916 Hugo Ball recited the first Dada manifesto at Cabaret Voltaire on July 14, 1916. The second Dada manifesto was recited by Tristan Tzara at the Salle Meise on March 23, 1918, and published in Dada, No. 3 (Zurich, December 1918). De Stijl 1918 Signed by Theo van Doesburg, Robt. van 't Hoff, Vilmos Huszar, Antony Kok, Piet Mondrian, Georges Vantongerloo, Jan Wils Manifest I of "The Style" (De Stijl), from De Stijl, vol. II, no. 1 (November 1918), p. 4. Realistic Manifesto 1920 The Realistic Manifesto (published August 5, 1920) was written by Russian sculptor Naum Gabo and cosigned by his brother Antoine Pevsner, and the key text of Constructivism. Purist Manifesto 1920-1925 The founders of Purism, Amédée Ozenfant and Charles-Edouard Jeanneret (better known as Le Corbusier), titled their manifesto Après le Cubisme (After Cubism). Surrealist Manifesto 1924 The first Surrealist manifesto was written by the French writer André Breton in 1924 and released to the public 1925. The document defines Surrealism as: Psychic automatism in its pure state, by which one proposes to express -- verbally, by means of the written word, or in any other manner -- the actual functioning of thought. Dictated by the thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason, exempt from any aesthetic or moral concern. Art Concret 1930 Base de la peinture concrète, was written by Otto G. Carlsund, Theo van Doesburg, Jean Hélion, Marcel Wantz and Léon Arthur Tutundjian, published in Revue Art Concret, no. 1 (April 1930). Manifesto of Mural Painting 1933 Mario Sironi was motivated by the political ideals of Italian Fascism more than any specific artistic movement. Working on art for the regime's newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia, Sironi eventually contributed by creating murals for the 1932 Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution. Afterwards, Sironi signed the Manifesto of Mural Painting in 1933. Sironi continued to work exclusively on murals until after WWII. Manifesto: Towards a Free Revolutionary Art 1938 Towards a Free Revolutionary Art was written by surrealist André Breton and Marxist Leon Trotsky as a reaction against the Soviet Union's mandated art. Post-war 1946–59 White Manifesto 1946 White Manifesto is a 1946 text written by Lucio Fontana. COBRA manifesto 1948 CoBrA manifesto, titled La cause était entendue, written by Christian Dotremont, and signed by Karel Appel, Constant, Corneille, Asger Jorn, and Joseph Noiret in 1948. Refus global 1948 The Refus global (or Total Refusal) was an anti-establishment and anti-religious manifesto released on August 9, 1948, in Montreal by a group of sixteen young Québécois artists and intellectuals known as les Automatistes, led by Paul-Émile Borduas. The Refus global was greatly influenced by French poet André Breton, and it extolled the creative force of the subconscious. Manifesto of Eaismo 1948 Manifesto of Eaismo is by Voltolino Fontani. Sculptors' First Manifesto 1949 Sculptors' First Manifesto is by René Iché. Mystical Manifesto 1951 The Mystical Manifesto (Manifeste Mystique in French) was written in 1951 by Salvador Dalí. "Dalí confirmed that confirmed that he is an ex-surrealist and in favor of religious paintings. Dalí said his role in the art of nuclear mysticism was to 'explain and accelerate the process." Dalí's preference during this period shifted to representational art, in spite of the rise of abstractionism. Manifesto pittura nucleare 1951 Written was by Enrico Baj. Les Spatialistes Manifesto 1952 Les Spatialistes, an Italian group based in Milan drew up a manifesto for television. Un Art Autre 1952 This work by Michel Tapié defined the art informel movement. Gutai Manifesto 1956 This manifesto by Jirô Yoshihara defined the artistic aims of Japan's Gutai group. Auto-Destructive Art Manifesto 1959 Written by Gustav Metzger in 1964, this was given as a lecture to the Architectural Association, and taken over by students as an artistic "Happening". One of Metzger's Ealing College students was Pete Townshend, who later cited Metzger's concepts as an influence for his famous guitar-smashing during performances of The Who. Neo-Concrete Manifesto 1959 Neo-Concrete Manifesto, by Ferreira Gullar, begins: We use the term "neo-concrete" to differentiate ourselves from those committed to non-figurative "geometric" art (neo-plasticism, constructivism, suprematism, the school of Ulm) and particularly the kind of concrete art that is influenced by a dangerously acute rationalism. In the light of their artistic experience, the painters, sculptors, engravers and writers participating in this first Neo-concrete Exhibition came to the conclusion that it was necessary to evaluate the theoretical principles on which concrete art has been founded, none of which offers a rationale for the expressive potential they feel their art contains." Manifesto of Industrial Painting 1959 "Manifesto of Industrial Painting: For a unitary applied art", written by Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio, in August 1959, was originally published in Italian in Notizie Arti Figurative No. 9 (1959). Shortly afterwards it was published in Internationale Situationniste no.3 in a French translation. It was translated into English in 1997 by Molly Klein. It has only 70 points and is written a grand utopian rhetorical manner, with statements such as, "A new, ravenous force of domination will push men toward an unimaginable epic poetry." One of its themes is the reconciliation of industry and nature: The return to nature with modern instrumentation will allow man, after thousands of centuries, to return to the places where Paleolithic hunters overcame great fear; modern man will seek to abandon his own, accumulated in the idiocy of progress, on contact with humble things, which nature in her wisdom has conserved as a check on the immense arrogance of the human mind. Counterculture 1960–75 Manifestos in the 1960s reflected the changing social and political attitudes of the times: the general ferment of "counterculture" revolution to overthrow the existing order and the particular rise of feminism and Black Power, as well as the pioneering of new art forms such as body art and performance art. Situationist Manifesto 1960 The Situationist International was founded at Cosio d’Arroscia April 27, 1957, by eight members, who wanted a revolutionary art with a state of constant transformation, and hence newness, as well as abolishing the gap between art and life. The manifesto espousing this was issued May 17, 1960, and reprinted in Internationale Situationniste number 4 in June 1960. It advocated the "new human force" against technology and the "dissatisfaction of its possible uses in our senseless social life", stating "We will inaugurate what will historically be the last of the crafts. The role of amateur-professional situationist—of anti-specialist—is again a specialization up to the point of economic and mental abundance, when everyone becomes an 'artist'". Its final sentence is: "Such are our goals, and these will be the future goals of humanity." The Chelsea Hotel Manifesto 1961 This manifesto, written by Yves Klein, has been copyrighted since 1989 by the Gagosian Gallery. It begins with the prompts for the later statements in the manifesto, the first line being, "Due to the fact that I have painted monochromes for fifteen years". It is a meditation by the artist about his work and life: An artist always feels uneasy when called upon to speak of his own work. It should speak for itself, particularly when it is valid. What can I do? Stop now? No, what I call "the indefinable pictorial sensibility" absolutely escapes this very personal solution. So... He appropriates the sky: Once, in 1946, while still an adolescent, I was to sign my name on the other side of the sky during a fantastic "realistico-imaginary" journey. That day, as I lay stretched upon the beach of Nice, I began to feel hatred for birds which flew back and forth across my blue, cloudless sky, because they tried to bore holes in my greatest and most beautiful work. Birds must be eliminated. He ends with an affirmation that he is "ready to dive into the void". I Am For An Art... Manifesto, 1961 Claes Oldenburg, a Pop artist, reacting against Abstract Expressionism, along with other young artists. The Manifesto ‘I am for an Art’ was originally made to be included in the catalogue of the 'Environments, Situations and Spaces’ exhibition. Each of the statements begin with 'I am for an art...'. The following quote is from the first two statement in his poetical manifesto: "I am for an art that is political-erotical-mystical, that does something other than sit on its ass in a museum.I am for an art that grows up not knowing it is art at all, an art given the chance of having a starting point of zero... " Fluxus Manifesto 1963 Written by George Maciunas, this short hand-printed document consists of three paragraphs interspersed with collage elements from dictionary definitions related to "flux". It is written in lower case, with upper case for certain key phrases, some underlined. Its first paragraph is: Purge the world of bourgeois sickness, "intellectual", professional and commercialized culture, purge the world of dead art, imitation, artificial art, abstract art, illusionistic art, mathematical art, — purge the world of "Europanism"! It advocates revolution, "living art, anti-art" and "non art reality to be grasped by all peoples, not only critics, dilettantes and professionals." SCUM Manifesto 1967 SCUM, by Valerie Solanas, is an acronym for the "Society for Cutting up Men" and the manifesto was not specifically about art. However, it has become part of art history, because it was published in 1968, the same year that Solanas, who had spent time in Andy Warhol's "Factory", shot and nearly killed him. It also has sections that address art ideas. Solanas spent her last years as a street prostitute and died in 1988. It is a document of just over 11,000 words. Its tone and basic theme are evident from the title, but it is not quite as clear cut as it seems and some women are admitted to be as bad as men (women artists, for example). SCUM wants to "destroy all useless and harmful objects — cars, store windows, "Great Art", etc." In a section on "'Great Art' and 'Culture'" it states: The male 'artist' attempts to solve his dilemma of not being able to live, of not being female, by constructing a highly artificial world in which the male is heroized, that is, displays female traits, and the female is reduced to highly limited, insipid subordinate roles, that is, to being male. The male 'artistic' aim being, not to communicate (having nothing inside him he has nothing to say), but to disguise his animalism, he resorts to symbolism and obscurity ('deep' stuff). The vast majority of people, particularly the 'educated' ones, lacking faith in their own judgment, humble, respectful of authority ('Daddy knows best'), are easily conned into believing that obscurity, evasiveness, incomprehensibility, indirectness, ambiguity and boredom are marks of depth and brilliance ... Absorbing 'culture' is a desperate, frantic attempt to groove in an ungroovy world, to escape the horror of a sterile, mindless, existence. 'Culture' provides a sop to the egos of the incompetent, a means of rationalizing passive spectating; they can pride themselves on their ability to appreciate the 'finer' things, to see a jewel where this is only a turd (they want to be admired for admiring). Maintenance Art Manifesto 1969 The full title of the manifesto is "Maintenance Art—Proposal for an Exhibition"; it is considered a seminal document of feminist art. Mierle Laderman Ukeles was pregnant at the time, and decided to reinterpret household chores by becoming a "maintenance artist", where she would "perform" them. Through this such "maintenance" revealed itself as an important condition for freedom and social functioning and she extended the idea beyond feminism to projects like the 11 month Touch Sanitation, involving 8,500 New York workers. More recently she has addressed a landfill site on Staten Island. The manifesto was followed by a questionnaire (1973–76) and was concerned with making art of what would normally be seen as routine, mundane chores. She wrote, "After the revolution, who is going to pick up the garbage on Monday morning?". She followed this up with a "Sanitation Manifesto!" (1984) The Maintenance Manifesto stated: Maintenance is a drag; it takes all the fucking time (lit.) The mind boggles and chafes at the boredom. The culture confers lousy status on maintenance jobs--minimum wages, housewives — no pay. Clean your desk, wash the dishes, clean the floor, wash your clothes, wash your toes, change the baby's diaper, finish the report, correct the typos, mend the fence, keep the customer happy, throw out the stinking garbage, watch out don't put things in your nose, what shall I wear, I have no sox, pay your bills, don't litter, save string, wash your hair, change the sheets, go to the store, I'm out of perfume, say it again — he doesn't understand, seal it again — it leaks, go to work, this art is dusty, clear the table, call him again, flush the toilet, stay young. The Romantic Manifesto 1969 The Romantic Manifesto is a collection of essays by philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand, published under a single title in 1969. A revised edition was published in 1975. The essays explain the Objectivist perspective on art, originated by Ayn Rand. The term "Romantic" does not refer does not relate to the concept of love and is instead a reference to the Romantic Era, an art movement prominent in the late 18th century and early-to-mid 19th century. Rand sought to reawaken this movement in contemporary culture, claiming that it did not exist in her lifetime, while rejecting the elements of it that were anathema to Objectivist philosophy:THIS MANIFESTO IS NOT ISSUED IN THE NAME OF AN ORGANIZATION OR A MOVEMENT. I SPEAK ONLY FOR MYSELF. THERE IS NO ROMANTIC MOVEMENT TODAY. IF THERE IS TO BE ONE IN THE ART OF THE FUTURE, THIS BOOK WILL HAVE HELPED IT TO COME INTO BEING. AfriCobra Manifesto 1970 Afri-Cobra was a black artist collective founded in the late 1960s by Jeff Donaldson and based in Chicago. He helped organise international shows of black artists and wrote influential manifestos. AfriCobra is an acronym for "African Commune of Bad Relevant Artists". This was derived from combining the term for Africa with "Cobra", the "Coalition of Black Revolutionary Artists". The manifesto stated the groups objectives to be the development of a new African American art, involving social responsibility, community artistic involvement and promotion of pride in Black identity. There were parallels with African American musical innovations, and the advocacy of a complementary aesthetic involving sublime imagery and high-key colours. WAR Manifestos early 1970s WAR is an acronym for "Women Artists in Revolution" of which Nancy Spero was a member. Prior to this in 1966–70 she had created a series of anti-Vietnam War "manifestos" which were images created with water paints and inks on paper. She then attended AWC (Art Workers Coalition) meetings, which had men and women members, and became part of WAR, which was an offshoot. She said, "I loved it. I was so angry at that time about so many things, especially about not being able to get my art out, to get people to look. I thought, "WAR"— that's it. We started to organize some actions and protests and wrote manifestos. For example, a few of us marched into the Museum of Modern Art and demanded equality for women artists. Then, I joined another, the Ad Hoc Committee of Women Artists. It all went very fast in those days." Women's Art: A Manifesto 1972 Valie Export is a Viennese performance artist who worked with the Actionists and catalogued their events. She did her own confrontational body art, with a philosophy of "Feminist Actionism", inviting people to touch her in the street. She issued "written manifestos predicting with vengeance the future of women's art" and "made important theoretical contributions to communicating a personal feminism in performance. She felt that it was important politically to create art. 'I knew that if I did it naked, I would really change how the (mostly male) audience would look at me.'" Collectif d'Art Sociologique manifesto 1974 The French Sociological art Collective was founded by Fred Forest, Jean-Paul Thénot and Hervé Fischer and had their manifesto published in the newspaper Le Monde. Its main purpose was using sociology to underpin artistic actions, or using artistic actions to elucidate sociological phenomena. One such action was the auctioning of a "artistic square meter" in 1976 to spoof the inflation of prices in the housing and art markets. The collective made heavy use of mass media and live performance using video, telephones, etc. The group was dissolved in 1981, though some of its tenets were brought by Fred Forest and Mario Costa with the Communication aesthetics movement of 1983. Body Art Manifesto 1975 In 1975 François Pluchart promoted the first Body Art show at the Galerie Stadler in Paris, with work from 21 artists, including Marcel Duchamp, Chris Burden and Katharina Sieverding. The first Body Art manifesto was published. A Manifesto on Lyrical Conceptualism 1975 by Paul Hartal This is a four-page document illustrated with nine black and white images of the artist's paintings, collages and multimedia, published in Montreal in 1975. "My art is a painted metaphor; the past machine of a perpetual second, the fossil emotion of an infinite longing, the magic desire evolving on the broken axis of the compressed space, reflected in the form of inner, personal landscapes", writes Hartal in the manifesto. "Art ought to be total", he suggests. "The biotic separated from the geometrical is arbitrary, and ignores the human nature." The idea of "Lyrical Conceptualism is based on the wholeness of the psychological coordinate", he says. It "derives from the id, ego and superego"; an "art in which the primarily twofold character of the artist's view evolves into a lyrical, intuitive and conceptual triad". In The Brush and the Compass: The Interface Dynamics of Art and Science (Lanham: University Press of America, 1988, 341 pp), Hartal discusses in more detail the theory of Lyrical Conceptualism or Lyco art, Punk and cyber 1976–1998 The rise of the punk movement with its basic and aggressive DIY attitude had a significant input into art manifestos, and this is reflected even in the titles. Some of the artists overtly identified with punk through music, publishing or poetry performance. There is also an equivalent "shocking" interpretation of feminism which contradicts the non-objectification advocated in the 1960s. Then the growing presence of the computer age began to assert itself in art proclamations as in society. Crude Art Manifesto 1978 Artist Charles Thomson promoted the Crude Art Manifesto 1978. This was posted in Maidstone Art College by Charles Thomson, then a student at the college. 21 years later he co-wrote the Stuckist manifestos with Billy Childish. Thomson was also a member of the punk-based The Medway Poets. The manifesto rejects "department store" art and "elitist" gallery art, as well as sophistication and skill which are "easily obtainable ... and are used both industrially and artistically to conceal a poverty of content." The priority is stated to be "the exploration and expression of the human spirit". Smile Manifestos 1982 by Stewart Home At this time Stewart Home operated as a one-person movement "Generation Positive", founding a punk band called White Colours and publishing an art fanzine Smile, which mostly contained art manifestos for the "Generation Positive". The rhetoric of these resembled the 1920s Berlin Dadaist manifestos. His idea was that other bands round the world should also call themselves White Colours and other magazines be titled Smile. The first part of the book Neoist Manifestos/The Art Strike Papers featured abridged versions of his manifesto-style writings from Smile. International Association of Astronomical Artists Manifesto 1982 The basic tenet of the IAAA is the depiction of space (as in the cosmos) through realist painting. They disassociate themselves from science fiction and fantasy artists: "a firm foundation of knowledge and research is the basis for each painting. Striving to accurately depict scenes which are at present beyond the range of human eyes". The group now has over 120 members representing 20 countries. Cheap Art Manifesto 1984 by the Bread and Puppet Theater The whole title is "the Why Cheap Art? manifesto". It is a single sheet, issued by the Bread and Puppet Theater "in direct response to the business of art and its growing appropriation by the corporate sector." There are seventeen statements, most of them beginning "Art is" and ending with an exclamation mark, set out mostly in upper case, sometimes mixed in with lower case, in different typefaces which get bolder through the leaflet until the final statement of a large HURRAH. It starts: People have been thinking too long that art is a privilege of the museums & the rich. Art is not business! It stresses the positive nature of art which is beneficial to all and should be available to all, using poetic images such as "Art is like green trees", and urging, "Art fights against war & stupidity! ... Art is cheap! A Cyborg Manifesto 1985 by Donna J. Haraway This has the full title of "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth-Century." Donna Haraway is a cultural historian. She advocates the development of cyborgs ("cybernetic organisms") as the way forward for a post-gender society. This had a significant effect initially amongst academics. VNS Matrix, a group of Australian women artists and British cultural historian, Sadie Plant, established a cyberfeminist movement in 1994. From 1997, the Old Boys Network (OBN) has organised "Cyberfeminist Internationals". What our art means 1986 by Gilbert and George The manifesto is five paragraphs, each with a subtitle, the first of which is "Art for All", summing up the popularist intent of their manifesto: We want Our Art to speak across the barriers of knowledge directly to People about their Life and not about their knowledge of art. The twentieth century has been cursed with an art that cannot be understood. The decadent artists stand for themselves and their chosen few, laughing at and dismissing the normal outsider. We say that puzzling, obscure and form-obsessed art is decadent and a cruel denial of the Life of People. There is also an intent to change people, but "The art-material must be subservient to the meaning and purpose of the picture." It states: We want to learn to respect and honour "the whole". The content of mankind is our subject and our inspiration. We stand each day for good traditions and necessary changes. We want to find and accept all the good and bad in ourselves. The conclusion is an affirmation of "our life-search for new meanings and purpose to give to life." Post Porn Modernist Manifesto c.1989 by Veronica Vera The manifesto was signed by Veronica Vera and Candida Royalle (both ex porn stars who had then directed their own porn movies), Annie Sprinkle (who gives explicit sexual one woman shows) and performance artist Frank Moore, among other significant artists who use sex in their work. In 7 short points, it founds an art movement, which "celebrates sex as the nourishing, life-giving force. We embrace our genitals as part, not separate, from our spirits." It advocates the "attitude of sex-positivism" and wishes to "communicate our ideas and emotions ... to have fun, heal the world and endure." A Cyberfeminist Manifesto for the 21st Century, 1991 by VNS Matrix VNS Matrix was a cyberfeminist art collective founded in Adelaide, Australia, in 1991. Their manifesto, written in 1991, was translated over the years into many languages including Italian, French, Spanish, Russian, Japanese and Finnish. It begins: we are the modern cunt positive anti reason unbounded unleashed unforgiving we see art with our cunt we make art with our cunt In 1996 they wrote the Bitch Mutant Manifesto. The Manifesto, 1996 by Michael Betancourt The Manifesto proposed an interactive, fill-in-the-blanks view of prohibitions and claims to be made about art and art movements. It was an early interactive piece of net art that appeared in webzines and in newsgroups, inviting participation. It begins: Today, itself is obsolete. The manifesto ends with a Reset button. The text is sampled from Tristian Tzara's Dada manifestos, but key pieces from the original text have been omitted and replaced with blanks to be filled-in. It is one of the earliest manifestos to be published on the Internet as well as in print. New Ink Art Modern European ink painting is the European/Western contribution to the (mainly Asian) New Ink Art movement. It combines/merges Expressionism, Art Informel, Minimalism, Plein air work, Abstract Art (etc.) with typically East Asian formal reductive techniques (Ink wash painting), philosophy, materials, and concepts. The original and completed one in form of an artist statement or agenda has been written in 1996 and dispatched to Tokyo in 1997 via the Croatian Ministry of Culture, then to Vienna to the Embassy of Japan and then to the Japanese Government in Tokyo. Based on that (and other elements like university grades) Alfred Krupa have been granted a scholarship for postgraduate research in Japan in 1998. Croatia and Japan established diplomatic relations in 1993 and he was the very first Croatian painter to be granted by the Government of Japan. After Krupa's application was formally dispatched the only thing left to him was the first draft, a sketch of his proclamation and agenda. For several years it was lost somewhere among other stuff in his family apartment. As it is known the Krupa family have been evicted in 2010 and he thought that it is lost forever as it was written on two pieces of plain paper. But it was preserved among other items from their house in one storage in very poor conditions. In 2017 the family was able to retrieve part of personal belongings which has been at the time removed to their garage. Recently, the painter was digging in his garage and by chance, he has found those original writings from 1996! It was scanned and retyped with corrected English grammar. It is the manifesto which Alfred Krupa followed and expanded in over 20 years. It is also a document from the history of the International New Ink Art movement. New Ink Art movement was for a long time considered a local (Hong Kong) or regional or Chinese national artistic phenomena founded by Lui Shou-Kwan /1919-1975/ (some still thinks about it in that way). With these (and probably of other artists as well) activities concerning Croatia-Japan in the last decade of the 20th century, it has become the international movement. Lui Shou-Kwan and his followers (up to the present times) reinterprets Chinese ink art in the form of Western modernism. Krupa is doing something essentially opposite/different from Shou-Kwan and his group, he reinterprets Western modernism in the form of Chinese ink art. At present it is not known is there any other manifesto concerning the International New Ink Art movement, in the west, there is none, at least not created in that time frame (the mid-1990s). The original manuscript of Krupa's New Ink Art Manifesto from 1996 is the property of the documenta (exhibition) archiv, records and papers collection in Kassel (the access number docA-97). Group Hangman 1997 by Billy Childish Group Hangman was started by Billy Childish, Tracey Emin and two others in Medway, Kent in 1983 for a short time. Fourteen years later it reformed with more members (nearly all of whom later joined the Stuckists art group), but without Emin. At this point Childish wrote 6 short manifestos, each containing 7 – 12 statements. He says, "they were anarchic and contradictory - my favourite!" Some of the ideas resurfaced in the Stuckist manifestos written two years later. Point 9 of Communication 0001 states: Western art has been stupefying its audience into taking the position of an admiring doormat. We, at Group Hangman however, intend to wipe our mud-encrusted boots on the face of conceptual balderdash. Style must be smashed ("Artistic talent is the only obstacle") and the unacceptable must be embraced. The last communication, of only two short sentences, was written in 2000 and recommends, "It is time for art to grow up." E-Mail-Art & Internet-Art Manifesto 1997 by Guy Bleus With the participation of 34 artistic networkers (such as, Anna Banana, Sarah Jackson, Madelyn 'Honoria' Starbuck, Judith Hoffberg, Vittore Baroni, Ken Friedman, John Held Jr., Ruud Janssen, György Galántai, Rod Summers, Andrej Tisma) from 13 countries Guy Bleus (aka 42.292) wrote the RE: E-Mail-Art & Internet-Art Manifesto. It was published in 1997 in Bleus' electronic art zine "E-Pêle-Mêle". Extropic Art Manifesto 1997 by Natasha Vita-More (formerly Nancie Clark) (A genre of the Transhumanist art movement whose manifesto was written in 1982) This was written on January 1, 1997, and was apparently "on board the Cassini Huygens spacecraft on its mission to Saturn." Following the statement "We are transhumans", there is the explanation, "Transhumanist Art reflects an extropic appreciation of aesthetics in a technologically enhanced world." After the manifesto is a "FAQ", which states, "Transhumanist Arts include creative works by scientists, engineers, technicians, philosophers, athletes, educators, mathematicians, etc., who may not be artists in the traditional sense, but whose vision and creativity are integral to transhumanity." The Manifesto is based on a Transhumanist Art Statement written in 1982. Cited as specific influences are "Abstract Art, Performance Art, Kinetic Art, Cubism, Techno Art, science fiction and Communications Art." Some collaborators of Vita-More's are named as Timothy Leary, Bill Viola and Francis Ford Coppola. World Wide Web 1999–present Widespread access to the internet has created a new incentive for artists to publish manifestos, with the knowledge that there is an instant potential worldwide audience. The effect of the internet on art manifestos has been described: "One could almost say we are living through a new boom time for the manifesto. The Web allows almost anybody to nail a broadsheet to the virtual wall for all to see." Some of the manifestos also appear in print form; others only exist as virtual text. It has also led to a great diversity of approaches, as well as a noticeable trend looking back at earlier traditions of Modernism or the Renaissance to create a present and future paradigm. The Stuckists manifesto has become well known, though most others have achieved little individual reputation or impact. Stuckist manifesto 1999 by Billy Childish and Charles Thomson The Stuckists have grown in eleven years from 13 artists in London to 209 groups in 48 countries, and claim, "Stuckism is the first significant art movement to spread via the Internet" The first 3 points of their numbered eponymous manifesto proclaim "a quest for authenticity", "painting is the medium of self discovery" and "a model of art which is holistic". The 4th point states, "Artists who don't paint aren't artists"; the 5th is, "Art that has to be in a gallery to be art isn't art." Points are made against conceptual art, Britart, Charles Saatchi, art gimmicks and white wall galleries, while the amateur is hailed. The final point is: Stuckism embraces all that it denounces. We only denounce that which stops at the starting point — Stuckism starts at the stopping point! This manifesto is available on their web site in 7 languages. They have issued at least 8 other manifestos, including the Remodernist Manifesto (2000), which inaugurates "a new spirituality in art" (to replace Postmodernism's "scientific materialism, nihilism and spiritual bankruptcy"), the Turner Prize Manifesto, handed out in their demonstrations at Tate Britain and a Critique of Damien Hirst. The Tate gallery holds three of the manifestos. Spin-offs by other Stuckists include a Camberwell College of Arts Students for Stuckism manifesto (2000) and a teenagers' Underage Stuckists Manifesto (2006). In 2006, Allen Herndon published The Manifesto of the American Stuckists, whose content was challenged by the Los Angeles Stuckists group. There has also been an anti-Stuckist manifesto published in 2005 by the London Surrealist Group. The Resurrection of Beauty: a manifesto for the future of art 2002-10 By Mark Miremont. The Resurrection of Beauty manifesto was first published in 2010 by Galerie Provocatrice in Amsterdam for a related exhibit and film premiere. Its purpose is to inspire resistance to pretenses in conceptual art which seek to eliminate Beauty as a central concern in the future of Art. Two central lines from the manifesto are: "Beauty is the purpose of art, just as a building is the purpose of architecture" and "The utility of art is to inform us of Beauty, just as the utility of science is to inform us of truth." How to Write an Avant-Garde Manifesto (a Manifesto) 2006 by Lee Scrivner An avant-garde manifesto that reviews avant-garde manifestos of the past hundred years, it was taped to the front door of the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London in April 2006. It was later published online by ICA residents, the London Consortium. The Remodernist Film Manifesto 2008 by Jesse Richards A manifesto on filmmaking written by former Stuckist painter, photographer and filmmaker Jesse Richards that like the closely related Remodernism manifesto, calls for a "new spirituality", but in this instance, in relation to cinema. The manifesto proclaims a spiritual film to be "not about religion. It is cinema concerned with humanity and an understanding of the simple truths and moments of humanity. Spiritual film is really ALL about these moments". Point 4 of the manifesto discusses Japanese aesthetics in relation to the idea of Remodernist film: "The Japanese ideas of wabi-sabi (the beauty of imperfection) and mono no aware (the awareness of the transience of things and the bittersweet feelings that accompany their passing), have the ability to show the truth of existence, and should always be considered when making the remodernist film". The manifesto also criticizes filmmakers that shoot on video, arguing that film, particularly Super-8 film "has a rawness, and an ability to capture the poetic essence of life, that video has never been able to accomplish" and also criticizes Stanley Kubrick's work, as being "dishonest and boring", as well as Dogme 95's "pretentious checkist" of rules. Instead, the Remodernist film philosophy seems to be somewhat anti-ego, with Richards noting that "this manifesto should be viewed only as a collection of ideas and hints whose author may be mocked and insulted at will". The manifesto was recently translated into Turkish and published by the film website Bakiniz, and is being translated into Polish and published by the Polish underground art and culture magazine, RED. The Superstroke Art Movement Manifesto 2008 by Conrad Bo This manifesto was written by the South African conceptual artist Conrad Bo, who believes the Superstroke Art Movement is the first internationally known art movement in Africa since the Fook Island art movement started by Walter Battiss. The manifesto is quite specific in what the Superstroke Art Movement want to achieve. Superstroke is short for the super expressive brush stroke. The Manifesto for the Superstroke Art Movement written by Conrad Bo is as follows: 1.Paintings should be executed using expressive even violent brush strokes on at least some part of the picture. 2.Should a photograph be used for a figurative painting, the objection should not be Photorealism, but Expressionism. 3.If mediums such as pen, pencil, etc. are used, the pen and pencil strokes must at least be overly expressive for it to be considered a Superstroke picture. 4.Paintings can be executed in both the abstract and figurative. 5.Subject matters such as Africa, light, dark, life and death are encouraged. 6.Collage, Stencil and Calligraphy may be used for impact. 7.The concept, Art for the sake of art, does not apply in Superstroke. In Superstroke it is art for the sake of Superstroke, as the artist must always strive for paintings rich in texture, or excessive brush or pencil strokes. The Metamodernist Manifesto (2011) by Luke Turner The Metamodernist Manifesto was written by artist Luke Turner as "an exercise in simultaneously defining and embodying the metamodern spirit." The manifesto recognised "oscillation to be the natural order of the world" and called for an end to "the inertia resulting from a century of modernist ideological naivety and the cynical insincerity of its antonymous bastard child." Instead, Turner proposed metamodernism as "the mercurial condition between and beyond irony and sincerity, naivety and knowingness, relativism and truth, optimism and doubt, in pursuit of a plurality of disparate and elusive horizons," and concluded with a call to "go forth and oscillate!" The manifesto formed the basis of LaBeouf, Rönkkö & Turner's collaborative art practice, after the actor Shia LaBeouf reached out to Turner in early 2014 after reading the text. The Excessivism Manifesto (2014) by Kaloust Guedel The Manifesto was written in 2014 and was published in Los Angeles Downtown News weekly on September 28, 2015 (page 10). It starts out in a typically dense fashion: "Excessive use of resources in magnified state, by which one expresses: by means of two, or three dimensional visual-creations, written, or pronounce words, or in any other manner. As a reflection, examination, or investigation of the capitalist system, exempt of aesthetical, legal, commercial, ethical, or moral considerations." It is to go beyond the usual, necessary, or proper limit or degree. To have a certain urge ”to acquire material goods beyond one's needs and often means.”. Excessivism, as a new global art movement, tends to be a commentary on the economic materialism. The New Manifesto of Arts (2020) by Menotti Lerro and Antonello Pelliccia Written in 2018 and published into magazines in 2019, the New Manifesto of Arts was officially published in both Italian and English languages in 2020 by Zona publishing. It is considered the main bases of the Empathic School movement (Empathism) arose in Italy on 2020. This Manifesto places Empathy at the middle of a vision of the self, in opposition with previous views of artists as confined from society. See also Futurist Manifesto Surrealist Manifesto The Antipodeans Manifesto New Manifesto of Arts References External links Poetry of the Revolution: Marx, Manifestos, and the Avant-Gardes Index of manifestos Page at website of Japan's Ashiya City Museum of Art & History with full text of the Gutai Manifesto, in English Art Manifesto Reset Global collaboration of works founded by John Manifesto Robinson and Gary Reset Barlow (2012). "To Declare a New World": Critic's Page of The Brooklyn Rail on Art Manifestos, edited by Will Fenstermaker (March 2021) Modernism Concepts in aesthetics
4630778	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Battalion%2C%20227th%20Aviation%20Regiment%20%28United%20States%29	1st Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment (United States)	The 1st Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment is an attack helicopter battalion of the Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division. The battalion is an AH-64 Apache battalion based at Fort Hood, Texas. History The unit's nickname is "First Attack" because 1st Cavalry Division was "First into Manila" in February 1945. Major General William C. Chase gave the Division its nickname "First Team", it was well-received and remains today. In September 1945, the "First Team" led occupational forces in to Japan's capital city, earning the distinction of "First in Tokyo". Next, the 1st Cavalry Division stormed ashore at Poe-Hongdong, South Korea, in the Korean War's first amphibious landing. By July 1950, the Division began offensive operations to the north and crossed the 38th parallel on 9 October 1950. Closing on North Korea's capital 10 days later, the "First Team" was "First in Pyongyang". In July 1965, the 1st Cavalry Division was re-stationed to Fort Benning, Georgia and organized for new missions in Southeast Asia. The unit became the Army's first "Airmobile" division and initially saw combat in the Republic of Vietnam during the thirty-five-day Pleiku Campaign, earning a Presidential Unit Citation. The enemy launched the famous Tet Offensive in late January 1968. Already on the move, the "First Team" rushed north, liberating cities and boldly repelling the enemy offensive. The Division's sky troopers flew in to relieve the besieged Marine base at Khe Sanh and the Division was "First into Cambodia" in May 1970. From the beginning of the Global War on Terrorism, the 1st Cavalry Division and its Brigades continued this tradition of service by deploying six times to Iraq in support of Operation Iraq Freedom and Operation New Dawn. These deployments would include engaging anti Iraqi and Al-Qaeda forces throughout the country, the first free elections in Iraq and providing training to Iraqi security forces and support to the people. The Division's four BCTs deployed to Iraq in 2010-2011 as Advise and Assist Brigades and their goal was to strengthen Iraqi sovereignty, stability, and self-reliance while supporting counter-terrorism operations. Operation New Dawn marked the Division's last deployment to Iraq. The 1st Cavalry Division and its brigades would deploy to Afghanistan four separate times in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. In 2011, the Division distinguished itself by exceptionally meritorious achievement from 19 May 2011 to 19 April 2012 in Regional Command – East, Afghanistan. The command created a unified team that was integrated in all operations and committed to working by, with and through Afghan institutions. The First Cavalry Division Headquarters deployed to Afghanistan to assume command of Regional Command-South on 7 July 2014 and later the Train, Advise, Assist Command-South. United States' and Coalition Forces, under the command of the 1st Cavalry Division in Southern Afghanistan, conducted train, advise, and assist missions so that the Afghan National Security Forces would be sustainable and capable of protecting their population and government into the future. With the 1st Cavalry Division Headquarters and elements of the 3d Cavalry Regiment deployed to Afghanistan, events required the Division's remaining units take on new missions around the world. Units deployed to areas where no 1st Cavalry Division Troopers have ever been or had not seen for decades. These areas included Europe, Korea, Africa and Cuba. First Team Troopers demonstrated their excellence while performing a wide variety of missions during multiple operations. The Army's finest Soldiers and best equipment, the hard-riding spirit of the United States Cavalry is alive and well in the 1st Cavalry Division. Our more than 26,000 Soldiers combine the spirit of the Cav's heritage with challenges facing an alert, combat-ready, armored division. The "First Team" remains ready to fight anywhere, anytime, and win. Service dates The original unit was constituted 1 February 1963 as Company A, 227th Assault Helicopter Battalion, an element of the 11th Air Assault Division. The unit was officially activated on 11 February 1963 at Fort Benning, Georgia. On 1 July 1965 the unit was reorganized and re-designated as Company A, 227th Aviation Battalion and officially assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood, Texas. The unit was inactivated from 19 November 1974 to 21 May 1978. The company was again active from 1978 to 1983 at Fort Hood. The company was inactivated on 30 September 1983. On 16 July 1987 the unit was reactivated and re-designated Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 1st Battalion, 227th Aviation at Fort Hood, Texas. 1 October 2005 the battalion was re-designated 1st Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment and on 16 October 2005 it was relieved from assignment to the 1st Cavalry Division and assigned to the Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division. Vietnam War On 1 February 1963, the Army began to gather helicopters into the 11th Air Assault Division to test the airmobile concept. In June 1965, the 11th Air Assault was joined with the 2d Infantry Division. Shortly thereafter, the division exchanged colors with the 1st Cavalry Division. On 1 August 1965, the 1st Cavalry Division was sent to Vietnam. The battalion participated in 14 campaigns and received seven decorations during its 7 years of duty in Vietnam. Upon return from Vietnam, the 227th Aviation Battalion was inactivated on 19 November 1974 at Fort Hood, Texas. After a brief reactivation from 21 May 1978 until 30 September 1983, it was re-designated as 1st Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment, the first divisional Apache Attack Helicopter Battalion to be formed. Upon re-designation, the 1–227th underwent an intensive 6-month unit training program and began to training for combat operations. The Gulf War & the 1990s On 29 September 1990, the battalion deployed overseas to Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, where the unit postured for combat in Operation Desert Shield. On 25 February 1991, with the onset of Operation Desert Storm, the battalion conducted a raid as a part of the 1st Cavalry Division's deception plan. The battalion would serve as the vanguard of the division's movement north to cut off retreating an Iraqi Republican Guard Division at Basra. On 7 March 1991, the battalion would return as part of the advance party back to Fort Hood, Texas. On 2 June 1998, after years of testing and preparation, 1st Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment became the first Army Aviation Battalion to field the AH-64 Apache "Longbow". Global War on Terror With the onset of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), the 1st Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment, under the command of LTC Dan Ball, arrived at Camp Udari, Kuwait, on 14 February 2003, and was attached to Task Force 11th Aviation Regiment operating under the command of the U.S. Army V Corps. In the early hours of 24 March 2003, Apache Longbows of the 1st Battalion, 227th Aviation, 1st Cavalry Division, engaged units of Iraq's Republican Guard Medina Division between the cities of Karbala and Al Hillah, about south of Baghdad. A majority of the battalion's helicopters sustained extensive battle damage, but only one went down. Both pilots survived and were captured, later being rescued by US Marines after the fall of Baghdad. On 21 May 2003, the battalion redeployed to Fort Hood. First Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment has deployed to Iraq three more times in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. From April 2004 to April 2005, under the command of LTC Ron Lewis, the battalion returned to Iraq as part of OIF II, and helped set up Camp Taji for aviation operations. In October 2006 the battalion once again deployed to Camp Taji under the command of LTC Christopher E. Walach, for a 15-month deployment in support of OIF 06-08. The battalion again deployed to camp Taji, under the command of LTC Charles Dalcourt, from April 2009 to April 2010 in support of OIF 09-10. After a 6-month reset, the battalion task-organized into a full-spectrum task force and began deployment preparations for deployment to Afghanistan. In January 2011, the task force deployed to Fort Carson, Colorado, for High Altitude Mountain Environmental Training (HAMET), to better prepare the aircrews for the extreme altitudes of Afghanistan's Paktika Province. In May 2011, the task force deployed to FOB Sharana, Paktika, Afghanistan where it conducted full-spectrum aviation operations throughout the Paktika, Paktia, Ghazni and Khost provinces in support of Regional Command (East). In July 2011, the Task Force made history when one of their AH-64Ds became the first AH-64D to exceed 10,000 operational flying hours. After a year at Sharana, First Attack redeployed to Fort Hood with the 1st ACB. In July 2012, the unit re-organized as an Apache-pure attack Battalion focused on regeneration and training operations for future deployment contingencies. Subordinate companies The battalion consists of three Apache Longbow companies and a headquarters, maintenance, and forward support company. Unit decorations Presidential Unit Citation (Army) Streamer embroidered "PLEIKU PROVINCE" The 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile and attached units), distinguished themselves by outstanding performance of duty and extraordinary heroism in action against an armed enemy in the Republic of Vietnam during the period of 23 October 1965 to 26 November 1965. Following the attack on Special Forces camp at Plei Me, in Pleiku Province, on 19 October 1965 by regular units of the Army of North Vietnam, the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) was committed to action. The division was initially assigned the mission of protecting the key communications center of Pleiku, in addition to providing fire support both for an Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) armored column dispatched to the relief of the besieged camp, and for the camp itself. The 1st Cavalry Division, (Airmobile), having recently been organized under a completely new concept in tactical mobility, and having arrived in the Republic of Vietnam on la month earlier, responded quickly and with and infantry brigade and supporting forces. Using air assault techniques, the division deployed artillery batteries into firing positions deep within the enemy-held territory and provided the vital fire support needed by the ARVN forces to accomplish the relief of the Special Forces camp. By 27 October, the tactical and strategic impact of the presence of a North Vietnamese regular army division in the Pleiku Province necessitated a chance in the missions for the 1st Cavalry Division. The division was given a unlimited offensive role to seek out and destroy the enemy force. With bold thrusts, elements of the division pursued the North Vietnamese regiments across the dense and trackless jungles of the west-central highlands, seeking the enemy out in his previously secure sanctuaries and giving him no quarter. In unfavorable terrain and under logistical and tactical conditions that would have stopped a unit with less capability, motivation, and espirit, the cavalrymen repeatedly and decisively defeated numerically superior enemy forces. The superb training, unflinching devotion to duty, and unsurpassed gallantry and intrepidity of the cavalrymen, individually and collectively, resulted in numerous victories and succeeded in driving the invading North Vietnamese division back from its positions at Plei Me to the foot of the Chu Pong Massif. There, in the valley of the Ia Drang, the enemy was reinforced by a fresh regiment and undertook preparation for more incursions into Pleiku Province. The 1st Cavalry Division deployed by air its men and weapons to launch and attack on the enemy staging area, which was 35 kilometers from the nearest road and 50 kilometers from the nearest logistical base. Fully utilizing the air mobility in applying their combat power in a series of offensive blows, the men of the division completely defeated the numerically superior enemy. When the enemy finally withdrew his broken forces from the battlefield, the offensive capability of the North Vietnamese Army in the II Corps tactical zone had been blunted. The outstanding performance and extraordinary heroism of the member so the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) and attached units, under the most hazardous and adverse conditions, reflect great credit upon themselves, the United States Army, and the Armed Forces of the United States. -- Department of the Army, General Order 1967-40 Streamer embroidered "BINH THUAN PROVINCE" The 2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry, 1st Cavalry Division, and attached units, distinguished themselves by extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against a hostile force in the Binh Thuan Province, Republic of Vietnam, during the period of 25 August 1966 through 4 April 1967. The Battalion and its attached organizations, which comprised Task Force 2/7, supported the Republic of Vietnam in its revolutionary development program in Binh Thuan Province. The area was almost entirely under Viet Cong control when Task Force 2/7 arrived in the province. The 482nd and 840th Viet Cong Battalions and their ancillary units, operated almost at will throughout the area, except for the coastal enclaves of Phan Thiet, which was still under government control. Operating over an area almost 5,000 square kilometers, Task Force 2/7 struck at enemy forces in a succession of brilliantly conceived and gallantly executed maneuvers. During this period, the Task Force mounted 371 combat assaults into enemy held territory. In eight months of fierce combat, the Task Force lost 11 men while causing the enemy to lose 481 men. It captured 70 enemy soldiers, 151 weapons, 291 tons of rice, 3.6 tons of salt, and 7.4 tons of other grains. It destroyed over 600 bunkers and numerous installations. The spirit, devotion to duty, and courage displayed by Task Force 2/7 personnel set a superb example for the Republic of Vietnam Force in the area. Control of Binh Thuan Province passed from the Viet Cong to the free world military forces, and the enemy was unable to operate effectively in strength by day or night. The conspicuous gallantry, intrepidity, heroism, and audacity displayed by the members of the task force in combat are in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service and reflect great credit upon them, their units, and the Armed Forces of the United States. -- Department of the Army, General Order 1973-02 Valorous Unit Award (Army), Streamer embroidered QUANG TIN PROVINCE Valorous Unit Award (Army), Streamer embroidered BIEN HOA PROVINCE Valorous Unit Award (Army), Streamer embroidered FISH HOOK Valorous Unit Award (Army), Streamer embroidered FIRE SUPPORT BASE 6 Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965–1966 Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered SOUTHWEST ASIA 1990–1991 Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered IRAQ 2009–2010 Naval Unit Commendation (Navy) Fore exceptionally meritorious service during assigned mission in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom from 2 August 2004 to 1 February 2005. I Marine Expeditionary Force (I MEF) (Reinforced) conducted a coordinated campaign across a 400-mile arc of the Euphrates River Valley to eliminate insurgent control over the key cities of An Najaf and Al Fallujah and the remainder of the local population in the I MEF Area of Responsibility. The battle for An Najaf and Al Fallujah were the largest U.S. led urban operations since the Vietnam War. Both battles saw the introduction of new and innovative tactics, techniques, and procedures which became ke to I MEF's success. Throughout 24 days of intense conflict in An Najaf, the Marines conducted destruction raids on insurgent strongholds, captured weapons caches, and engaged in fierce close-quarter battle. During this operation, I MEF killed more that 1,500 enemy insurgents while simultaneously preserving the sacred Imam Ali Shrine and Mosque Complex. In response to the violent insurgent actions in Al Fallujah, a coalition force of 12,500 led by 1 MEF, boldly breached the city's fortifications and destroyed a heavily armed and well-entrenched fanatical enemy. Countless across of individual bravery in Al Fallujah resulted in more than 2,000 enemy killed or captured as the Marines, Soldiers, and Sailors fiercely fought and cleared the city, house by house. By their outstanding courage, resourcefulness, and aggressive fighting spirit in combat against the enemy, the officers and enlisted personnel of I Marine Expeditionary Force (Reinforced) reflected great credit upon themselves and upheld the highest traditions of the Marine Corps and the United States Naval Service. -- Department of the Navy, MARADMIN Active Number: 074/07 Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965–1969 Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1969–1970 Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1970–1971 Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Honor Medal, First Class, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1969–1970 Campaign participation credit Vietnam Defense Counteroffensive Counteroffensive, Phase II Counteroffensive, Phase III Tet Counteroffensive Counteroffensive, Phase IV Counteroffensive, Phase V Counteroffensive, Phase VI Tet 69/Counteroffensive Summer-Fall 1969 Winter-Spring 1970 Sanctuary Counteroffensive Counteroffensive, Phase VII Southwest Asia Defense of Saudi Arabia Liberation and Defense of Kuwait Cease-Fire War on terrorism Iraq Liberation of Iraq (pending) Transition of Iraq Iraqi Governance National Resolution (pending) Iraqi Sovereignty (pending) Afghanistan OEF XIV Consolidation III Transition I References External links 1-227's Official Website 01 227
4630793	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del%C4%8Devo%20Municipality	Delčevo Municipality	Delčevo Municipality ( ) — municipality in Eastern Macedonia. The center of the municipality is the city of Delchevo. The geographical area is 423 km2 (163 mi2) and has about 13,585 inhabitants. There are 22 settlements in Delchevo, as follows: the town of Delchevo and the villages: Bigla, Vetren, Virce, Vratislavci, Gabrovo, Grad, Dramche, Zvegor, Iliovo, Kiselica, Kosovo Dabje, Nov Istevnik, Ochipala, Razlovci, Selnik, Stamer, Star Istevnik, Trabotivishte, Turija, Poleto and Chiflik. The city is named after the pride of the Macedonian people – Goce Delchev. In the past, the municipality was also known as "Carevo Selo". Location 164 km (102 mi) east of Skopje, at the foot of Mount Golak, spread on both banks of the river Bregalnica lies the town of Delchevo. It is the largest settlement in the Pijanec area, which stretches over an area of 585 km2 (226 mi2), located between the Osogovo Mountains (north) and Maleshevo (south). The city lies at an altitude of 590 m (1.940 ft) to 640 m (2.100 ft). Despite being located in the easternmost part of the country, Delchevo has a relatively good geographical position and traffic connection. It is a crossroads for eastern Macedonia. Through Pehchevo (27 km/17 mi) and Berovo (34 km/21 mi) it is connected with Strumica to the south, and through Makedonska Kamenica (24 km/15 mi) and Kocani (51 km/32 mi) it is connected with Shtip to the northwest. To the west is Vinica (39 km/24 mi), and to the east is the border crossing with Bulgaria, called "Arnautski Grob" (Arnaut's grave) (11 km/7 mi), through which you can reach the capital of Pirin Macedonia – Gorna Dzumaja (Blagoevgrad) (34 km/21 mi) All rural settlements and the recreation center Golak are connected to the city by asphalt roads of regional and local type, while a modern national road is built to the border crossing. The farthest settlement from the municipal center is the historic village Razlovci (17.5 km/11 mi). History Delchevo, according to a legend in Byzantine times was called Vasilevo, which translated from Greek means Tsarevo Selo. For the first time as a settlement Carevo Selo is mentioned in a charter of Tsar Dushan from 1347 to 1350. with it he gave several places and fields from Pijanec to the Lesnovo Monastery. In Turkish times Delchevo was also called Sultanija. Ottoman period Until the 17th century, the settlement laid on the right side of the river Bregalnica on the present toponym Selishte, more precisely under the hill Ostrec near the road leading to Bulgaria. From the first centuries of Turkish rule there is not much information about the position of Delchevo. In the middle of the 17th century, Sultan Mehmed IV lived in its vicinity. At the time of his visit to Pijanec, mass Islamization was carried out on the population. Due to the oppression and pressure, many Macedonian settlements were deserted, including the then Tsarevo Selo. It is assumed that at the time of that sultan the settlement was moved to its present place on the left side of the river Bregalnica. The city mosque built in the 17th century is also cited as evidence. However, it is thought-provoking that the Turkish travel writer Evliya Çelebi spent here only a few years later in 1670 and wrote in his Travelogue: "From Vinica we climbed the Kocani mountain ore, moving through the gorge and after four hours we reached Tsarevo Selo. This is a Muslim village at the foot of a mountain and is decorated with about 100 houses and a magnificent mosque mined by a minaret." We should also mention the folk tradition that says that the settlement under the Ostrec hill was deserted when the plague reigned and the surviving population settled on the place where Delchevo is today. The oldest part of the city is considered to be the Turkish colony that was created around the mosque. According to Jaranov, until the 19th century Delchevo was a village, a Turkish colony, inhabited by purebred Turks and a large part of the Islamized Slavic population, called Pomaks, who did not know the Turkish language. Only a few families were Bulgarian Exarchists. Towards the middle of the 19th century, the bazaar began to develop and the settlement to grow, and at the same time the Christian population to increase. After the space in Sredno Maalo (Middle Neighbourhood) was filled, the spread through Gocho Potok i.e. Gorno Maalo (Upper Neighbourhood) started or today's I region. In 1863 there were 75 Orthodox houses in Delchevo, and in 1873 109 Orthodox houses. In 1856, the construction of the church was completed, whose surrounding was mainly inhabited by locals fleeing Turkish oppression in the surrounding villages. There was a larger emigration of the population from this area in 1878 after the Russo-Turkish war. After the end of the war, the famous Bulgarian voivode Ilija Markov (Grandfather Iljo Maleshevski) created the little-known Pijanec Republic, and after its destruction, the Bulgarian Exarchist population, fearing for their safety, fled the region seeking refuge on the territory of newly created Bulgaria. About 150 households from the villages and the city moved to the Kyustendil region. A small number of those refugees later returned. Turkish refugees from Bulgaria and even Bosnia and Herzegovina settled in the place of the emigrated Macedonian refugees. The Turkish refugees, called "Madzirci" settled in Madzir maalo (Madzir Neighbourhood), today's III district of the city. On the left side by the river Bregalnica, on the narrow flat space where the bazzar and Inns were, the construction of the trade and craft shops along the two narrow streets started. With that, the bazaar was finally formed and Delchevo grew into a city settlement. According to the statistics of Bulgarian ethnographer Vasil Kanchov from 1900, 1610 inhabitants lived in Tsarevo Selo, 575 Bulgarian Muslims, 520 Bulgarian Exarchists, 425 Muslim Turks and 90 Romani. Balkan and World wars During the Balkan Wars, a large number of Turks left the city, so that in 1914 the population was 1.701. After these wars, a new Macedonian population came from the surrounding villages, mostly from the passive villages of Bigla, Selnik and Dramche, which bought Turkish properties. In 1931. the population increased to 3.746 inhabitants. After this year, the emigration of the Turkish population to Turkey continued voluntarily, especially in 1953. In 1935, the construction of the first houses on the right side of the river Bregalnica began. After the liberation, on 23 April 1950, the Presidium of the National Assembly of the People's Republic of Macedonia decided that Tsarevo Selo should be renamed Delchevo, in honor of Goce Delchev. In the sixties the town expanded on the right side of the river Bregalnica, and in the seventies on the hill Milkovo Brdo (Milkov's hill). With the increase of the employees in the working organizations in Delchevo, the number of the population in it also grew. Today Delchevo is a modern city settlement with wide asphalt streets and boulevards, sewerage network and parks and greenery. Climate The climate in Delchevo is continental Eastern European. The average annual temperature in Delchevo is 11 °C (52 °F), with an absolute minimum of −26 °C (−15 °F) and an absolute maximum of 39 °C (102 °F), while in higher areas the average annual temperature drops to 3.5 °C (38 °F). The warmest month is August, and the coldest is January. Spring is always colder than autumn. The cloudiness isn't strong, so the year is dominated by sunny and clear days. The average annual rainfall in Delchevo is 548 mm (22 in), and in the mountains over 1.600 meters (5,250 ft) above sea level. and up to 1.000 mm (39 in). Precipitation, although relatively low, their distribution in the vegetation period (April–September) is favorable and is over 50% of the total annual precipitation. The vegetation period with a temperature higher than 10 °C (50 °F) lasts 191 days during the year. This favorable climate allows the growth of various plants, and is also a very suitable natural condition for the development of tourism in this area. Demographics From the analysis of the demographic situation in the rural part of the municipality, the number of inhabitants per household, the age structure of the population, etc., conclusions have been drawn about the perspectives and survival of certain Rural settlements, especially those of the so-called scattered type (settlements with several neighborhoods significantly away from the central part of the rural area). This type of settlements is mainly located in hilly and mountainous areas, where arable land has a low credit value and where the survival of the population is mainly based on the use of pastures and forests. Unlike this type of settlements, the compact type villages are spread in the plain parts or along the edges of the mountain branches. The results from the monitoring of the situation indicate that in the Municipality of Delchevo 9 Rural settlements with a total population of 1.102 inhabitants (15.4% of the rural population) have households that are composed of an average of 2.65 members. Thus, the small number of members per household shows that in these settlements the elderly category with little or no increase prevails. Due to this situation, the prospects of these villages are insignificant and they are doomed to slow biological extinction. In 6 Rural settlements in the municipality with a total population of 2.698 inhabitants (37.6% of the rural population) households have an average of 3.17 members. The elderly population in these villages is the largest, but it does not prevail, which gives hope that these inhabited villages can be maintained if their economic development is supported in a timely manner. In the Municipality of Delchevo there are 5 Rural settlements with a total population of 3.256 inhabitants (45.4% of the rural population) which have an average of 3.75 members per household. These settlements are dominated by able-bodied population and the population from the age groups up to 17 years, while the elderly population is within normal limits. In these settlements, in addition to the development of livestock and fruit growing, some processing facilities should be developed. This will reduce the tendency of the population to migrate to the municipal center or to other areas in the country and abroad. According to the 2021 census, there are 13.585 inhabitants. Population and settlements in the municipality of Delchevo Until 1996, the Municipality of Delchevo was one of the 34 municipalities of the Republic of Macedonia. In 1990 the municipality had 26.315 inhabitants or 1.2% of the population of the Republic of Macedonia. The population in that period was divided into 30 settlements, including the city settlement Delchevo. 34% of the population of the municipality were concentrated in the town, and the rest was distributed in rural settlements and in a settlement of mixed type (Makedonska Kamenica). With the new territorial division of the Republic of Macedonia, which formed 123 municipalities, the Municipality of Makedonska Kamenica was separated from the Municipality of Delchevo, so that today it covers a territory of 423 km2 (163 mi2) with ⅔ of the population of the old Municipality. In addition to the municipal center Delchevo, there are 22 Rural settlements in the municipality. According to the new territorial division, and in accordance with the data from the last census in 1994, the total population in the Municipality of Delchevo was 17.726 inhabitants, of which 10.554 are inhabitants of the town, and 7,172 inhabitants in rural areas. From the rural settlements in the Municipality of Delchevo, 5 villages had less than 100 inhabitants (Vratislavci, Kiselica, Kosovo Dabje, Selnik and Chiflik), 7 villages have 100 to 300 inhabitants (Vetren, Iliovo, Nov Istevnik, Ochipala, Star Istevnik, Turija and Poleto), in 3 villages were registered between 300 and 500 inhabitants (Bigla, Dramche and Stamer), while 6 villages had over 500 inhabitants (Grad, Virce, Trabotivishte, Gabrovo, Zvegor and Razlovci). The largest rural settlement is Zvegor with 949 inhabitants, followed by Razlovci with 907 inhabitants, Gabrovo with 829 inhabitants, Grad with 696 inhabitants, etc. The birth rate in the Municipality of Delchevo in 1998 was 10,7 live births per 1.000 inhabitants and is slightly lower than the average in the Republic of Macedonia which was 14,6 live births per 1.000 inhabitants. The mortality rate in the municipality in 1998 was 9,9 deaths per 1.000 inhabitants and is slightly higher than the average in the Republic of Macedonia which was 8,4. According to the 1994 census, there were 2.977 households in the city or 57.3%, and in rural areas 2.216 households or 42.7% of the total number of households in the municipality. There were 3.143 agricultural holdings in the municipality, of which 1.430 holdings (45.5%) belonged to the urban ones, and 1.713 holdings (54.5%) to the rural population. Hence it can be concluded that a significant part of the urban population is regularly or additionally engaged in agriculture. Gender structure According to the gender structure, in the city and in the municipality as a whole, the male population slightly prevails with a share in the municipality with 50.8%, and in the city with 50.2%. Regarding the mechanical movement of the population, according to the statistical data taken from the National Statistical Office, the migration balance for 1994 and 1998 is negative and amounts to 28 and 29 emigrants, respectively. Education The educational process in the municipality of Delchevo is given great importance, but unfortunately in the past it had an assimilative role. Finally, for the first time in the summer of 1944, the Macedonian word was heard in schools. Today, the educational activity is performed in two Primary schools and one state secondary school. The primary school "Vancho Prke" has 4 regional schools, two of which are eight-year schools in the villages of Bigla and Dramche and two four-year schools in the villages of Gabrovo and Zvegor. The elementary school "St. Kliment Ohridski" has 5 regional schools, of which 3 eight-year schools in the villages Razlovci, Trabotivishte and Grad and two four-year schools in Virce and Stamer. In both schools, classes are attended by about 1.970 students from first to eighth grade and about 100 children in preschool education, while the educational process is performed by 134 teachers and educators. In 1961 in Delchevo was opened a secondary school – Secondary school "Metodi Mitevski Brico". Today, it's attended by about 1.120 students, and 64 teachers are involved in the teaching process. The school has a branch in the neighboring municipality – Makedonska Kamenica. Economy The accelerated development of the city begins in the second half of the XX century, so today Delchevo is a modern city with modern, wide and well-arranged streets, residential buildings and places for recreation and rest. Among the first established enterprises are "Monopol" today "Delchevo-Tabak", and "Sandanski" in the field of agriculture; "Pirin" and "Ilinden" in the field of trade; and "Partizanka" and "Kozarnica" in the field of industry. There is no traditional industry in the municipality, Delchevo is a city in which industry and agriculture are equally represented. The production capacities of the textile industry have a small advantage, which are gaining momentum, and the construction of the Industrial Zone for Small Business will create conditions for even faster development. There are two industrial zones in the city: north and south. Almost all facilities are located in both zones. Government and politics In order to perform certain administrative, professional and other activities within the competencies for which the Municipality independently decides, as well as for the entrusted competencies, administrative bodies of the Municipality are formed. Administrative bodies are formed as Inspections, departments, sections and reports. Administrative bodies are formed as services, offices and clerks. The administrative and administrative bodies are established by the Municipal council with a special decision which more closely regulates the organization, the manner and the scope of work. The Municipal council is a representative body of the citizens. The Municipal Council consists of 15 representatives of citizens elected in general, direct and free elections by secret ballot. The members of the council are elected for a period of 4 years in accordance with the Law. The member of the Council cannot be recalled. The Municipal Council elects a chairman from among the members of the council for a term of 4 years. The Chairman of the Council convenes and chairs the sessions of the Municipal Council; takes care of the organization and work of the council, signs the decisions and acts of the council and submits them to the Mayor for proclamation and publication. The members and the chairman of the Council take and sign a solemn statement. The Municipal Council has a secretary. The Secretary is elected by the Municipal Council for the duration of his/her/their term. A person graduated as a lawyer with at least 6 years of experience in the profession is elected Secretary of the council, in a manner and procedure determined by the Rules of Procedure of the council. The Secretary of the Council may not be a member of the council. The Secretary of the Council performs the professional, administrative and organizational work of the council and its working bodies. The Secretary of the Council coordinates the activities of the administrative and administrative bodies of the Municipality when they perform tasks within the competence of the Municipal Council. The mayor of the municipality of Delchevo is Goran Trajkovski from the ranks of SDSM. He was elected in the 2021 local elections for a four-year term. The council of the municipality of Delchevo is composed of 15 members. According to the last local elections of 2021, with 8 members from SDSM, 6 from VMRO-DPMNE, and 1 from Levica, the members of the council for the mandate 2021–2025 are: Goce Popov (President) Dejan Georgievski Zekir Abdulov Sunchica Gjorgjieva Mario Skakarski Bojana Gocevska Kiril Trenchovski Jasmina Kjurchiska Toni Stamenkovski Sashko Ivanovski Ivan Gocevski Eli Rizova Angelovska Stefanija A. Jovakovski Olivera Tashevska Marjancho Velinovski Culture The most important cultural-scientific event is "Gocevi Denovi" (Goce's days) which is traditionally held every year, at the beginning of June. The event first started in Delchevo in 1966 and soon gained an international character from local to state. The celebrations on the occasion of the anniversaries of the Razlovci Uprising, the first of most uprisings in Macedonian history, are also important for Delchevo. At the traditional "Golachki folklorni sredbi" (Golak folklore meetings) which are held every year on 8 and 9 August, cultural and artistic societies from Delchevo and neighboring municipalities present some of our rich folklore. Representatives of the twinned town of Jagodina – Serbia and cooperation with the border town of Simitli – Bulgaria are always present here. Cultural heritage Churches and monasteries built in the middle of the XIX and the beginning of the XX century are landmarks for Delchevo and the surrounding areas. The most important and oldest is the church of St. Petka in Selnik, built in the 13th century and painted in the 16th century. The church "St. Tsar Constantine and Helena "in Razlovci, built in the middle of the 19th century is of particular importance because among the portraits of the saints is the portrait of priest Stojan, the leader of the Razlovci uprising. It is even more significant that here is an application of the Ancient Macedonian heraldic symbol – the sixteen-pointed star from Kutles. Next to the city, to the left of the road Delchevo – Golak, on the foundations of the old monastery is built a new one, dedicated to St. Bogorodica (St. Mother of Jesus). The construction of a new Cathedral church in the center of the city is underway, which will be named after the all-Slavic educators, the holy brothers Cyril and Methodius. No less important historical sites are the medieval tower near Petrashevec and the ancient site "Gradiste" near the village Grad. There are a number of sites on the territory of the municipality that have not been explored yet. Folk wear and embroidery The abundance of wool, hemp and cotton in the past provided favorable opportunities for the development of textile creativity in which the skill, ingenuity and spirit of living of a woman as a folk artist are woven. They processed the textile raw materials with self-made tools, made with a lot of feelings. The basic element of the women's costume is the long-sleeved cotton shirt on which they wore woolen clothes "saya" and "anteria" long below the knees, with and without sleeves, opened in advance along the entire length, decorated with braids and belts. The women's everyday costume also includes the woolen skirt "futa", a belt, woolen knitted socks and a head covering. Famous people Several famous people came out of Delchevo. From those who have contributed to the Macedonian and world life, we single out: Ljupco Georgievski – former Prime Minister of Macedonia; Prof. Dr. Trajan Gocevski – Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy, Skopje; Prof. Dr. Aleksandar Atanasovski – Professor at the Faculty of Philosophy – Institute of History, Skopje; Prof. Dr. Misho Hristov – Professor at the Faculty of Mining and Geology, Skopje; Docent. Dr. Vanco Chabukovski – Docent at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics – Institute of Informatics, Skopje; Vancho Trajanov – football player of FC "Maccabi Petah Tikva", Israel; Igor Mitrevski – football player in Russia; Meto Jovanovski – actor; Nikolcho Strukov – basketball player of "Vodnjanski Panthers". References External links Delchevo Eastern Statistical Region
4631130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Israel%20Lobby%20and%20U.S.%20Foreign%20Policy	The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy	The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy is a book by John Mearsheimer, Professor of Political Science at the University of Chicago, and Stephen Walt, Professor of International Relations at Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University, published in late August 2007. It was a New York Times Best Seller. The book describes the lobby as a "loose coalition of individuals and organizations who actively work to steer U.S. foreign policy in a pro-Israel direction". The book "focuses primarily on the lobby's influence on U.S. foreign policy and its negative effect on American interests". The authors also argue that "the lobby's impact has been unintentionally harmful to Israel as well". Mearsheimer and Walt argue that although "the boundaries of the Israel lobby cannot be identified precisely", it "has a core consisting of organizations whose declared purpose is to encourage the U.S. government and the American public to provide material aid to Israel and to support its government's policies, as well as influential individuals for whom these goals are also a top priority". They note that "not every American with a favorable attitude to Israel is part of the lobby", and that although "the bulk of the lobby is Jewish Americans", there are many American Jews who are not part of the lobby, and the lobby also includes Christian Zionists. They also claim a drift of important groups in "the lobby" to the right, and overlap with the neoconservatives. The book was preceded by a paper commissioned by The Atlantic and written by Mearsheimer and Walt. The Atlantic rejected the paper, and it was published in London Review of Books. The paper attracted considerable controversy, both praise and criticism. Background The book has its origins in a paper commissioned in 2002 by The Atlantic Monthly, but it was rejected for reasons that neither The Atlantic nor the authors have publicly explained. It became available as a working paper at the Kennedy School's website in 2006. A condensed version of the working paper was published in March 2006 by the London Review of Books under the title The Israel Lobby. A third, revised version addressing some of the criticism was published in the Fall 2006 issue of Middle East Policy, the in-house journal of the Middle East Policy Council. The authors state that "In terms of its core claims, however, this revised version does not depart from the original Working Paper." The book was published in late August 2007. The book differs from the earlier papers in several ways: it includes an expanded definition of the lobby, it responds to the criticisms that the papers attracted, it updates the authors' analysis and it offers suggestions on how the U. S. should advance its interests in the Middle East. With his elaborated position on Israel in this book, Mearsheimer distanced his own position from such established scholars as Hannah Arendt and Hans Morgenthau and their support for Israel, the latter of whom Mearsheimer had previously cited as significant to the development of his own writing in the field of international relations. A paperback edition was published in September 2008. Content of the preceding paper In April 2006, Philip Weiss discussed some of the background to the creation of the paper in an article in The Nation. Mearsheimer and Walt argue that "No lobby has managed to divert U.S. foreign policy as far from what the American national interest would otherwise suggest, while simultaneously convincing Americans that U.S. and Israeli interests are essentially identical". They argue that "in its basic operations, it is no different from interest groups like the Farm Lobby, steel and textile workers, and other ethnic lobbies. What sets the Israel Lobby apart is its extraordinary effectiveness." According to Mearsheimer and Walt, the "loose coalition" that makes up the Lobby has "significant leverage over the Executive branch", as well as the ability to make sure that the "Lobby's perspective on Israel is widely reflected in the mainstream media." They claim that the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) in particular has a "stranglehold on the U.S. Congress", due to its "ability to reward legislators and congressional candidates who support its agenda, and to punish those who challenge it." Mearsheimer and Walt decry what they call misuse of "the charge of anti-Semitism", and argue that pro-Israel groups place great importance on "controlling debate" in American academia; they maintain, however, that the Lobby has yet to succeed in its "campaign to eliminate criticism of Israel from college campuses", such as with Campus Watch and the U.S. Congress Bill H.R. 509. The authors conclude by arguing that when the Lobby succeeds in shaping U.S. policy in the Middle East, then "Israel's enemies get weakened or overthrown, Israel gets a free hand with the Palestinians, and the United States does most of the fighting, dying, rebuilding, and paying." According to Mearsheimer, "it's becoming increasingly difficult to make the argument in a convincing way that anyone who criticizes the lobby or Israel is an anti-Semite or a self-hating Jew." The authors pointed to the growing dissatisfaction with the war in Iraq, criticism of Israel's war in Lebanon and the publication of former President Jimmy Carter's book Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid as making it somewhat easier to criticize Israel openly. Reception The March 2006 publication of Mearsheimer and Walt's essay, "The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy", was highly controversial. The essay's central controversial claim was that the Israel lobby's influence has distorted U.S. Middle East foreign policy away from what the authors referred to as "American national interest." Alan Dershowitz opined that criticizing the Israel lobby promoted a charged debate about what constitutes antisemitic conspiracy theorizing. As a result of the controversy created by Mearsheimer and Walt's article, the Dutch Backlight (Tegenlicht) program produced a documentary entitled The Israel Lobby. Backlight is VPRO's regular international 50 minute documentary program. Praise Former U.S. Ambassador Edward Peck wrote that "The expected tsunami of rabid responses condemned the report, vilified its authors, and denied there is such a lobby — validating both the lobby's existence and aggressive, pervasive presence and obliging Harvard to remove its name." Peck is generally in agreement with the paper's core thesis: "Opinions differ on the long-term costs and benefits for both nations, but the lobby's views of Israel's interests have become the basis of U.S. Middle East policies." Tony Judt, a historian at New York University, wrote in The New York Times, that "[in] spite of [the paper's] provocative title, the essay draws on a wide variety of standard sources and is mostly uncontentious." He goes on to ask "[does] the Israel Lobby affect our foreign policy choices? Of course — that is one of its goals. [...] But does pressure to support Israel distort American decisions? That's a matter of judgment." He concludes the essay by taking the perspective that "this essay, by two 'realist' political scientists with no interest whatsoever in the Palestinians, is a straw in the wind." And that "it will not be self-evident to future generations of Americans why the imperial might and international reputation of the United States are so closely aligned with one small, controversial Mediterranean client state." Juan Cole a professor at the University of Michigan, wrote at the Salon website: "Other critics have accused the authors of anti-Semitism, which is to say, of racial bigotry." Eliot A. Cohen of the School of Advanced International Studies of Johns Hopkins University published an emotional attack on the authors in the Washington Post, saying "yes, it's anti-Semitic." Harvard professor Alan Dershowitz also accused Mearsheimer and Walt of bigotry. The Harvard Crimson reported that "Dershowitz, who is one of Israel's most prominent defenders, vehemently disputed the article's assertions, repeatedly calling it 'one-sided' and its authors 'liars' and 'bigots.'" Cole continues to argue "Dershowitz went so far as to allege that the paper paralleled texts at neo-Nazi sites. Michael Scheuer, a former senior official at the Central Intelligence Agency and now a terrorism analyst for CBS News, said to NPR that Mearsheimer and Walt are "basically right." Israel, according to Scheuer, has engaged in one of the most successful campaigns to influence public opinion in the United States ever conducted by a foreign government. Scheuer said to NPR that "They [Mearsheimer and Walt] should be credited for the courage they have had to actually present a paper on the subject. I hope they move on and do the Saudi lobby, which is probably more dangerous to the United States than the Israeli lobby." Zbigniew Brzezinski, former national security advisor to U.S. President Jimmy Carter, wrote: "Mearsheimer and Walt adduce a great deal of factual evidence that over the years Israel has been the beneficiary of privileged — indeed, highly preferential — financial assistance, out of all proportion to what the United States extends to any other country. The massive aid to Israel is in effect a huge entitlement that enriches the relatively prosperous Israelis at the cost of the American taxpayer. Money being fungible, that aid also pays for the very settlements that America opposes and that impede the peace process." In his review in The Times, journalist Max Hastings wrote "otherwise intelligent Americans diminish themselves by hurling charges of antisemitism with such recklessness. There will be no peace in the Middle East until the United States faces its responsibilities there in a much more convincing fashion than it does today, partly for reasons given in this depressing book." Adam Kirsch argued that Robert D. Kaplan's "deification" of Mearsheimer in The Atlantic in January 2012 showed that the authors of The Israel Lobby were winning the argument. Glenn Greenwald has endorsed the book's central thesis, arguing "Walt and Mearsheimer merely voiced a truth which has long been known and obvious but was not allowed to be spoken. That’s precisely why the demonization campaign against them was so vicious and concerted: those who voice prohibited truths are always more hated than those who spout obvious lies." Marxist historian Perry Anderson also endorsed the book's thesis, calling it "outstanding". Mixed reviews The paper was described as a "wake-up call" by Daniel Levy, former advisor to Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, and said it is "jarring for a self-critical Israeli" and lacks "finesse and nuance." In a March 25 article for Haaretz, Levy wrote, "Their case is a potent one: that identification of American with Israeli interests can be principally explained via the impact of the Lobby in Washington, and in limiting the parameters of public debate, rather than by virtue of Israel being a vital strategic asset or having a uniquely compelling moral case for support". Levy also criticized Mearsheimer and Walt for confusing cause and effect; he added that the Iraq war was already decided on by the Bush administration for its own reasons. Columnist Christopher Hitchens agreed that "AIPAC and other Jewish organizations exert a vast influence over Middle East policy", and stated that the paper "contains much that is true and a little that is original" and that he "would have gone further than Mearsheimer and Walt". However, he also says, paraphrasing a statement popularly misattributed to Samuel Johnson, that "what is original is not true and what is true is not original", and that the notion that the "Jewish tail wags the American dog... the United States has gone to war in Iraq to gratify Ariel Sharon, and... the alliance between the two countries has brought down on us the wrath of Osama Bin Laden" is "partly misleading and partly creepy". He also stated that the authors "seriously mischaracterize the origins of the problem" and produced "an article that is redeemed from complete dullness and mediocrity only by being slightly but unmistakably smelly." Joseph Massad, professor of modern Arab politics and intellectual history at Columbia University, writes, "Is the pro-Israel lobby extremely powerful in the United States? As someone who has been facing the full brunt of their power for the last three years through their formidable influence on my own university and their attempts to get me fired, I answer with a resounding yes. Are they primarily responsible for U.S. policies towards the Palestinians and the Arab world? Absolutely not." Massad then argued U.S. policy is "imperialistic", and has only supported those struggling for freedom when it is politically convenient, especially in the Middle East. In describing the last of three "surprising weaknesses" of the paper, Eric Alterman writes in The Nation, "Third, while it's fair to call AIPAC obnoxious and even anti-democratic, the same can often be said about, say, the NRA, Big Pharma and other powerful lobbies. The authors note this but often seem to forget it. This has the effect of making the Jews who read the paper feel unfairly singled out and inspires much emotionally driven mishigas (craziness) in reaction. Do these problems justify the inference that the authors are anti-Semitic? Of course not." Michelle Goldberg gives a detailed analysis of the paper. She writes about some "baffling omissions", e.g. : "Amazingly, Walt and Mearsheimer don't even mention Fatah or Black September, Munich or Entebbe. One might argue that Israel has killed more Palestinians than visa versa, but it doesn't change the role of spectacular Palestinian terrorism in shaping American attitudes toward Israel." She also finds valuable points: "Walt and Mearsheimer are correct, after all, in arguing that discussion about Israel is hugely circumscribed in mainstream American media and politics.... Indeed, one can find far more critical coverage of the Israeli occupation in liberal Israeli newspapers like Haaretz than in any American daily." Michael Massing, contributing editor of the Columbia Journalism Review, writes: "The lack of a clearer and fuller account of Palestinian violence is a serious failing of the essay. Its tendency to emphasize Israel's offenses while largely overlooking those of its adversaries has troubled even many doves." On the other hand, he writes: "The nasty campaign waged against John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt has itself provided an excellent example of the bullying tactics used by the lobby and its supporters. The wide attention their argument has received shows that, in this case, those efforts have not entirely succeeded. Despite its many flaws, their essay has performed a very useful service in forcing into the open a subject that has for too long remained taboo." Stephen Zunes, professor of politics at the University of San Francisco, gives a detailed point by point critique of the paper. Zunes also writes that "The authors have also been unfairly criticized for supposedly distorting the history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, though their overview is generally quite accurate", and agreed with Joseph Massad's interpretation of Mearsheimer's and Walt's argument: "[T]here is something quite convenient and discomfortingly familiar about the tendency to blame an allegedly powerful and wealthy group of Jews for the overall direction of an increasingly controversial U.S. policy." Noam Chomsky, professor of linguistics at MIT, said the authors took a "courageous stand" and said much of the criticism against the authors was "hysterical". But he asserts that he did not find the thesis of the paper very convincing. He said that Stephen Zunes has rightly pointed out that "there are far more powerful interests that have a stake in what happens in the Persian Gulf region than does AIPAC [or the Lobby generally], such as the oil companies, the arms industry and other special interests whose lobbying influence and campaign contributions far surpass that of the much-vaunted Zionist lobby and its allied donors to congressional races." He finds that the authors "have a highly selective use of evidence (and much of the evidence is assertion)", ignore historical "world affairs", and blame the Lobby for issues that are not relevant. In a review in The New Yorker, David Remnick writes, "Mearsheimer and Walt give you the sense that, if the Israelis and the Palestinians come to terms, bin Laden will return to the family construction business. It's a narrative that recounts every lurid report of Israeli cruelty as indisputable fact but leaves out the rise of Fatah and Palestinian terrorism before 1967; the Munich Olympics; Black September; myriad cases of suicide bombings; and other spectaculars. ... The duplicitous and manipulative arguments for invading Iraq put forward by the Bush Administration, the general inability of the press to upend those duplicities, the triumphalist illusions, the miserable performance of the military strategists, the arrogance of the Pentagon, the stifling of dissent within the military and the government, the moral disaster of Abu Ghraib and Guantánamo, the rise of an intractable civil war, and now an incapacity to deal with the singular winner of the war, Iran—all of this has left Americans furious and demanding explanations. Mearsheimer and Walt provide one: the Israel lobby. In this respect, their account is not so much a diagnosis of our polarized era as a symptom of it." Writing in Foreign Affairs, Walter Russell Mead applauds the authors for "admirably and courageously" initiating a conversation on a difficult subject, but criticizes many of their findings. He observes that their definition of the "Israel lobby" is amorphous to the point of being useless: anyone who supports the existence of Israel (including Mearsheimer and Walt themselves) could be considered a part of the lobby, according to Mead. He is especially critical of their analysis of domestic politics in the United States, suggesting that the authors overstate the magnitude of lobbying in favor Israel when considered relative to overall sums spent on lobbying—only 1% in a typical election cycle. Mead considers their wider geopolitical analysis "more professional" but still "simplistic and sunny" on alternatives to a U.S.-Israeli alliance; he notes, for instance, that simply threatening to cut off aid to Israel in order to influence its behavior is misguided policy, given that other powers such as China, Russia, and India might well view an Israeli alliance as advantageous, should the United States withdraw. Mead rejects any antisemitic intent in the work, but feels that the authors left themselves open to the charge through "easily avoidable lapses in judgment and expression." Criticism Scholarly Benny Morris, a professor of Middle East history at Ben-Gurion University, prefaced a very detailed analysis with the remark: "Like many pro-Arab propagandists at work today, Mearsheimer and Walt often cite my own books, sometimes quoting directly from them, in apparent corroboration of their arguments. Yet their work is a travesty of the history that I have studied and written for the past two decades. Their work is riddled with shoddiness and defiled by mendacity." Alan Dershowitz, at the time a professor at Harvard University, published an extended criticism of Mearsheimer's and Walt's position in his 2008 book, The Case Against Israel's Enemies: Exposing Jimmy Carter and Others Who Stand in the Way of Peace. Robert C. Lieberman a Professor of Political Science at Columbia University in his extensive review he explores the book thesis and in conclusion he writes "It is quite clear that the book’s argument does not support Mearsheimer and Walt’s central contention, that the existence and activities of an Israel lobby are the primary causes of American policy in the Middle East. The claim is supported neither by logic nor evidence nor even a rudimentary understanding of how the American policymaking system works" Former government officials Former Director of the CIA James Woolsey also wrote a strongly negative review, remarking that "... Reading [Walt and Mearsheimer's] version of events is like entering a completely different world." Woolsey contends the authors "are stunningly deceptive", and feature a "commitment to distorting the historical record is the one consistent feature of this book", proceeding with a few examples. Former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger said that the paper has not had "any great impact on the general public. The American public continues to support the relations [between the two countries], and resistance to any threat to the survival of Israel." Members of organizations The American Jewish Committee (AJC): executive director David A. Harris has written several responses to the paper and more recently to the book. His article in The Jerusalem Post discusses the difficulty Europeans have in understanding America's "special relationship" with Israel and the resulting eagerness of European publishers to fast track the book. "Although the book was panned by most American reviewers, it will serve as red meat for those eager to believe the worst about American decision-making regarding Israel and the Middle East." AJC also published several critiques of the paper, many of which were reproduced in newspapers around the world. AJC's Anti-Semitism expert, Kenneth Stern, made the following argument against the paper: "Such a dogmatic approach blinds them from seeing what most Americans do. They seek to destroy the "moral" case for Israel by pointing at alleged Israeli misdeeds, rarely noting the terror and anti-Semitism that predicates Israeli reactions." The Anti-Defamation League (ADL): National Director Abraham H. Foxman wrote a book in response to Mearsheimer and Walt's paper, entitled The Deadliest Lies: The Israel Lobby and the Myth of Jewish Control where he allegedly "demolishes a number of shibboleths . . . a rebuttal of a pernicious theory about a mythically powerful Jewish lobby." Former Secretary of State George Shultz wrote in the Foreword to the book, "... the notion. U.S. policy on Israel and Middle East is the result of their influence is simply wrong." The ADL also published an analysis of the paper, describing it as "amateurish and biased critique of Israel, American Jews, and American policy" and a "sloppy diatribe". Other critical organizations and affiliated individuals include Dore Gold from the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, and Neal Sher of AIPAC. Journalists Those critical of the paper include Caroline Glick of The Jerusalem Post; columnist Bret Stephens; and editor of Jewish Current Issues Rick Richman. John Judis, a senior editor at The New Republic and a visiting scholar at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, wrote: "I think Walt and Mearsheimer do exaggerate the influence of the Israel lobby and define the lobby in such an inclusive way as to beg the question of its influence." In a review in the Denver Post, Richard Cohen writes, "Where Israel is wrong, they say so. But where Israel is right, they are somehow silent. By the time you finish the book, you almost have to wonder why anyone in their right mind could find any reason to admire or like Israel. ... They had an observation worth making and a position worth debating. But their argument is so dry, so one-sided — an Israel lobby that leads America around by the nose — they suggest that not only do they not know Israel, they don't know America, either." In an address to Stanford University, author and journalist Christopher Hitchens said that Mearsheimer and Walt "think that they are smarter than the American imperialists. If they were running the empire, [Mearsheimer and Walt] wouldn't be fooled by the Jews. They'd be making big business with the Saudis instead and not letting Arabs get upset about Zionism. Well, it's an extraordinary piece of cynicism, I would say, combined with an extraordinary naiveté. It doesn't deserve to be called realistic at all." Scholarly reaction to the criticism Harvard's Kennedy School removed its logo from the version of the Walt and Mearsheimer paper published on its website, and more strongly wording its disclaimer by making it more prominent, while insisting the paper reflected only the views of its authors. Harvard Kennedy School said in a statement: "The only purpose of that removal was to end public confusion; it was not intended, contrary to some interpretations, to send any signal that the school was also 'distancing' itself from one of its senior professors" and stated that they are committed to academic freedom, and do not take a position on faculty conclusions and research. However, in their 79-page rebuttal to the original papers criticisms, former Harvard dean Walt ensures that it was his decision - not Harvard's - to remove the Harvard logo from the on-line Kennedy school version of the original." Mark Mazower, a professor of history at Columbia University, wrote that it is not possible to openly debate the topic of the article: "What is striking is less the substance of their argument than the outraged reaction: to all intents and purposes, discussing the US-Israel special relationship still remains taboo in the U.S. media mainstream. [...] Whatever one thinks of the merits of the piece itself, it would seem all but impossible to have a sensible public discussion in the U.S. today about the country's relationship with Israel." Criticism of the paper was itself called "moral blackmail" and "bullying" by an opinion piece in The Financial Times: "Moral blackmail — the fear that any criticism of Israeli policy and U.S. support for it will lead to charges of anti-Semitism — is a powerful disincentive to publish dissenting views...Bullying Americans into a consensus on Israeli policy is bad for Israel and makes it impossible for America to articulate its own national interest." The editorial praised the paper, remarking that "They argue powerfully that extraordinarily effective lobbying in Washington has led to a political consensus that American and Israeli interests are inseparable and identical." Mearsheimer and Walt's response to the criticism Mearsheimer stated, "[w]e fully recognised that the lobby would retaliate against us" and "[w]e expected the story we told in the piece would apply to us after it was published. We are not surprised that we've come under attack by the lobby." He also stated "we expected to be called anti-semites, even though both of us are philo-semites and strongly support the existence of Israel." Mearsheimer and Walt responded to their critics in a letter to the London Review of Books in May 2006. To the accusation that they "see the lobby as a well-organised Jewish conspiracy" they refer to their description of the lobby "a loose coalition of individuals and organisations without a central headquarters." To the accusation of mono-causality, they remark "we also pointed out that support for Israel is hardly the only reason America's standing in the Middle East is so low." To the complaint that they "'catalog Israel's moral flaws,' while paying little attention to the shortcomings of other states," they refer to the "high levels of material and diplomatic support" given by the United States especially to Israel as a reason to focus on it. To the claim that U.S. support for Israel reflects "genuine support among the American public" they agree, but argue that "this popularity is substantially due to the lobby's success at portraying Israel in a favorable light and effectively limiting public awareness and discussion of Israel's less savory actions." To the claim that there are countervailing forces "such as 'paleo-conservatives, Arab and Islamic advocacy groups... and the diplomatic establishment,'" they argue that these are no match for the lobby. To the argument that oil rather than Israel drives Middle East policy, they claim that the United States would favor the Palestinians instead of Israel, and would not have gone to war in Iraq or be threatening Iran if that were so. They accuse various critics of smearing them by linking them to racists, and dispute various claims by Alan Dershowitz and others that their facts, references or quotations are mistaken. In December 2006 the authors privately circulated a 79-page rebuttal, "Setting the Record Straight: A Response to Critics of 'The Israel Lobby'". In the book published in August 2007 the authors responded to criticisms leveled against them. They claimed that the vast majority of charges leveled against the original article were unfounded, but some critiques raised issues of interpretation and emphasis, which they addressed in the book. Debate The London Review of Books organised a follow-up debate on the paper, moderated by Anne-Marie Slaughter, Dean of the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs (formerly known as the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs), also a professor of Politics and International Affairs at Princeton University. The panelists were John Mearsheimer; Shlomo Ben-Ami, former Israeli foreign and security minister and the author of Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: The Israeli-Arab Tragedy; Martin Indyk, director of the Saban Center for Middle East Policy, also Senior Fellow in Foreign Policy Studies at the Brookings Institution; Tony Judt, professor in European Studies and director of the Remarque Institute at New York University; Rashid Khalidi, professor of Arab Studies and Director of the Middle East Institute at Columbia University; and Dennis Ross of the Washington Institute for Near East Policy and the author of The Missing Peace: The Inside Story of the Fight for Middle East Peace. A press conference was held after the debate. The work generated fascination and interest in the question of Israel-US relations and other scholars were motivated to address the issue from different perspectives, including those who asserted that the relationship is much too complex to be discussed solely through the prism of the Israeli lobby. See also Israel lobby in the United States The Lobby References External links Alternative link to Mearsheimer and Walt paper hosted at University of Chicago "The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy," Harvard Kennedy School of Government Working Paper No. RWP06-011 Letters to the London Review of Books: Vol. 28 No. 7, Vol. 28 No. 8, Vol. 28 No. 9, Vol. 28 No. 10, Vol. 28 No. 11, Vol. 28 No. 12 Israel–United States relations United States–Middle Eastern relations Working papers Lobbying in the United States 2007 books 2007 essays Books by John Mearsheimer American Israel Public Affairs Committee
4631750	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grissom%20Air%20Reserve%20Base	Grissom Air Reserve Base	Grissom Air Reserve Base is a United States Air Force base, located about north of Kokomo in Cass and Miami counties in Indiana. The facility was established as a U.S. Navy installation, Naval Air Station Bunker Hill, in 1942 and was an active Air Force installation, Bunker Hill Air Force Base from 1954 to 1968, and Grissom Air Force Base from 1968 to 1994. Pursuant to a BRAC 1991 decision, the installation was downsized to an Air Force Reserve installation and renamed Grissom Air Reserve Base. Since then it has been a joint-use civil airport/military base. Approximately 1700 acres plus the runway and taxiways comprise the current military installation, with the Grissom Aeroplex comprising the civilian aviation activities providing general aviation and charter service. Originally named Bunker Hill Air Force Base, the base was renamed Grissom Air Force Base in 1968 in memory of astronaut and Indiana native Lieutenant Colonel Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom, USAF, who, along with fellow astronauts Lieutenant Colonel Ed White, USAF, and Lieutenant Commander Roger Chaffee, USN, perished in the Apollo 1 fire at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 on 27 January 1967. It is home to the largest KC-135R Stratotanker wing in the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC), plus units from the United States Army Reserve and also the US Marine Corps Reserve. The host unit is the 434th Air Refueling Wing (434 ARW), the "Hoosier Wing", which consists of three major groups and a variety of squadrons and flights. The wing develops and maintains the operational capability of its units and trains reservists for worldwide duty, with the wing operationally-gained by the Air Mobility Command (AMC). Training consists of flight operations, deployments, and weekday and weekend training. Other organizations located at Grissom ARB include the U.S. Army Reserve's Company A, 1st Battalion, 330th Regiment; 316th Psychological Operations Company (Tactical); Detachment 1, 855th Quartermaster Company; the U.S. Marine Corps Reserve's Marine Corps Reserve Center Grissom and Detachment 1, Communications Company, 4th Marine Logistics Group. History Background On 18 March 1942, the Bureau of Yards and Docks (BuDocks) sent out a letter to the Judge Advocate General of the Navy (JAG), Rear Admiral Walter Browne Woodson, for the acquisition of land near Peru, Indiana, with the intention of constructing a Naval Reserve Aviation Base. The following day, the Shore Station Development Board sent a letter of recommendation to the US Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV), Frank Knox, estimating the cost of the project, including land acquisition, at $7,000,000. On 21 March 1942, the Chief of Naval Operations, Fleet Admiral Ernest King, concurred with BuDocks and also sent a letter to SECNAV. Secretary Knox sent a letter the same day to JAG Woodson approving the base. On 27 March 1942, Russell B. Moore Company, Indianapolis, Indiana, signed contract NOy-5485, for the architectural and engineering services for Naval Reserve Aviation Base at Peru, Indiana. Two other firms had been considered; Walter W. Ahlschlager & Associates, Chicago, Illinois, and Phelps & Peck, Michigan City, Indiana. On 3 April 1942, contract NOy-5475, for the construction of a Naval Reserve Aviation Base at Peru, Indiana, with Captain R.D. Spalding, USN, the Officer-in-Charge, was sent out. The contract included Projects 1 to 47, with a fee of $4,965,500. Changes "A" through "M", were added over the next several months, adding Projects 48 to 77, and 501, and on 19 November 1942, Purchase Order 4057 authorized Projects 78 to 87, with manual instruction authorizing Project 88. Four contractors were considered for the project; James T. Barnes Construction Company, Logansport, Indiana; Sollitt Construction Company, Inc., South Bend; William P Jungclaus Company, Indianapolis; and a joint venture between J.L. Simmons Company, Inc., Indianapolis, and United Construction Company, Winona, Minnesota. The bid was given to J.L. Simmons Company, Inc. and United Construction Company, and signed on 16 April 1942. Construction Preliminary plans for the base were issued 20 April 1942. The base was commissioned on 1 July 1942, with a contingent of Naval personnel moving in on 15 July 1942. Actual construction wasn't finished until 12 April 1943, with 99.5% field work completed. The final cost was $13,064,424.43. The design called for a Naval Air Station, occupying , with the facilities and equipment to house and train 1,200 naval aviation cadets. This would include the housing and other necessary facilities needed for a total of 3,200 officers and men. Station facilities would include four runways of long and wide; a square landing mat with sides long (); taxiways, warm-up aprons, and approaches; 77 buildings with of floor space, water supply, heating; and sewage disposal plants; of paved streets and of sidewalks. The training facilities included 25 auxiliary fields, within a radius, with a combined area of . Of the 2,158 acres, approximately were of dense timber that needed to be cleared. Other obstructions included, houses, barns, boulders, and county and state roads. The main base was, and still is, located approximately south of Peru, Indiana, on US Route 31; north of Kokomo; Logansport to the northwest; and Wabash 20 mi to the northeast. Indianapolis, Indiana's capitol, is south; Fort Wayne 64 mi northeast, South Bend north, and Chicago northwest. The Site Selection Board selected this site because it was centrally located with ready accessibility from several large cities. The land is level for miles around, which afforded many possibilities for auxiliary fields. It was out of the flight routes of commercial airlines. The soil type was satisfactory with gravel being locally available for concrete. It could be serviced by the Pennsylvania Railroad, with a station only away and construction of a switch track easily possible; also paved highways and bus lines nearby. Electrical power available from Peru. Satisfactory climate conditions, as indicated by Weather Bureau Reports. Water treatment for the steam boilers seemed to be the only draw back. Upon receiving the Letter of Intent on 28 March 1942, Russell B. Moore Company established a temporary headquarters and moved personnel and necessary drafting, surveying and office equipment and supplies to an old schoolhouse at Bunker Hill, which they occupied until completion of the Construction Engineering Office on the site 13 May 1942. Surveying the site started 1 April 1942. J.L. Simmons Company, Inc. and United Construction Company received their Letter of Intent 4 April 1942, and immediately began moving equipment in to clear the site, including removal of buildings, trees, and grading as soon as elevations for the finished grade had been determined. Temporary structures were built, including a cement warehouse, a large general warehouse, , time office, a large number of movable, built on skids for easy removal, tool storage sheds and small storehouses. All construction material was delivered by truck until the completion of the spur track on 10 June 1942, after which a large portion of the construction material came in by rail. Peak days of traffic volume were as follows: 129 freight carloads of paving material received via the spur track on 30 October 1942, and 1755 truck loads of paving material received on 25 October 1942. In addition to the previously mentioned builds, a combined saw mill and carpenter shop was constructed, and equipped with wood working machinery. A temporary building was built and equipped as a restaurant, in which lunches were served to all persons on site at a moderate cost. A combination garage and repair shop was constructed and equipped to keep equipment in operating condition. A first aid building, staffed by two nurses was built. Night lighting, so paving operations could continue at night, was provided by electric floodlights. One large diesel powered permanent type generator with overhead distribution wiring, and several portable gasoline powered generators produced the electricity. Many of the buildings utilized standard BuDocks plans and specifications for standard air station buildings. Specialized buildings were designed by the Moore Company. Most of the buildings were of a light, temporary type, designed to only be used for a limited time. The safety record during construction was: one serious fire at Subsistence Building 26, 4,043 first aid cases, with 465 of those needing services of a physician. On the night of 3 August 1942, building 26 caught fire while it was about 90% complete, damage was estimated at 53% of its value. Due to cost overruns, some of the projects were moved to contracts NOy 5938 and NOy 5958. Runways and warming-up platforms Initially the four runways were to be long and constructed of macadam with asphalt topping, along with the landing mat. On 30 October 1942, Change "G", ordered the runways lengthened to 5000 ft, and to now be constructed of concrete. Each runway was thick and not reinforced. The runways ran northeast to southwest, northwest to southeast, east to west, and north to south. Lights were located every along the length of three runways, with the northwest to southeast runway being spaced at intervals. The ends of the runways were separately marked with two, three, four, and five lights. There was a temporary landing field built for official visits during construction of the base. The Warming-up Platform consisted of thick unreinforced concrete lanes , with a total area of , with 2800 steel mooring eyes located in the concrete. Barracks Buildings 29A–29H consisted of eight B1 Type Barracks for the enlisted men. These barracks were two-story, "H" shaped framed buildings . The second floor ceilings were insulated and the exterior wall finish was cement asbestos shingles. Each building housed 230 men, and were . The students were housed in similar B1 Type Barracks, buildings 30A, 30B, 30G, and 30H, but with only a capacity for 200 men. Buildings 31A and 31B, Junior Bachelor Officers' Quarters, did not utilize standard construction plans. They were two-story rectangular frame buildings ×, with partial basements enclosing the heater rooms that were ×. They each contained 42 rooms for officers, with recreation rooms, screened porch, showers, and toilets. Each building could house 84 officers and had . Building 31E was the Bachelor Officers' Quarters with Messing Facilities. An irregular shaped, two-story frame building, , with a partial, basement. The first floor contained a lounge, mess hall, galley, office, vestibule, officers' quarters and toilets; second floor, officers' quarters, lounge, toilets and showers, and dormitory for help. The galley contained electrical cooking equipment. There was a drill field between the barracks, with a , , portion stabilized with water-bound macadam for use in all types of weather. Mess halls Buildings 26 and 26A, were S2 Type Subsistence buildings. They were single story, irregular shaped frame buildings ; two partial basements for transformers, each ×. They had a seating copacity of 912 men with . The cadets' mess, buildings 27 and 27A, were S1 Type Subsistence buildings, which were smaller, at ; one partial basement, ×. The seating capacity was 456 men with . Training buildings Buildings 4A and 4B were the Instruction buildings. These were used to instruct cadets in physics, radio, mathematics, theory of flight, navigation, aerology, and gunnery. The buildings were two-story "H" shaped with the same dimensions as the B1 Type barrack. The first floor contained class rooms in the wings with a study room in the central portion, while the second floor had a plane and ship recognition room and an assembly room that was . Building 39 was the Link Trainer building. It was a one-story rectangular frame building, , which contained two trainer rooms, with a capacity of 16 trainers, along with offices and toilets. This building was air conditioned. Commons buildings Building 22, the Dispensary, with 109 beds, contained two wards, operating suite, sick officers' quarters, pharmacy, diet kitchen, x-ray rooms, physiotherapy, solarium, showers, and toilets. It was an irregularly shaped, , height , with a partial basement , that contained the morgue and storage rooms. The x-ray rooms had sheet lead lined walls. The floor area was . Building 23, Auditorium and Recreation building, was a partial two-story, "T" shaped frame building, . Three partial basements, , , and ×, contained heater, compressor, pump room, transformer and lockers. The auditorium roof used wood arch trusses which allowed a clear height of in the center, and measured . The first floor of the auditorium contained a stage, two dressing rooms, lounge, soda fountain, cafeteria, canteen, Ships Service store, billiard room, barber shop, cobbler shop, tailor shop, showers and toilets. The second floor had a lounge, library, reading and writing rooms, Chaplain's office, CPO recreation rooms, showers, and toilets. The main floor had a seating capacity of 1,500 men with another 280 in the balcony. Total floor area was . Building 24 was the Water Survival Training Pool. The building was a rectangular, , two-story building, with a partial basement. The basement contained a boiler room, ×, which housed two K-44-S14-LPS boilers; fan/blower room, ×; coagulation basin and filter room, both measuring ×; and a coal bin and transformer room of unknown dimension. The building was of a Quonset style with a radius of curvature on the roof. At the time of its construction it was touted as the second largest indoor pool in the world. It was intended to be used for lifeboat and abandon ship training. The pool itself was with upper galleries. The galleries lead to two platforms of wooden boards supported by pipe scaffolding bolted to the laminated arches and to the ceiling, at the deep end of the pool. These platforms were approximately high with pipe fences surrounding them, they simulated the height of an aircraft carrier and were used for practicing lifeboat drills and abandon ship maneuvers. There were three diving boards at the north end of the pool, with the center diving board above the water, and the outer two above the water. There were also three ladders on the east and west sides of the pool for ingress and egress. The first floor also contained lockers, toilets, and towel issue stations. Building 36 was the Armory. This was a , one story building with racks in two rooms with a capacity for 3,836 guns, along with toilet facilities. Building 33 was the Small Arms Magazine. A one-story, , reinforced concrete building, windowless, with a floor level below grade level. The building was covered in a mound of earth with a ventilation duct extending to the top of the mound. Building 44 was originally earmarked for a Brig, but was changed to a Reception Center. It was a one-story rectangular frame building, , with a partial, , basement that contained an oil fired steam boiler. Administration buildings Building No. 1 was the Administration building. The two-story "U" shaped building was , with a partial basement, , that contained the heater room. The general administrative offices of the Station were on the first floor, while the second floor had the Commanding Officers' and Executive Officer's suites, communications and record offices. The total floor area was . Buildings 2E and 2W were the Squadron Administration buildings. These were utilized by the cadets for flight preparation. Each building contained a squadron Commander's room, flight control room, parachute and flying gear issue rooms, cadet ready room and a locker room. The buildings were rectangular, , one story structures with of floor space. Building 3 was the Gatehouse, this also included the security fence. The gatehouse was a one-story, building located on an island in the center of the entrance roadway. There was a boiler in the basement of the gatehouse that provided steam for heat. The security fence was a chain link fence surmounted with barbed wire, with seven locking gates that extended at a minimum of within the property line of the base, along State Highway 218. Building 3A was the Guardhouse. This was a one-story, , building with a wide porch on two sides. Flight operations buildings Building 6 was the Operations building. All flight operations were controlled from an air conditioned observation room in the control tower of this building, which had windows overlooking the runway and landing mat areas. Signalling, radio sending and receiving equipment, and switches controlling the electric lighting of the runways were operated from this room. Communications, radio and weather reporting offices were located on the second floor, with offices of the operating personnel, aerology department and record department on the first floor. The building was "L" shaped, , containing the reinforced concrete control tower, that was by high. Two small partial basements enclosed pump and heater rooms. There was also a motor driven electric beacon and meteorological instruments. Buildings 7E and 7F were temporary hangars. They were rectangular by high; of wood construction; roof supported by wood trusses, with span, on wood columns; wood doors, high, that rolled on steel tracks providing clear openings of when opened. One end of each hangar had a two-story lean-to which contained offices, shops, and toilets on the first floor, and a mezzanine, , divided into offices, parts and storage rooms. Each hangar had a total floor area of . Building 8 was the Assembly and Repair Shop. The two-story building was rectangular, , with a one-story wing on each end. The center section, for final assembly, had a clear area, unobstructed by columns, , with a overhead crane. Other portions of the first floor were divided into wing and engine overhaul, starter and accessory overhaul, carburetor shop, machine shop, piston and cylinder repair, and tear down shops. General and small offices were located on the second floor balcony. Building 9 was the Parachute building with a tower. A one-story rectangular building, , for parachute storage, repairing, packing and issue, with a parachute cleaning shower and drying tower, by high. A partial basement, , contained pump and fan rooms. The building had an electric powered air conditioning unit and electric driven sewing machines. Building 11 was the Paint and Dope Spray Booth. This was a two-story building with a one-story section, ×. The building contained Bink's Paint Spraying and Air Washing Equipment, including blowers, air washing and purifying devices, and exhaust fans, installed to minimize danger of explosions and inhalation of fumes. Building 8 was the Paint, Oil and Dope Storage Building. It was an one story rectangular building. The building was divided into three rooms for engine oil, oil storage, and dope storage. Building 13 housed the engine test stand. This was a one-story concrete block wall and partition building, with reinforced concrete floor and flat roof slab, ×. It contained six engine test stands; three engine test cells; engine and embalming room; toilets and boiler room. Building 38 was the General and Aircraft Storage. It was a one-story, , rectangular building. There was a monitor skylight running down the center of the building and one large and two small offices with toilets at one end. Facilities buildings Building 14 was the storehouse, a rectangular, one-story, building, with offices at one end. Building 17 was the garage. It was a one-story, rectangular, building with a partial basement, , for the heater and pump room. The first floor contained a parts room, locker room, offices, stock room, toilets, and a balcony at one end that contained offices. Building 15 was the Heating Plant. This one-story, rectangular, reinforced concrete building, was and stood tall. A mezzanine balcony contained a toilet, shower, and wash room. The building was equipped with four oil fired steam generating boilers, each able to of steam per hour at pressure, and the additional equipment needed, oil burners, pumps, and water heaters. The building also contained three secondary concrete fuel oil storage tanks with a capacity of that were connected to the main storage tank. Structures 16 and 43 were for fuel oil storage. Fuel oil would be unloaded at the fuel oil transfer house, building 43, a ×, reinforced concrete building, from railroad tank cars. Three tank cars could be unload simultaneously, the oil being pumped to a 275,000 gal. pre-stressed reinforced concrete storage tank, building 16, diameter and high tank buried below grade and covered with earth. A small gauge and apparatus room adjoined the tank. Oil flowed by gravity from the tank to the heating plant in steam heated pipes to prevent coagulation. With the exception of a few buildings equipped with separate boilers, all buildings on Station were supplied with of steam through a welded underground steam distribution supply and return mains. The steam was used for both heating and hot water heating. Buildings 48–1 through 48–5 were transformer houses. The city of Peru provided a 33,000 volt transmission line that fed a sub-station at the northeast corner of the base. The sub-station had three 500KVA step down transformers that took the voltage from 33,000 volt, 3 phase, 3 wire to 12,500 volt, 3 phase, 4 wire. Primary distribution was then by aerial or underground transmission to secondary distribution locations. There were of overhead line, with of bare copper wire; and of underground line, with of lead covered cable, of fiber conduit encased in concrete and 58 manholes. To further step down the voltage for use in buildings, 18 transformer banks were utilized, with 67 oil insulated, air cooled transformers in transformer vaults and transformer houses, with a total capacity of 3,119 KVA volts. Standby emergency electricity was supplied by two generators connected to two 12 cylinder gasoline engines. Building 40 was the Fire Station. This was a one-story, rectangular building, . It had an apparatus room, office, toilets, dormitory, and a hose tower that was by tall. Water and Fire Protection were provided by building 21 and Well Houses 42–1 and 42–2. Two deep wells provided water for the base. The well houses had pumps capable of that transferred the water through an line to the treatment plant, building 21. Building 21 was a partial two-story reinforced concrete building adjoining an underground concrete emergency reservoir for treated water. The building contained electric motor driven pumps, tanks, chlorinators, dry chemical feeders, and filters for purifying and softening the water. of cast iron pipe, diameter, distributed the water under pressure to 46 fire hydrants and 2,405 water fixtures on the station. Structures 19A–D were for gasoline storage and distribution. Delivered by tank car at four unloading points on a special railroad siding, and by gasoline trucks at four additional points, the gasoline was stored in four underground pre-stressed reinforced concrete tanks that were lined with Thiokol. Three of the tanks had capacity and were used for 73 octane gasoline. The other was a tank used for 100 octane gasoline. The fuel was pumped to distribution points through two separate piping systems, one for 73 octane and one for 100 octane, by two submerged type multiple stage centrifugal, , pumps at each tank; each pump powered with a electric motor. Distribution points for 73 octane gasoline consisted of a tank truck filling stand, 200 gpm, and 56 gasoline servicing pits for fuelling planes directly, located at the warmup aprons, with capacity to fuel 48 planes simultaneously at the rate of per plane. The 100 octane gasoline, the tank truck filling stand was capable of , and four planes could be fueled at a rate of . The system included of diameter welded steel pipe. The 100 octane system was actually used for 87 octane gasoline with 100 octane being provided by a later contract. A main railroad spur, long, connected the station to the Pennsylvania Railroad under a revocable agreement. Additional spurs for unloading gasoline branched off the main with an additional of track. World War II Navy service Naval Reserve Air Base Peru, as the base was named when commissioned, was built to train United States Navy, United States Marine Corps and United States Coast Guard pilots. The base would go through several names just during WWII. On 1 January 1943, the name was changed to Naval Air Station Peru (NAS Peru), and only three months later on 1 March 1943, the name changed again, this time to Naval Air Station Bunker Hill (NAS Bunker Hill), which it kept for the rest of the war. Pilots would study for 12 weeks in a pre-flight school, then transfer to Bunker Hill for an additional 12 weeks of flight training, after which, they would transfer to intermediate aviation training stations such as Naval Air Station Pensacola. During the course of their training at Bunker Hill cadets would study celestial and dead-reckoning navigation, radio communication, care and repair of engines, physical fitness training that included boxing, wrestling, hand-to-hand fighting, and swimming. The base trained 5,997 American Naval Aviation Cadets, of which 4,568 qualified to advance to Intermediate Flight Training, while 854 were sent to Naval Station Great Lakes for reclassification. In addition to the American cadets, Bunker Hill trained 701 British Royal Navy cadets. By 31 March 1945, there were 407 N2S-3 Kaydet trainers, nearly one-quarter of the U.S. Navy's inventory. One of the most famous alumni of Bunker Hill was former major league baseball player Ted Williams. He received training as a Marine Corps Naval Aviator at NAS Bunker Hill. After World War II the base area reverted to farming use, with a civilian crew of government caretakers maintaining the military buildings. Transfer to the United States Air Force The United States Air Force obtained right of entry to 25 buildings from United States Navy on 16 November 1951, and used the base under United States Air Force Storage Branch. Still in inactive status, it was transferred from the Navy to the Air Force on 31 March 1954. 323d Fighter-Bomber Wing and 319th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron In the wake of the Korean War, the Air Force reopened the installation as Bunker Hill Air Force Base on 22 June 1954, and assigned it to Tactical Air Command. The base began to host the 4433d Air Base Squadron and the 323d Fighter-Bomber Wing and the 323d Air Base Group coming under TAC's Ninth Air Force. Initially training with North American F-86Fs, these were quickly upgraded to the North American F-86H Sabre and then to the North American F-100A/D in 1956 to become proficient in tactical air operations. The wing's aircraft wore a band on the tail, and around the nose edged with small black checkers. In 1955, the 319th Fighter Interceptor Training Squadron of the Air Defense Command joined forces at the base, reporting to the 4706th Air Defense Wing at K. I. Sawyer AFB, Michigan. Initially operating the F-89 Scorpion interceptor, the mission of the 319th FIS was the air defense of the southern Great Lakes and Chicago-Gary-Central Indiana region. It was later upgraded to the F-94 Starfire. The ADC interceptors remained until 1 January 1959. Strategic Air Command Strategic Air Command (SAC) assumed operational control of Bunker Hill Air Force Base from Tactical Air Command on 1 September 1957, with the 8th Air Force assuming jurisdiction of the base; the Air Force then inactivated the 323d Fighter-Bomber Wing, and the 4041st Air Base Group arrived that day. The Air Force began to station the new Boeing KC-135A Stratotanker on the base in 1957. 305th Bombardment Wing, Medium On 1 June 1959, Strategic Air Command moved the 305th Bombardment Wing, Medium, (305 BMW) from MacDill Air Force Base in Florida to Bunker Hill Air Force Base. At the time, the wing flew the Boeing B-47 Stratojet; later, the supersonic Convair B-58 Hustler began replacing the B-47s. Starting in 1960, the Air Force equipped the 319th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron with the F-106 Delta Dart until the squadron departed on 1 March 1963. Nuclear accident On 8 December 1964, a B-58 carrying five nuclear weapons, including a 9-megaton thermonuclear bomb, slid off an icy runway and caught fire during a training mission. While taxiing it was caught in the jet blast from the aircraft in front of it while turning onto the runway and applying power of its own. This caused the bomber to lose control and slide off the left hand side of the taxiway. The left main landing gear passed over a flush mounted taxiway light fixture, further the landing gear grazed the left edge of a concrete light base. After traveling another 10 ft the left main landing gear struck an electrical manhole box which caused it to collapse, rupturing a fuel tank. The aircraft then caught fire. The aircraft commander, Leary Johnson, and defensive system operator, Roger Hall, were able to escape with minor injuries. However, the navigator, Manuel "Rocky" Cervantes, ejected in his escape capsule, which landed from the bomber; he did not survive. The five nuclear weapons on board were burned, causing contamination of the crash area. The Air Force claimed that the crash site was cleaned of contamination, however, it was discovered that the aircraft and some of the soil from the area were only removed to another site on the base and reburied. The burned bombs were shipped to Atomic Energy Commission facilities at Clarksville, Tennessee, Medina Base, Texas, Rocky Flats, Colorado, Miamisburg, Ohio, and Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where it was determined that none of the plutonium from the weapons was released. A 1996 survey found that the area of the crash were still contaminated and required further remediation of the site. Apollo 1 disaster – renaming base On 27 January 1967, the cabin of the Apollo 1 spacecraft caught fire during a pre-launch preparation at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34, killing United States Air Force astronaut Lieutenant Colonel Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom, a Mitchell, Indiana, native and Purdue University graduate. The Air Force officially renamed Bunker Hill Air Force Base as Grissom Air Force Base in his honor on 12 May 1968. 305th Air Refueling Wing With the retirement of the B-58 in 1970, the Air Force redesignated the 305th Bombardment Wing, Medium, as the 305th Air Refueling Wing (305 ARW) on 1 January 1970. The Air Force transferred the 70th Air Refueling Squadron from another wing at Little Rock Air Force Base to the 305th Air Refueling Wing in 1970. From the early 1970s, the 305th Air Refueling Wing deployed KC-135 aircraft to Europe, Alaska, Greenland, and the Pacific to support worldwide tanker task forces. Meanwhile, with the closing of Bakalar Air Force Base, near Columbus, the 931st Air Refueling Wing arrived on 15 January 1970. In June 1972, the 305th Air Refueling Squadron deployed elements to Korat Air Base, Thailand, as the 4104th Air Refueling Squadron (Provisional). Later in 1972 the 4104th ARS (P) was relocated to U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield. Combined active duty and reserve operations The Air Force Reserve joined the Grissom personnel complement in the early 1970s with the activation of the 434th Special Operations Wing (434 SOW) and their Cessna A-37 Dragonfly aircraft to the base on 15 January 1971. On 1 October 1973, the Air Force Reserve redesignated the 434th Special Operations Wing as the 434th Tactical Fighter Wing, with the 434th later transitioning from the A-37 to the A-10 Thunderbolt II as the latter aircraft entered the USAF inventory.. In 1975, the Air Force inactivated the 3d Post Attack Command and Control System of the 305th Air Refueling Wing and transferred specialized Boeing EC-135s to the 70th Air Refueling Squadron of the 305th Air Refueling Wing. The 931st Air Refueling Group (931 ARG) departed on 1 July 1975. The United States Army Reserve began its presence at Grissom in the 1970s. On 1 February 1978, the Air Force renamed the 305th Air Refueling Wing as the 305th Air Refueling Wing, Heavy. The Air Force activated the 931st Air Refueling Group at the base on 1 July 1978 as the second group of Air Force Reservists. The base also served as the home of one active duty wing and two reserve wings, using 60 KC-135 Stratotanker and 18 A-10 Thunderbolt II fighter aircraft. The 72d Air Refueling Squadron of the Air Force Reserve began operating its KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft from Grissom in 1978. The 305th Air Refueling Wing, Heavy, provided tanker refueling support to units involved in the invasion of Grenada in October 1983. The 931st Air Refueling Group departed Grissom on 1 July 1987. The Air Force Reserve on 1 July 1978 redesignated the 434th Tactical Fighter Wing as the 434th Air Refueling Wing, Heavy, giving it a similar mission to that of the 305th Air Refueling Wing, Heavy. The 305th Air Refueling Wing, Heavy, provided tanker support to units involved in the United States invasion of Panama in December 1989. From August 1990 to June 1991, deployed 305th Air Refueling Wing, Heavy, personnel and aircraft provided refueling support for air operations in southwest Asia as part of Operation Desert Storm. The 305th Air Refueling Wing, Heavy, also delivered food to the Kurds in Northern Iraq from April to May 1991. The Air Force redesignated the wing as 305th Air Refueling Wing on 1 September 1991. The end of the Cold War led to a downsizing of the military. The Base Realignment and Closure Commission of 1991 recommended closure of Grissom Air Force Base. On 1 February 1992, the Air Force Reserve redesignated the 434th Air Refueling Wing, Heavy, as the 434th Air Refueling Wing and that year activated the 74th Air Refueling Squadron within the 434th Air Refueling Wing to operate the KC-135 Stratotanker. The Air Force inactivated Strategic Air Command (SAC) and realigned the 305th Air Refueling Wing to the newly established Air Mobility Command (AMC) on 15 June 1992. The Air Mobility Command merged air refueling aircraft from Strategic Air Command with strategic airlift aircraft (e.g., C-5, C-141 and tactical theater airlift aircraft (e.g., C-130) from the concurrently disestablishing Military Airlift Command (MAC). The Air Force Reserve renamed the 434th Air Refueling Wing as the 434th Wing on 1 August 1992. The Base Realignment and Closure Commission of 1993 directed realignment of Grissom Air Force Base to the Air Force Reserve (AFRES). The 305th Air Refueling Wing phased out operations and ended its presence on base on 30 September 1994, when the Air Force inactivated it. The Air Force then immediately reactivated a new 305th Air Refueling Wing with different personnel and equipment at McGuire Air Force Base in New Jersey. The Air Force inactivated the KC-135Rs of the 70th Air Refueling Squadron of the 305th Air Refueling Wing; this squadron transferred to Travis Air Force Base in California, joined another wing, and used a different aircraft. The Air Force also retired the Boeing EC-135G/L radio relay aircraft as part of the demise of the Post Attack Command and Control System. Air Force Reserve era Effective 1 October 1994, Grissom Air Force Base ceased active-duty operations, and the active Air Force transferred nearly half of the former base, including the runway, to the Air Force Reserve as Grissom Air Reserve Base. The Air Force Reserve (AFRES) redesignated the 434th Wing as the 434th Air Refueling Wing (434 ARW), and activated the 434th Mission Support Group. The 434th Air Refueling Wing operates two KC-135 Stratotanker air refueling squadrons, operationally within the Air Mobility Command (AMC). Because of the inactivation of the installation's active duty KC-135 wing due to BRAC, the Air Force reassigned Grissom Air Force Base in 1994 to the Air Force Reserve which later became the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) in 1997. The base added Marine Corps Reserve units in 2001 and United States Navy Reserve units in 2002. In 2005, in an effort to consolidate Navy Reserve activities and units, the Navy Reserve transferred all its Grissom units to the Navy Operational Support Center at Heslar Naval Armory in Indianapolis, Indiana. In 2008, Grissom Air Reserve Base entered into a joint-use agreement and opened its runway to civilian operations. Miami County Aviation manages the day-to-day civil operations at Grissom Air Reserve Base. The extremely long runway and instrument navigation facilities make Grissom Air Reserve Base especially well suited to business jets as a refueling stop for long cross-country flights. Civilian air traffic controllers also staff a radar approach control facility at the airport. Until the retirement of the Space Shuttle on 21 July 2011, Grissom was also listed as one of the emergency landing sites due to its 12,500-foot runway. In 2015, it was announced that the Grissom was in the running for a squadron of the new KC-46A Pegasus. In October, it was announced that the base would not be receiving the aircraft, which instead was allocated to the 916th Air Refueling Wing at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base. Grissom was also in competition with Westover Air Reserve Base and Tinker Air Force Base for basing of the KC-46A. Previous names Established as Naval Reserve Air Base Peru, 1 July 1942 Renamed Naval Air Station Peru, 1 January 1943 Renamed Naval Air Station Bunker Hill, 1 March 1943 Deactivated and used for farming, 1946–1951 Reestablished as United States Air Force Storage Branch, 16 November 1951 Reestablished as Bunker Hill Air Force Base, 22 June 1954 Renamed Grissom Air Force Base, 12 May 1968 Renamed Grissom Air Reserve Base, 1 October 1994–present Major commands to which assigned Tactical Air Command, 22 June 1954 Strategic Air Command, 1 September 1957 Air Mobility Command, 1 June 1992 Air Force Reserve Command, 1 October 1994 Previous base operating units 4433d Air Base Squadron, 1 April 1955 323d Air Base Group, 8 August 1955 319th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 1 November 1955 – 1 March 1963 4041st Air Base Group, 1 September 1957 305th Combat Support Group, 1 June 1959 931st Air Refueling Group, 15 January 1970 – 1 July 1975; 1 July 1978 – 1 July 1987. Major units assigned 323d Fighter-Bomber Wing, 8 August 1955 – 1 September 1957 319th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, 1 November 1955 – 1 January 1959 (Air Defense Command) 305th Bombardment Wing (later 305th Air Refueling Wing), 1 June 1959 – 30 September 1994 434th Air Refueling Wing (previously 434th Special Operations Wing and 434th Tactical Fighter Wing), 15 January 1971 – Present Aircraft assigned (Strategic Air Command) Boeing B-47 Stratojet (bomber) Convair B-58 Hustler (supersonic bomber) Boeing KC-135 (air refueling tanker) Boeing EC-135 (LOOKING GLASS, post-attack SAC Airborne Command Post) Role and operations The host wing for Grissom Air Reserve Base is the 434th Air Refueling Wing (434 ARW) of the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC). As a result of previous post-Vietnam War base realignments and post-Cold War BRAC realignments, AFRC currently controls four former active duty Air Force Bases in the United States that have been re-designated as Air Reserve Bases (e.g., Grissom ARB, IN; Homestead ARB, FL; March ARB, CA; Westover ARB, MA). Grissom ARB also hosts Army Reserve and Marine Corps Reserve units. The base has a combined workforce consisting of both military personnel and civilians and ranked as the largest employer in Miami County and the third-largest employer in north-central Indiana in 2012. Grissom claims an economic impact of over $130 million per year, and is involved in community activities, like the Marine Corps Reserve's annual "Toys for Tots". The National Arbor Day Foundation designated the base as a "Tree City". In 2017, Grissom Air Reserve Base became home to the Green Knights Military Motorcycle Club, Chapter 109, an official chapter of the Green Knights International Military Motorcycle Club. The club promotes motorcycle safety for both military and civilian personnel and is open to all active, reserve, and guard military members, DoD Civilians, DoD Contractors, and Retirees. Based units Flying and notable non-flying units based at Grissom Air Reserve Base. Units marked GSU are Geographically Separate Units, which although based at Grissom are subordinate to a parent unit based at another location. United States Air Force Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) Fourth Air Force 434th Air Refueling Wing (Host Wing) 434th Aerospace Medicine Squadron 434th Operations Group 72nd Air Refueling Squadron – KC-135R Stratotanker 74th Air Refueling Squadron – KC-135R Stratotanker 434th Operations Support Squadron 434th Maintenance Group 434th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron 434th Maintenance Operations Squadron 434th Maintenance Squadron 434th Mission Support Group 49th Aerial Port Squadron 434th Civil Engineer Squadron 434th Communications Squadron 434th Force Support Squadron 434th Logistics Readiness Squadron 434th Operational Contracting Flight 434th Security Forces Squadron United States Marine Corps US Marine Corps Reserve 4th Marine Logistics Group Combat Logistics Regiment 45 Communications Company Detachment 1 (GSU) United States Army US Army Reserve US Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command (Airborne) 2nd Psychological Operations Group 16th Psychological Operations Battalion 316th Tactical Psychological Operations Company (GSU) 377th Sustainment Command 310th Sustainment Command 643rd Regional Support Group 766th Transportation Battalion 855th Quartermaster Company Detachment 1 (GSU) 108th Training Command 95th Training Division 4th Brigade 330th Regiment 1st Battalion (GSU) Environmental problems In 2015, groundwater at about 20 feet below the surface was found to be contaminated with perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) at two former fire-training areas. PFCs are found in fire-suppressing foam used to extinguish petroleum-driven aircraft fires. The drinking-water wells near the base go much deeper, at 150 to 180 feet below the surface. At around 14 other sites on or near the base pollutants, like vinyl chloride, in soil or water are also being investigated. In September 2015, four water wells closest to the former firefighter training areas tested negative for PFC's as did the in-flow and out-flow points at the nearby city of Peru's municipal water treatment plant with levels below the EPA health advisory limits. The Air Force has been testing 82 former and active installations nationwide for PFC's. In 2015, PFCs were found in groundwater at the former Naval Air Station Brunswick and well water at Pease Air National Guard Base. Geography Grissom Air Reserve Base is located at , about 12 miles (19 km) north of Kokomo in Cass and Miami counties in Indiana. The nearby city of Peru is about 70 miles north of Indianapolis. The base is listed by the United States Census Bureau as the "Grissom AFB" census-designated place (CDP), with an area of , all land. As of the 2020 census, the population living on the base was 3,009, down from 5,537 in 2010. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 1,652 people, 581 households, and 431 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 151.9/km2 (393.6/mi2). There were 1,091 housing units at an average density of 100.3/km2 (259.9/mi2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 86.7% White, 7.6% African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.5% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.2% of the population. There were 581 households, out of which 51.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.7% were married couples living together, 12.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.8% were non-families. 19.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 1.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84 and the average family size was 3.27. In the CDP the population was spread out, with 36.4% under the age of 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 39.6% from 25 to 44, 12.8% from 45 to 64, and 2.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 27 years. For every 100 females there were 100.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.8 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $45,000, and the median income for a family was $44,939. Males had a median income of $34,286 versus $21,447 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $15,869. About 8.6% of families and 8.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.5% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over. For the period 2007–2011, the estimated median annual income for a household in the CDP was $42,105, and the median income for a family was $42,857. Males had a median income of $35,819 versus $27,857 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $15,423. About 19.3% of families and 16.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.7% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over. In popular culture Grissom appears in the video game Tom Clancy's EndWar as a possible battlefield. Grissom is also mentioned in the movie Transformers: Dark of the Moon as a base used before the attack on Chicago. Grissom is also mentioned in "flight of the intruder" See also Grissom Air Museum List of United States Air Force Aerospace Defense Command Interceptor Squadrons Notes Citations Bibliography Further reading Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office 1961 (republished 1983, Office of Air Force History, ). Ravenstein, Charles A. Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Office of Air Force History 1984. . Mueller, Robert, Air Force Bases Volume I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982, Office of Air Force History, 1989 A Handbook of Aerospace Defense Organization 1946 – 1980, by Lloyd H. Cornett and Mildred W. Johnson, Office of History, Aerospace Defense Center, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado External links Grissom Air Reserve Base, official site Grissom Air Museum Installations of the United States Air Force in Indiana Buildings and structures in Miami County, Indiana Installations of Strategic Air Command Census-designated places in Miami County, Indiana Census-designated places in Cass County, Indiana Installations of the United States Air National Guard Transportation buildings and structures in Miami County, Indiana
4632384	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/434th%20Air%20Refueling%20Wing	434th Air Refueling Wing	The 434th Air Refueling Wing is an Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to the Fourth Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command, stationed at Grissom Air Reserve Base, Indiana. The 434th Air Refueling Wing principal mission is air refueling. If mobilized, the Wing is gained by the Air Mobility Command. In July 1949, Continental Air Command (ConAC) reopened Atterbury Air Force Base, Indiana, a World War II field, as a training base for reserve flying units and activated the 434th Troop Carrier Wing there the wing initially flew the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, but soon converted to Curtiss C-46 Commandos, and is now operating the Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker. Today, the 434th is one of the Air Force's busiest air refueling reorganizations, frequently deploying its personnel and aircraft around the world to support combat forces as part of the Global War on Terrorism. Most recently, the wing has been mobilized in support of Operation Inherent Resolve. The wing has also deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation New Dawn, and Operation Noble Eagle. Overview The 434th Air Refueling Wing principal mission is air refueling. The wing enhances the Air Force's capability to accomplish its primary missions of global reach and global power. It also provides air refueling support to Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps aircraft as well as aircraft of allied nations. The wing is also capable of transporting litter and ambulatory patients using patient support pallets during aeromedical evacuations. It also has special taskings to generate aircraft and crews in support of the Air Mobility Command. Air Force Reserve Command, Robins Air Force Base, Georgia, and 4th Air Force, March Air Reserve Base, California, provide command and supervisory guidance prior to mobilization. The 434th Air Refueling Wing regularly participates in exercises and front-line operations to support America's national interests. The Air Force Reserve Command provides a substantial portion of the Department of Defense's total aerial refueling capability. Hence, the 434th receives its share of taskings both during peacetime and times of crisis to support our nation's active duty military forces. It holds the record for most air refuelings in a one-week period when the unit performed 290 aerial refuelings, with over one million pounds of fuel offloaded. The unit also set a single day record of refueling 90 aircraft, with over 283,000 pounds of fuel offloaded. These records were established in 1981. In addition to being a self-contained combat-ready unit, the 434th Air Refueling Wing also has the responsibility to operate and maintain Grissom Air Reserve Base. Grissom is one of only five Air Force Reserve Bases nationwide Units The 434th Air Refueling Wing consists of the following major units: 434th Operations Group 434th Operations Support Squadron 72nd Air Refueling Squadron 74th Air Refueling Squadron 434th Maintenance Group 434th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron 434th Maintenance Squadron 434th Mission Support Group 434th Force Support Squadron 434th Security Forces Squadron 434th Civil Engineer Squadron 434th Communications Squadron 434th Operational Contracting Flight 434th Logistics Readiness Squadron 49th Aerial Port Squadron 434th Aerospace Medicine Squadron Included in these major organizations are such areas as flight operations, aircraft maintenance, plans and programs, safety, airfield management, security police, military personnel, services, communications, medical support, information management, administration, and civil engineering. History for related history, see 434th Operations Group Initial activation and Korean War mobilization In July 1949, Continental Air Command (ConAC) reopened Atterbury Air Force Base, Indiana, a World War II field, as a training base for reserve flying units and activated the 434th Troop Carrier Wing there. The wing was organized under the wing base organization, and its operational component, the 434th Troop Carrier Group, moved to Atterbury from Stout Field, Indiana. President Truman’s reduced 1949 defense budget also required reductions in the number of units in the Air Force, and the wing drew its cadre from the 323d Air Division, which was inactivated at Stout. The wing was manned at 25% of normal strength but its combat group was authorized four squadrons rather than the three of active duty units. The wing trained under the supervision of the 2466th Air Force Reserve Training Center at Atterbury. The wing initially flew the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, but soon converted to Curtiss C-46 Commandos, and training for the most part consisted of transition flying training. Before the transition was completed, the Group spent two weeks in the summer of 1950 (8–22 July) on active duty in a summer encampment. All reserve combat and corollary units, including the 434th Wing, were mobilized for the Korean war. The wing was part of the second wave of reserve activations, which included all Tenth Air Force units. These units were used as fillers for other units, except for 434th. Instead, the wing was one of six C-46 wings mobilized for Tactical Air Command, which used them to form Eighteenth Air Force. The wing trained at Atterbury until January 1952, when it moved to Lawson Air Force Base, Georgia. It flew in military exercises and flew missions to support Army airborne forces training at Fort Benning. In September, the wing began to provide combat crew training for aircrews being assigned to C-46 units with Far East Air Forces. On 1 February 1953, the wing transferred its mission, personnel and equipment to the newly activated 464th Troop Carrier Wing, a regular Air Force unit, and was inactivated. Reactivation in the reserves The wing was reactivated at Atterbury the same day, taking over the aircraft and personnel of the 87th Troop Carrier Wing, which was inactivated. The reserve mobilization for the Korean war had left the Reserve without aircraft until July 1952 and the 87th Wing had been formed at that time. The 434th returned to its previous reserve training role upon its return. During the first half of 1955, the Air Force began detaching Air Force Reserve squadrons from their parent wing locations to separate sites. The concept offered several advantages: communities were more likely to accept the smaller squadrons than the large wings and the location of separate squadrons in smaller population centers would facilitate recruiting and manning. As it finally evolved in the spring of 1955, the Continental Air Command’s plan called for placing Air Force Reserve units at fifty-nine installations located throughout the United States. In time, the detached squadron program proved successful in attracting additional participants Although the 71st and 72d Troop Carrier Squadrons remained at Bakalar Air Force Base, the 73d Troop Carrier Squadron moved to Dress Memorial Airport, Indiana in June 1957, then to Scott Air Force Base, Illinois in November. The 434th continued to train with the 2466th Center, converting from Curtiss Commandos to the Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar in 1957. However, in July 1959 the center was inactivated and some of its personnel were absorbed by the wing. In place of active duty support for reserve units, ConAC adopted the Air Reserve Technician Program, in which a cadre of the unit consisted of full-time personnel who were simultaneously civilian employees of the Air Force and held rank as members of the reserves. This followed a reorganization of the wing under the Dual Deputate organization, all flying squadrons were directly assigned to the wing and the 434th Troop Carrier Group was inactivated. Activation of groups under the wing Although the dispersal of flying units was not a problem when the entire wing was called to active service, mobilizing a single flying squadron and elements to support it proved difficult. This weakness was demonstrated in the partial mobilization of reserve units during the Berlin Crisis of 1961 To resolve this, at the start of 1962, ConAC determined to reorganize its reserve wings by establishing groups with support elements for each of its troop carrier squadrons. This reorganization would facilitate mobilization of elements of wings in various combinations when needed. However, as this plan was entering its implementation phase, another partial mobilization, which included the 434th Wing, occurred for the Cuban Missile Crisis, with the units being released on 28 November 1962 after a month of active service. The wing's C-119 squadrons began transporting supplies, equipment and Army personnel to Homestead Air Force Base, Florida. The formation of troop carrier groups was delayed until February 1963 for wings that had been mobilized. The 930th Troop Carrier Group and 931st Troop Carrier Group at Bakalar and the 932d Troop Carrier Group at Scott, were all assigned to the wing on 11 February. On 1 October 1966, the 932d Group was released from assignment to the 434th and reassigned to the 442d Military Airlift Wing at Richards-Gebaur Air Force Base, Missouri, in preparation for heavy cargo operations. On 1 July 1967, the 434th was redesignated the 434th Tactical Airlift Wing, its subordinate groups and squadrons also being re-designated as Tactical Airlift units. On 13 May 1968, the 930th Tactical Airlift Group was mobilized for combat duty in the Vietnam War, the 71st Tactical Airlift Squadron's C-119 aircraft were selected for modification to the AC-119G Gunship configuration with powerful searchlights and rapid-fire machine guns. The squadron and its Bakalar reservists moved to Lockbourne Air Force Base, Ohio on 11 June. The 71st was subsequently redesignated as the 71st Air Commando Squadron on 15 June and eventually deployed to Nha Trang Air Base, South Vietnam on 5 December where it was assigned to the 14th Special Operations Wing. The 71st was the only USAF reserve unit to serve in Vietnam. On 25 June 1969, the 931st Tactical Airlift Group was redesignated as the 931st Tactical Air Support Group and re-equipped with Cessna U-3A Blue Canoe light utility aircraft. The group's C-119s were transferred to the 71st Special Operations Squadron and modified to the AC-119G configuration. Due to funding reductions in 1969, Bakalar Air Force Base was selected for closure. The 434th Tactical Airlift Wing was inactivated on 31 December 1969 with the closure of Bakalar AFB. On 15 January 1971, the 434th was reactivated at Grissom Air Force Base, Indiana, as the 434th Special Operations Wing. Its operational squadron was the 71st Special Operations Squadron, with the AC-119s transferred from Bakalar AFB. The 434th conducted routine reserve training until 30 September 1973 when its 71st SOS was inactivated and its AC-119s retired. The wing was redesignated as the 434th Tactical Fighter Wing with a new tactical air operation mission. The 45th and 46th Tactical Fighter Squadron were equipped with Cessna A-37 Dragonfly aircraft for close air support missions. The 46th was inactivated on 1 July 1978. The 434th provided combat crew training for USAF and friendly foreign nations until June 1980. The A-37s were then transferred to other units. In April 1981, the 434th received the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft and the wing's mission changed to training forward air controllers. The 45th Squadron provided A-10 tactical fighter training for reserve and guard pilots until June 1987 when the squadron was reassigned to the 930th Tactical Fighter Group at Grissom, which was assigned to the 434th as a subordinate unit until 30 September 1994 when it was inactivated. Post Cold War era Reflecting the 434th's composite mission, the 434th was redesignated as the 434th Wing on 1 August 1992 and also implemented the Objective Organization Plan. The 434th Operations Group was activated that date. The 434th Wing, consisted of Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker and A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft and was responsible for air refueling and close air support missions. Changes in the Air Force mission led to the unit being reorganized once again. The 1993 Base Realignment and Closure Commission directed realignment of Grissom to the Air Force Reserve. The wing assumed KC-135s of the active-duty 305th Air Refueling Wing, which moved to McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey. With the transfer of the A-10 equipped 930th Group on 30 September 1994, the wing was again redesignated as the 434th Air Refueling Wing on 1 October 1994. During the December 1993 to February 1997 time period, the wing staged four separate deployments to Europe to support Operation Decisive Endeavor, the United Nation's enforcement of the no-fly zone over war-torn Bosnia. In May 1999, the 434th ARW was called upon to provide aerial refueling support to Operation Allied Force as personnel and aircraft were deployed to various European locations. In 1997 Grissom was reassigned to Air Force Reserve Command. Global War on Terrorism Today, the 434th is one of the Air Force's busiest air refueling reorganizations, frequently deploying its personnel and aircraft around the world to support combat forces as part of the Global War on Terrorism. Most recently, the wing has been mobilized in support of Operation Inherent Resolve. The wing has also deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation New Dawn, and Operation Noble Eagle. Lineage Established as the 434th Troop Carrier Wing, Medium and activated in the Reserve on 1 July 1949 Ordered to Active Service on 1 May 1951 Inactivated on 1 February 1953 Activated in the Reserve on 1 February 1953 Ordered to Active Service on 28 October 1962 Relieved from Active Duty on 28 November 1962 Redesignated 434th Tactical Airlift Wing on 1 July 1967 Inactivated on 31 December 1969 Redesignated 434th Special Operations Wing on 12 January 1971 Activated in the Reserve on 15 January 1971 Redesignated 434th Tactical Fighter Wing on 1 October 1973 Redesignated 434th Air Refueling Wing, Heavy on 1 July 1987 Redesignated 434th Air Refueling Wing on 1 February 1992 Redesignated 434th Wing on 1 August 1992 Redesignated 434th Air Refueling Wing on 1 October 1994 Assignments Tenth Air Force, 1 July 1949 Tactical Air Command, 2 May 1951 Eighteenth Air Force, 1 June 1951 – 1 February 1953 Second Air Reserve District, 1 February 1953 Tenth Air Force, 15 April 1953 Fifth Air Force Reserve Region, 1 September 1960 Twelfth Air Force, 28 October 1962 Fifth Air Force Reserve Region, 28 November 1962 – 31 December 1969 Central Air Force Reserve Region, 15 January 1971 Tenth Air Force, 8 October 1976 Twenty-Second Air Force, 1 October 1993 Fourth Air Force, 1 April 1997 – present Components Groups 98th Air Refueling Group: 1 October 1987 – 1 August 1992 434th Troop Carrier Group (later 434th Operations Group): 1 July 1949 – 1 February 1953; 1 February 1953 – 14 April 1959; 1 August 1992 – present 442d Tactical Fighter Group: 1 October 1982 – 1 February 1984 908th Tactical Air Support Group: 1 July – 25 October 1971 (detached after 1 October 1971) 910th Tactical Air Support Group (later 910th Special OperationsGroup, 910 Tactical Fighter Group): 21 April 1971 – 1 April 1981 916th Air Refueling Group: 1 July 1987 – 1 October 1994 917th Military Airlift Group (later 917th Special Operations; 917 Tactical Fighter) Group: 25 February 1972 – 1 July 1987 926th Tactical Airlift Group (later 926th Tactical Fighter Group): 1 January 1978 – 1 February 1984 927th Air Refueling Group: 1 August 1992 – 1 October 1994 930th Troop Carrier Group (later 930th Tactical Airlift Group, 930th Special Operations Group, 930th Tactical Fighter Group, 930th Operations Group): 11 February 1963 – 13 May 1968; 18 June-31 December 1969; 15 January 1971 – 1 July 1975; 1 August 1992 – 30 September 1994 931st Troop Carrier Group (later 931st Tactical Airlift Group, 931st Tactical Air Support Group 931st Special Operations Group, 931st Tactical Fighter Group): 11 February 1963 – 31 December 1969; 15 January 1971 – 1 July 1975 932d Troop Carrier Group: 11 February 1963 – 1 October 1966 Squadrons 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron: 1 July 1975 – 1 July 1987 46th Tactical Fighter Squadron: 1 July 1975 – 1 July 1978 71st Troop Carrier Squadron: 14 April 1959 – 11 February 1963 72d Troop Carrier Squadron (later 72d Air Refueling Squadron): 14 April 1959 – 11 February 1963; 1 July 1987 – 1 August 1992 73d Troop Carrier Squadron: 14 April 1959 – 11 February 1963 Stations Atterbury Air Force Base, Indiana, 1 July 1949 Lawson Air Force Base, Georgia, 23 January 1952 – 1 February 1953 Atterbury Air Force Base (later Bakalar Air Force Base), Indiana, 1 February 1953 – 31 December 1969 Grissom Air Force Base (later Grissom Air Reserve Base), Indiana, 15 January 1971 – present Aircraft Douglas C-47 Skytrain, 1949 C-46 Commando, 1949–1953; 1953–1957 North American T-6 Texan, 1953 Beechcraft T-7 Navigator, 1953–1957 Beechcraft T-11 Wichita, 1953–1957 Beechcraft C-45 Expeditor, 1953–1957 Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar, 1957–1969 Cessna U-3 Blue Canoe, 1969, 1971 Cessna O-2 Skymaster, 1971 Cessna A-37 Dragonfly, 1971–1982 Douglas C-124 Globemaster II, 1972 Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II, 1980–1987, 1992–1994 Fairchild Republic OA-10 Thunderbolt II, 1980–1987, 1992–1994 McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender, 1987–1994 Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, 1987–present References Notes Citations Bibliography Rogers, Brian (2005). United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978. Hinkley, England: Midland Publications. . Military in units based in Indiana 0434
4632779	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bog%20turtle	Bog turtle	The bog turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii) is a critically endangered species of semiaquatic turtle in the family Emydidae. The species is endemic to the eastern United States. It was first scientifically described in 1801 after an 18th-century survey of Pennsylvania. The smallest North American turtle, its carapace measures about long when fully grown. Although the bog turtle is similar in appearance to the painted or spotted turtles, its closest relative is actually the somewhat larger wood turtle. The bog turtle can be found from Vermont in the north, south to Georgia, and west to Ohio. Diurnal and secretive, it spends most of its time buried in mud and – during the winter months – in hibernation. The bog turtle is omnivorous, feeding mainly on small invertebrates. The bog turtle is the state reptile of New Jersey. An adult bog turtle weighs on average. Its skin and shell are typically dark brown, with a distinctive orange spot on each side of the neck. Considered threatened at the federal level, the bog turtle is protected under the United States' Endangered Species Act. Invasive plants and urban development have eradicated much of the bog turtle's habitat, substantially reducing its numbers. Demand for the bog turtle is high in the black market pet trade, partly because of its small size and unique characteristics. Various private projects have been undertaken in an attempt to reverse the decline in the turtle's population. The bog turtle has a low reproduction rate; females lay one clutch per year, with an average of three eggs each. The young tend to grow rapidly, reaching sexual maturity between the ages of 4 and 10 years. Bog turtles live for an average of 20 to 30 years in the wild. Since 1973, the Bronx Zoo has successfully bred the bog turtle in captivity. Taxonomy The bog turtle was noted in the 18th century by Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst Muhlenberg, a self-taught botanist and clergyman. Muhlenberg, who named more than 150 North American plant species, was conducting a survey of the flora of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, when he discovered the small turtle. In 1801, Johann David Schoepff named Muhlenberg's discovery as Testudo muhlenbergii in Muhlenberg's honor. In 1829, Richard Harlan renamed the turtle Emys muhlenbergii. The species was subsequently renamed to Calemys muhlenbergii by Louis Agassiz in 1857, and to Clemmys muhlenbergii by Henry Watson Fowler in 1906. Synonyms include Emys biguttata, named in 1824 by Thomas Say on the basis of a turtle from the vicinity of Philadelphia, and Clemmys nuchalis, described by Dunn in 1917 from near Linville, North Carolina. Today, there are various names for the bog turtle, including mud turtle, marsh turtle, yellowhead, and snapper. The genus name was changed to Glyptemys in 2001. The bog turtle and the wood turtle, Glyptemys insculpta, had until then been included in the genus Clemmys, which also included spotted turtles (C. guttata) and western pond turtles (C. marmorata). Nucleotide sequencing and ribosomal DNA analyses suggested that bog turtles and wood turtles are closely related, but neither is directly related to spotted turtles, hence the separation of the genus Glyptemys. Description The bog turtle is the smallest species of turtle in North America. The adults weigh approximately when fully grown. It does not have a prominent snout. Its head is dark brown to black; however, it has a bright yellow, orange, or red spot on each side of its neck. The spot is often forked, facing posteriorly. The bog turtle has a dark skin color with an orange-red wash on the inside of the legs of some individuals. The carapace is domed and rectangular in shape, and it tends to be narrower toward the head and wider toward the tail. The carapace often has easily identifiable rings on the rough scales or scutes. The scutes may also have a radiating arrangement of lines. In some older individuals, and those that burrow frequently in coarse substrates, the shell may be smooth. Although generally black, a chestnut sunburst pattern in each scute is sometimes present on the carapace. The belly of the shell, the plastron, is also a dark brown to black color with light marks present. The spotted turtle and painted turtle are similar in appearance to the bog turtle. The bog turtle is distinguishable from any other species of turtle by the distinctively colored blotch on its neck. A major difference between it and the spotted turtle is that the bog turtle has no coloration on the upper shell, unlike the latter species. Mature male bog turtles have an average length of while the average female length is (straight carapace measurement). The males have a larger average body size than females, likely due to sexual selection for larger males in winning and performing the act of mating. The female has a wider and higher shell than the male, but the male's head is squared and larger than a female's of the same age. The plastron of the male looks slightly concave while the female's is flat. The male's tail is longer and thicker than the female's. The cloaca is further towards the end of the tail of the male bog turtle, while the female's cloaca is positioned inside the plastron. Juveniles are very difficult to sex. Distribution and habitat The bog turtle is native only to the eastern United States, congregating in colonies that often consist of fewer than 20 individuals. They prefer calcareous wetlands (areas containing lime), including meadows, bogs, marshes, and spring seeps, that have both wet and dry regions. Their habitat is often on the edge of woods. Bog turtles have sometimes been seen in cow pastures and near beaver dams. The bog turtles' preferred habitat, sometimes called a fen, is slightly acidic with a high water table year-round. The constant saturation leads to the depletion of oxygen, subsequently resulting in anaerobic conditions. The bog turtle uses soft, deep mud to shelter from predators and the weather. Spring seeps and groundwater springs provide optimum locations for hibernation during winter. Home range size is sex dependent, averaging about for males and for females. However, research has shown that densities can range from 5 to 125 individuals per . The range of the bog turtle extensively overlaps that of its relative, the wood turtle. Rushes, tussock sedge, cattails, jewelweed, sphagnum, and various native true grasses are found in the bog turtle's habitat, as well as some shrubs and trees such as willows, red maples, and alders. It is important for their habitat to have an open canopy, because bog turtles spend a considerable amount of time basking in the sunlight. An open canopy allows sufficient sunlight to reach the ground so that the bog turtles can manage their metabolic processes through thermoregulation. The incubation of eggs also requires levels of sunlight and humidity that shaded areas typically lack. The ideal bog turtle habitat is early successional. Late successional habitats contain taller trees that block the necessary sunlight. Erosion and runoff of nutrients into the wetlands accelerate succession. Changes caused by humans have begun to eliminate bog turtles from areas where they would normally survive. Northern and southern populations The northern and southern bog turtle populations are separated by a gap over much of Virginia, which lacks bog turtle colonies. In both areas, the bog turtle colonies tend to occupy widely scattered ranges. The northern population is the larger of the two. These individuals make their home in states as far north as Connecticut and Massachusetts, and as far south as Maryland. These turtles are known to have fewer than 200 habitable sites left, a number that is decreasing. The southern population is much smaller in number (only about 96 colonies have been located), living in the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, and Tennessee. This area in particular has seen about 90 percent of its mountainous wetlands dry up. The turtles in this population are even more scattered than in the northern population and live at higher elevations, up to . Evolutionary history There have been only two recorded discoveries of bog turtle fossils. The late J. Alan Holman, a paleontologist and herpetologist, first identified bog turtle plastral remains in Cumberland Cave, Maryland (near Corriganville), which are of Irvingtonian age (from to 300,000 years ago). The second discovery was of Rancholabrean (between 300,000 and 11,000 years ago) shell pieces in the Giant Cement Quarry in South Carolina (near Harleyville), by Bentely and Knight in 1998. The bog turtle's karyotype is composed of 50 chromosomes. Studies of variations in mitochondrial DNA indicate low levels of genetic divergence among bog turtle colonies. This is unusual in species such as the bog turtle, which have fragmented distributions and exist in small isolated groups (fewer than 50 individuals in bog turtle colonies). These conditions limit gene flow, typically leading to divergence between isolated groups. Data indicate that the bog turtle suffered dramatic reductions in numbers – a population bottleneck – as colonies were forced south in the face of glaciation. Receding glaciers led to the relatively recent post-Pleistocene expansion, as the bog turtles moved back into their former northern range. This recent colonization from a relatively limited southern population may account for the reduction of genetic diversity. The northern and southern populations are at present genetically isolated, likely as a consequence of farming and habitat destruction in Virginia's Shenandoah Valley during the American Civil War. Ecology and behavior Behavior The bog turtle is primarily diurnal, active during the day and sleeping at night. It wakes in the early morning, basks until fully warm, then begins its search for food. It is a seclusive species, making it challenging to observe in its natural habitat. During colder days, the bog turtle will spend much of its time in dense underbrush, underwater, or buried in mud. Such behavior is indicative of the bog turtle's ability to survive without oxygen. On warmer days, the bog turtle's activities include scavenging, mating (during early spring), and basking in sunlight, the last of which it spends a great deal of the day doing. However, the bog turtle usually takes shelter from the sun during the hottest part of the day. Occasionally, during times of extreme heat, the turtle will either estivate, or become subterranean, sometimes occupying networks of tunnels filled with water. At night, the bog turtle buries itself in soft tunnels. Late September to March or April is usually spent in hibernation, either alone or in small groups in spring seeps. These groups can contain up to 12 individuals, and sometimes can include other species of turtles. Bog turtles try to find an area of dense soil, such as a strong root system, for protection during the dormant period. However, they may hibernate in other places such as the bottom of a tree, animal burrows, or empty spaces in mud. The bog turtle emerges from hibernation when the air temperature is between . The male bog turtle is territorial and will attack other males if they venture within of his position. An aggressive male will crawl toward an intruder with his neck extended. As he approaches his foe, he tilts his carapace by withdrawing his head and raising his hind limbs. If the other male does not retreat, a fight of pushing and biting can follow. The bouts typically last just a few minutes, with the larger and older male usually winning. The female is also aggressive when threatened. She will defend the area around her nest, usually up to a radius of , from encroaching females, but when a juvenile approaches, she ignores it, and when a male appears she surrenders her area (except during mating season). Diet Bog turtles are omnivorous and eat aquatic plants (such as duckweed), seeds, berries, earthworms, snails, slugs, insects, other invertebrates, frogs, and other small vertebrates. They also occasionally eat carrion. Invertebrates such as insects are generally the most important food item. In captivity, a bog turtle can be fed a variety of fruits and vegetables, as well as meat such as liver, chicken hearts, and tinned dog food. Bog turtles feed only during the day, but rarely during the hottest hours, consuming their food on land or in the water. Predators, parasites, and diseases A host of different animals, including snapping turtles, snake species such as Nerodia sipedon and Thamnophis sirtalis, muskrats, striped skunks, foxes, dogs, and raccoons prey upon the bog turtle. In addition, leeches (Placobdella multilineata and P. parasitica) and parasitic flies (Cistudinomyia cistudinis) plague some individuals, causing blood loss and weakness. Their shells offer little protection from predators. The bog turtle's main defense when threatened by an animal is to bury itself in soft mud. It rarely defends its territory or bites when approached. Bog turtles may suffer from bacterial infections. Aeromonas and Pseudomonas are two genera of bacteria that cause pneumonia in individuals. Bacterial aggregates (sometimes known as biofilms) have also been found in the lungs of two deceased specimens discovered in 1982 and 1995 from colonies in the southern population. Movement Day-to-day, the bog turtle moves very little, typically basking in the sun and waiting for prey. Though it is not especially lively on sunny days, the bog turtle is usually active after rainfall. Various studies have found different rates of daily movement in bog turtles, varying from in males and in females. Both sexes are capable of homing when released at distances up to from their site of capture. The bog turtle will travel long distances to find a new habitat if its home becomes unsuitable. The species is most active during the spring, and males generally exhibit greater migration distance and seasonal activity than females as they defend their territory. Home-range migration distances have been recorded at for males and for females. Home-range sizes in Maryland vary from to with considerable amounts of variation between sites and years. The bog turtle is semiaquatic and can move both on land and in the water. The distance and frequency of movements on land help herpetologists understand the behavior, ecology, gene flow, and the level of success of different bog turtle colonies. The vast majority of bog turtle movements are less than , and only 2 percent are of distances over ; large, expansive trips (i.e., between neighboring wetlands), are rare. The movement of bog turtles between colonies facilitates genetic diversity. If this movement were to be prevented, or limited in any significant way, the species would have a higher likelihood of becoming extinct because genetic diversity would fall. Some aspects of a bog turtle's movement that remain unresolved include: phenomena that motivate bog turtles to move outside their natural habitat; the distances an individual can be expected to travel each day, week, and year; and how separation of small groups affects the genetics of the species. Life cycle Bog turtles are sexually mature when they reach between 8 and 11 years of age (both sexes). They mate in the spring after emerging from hibernation, in a copulation session that usually lasts for 5–20 minutes, typically during the afternoon, and may occur on land or in the water. It begins with the male recognizing the female's sex. During the courtship ritual, the male gently bites and nudges the female's head. Younger males tend to be more aggressive during copulation, and females sometimes try to avoid an over-aggressive male. However, as the female ages, she is more likely to accept the aggressiveness of a male, and may even take the role of initiator. If the female yields, she may withdraw her front limbs and head. After the entire process is over, which usually takes about 35 minutes, male and female go separate ways. In a single season, females may mate once, twice, or not at all, and males try to mate as many times as possible. It has been suggested that it is possible for the bog turtle to hybridize with Clemmys guttata during the mating season. However, it has not been genetically verified in wild populations. Nesting takes place between April and July. The female digs a cavity in a dry, sunny area of a bog, and lays her eggs in a grass tussock or on sphagnum moss. The nest is typically deep and around. Like most species of turtle, the bog turtle constructs its nest using its hind feet and claws. Most bog turtle eggs are laid in June. Pregnant females lay one to six eggs per clutch (mean of 3), and produce one clutch per year. A healthy female bog turtle can lay between 30 and 45 eggs in her lifetime, but many of the offspring do not survive to reach sexual maturity. Typically, older females lay more eggs than younger ones. The eggs are white, elliptical, and on average long and wide. After the eggs are laid, they are left to undergo an incubation period that lasts for 42 to 80 days. In colder climates, the eggs are incubated through the winter and hatch in the spring. The eggs are vulnerable during the incubation period, and often fall prey to mammals and birds. In addition, eggs may be jeopardized by flooding, frost, or various developmental problems. It is unknown how gender is determined in bog turtles. Baby bog turtles are about long when they emerge from their eggs, usually in late August or September. Females are slightly smaller at birth, and tend to grow more slowly than males. Both genders grow rapidly until they reach maturity. Juveniles almost double in size in their first four years, but do not become fully grown until five or six years old. The bog turtle spends its life almost exclusively in the wetland where it hatched. In its natural environment, it has a maximum lifespan of perhaps 50 years or more, and the average lifespan is 20–30 years. The Bronx Zoo houses several turtles 35 years old or more, the oldest known bog turtles. The zoo's collection has successfully sustained itself for more than 35 years. The age of a bog turtle is determined by counting the number of rings in a scute, minus the first one (which develops before birth). Conservation Protected under the United States Federal Endangered Species Act, the bog turtle is considered threatened in Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania as of November 4, 1997. Due to a "similarity of appearance" to the northern population, the bog turtle is also threatened in Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia (considered to be the southern population). In addition to the federal listing of threatened, states in the southern range list the bog turtle as either endangered or threatened. Changes to the bog turtle's habitat have resulted in the disappearance of 80 percent of the colonies that existed 30 years ago. Because of the turtle's rarity, it is also in danger of illegal collection, often for the worldwide pet trade. Despite regulations prohibiting their collection, barter, or export, bog turtles are commonly taken by poachers. Road traffic has also led to declines. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has a plan for the recovery of the northern population. The bog turtle was listed as critically endangered in the 2011 IUCN Red List. The invasion of non-native plants into its habitat is a large threat to the bog turtles' survival. Although several plants disrupt its ecosystem, the three primary culprits are purple loosestrife, reed canary grass, and reeds, which grow thick and tall and are believed to hinder the movement of the turtles. Such plants also out-compete the native species in the bog turtle's habitat, thus reducing the amount of food and protection available to the turtles. The development of new neighborhoods and roadways obstructs the bog turtle's movement between wetlands, thus inhibiting the establishment of new bog turtle colonies. Pesticides, runoff, and industrial discharge are all harmful to the bog turtles' habitat and food supply. The bog turtle has been designated as a threatened species to "conserve the northern population of the bog turtle, which has seriously declined in the northeast United States." Today, the rebounding of bog turtle colonies depends on private intervention. Population monitoring involves meticulous land surveys over vast countrysides. In addition to surveying land visually, remote sensing has been used to biologically classify a wetland as either suitable or unsuitable for a bog turtle colony. This allows for comparisons to be made between known areas of bog turtle success and potential areas of future habitation. To help the existing colonies rebound, several private projects have been initiated in an attempt to limit the encroachment of overshadowing trees and bushes, the construction of new highways and neighborhoods, and other natural and man-made threats. Methods used to recreate the bog turtle's habitat include: controlled burns to limit the growth of overshadowing trees and underbrush (thus bringing the habitat back to early successional); grazing livestock such as cows and goats in the desired habitat area (creating pockets of water and freshly churned mud); and promoting beaver activity, including dam construction in and around wetlands. Captive breeding is another method of stabilizing the bog turtles' numbers. The technique involves mating bog turtles indoors in controlled environments, where nutrition and mates are provided. Fred Wustholz and Richard J. Holub were the first to do this independently, during the 1960s and 1970s. They were interested in educating others about the bog turtle and in increasing its population, and over several years they released many healthy bog turtles into the wild. Various organizations, such as the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, have been permitted to breed bog turtles in captivity. The study of bog turtles in the wild is a significant aid to the development of a conservation strategy. Radio telemetry has been used to track the turtles' movements in their natural habitat. Blood samples, fecal samples, and cloacal swabs are also commonly collected from wild populations and tested for signs of disease. Notes References Footnotes Bibliography External links NatureServe Explorer: An Online Encyclopedia of Life Glyptemys Turtles of North America Reptiles of the United States Fauna of the Eastern United States Fauna of the Southeastern United States Pleistocene turtles Extant Pleistocene first appearances Pleistocene animals of North America Pleistocene United States Species endangered by wetland drainage Species endangered by the pet trade Species endangered by urbanization Species endangered by agricultural development Species endangered by agricultural pollution Species endangered by invasive species Species endangered by disease Species endangered by roadkill Species endangered by climate change Species endangered by habitat fragmentation Reptiles described in 1801 Taxa named by Johann David Schoepff Critically endangered fauna of the United States ESA threatened species Reptiles as pets
4632858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mountain%20ranges%20of%20Arizona	List of mountain ranges of Arizona	There are 210 named mountain ranges in Arizona.This list also includes mountain ranges that are mostly in New Mexico and Sonora, Mexico, that extend into Arizona. Alphabetical list The southeast of Arizona, with New Mexico, northwest Chihuahua and northeast Sonora contain insular sky island mountain ranges, (the Madrean Sky Islands), or smaller subranges in association. There are also numerous Sonoran Desert ranges, or Arizona transition zone ranges. Northern and northeast Arizona also has scattered ranges throughout. Agua Caliente Mountains–Yuma County and Maricopa County Agua Dulce Mountains–Pima County Aguila Mountains–Yuma County Ajo Range–Pima County Alvarez Mountains–Pima County Aquarius Mountains–Mohave County Artesa Mountains–Pima County Artillery Mountains–Mohave County Atascosa Mountains–Santa Cruz County Aubrey Hills–Mohave County Baboquivari Mountains–Pima County Batamote Mountains–Pima County Bates Mountains–Pima County Beaver Dam Mountains–Mohave County Belmont Mountains–Maricopa County Big Horn Mountains (Arizona)–Maricopa County Big Lue Mountains–Greenlee County Bill Williams Mountains–Mohave County Black Hills (Greenlee County)–Greenlee County Black Hills (Yavapai County)–Yavapai County Black Mesa (Arizona) -- (E. Navajo County & W. Apache County) Black Mountains (Arizona)–Mohave County Black Mountains (Yavapai County)–Yavapai County-(southwest county) Blackjack Mountains (Arizona)–Gila County Bradshaw Mountains–Yavapai County Brownell Mountains–Pima County Bryan Mountains–Yuma County Buck Mountains–Mohave County Buckhorn Mountains–Yavapai County Buckskin Mountains (Arizona)–La Paz County Buckskin Mountains (Arizona-Utah)–Coconino County -- (S. Kane County, Utah) Butler Mountains–Yuma County Cabeza Prieta Mountains–Yuma County Camelback Mountain– Maricopa County Canelo Hills–Santa Cruz County Carrizo Mountains–Apache County Casa Grande Mountains–Pinal County Castle Mountains–Pima County Castle Dome Mountains–Yuma County Cerbat Mountains–Mohave County Cerro Colorado Mountains–Pima County Chiricahua Mountains–Cochise County Chocolate Mountains (Arizona)–La Paz County Chuska Mountains–Apache County Cimarron Mountains–Pima County Connell Mountains–Yavapai County Copper Mountains–Yuma County Cottonwood Mountains–Mohave County Coyote Mountains (Arizona)–Pima County Crater Range–Maricopa County Crooked Mountains–Pima County Date Creek Mountains–Yavapai County Diablo Mountains (Arizona)–Pima County Dome Rock Mountains–La Paz County Dos Cabezas Mountains–Cochise County Dragoon Mountains–Cochise County Dripping Spring Mountains–Pinal County Eagletail Mountains–Maricopa County Empire Mountains–Pima County Gakolik Mountains–Pima County Galiuro Mountains–Graham County -- (SE. Pinal County) Gila Bend Mountains–Maricopa County Gila Mountains (Graham County)–Graham County Gila Mountains (Yuma County)–Yuma County Goldfield Mountains–Maricopa County Granite Mountains (Arizona)–Pima County–see also: Granite Mountain (Arizona)-(Yavapai County)a separate "Granite Mountain" is in s. La Paz County Granite Wash Mountains–La Paz County Grayback Mountains–Yavapai County Growler Mountains–Pima County Guadalupe Mountains (Hidalgo County)–Hidalgo County, NM - (Cochise County, AZ & Sonora, Mexico) Harcuvar Mountains–NE. La Paz County -- (SW. Yavapai County) Harquahala Mountains–E. La Paz County -- (W. Maricopa County) Hayes Mountains–Gila County Hieroglyphic Mountains–N. Maricopa County -- (some in S. Yavapai County) Hobble Mountains–Coconino County Huachuca Mountains–Cochise County Hualapai Mountains–Mohave County John the Baptist Mountains–Pima County Juniper Mountains–Yavapai County Kofa Mountains–N. Yuma County - (S. La Paz County) La Lesna Mountains–Pima County Laguna Mountains (Arizona)–Yuma County (see also: Laguna Mountains(Calif)) Las Guijas Mountains–Pima County Little Ajo Mountains–Pima County Little Buckskin Mountains–La Paz County Little Dragoon Mountains–Cochise County Little Harquahala Mountains–La Paz County Little Horn Mountains–S. La Paz County -- (N. Yuma County) Little Rincon Mountains–Cochise County Lukachukai Mountains–Apache County Maricopa Mountains–Maricopa County Mazatzal Mountains–Southeast Yavapai County -- (and N. Maricopa County, W. Gila County) McAllister Range–Yavapai County McCloud Mountains–Yavapai County McCracken Mountains–Mohave County McDowell Mountains–Maricopa County Mescal Mountains–Gila County Mesquite Mountains–Pima County Middle Mountains–S. La Paz County -- (N. Yuma County) Mineral Mountains, Arizona–Pinal County Mingus Mountain, (= "Black Hills")–Yavapai County Moccasin Mountains–Mohave County -- (S. Kane County, Utah) Mohave Mountains–Mohave County Mohawk Mountains–Yuma County Mohon Mountains–Yavapai County Moquith Mountains–Mohave County Muggins Mountains–Yuma County Mule Mountains–Cochise County Music Mountains–Mohave County Mustang Mountains–Santa Cruz County Navajo Mountain, Arizona–Coconino County (mostly in Utah) Natanes Mountains–Graham County New River Mountains–Yavapai County & Maricopa County New Water Mountains–S. La Paz County -- (connected to Kofa Mountains, N. Yuma County) North Comobabi Mountains–Pima County Painted Rock Mountains–Maricopa Count Pajarito Mountains–Santa Cruz County Palo Verde Mountains–Pinal County Palomas Mountains–Yuma County Patagonia Mountains–Santa Cruz County Peacock Mountains–Mohave County Pedrogosa Mountains–Cochise County Peloncillo Mountains (Cochise County)–NE. Cochise County -- (SE. Graham County, S. Greenlee County)See also Peloncillo Mountains (Hidalgo County), New Mexico, also a Madrean Sky Island Perilla Mountains–Cochise County Phoenix Mountains–Maricopa County Picacho Mountains–Pinal County Pinal Mountains–Gila County Pinaleno Mountains–Graham County Plomosa Mountains–La Paz County Poachie Range–SE. Mohave County -- (SW. Yavapai County, NE. La Paz County) Pozo Redondo Mountains–Pima County Pozo Verde Mountains–Pima County Puerto Blanco Mountains–Pima County Quijotoa Mountains–Pima County Quinlan Mountains–Pima County Rawhide Mountains–Mohave County Rincon Mountains–Pima County Roskruge Mountains–Pima County Sacaton Mountains–Pinal County Salt River Mountains Salt River Mountains (Gila County)–Gila County San Cayetano Mountains–Santa Cruz County San Francisco Mountains–Greenlee County San Francisco Mountains San Francisco Mountains (New Mexico)–New Mexico & Greenlee County San Francisco Peaks–Coconino County San Luis Mountains–Pima County San Tan Mountains, Arizona Santan Mountains–Pinal County Sand Tank Mountains–Maricopa County Santa Catalina Mountains–Pima County Santa Maria Mountains–Yavapai County Santa Rita Mountains–Santa Cruz County, Pima County Santa Rosa Mountains–Pima County Santa Teresa Mountains–Graham County Sauceda Mountains–Pima County Sawmill Mountains–Mohave County Sawtooth Mountains–Pinal County Sevenmile Mountains, Arizona-Gila County Sheridan Mountains–Pima County Sierra Ancha–Gila County Sierra Arida–Yuma County Sierra Blanca Mountains–Pima County Sierra de la Lechuguilla–Yuma County Sierra de la Nariz–Pima County Sierra de Santa Rosa–Pima County Sierra Estrella–Maricopa County Sierra Madre Occidental–Regional Western Mexico - (extension of individual ranges, along entire United States-Mexico border) Sky island/ Madrean sky islands Sierra Pinta–Yuma County Sierra Prieta–Yavapai County Sierrita Mountains–Pima County Sikort Chuapo Mountains–Pima County Silver Bell Mountains–Pima County Silver Reef Mountains–Pinal County Slate Mountains–Pinal County Sonoyta Mountains–Pima County South Comobabi Mountains–Pima County South Mountains (Arizona)–Maricopa County Suizo Mountains–Pinal County Summit Mountains–E. Greenlee County -- (W. Grant County, New Mexico) Superstition Mountains–Pinal County Swisshelm Mountains–Cochise County Table Top Mountains–Pinal County Tank Mountains–Yuma County Tat Momoli Mountains–Pinal County Tinajas Altas Mountains–Yuma County Tortilla Mountains–Pinal County Tortolita Mountains–Pima County, Pinal County Trigo Mountains–La Paz County Tucson Mountains–Pima County Tule Mountains–Yuma County Tumacacori Mountains–Santa Cruz County, Pima County Tunitcha Mountains–Apache County Uinkaret Mountains–Mohave County Usery Mountains–Maricopa County Vekol Mountains–Pinal County Virgin Mountains–N. Mohave County -- (E. Clark County, Nevada) Vulture Mountains–Maricopa County Waterman Mountains–Pima County Weaver Mountains–Yavapai County West Silver Bell Mountains–Pima County Whetstone Mountains–Cochise County White Mountains (Arizona)–Apache County White Tank Mountains–Maricopa County Whitlock Mountains–Graham County Wickenburg Mountains–Yavapai County Winchester Mountains–N. Cochise County -- (they merge into S. Galiuro Mountains, Graham County) Yon Dot Mountains–Coconino County Associated regional landforms Aguirre Valley Altar Valley Aubrey Valley Avra Valley Black Mesa, Big Mountain, Mesa de las Vacas Black Mesa (western Arizona), extreme south section: Black Mountains (Arizona) Cactus Plain Castle Dome Plain Chinle Valley Chino Valley (Arizona) Coconino Plateau Defiance Plateau Echo Cliffs Gila River Valley–from eastern to southwestern Arizona Gila Valley (Graham County) Gila Valley (Yuma County) Grand Canyon Grand Wash Cliffs Grapevine Mesa Growler Valley Hualapai Valley Hunts Mesa Hurricane Cliffs Hyder Valley Kaibab Plateau Kaibito Plateau Kanab Plateau King Valley (Arizona) La Posa Plain Lechuguilla Desert Lonesome Valley, See: Chino Valley, Arizona, & Prescott Valley, Arizona (townsites) Madera Canyon (Arizona) Mogollon Plateau Mogollon Rim Mohawk Valley (Arizona) Monument Valley Natanes Valley Painted Desert, Arizona Palomas Plain Paradise Butte Paria Plateau, See: Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness Parker Valley Quijotoa Valley Rainbow Valley (Arizona) Ranegras Plain Sabino Canyon Sacramento Valley (Arizona) Salt River Canyon San Bernardino Valley (Arizona) San Cristobal Valley San Pedro Valley (Arizona) San Simon Valley Santa Rosa Valley Sentinel Plain Shivwits Plateau Shonto Plateau Sonoran Desert Sonsela Butte Sulphur Springs Valley Sycamore Canyon Tonto Basin Tule Desert (Arizona) Uinkaret Plateau Valley of the Ajo Verde Valley Vermilion Cliffs Whitlock Valley Williamson Valley Yuma Desert Apache County Black Mesa (Arizona) -- (E. Navajo County & W. Apache County) Carrizo Mountains–Apache County Chuska Mountains–Apache County Lukachukai Mountains–Apache County Tunitcha Mountains–Apache County White Mountains (Arizona)–Apache County Cochise County Chiricahua Mountains–Cochise County Pedrogosa Mountains–Cochise County Swisshelm Mountains–Cochise County Dos Cabezas Mountains–Cochise County Dragoon Mountains–Cochise County Little Dragoon Mountains–Cochise County Guadalupe Mountains (Hidalgo County)–Hidalgo County, NM - (Cochise County, AZ & Sonora, Mexico) Huachuca Mountains–Cochise County Little Rincon Mountains–Cochise County ( Rincon Mountains–Pima County ) Mule Mountains–Cochise County Peloncillo Mountains (Cochise County)–NE. Cochise County -- (SE. Graham County, S. Greenlee County)See also Peloncillo Mountains (Hidalgo County), New Mexico, also a Madrean Sky Island Perilla Mountains–Cochise County Whetstone Mountains–Cochise County Winchester Mountains–N. Cochise County -- (they merge into S. Galiuro Mountains, Graham County) Coconino County Buckskin Mountains (Arizona-Utah)–Coconino County -- (S. Kane County, Utah) Hobble Mountains–Coconino County San Francisco Peaks–Coconino County Yon Dot Mountains–Coconino County Gila County Blackjack Mountains (Arizona)–Gila County Hayes Mountains–Gila County ( Mazatzal Mountains–Southeast Yavapai County -- (and N. Maricopa County, W. Gila County) ) Mescal Mountains–Gila County Pinal Mountains–Gila County Salt River Mountains (Gila County)–Gila County Sevenmile Mountains–Gila County Sierra Ancha–Gila County Graham County Galiuro Mountains–Graham County -- (SE. Pinal County) Winchester Mountains–N. Cochise County -- (they merge into S. Galiuro Mountains, Graham County) Gila Mountains (Graham County)–Graham County ( Gila Mountains (Yuma County)–Yuma County ) Natanes Mountains–Graham County Peloncillo Mountains (Cochise County)–NE. Cochise County -- (SE. Graham County, S. Greenlee County)See also Peloncillo Mountains (Hidalgo County), New Mexico, also a Madrean Sky Island Pinaleno Mountains–Graham County Santa Teresa Mountains–Graham County Whitlock Mountains–Graham County Greenlee County Big Lue Mountains–Greenlee County Black Hills (Greenlee County)–Greenlee County ( Black Hills (Yavapai County)–Yavapai County ) Peloncillo Mountains (Cochise County)–NE. Cochise County -- (SE. Graham County, S. Greenlee County)See also Peloncillo Mountains (Hidalgo County), New Mexico, also a Madrean Sky Island San Francisco Mountains (New Mexico)–New Mexico & Greenlee County Summit Mountains–E. Greenlee County -- (W. Grant County, New Mexico) La Paz County Buckskin Mountains (Arizona)–La Paz County Chocolate Mountains (Arizona)–La Paz County Dome Rock Mountains–La Paz County Granite Wash Mountains–La Paz County Harcuvar Mountains–NE. La Paz County -- (SW. Yavapai County) Harquahala Mountains–E. La Paz County -- (W. Maricopa County) (Kofa Mountains–N. Yuma County - (S. La Paz County) ) Little Buckskin Mountains–La Paz County Little Harquahala Mountains–La Paz County Harquahala Mountains–E. La Paz County -- (W. Maricopa County) Little Horn Mountains–La Paz County Middle Mountains–S. La Paz County -- (N. Yuma County) New Water Mountains–La Paz County Plomosa Mountains–La Paz County ( Poachie Range–SE. Mohave County -- (SW. Yavapai County, NE. La Paz County) ) Trigo Mountains–La Paz County Maricopa County Agua Caliente Mountains–Yuma County and Maricopa County Belmont Mountains–Maricopa County Big Horn Mountains (Arizona)–Maricopa County Crater Range–Maricopa County Camelback Mountain– Maricopa County Eagletail Mountains–Maricopa County Gila Bend Mountains–Maricopa County Goldfield Mountains–Maricopa County Harquahala Mountains–E. La Paz County -- (W. Maricopa County) Little Harquahala Mountains–La Paz County Hieroglyphic Mountains–Maricopa County -- (some in S. Yavapai County) Maricopa Mountains–Maricopa County Mazatzal Mountains–Southeast Yavapai County -- (and N. Maricopa, W. Gila County) ) Four Peaks– Maricopa County McDowell Mountains–Maricopa County New River Mountains–Yavapai County & Maricopa County Painted Rock Mountains–Maricopa County Phoenix Mountains–Maricopa County Sand Tank Mountains–Maricopa County Sierra Estrella–Maricopa County Salt River Mountains–Maricopa County Usery Mountains–Maricopa County -- (See: Usery Mountain Recreation Area.) Vulture Mountains–Maricopa County White Tank Mountains–Maricopa County Shanagold Peaks–Maricopa County Mohave County Aquarius Mountains–Mohave County Artillery Mountains–Mohave County Aubrey Hills–Mohave County ( Beaver Dam Mountains–S. Washington County, Utah -- (N. Mohave County--Arizona Strip) ) Bill Williams Mountains–Mohave County Black Mountains (Arizona)–Mohave County Buck Mountains–Mohave County Cerbat Mountains–Mohave County Cottonwood Mountains–Mohave County Hualapai Mountains–Mohave County McCracken Mountains–Mohave County Moccasin Mountains–Mohave County -- (S. Kane County, Utah) Mohave Mountains–Mohave County Moquith Mountains–Mohave County Music Mountains–Mohave County Peacock Mountains–Mohave County Poachie Range–E. Mohave County -- (W. Yavapai County) Rawhide Mountains–Mohave County Sawmill Mountains–Mohave County Uinkaret Mountains–Mohave County Virgin Mountains–N. Mohave County -- (E. Clark County, Nevada) Navajo County Agathla Peak–Navajo County Black Mesa (Arizona) -- (E. Navajo County & W. Apache County) Pima County Agua Dulce Mountains–Pima County Ajo Range–Pima County Alvarez Mountains–Pima County Artesa Mountains–Pima County Baboquivari Mountains (Arizona)–Pima County; See: Baboquivari Peak Wilderness Batamote Mountains–Pima County Bates Mountains–Pima County Brownell Mountains–Pima County Castle Mountains (Arizona)–Pima County Cerro Colorado Mountains–Pima County Cimarron Mountains–Pima County Coyote Mountains (Arizona)–Pima County Crooked Mountains–Pima County Diablo Mountains (Arizona)–Pima County Empire Mountains–Pima County Gakolik Mountains–Pima County Granite Mountains (Arizona)–Pima County–see also: Granite Mountain (Arizona)-(Yavapai County)a separate "Granite Mountain" is in s. La Paz County Growler Mountains–Pima County John the Baptist Mountains–Pima County La Lesna Mountains–Pima County Las Guijas Mountains–Pima County Little Ajo Mountains–Pima County Mesquite Mountains–Pima County North Comobabi Mountains–Pima County Pozo Redondo Mountains–Pima County Pozo Verde Mountains–Pima County Puerto Blanco Mountains–Pima County Quijotoa Mountains–Pima County Quinlan Mountains–Pima County – highest point is Kitt Peak Rincon Mountains–Pima County ( Little Rincon Mountains–Cochise County ) Roskruge Mountains–Pima County San Luis Mountains–Pima County Santa Catalina Mountains–Pima County Santa Rita Mountains–Santa Cruz County, Pima County Santa Rosa Mountains (Arizona)–Pima County Sauceda Mountains–Pima County Sheridan Mountains–Pima County Sierra Blanca Mountains–Pima County Sierra de la Nariz–Pima County Sierra de Santa Rosa–Pima County Sierrita Mountains–Pima County Sikort Chuapo Mountains–Pima County Silver Bell Mountains–Pima County West Silver Bell Mountains–Pima County & Pinal County Sonoyta Mountains–Pima County South Comobabi Mountains–Pima County Tortolita Mountains–Pima County, Pinal County Tucson Mountains–Pima County Tumacacori Mountains–Santa Cruz County, Pima County Waterman Mountains–Pima County West Silver Bell Mountains–Pima County & Pinal County Silver Bell Mountains–Pima County Pinal County Casa Grande Mountains–Pinal County Dripping Spring Mountains–Pinal County Galiuro Mountains–Graham County -- (SE. Pinal County) Mineral Mountains, Arizona–Pinal County Palo Verde Mountains–Pinal County Picacho Mountains–Pinal County Sacaton Mountains–Pinal County San Tan Mountains, Arizona Santan Mountains–Pinal County Sawtooth Mountains–Pinal County Silver Reef Mountains–Pinal County Slate Mountains–Pinal County Suizo Mountains–Pinal County Superstition Mountains–Pinal County Table Top Mountains–Pinal County Tat Momoli Mountains–Pinal County Tortilla Mountains–Pinal County Tortolita Mountains–Pima County, Pinal County Vekol Mountains–Pinal County West Silver Bell Mountains–Pima County & Pinal County ( Silver Bell Mountains–Pima County ) Santa Cruz County Atascosa Mountains–Santa Cruz County Canelo Hills–Santa Cruz County, Cochise County Mustang Mountains–Santa Cruz County Pajarito Mountains–Santa Cruz County Patagonia Mountains–Santa Cruz County San Cayetano Mountains–Santa Cruz County Santa Rita Mountains–Santa Cruz County, Pima County Tumacacori Mountains–Santa Cruz County, Pima County Yavapai County Big Black Mesa–Yavapai County Black Hills (Yavapai County)–Yavapai County Black Hills (Greenlee County)–Greenlee County Black Mountains (Yavapai County)–Yavapai County-(southwest county) Bozarth Mesa–Yavapai County Bradshaw Mountains–Yavapai County Buckhorn Mountains–Yavapai County Connell Mountains–Yavapai County Date Creek Mountains–Yavapai County Granite Dells–Yavapai County Granite Mountain–Yavapai County Grayback Mountains–Yavapai County ( Harcuvar Mountains–NE. La Paz County -- (SW. Yavapai County) ) ( Hieroglyphic Mountains–N. Maricopa County -- (some in S. Yavapai County) ) Juniper Mountains–Yavapai County Mazatzal Mountains–Southeast Yavapai County -- (and N. Maricopa County, W. Gila County) McAllister Range–Yavapai County McCloud Mountains–Yavapai County Mingus Mountain, (= "Black Hills (Arizona)")–Yavapai County Mohon Mountains–Yavapai County New River Mountains–Yavapai County & Maricopa County ( Poachie Range–SE. Mohave County -- (SW. Yavapai County, NE. La Paz County) ) Santa Maria Mountains–Yavapai County Sierra Prieta–Yavapai County Weaver Mountains–Yavapai County White Hills, Arizona–Yavapai County Wickenburg Mountains–Yavapai County Yuma County Agua Caliente Mountains–Yuma County and Maricopa County Aguila Mountains–Yuma County Bryan Mountains–Yuma County Butler Mountains–Yuma County -- (W. of Tinajas Altas Mountains-(minor length & elevation)) Cabeza Prieta Mountains–Yuma County Castle Dome Mountains–Yuma County Copper Mountains–Yuma County Gila Mountains (Yuma County)–Yuma County ( Gila Mountains (Graham County)–Graham County ) Kofa Mountains–N. Yuma County - (S. La Paz County) Laguna Mountains (Arizona)–Yuma County (see also: Laguna Mountains(Calif)) ( Little Horn Mountains–S. La Paz County -- (N. Yuma County) ) Middle Mountains–S. La Paz County -- (N. Yuma County) Mohawk Mountains–Yuma County Muggins Mountains–Yuma County ( New Water Mountains–S. La Paz County -- (connected to Kofa Mountains, N. Yuma County) ) Palomas Mountains–Yuma County Sierra Arida–Yuma County Sierra de la Lechuguilla–Yuma County Sierra Pinta–Yuma County Tank Mountains–Yuma County Tinajas Altas Mountains–Yuma County Tule Mountains–Yuma County New Mexico Guadalupe Mountains (Hidalgo County)–Hidalgo County, NM - (Cochise County, AZ & Sonora, Mexico) San Francisco Mountains (New Mexico)–New Mexico & Greenlee County Mexico Sonora Guadalupe Mountains (Hidalgo County)–Hidalgo County, NM - (Cochise County, AZ & Sonora, Mexico) Sierra Madre Occidental–Regional Western Mexico - (extension of individual ranges, along entire United States-Mexico border) Sky island/ Madrean sky islands See also List of mountain ranges of California List of mountain ranges of Nevada List of mountain ranges of the Lower Colorado River Valley List of mountains and hills of Arizona by height List of rivers of Arizona List of valleys of Arizona Madrean Sky Islands/ Sky island, a biome region of SE Ariz, SW New Mex, and Northern Mexico proper. External links Arizona, List of mountain ranges of Arizona Mountain ranges
4633039	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigger%20%28firearms%29	Trigger (firearms)	A trigger is a mechanism that actuates the function of a ranged weapon such as a firearm, airgun, crossbow, or speargun. The word may also be used to describe a switch that initiates the operation of other non-shooting devices such as a trap, a power tool, or a quick release. A small amount of energy applied to the trigger leads to the release of much more energy. Most triggers use a small flattened lever (called the trigger blade) depressed by the index finger, but some weapons such as the M2 Browning machine gun or the Iron Horse TOR ("thumb-operated receiver") use a push-button-like thumb-actuated trigger design, and others like the Springfield Armory M6 Scout use a squeeze-bar trigger similar to the "ticklers" on medieval European crossbows. Although the word "trigger" technically implies the entire mechanism (known as the trigger group), colloquially it is usually used to refer specifically to the trigger blade. Most firearm triggers are "single-action", meaning that the trigger is designed only for the single function of disengaging the sear, which allows for a spring-tensioned hammer/striker to be released. In "double-action" firearm designs, the trigger also performs the additional function of cocking the hammer – and there are many designs where the trigger is used for a range of other functions. Function Firearms use triggers to initiate the firing of a cartridge seated within the gun barrel chamber. This is accomplished by actuating a striking device through a combination of mainspring (which stores elastic energy), a trap mechanism that can hold the spring under tension, an intermediate mechanism to transmit the kinetic energy from the spring releasing, and a firing pin to eventually strike and ignite the primer. There are two primary types of striking mechanisms – hammer and striker. A hammer is a pivoting metallic component subjected to spring tension so when released will swing forward to strike a firing pin like a mallet hitting a punch/chisel, which then relays the hammer impulse by moving forward rapidly along its longitudinal axis. A striker is essentially a firing pin directly loaded to a spring, eliminating the need to be struck by a separate hammer. The firing pin/striker then collides into the cartridge primer positioned ahead of it, which contains shock-sensitive compounds (e.g., lead styphnate) that sparks to ignite the propellant powder within the cartridge case and thus discharges the projectile. The trapping interface between the trigger and the hammer/striker is typically referred to as the sear surface. Variable mechanisms will have this surface directly on the trigger and hammer or have separate sears or other connecting parts. Stages of a trigger pull The trigger pull can be divided into three mechanical stages: Takeup or pretravel: The movement of the trigger before the sear moves. Break: The movement of the trigger during the sear's movement up to the point of release, where the felt resistance suddenly decreases. Overtravel: The movement of the trigger after the sear has already released Takeup When considering the practical accuracy of a firearm, the trigger takeup is often considered the least critical stage of the trigger pull. Often triggers are classified as either single-stage or two-stage based on the takeup. Single-stage triggers have no discernible resistance during the entire takeup, and only encounter resistance at the very end of takeup (often described as encountering "the wall") when actually actuating the trigger break. Two-stage triggers have a noticeable but relatively light resistance during the takeup, followed by a distinctly increased resistance of the actual trigger break. This allows the shooter to gradually "ease into" the trigger pull instead of hitting the trigger blade with a hasty hard squeeze. A single-stage trigger is often called direct trigger and is popular on hunting rifles. A two-stage trigger is often called pressure trigger and is popular on competition rifles. Some fully adjustable triggers can be adjusted to function as either a single-stage or two-stage trigger by adjusting the takeup. Setting the takeup travel (also known as the first stage) to near zero essentially makes the trigger a single-stage trigger. Some single-stage triggers (e.g., Glock trigger, Savage AccuTrigger) have an integral safety with a noticeable spring resistance that can functionally mimic a two-stage trigger. Break The trigger break is named for the sudden loss of resistance when the sear reaches the point of release, which is described as resembling the breaking of rigid materials when the strength fails under stress. The actuation force required to overcome the sear resistance during the break is known as the trigger weight, which is usually measured in pounds with a force gauge. The break is often considered the most critical stage of the trigger pull for achieving good practical accuracy, since it happens just prior to the shot being discharged and can cause some unwanted shakes from the shooter's hand at the instant of firing. Shooter preferences vary; some prefer a soft break with a smooth but discernible amount of trigger travel during firing, while others prefer a crisp break with a heavier weight and little or no discernible movement. A perceivably slow trigger break is often referred to as a "creep", and frequently described as an unfavorable feature. Overtravel The trigger overtravel happens immediately after the break and is typically a short distance and can be considered an inertially accelerated motion caused by the residual push of the finger coupled with the sudden decrease in resistance after the trigger break. It can be a very critical factor for accuracy because shaking movements during this phase may precede the projectile leaving the barrel and is especially important with firearms with long barrels and heavy trigger weights, where the more significant resistance drop can make the trigger finger overshoot and shake in an uncontrolled fashion. Having some overtravel provides a "buffer zone" that prevents the shooter from "jerking the trigger", allowing the remnant pressing force from the finger to be dampened via a "follow-through" motion. Although a perceivable overtravel can be felt as adding to the "creep" of the trigger break, it is not always considered a bad thing by some shooters. An overtravel stop will arrest the motion of the trigger blade and prevent excessive movement. Reset When user releases the trigger, and it travels to its resting position. On semiauto firearms the movement eventually passes by reset position where trigger-disconnector mechanism resets itself to its resting state, in which pulling the trigger releases the sear. The reset event does not occur in double action firearms and in full auto firearms. Types There are numerous types of trigger designs, typically categorized according to which functions the trigger is tasked to perform, a.k.a. the trigger action (not to be confused with the action of the whole firearm, which refers to all the components that help handle the cartridge, including the magazine, bolt, hammer and firing pin/striker, extractor and ejector in addition to the trigger). While a trigger is primarily designed to set off a shot by releasing the hammer/striker, it may also perform additional functions such as cocking (loading against a spring) the hammer/striker, rotating a revolver's cylinder, deactivating internal safeties, transitioning between different firing modes (see progressive trigger), or reducing the pull weight (see set trigger). Single-action A single-action (SA) trigger is the earliest and mechanically simplest of trigger types. It is called "single-action" because it performs the single function of releasing the hammer/striker (and nothing else), while the hammer/striker must be cocked by separate means. Almost all single-shot and repeating long arms (rifles, shotguns, submachine guns, machine guns, etc.) use this type of trigger. The term "single-action" is a retronym that was not in use until weapons with double-action triggers were invented in the mid-19th century; before that, all triggers were single-action (for example, all matchlocks, flintlocks, muskets, etc.). While originally all hammers required a separate hand motion to cock manually, with the birth of repeating rifles such as the Henry rifle, it was found to be easy to design the cocking phase of the hammer into the cycling of the bolt. Although these weapons do not require the user to physically manipulate the hammer in addition to squeezing the trigger, they are still single actions because the cocking is not performed by the trigger mechanism, which is only in charge of releasing the sear. In modern usage, the terms "single-action" and "double-action" almost always refer to handguns, as few (if any) long guns feature double-action triggers. In handguns, genuinely single-action triggers with external hammers now are mostly seen on revolvers, while mostly all semi-automatic pistols that support single-action firing are actually DA/SA hybrids, which is technically a two-stage double-action trigger with the cocking (first) stage being separately operable (hence can be "skipped" by the trigger). The longevity of purely single-action triggers on revolvers is mainly due to the gun's design layout – the revolver action relies on a rotating cylinder without using any reciprocating slide and bolt that can prohibit the shooter placing the fingers near the hammer for easy access, and it is not uncommon to see revolver shooters "fanning" the hammer to perform rapid single-action firing. While a "single-action" revolver or semi-automatic pistol must always be cocked prior to firing (either manually or by the operation of the weapon), most "double-action" handguns are capable of firing in both single- and double-action modes. Only "double-action only" weapons are incapable of firing from a cocked hammer. The "classic" single-action revolver of the mid-to-late 19th century includes black powder caplock muzzleloaders such as the Colt 1860 "Army" Model, and Colt 1851 "Navy" Model, and European models like the LeMat, as well as early metallic cartridge revolvers such as the Colt Model 1873 "Single Action Army" (named for its trigger mechanism) and Smith & Wesson Model 3, all of which required a thumb to cock the hammer before firing. Single-action triggers with manually cocked external hammers lasted a while longer in some break-action shotguns and in dangerous game rifles, where the hunter did not want to rely on an unnecessarily complex or fragile weapon. While single-action revolvers never lost favor in the US right up until the birth of the semi-automatic pistol, double-action revolvers such as the Beaumont–Adams were designed in Europe before the American Civil War broke out and saw great popularity all through the latter half of the 19th century, with certain numbers being sold in the US as well. While many European and some American revolvers were designed as double-action models throughout the late 19th century, for the first half of the 20th century, all semi-automatic pistols were single-action weapons, requiring the weapon to be carried cocked and loaded with the safety on, or uncocked with an empty chamber (Colt M1911, Mauser C96, Luger P.08, Tokarev TT, Browning Hi-Power). The difference between these weapons and single-action revolvers is that while a single-action revolver requires the user to manually cock the hammer before each firing, a single-action semi-automatic pistol only requires manual cocking for the first shot, after which the slide will reciprocate under recoil to automatically recock the hammer for a next shot, and is thus always cocked and ready unless the user manually decocks the hammer, encounters a misfiring cartridge, or pulls the trigger on an empty chamber (for older weapons lacking "last round bolt hold open" feature). In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Walther introduced the first "double-action" (actually DA/SA hybrid) semi-automatic pistols, the PPK and P.38 models, which featured a revolver-style double-action trigger, allowing the weapon to be carried with a round chambered and the hammer lowered. After the first shot, they would fire subsequent shots like a single-action pistol. These pistols rapidly gained popularity, and the traditional single-action-only pistols rapidly lost favor, although they still retain a dedicated following among enthusiasts. Today, a typical revolver or semi-automatic pistol is a DA/SA one, carried in double-action mode but firing most of its shots in single-action mode. Double-action only A double-action trigger, also known as double-action only (DAO) to prevent confusion with the more common hybrid DA/SA designs, is a trigger that must perform the double function of both cocking and releasing the hammer/striker. Such trigger design either has no internal sear mechanism capable of holding the hammer/striker in a still position (so cocking and releasing have to happen in one uninterrupted sequence), or has the whole hammer shrouded and/or with the thumb spur machined off, preventing the user from manipulating it separately. This design requires a trigger pull to both cock and trip the hammer/striker for every single shot, unlike a DA/SA, which only requires a double-action trigger pull for the first shot (or a typical DA/SA revolver, which can fire single action any time the user wishes but uses double-action as a default). This means that there is no single-action function for any shot, and the hammer or striker always rests in the down position until the trigger pull begins. With semi-automatics, this means that unlike DA/SA weapons, the hammer does not remain cocked after the first round is fired, and every shot is in double-action mode. With revolvers, this means that one does not have the option of cocking the gun before shooting and must always shoot it in double action mode. Although there have been revolvers that were designed with trigger mechanisms totally lacking a single-action mechanism altogether, more commonly DAO revolvers are modifications of existing DA/SA models, with identical internals, only with access to the hammer prevented, either by covering it with a shroud or by removing the thumb spur. In both cases, the goal is to prevent the possible snagging of the hammer spur on clothing or holster. Due to the imposed limitation in accuracy, the majority of DAO revolvers have been short-barrel, close-range "snub" weapons, where rapidity of draw is essential and limited accuracy is already an acceptable compromise. The purpose of a DAO action in a semi-automatic is mostly to avoid the change in trigger pull between the first and subsequent shots that one experiences in a DA/SA pistol, while avoiding the perceived danger of carrying a cocked single-action handgun, although it also avoids having to carry a cocked and loaded pistol, or having to lower the hammer on a loaded chamber, if one only fires a partial magazine. A good example of this action in a semi-automatic is the SIG Sauer DAK trigger, or the DAO action of the Sig P250. For striker-fired pistols such as the Taurus 24/7, the striker will remain in the rest position through the entire reloading cycle. This term applies most often to semi-automatic handguns; however, the term can also apply to some revolvers such as the Smith & Wesson Centennial, the Type 26 Revolver, and the Enfield No. 2 Mk I* and Mk I** revolvers, in which there is no external hammer spur, or which simply lack the internal sear mechanism capable of holding the hammer in the cocked position. Double-action/single-action A double-action/single-action (DA/SA) trigger is a hybrid design combining the features of both single- and double-action mechanisms. It is also known as traditional double-action (TDA), as the vast majority of modern "double-action" handguns (both revolvers and semi-automatic pistols) use this type of triggers instead of "double-action only" (DAO). In simple terms, "double-action" refers to a trigger mechanism that both cocks the hammer and then releases the sear, thus performing two "acts", although it is supposed to describe doing both strictly with one trigger pull only. However, in practice most double-action guns feature the optional ability to cock the hammer separately, reducing the trigger to perform just one action. This is opposed to "double-action only" firearms, which completely lack the capability to fire in single-action mode. In a DA/SA trigger, the mechanism is designed with an internal sear that allows the trigger to both cock and release the hammer/striker when fully pulled, or to merely lock the hammer/striker in the cocked position when it is pulled to the rear and the trigger is not depressed. In a revolver, this means that simply squeezing the trigger when the hammer is lowered will both cock and release it. If the user uses their thumb to pull the hammer to the back, but does not press the trigger, the mechanism will lock the hammer in the cocked position until the trigger is pressed, just like a single action. Firing in double-action mode allows a quicker initiation of fire, but compromised by having a longer, heavier trigger pull, which can affect accuracy compared to the lighter, shorter trigger pull of a single-action fire. In a DA/SA semi-automatic pistol, the trigger mechanism functions identically to that of a DA revolver. However, this is combined with the ability of the pistol slide to automatically cock the hammer when firing. Thus, the weapon can be carried with the hammer down on a loaded chamber, reducing perceived danger of carrying a single-action semi-automatic. When the user is ready to fire, simply pulling the trigger will cock and release the hammer in double action mode. When the weapon fires, the cycling slide automatically cocks the hammer to the rear, meaning that the rest of the shots fired will be in single-action mode, unless the hammer is manually lowered again. This gives the positive aspects of a single-action trigger without the need to carry "cocked and locked" (with a loaded chamber and cocked hammer), or with an empty chamber, which requires the user to chamber a round before firing. A potential drawback of a DA/SA weapon is that the shooter must be comfortable dealing with two different trigger pulls: the longer, heavier DA first pull and the shorter, lighter subsequent SA pulls. The difference between these trigger pulls can affect the accuracy of the crucial first few shots in an emergency situation. Although there is little need for a safety on a DA/SA handgun when carrying it loaded with the hammer down, after the first shots are fired, the hammer will be cocked and the chamber loaded. Thus, most DA/SA guns either feature a conventional safety that prevents the hammer from accidentally dropping, or a "decocker" – a lever that safely and gently drops the hammer (i.e. decocks the gun) without fear of the gun firing. The latter is the more popular because, without a decocker, the user is forced to lower the hammer by hand onto a loaded chamber, with all of the attendant safety risks that involves, to return the gun to double-action mode. Revolvers almost never feature safeties, since they are traditionally carried un-cocked, and the hammer requires the user to physically cock it prior to every shot; unlike a DA/SA gun, which cocks itself every time the slide is cycled. There are many examples of DA/SA semi-automatics, the Little Tom Pistol being the first, followed up by the Walther PPK and Walther P38. Modern examples include weapons such as the Beretta 92, among others. Almost all revolvers that are not specified as single-action models are capable of firing in both double- and single-action mode, for example, the Smith & Wesson Model 27, S&W Model 60, the Colt Police Positive, Colt Python, etc. Early double-action revolvers included the Beaumont–Adams and Tranter black-powder muzzleloaders. There are some revolvers that can only be fired in double-action mode (DAO), but that is almost always due to existing double-action/single-action models being modified so that the hammer cannot be cocked manually, rather than from weapons designed that way from the factory. Release trigger A release trigger releases the hammer or striker when the trigger is released by the shooter, rather than when it is pulled. Release triggers are largely used on shotguns intended for trap and skeet shooting. Binary trigger ("pull and release") A binary trigger is a trigger for a semiautomatic firearm that drops the hammer both when the trigger is pulled, and also when it is released. Examples include the AR-15 series of rifles, produced by Franklin Armory, Fostech Outdoors, and Liberty Gun Works. The AR-15 trigger as produced by Liberty Gun Works only functions in pull and release mode, and does not have a way to catch the hammer on release; while the other two have three-position safety selectors and a way to capture the hammer on release. In these triggers, the third position activates the pull and release mode, while the center selector position causes the trigger to only drop the hammer when pulled. Set trigger A set trigger allows a shooter to have a greatly reduced trigger pull (the resistance of the trigger) while maintaining a degree of safety in the field compared to having a conventional, very light trigger. There are two types: single set and double set. Set triggers are most likely to be seen on customized weapons and competition rifles where a light trigger pull is beneficial to accuracy. Single set trigger A single set trigger is usually one trigger that may be fired with a conventional amount of trigger pull weight or may be "set" – usually by pushing forward on the trigger, or by pushing forward on a small lever attached to the rear of the trigger. This takes up the trigger slack (or "take-up") in the trigger and allows for a much lighter trigger pull. This is colloquially known as a hair trigger. Double set trigger A double set trigger achieves the same result, but uses two triggers: one sets the trigger and the other fires the weapon. Double set triggers can be further classified into two different phases. A double set, single phase trigger can only be operated by first pulling the set trigger, and then pulling the firing trigger. A double set, double phase trigger can be operated as a standard trigger if the set trigger is not pulled, or as a set trigger by first pulling the set trigger. Double set, double phase triggers offer the versatility of both a standard trigger and a set trigger. Pre-set (striker or hammer) Pre-set strikers and hammers apply only to semi-automatic handguns. Upon firing a cartridge or loading the chamber, the hammer or striker will rest in a partially cocked position. The trigger serves the function of completing the cocking cycle and then releasing the striker or hammer. While technically two actions, it differs from a double-action trigger in that the trigger is not capable of fully cocking the striker or hammer. It differs from single-action in that if the striker or hammer were to release, it would generally not be capable of igniting the primer. Examples of pre-set strikers are the Glock, Smith & Wesson M&P, Springfield Armory XD-S variant (only), Kahr Arms, FN FNS series and Ruger SR series pistols. This type of trigger mechanism is sometimes referred to as a Striker Fired Action or SFA. Examples of pre-set hammers are the Kel-Tec P-32 and Ruger LCP pistols. Pre-set hybrid Pre-set hybrid triggers are similar to a DA/SA trigger in reverse. The first pull of the trigger is pre-set. If the striker or hammer fail to discharge the cartridge, the trigger may be pulled again and will operate as a double-action only (DAO) until the cartridge discharges or the malfunction is cleared. This allows the operator to attempt a second time to fire a cartridge after a misfire malfunction, as opposed to a single-action, in which the only thing to do if a round fails to fire is to rack the slide, clearing the round and recocking the hammer. While this can be advantageous in that many rounds will fire on being struck a second time, and it is faster to pull the trigger a second time than to cycle the action, if the round fails to fire on the second strike, the user will be forced to clear the round anyway, thus using up even more time than if they had simply done so in the first place. The Taurus PT 24/7 Pro pistol (not to be confused with the first-generation 24/7 which was a traditional pre-set) offered this feature starting in 2006. The Walther P99 Anti-Stress is another example. Variable triggers Double-crescent trigger A double-crescent trigger provides select fire capability without the need for a fire mode selector switch. Pressing the upper segment of the trigger produced semi-automatic fire, while holding the lower segment of the trigger produced fully automatic fire. Though considered innovative at the time, the feature was eliminated on most firearms due to its complexity. Examples include MG 34, Kg m/40 light machine gun, M1946 Sieg automatic rifle, and Star Model Z-70. Progressive/staged trigger A progressive, or staged trigger allows different firing rates based on how far it is depressed. For example, when pulled lightly, the weapon will fire a single shot. When depressed further, the weapon fires at a fully automatic rate. Examples include FN P90, Jatimatic, CZ Model 25, PM-63, BXP, F1 submachine gun, Vigneron submachine gun, Wimmersperg Spz-kr, and Steyr AUG. Relative merits Each trigger mechanism has its own merits. Historically, the first type of trigger was the single-action. This is the simplest mechanism and generally the shortest, lightest, and smoothest pull available. The pull is also consistent from shot to shot so no adjustments in technique are needed for proper accuracy. On a single-action revolver, for which the hammer must be manually cocked prior to firing, an added level of safety is present. On a semi-automatic, the hammer will be cocked and made ready to fire by the process of chambering a round, and as a result an external safety is sometimes employed. Double-action triggers provide the ability to fire the gun whether the hammer is cocked or uncocked. This feature is desirable for military, police, or self-defense pistols. The primary disadvantage of any double-action trigger is the extra length the trigger must be pulled and the extra weight required to overcome the spring tension of the hammer or striker. DA/SA pistols are versatile mechanisms. These firearms generally have a manual safety that additionally may serve to decock the hammer. Some have a facility (generally a lever or button) to safely lower the hammer. As a disadvantage, these controls are often intermingled with other controls such as slide releases, magazine releases, take-down levers, takedown lever lock buttons, loaded chamber indicators, barrel tip-up levers, etc. These variables become confusing and require more complicated manuals-of-arms. One other disadvantage is the difference between the first double-action pull and subsequent single-action pulls. DAO firearms resolve some DA/SA shortcomings by making every shot a double-action shot. Because there is no difference in pull weights, training and practice are simplified. Additionally, the heavier trigger pull can help to prevent a negligent discharge under stress. This is a particular advantage for a police pistol. These weapons also generally lack any type of external safety. DAO is common among police agencies and for small, personal protection firearms. The primary drawback is that the additional trigger pull weight and travel required for each shot reduces accuracy. Pre-set triggers offer a balance of pull weight, trigger travel, safety, and consistency. Glock popularized this trigger in modern pistols and many other manufacturers have released pre-set striker products of their own. The primary disadvantage is that pulling the trigger a second time after a failure to fire will not re-strike the primer. In normal handling of the firearm, this is not an issue; loading the gun requires that the slide be retracted, pre-setting the striker. Clearing a malfunction also usually involves retracting the slide following the "tap rack bang" procedure. References Firearm components Mechanisms (engineering)
4633287	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsie%20Dinsmore	Elsie Dinsmore	Elsie Dinsmore is a children's book series written by Martha Finley (1828–1909) between 1867 and 1905. Of Finley's two girls' fiction series, the Mildred Keith books were more realistic and autobiographical in nature, while the Elsie Dinsmore books, which were better sellers, were more idealistic in plot. A revised and adapted version of the Elsie books was published in 1999. Summary The books take place on plantations in the American South, starting before the start of the Civil War. Elsie is an eight-year-old girl who has been living with her paternal grandfather, his second wife (Elsie's step-grandmother), and their six children: Adelaide, Lora, Louise, Arthur, Walter, and Enna. Elsie's mother died soon after giving birth to her, and her father has been traveling in Europe. She is good friends with Rose Allison, with whom she studies the Bible. The first book begins as Elsie's father, Horace, returns from Europe and she goes to live with him. The developing story hinges on Elsie's attempts to gain her father's love while maintaining her Christian ethics and her refusal to turn in those who bully her. Reception The first two books, published in quick succession, became immediate best sellers. The 28-book series went on to be "The most popular and longest running girl’s series of the 19th century," with the first volume selling nearly 300,000 copies in its first decade, going on to "sell more than 5 million copies in the 20th century." The extreme piousness of the heroine and other stylized features of the books led some later critics to consider the series an example of "bad books, so transcendental in their badness that they will survive the ages." Adapted version A new Elsie Dinsmore series of eight books was adapted and abridged from the old one and published by Zondervan/Mission City Press in 1999, dubbed "Elsie Dinsmore: A Life of Faith". The language has been modernized, so for example the African American characters no longer speak in dialect (e.g. "Da bressed chile" as opposed to "The blessed child"). While the plot-lines still hinge on Elsie's attempts to gain her father's love while maintaining her Christian ethics and refusing to report bullying (by her young uncle, Arthur, or Miss Day, the governess), some of Horace's actions have been toned down. For example, the infamous scene in which he drags Elsie off to beat her with a riding crop no longer exists. Overall he appears more as a "comically overprotective father, rather than as a sadistic tyrant." Along with the revised books, a related line of Elsie Dinsmore dolls was sold starting in 1998. And a Bible study curriculum was produced based on the new book series. The original books have been reprinted as "Original Elsie Classics" by many publishers. Detailed plot The first Elsie books deal with a constant moral conflict between Christian principles and familial loyalty. Horace is a strict disciplinarian who dictates inflexible rules by which his daughter must live. Any infraction is severely and often unjustly punished. In her father's absence, Elsie became a Christian and abides by Biblical law, especially the Ten Commandments - as taught to her by her dead mother's slave and then her own nanny, Chloe. Her father, being "worldly" and not a strict Christian, regards this as ludicrous and in some cases as insolence. Many conflicts result from Elsie's belief that she must obey the Word of God before that of her father and can only obey her father when his orders do not conflict with Scripture. For example, Horace attempts to force Elsie to sin by playing secular music and reading fiction on Sunday. Their conflict culminates with Elsie having a nervous breakdown as she thinks that her father does not really love her. She begs him to read the Bible with her to become a Christian but his heart is hardened. The first two books are often discussed together as they tell one seamless story, having originally been one manuscript that was split into two by the publisher. The plot of the second book, Elsie's Holidays at Roselands, revolves around Horace's refusing to speak to Elsie — or allow anyone else to speak to her — for several months, because she is more obedient to God than to her father. Their "war of wills" culminates in Elsie coming very near to death, to the point that they shave her head hoping to abate her "brain fever". When Horace thinks that she has died, he finds her Bible, comes to a knowledge of Jesus, and converts to Christianity. Elsie comes back from the brink of death, but her recovery is slow, and due to this her father is very protective of her. Her recovery is helped by her father marrying Rose Allison. They have two more children, Horace Jr. and Rosie. Some years later, Edward Travilla, an older man who has had his eye on Elsie for a long time, proposes to Elsie, and the next year they enjoy a quiet wedding. While the Dinsmore and Travilla families are vacationing in Europe, the Civil War begins, and they remain there until it ends. They return to find the devastation that the War has wreaked and attempt to help their families heal. They also attempt to protect themselves against the KKK. Elsie's considerable funds are used to rebuild the families' plantations and restore the families to health. The children of both the Dinsmore and Travilla families have adventures and grow in their own understanding of what it means to be a follower of Jesus Christ in an amoral world, guided by Edward and Elsie. All of the children grow up and are married except Herbert and Walter. By the dates given in Elsie's Womanhood and Elsie's Widowhood, Elsie's birth date can be traced to about 1837. Elsie also has some more distant relatives, who are recurring characters in the series, including the Keiths, the Lilburns, and the Landreths. Elsie and the Raymond family Later in Elsie's life, the books focus less on Elsie herself, and mostly deal with her granddaughter Lulu's constant conflict with her fearful temper. When Violet is first married to Lulu's father Levis Raymond, Lulu creates a problem by refusing to obey her new mother. Another time, she hurts and nearly kills her baby sister, causing her father to punish her with a riding whip. When Lulu attends school in Louisiana, her music instructor hits her with a ruler, causing her to strike him over the head with a book. When Lulu refuses to comply with Mr. Dinsmore's order that she go back to the signor, Lulu holds out, causing her to be cut off from the family circle. Her bad behavior causes Rosie to sympathize with her sister Vi for having such burdens, and Rosie often teases Lulu into a passion. Elsie's family When Elsie comes of age she marries her father's good friend Edward Travilla. He has been her knight in shining armor who constantly helps her when other people are cruel to her; he has loved her for a long time. They have 8 children: Elsie, Edward, Violet, Harold, Herbert, Lily (who dies at age seven), Rosie, and Walter. Elsie Dinsmore's eldest daughter Elsie becomes engaged to her neighbor's nephew, Lester Leland. Edward Jr. goes to Europe with young Elsie when Lester Leland falls ill. While in Europe, Edward Jr. meets the woman who will become his wife, Zoe Love. He marries her just before her father dies. They later have twins: Edward Lawrence (Laurie) and Lily. While they are away, Violet meets and falls in love with Captain Levis Raymond. He has three children by his first wife: Max, Lucilla (called Lulu), and Gracie; the rest of the books are mainly about them. Together, Levis Raymond and Violet have two children: Elsie and Edward (Ned). Rosie marries a college friend of her brother's whom she met on vacation, William Croly. Lulu Raymond marries Chester Dinsmore, and they have one child together before the series ends. Max marries his step uncle's orphaned niece Evelyn Leland. Places featured in the books Roselands - A plantation owned by Elsie's grandfather. Elsie lives here during the first two books. The Oaks - A plantation owned by Elsie's father. Elsie moves here with her father the year after he returns from Europe. Ion - A plantation owned by Edward Travilla and his mother. Elsie moves here after she marries Edward. The majority of the books take place here. Viamede - A plantation that belonged to Elsie's mother; Elsie inherits it when she turns 21. Woodburn - A plantation owned by Elsie's son-in-law, Captain Levis Raymond. The plantations are said to be set in Union, Virginia, except for Viamede, which is in Louisiana, not far from New Orleans. Other less-visited plantations include: Crag Cottage - Cottage belonging to Evelyn Leland. The Laurels - A plantation owned by Elsie's sister Rose Lacey and her husband. The Pines Ashwood - Rose Allison's father's Plantation The Crags (not related to Crag Cottage) - A plantation owned by Phillip and Lucy (Carrington) Ross. Elsie and her children (except Rosie and Walter, who were born later in the book) visit the Crags in Elsie's Children. Sunnyside - A plantation owned by Lucilla and Chester, Max and Eva. Magnolia Hall- Plantation owned by Molly and Louis Embury. Characters Elsie Dinsmore - The only child of Horace and Elsie (Grayson) Dinsmore. She marries Edward Travilla Jr., and is the mother of Elsie, Horace Edward, Violet, Harold, Herbert, Lily, Rose, and Walter Travilla. Horace Dinsmore - Elsie's father. He is married first to Elsie Grayson, by whom he had Elsie, then to Rose Allison, by whom he had Horace II and Rose Dinsmore. Edward Travilla Jr. - Son of Edward and Violet Travilla, married Elsie Dinsmore, and fathered her children. He dies in Elsie's Widowhood. Rose Allison Dinsmore - Second child in the Allison family, married Horace Dinsmore, mother of Horace Jr. and Rose Dinsmore. Enna Dinsmore Percival Johnson - Seventh child of Arthur Dinsmore Senior. Married first to Richard Percival, then Mr. Johnson. She is the spoiled pet of the Dinsmore family, and she is mean to Elsie in both childhood and adulthood. She mothers four children: Richard Jr. and Molly, by Percival, and Robert 'Bob' and Elizabeth 'Betty'. She is rendered mentally unstable after a carriage accident with her father, and in the first chapter of Grandmother Elsie it is mentioned that she has died at the home of her oldest daughter. Arthur Dinsmore Jr. - Fifth child of Arthur Dinsmore, Horace's half-brother. He is very mean to Elsie in her childhood, and is killed in the Civil War. Thomas Jackson alias Bromly Egerton - one of Arthur Dinsmore's friends. He tries to win Elsie's hand in marriage so he can have her inheritance. He nearly succeeds, but Horace finds out before he can convince her to run away with him. He is killed in the Civil War. Elsie Leland - Eldest child of Edward and Elsie Travilla. She marries Lester Leland and has four children: Edward Travilla, Eric, Elsie Alicia, and Violet Leland. Horace Edward Travilla - The second child of Edward and Elsie Travilla. He marries Zoe Love shortly before her father's death and they have twins: Lily (after his sister) and Edward Lawrence. Violet Raymond - Elsie and Edward Travilla's third child. She marries the widower Captain Levis Raymond and becomes the stepmother of Max, Lulu, and Grace. She has two children: Elsie and Edward Raymond. Harold Allison Travilla - The fourth child of Edward and Elsie Travilla. He eventually marries his sister's stepdaughter, Grace Raymond. Herbert Travilla - Edward and Elsie's fifth child. He becomes a physician and after the first books he is rarely mentioned. Lily Travilla - Edward and Elsie's sixth child who dies at age 7. Rose Travilla Croly - Edward and Elsie's seventh child. She marries her brother's friend, William Croly. She was mean to Lucilla when she was younger. Walter Travilla - The youngest child of Edward and Elsie, named after Walter Dinsmore. Lucilla "Lulu" Raymond Dinsmore - The oldest daughter of Grace and Captain Levis Raymond, and stepdaughter to Violet Raymond. She is known for having an incredibly bad temper, and as a little girl she is punished several times in each book by her father. However, she eventually overcomes her bad temper with the help of her father and becomes a very obedient daughter. She marries Chester Dinsmore. Most of the later books mainly focus on her. Max Raymond - Only son of Grace and Captain Levis Raymond, and stepson of Violet Raymond. He marries Evelyn Leland, his step-cousin and his sister's best friend. Grace Raymond Travilla - Youngest daughter of Grace and Captain Levis Raymond, and stepdaughter of Violet Raymond. She marries Harold Travilla, her physician and her stepmother's younger brother. Chloe (no surname given), sometimes "Aunt Chloe" or "Mammy" - Elsie's nurse since infancy. Describes herself as "only a poor old black sinner, but de good Lord Jesus, He loves me jes de same as if I was white". She is married to Uncle Joe. Elsie's childhood friends In the first two books Elsie plays with and visits several friends and neighbors and their children. Most of them had died by the time Christmas with Grandma Elsie was written. Herbert died of a broken heart when Elsie rejected his marriage proposal. Herbert Carrington Lucy Carrington Ross Mary Leslie Flora Arnett Caroline (Cary) Howard Mildred Keith Sophie Allison Isabel Carleton Harold Allison Parody O. Henry wrote a parody of the Elsie books called "Elsie in New York". In this short story, Elsie (ostensibly a different Elsie, but the similarity to Finley's Elsie is overwhelmingly obvious) is portrayed as a naive young woman who has gone to New York to work for her father's former employer. Elsie is constantly presented with opportunities for honest work and relationships on her first day in the city, but always prevented by the minions of Society and Morality, such as the police or fictional activist groups like the 'Association for the Prevention of Jobs Being Put Up on Working Girls Looking for Jobs.' When she finds her father's former boss, he is a lecherous rich playboy. There the story stops, allowing the reader to fill in the rest. The story pokes fun at Elsie Dinsmore's take on the world, where as long as one has faith, and follows the lead of those in moral authority, one will be rewarded. Elsie Dinsmore in popular culture The Elsie series is mentioned in Emily Climbs (1925), the second book of a series by Lucy Maud Montgomery, better known for Anne of Green Gables. The eponymous heroine is told derisively to "go and read the Elsie books!" The Elsie series is mentioned in Chapter 19 of Jo of the Chalet School (1926) the second book of a school series by Elinor Brent-Dyer. Josephine Bettany, the main character, an avid reader, lies injured in bed after a skating accident. When Jo complains that she has read everything she has, Dr. Jem offers her the Elsie books. Jo accepts them doubtfully, proclaiming that they were about an 'awfully good little girl' and there were 'dozens' of them, but is soon digging eagerly into Elsie's saga. (The books featured include Elsie Dinsmore, Elsie's Holidays at Roselands, Elsie's Girlhood, Elsie's Womanhood, Elsie's Motherhood, and Elsie's Children.) Ultimately, Josephine decides to carry on the series by writing about Elsie's children (Eddie, Harold, and Herbert). In the film “Love on the Run”(1936) Clark Gable as a reporter fabricating a story tells a skeptical heiress played by Joan Crawford: “Well I know it sounds a little, well, a little Elsie Dinsmore, but it’s true.” In the 1938 film "Man-Proof," starring Myrna Loy and Franchot Tone, Tone's character sarcastically remarks "Elsie Dinsmore's in love," commenting on Loy's stated plan to seduce her friend's husband, with whom she'd had a previous relationship. Approximately 25 minutes into the classic play and film The Man Who Came to Dinner (1939), Sheridan Whiteside, played by Monty Woolley, refers to his secretary Maggie as Elsie Dinsmore in the following line, said in a sarcastic tone: "Come back at eight-thirty. We'll play three-handed (cribbage) with Elsie Dinsmore." Elsie is mentioned in Maud Hart Lovelace's book Betsy in Spite of Herself (1946). When Betsy's friend Tib buys them Sunday-evening theater tickets, Betsy remembers how Elsie Dinsmore would have handled what she considered a somewhat shocking proposal, then dismisses it--"[she] had never thought much of Elsie Dinsmore." Approximately 80 minutes into the 1951 movie People Will Talk (in the "railroad" scene), Mrs. Praetorius breaks into tears and compares herself in her current emotional state to "a kind of idiot Elsie Dinsmore." In the 1954 novel The Bad Seed by William March, the homicidal 8-year-old Rhoda Penmark reads Elsie Dinsmore "as though she hoped to find there an understanding of those puzzling values she saw in others--values which, though she tried her best to simulate them, were so curiously absent in herself." Approximately 31 minutes into the 1956 film adaptation (in a scene taking place one day after the mysterious drowning of her classmate), Rhoda Penmark, played by Patty McCormack, proudly announces that she will be reading her new book, Elsie Dinsmore, which she has won at Sunday School. In Shirley Jackson's "The Sneaker Crisis", one of her essays about her home and family life, her daughter Jannie tries to help solve the mystery of her brother's missing sneakers. She cites an incident in Elsie Dinsmore as a reason she should get partial credit for their recovery. In Eudora Welty's 1973 autobiography, One Writer's Beginnings, her mother mentions Elsie Dinsmore as a poor role model. Elsie Dinsmore is mentioned in the children's novel The Sky is Falling (published 1989 but set in 1940) by Kit Pearson; it's the one book Norah finds to read at her new home. In Thomas Pynchon's historical novel Against the Day (2006), the following dialogue occurs: "Pa's dead and gone and I haven't stopped hating him. What kind of unnatural daughter's that make me? A girl is supposed to love her father." "Sure, in those Elsie Dinsmore stories or someplace. We all grew up on that stuff, and it poisoned our souls." (479-480) A derisive remark of criticism is: "Don't be such an Elsie Dinsmore!" List of the original books The originally published books, in order of publication, were: Elsie Dinsmore (1867) - online at Project Gutenberg (An abridged edition appeared circa 1945, "in response to complaints that the original encouraged children to disobey their parents.) Elsie's Holidays at Roselands (1868) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie's Girlhood (1872) - online at Project Gutenberg and in the Baldwin Library of Historical Children's Literature Elsie's Womanhood (1875) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie's Motherhood (1876) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie's Children (1877) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie's Widowhood (1880) - online at Internet Archive Grandmother Elsie (1882) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie's New Relations (1883) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie at Nantucket (1884) - online at Project Gutenberg The Two Elsies (1885) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie's Kith and Kin (1886) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie's Friends at Woodburn (1887) - online at Internet Archive Christmas with Grandma Elsie (1888) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie and the Raymonds (1889)- online at Internet Archive Elsie Yachting with the Raymonds (1890) - online at Internet Archive Elsie's Vacation (1891) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie at Viamede (1892) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie at Ion (1893) - online at Internet Archive Elsie at the World's Fair (1894) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie's Journey on Inland Waters (1895) - online at Internet Archive Elsie at Home (1897) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie on the Hudson (1898) - online at Internet Archive Elsie in the South (1899) - online at Project Gutenberg Elsie's Young Folks (1900) - online at Internet Archive Elsie's Winter Trip (1902) - online at Internet Archive Elsie and Her Loved Ones (1903) - online at Internet Archive Elsie and Her Namesakes (1905) - online at Internet Archive List of the A Life of Faith books The revised series was later reissued as Elsie Dinsmore: A Life of Faith. Elsie's Endless Wait Elsie's Impossible Choice Elsie's New Life Elsie's Stolen Heart Elsie's True Love Elsie's Troubled Times Elsie's Tender Mercies Elsie's Great Hope References External links Elsie Dinsmore series at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 1867 American novels American children's novels Christian children's books Series of children's books 1860s children's books Novels set during the American Civil War Children's books set in Virginia Children's books set in the 1860s
4633449	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary%20nonsense	Literary nonsense	Literary nonsense (or nonsense literature) is a broad categorization of literature that balances elements that make sense with some that do not, with the effect of subverting language conventions or logical reasoning. Even though the most well-known form of literary nonsense is nonsense verse, the genre is present in many forms of literature. The effect of nonsense is often caused by an excess of meaning, rather than a lack of it. Its humor is derived from its nonsensical nature, rather than wit or the "joke" of a punch line. History Literary nonsense, as recognized since the nineteenth century, comes from a combination of two broad artistic sources. The first and older source is the oral folk tradition, including games, songs, dramas, and rhymes, such as the nursery rhyme Hey Diddle Diddle. The literary figure Mother Goose represents common incarnations of this style of writing. The second, newer source of literary nonsense is in the intellectual absurdities of court poets, scholars, and intellectuals of various kinds. These writers often created sophisticated nonsense forms of Latin parodies, religious travesties, and political satire, though these texts are distinguished from more pure satire and parody by their exaggerated nonsensical effects. Today's literary nonsense comes from a combination of both sources. Though not the first to write this hybrid kind of nonsense, Edward Lear developed and popularized it in his many limericks (starting with A Book of Nonsense, 1846) and other famous texts such as The Owl and the Pussycat, The Dong with a Luminous Nose, The Jumblies and The Story of the Four Little Children Who Went Around the World. Lewis Carroll continued this trend, making literary nonsense a worldwide phenomenon with Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871). Carroll's poem "Jabberwocky", which appears in the latter book, is often considered quintessential nonsense literature. Theory In literary nonsense, certain formal elements of language and logic that facilitate meaning are balanced by elements that negate meaning. These formal elements include semantics, syntax, phonetics, context, representation, and formal diction. The genre is most easily recognizable by the various techniques or devices it uses to create this balance of meaning and lack of meaning, such as faulty cause and effect, portmanteau, neologism, reversals and inversions, imprecision (including gibberish), simultaneity, picture/text incongruity, arbitrariness, infinite repetition, negativity or mirroring, and misappropriation. Nonsense tautology, reduplication, and absurd precision have also been used in the nonsense genre. For a text to be within the genre of literary nonsense, it must have an abundance of nonsense techniques woven into the fabric of the piece. If the text employs only occasional nonsense devices, then it may not be classified as literary nonsense, though there may be a nonsensical effect to certain portions of the work. Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy, for instance, employs the nonsense device of imprecision by including a blank page, but this is only one nonsense device in a novel that otherwise makes sense. In Flann O'Brien's The Third Policeman, on the other hand, many of the devices of nonsense are present throughout, and thus it could be considered a nonsense novel. Distinction Gibberish, light verse, fantasy, and jokes and riddles are sometimes mistaken for literary nonsense, and the confusion is greater because nonsense can sometimes inhabit these (and many other) forms and genres. Pure gibberish, as in the "hey diddle diddle" of nursery rhyme, is a device of nonsense, but it does not make a text, overall, literary nonsense. If there is not significant sense to balance out such devices, then the text dissolves into literal (as opposed to literary) nonsense. Light verse, which is generally speaking humorous verse meant to entertain, may share humor, inconsequentiality, and playfulness with nonsense, but it usually has a clear point or joke and does not have the requisite tension between meaning and lack of meaning. Nonsense is distinct from fantasy, though there are sometimes resemblances between them. While nonsense may employ the strange creatures, other worldly situations, magic, and talking animals of fantasy, these supernatural phenomena are not nonsensical if they have a discernible logic supporting their existence. The distinction lies in the coherent and unified nature of fantasy. Everything follows logic within the rules of the fantasy world; the nonsense world, on the other hand, has no comprehensive system of logic, although it may imply the existence of an inscrutable one, just beyond our grasp. The nature of magic within an imaginary world is an example of this distinction. Fantasy worlds employ the presence of magic to logically explain the impossible. In nonsense literature, magic is rare but when it does occur, its nonsensical nature only adds to the mystery rather than logically explaining anything. An example of nonsensical magic occurs in Carl Sandburg's Rootabaga Stories, when Jason Squiff, in possession of a magical "gold buckskin whincher", has his hat, mittens, and shoes turn into popcorn because, according to the "rules" of the magic, "You have a letter Q in your name and because you have the pleasure and happiness of having a Q in your name you must have a popcorn hat, popcorn mittens and popcorn shoes". Riddles only appear to be nonsense until the answer is found. The most famous nonsense riddle is only so because it originally had no answer. In Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, the Mad Hatter asks Alice "Why is a raven like a writing-desk?" When Alice gives up, the Hatter replies that he does not know either, creating a nonsensical riddle. Some seemingly nonsense texts are actually riddles, such as the popular 1940s song Mairzy Doats, which at first appears to have little discernible meaning but has a discoverable message. Jokes are not nonsense because their humor comes from their making sense, from our "getting" it, while nonsense is funny because it does not make sense, we do not "get" it. Audience While most contemporary nonsense has been written for children, the form has an extensive history in adult configurations before the nineteenth century. Figures such as John Hoskyns, Henry Peacham, John Sandford, and John Taylor lived in the early seventeenth century and were noted nonsense authors in their time. Nonsense was also an important element in the works of Flann O'Brien and Eugène Ionesco. Literary nonsense, as opposed to the folk forms of nonsense that have always existed in written history, was only first written for children in the early nineteenth century. It was popularized by Edward Lear and then later by Lewis Carroll. Today literary nonsense enjoys a shared audience of adults and children. Nonsense writers Note: None of these writers is considered a "nonsense writer". Some of them wrote texts considered to be in the genre (as in Lear, Carroll, Gorey, Lennon, Sandburg), while others only use nonsense as an occasional device (as in Joyce, Juster). All of these writers wrote outside of the nonsense genre also. Douglas Adams John Prentiss Benson Anthony Burgess Lewis Carroll Clark Coolidge Ivor Cutler Roald Dahl Dave Eggers John Flansburgh Mike Gordon Edward Gorey Eric Idle James Joyce Norton Juster X.J. Kennedy Frank Key Rudyard Kipling JonArno Lawson Edward Lear Dennis Lee John Lennon Bob Dylan John Linnell Margaret Mahy Spike Milligan Kenn Nesbitt Flann O'Brien Mervyn Peake Daniel Pinkwater Jack Prelutsky Anushka Ravishankar Alastair Reid Laura E. Richards Theodore Roethke Michael Rosen Carl Sandburg Dr. Seuss Jean Shepherd Shel Silverstein Vivian Stanshall Alan Watts "Weird Al" Yankovic Writers of nonsense from other languages include: Alphonse Allais (French) Cesar Aira (Argentinian) Samuel Beckett (French) Miron Białoszewski (Polish) Pierre Dac (French) Campos de Carvalho (Brazilian) Grigore Cugler (Romanian, Spanish) Lennart Hellsing (Swedish) Zinken Hopp (Norwegian) Eugene Ionesco (French) Alfred Jarry (French) Frigyes Karinthy (Hungarian) Daniil Kharms (Russian) Velimir Khlebnikov (Russian) Fosco Maraini (Italian) Christian Morgenstern (German) Jagannath Prasad Das (Indian) Odia literature Halfdan Rasmussen (Danish) Sukumar Ray (Indian) Bengali literature Satyajit Ray (Indian) Bengali literature Gianni Rodari (Italian) Erik Satie (French) Amos Tutuola (Nigerian) Urmuz (Romanian) Boris Vian (French) Popular culture Bob Dylan wrote some lyrics that contain nonsense techniques, especially around the mid-1960s, in songs like "Bob Dylan's 115th Dream" and "Tombstone Blues". David Byrne, of the art rock/new wave group Talking Heads, employed nonsensical techniques in songwriting. Byrne often combined coherent yet unrelated phrases to make up nonsensical lyrics in songs such as: "Burning Down the House", "Making Flippy Floppy" and "Girlfriend Is Better". This tendency formed the basis of the title for the Talking Heads concert movie, Stop Making Sense. More recently, Byrne published Arboretum (2006), a volume of tree-like diagrams that are, "mental maps of imaginary territory". He continues, explaining the aspect of nonsense: "Irrational logic – [...]. The application of logical scientific rigor and form to basically irrational premises. To proceed, carefully and deliberately, from nonsense, with a straight face, often arriving at a new kind of sense." Syd Barrett, founder of Pink Floyd, was known for his often nonsensical songwriting influenced by Lear and Carroll that featured heavily on Pink Floyd's first album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn. Glen Baxter's comic work is often nonsense, relying on the baffling interplay between word and image. The Tomfoolery Show was an American cartoon comedy television series based on the nonsense works of Edward Lear, Lewis Carroll, and others. Zippy the Pinhead, by Bill Griffith, is an American strip that mixes philosophy, including what has been called "Heideggerian disruptions" and pop culture in its nonsensical processes. See also Absurdism Dada Experimental literature Reductio ad absurdum Surreal humour Notes References Further reading Primary sources Allen, Woody, Without Feathers. New York, Random House, 1972. Benson, John P. The Woozlebeasts. New York: Moffat, Yard & Co., 1905. Burgess, Anthony. A Long Trip to Teatime. London: Dempsey and Squires, 1976. Carroll, Lewis (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), Alice in Wonderland (1865). ed. Donald J. Gray, 2nd edition. London: Norton, 1992. _. The Complete Works of Lewis Carroll. London: Nonesuch Press, 1940. Daly, Nicholas. A Wanderer in Og. Cape Town: Double Storey Books, 2005. [Eggers, Dave and his brother Christopher] aka Dr. and Mr. Doris Haggis-on-Whey'. Giraffes? Giraffes!, The Haggis-On-Whey World of Unbelievable Brilliance, Volume 1., Earth: McSweeney's, 2003. _. Your Disgusting Head: The Darkest, Most Offensive—and Moist—Secrets of Your Ears, Mouth and Nose, Volume 2., 2004. _. Animals of the Ocean, In particular the giant squid, Volume 3, 2006 _. Cold Fusion, Volume 4, 2008 Gordon, Mike. Mike's Corner: Daunting Literary Snippets from Phish's Bassist. Boston: Bulfinch Press, 1997. Gorey, Edward. Amphigorey. New York: Perigee, 1972. _. Amphigorey too. New York: Perigee, 1975. _. Amphigorey Also. Harvest, 1983. _. Amphigorey Again. Barnes & Noble, 2002. Kipling, Rudyard, Just So Stories.New York: Signet, 1912. Lawson, JonArno. Down in the Bottom of the Bottom of the Box. Erin: The Porcupine's Quill, 2012. Lear, Edward, The Complete Verse and Other Nonsense. Ed. Vivian Noakes. London: Penguin, 2001. Lee, Dennis, Alligator Pie. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975. Lennon, John, Skywriting by Word of Mouth and other writings, including The Ballad of John and Yoko. New York: Perennial, 1986. _. The Writings of John Lennon: In His Own Write, A Spaniard in the Works New York: Simon and Schuster, 1964, 1965. Milligan, Spike, Silly Verse for Kids. London: Puffin, 1968. Morgenstern, Christian, The Gallows Songs: Christian Morgenstern's "Galgenlieder", trans. Max Knight. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963. Peake, Mervyn, A Book of Nonsense. London: Picador, 1972. _. Captain Slaughterboard Drops Anchor. London: Country Life Book, 1939. _. Rhymes Without Reason. Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1944. _. Titus Groan. London:, London: Methuen, 1946. Rasmussen, Halfdan. Hocus Pocus: Nonsense Rhymes, adapted from Danish by Peter Wesley-Smith, Illus. IB Spang Olsen. London: Angus & Robertson, 1973. Ravishankar, Anushka, Excuse Me Is This India? illus. by Anita Leutwiler, Chennai: Tara Publishing, 2001. _. Wish You Were Here, Chennai: Tara Publishing, 2003. _. Today is My Day, illus. Piet Grobler, Chennai: Tara Publishing, 2003. Richards, Laura E., I Have a Song to Sing You: Still More Rhymes, illus. Reginald Birch. New York, London: D. Appleton—Century Company, 1938. _. Tirra Lirra: Rhymes Old and New, illus. Marguerite Davis. London: George G. Harrap, 1933. Roethke, Theodore, I Am! Says the Lamb: a joyous book of sense and nonsense verse, illus. Robert Leydenfrost. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1961. Rosen, Michael, Michael Rosen's Book of Nonsense, illus. Claire Mackie. Hove: Macdonald Young Books, 1997. Sandburg, Carl, Rootabaga Stories. London: George G. Harrap, 1924. _. More Rootabaga Stories. Schweitzer, Louise, One Wild Flower (PhD thesis), London: Austin Macauley, 2012 Seuss, Dr. On Beyond Zebra!New York: Random House, 1955. Thurber, James, The 13 Clocks, 1950. New York: Dell, 1990. Watts, Alan, Nonsense. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1975; originally Stolen Paper Review Editions, 1967. Anthologies A Book of Nonsense Verse, collected by Langford Reed, illus. H. M. Bateman. New York & London: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1926. The Book of Nonsense, edited by Paul Jennings. London: Raven Books, 1977. The Chatto Book of Nonsense Poetry, ed. Hugh Haughton. London: Chatto & Windus, 1988. The Everyman Book of Nonsense Verse, ed. Louise Guinness. New York: Everyman, 2004. The Faber Book of Nonsense Verse, ed. Geoffrey Grigson. London: Faber, 1979. A Nonsense Anthology, collected by Carolyn Wells. New York: Charles Schribner's Sons, 1902. The Nonsensibus, Compiled by D. B. Wyndham Lewis. London: Methuen, 1936 O, What Nonsense!, selected by William Cole, illus. Tomi Ungerer. London: Methuen & Co., 1966. The Puffin Book of Nonsense Verse, selected and illus. Quentin Blake. London: Puffin, 1994. Pumpkin Grumpkin: Nonsense Poems from Around the World, Collected by John Agard and Grace Nichols. London: Walker Books, 2011. The Tenth Rasa: An Anthology of Indian Nonsense, ed. Michael Heyman, with Sumanyu Satpathy and Anushka Ravishankar. New Delhi: Penguin, 2007. The blog for this book and Indian nonsense: This Book Makes No Sense, ed. Michael Heyman. New Delhi: Scholastic, 2012. A slim volume for all ages that includes a piece on how to write nonsense. Secondary sources Andersen, Jorgen, "Edward Lear and the Origin of Nonsense" English Studies, 31 (1950): 161–166. Baker, William, "T.S. Eliot on Edward Lear: An Unnoted Attribution," English Studies, 64 (1983): 564–566. Bouissac, Paul, "Decoding Limericks: A Structuralist Approach," Semiotica, 19 (1977): 1–12. Byrom, Thomas, Nonsense and Wonder: The Poems and Cartoons of Edward Lear. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1977. Cammaerts, Emile, The Poetry of Nonsense. London: Routledge, 1925. Chesterton, G.K., "A Defence of Nonsense," in The Defendant (London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1914), pp. 42–50. Chitty, Susan, That Singular Person Called Lear. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988. Colley, Ann C., Edward Lear and the Critics. Columbia, SC: Camden House, 1993. _. "Edward Lear's Limericks and the Reversals of Nonsense," Victorian Poetry, 29 (1988): 285–299. _. "The Limerick and the Space of Metaphor," Genre, 21 (Spring 1988): 65–91. Cuddon, J.A., ed., revised by C.E. Preston, "Nonsense," in A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 4th edition (Oxford: Blackwell, 1976, 1998), pp. 551–58. Davidson, Angus, Edward Lear: Landscape Painter and Nonsense Poet. London: John Murray, 1938. Deleuze, Gilles, The Logic of Sense, trans. Mark Lester with Charles Stivale, ed. Constantin V. Boundas. London: The Athlone Press, (French version 1969), 1990. Dilworth, Thomas, "Edward Lear's Suicide Limerick," The Review of English Studies, 184 (1995): 535–38. _. "Society and the Self in the Limericks of Lear," The Review of English Studies, 177 (1994): 42–62. Dolitsky, Marlene, Under the Tumtum Tree: From Nonsense to Sense. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1984. Ede, Lisa S., "The Nonsense Literature of Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll". unpublished PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 1975. _. "Edward Lear's Limericks and Their Illustrations" in Explorations in the Field of Nonsense, ed. Wim Tigges (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1987), pp. 101–116. _. "An Introduction to the Nonsense Literature of Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll" in Explorations in the Field of Nonsense, ed. Wim Tigges (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1987), pp. 47–60. Flescher, Jacqueline, "The language of nonsense in Alice," Yale French Studies, 43 (1969–70): 128–44 Graziosi, Marco, "The Limerick" on Edward Lear Home Page <https://web.archive.org/web/20000815212456/http://www2.pair.com/mgraz/Lear/index.html> Guiliano, Edward, "A Time for Humor: Lewis Carroll, Laughter and Despair, and The Hunting of the Snark" in Lewis Carroll: A Celebration, ed. Edward Guiliano (New York, 1982), pp. 123–131. Haight, M.R., "Nonsense," British Journal of Aesthetics, 11 (1971): 247–56. Hark, Ina Rae, Edward Lear. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1982. _. "Edward Lear: Eccentricity and Victorian Angst," Victorian Poetry, 16 (1978): 112–122. Heyman, Michael, Isles of Boshen: Edward Lear in Context. PhD dissertation, University of Glasgow, 1999. _. "A New Defense of Nonsense; or, 'Where is his phallus?' and other questions not to ask" in Children's Literature Association Quarterly, Winter 1999–2000. Volume 24, Number 4 (186–194) _. "An Indian Nonsense Naissance" in The Tenth Rasa: An Anthology of Indian Nonsense, edited by Michael Heyman, with Sumanyu Satpathy and Anushka Ravishankar. New Delhi: Penguin, 2007. _. "Nonsense", with Kevin Shortsleeve, in Keywords for Children's Literature. eds. Philip Nel and Lissa Paul. New York: NYU Press, 2011. _. "The Perils and Nonpereils of Literary Nonsense Translation." Words Without Borders. 2 June 2014. Hilbert, Richard A., "Approaching Reason's Edge: 'Nonsense' as the Final Solution to the Problem of Meaning," Sociological Inquiry, 47.1 (1977): 25–31 Huxley, Aldous, "Edward Lear," in On the Margin (London: Chatto & Windus, 1923), pp. 167–172 Lecercle, Jean-Jacques, Philosophy of Nonsense: The Intuitions of Victorian Nonsense Literature. London, New York: Routledge, 1994. Lehmann, John, Edward Lear and his World. Norwich: Thames and Hudson, 1977. Malcolm, Noel, The Origins of English Nonsense. London: Fontana/HarperCollins, 1997. McGillis, Roderick, "Nonsense," A Companion to Victorian poetry, ed. by Richard Cronin, Alison Chapman, and Anthony Harrison. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. 155–170. Noakes, Vivien, Edward Lear: The Life of a Wanderer, 1968. Glasgow: Fontana/Collins, revised edition 1979. _. Edward Lear, 1812–1888. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985. Nock, S. A., "Lacrimae Nugarum: Edward Lear of the Nonsense Verses," Sewanee Review, 49 (1941): 68–81. Orwell, George, "Nonsense Poetry" in Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays. London: Secker and Warburg, 1950. pp. 179–184 Osgood Field, William B., Edward Lear on my Shelves. New York: Privately Printed, 1933. Partridge, E., "The Nonsense Words of Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll," in Here, There and Everywhere: Essays Upon Language, 2nd revised edition. London: Hamilton, 1978. Prickett, Stephen, Victorian Fantasy. Hassocks: The Harvester Press, 1979. Reike, Alison, The Senses of Nonsense. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1992. Robinson, Fred Miller, "Nonsense and Sadness in Donald Barthelme and Edward Lear," South Atlantic Quarterly, 80 (1981): 164–76. Sewell, Elizabeth, The Field of Nonsense. London: Chatto and Windus, 1952. Stewart, Susan, Nonsense: Aspects of Intertextuality in Folklore and Literature. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1979. Swifty, Tom, Perplexicon: Your Pea-Green Guide to Nonsense Literature. Rotterdam: Brave New Books, 2016. An earlier edition was published in 2015 as A Course in Nonsense. Tigges, Wim, An Anatomy of Literary Nonsense. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988. _. "The Limerick: The Sonnet of Nonsense?" Dutch Quarterly Review, 16 (1986): 220–236. _. ed., Explorations in the Field of Nonsense. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1987. van Leeuwen, Hendrik, "The Liaison of Visual and Written Nonsense," in Explorations in the Field of Nonsense, ed. Wim Tigges (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1987), pp. 61–95. Wells, Carolyn, "The Sense of Nonsense," Scribner's Magazine, 29 (1901): 239–48. Willis, Gary, "Two Different Kettles of Talking Fish: The Nonsense of Lear and Carroll," Jabberwocky, 9 (1980): 87–94. Wullschläger, Jackie, Inventing Wonderland, The Lives and Fantasies of Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear, J.M. Barrie, Kenneth Grahame, and A.A. Milne. London: Methuen, 1995. External links Gromboolia: The Nonsense Literature site. A general site, with growing resources Edward Lear Home Page A Blog of Bosh: dedicated to nonsense literature and Edward Lear Lewis Carroll on Victorian Web Dr. Seuss and Nonsense Humanities Nonsense Nonsense
4634279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order%20of%20Saint%20Anna	Order of Saint Anna	The Imperial Order of Saint Anna (; also "Order of Saint Anne" or "Order of Saint Ann") was a Holstein ducal and then Russian imperial order of chivalry. It was established by Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, on 14 February 1735, in honour of his wife Anna Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great of Russia. Originally, the Order of Saint Anna was a dynastic order of knighthood; but between 1797 and 1917 it had dual status as a dynastic order and as a state order. The Order of St. Anna continued to be awarded after the revolution by Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich, Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich, and Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna. Today, the Russian Imperial Order of St. Anna, awarded by Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna is recognized as an order of chivalry by the privately operated ICOC as a continuation of the pre-Revolutionary order, and has been approved for wear with military uniform by the Russian Federation, but not by some members of the Romanov Family Association. Membership of the Order was awarded for a distinguished career in civil service or for valour and distinguished service in the military. The Order of Saint Anna entitled recipients of the first class to hereditary nobility, and recipients of lower classes to personal nobility. For military recipients, it was awarded with swords. It is now usually awarded for meritorious service to the Imperial House of Russia. Recipients of the Order of St. Andrew (K.A.) (including grand dukes, who received the order at baptism, and princes of the Imperial blood, who received it at their majority) simultaneously received the first class of the Order of Saint Anna. The Emperor himself was the hereditary grand master of the Order. The motto of the Order is "Amantibus Justitiam, Pietatem, Fidem" ("To those who love justice, piety, and fidelity"). Its festival day is 3 February (New Style, 16 February). The Head of the Imperial House of Russia always is Master of the imperial Order of Saint Anna. History At first, the Order had but one class and was named the "Order of Anna". The statutes of the Order promulgated in 1735 established as the principal insignia a red-enameled gold cross, with an image of Saint Anne imposed upon the centre of the cross; the reverse bore the initials "A.I.P.F." (for "Anna Imperatoris Petri Filia": "Anna, Emperor Peter's daughter" in Latin). The same letters also abbreviate the Latin motto (as the letter "J" did not exist in Latin, "Iustitiam" was the original spelling of the word now rendered "Justitiam"). In 1742, Karl Peter Ulrich, Duke Karl Friedrich's son, was declared the Russian heir apparent. After arriving in Russia, he presented the Order to several courtiers. On 15 April 1797, his own son, Emperor Paul I of Russia, established the Order as part of the Imperial Russian system of honours and divided it into three classes, renaming it the "Order of Saint Anna". Emperor Alexander I added a fourth class in 1815. The title of Chekhov's well-known story Anna on the Neck refers both to the Order and to the heroine. In Chapter IV of Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov guesses that Luzhin must have, "...the Anna in his buttonhole and that he puts it on when he goes to dine with contractors or merchants." Insignia Methods of wear 1st class: Cross worn at the bow of a broad ribbon (ten centimeters wide, worn over the left shoulder), on the right hip; star of the Order (about 95 millimeters in diameter) worn on the right breast 2nd class: Cross worn on a neck ribbon, 45 millimeters wide 3rd class: Cross worn on the left ribbon, suspended from a ribbon 28 millimeters wide 4th class: Cross borne on the pommel of an edged weapon, together with a silver-tasselled sword-knot of the ribbon of the Order The medal ribbon was red with narrow yellow edging. A recipient of higher classes of the Order would not wear the insignia of lower classes, unless he had also been awarded the fourth class (the insignia of which was borne on the hilt of a sword or other edged weapon). Bibliography Alan W. Hazelton, The Russian Imperial Orders; New York: The American Numismatic Society, 1932 (Numismatic Notes and Monograms, No. 51). Guy Stair Sainty (Ed.) “World Orders of Knighthood and Merit” London: Burke's Peerage, 2006. Notable recipients 1st Class Alexander Abaza Frederick Adam Adolphus Frederick V, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Adrian Nepenin Hasan bey Agalarov Ahmad Shah Qajar Albert I of Belgium Prince Albert of Prussia (1809–1872) Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen Albert, Prince Consort Mikhail Alekseyev Ilya I. Alekseyev Yevgeni Ivanovich Alekseyev Alexander I of Russia Alexander I of Yugoslavia Alexander II of Russia Alexander III of Russia Alexander Nikolaevich Golitsyn Alexander of Battenberg Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine Duke Alexander of Oldenburg Duke Alexander of Württemberg (1771–1833) Alexei Arbuzov (general) Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia Gyula Andrássy Teodor Andrault de Langeron Stepan Andreyevskiy Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone Prince August, Duke of Dalarna Prince August of Württemberg Prince Augustus of Prussia Theodor Avellan Karl Gustav von Baggovut Alexander Bagration of Mukhrani Pyotr Bagration Aleksei Baiov Mikhail Bakhirev Jafargulu Bakikhanov Pyotr Baluyev Alexander Barclay de Tolly-Weymarn Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly Nikolai Bardovsky Edward Barnes (British Army officer) Pavel Bashutsky Mikhail Batyanov Vasili Bebutov Alexander von Benckendorff (diplomat) Konstantin von Benckendorff Ilya Berezin Pyotr Bezobrazov Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Bibikov Alexander Alexandrovich von Bilderling Aleksei Birilev Otto von Bismarck Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher Georgy Bobrikov Nikolai Bobyr Woldemar von Boeckmann Alexander Bozheryanov Władysław Grzegorz Branicki Walther Bronsart von Schellendorff Aleksei Brusilov Pavel Bulgakov Prince Carl, Duke of Västergötland Carlos I of Portugal Charles XV Alexander Chavchavadze Grigori Chernozubov Alexander Chernyshyov Seraphim Chichagov Grigory Choglokov Christian IX of Denmark Grigoriy Pavlovich Chukhnin Andrzej Ciechanowiecki Prince Constantine of Imereti (1789–1844) Didi-Niko Dadiani Mikhail Pavlovich Danilov Dmitry Dashkov Henri Roussel de Courcy Dmitry Petrovich Dokhturov Leopold Wilhelm von Dobschütz Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki Alexander Drenteln Mikhail Drozdovsky Pavel Grigorievich Dukmasov Alexander Alexandrovich Dushkevich Andrei Eberhardt Edward VII Carl August Ehrensvärd (1858–1944) Johann Martin von Elmpt Grigori Engelhardt Nikolai Epanchin Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse Gaston Errembault de Dudzeele (died 1888) Gaston Errembault de Dudzeele (died 1929) Archduke Eugen of Austria Aleksei Evert Ferdinand I of Bulgaria Ferdinand II of Portugal Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este Hans William von Fersen Nikolai Filatov Vladimir Nikolayevich Filipov Vasily Flug Dmitry Gustavovich von Fölkersahm Francis IV, Duke of Modena Franz Joseph I of Austria Archduke Franz Karl of Austria Frederick VIII of Denmark Frederick Francis III, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen Friedrich, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg Ivan Fullon Vasily Gabashvili Apollon Galafeyev Yermolay Gamper Ivan Ganetsky Ivan Gannibal Charles Gascoigne Gavriil Gagarin George V Aleksandr Gerngross Alexander Gertsyk Alexander von Güldenstubbe August Neidhardt von Gneisenau Vasily Golovnin Vladimir Gorbatovsky Eugène Goüin Ivan Grigorovich Oskar Gripenberg Gustaf V Gustaf VI Adolf Gustav, Prince of Vasa Haakon VII of Norway Sir Robert Hart, 1st Baronet Lodewijk van Heiden Prince Heinrich of Hesse and by Rhine Herbert Holman Dmitry Horvat Alexander Ievreinov Gavriil Ignatyev Illarion Vasilchikov Alexander Imeretinsky Yevgeni Iskritsky Nikola Ivanov Grigory Ivanovich Villamov Archduke John of Austria Prince Johann of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg John VI of Portugal Joseph, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg Georg von Kameke Kyprian Kandratovich Nikolay Karamzin Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern Karl, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg Prince Karl Theodor of Bavaria Nikolai Kashtalinsky Alexander von Kaulbars Paisi Kaysarov Gustav von Kessel Terence Keyes Pyotr Kikin Jan Hendrik van Kinsbergen Vladimir Kislitsin Hans von Koester Alexander Kolchak Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich of Russia Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia Konstantin Poltoratsky Konstantin of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst Apostol Kostanda Wincenty Krasiński Vasily Kravkov Gerhard Christoph von Krogh Aleksey Kuropatkin Aglay Dmitriyevich Kuzmin-Korovaev Kyrill (Dmitrieff) Sergey Stepanovich Lanskoy Pavel Pavlovich Lebedev Leonid Lesh Leopold I of Belgium Leopold II of Belgium Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt Alexander Mikhailovich Lermontov George Maximilianovich, 6th Duke of Leuchtenberg Sergei Georgievich, 8th Duke of Leuchtenberg Kazimir Vasilevich Levitsky Émile Loubet Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse Prince Louis of Battenberg Friedrich von Löwis of Menar Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria Luís I of Portugal August von Mackensen Sir Charles Madden, 1st Baronet Safarbek Malsagov Mamia V Gurieli Manuel II of Portugal Grigorios Maraslis Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna of Russia Maximilian I of Mexico Leonid Maykov Duke William of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Duke Charles of Mecklenburg Feofil Egorovich Meyendorf Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia Miguel I of Portugal Konstantin Mikhaylovsky Prince Mikheil of Georgia Milan I of Serbia Mikhail Miloradovich Prince Mirian of Georgia Mikhail Mirkovich Pavel Mishchenko Miura Gorō Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan Alexander von Moller Helmuth von Moltke the Elder Helmuth von Moltke the Younger Rudolf Montecuccoli Nikolay Mordvinov (admiral) Hendrik Pieter Nicolaas Muller Mikhail Nikitich Muravyov James Wolfe Murray Valentin Musin-Pushkin Ivan Nabokov Dmitry Nadyozhny Pavel Nakhimov Napoleon III Tovmas Nazarbekian Dmitry Neverovsky Vasily Nezabitovsky Nicholas II of Russia Nicholas Alexandrovich, Tsesarevich of Russia Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1831–1891) Arkady Nikanorovich Nishenkov Vladimir Nikolayevich Nikitin Alexander Nikolaevich Volzhin Nikolai Stogov August Ludwig von Nostitz Nikolai Obolensky Peter Obolyaninov Georgy Orbeliani Alexey Fyodorovich Orlov David Ivanovich Orlov Oscar II Fabian Gottlieb von der Osten-Sacken Archduke Otto of Austria (1865–1906) Otto of Bavaria José Paranhos, Viscount of Rio Branco Viktor Pashutin Duke Paul Frederick of Mecklenburg Pedro V of Portugal Maurice Pellé Duke Peter of Oldenburg Racho Petrov Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders Dmitry Pikhno Georg Dubislav Ludwig von Pirch Mikhail Mikhailovich Pleshkov Carlo Andrea Pozzo di Borgo Mohammad Shah Qajar Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar Naser al-Din Shah Qajar Fyodor Radetsky Evgeny Aleksandrovich Radkevich Nikolai Pavlovich Raev Kirill Razumovski Nikolai Reitsenshtein George Mikhailovich Romanov Christopher Roop Fyodor Rostopchin Nikolay Rtishchev Prince Rudolf of Liechtenstein Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria Adam Rzhevusky Guillaume Emmanuel Guignard, vicomte de Saint-Priest Vladimir Viktorovich Sakharov Anton Yegorovich von Saltza Alexander Samsonov Pavel Savvich Johan Eberhard von Schantz Sergei Sheydeman Eduard Schensnovich Yakov Schkinsky Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia Ivan Ivanovich Shamshev Dmitry Shcherbachev Ivan Shestakov Aliagha Shikhlinski Dmitry Shuvayev Mikhail Skobelev Arkady Skugarevsky Vladimir Vasilyevich Smirnov Mikhail Sokovin Georg von Stackelberg Archduke Stephen of Austria (Palatine of Hungary) Hermann von Strantz Dejan Subotić Vladimir Sukhomlinov Felix Sumarokov-Elston Sylvester Stankievich Ludwig Freiherr von und zu der Tann-Rathsamhausen Alexander von Taube Arshak Ter-Gukasov Nikolai Tretyakov Johann Nepomuk von Triva Dmitry Troshchinsky Erast Tsytovich Georgy Tumanov Fyodor Tyutchev Paul Simon Unterberger Prince Valdemar of Denmark Sergei Vasilchikov Georgy Vasmund Nikolai Velyaminov Anthony Veselovsky Robert Viren Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich of Russia Nikita Volkonsky Illarion Vorontsov-Dashkov Nikolay Vuich Alfred von Waldersee Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Wilhelm II, German Emperor William I, German Emperor William II of Württemberg Sergei Witte Ludwig von Wolzogen Duke Eugen of Württemberg (1788–1857) Sir James Wylie, 1st Baronet Nikolai Yanushkevich Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov Nikolai Yudenich Pavel Zelenoy Ferdinand von Zeppelin Arthur Zimmermann August zu Eulenburg Dmitry Zuyev 2nd Class Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal Ilyas bey Aghalarov Akiyama Yoshifuru Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis Alexei Arbuzov (general) Alfred, 2nd Prince of Montenuovo Władysław Anders Nikolai Anderson Ivane Andronikashvili Dmitry Anuchin Christophor Araratov Pavel Argeyev Arsen of Tbilisi Pyotr Romanovich Bagration Jaques Bagratuni Nikolai Baratov Vasily Baumgarten John Charles Beckwith (British Army officer) Daniel Bek-Pirumian Sergey Vasilyevich Belyaev Mikhail Berens Vasily Berkov Albrecht Besserer von Thalfingen Vasily Biskupsky Herbert von Bismarck Wilhelm von Bismarck Georgy Bobrikov Nikolai Bobyr Woldemar von Boeckmann Petro Bolbochan Vasily Boldyrev Julius von Bose Eugene Botkin Frīdrihs Briedis Nikolai Ilyich Bulatov Constantin Cantacuzino (died 1877) Leo von Caprivi Mateiu Caragiale Alexandru Cernat Alexander Chechenskiy Grigori Chernozubov Seraphim Chichagov Grigory Choglokov Sophus Christensen Peter Christophersen Nicolae Ciupercă Arthur Clifton Norman Coates Duke Constantine Petrovich of Oldenburg Francis Cromie Nikolai Dimitrievich Dabić Alexander Lvovich Davydov Evgraf Davydov Anton Denikin Mikhail Diterikhs Dmitry Petrovich Dokhturov Vasily Andreyevich Dolgorukov Ivan Alekseevich Dwigubski Alfred Mordaunt Egerton William George Keith Elphinstone Ivan Fyodorovich Emme Oskar Enqvist Nikolai Epanchin Ludwig von Falkenhausen Alexey Favorsky Thomas Fellowes (Royal Navy officer, born 1778) Frederick Field (Royal Navy officer) Vladimir Nikolayevich Filipov Carl Andreas Fougstad Ivan Fullon Ivan Ganetsky Robert Gardiner (British Army officer) Vasily Gavrilov Alexander Gertsyk Webb Gillman Vladimir Gittis Andrey Glebov Fyodor Gogel William Maynard Gomm Vladimir Gorbatovsky Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov Pyotr Gorlov James Grierson Erich von Gündell Vasily Gurko Hovhannes Hakhverdyan Karl Eberhard Herwarth von Bittenfeld Max Horton Dmitry Horvat Reginald Hoskins John Hobart Caradoc, 2nd Baron Howden Dietrich von Hülsen-Haeseler Alexander Ievreinov Nikolay Ilminsky Karl Jessen Alexander Kazakov Mikhail Khilkov Boris Khreschatitsky Alexander Khristiani Friedrich von Kielmansegg Hugo W. Koehler Roman Kondratenko August Kork Lavr Kornilov Apostol Kostanda Stiliyan Kovachev Sergey Kravkov (agronomist) Vasily Kravkov Alexander J. Kravtsov Petr G. Kravtsov Aleksandr Krymov Julius Kuperjanov Aglay Dmitriyevich Kuzmin-Korovaev Vladimir Kuzmin-Karavayev Johan Laidoner Sergey Stepanovich Lanskoy Hans Leesment Alexander Mikhailovich Lermontov Alexander Karl Nikolai von Lieven Antoni Listowski Walter von Loë George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan Fedir Lyzohub Pavel Maksutov Safarbek Malsagov Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim Vladimir May-Mayevsky Leonid Maykov Karim bey Mehmandarov Emmanuel von Mensdorff-Pouilly Mikhail Mirkovich Ernst von Mohl Stefan Mokrzecki Theodor Molien Dmitry Nadyozhny Tovmas Nazarbekian Vasily Nezabitovsky Alexander Nikolaevich Volzhin Amos Norcott Vasily Fedorovich Novitsky Nikolai Obolensky Ilia Odishelidze David Ivanovich Orlov Ivan Ozerov Dmitri Parsky Anatoly Pepelyayev Pavel Pereleshin Vasily Perfilyev Adolph Pfingsten Dmitry Pikhno Karl von Plettenberg Alexander Stepanovich Popov Kazimierz Porębski Ignacy Prądzyński Mikhail Promtov Amanullah Mirza Qajar Fyodor Radetsky Evgeny Aleksandrovich Radkevich Antoni Wilhelm Radziwiłł Wilhelm von Ramming Kirill Razumovski Aleksandr Vladimirovich Razvozov Paul von Rennenkampf Pyotr Ivanovich Ricord Christopher Roop Hew Dalrymple Ross Carlo Rossi (architect) Zinovy Rozhestvensky Friedrich von Rüdiger Adam Rzhevusky Vladimir Saitov Vladimir Viktorovich Sakharov Pavel Savvich Pavel Schilling Yakov Schkinsky Ioan Axente Sever Boris Shaposhnikov Aliagha Shikhlinski Sergey I. Shivtzov Fyodor Shubin Volodymyr Sikevych Alexander Sirotkin Boris Skibine Pavlo Skoropadskyi Jan Zygmunt Skrzynecki Vladimir Vasilyevich Smirnov Mikhail Sokovin Christian von Steven Sylvester Stankievich Pavel Sytin Pyotr Telezhnikov Robert Richard Torrens Robert Torrens (British Army officer) Richard M. Trevethan Charles Lawrence, 2nd Baron Trevethin Ivan Trutnev Erast Tsytovich Mikhail Tukhachevsky Georgy Tumanov Eustachy Tyszkiewicz Konstantin Vakulovsky Sergei Vasilchikov Georgy Vasmund Julius von Verdy du Vernois Vladimir Vernadsky Grigory Verzhbitsky Anthony Veselovsky Wilgelm Vitgeft Vladimir Vitkovsky John Waters (British Army officer, born 1774) Stanley Price Weir Alfred Welby Constantin Westchiloff Sergei Wojciechowski Lucjan Żeligowski Silvestras Žukauskas 3rd Class Adrian Nepenin Alexander Afanasyev Ilyas bey Aghalarov Prince Albert of Saxe-Altenburg Nikolai Anderson Vladimir Arsenyev Jaques Bagratuni Aleksei Baiov Andrei Bakich Edward Bamford Alexander Barclay de Tolly-Weymarn Vasily Baumgarten Daniel Bek-Pirumian Vasily Biskupsky Georgy Bobrikov Woldemar von Boeckmann Petro Bolbochan Vasily Boldyrev Fyodor Bronnikov Jonas Budrys Nikolai Ilyich Bulatov Grigori Chernozubov Seraphim Chichagov Grigory Choglokov Christopher Courtney Nikolai Dimitrievich Dabić Hubert Edward Dannreuther Alexander Alexandrovich Dushkevich Harold Edward Elliott Nikolai Epanchin Gunther von Etzel Sergei Fyodorov (surgeon) Nikolai Filatov Vladimir Nikolayevich Filipov Vasily Flug Lev Galler Ivan Ganetsky Hamilton Gault Alexander Gertsyk Vladimir Gorbatovsky Hovhannes Hakhverdyan John Hearson Dmitry Horvat Oleksander Hrekov Karol Hutten-Czapski Alexander Ievreinov Nikolai Ignatev Arnolds Indriksons Platon Ioseliani Anton Irv Ismayil bek Kutkashensky Leonard Jaczewski Alan Jerrard Jonas Juška Alexey Kaledin Kyprian Kandratovich Vladimir Kappel Dmitry Karbyshev Boris Khreschatitsky Alexander Khristiani Konstantinas Kleščinskis Nikolai Kolomeitsev August Kork Nikolai Kravkov Vasily Kravkov Alexander J. Kravtsov Petr G. Kravtsov Julius Kuperjanov Ants Kurvits Aglay Dmitriyevich Kuzmin-Korovaev Vladimir Kuzmin-Karavayev Hans Leesment Leonid Lesh Alexander Mikhailovich Lermontov Nikolai Linevich Antoni Listowski Ivan Loiko Einar Lundborg Donat Makijonek Safarbek Malsagov Karim bey Mehmandarov Feofil Egorovich Meyendorf Sergei Mezheninov Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin Mikhail Mirkovich Syla Mishchenko Stefan Mokrzecki Dmitry Nadyozhny Jan Nagórski Jafargulu Khan Nakhchivanski Jamshid Nakhchivanski Tovmas Nazarbekian Danail Nikolaev Vasily Fedorovich Novitsky Nikolai Obolensky Vladimir Olderogge Alexey Fyodorovich Orlov David Ivanovich Orlov Vasily Perfilyev Mikhail Mikhailovich Pleshkov Georgy Polkovnikov Peter Polovtsov Alexander Stepanovich Popov Mikhail Promtov Feyzullah Mirza Qajar Fyodor Radetsky Evgeny Aleksandrovich Radkevich Alexander Ragoza Yuri Rall Kirill Razumovski Alexander Rodzyanko Friedrich von Rüdiger Carl Rustad Adam Rzhevusky Vladimir Saitov Vladimir Viktorovich Sakharov Victor Zaharevich Savelyev Pavel Savvich Sergei Sheydeman Yakov Schkinsky Shafi Khan Qajar Rodion Shchedrin Dmitry Shcherbinovsky Pyotr Shchetinkin Aliagha Shikhlinski Javad khan Shirvanski Volodymyr Sikevych Alexander Sirotkin Boris Skibine Arkady Skugarevsky Ivan Smirnov (aviator) Vladimir Vasilyevich Smirnov Mikhail Sokovin Viktor Spiridonov Georgy Stepanov Mykola Stsiborskyi Sylvester Stankievich Pavel Sytin Marceli Tarczewski Alexander von Taube Vasily Tchernetzov Pyotr Telezhnikov Valentin Ternavtsev Vyacheslav Tkachov Fyodor Tolbukhin John Tovey, 1st Baron Tovey Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard Vyacheslav Troyanov Ivan Trutnev Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Georgy Tumanov Leonid Ustrugov Konstantin Vakulovsky Sergei Vasilchikov Georgy Vasmund Vladimir Vitkovsky Tom Webb-Bowen Pyotr Wrangel Ivan Iosifovich Yakubovsky Alexander Zelenoy Mikhail Zoshchenko Silvestras Žukauskas 4th Class Mikhail Alafuso Alexei Arbuzov (general) Tarlan Aliyarbayov Vladimir Arsenyev Jaques Bagratuni Alexander Barclay de Tolly-Weymarn Mikhail Batorsky Daniel Bek-Pirumian Vasily Biskupsky Petro Bolbochan Seraphim Chichagov Nikolai Epanchin Ivan Fullon Yury Gilsher Hovhannes Hakhverdyan Arnolds Indriksons Ismayil bek Kutkashensky Aleksander Jaakson Mykola Kapustiansky Valentin Kataev Boris Khreschatitsky Konstantinas Kleščinskis Nikolay Kokorin Konstantin Poltoratsky August Kork Sergey Kravkov (explorer) Alexander J. Kravtsov Yevgraf Kruten Julius Kuperjanov Ants Kurvits Johan Laidoner Ernst Leman Ivan Loiko Donat Makijonek Safarbek Malsagov Evgeny Messner Sergei Mezheninov Aleksandr Mirkovich Syla Mishchenko Sava Mutkurov Jan Nagórski Jamshid Nakhchivanski Vladimir Nikolayevich Nikitin Garegin Nzhdeh David Ivanovich Orlov Ivan Orlov (aviator) Aleksandr Pishvanov Georgy Polkovnikov Feyzullah Mirza Qajar Alexander Ragoza Yuri Rall Kirill Razumovski Aleksandr Vladimirovich Razvozov Alfred Saalwächter Mikhail Safonov (pilot) Pavel Savvich Sergei Sheydeman Yakov Schkinsky Alexander Sedyakin Aliagha Shikhlinski Fyodor Shubin Volodymyr Sikevych Alexander Sirotkin Georgy Stepanov Vladimir Strzhizhevsky Mykola Stsiborskyi Jan Syrový Pavel Sytin Vasily Tchernetzov Leo Tolstoy Vyacheslav Troyanov Konstantin Vakulovsky Johannes Vares Vladimir Vitkovsky Vasili Yanchenko Mikhail Zoshchenko Silvestras Žukauskas Dmitry Zuyev Franciszek Żwirko Other or Unknown Classes James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn Prince Adarnase of Kartli Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg David Murray Anderson John Asser Sir John Baddeley, 1st Baronet Poghos Bek-Pirumyan Francis Walter Belt Jacques Bergeret Pavel Bermondt-Avalov Andrew Bertie Peter von Bilderling Friedrich Wilhelm von Bismarck Afrikan P. Bogaewsky Adolf von Bonin Leimistin Broussan Alexander Romanovich Bruce Ernesto Burzagli Hayk Bzhishkyan Nicolae Condeescu Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski Xawery Czernicki Jan Henryk Dąbrowski Nicolae Dăscălescu Guy Dawnay (British Army officer) Léon de Witte de Haelen Radko Dimitriev Alexander Ivanovich Dmitriev-Mamonov Dmitry Bagration-Imeretinsky Franciszek Ksawery Drucki-Lubecki Henri du Couëdic de Kerérant John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham Johann Dzierzon Harold Edwards (RCAF officer) Felix Funke Alexander V. Golubintzev Ernest Goüin Władysław Gurowski Thomas Noel Harris Helen Scott Hay Philip, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg Carl von Hoffman David Edward Hughes Edgar Erskine Hume Prince Levan of Georgia John Paul Jones Karađorđe Nikolai Kashirin Aleksey Khovansky (publisher) Aleksey Korin Vladimir Kossogovsky Jan Kozietulski Alexey V. Kravtsov Mikhail Krechetnikov Alexey Kurakin Jacques-Joachim Trotti, marquis de La Chétardie Lev Lagorio Maksud Alikhanov Guglielmo Marconi Lucy Minnigerode Hugh Henry Mitchell Vincent Barkly Molteno Auguste de Montferrand Joachim Joseph André Murat Ludwik Narbutt Joseph Cornelius O'Rourke Mārtiņš Peniķis Constantin Poenaru Sir John Pollock, 4th Baronet Dighton Probyn Mohammad Taqi Mirza Rokn ed-Dowleh Eric Gascoigne Robinson Roman Vorontsov Alexey Schastny Fyodor Schechtel Alexei Senyavin Andrei Shkuro Boris Shteifon Josip Šokčević Constantin Stamati Curt von Stedingk Dmitry Strukov Jerzy Świrski Stanisław Tatar Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood Constantin von Tischendorf Tomkyns Hilgrove Turner Haim Aharon Valero Albert Vizentini Ivan Illarionovich Vorontsov Baldwin Wake Walker Eric Sherbrooke Walker Nikolay Yung Nikanor Zakhvatayev Mikhail Zasulich Yakov Zhilinsky Theodoor Johan Arnold van Zijll de Jong Asad-bey Talyshkhanov References External links Order of St. Anna History of the order of St. Anna 1735 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire 18th-century awards Orders of chivalry of Russia Saint Anna, Order of Saint Anna, Order of Saint Anne
4634420	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance%E2%80%93Union%20universe	Alliance–Union universe	The Alliance–Union universe is a fictional universe created by American writer C. J. Cherryh. It is the setting for a future history series extending from the 21st century into the far future. To date, the corpus of the Alliance–Union universe consists of 27 science fiction novels along with a series of seven short story anthologies edited by Cherryh and a few other miscellaneous works. It encompasses both books for which Cherryh won the Hugo Award for Best Novel, Downbelow Station and Cyteen, and also incorporates various other series books such as the Faded Sun trilogy, the Chanur novels, the four Morgaine books, and the Merovingen Nights shared universe series. Description The Alliance–Union universe is a fictional future history created by Cherryh. It spans the third and fourth millennia, and is centered around humanity's exploration and colonization of space. Three economic powers have arisen, Earth Company, operating from Earth, the Alliance, a confederation of trade merchants operating interstellar freighters between Earth, space stations and colonized planets, and the Union, a breakaway government based on the planet of Cyteen. The Earth Company's attempts to control the expansions into space are defeated during the Company Wars, and the Union clashes with both the Alliance and Earth Company in their quest to expand their territories using cloned humans called azi. In addition to Cherryh's Company War novels, her Alliance–Union universe also comprises several other novel series, including The Faded Sun Trilogy, the Compact Space series and the Merovingen Nights shared universe. Patricia Monk suggested in her paper "The shared universe: an experiment in speculative fiction" that linking these Alliance–Union series in a common future history creates a "megatext" or "collage novel". History As humanity reaches out to the stars, space stations are financed by the private Sol Corporation, eventually renamed the Earth Company. Each new station is built by the previous one and is located ever farther away from Earth. In the days before faster-than-light travel (FTL), nine stations are laboriously constructed around nine stars, all lacking habitable planets. The stationers and the merchanters who man the ships that supply them both develop distinct cultural identities, but remain psychologically and to some degree materially dependent on Earth. Still, directives from Earth arrive hopelessly out-of-date and are routinely ignored, making the Earth Company's attempts to maintain control increasingly futile. When Pell's World is discovered in the Tau Ceti system, the fragile economic and political equilibrium is disrupted. Not only is this new planet's biosphere reasonably hospitable to humans – requiring only gas masks and air tanks for survival – but it also supports intelligent alien life, the gentle, technologically primitive Hisa, called "Downers" by humans. Importantly, human crops can be grown on Pell's World, dangerously weakening Earth's economic dominance. After the construction of Pell Station above the planet, colonists expand outward in space with renewed vigor and build additional stations even more distant from Earth. The first successful FTL probe using newly developed jump technology is launched in 2248. Earth takes advantage of the breakthrough to try to re-assert its authority among the colonists. With a poor understanding of stationers and merchanters alike, its clumsy attempts backfire, provoking first unrest, then occasional armed clashes, and eventually rebellion. As the situation spirals out of control, the Earth Company commissions the building of 50 military carriers, the "Company Fleet", under the command of Conrad Mazian, to enforce its orders. The situation culminates in 2300 with the declaration of an independent Union by the colonists centered at the Cyteen system, another habitable planet and space station at Lalande 46650, precipitating outright war. Union augments its population and armed forces with genetically engineered and psychologically conditioned human clones, called azi, which are seen as an abomination by Earth. Fighting between the Fleet and Union forces is fierce during the ensuing "Company War". The stations closest to Earth, disturbed by the azi and other Union developments, remain loyal to Earth; several of these are destroyed by Union action. With sporadic, inadequate support from Earth, the Fleet has no choice but to forcibly requisition equipment and personnel from the increasingly alienated merchanters. However, these measures only serve to maintain the existing warships. Without new ships to replace its combat losses, the Fleet gradually begins to lose a war of attrition. Caught in the middle are the merchanter families and Pell Station, the primary transit point between Earth and Union space. The conflict comes to a head at Pell in late 2352 and early 2353, as described in the novel Downbelow Station. Faced with the increasingly dangerous situation, many of the merchanter families finally band together to form the Alliance, creating a third, neutral power, soon after a team arrives from Earth to negotiate an end to the conflict. Mazian refuses to accept the peace, and the Fleet continues to fight on, this time in the service of his ambition. When Signy Mallory, one of his most senior captains, learns of his plans to seize control of Earth itself, she and her ship, Norway, defect to the new Alliance, becoming the core of its militia. The remainder of the Fleet remains loyal to Mazian, but he is forced to launch his coup attempt prematurely. Forewarned, Earth manages to defend itself. With Earth turned against the "Mazianni", Union sees a chance to finally rid itself of its bitter enemy. Because Union does not dare weaken its forces at this crucial juncture to guard its rear against the newborn state, the Alliance is able to broker a favorable peace treaty, with Pell Station as its de facto home base. The treaty cedes to the Alliance a monopoly on interstellar commerce, even within Union, giving it the power to shut down stations simply by withholding trade. The Mazianni are gradually driven off, as mentioned in Rimrunners and Merchanter's Luck. In Tripoint, however, it is revealed that they have discovered another habitable world and are establishing a colony there. As the danger of the Mazianni recedes, a new rivalry develops, between the Alliance and Union. Union resents the treaty restrictions, while the Alliance fears being overwhelmed by Union's much larger population. Tensions rise further when Gehenna, a precious habitable planet in the Alliance sphere of influence, is found to harbor a population descended from a secret Union military mission deliberately abandoned there to deny the Alliance an easy acquisition. Meanwhile, within Union, two political factions vie to determine its future. Unbeknownst to either, brilliant scientist and political leader Ariane Emory has her own agenda. The events depicted in the first books in the series, Heavy Time and Hellburner, take place shortly after the start of the war. Most of the books set in this universe, however, take place subsequent to the establishment of both the Alliance and the breakaway Union, hence the label "Alliance–Union" universe. Genre Many of the works in this universe are set in space, and are usually described as space opera, while those set on planets can be seen as planetary romances. Works such as Cyteen and Downbelow Station are also regarded as hard science fiction. The "Company Wars" novels and the Faded Sun trilogy concerning the Mri Wars are examples of the military science fiction subgenre. The Merovingen Nights series takes place on a single planet and features swashbuckling heroes and low levels of technology, and as such might be classified as science fantasy, borrowing elements from the historic sword and planet subgenre; this is also true for the Morgaine Cycle books, set remotely in time and space from the main sequence. Unlike most works in this universe, the novel Voyager in Night also borrows elements from horror fiction. Books and reading order For a complete list of works in the Alliance–Union universe, see the article C. J. Cherryh bibliography Cherryh has stated that with two exceptions, the books set in the Alliance–Union universe can be read in any order, "just like real history." The first exception she notes is the two novels Heavy Time and Hellburner, which should be read in that order (as originally published and as compiled together in the omnibus edition Devil to the Belt). The two are prequels to Downbelow Station, although they can be read either before or after that novel. The second exception is Cyteen and its sequel Regenesis, which are tightly linked and should be read in that order too. The novels in the Faded Sun trilogy are designed to be read in sequence, as are the books within the Chanur and Morgaine series. The Merovingen Nights series begins with the novel Angel with the Sword and then continues to the short story anthologies, numbered 1 through 7. Major characters Pyanfar Chanur, Hani captain of one of her clan's merchant starships, the Pride of Chanur; later leader of the Compact, a loose confederation of diverse species that deliberately excludes humans lest they disrupt the delicate balance of power (the Chanur novels) Sten Duncan, Alliance Security special forces soldier; human who "goes native" and joins the Mri; serves as mediator between the Mri and humans (the Faded Sun trilogy) Ariane Emory-1, superb scientist and Union administrator of the influential and politically powerful Reseune research complex, source of most azi innovations (Cyteen) Ariane Emory-2 PR (Personal Replicate), clone of Ariane Emory created after her progenitor's death (Cyteen, Regenesis) Damon Konstantin, Pell Station administrator and ex-officio leader of the Merchanter Alliance; husband of Elene Quen (Downbelow Station) Elene Quen, co-founder of the Merchanter's Alliance; last survivor of the respected Quen merchanter family, casualties of the Company War (Downbelow Station) Conrad Mazian, brilliant commander of the outnumbered Earth Company Fleet; after the end of the Company War, leader of the renegade Mazianni, the remnant of the Fleet—except ECS Norway—that survived the war (Downbelow Station) Signy Mallory, captain of the Earth Company military carrier ship Norway; defects to the Alliance after Mazian turns against Earth; her ship (along with the armed superfreighter Finity's End) forms the core of the newborn Alliance's militia (Downbelow Station, Merchanter's Luck) Elizabeth McGee, Union scientist (Forty Thousand in Gehenna) James Robert Neihart, senior captain of Finity's End and one of the Merchanter Alliance negotiators (Finity's End) Kurt Morgan, sole surviving crewman of the Alliance ship Endymion, participant in the Hanan Rebellion and the wars of the Nemet race (Brothers of Earth) Raen a Sul hant Meth-maren, sole survivor and head of the Sul sept of the Meth-Maren House of the Kontrin company; human mediator with the alien, hive-mind Majat (Serpent's Reach) Thorn, Hatani guild member; human raised by the Shonunin to be their ambassador to his species (Cuckoo's Egg) Sentient alien species Cherryh has been praised for her complex, well-developed alien cultures. Her Alliance–Union universe features numerous sentient alien species, including the following: The novels Port Eternity and Voyager in Night feature additional sentient alien races. The Morgaine books are built around the actions of a humanoid race called the Qual, Khal and similar names, while Morgaine herself is a half-blood member of the "ancestors of the qual", and the third book in the series features an arboreal species called the Harilim. Planets Pell's World Pell's World, also known as Downbelow, is a planet orbiting Tau Ceti; it was discovered by a probe in 2093. It was the first planet in the Alliance–Union universe to be discovered by humans that has an advanced ecosystem and, more significantly, intelligent extraterrestrial life, the Hisa. Pell Station, a space station prominent in this universe, orbits the planet. It was the discovery of sentient life that sent shock waves back to Earth, sparking off moral, religious, philosophical and policy debates. Then, to aggravate an already delicate situation, Pell Station became a source of agricultural goods and other luxuries, hitherto only available from Earth. This economic advantage disrupted the whole balance of power in the Alliance–Union universe, and became one of the main contributing factors to the outbreak of the Company Wars in 2300. Pell's World and the Hisa feature in a number of Alliance–Union universe novels, in particular Downbelow Station (1981) and Finity's End (1997). Gehenna Gehenna is a rare habitable Alliance–Union universe planet in the Zeta Reticuli system, and home to the calibans, sentient lizard-like creatures. Although in Alliance space, it was secretly colonized by the Union, and then abandoned for the Alliance to discover a lost colony on what should have been a pristine planet. Gehenna features in two Alliance–Union universe novels, Forty Thousand in Gehenna (1983) and Cyteen (1988). Cyteen Cyteen is a planet deep in Union territory that was discovered between 2125 and 2201; it was found to have nonsentient life. Two space stations were constructed in orbit around the planet, the Inner and Outer Stations. The planet's atmosphere is toxic to humans and necessitated terraforming and the establishment of enclaves, or semi-encapsulated city-states. Its native life is also toxic, although it was the source of Cyteen's rejuvenation drug. Cyteen features in several of the Alliance–Union universe novels, most notably Cyteen (1988). Merovin Planet Merovin is isolated, forsaken by the rest of humanity because of poor interstellar relations with an aggressive alien species, the Sharrh. Due to this, the level of technology on the planet is quite backwards for the 33rd century. For example, most personal weaponry is of the knife or sword variety; relatively few firearms are available and in any case nothing more advanced than a revolver. Merovin features in the novel Angel with the Sword (1985), and the Merovingen Nights series of shared universe anthologies. Technologies In addition to the advanced technologies required to mine the asteroids, send slower-than-light vessels to nearby stars, and establish large space stations there, signature futuristic technologies of the Alliance–Union universe are: The jump drive, derived from the theoretical physics work of Estelle Bok at Cyteen Station in 2230, allowing faster-than-light travel. When ships jump, they shift into a space parallel to normal space and appear to move at faster-than-light velocity until they re-enter normal space via their trajectory encountering a star-sized mass. Ships emerging from jump possess a large velocity relative to and pointed at the target mass; the jump drive is also used to lower this velocity to more reasonable levels. Jumps of more than about 10 light-years can sometimes result in the destruction of the jumping ship or its permanent disappearance into hyperspace, so ships' courses hop between stars and other nearby stars or jump points (large collections of matter that are not large enough to achieve fusion, such as brown dwarfs or rogue planets). Jumps appear to take days to weeks from the perspective of the crew of the ship, but weeks to months from the perspective of the residents of stations and planets. The experience of jump is unpleasant enough to threaten the sanity of most of those who endure it without being tranquilized – spacers seem to fear few things more than "jump without trank". Rejuv, a life-extension drug derived from lifeforms on the planet Cyteen sometime in the 2220s. Rejuv leaves users with the mental and physical capacities they had at the time they started using it (usually in a person's 40s) while extending life up to about age 140; when rejuv failure sets in, life functions collapse rapidly in a one- to two-year period. However, once a person begins using rejuv, they must continue to take it regularly or suffer fatal consequences. Side effects include sterility, some bone and muscle mass loss, and whitening of hair. The Earth Company's inability to control the underground rejuv trade with Union is one of the precipitating factors of the Company War. Human cloning. Human cloning technology is developed to a high degree in Union. The clones require the normal amount of time to reach maturity, i.e. they must be raised to adulthood just as natural-born children are. A small amount of cloning is done to replicate children who die in accidents or to produce "Parental Replicates" for those who can afford them, but the vast majority of cloning is done to produce azi, genetically tailored laborers, technicians, and soldiers who lack civil rights (although they can acquire them). An azi genetic type's cognitive level is rated using a Greek-letter system similar to that in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World. Subliminal conditioning and information transfer, known as tape. Tape is used for a variety of purposes: entertainment, teaching both physical skills and advanced concepts, psychotherapy, and social and political indoctrination. The technologies involved do not involve direct brain interface, but instead use visual and auditory stimulation as well as electric muscle stimulation (to provide a kinesthetic component), all while under the influence of drugs to induce a state of suggestibility. Azi use tape extensively for rapid learning of skills required by their jobs as well as a constructed psychological state to make them do those jobs effectively and happily, as well as obey designated authorities. A technology similar to tape, mindwipe, is used to create a blank-slate psychology and artificial amnesia in criminals, those with catastrophic psychological conditions, and deep-penetration secret agents, on top of which regular tape can be used to rebuild the person's psychology as desired. Terraforming. Terraforming technologies were used by Union to make some areas of the planet Cyteen suitable for Earth-based life; Cyteen's native life is extremely toxic to Earth-based life, although it was the source of the rejuv drug. In the early years of Union this was a brutal "hand over fist" process, but later concerns over potential disruption of the rejuv supply led the Union government to stop the terraforming. During the period of détente after the Company War and Earth's contact with the Compact, Cyteen provides terraforming know-how to Earth, which uses it for bioremediation on Earth itself as well as terraforming on Mars. Society A broad trend in the Alliance–Union universe is the divergence of fundamental attitudes in planet-dwellers, space station-dwellers, and starship crews. Planet dwellers (ordinary residents of Earth and Cyteen) seem to have many of the same attitudes and concerns as 21st century people in developed countries. The space-dwelling populations find it strange that planet-dwellers fight over things like energy sources and territory (which are plentiful in space) but act in a cavalier and wasteful manner toward their physical environment (which must be carefully tended in space). Space station residents (stationers) tend toward extreme caution towards both their physical as well as social and economic environments, since an unplanned change in any of them could be fatal to the entire station population. For example, a great deal of the conflict in Downbelow Station is caused by Pell Station's need to absorb a large refugee population, for which they do not have adequate housing or jobs. Starship crew (spacers) have an extremely insular world-view engendered by the time-dilation effects of jump; this attitude was even more extreme before the jump drive was developed, when travel between stars took years. Merchant starships are all crewed by extended families, which occasionally fission if the family prospers enough to purchase another ship. Merchanter women will often have unprotected sex while in port in order to become pregnant and preserve genetic diversity in their crew-families. Spacer self-identification is so great that many spacers would rather starve to death than accept "grounding" and a stationer's life. Spacers often feel they can only relate to other spacers, since stationers and planet-dwellers seem to rapidly age and die from their perspective. Additionally, in Union, there is a cultural and psychological division between the unengineered citizen population ("CITs" or "born-men") and the azi. Azi are treated by CITs on a continuum between outright slavery and the companionship of equals; in many ways they are treated like children, since they are vulnerable to stimuli that lie outside the coping abilities of their artificially-constructed psychologies. The majority view in Union is that azi are necessary to preserve the technological and industrial base of their many space settlements, while a minority wants to abolish the practice and cease azi production. The majority view is apt to be the more stable and persistent, since azi can, in time, become citizens whose children are born CITs, and these children receive their basic values from their parents. This process is the result of deliberate social engineering on the part of Reseune, the Cyteen-based center of all research and development concerning human cloning. Mazianni The Mazianni is a term which refers to the military star-ships and their crews who remain loyal to their commander, the charismatic, ambitious Conrad Mazian, when he renounces his allegiance to Earth. The ships had begun their existence as the 50-ship strong Earth Company Fleet, sent out to enforce Earth's control of its star stations. In the long Company War between Earth and the breakaway Union, their number had been whittled down to 15 patchwork ships with waning loyalty to an increasingly indifferent Earth. Losing a war of attrition, Mazian devises a subtle, dangerous plan to establish a firebreak between Union and Earth. The Fleet retreats to Pell after the war. Mazian makes the fateful decision to rebel and attempt to take over Earth itself. Downbelow Station ends with his (implied) failure, and the defection of one of his most senior captains, Signy Mallory, and her ship Norway to the newborn Merchanter's Alliance, based at Pell. The remaining ships, outlawed by all three major powers, return to guerrilla warfare: hit-and-run raids and preying on merchant ships for replacement personnel and equipment. At least three subsequent merchanter novels mention the Mazianni. It is suggested that the Mazianni may have secretly discovered and settled their own habitable world. Songs C. J. Cherryh wrote a collection of songs about the station trade in the Alliance–Union universe. These were recorded by filk musician Leslie Fish and others, and released in 1985 on an album entitled Finity's End. Critical reception Science fiction and fantasy critic John Clute called the Alliance–Union universe Cherryh's "central achievement". Writing in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, Clute added that while the universe's structure is "rough at the edges", reading a novel in the series creates the impression that it is part of a larger history yet to be revealed. In a biography of Cherryh in the Historical Dictionary of Science Fiction in Literature, M. Keith Booker described the Alliance–Union universe as "so far-reaching that its overall outlines remain unclear and continue to develop". References Works cited Further reading External links Official Site, run by the author Star maps of Cherryh's Alliance–Union universe Star map showing all stars within ~20 light years from Earth List of Earth Company/Alliance/Union ships Science fiction book series by C. J. Cherryh Military science fiction Future history Fictional universes Dystopian novels Faster-than-light travel in fiction Cloning in fiction Genetic engineering in fiction Fiction about memory erasure and alteration Novels about extraterrestrial life
4634481	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battlefield%20High%20School	Battlefield High School	Battlefield High School is a public high school within the Gainesville District of unincorporated Prince William County, Virginia, United States, and is part of the Prince William County Public Schools. The school is located north of the town of Haymarket bearing a "Haymarket, Virginia" address. Battlefield is one of two Centers for Information Technology in the school division. In the 2010-2011 football season Battlefield's team won the Cedar Run District Title, Northwest Region Title, and the AAA Division 6 State Title. Communities served The rapid construction of homes in the area surrounding Battlefield has resulted in a tremendous population increase, which guarantees that at least for now, the school will operate well over its intended capacity. A quick glance in the building during operating hours makes it clear that overcrowding is a considerable issue despite the building of Patriot High School nearby in 2011, and some students and parents even consider the overcrowding a danger. There is no publicized action currently being taken on the part of the county thus far to correct the issue further. Communities served by Battlefield include Bull Run Mountain Estates, Carterwood, Catharpin, Crossroads, Dominion Valley, Evergreen, Gainesville, Greenhill Crossing, Heritage Hunt, Hopewell's Landing, Parks at Piedmont, Piedmont, Rocky Run, Town of Haymarket, Oak Valley, Villages of Piedmont and West Market. Administration The principal of Battlefield High School is Ryan Ferrera. Prior to coming to the school, Ferrera was an assistant principal at Woodbridge Senior High School. He also was a social studies teacher at Battlefield. History Battlefield High School was opened in September 2004 as the ninth high school in Prince William County. Programs of study Battlefield High School is a Center for Information Technology, and includes limited computer-based and computer-related coursework. Enrollment in the "iT" program is optional for both Battlefield students and for those who are zone-designated for other PWCS high schools. Starting in the 2019 school year, students will no longer be able to transfer to Battlefield from other zones for the IT program. The program is led by Specialty Program Coordinator Joseph Huddle. The program has several branches consisting of Graphic Design, Networking, Programming, and Hardware support. In 2006–2007, the school began hosting its Air Force JROTC program. It is a federal program authorized under United States Code, Title 10, Sections 2031-2033, and the ROTC Revitalization Act of 1964 and mandates that all participating cadets be volunteers. There is no military service obligation associated with participation, but cadets who participate for at least three years, and are subsequently recommended by the Senior Air Science Instructor, may earn accelerated promotions in the active duty military. These programs vary depending on the branch of service and experience level of the cadet. Battlefield's AFJROTC program is supervised by Colonel (Ret) Dan Vasenko and Senior Master Sergeant (Ret) Dave Shuler. The program is renowned, and according to faculty, students, and parents alike, their accolades are well-deserved. Day to day operations are led by a cadet staff composed of seniors, with a senior 4th-year AFJROTC cadet leading each class under the supervision of the faculty instructor. The curriculum is set by the Air Force and includes a 40% breakout of Air Science classes, 40% in leadership and character development, and 20% personal wellness (fitness and nutrition). All extracurricular activities are led by cadets, including drill team, rocketry club, Academic Bowl, and the Raider team (a form of field skills and physical fitness competition). Additionally, the cadets field their own CyberPatriot team to compete in the yearly competitions sponsored by the Air Force Association. By Headquarters AFJROTC directives, the cadet corps must number no less than 100 cadets based on Battlefield's total number of students, and no more than 180 cadets, based on PWCS authorized instructor staffing. Since the 2010-2011 school year, cadet enrollment has stabilized at roughly 150 cadets each year. Battlefield's program earned the AFJROTC Distinguished Unit Award (with Merit) in 2011, the Distinguished Unit Award in 2012, and after a brief hiatus of unit accolades, received the Outstanding Organization Award in 2017. For the 2016-2017 school year, they performed over 1,400 hours of community service in and around Haymarket and participated in 43 color guards for local organizations. In 2007–2008, the school began hosting its Criminal Justice program which serves as a "mini police academy," instructing essential constitutional law and criminal justice practices. Student performance Battlefield High School has been named a "School of Excellence" by Prince William County four times. According to PWCS, "a School of Excellence must be fully accredited by the state and ... must ensure that ninety-five percent of students beginning the year on or above grade level pass the SOL tests. They must also ensure that fifty percent of students beginning the year below grade level pass the SOL tests.". During the 2016, Battlefield's median SAT scores exceeded the county and the state's median scores significantly. The AP participation rate is 66% at BHS. Accreditation Battlefield High School has been a fully accredited high school based on its performance on the Standards of Learning tests in Virginia since its opening in 2004. Ranking US News has ranked Battlefield High School as the Number 1 high school in the Prince William County System for several years. Additionally, the school has been ranked as Number 18 in the state as well as Number 833 nationally in 2021 out of 17,857 high schools nationwide. BHS has performed exceptionally well against regional schools such as Briar Woods High School, traditionally seen as Loudoun County's premier high school which was ranked at Number 20 in the state and Number 1 in Loudoun County. No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Battlefield High School has made "Adequate Yearly Progress" (AYP) each year it has been open, according to the Virginia Department of Education's benchmarks set by the mandate of the No Child Left Behind Act. School seal The school seal, illustrated in the school colors of purple, black, and silver, was designed by Carl Kielbasa of Herff-Jones, Inc. The center of the seal is a representation of "graduation" with the traditional mortarboard and rolled diploma. Around the outside of the seal are representations of "the arts" (a drama mask, a lyre, and a palette), "academics" (the traditional "torch and tome"), "Information Technology" (the words wrapping the globe), and "athletics" (the winged shoe of Hermes (stylized as a modern sneaker) and the traditional laurel). The crest of the seal is a disembodied Bobcat head superimposed upon mountains, representing the Piedmont region of the Appalachian Mountains, a prominent local geographic feature. At the base of the seal on the tasseled scroll are the keywords "Courage," "Honor," and "Integrity." Controversies In March 2011, the students protested against Prince William County Student Dress and Appearance code banning "excessively tight and form fitting" clothing. In December 2010, Battlefield High School made headlines after a candy cane food fight broke out before class. The students held responsible were part of the "Christmas Sweater Club," a group created to spread holiday cheer in the hallways. However, after the Christmas Sweater Club brought bags of candy canes to school one morning, chaos erupted as several students reported to have been hit in the head by flying candy canes. The students in the club were disciplined with two hours of detention, but parents protested that this was unfair punishment. Despite the controversy, the students were still given detention and were responsible for cleaning up their mess. Campus Originally simply "High School #9," the campus includes one primary academic building, a separate security residence, an observation tower overlooking the large student parking lot, and the athletic stadium complex. (Battlefield Athletic Stadium) Located on Graduation Drive, the school is within the Dominion Valley subdivision. The academic facility ("the school") is approximately in size, is located on a site, and was designed by Moseley Architects, formerly Moseley Wilkins, and Wood. Construction took place beginning in March 2002, with the facility opening on August 19, 2004. Battlefield High School shares a common design with C. D. Hylton High School, Forest Park High School, and Freedom High School. This "class" of high school designs has been retired as of 2011. Many of the interior trim aspects were originally painted a salmon color, but after the selection of the school colors (purple, black, and silver), many trim sections were repainted in school colors. The floors of the school feature black tile borders along wall edges and school-colored purple lockers, configured "over-under" to provide two lockers per bay. The walls are white and power-efficient fluorescent lighting is used throughout. However, the building's lackluster design only provides natural light through few windows on the outside. An atrium at the center of the school is a functional architectural detail that creates the largest source of natural light in the building. In Summer of 2009, much of the interior trim of the school, some of which was still salmon in color since the original opening of the building, was repainted in matching Battlefield purple. During Summer 2008, three years of effort by the Technology Committee, in tandem with the Office of Instructional Technology and support from the administration, led to the installation of ceiling-mounted DLP video projectors for use in classroom teaching in almost every instructional space, with the remainder placed in the following school years as budget allowed. "Smartboards" are also scattered throughout the building. As is common practice with many modern schools, corridors are labeled with "road signs," helping students to navigate the large structure. At Battlefield, "east-west" roads are numbered First, Second, and Third streets on the ground level, beginning closest to the front of the school. On the upper level, Fourth and Fifth streets follow the same pattern. "North-south" corridors are "avenues," each beginning with an ascending letter of the alphabet and each named for something relevant to Battlefield's community. "Antioch Avenue" is the first on the ground floor, followed by "Bristow," "Catharpin," and "Dominion Valley" Avenues. On the upper floor, "Evergreen, "Freedom," "Gainesville," and "Haymarket" Avenues complete the grid. Further identifying monikers for exterior routes were published in 2007 as part of a revised traffic pattern plan. The high volume of traffic on Graduation Drive and Route 15 has been concern not only for the school but for the local department of transportation as well. (According to an administration comment during a faculty meeting, BHS school officials counted over 1,300 automobiles passing through the campus during a single morning in September.) Several of the exterior roads carry the unofficial names "Bobcat Trail," "Senior Drive," and "Spirit Way." The school itself has only one exit accommodating the upwards of 1,300 automobiles, creating a traffic jam each day that sometimes lasts up to two hours. The on-paper capacity of the school is 2,053. () – Approximate figure (*) – Due to temporary classrooms ("trailers") Dropout rates have been less than 2% since the school opened in 2004. Demographics In the 2020-2021 school year, Battlefield's student body was: 56.3% White 13.9% Hispanic 11.7% Asian 10.4% Black/African American 7.4% Two or More Races 0.4% Native Hawaiian 0.3% American Indian/Alaskan Faculty and staff Battlefield High School employs over 250 total staff members, approximately 190 of whom are members of the instructional faculty with another dozen serving as paraprofessionals. The counseling center employs approximately 20 people. There are currently several committees operating at the school, including the Freshman Transition Committee, the Technology Committee, the Social Committee, the Principal's Advisory Council, and the STAR Program Committee. Curriculum Battlefield offers a county wide IT-specialized program for qualified students. The program offers courses in computer science and programming, as well as advanced certification programs including A+, Oracle, Cisco, Microsoft Certified Systems, and is a certification center for the Certified Internet Web Professional program. In 2006, the Virginia Department of Education conferred an award upon the iT team of business partners for collaboration between the iT program at Battlefield and local industry. Extracurricular and cocurricular activities The school mascot is the bobcat and the sports teams currently play in the AAA Cedar Run District and Northwest Region. The athletic team logo for Battlefield is a reproduction of the logo used by the Charlotte Bobcats NBA team. According to members of the original school naming committee, the mascot "Cannons" was seriously considered but ultimately lost to "Bobcats." While Battlefield has numerous clubs, most clubs only meet on Tuesdays and Thursdays, limiting a students ability to be involved in many. This has been a topic of concern, as it does not allow for a variety of choices nor provides students with a competitive edge in the college admissions process. Student clubs and activities at Battlefield have recently included: Extracurricular accomplishments Battlefield Orchestras have consistently earned top honors at district assessment, with the top group earning straight superiors and "A's" in all subcategories in the 2014 assessment at Patriot High School. In addition to being the school sending the largest delegation of musicians to honors groups such as the North Central Virginia Regional Orchestra, the Battlefield Orchestras have earned awards in statewide competitions, including top instrumental honors at the 2014 Music in the Parks Competition in Williamsburg, Virginia. The Battlefield Band is a Virginia Honor Band, and is affiliated with the Virginia Band and Orchestra Director's Association, or VBODA. The marching band has received a 'Superior' rating, or the highest rating possible, at the VBODA marching festivals from 2008-2013. The Marching Bobcats also took first place in their band class of AAA at the 2007 All State Sugar Bowl marching competition in New Orleans, Loisianna ( the band class refers to the size of the band, or how many students are in it, and the measurements used to define each class changes every year). The marching band also received 'Outstanding' ratings, the highest ratings possible, at the 2009 Champs Sports Bowl in Orlando, Florida. The Battlefield High School Marching Band is also the 2012 National Champions, receiving this title after traveling to the 2012 BCS Nation Championships in New Orleans, Louisiana. In 2010, the football team won their first state title for any sport in school history. In 2013, the boys' cross country team took third place at the State Championship Meet, and the following year took fourth place. The fourth-place finish in 2014, was heartbreaking since the boys only lost to first place by a mere four points, and lost a tiebreaker for third place. In 2013, the girls' soccer team took second in the State Championship game. Junior, Sydney Sisk had the only goal of the game for Battlefield High School. In 2014, the girls were able to finally take home a State Title. In 2015, the girls took home the State Title for a second time. For the third consecutive year, the girl's varsity soccer team earned the State Title with a final score of 4-0, trumping Cox High School. The team has also won six consecutive regional championships. Battlefield's FIRST Robotics Competition team, was founded in 2006 and has the support of mentors and teachers who help the students get as much hands on experience as possible. In the year on 2011-2012 Robotics was moved into the classroom(making Battlefield the first team in Prince William County to attempt such an undertaking) and will compete with 9 teams. Currently the teams are divided into two classes; one class plans on participating in FIRST Tech Challenge until the FRC division starts while the other plans on participating in FTC full-time this year. The class is being taught by the Robotics team mentor Gail Drake and Battlefield High School's IT teacher Rebecca Conner. In the 2011-2012 school year, Battlefield's FIRST Tech Challenge team reached 1st place at the FIRST Championship and reached the semi-finals of the FIRST Championship for FIRST Robotics Competition. Graduation traditions Following suit with other PWCS schools, Battlefield began holding graduation at nearby Jiffy Lube Live (formerly known as Nissan Pavilion) for the 2007 commencement exercises. Other photographs See also Prince William County Public Schools References External links Official Website Prince William County Public Schools PWCS High School Directory Battlefield IT Specialty Program Battlefield Robotics Battlefield Band Program Town of Haymarket Educational institutions established in 2004 Public high schools in Virginia Schools in Prince William County, Virginia 2004 establishments in Virginia
4634812	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20D%27Or	David D'Or	David D'Or (; born David Nehaisi on October 2, 1965) is an Israeli singer, composer, and songwriter. A countertenor with a vocal range of more than four octaves, he is a three-time winner of the Israeli "Singer of the Year" and "Best Vocal Performer" awards. He was also chosen to represent Israel in the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest, at which he placed 11th in the semi-final. By February 2008, nine of his albums had gone platinum. D'Or performs a wide variety of music, including pop, rock, dance, folk, klezmer, Yemenite prayers, holy music, ancient chants, classical, opera, and baroque arias (in the original Italian). Biography David D'Or was born in Holon, Israel. He is a descendant of Libyan Jews, His great-grandfather was a prominent Libyan rabbi, and his father brought the family from Libya to Israel. His brother is Yaniv d'Or, who is also a singer. When he was young, D'Or's parents encouraged him to become a lawyer or a doctor, but he simply loved to sing. When his voice began to change, he worked to retain his ability to sing notes in a high range. For a while he was quite shy about singing using his high range, as it was unusual in Israel—which he explains used to be "quite a machoistic country—for someone to sing with such a high voice, and he had no one to imitate as no Israeli men sang in such a high voice, but he says that now it is "part of me." "[I]t was like using [only] part of me", he said. "I could sing low and I could sing high; [I]t's like using only one hand...you have two hands, and you're using only your right hand." During his three years of military service, D'Or served as a singer in the Israeli Military Band, and in 1985–86 he was in the Israeli Army Central Command troops entertainment group, and took part in the record Be'sha'araikh Yerikho. Though thankful for the opportunity, and sensitive to Israel's need to have an army to defend itself, D'Or felt that music and the army didn't mesh well together, and viewed his years in the army as a difficult period in terms of his musical development. D'Or is married to Pazit, formerly a jewelry designer and now his manager. They met as high school students in Bat Yam. They have two children and reside in the Israeli town of Savyon near Tel Aviv. Music career After his army service, D'Or and two army colleagues (Benny Nadler and Rivi Ben-Basht) formed a trio named HaShlishiya (the "Threesome"), but it disbanded after just one single. A few months later he formed another group, named Kav 4 ("Fourth Chord"), but it disbanded before completing its inaugural album. At the same time he was invited by the Israeli National Theater ("Habima Theater") to be in various performances, among them "Blood Marriage", "Cabaret", "Cry the Beloved Country (music by Kurt Weill)", and "Tartuffe (music by Giya Kancheli)." D’Or performed at the Habima Theater for four years, during which time he received outstanding reviews, such as Maariv'''s review of Cry the Beloved Country: "D'or's outstanding voice is meant for great parts. His voice and presence embraces the audience, who showed their appreciation by a lengthy standing ovation". He was at the same time professionally trained, and tutored by Soprano Miriam Melzer, from 1987 to 1990 at the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance, from which he graduated. In 1991, D'Or was accepted into and enrolled in the classical music department of the Jerusalem Conservatory. That year D'Or also began his musical career as a classical tenor. Zubin Mehta, music director of the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, heard D'Or sing and invited him to perform as soloist in "Carmina Burana" by Carl Orff, performing in a series of concerts all over the country. Yediot Achronot reviewed his performance, writing: "David D’Or is a contra tenor with tone, colour and exceptional style well beyond other soloists". 1992–99: Early years In 1992, D’Or released his first album entitled David D'Or. It included hit song "Yad Anuga", also known as "Yad Agunah" ("Gentle Hand", or "Tender Hand"), which was remixed by Nelson "Paradise" Roman and Bump, produced by Ofer Meiri and Yehudit Ravitz, released as a vinyl 12-inch single by Big Beat Records and Magnet Records, and reached # 3 in the most frequently played charts in Great Britain. His second album, Be'govah Mishtane ("Changing Altitudes", or "Changing Heights"), released January 1, 1993, included the song "Ani Af" ("I Fly", or "I am Flying"), and what was to become an iconic Israeli song, "Tishmor al HaOlam Yeled" ("Watch Over the World, Child", or "Protect Our World, Child"). The latter song was subsequently covered by Liel Kolet and Scorpions' singer Klaus Meine, as well as by Shuly Nathan. The CD consisting mostly of songs composed by D'Or was even more successful than its predecessor and went platinum. Globus reviewed the album and wrote the following: "In an age in which it seems that a good voice is not particularly necessary to be a singer, David D'Or comes along and reminds anyone who had forgotten that not only can things be different, they need to be different. Simply put, D'Or sings beautifully and knows how to choose songs that fit his unique voice...One has to credit him for fulfilling his mission with bravura; his voice on stage sounds as good and convincing as it does in the recording studio. The wide variety of styles that he incorporates in his music, along with his superb vocal ability, allows him to appeal to adults and youths alike." Later in 1993, D'Or participated in the televised competition to represent Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest (Kdam Erovizion), with his song "Parpar," and came in fourth place. Side by side with his classical education, D'Or was drawn to ethnic music. This interest led him in 1995 to record with Moroccan Israeli Shlomo Bar and the band "Habrera Hativit" ("The Natural Gathering", "Natural Choice", or "Natural Selection"; composed of ethnic musicians) and release a popular new album, David & Shlomo (also known as David and Salomon). Maariv reviewed the album, writing: "The Duet of David and Shlomo is wonderful and stunning." He also joined Dudu Fisher, Meir Banai, and Eran Zur in the song "Lisa" on the 1994 album "Radio Blah-Blah" by the Israeli band "The Friends of Natasha". In 1995, as Israel and the Holy See had just established political relations, D'Or also received an invitation from the Vatican to perform for Pope John Paul II. His repertoire at this concert, which was broadcast worldwide and received enthusiastic reviews, united original ethnic music with European classics, and included a song D'Or composed specifically for the Pope in both Hebrew and Italian. He was the first Israeli singer to sing in Hebrew for the Pope. After he performed for the Pope ("He held my hand and gave me his blessing", D'Or said. "I just kept thinking: 'Here I am, little David from Israel, singing in Hebrew...It was a very powerful thing.'"), D'Or was invited to perform in Italy, where he appeared on TV shows such as Maurizio Costanzo on Channel 1, and Paulo Limiti on Channel 2. The Italian press, such as Corriere della Sera and La Repubblica, gave D'Or positive reviews. In 1997, D'Or released his fourth album, David D’Or & Etti Ankri, with Etti Ankri, which included them singing a duet of Ankri's hit "Lolita". That year as well the Ra'anana Symphony Orchestra commissioned an original work, a small cantata, specially written for D'Or, entitled "The Children of God" ("Yeldai Ha Elohim"). The lyrics consist of sentences that appear in the Jewish, Muslim, and Christian religions, emphasizing the message of "love your neighbor." The work was composed by Georgian-born Israeli composer Josef Bardanashvilli, subsequently opened in a series of concerts of the orchestra in Israel and throughout the US, and was a great success. Singer of the Year and Eurovision His fifth album entitled Baneshama ("In the Soul") was released on March 31, 2001, with 11 of the 12 tracks written by D'Or. In 2001, D'Or was named Israel's Singer of the Year and Best Vocal Performer. In 2002, he was again named Israel's Singer of the Year (receiving the Tamuz Prize) and Best Vocal Performer, and also received the award for Best Song for "Kol HaCochavim" at the Israel Music Awards. After 9/11 D'Or and Etti Ankri, Zehava Ben, Arkady Duchin, and other Israeli singers recorded the title song "Yesh Od Tikvah" ("Our Hope Endures"), for which D'Or wrote the music and lyrics, on the CD Yesh Od Tikvah/You've Got a Friend. The CD released by Hed Arzi in 2002 benefited Israeli terror victims, with all proceeds going to "NATAL": the "Israel Trauma center for Victims of Terror and War". D’Or then released David D’Or & the Philharmonic; Live Concert on April 1, 2003, which successfully broke traditional barriers as it combined a medley of pop, classical, and opera which he sang, backed by the 120-member Israel Philharmonic Orchestra. The album, which included among other pieces "Agnus Dei", "Orfeo", "Let Me Cry", and "The Phantom of the Opera" reached gold status in just two weeks. The newspaper Yediot Achronot reviewed the CD in its opera section and wrote the following: "D’Or excelled...with his fantastic counter tenor voice...in a most exciting performance. All in all, this is a very moving CD." That year D'Or also released the CD "Shma Israel", and "The Hidden Gate: Jewish Music from Around the World" was released by Rounder Records on July 1, featuring what The Independent described as "haunting stuff" from David D'Or. In November 2003, the Israel Broadcasting Authority (the "IBA") chose D'Or to represent the country in the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest. D'Or represented Israel in the contest in Istanbul, with the song "Leha'amin" (To Believe), which he co-wrote with Ehud Manor. The song was chosen on February 5, 2004, in voting during the program "Israel Selects a Song", held during a break in a televised Maccabi Tel Aviv Euroleague basketball game in Tel Aviv at which videos of four songs sung by D'Or were shown. The vote was by both a special IBA Eurovision Committee (including prior Israeli entrants Lior Narkis and Gali Atari), which accounted for 40% of the vote, and a televote by viewers, who accounted for the remaining 60% of the vote. The basketball game attracted 13.7% of Israeli TV viewers. The song won 60% of the jury's vote, and 66% of the viewers' televotes. During Eurovision rehearsal week, D'Or left Istanbul to be with his father who was suffering from diabetes and had been rushed to a hospital where one of his legs had to be amputated. D'Or then returned to Istanbul to perform on May 12, 2004, and placed 11th in the semi-final failing to qualify to the final, while 19% of Israeli viewers watched on television. His father has since died. On June 1, 2004, he released the CD entitled Le Haamin ("To Believe"). His performance of the song was also on the official Eurovision compilation CD, Eurovision Song Contest: Istanbul 2004, released that year by CMC Entertainment. In 2004, he also collaborated with Sarit Hadad to record the DVD "Pets in Tunes. His year was capped by his being awarded the titles of Israeli 2004 "Singer of the Year" and "Best Vocal Performer". In January 2005, he released a clubby, English electronic house vinyl 12" single of George Michael's "Careless Whisper" on the 3 Lanka and Hed Arzi labels, produced and mixed by DJ Amiad, with remixes by Future Funk and Michi Lange. The track attracted international interest. On March 27, 2006, D'Or released Kmo HaRuach ("Like the Wind"), which included duets with Israeli singers Arkadi Duchin, Arik Einstein, Shlomi Shabat, and Ehud Banai, and the song "Zman Ahava" ("Time for Love") with Ehud Banai. D'Or composed all the songs on the album, combining world music with jazz, Thai, and Indian elements. In 2006, D'Or also collaborated with rapper Subliminal for the song "Ten Koah" ("Give Me Strength") on Subliminal's hip hop album, Just When You Thought it Was Over. He also joined Shlomo Bar in a duet of "Atzlano Kafar Todrah" for the CD The Rough Guide to the Music of Israel released on February 17, 2006, and sang the song "Travelling North" or "Heading North" ("Nose'a Tzafonah") on the 2006 CD To the North with Love ("Latsafon Be'ahava"). On May 19, 2007, D’Or performed with soprano Seiko Lee in the world premier performance of the 40-minute ten-movement "peace cantata", "Halelu—Songs of David", in Belgrade, Serbia. The concert was televised to six other Eastern European countries. The composition for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, was a collaborative effort of D’Or and American composer/conductor David Eaton, music director of the New York City Symphony, who conducted the combined Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra and the 120-voice choir of the Academic Cultural Artistic Society. Halelu is sung in English, Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin, with greetings of peace of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam figuring prominently in the lyrical content of several movements, and with Psalm 113 (sung in Hebrew by D’Or) as the basis of the 4th movement. He then released Halelu—Songs of David; Cantata for Peace (2007), in which he was accompanied by Lee, the Ra'anana Symphony Orchestra, and members of the Philharmonia Chorus of Israel. D'Or sang for Martin Luther King III at a Middle East Peace Initiative (MEPI) Conference in the summer of 2007 in Tel Aviv. King was in tears as D'Or finished his rendition of "Summertime", and the crowd was on its feet cheering. King was so moved that he extended an invitation to D'Or to sing at the 2008 "Realize the Dream" celebration honoring King's birthday at the Covenant Avenue Baptist Church in Harlem, New York – the last church in New York City that Martin Luther King Jr., spoke at prior to his 1968 assassination. D'Or obliged with a performance of "Amazing Grace" before a crowd including former President Bill Clinton and Dr. King who was reduced to tears. He also performed in the 2007 WOMAD (World of Music, Arts and Dance) festival concert, and in reviewing his performance BBC Radio referred to his voice as "sensational". D'Or described an experience that he had singing at the festival as follows: "I had a concert in the Canary Islands...in the WOMAD Festival in front of something like 20,000 people, and then I saw just in front of me, a group of Palestinian young people with a huge Palestinian flag. And at the beginning I was very tense because I didn't know what their intentions were. I closed my eyes and said 'Look, you speak always about the power of music and how music can get people close to each other', and I was like aiming to their heart, and I'm singing especially for them, and then when I opened my eyes and I saw those people dancing with the Palestinian flag and singing with me together, and it was for me like an amazing sight, because this is something that I don't think ever happened before. I don't know why this world...is choosing...always...war and hate, because things are much easier to solve if you just want to solve them, that's what I feel. And maybe it's naïve, but this is my belief." On December 11, 2007, D'Or released Live Concert. D'Or composed most of the songs on the album, which included "Kiss from a Rose" (in English), "Sri Lanka" (instrumental), and an Arabic song. In 2008, D'Or also released Shirat Rabim ("Prayers", or "Songs of the Many"—"A World Prayer; The Jewish Project of David D'Or and Patric Sabag"), a collection of prayers that he had originally heard from his father, and which he focused on when he started attending synagogue to say kaddish after his father's death. The album went gold in just three weeks. He also performed in all the 2008 WOMAD festival concerts, including in London with Peter Gabriel, the founder of the world music festival, and won the WOMAD "Favorite of the Audience" Award, though one reviewer wrote that "his reverb-drenched voice can sound bombastic, even when he is praying for peace. He is more successful when...in dance-pop". His performance of the song "Lecha D'odi" is featured on the compilation album Womad New Zealand 2008, which was released on June 2, 2008, by Shock Records. The year was capped when D'Or became an Israel Cultural Excellence Foundation ("IcExcellence") chosen artist in 2008, receiving one of Israel's highest recognitions for excellence in the arts. In 2008 and 2009, D'Or performed in a series of "Voice of Love" charity concerts for the Tzu Chi Foundation in the United States (New York, San Francisco, San Jose, Pasadena, Los Angeles, Chicago, Dallas, New Jersey, and Washington, D.C.) and Asia (the Philippines and Taiwan), and recorded a CD and DVD by the same name, donating all of the profits to charity. The CD has since gone platinum. The foundation works to improve social and community services, medical care, education, and humanism in Taiwan and around the world. By helping others, D’Or said, the foundation, while Buddhist and not Jewish, is involved in the spirit of the Jewish concept of tikun olam, or "repairing the world". "We believe that all humanity is connected in a way", said D'Or. D'Or sang a medley including "Amazing Grace" and a rendition of the traditional Hebrew melody "Avinu Malkeinu" at New York's Apollo Theater in Harlem on April 28, 2009, with three New York gospel choirs. In May 2009 D'Or sang, along with Dudu Fisher and the "Arab-Jewish Girl's Choir", for Pope Benedict XVI in Jerusalem at the home of Israeli President Shimon Peres as the Pope visited Israel. Vocal style D'Or's voice has a range (or "diapason") of more than four octaves. His vocal range in head voice is from G3 in scientific pitch notation, up to a well-defined G5 (as heard in one of the final notes in the "Phantom of the Opera" track in his album David D'Or and the Philharmonic''), thus making him a "mezzo-soprano" type of countertenor. D'Or's voice is unusually versatile and flexible, and notable for its unique tone and color, and for having a very recognizable sound. His voice is characterized by powerful fullness and richness, making it seem as though it is his natural singing voice, created without use of the falsetto technique. However, despite its richness his voice cannot be compared to the color of a contralto, unlike singers such as David Daniels, given that D'Or has a unique, male-sounding timbre. When he sings in modern fashion, he employs his speaking—or chest—voice, instead of his singing, alto voice. D'Or has been compared to Italian tenor Andrea Bocelli ( but with a Middle Eastern flavor), and his voice has been described as having the smoothness of Jack Johnson overlaid with the falsetto style of Jeff Buckley. Performances In addition to singing for two Popes, D'Or has also sung for Israeli President Shimon Peres, Italian President Giorgio Napolitano, King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, the King and Queen of Sweden at the Swedish Royal Palace in Stockholm, Nelson Mandela, Tony Blair, and Bill Clinton. D’Or has performed with the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, the Rome Philharmonic, the London Symphony, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, the Budapest Philharmonic, the China Philharmonic Orchestra, the Singapore Symphony Orchestra, the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra, the New York Symphony Orchestra, the Las Vegas Philharmonic Orchestra, and the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra. D'Or has performed across the world, including in the United States, England, the Canary Islands, Sweden, Germany, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Serbia, Italy, Turkey, India, Thailand, Australia, China, Taiwan, Singapore, the Philippines, Morocco, and Israel. He sang before audiences of 55,000 people in Trafalgar Square in London, and 40,000 in Paris. Pseudonym meaning D'Or means "golden" or "of gold" in French, and in Francophone countries he is referred to as "golden David" or "David of gold". Discography Albums See also Music of Israel References External links David D'Or's official site http://mooma.mako.co.il/Biography.asp?ArtistId=1533 David D'Or bio at E! Online Cattan, Olivia, "Rencontre avec David d’Or; «Il faut essayer de modifier la vision que les Français ont d’Israël et la musique est un bon moyen de le faire»" Interview with David D'Or, Communauté On Line Bingham, Walter, "David D'Or interview," Israel Beat Jewish Music Podcast – 6/6/06 Kohn, Rachel, "The Spirit of Things: Singing the Tradition", David D'Or interview, ABC Radio National – 2/24/08 Pavey, Sasha, "David D'Or interview; WOMADelaide Festival 2008", SBS World View Program – 6/13/08 1965 births Living people People from Holon Countertenors English-language singers from Israel Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2004 Israeli composers Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Israel 21st-century Israeli male singers 20th-century Israeli male singers Israeli people of Libyan-Jewish descent Israeli pop singers Jewish composers Jewish singers Jewish songwriters Israeli male singer-songwriters Israeli singer-songwriters
4635073	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20of%20Caroline%20Byrne	Death of Caroline Byrne	Caroline Byrne (8 October 1970 – 7 June 1995), an Australian model, was found at the bottom of a cliff at The Gap in Sydney in the early hours of 8 June 1995. Her then boyfriend Gordon Eric Wood (b. 1962), who at the time of her death was a chauffeur and personal assistant to businessman Rene Rivkin, was convicted of her murder on 21 November 2008 and spent three years in Goulburn Correctional Centre. He was acquitted of the conviction in February 2012. Events of 7 June 1995 Born on 8 October 1970, Byrne had been in a relationship with Wood since 1992. She was a model but principally worked as a modelling instructor for Sydney deportment and etiquette educator June Dally-Watkins. On 7 June 1995, she failed to turn up for work and for an appointment with a psychiatrist. There were three claimed sightings of her near The Gap at Watsons Bay that afternoon and evening, in the company of two men, one of whom matched Wood's description. Two of the sightings, at 1 pm and 3 pm, were by local cafe owners, Craig Martin and Lance Melbourne. In 1998, John Doherty, an Irish artist who had been out of the country in the intervening years, came forward to say that around 8.30 pm that evening he too had seen Byrne outside his studio window arguing with one man while another man stood nearby. Wood denied being present at Watsons Bay that afternoon. Evidence was sworn at both inquests by Wood's friends Brett Cochrane and Nic Samartis that they lunched with him briefly around 1:15 pm in Potts Point before he was called away after a call from Rivkin. Wood claimed that he was asked by Rivkin to chauffeur prominent lobbyist and ex-federal minister Graham Richardson to an appointment and then spent the afternoon doing regular chores for Rivkin before going home around 7:00 pm. The Richardson alibi was compromised by Richardson when he was interviewed by police in 2001, when he advised that he had lunched that day with rugby league administrator Peter Moore. Wood's movements in the afternoon have never been reported prior to the late evening, when Wood said he awoke on his couch having fallen asleep in front of the television and was immediately alarmed that Byrne was still not home. Wood has said he did not know Byrne's whereabouts but was led by what he termed "telepathic communication" to The Gap. He had first driven to the beachfront car-park at Bondi Beach where he and Byrne had spent much time and then to a favourite park at Camp Cove where they had often picnicked. Heading back from Camp Cove he spotted Byrne's white Suzuki Vitara parked in a lane at The Gap. It was when running about the cliff-top and shouting her name that Wood encountered two rock fishermen who verified his appearance around midnight. Wood then rang Caroline's father, Tony Byrne, and brother Peter Byrne. He then drove back into Sydney and collected them and all three then went to the Gap and scoured the cliff-top. Peter Byrne later gave evidence that at about 1am Wood claimed to have spotted her body at the base of the cliff using torchlight. Byrne himself said he could see nothing and nor could the police who arrived soon after with police torches. The night was dark and the cliff misty. Peter Byrne claimed it was difficult to see the rocks below the cliff, let alone a body. The contention whether Wood had claimed he could see something in the darkness figured in much media speculation over the years and formed a key part of Crown evidence in the 2008 trial. In 2011, the Appeal Court felt that the Crown had presented speculation in this area posing as evidence. This was one of the grounds resulting in Wood's 2011 appeal being upheld. The identity of the second man supposedly sighted by Melbourne and Martin with Wood in Watsons Bay earlier in the day has remained unclear. With evidence contradicting the likelihood that the man was either of those whom the police considered in investigation (Byrne's modelling agent Adam Leigh or Rivkin associate Gary Redding) the Crown chose to pose speculation without evidence on either during the trial and drew criticism from the trial judge and later the appellant judges. Media interest Byrne's death was accepted as a suicide by local Rose Bay Police and others. No photographs were taken of the location of her body's landing point. In 1996, Byrne's father begin to agitate against the notion of suicide such that from 1997 onwards the case and circumstances of Byrne's death were regularly examined in Australia's national newspapers and reported as "one of Sydney's unsolved crimes". The death of a beautiful model at one of Sydney's notorious suicide spots, the connection to the flamboyant and newsworthy Rivkin, and a net of witnesses and commentators which included some prominent Sydney identities all added to the intrigue of the case. Offset Alpine speculation Attention was particularly heightened by the still unproven speculation of a connection with Rivkin's financial activities. The day before Byrne's death, Wood and Rivkin were interviewed by the Australian Securities & Investments Commission (ASIC) about the Offset Alpine fire of 1993 and the true ownership of share parcels traded in Offset Alpine owned by nominees related to Swiss bank accounts. Tony Byrne claimed that Wood had indicated to his daughter that the fire was a set-up for insurance purposes. Ultimately in 2001 Rivkin was charged with insider trading (of Qantas shares) and his eventual conviction in 2003 had a devastating effect on his mental stability, culminating in his 2005 suicide. However the ASIC investigation into share trading in Offset Alpine and the true beneficiaries proved an epic that outlived Rivkin, commencing in 1995 and continuing from 2005 with a focus shifted to Graham Richardson and Trevor Kennedy until eventually closed without outcome by ASIC in 2010. Peripheral celebrities Adding to this intrigue was a list of celebrities with a peripheral involvement in the case. Byrne's medical doctor who had referred her to the psychiatric appointment she did not keep on 7 June was television celebrity physician, Dr Cindy Pan. Graham Richardson's diarised luncheon appointment that day (which caused him to question whether he may have been chauffeured anywhere by Wood) was with rugby league identity Peter Bullfrog Moore at Sydney's Hilton Hotel and was set up to broker a peace deal in the Super League war which deeply divided Australian rugby league at that time. Wood always claimed that he had driven Moore from a noon meeting with Rivkin to what may well have been a lunch, though the press and (later) the Crown ignored this possibility. Moore died in July 2000 a year prior to the Strikeforce Irondale interview with Richardson, thus preventing corroboration of the luncheon timings and Rivkin too was dead before the trial. Byrne's close friends included entertainer Tania Zaetta and actress Kylie Watson, a Home & Away cast member. It was the amateur sleuthing around Watsons Bay armed with photographs of Byrne in the weeks after her death which had Dally-Watkins and Watson uncover the Martin/Melbourne sighting lead. Other celebrity witnesses who figured in the case at some point included businessman John Singleton, journalist Paul Barry and paparazzo Jamie Fawcett. Inquests, investigation and trials Two inquests were held into Byrne's death by New South Wales State coroner John Abernethy, with Wood claiming it was suicide. The second inquest in 1998 delivered an open finding. That same year, Wood left Australia. Police investigations continued from 2000 onwards as "Strikeforce Irondale" with hundreds of witnesses interviewed and resulting in a brief of evidence running to more than 350 pages. Tony Byrne continued to press for action from the investigation eventually enrolling the assistance of New South Wales politician Fred Nile who raised questions about the investigation in State Parliament up till 2004. In 2004, scientific reports relating to the physics of a body falling/jumping/being projected from the cliff produced by Professor Rod Cross were the principal elements of new evidence which encouraged the Crown to push for a trial of Gordon Wood. In March 2006, the New South Wales Director of Public Prosecutions Nicholas Cowdery QC agreed with police that there was enough evidence to charge Wood with Byrne's murder. Wood was detained in London in April 2006, extradited to Australia and released on bail by a Sydney court on 4 May. On 6 July 2007, Wood was committed to stand trial for the murder of Byrne. The first trial started on 21 July 2008 with Mark Tedeschi QC appearing for the Crown and Winston Terracini QC defending Wood. On 6 August 2008, Justice Graham Barr declared a mistrial because of the alleged contact that a member of the jury had with 2GB radio host Jason Morrison. The juror, who remained anonymous, claimed that some of the jurors were planning a secret night visit to the crime scene (the Gap) being organised by a particular juror who was a "bully" and who had "already decided that Wood was guilty." Barr ruled "I had to discharge the jury ... because some jurors disobeyed my instructions and misconducted themselves." The second trial commenced on 25 August 2008 and for the first time in New South Wales court history a panel of 15 jurors was sworn in instead of the usual 12 to provide some contingency. Trial evidence Presentation of the Crown case Following the aborted first trial, Tedeschi, as Crown Prosecutor, presented the Crown case over a nine-week period from 26 August until 24 October 2008. Over 70 witnesses were called and the jury heard hours of audio and video evidence including taped interviews with Rivkin and Wood. Witnesses called by the prosecution included Pan, Richardson, Watson, Zaetta, Singleton, Fawcett, Bob Hagan and sports journalist Phil Rothfield. Tony Byrne, Peter Byrne, Dally-Watkins and her daughter Carol Clifford appeared. Doherty and Cochrane gave evidence via video link up from overseas. Police witnesses included Tracey Smit and Paul Griffiths (officers on scene), Sgt Mark Powderly, Sgt Neville Greatorex (who gave evidence on police procedures), Snr Const Lisa Camwell (who retrieved the body) and the first investigating officer of the case Sgt Craig Woods of Rose Bay who had first dismissed the death as suicide and who gave evidence that in the first weeks Tony Byrne too accepted the suicide verdict and was explicitly against the idea of an inquest. Another ex-policeman to appear was Byrne's former boyfriend Andrew Blanchette. At one stage Justice Barr counselled Blanchette that he ought consider taking legal advice before answering a particular question. Sensationally on his second day in the witness box, Blanchette admitted that early that morning he had phoned another witness – Melinda Medich, his girlfriend and a minor at the time of Byrne's death – before she was due to give evidence later that day. Blanchette was reported to police by Medich who had not heard from him for a number of years. Blanchette denied that he had been attempting to influence her evidence. Location of the body Retired University of Sydney physicist and associate professor Rod Cross spent two days in the witness box. Over a six-year period Cross had produced six reports on the case, with his initial findings being quite different to the later findings presented in the trial. Although formally qualified in the field of plasma physics, Cross had experience working with biomechanists regarding sports research and had published and refereed many papers on biomechanics; he was therefore proposed by police investigators as a forensic expert in fall dynamics. Between 1998 and 2004 Cross' reports all concluded that Byrne could have jumped to her death, as he was told that Byrne's body had been found at a distance of from the cliff. In 2005, when he was recontacted by the police that the position of the body was in fact farther away (), he conducted experiments which informed his speculation that Byrne could not have jumped that far and must have been thrown. The required launch speed, from the top of the high cliff, was 4.5 m/s (see range of a projectile), and the available runup distance was only ; although appeal submissions in 2011 called this into question. Cross tested eleven females from the New South Wales Police Academy and found that they could dive and land head first (in a swimming pool) at about 3.5 m/s after a runup. A strong male could throw a female at 4.8 m/s after a runup of only or . During the trial, the Court was told of some uncertainty regarding the actual location where the body was found. Senior Constable Lisa Camwell, one of the officers who retrieved Byrne's body in 1995 gave evidence that she had in 1996 participated in a video re-enactment in which she indicated the body's location. She gave evidence that in 2004 she was contacted by an officer in charge of the murder investigation (Sergeant Powderly) and told that the position of Byrne's body had become a significant issue. She was told that the body position she had indicated on the video now appeared to be incorrect. Media reports during the second trial suggested the location of the body was an essential component to the Crown case that Byrne was not pushed nor jumped, but was forcefully thrown to her death. Suicide history The court heard that Byrne’s mother Andrea had committed suicide in March 1991 after she became depressed following a breast enlargement operation that went wrong. Terracini also read to the court a letter Tony Byrne had previously provided to police in which he claimed that Caroline had made an attempt on her own life via overdose in 1992. In court, Tony Byrne denied that his daughter had on that occasion intended to kill herself and instead was making "a cry for help". At another stage of the cross examination, he claimed to suppose that had Caroline wanted to kill herself she would have copied her mother Andrea's method rather than jumping from a cliff. Byrne's doctor, author and television personality Cindy Pan, gave evidence that she had seen Byrne for two years before her death and had specifically discussed Byrne's depression with her in the weeks leading up to her death. Pan told the court Byrne said she had felt depressed for about a month and the condition had worsened in the week leading up to their appointment on 5 June 1995. Pan said the model told her she could not put a finger on what she was unhappy about. "I was trying to explore with her what she might be depressed about, but she was not really able to identify any one specific thing," Pan told the court. She said Byrne told her she "had the same thing three years ago" and had been put on medication, which had helped. Pan said Byrne denied having thoughts of self-harm and she referred her to a psychiatrist, obtaining an appointment for 4 pm on 7 June. Presentation of the defence One defence witness, John Hilton, a forensic pathologist, was called during the Prosecution case, due to his later unavailability. Otherwise Terracini commenced the defence case on 27 October 2008 calling another physics expert Marcus Pandy, a biomechanical engineer who conducted experiments on running and jumping speeds of two females. Only a handful of defence witnesses were called: two forensic pathologists; one psychiatrist; Pandy; a stunt diver, and Wood's sister Jacqueline Schmidt. The defence case concluded within a week. With the trial drawing to a close, the jury made a number of requests of Justice Barr that included a visit the Gap for a third time; for a transcript of Doherty's evidence; and for video footage of Pandy's running experiments. Deliberation and verdict For the first time in New South Wales court history, a ballot was used to select the three jurors who would stand down so that twelve of the sitting fifteen would deliberate to a verdict. After five full days of deliberation on 21 November 2008 they found Wood guilty. On 3 December 2008 Wood was sentenced to a custodial sentence of 17 years, with a minimum time in prison of 13 years. Wood lodged an appeal to the conviction. Appeal Wood's appeal hearing commenced on 22 August 2011 in the Criminal Court of Appeal before Chief Judge at Common Law Peter McClellan, Justice Megan Latham, and Justice Stephen Rothman. Wood's barrister Tim Game SC submitted that the jury's verdict was unreasonable and not supported by the evidence. His submission spoke of nine grounds for appeal. One was that the trial miscarried by reason of the prejudice occasioned by the Tedeschi's closing address. Others related to criticisms of Barr's directions to the jury. Early media reporting of the appeal focused on Game's submission that the scientific evidence used to convict Wood and presented by Associate Professor Cross was flawed. A photograph was presented in the trial and purported to be taken in 1996 showing that scrub near the fenceline had limited Byrne's possible run-up to the jump, supporting an argument that she would have needed to have been thrown to achieve the horizontal distance from the cliff wall that her body travelled. The appeal judges heard and the Crown acknowledged that the photo was in fact taken in 2003 and that photo's quality meant that a shadow might have appeared to be scrub. The appeal judges heard that a 1996 colour photo which showed that there was no scrub limiting the run-up was available to the Crown during the trial but that the Crown had chosen to introduce the blurrier, non-contemporaneous, more ambiguous image. Game's submission, consistent with so much of the trial evidence, concerned matters relating to the exact positioning of Byrne's body at the base of the rocks and the orientation of her legs and torso and leading to questions regarding the contended launch point and the assumptions and assertions made by Cross in his pre-trial studies and reports and his trial evidence. Day two of Game's submission focused on the police's changed view between 1996 and 2005 as to Byrne's landing spot and specifically trial evidence given by Sergeant Mark Powderly used to justify the reconstruction. The Criminal Court of Appeal delivered their opinion on 24 February 2012 acquitting Wood of Byrne's murder and ordering his release from jail. The appellate judges delivered a unanimous decision that there was insufficient evidence beyond reasonable doubt that Wood murdered Byrne and that the jury's verdict was not supported. They dismissed the Crown evidence as being critically flawed and ruled that the possibility of her suicide ought not have been excluded. Justice McClennan described Cross' experiments as "unsophisticated" and in the summation of his decision said that he was not satisfied by either of the two motives presented by the Crown. Regarding the motive submitted by Tedeschi that Byrne had information about Rivkin's business dealings that Wood was trying to hide, McClennan said "The exploitation of public rumour and the use of mere innuendo to compensate for inadequate evidence of motive is not consistent with the obligations of a prosecutor to press the Crown case "to its legitimate strength" by reliance upon credible evidence". McLennan was also troubled that the notion Byrne may have been unconscious when she left the cliff top was introduced by the Crown late in the case. He described Tedeschi's suggestion, first made in his closing address and mentioned at no other time in evidence, that a "shot-put" action was used to despatch Byrne as "an invention of the prosecutor...for which there was absolutely no support in evidence". McClennan also expressed some doubt as the reliability of evidence concerning the claimed sightings of Wood and Byrne at Watsons Bay on 7 June 1995 noting that some of these witnesses had come forward years after the event and the initial investigations; he raised concerns that the Melbourne/Martin first identification of Wood and Byrne was based on a specific photos shown to them by Dally-Watkins rather than from being picked from a selection. Tedeschi was criticised by McClellan for presenting reasoning that was "dangerous" and "entirely without foundation". Tedeschi contributed to the alleged miscarriage with his "50 killer questions" which took an "impermissible course" in asking the jury to consider rhetorical questions dealing with matters that had not been presented with in evidence. McClennan ruled that he was not persuaded that Sgt Powderly's evidence regarding the changed landing position of the body was entirely reliable. Wood was freed from prison on 24 February 2012; having served three years two months at Goulburn Correctional Centre, following an initial month at Parklea Correctional Centre. Three weeks later the new New South Wales Director of Public Prosecutions, Lloyd Babb SC, issued a press release simply announcing that "the OPDD will not appeal the Court of Criminal Appeal's judgement in the matter of R v Gordon Wood . No further comment will be issued". This was 24 hours after meeting Tony Byrne and attending the Gap with him, a meeting which Byrne described as 'fruitful'. Post-appeal Wood left Australia after his release from prison and spent time in the United States and Britain. In 2014 he brought defamation actions against the Sydney radio stations 2GB and 2UE, Channel Seven Sydney and The Daily Telegraph which were all settled out of court in his favour for undisclosed sums. In 2016 Wood sued the state of New South Wales for millions of dollars plus costs for malicious prosecution and wrongful imprisonment, based on a number of grounds including a "hopelessly corrupted" and "ridiculous" police case against him. In a witness statement filed as part of his lawsuit against the state, Wood said that during his three years in Goulburn Jail he lived in constant fear of guards who dished out "therapy" and was king-hit, (a sucker punch) and knocked unconscious in the prison yard by an infamous rapist and killer. The suit was dismissed on 10 August 2018, with Wood receiving no compensation. See also List of unsolved deaths References Citations Sources Court of Criminal Appeal full judgement 1995 in Australia Deaths by person in Australia Overturned convictions in Australia
4635361	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take%20Care%20%28album%29	Take Care (album)	Take Care is the second studio album by Canadian rapper Drake. It was released on November 15, 2011, by Young Money Entertainment, Cash Money Records and Republic Records. The album features guest appearances from the Weeknd, Rihanna, Kendrick Lamar, Birdman, Nicki Minaj, Rick Ross, Lil Wayne, and André 3000. Alongside prominent production from the album's executive producers Drake and 40, further contributors include T-Minus, Chantal Kreviazuk, Boi-1da, Illangelo, Jamie xx, Supa Dups, Just Blaze, Chase N. Cashe, and Doc McKinney. Prior to Take Care, Drake released Thank Me Later, which experienced positive critical success, but left him feeling disjointed about the album's musical content. Expressing a desire to reunite with 40, his long-time producer who featured in parts on Thank Me Later, the duo worked extensively on the new album once recording sessions began in 2010. Drake's vocals on the album feature emotional crooning, alto vocals, a guttural cadence, a melodic flow, and a larger emphasis on singing than on Thank Me Later. In comparison to his debut album, Drake revealed that the album is called Take Care because "I get to take my time this go-round [rather than rush]". The album also expands on the low-tempo, sensuous, and dark sonic aesthetic of Thank Me Later. It incorporates several elements that have come to define Drake's sound, including minimalist R&B influences, existential subject matter, and alternately sung and rapped vocals. It features a mixture of braggadocio and emotional lyrics, exploring themes of fame, romance, and wealth. The album also highlights other topics, such as Drake's relationships with friends and family, as well as touching on sex and narcissism. Despite leaking online nine days before its scheduled release, Take Care debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 631,000 copies in its first week. It has been certified eight times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Four of the album's singles peaked in the top 20 on the Billboard Hot 100: "Headlines", "Make Me Proud", "The Motto" and "Take Care". The album received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for its expansive production and emotional themes. It was named one of 2011's best albums, and subsequently one of the best albums of the 2010s, by several publications. It won Drake his first Grammy Award, winning Best Rap Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards. In 2020, the album was ranked 95th on Rolling Stones updated list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Background and recording In 2010, Drake released his debut album Thank Me Later, continuing his creative partnership with record producer and audio engineer Noah "40" Shebib, who had first introduced his distinct sound on Drake's breakthrough mixtape So Far Gone (2009). Thank Me Later became a commercial success and was well received by music critics. Prior to Take Care, Drake also expanded his repertoire as a live performer. For the album, he intended to have Shebib handle most of the production and record a more cohesive sound than on Thank Me Later, which featured disparate production duties by Shebib and others. In November 2010, Drake revealed the title of his next studio album will be Take Care. In comparison to his debut album Drake revealed to Y.C Radio 1 that Thank Me Later was a rushed album, stating, "I didn't get to take the time that I wanted to on that record. I rushed a lot of the songs and sonically I didn't get to sit with the record and say, 'I should change this verse.' [...] Once it was done, it was done. That's why my new album is called Take Care because I get to take my time this go-round." Drake mentioned after OVO Fest 2011 that Take Care could have up to 18 songs on it, and added that Stevie Wonder contributed to the creative direction of the album and will be featured on the album as well. Drake also revealed that the album was recorded mainly in Toronto. Debating whether to submit his final cut or not, Drake's preferred release date that motivated him to create a "Birthday edition", much like a deluxe edition to be released on the iTunes Store. Several producers were revealed to be working with Drake on Take Care other than Noah "40" Shebib (who is the main producer of the album), including T-Minus, the xx's Jamie Smith and Boi-1da (who is a long-time Drake collaborator). He had initially recruited 9th Wonder for the album. He even appeared on 9th's documentary The Wonder Year and expressed his desire to make a number one hit with him, however, in an interview about a month prior to the slated release date, 9th said that he was not on the album. 9th states that was a part of the reason, because he was going through an A&R and playing beats for them as opposed to the artist himself, which he is opposed to. Drake had also been planning on having Q-Tip, DJ Premier, and the Neptunes as producers on the album, but those projects fell through as well. Several artists were confirmed as collaborators with Drake on Take Care consist of Stevie Wonder, Kendrick Lamar, Chantal Kreviazuk, André 3000, Rick Ross, Lil Wayne, Nicki Minaj and Rihanna. He had initially reached out to Phonte of the group Little Brother (who is a major influence on his career). The track was made for Take Care, but did not make it for the album, due to an issue he had with the producer. Drake admits in an interview to "dropping the ball" on the project and is optimistic about a future collaboration with Phonte. Another planned collaboration that never came to fruition would have featured Justin Timberlake. Reflecting on the unreleased song, Drake remarked: "It was solid, a solid little look. But he's so immersed in the acting thing, and I don't blame him, he's doing great at it. He was just like, 'I really want to work. I just can't do it right now. But we'll work as soon as I'm back in the studio.'" They later collaborated on the song "Cabaret" for Timberlake's 2013 album The 20/20 Experience - 2 of 2. Composition Take Care expands on the low-tempo, sensuous, and dark sonic aesthetic of Thank Me Later. Primarily a hip hop album, it has a languid, grandiose production that incorporates R&B, pop, electronica, and post-dubstep styles. The music is typified by an atmospheric sound, muted textures, slow tempos, subtle chords, melodic synth tracks, low-end grooves, and sparse, ambient arrangements. Noah "40" Shebib contributed to most of the album's production with murky beats, dark synth layers, atmospheric keyboards, moody guitar sounds, smooth piano, muffled drums, dramatic flourishes, and low-pass filters. Although he is credited as producer for only eight of the album's 17 songs, Shebib also served as audio engineer and mix engineer on the album. His production for the album is characteristic of the Toronto hip hop scene, which experienced a mainstream breakthrough with Shebib's work with Drake, producers Boi-1da and T-Minus, and singer-songwriter the Weeknd, all of whom contributed to Take Care. Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club comments that the album is "crafted primarily around the oblique production of Drake's native Toronto—all rippling synths, distant pulses, and purposeful empty space". Music writers noted "late-night" and 1990s-era R&B influence in the album's music. NPR writer Frannie Kelley notes "minimalist reworkings of TLC's minor-key soul and [...] trancey rhythms that land somewhere between paranoid Sly Stone and smoked-out Maxwell". Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media comments that the music "breathes heavy somewhere between UGK's deep funk, quiet-storm 90s R&B, and James Blake-inspired minimalism", and interprets its subtle style to be "a direct rebuke" to the prevalence of European dance influences in mainstream music. Los Angeles Times writer Todd Martens views that the album's mood and style are modelled after Kanye West's 2008 album 808s & Heartbreak. Other producers' tracks are more up-tempo and shift from the melancholic mood of Shebib's production. Songs on the album are lengthy, sonically expansive, and accompanied by playful interludes. Lauren Carter of the Boston Herald writes of the song structure on Take Care, "Musical themes vanish and re-appear, layers build upon layers and then strip down to bare bones as tightly wound tracks give way to gauzy, lush interludes. Most songs sound intentionally distorted and warped". Drake's vocals on the album feature emotional crooning, alto vocals, a guttural cadence, a melodic flow, and a larger emphasis on singing than on his previous album, Thank Me Later. Lyrics The album's subject matter expands on Thank Me Laters theme of ambivalence and conflicted feelings toward fame. Drake's lyrics on Take Care address failed romances, missed connections, relationship with friends and family, maintaining balance with growing wealth and fame, concerns about leading a hollow life, the passage of young adulthood, and despondency. The album's slower songs generally explore themes of loneliness, heartbreak, and mistrust. The topic of women is prevalent on the album, with songs that address past and potential lovers ("Marvins Room", "The Real Her") and songs about revering ("Make Me Proud") and lavishing them ("We'll Be Fine"). Juan Edgardo Rodriguez of No Ripcord denotes women as "the main force in his songs – he's consciously aware about what it takes to love them, but simply decides to thrust aside the guidelines because he's on an entirely different stratosphere from any female average joe." The album's expositional content is interpreted by critics in relation to contemporary society. Newsdays Glenn Gamboa views that Drake's "emotional self-doubt and realizations about [...] success", along with the album's melancholy mood, "captur[es] today's zeitgeist of uncertainty and diminishing expectations." Music journalist Ann Powers cites Drake's "predicament — the inability to locate oneself within everyday power relations" as "one that's afflicted existential antiheroes throughout modernity." She denotes his point of view as that of a "biracial upper middle-class kid [...] from a position of privilege that few rappers would occupy", and finds his subject matter culturally significant, stating "[H]is melancholia is that of the overly sated [...] But Drake's relentless focus on the point where money empties out happiness isn't merely autobiographical. It's emblematic of our moment of crashed markets and occupied streets, and it speaks to a generation beginning to question whether the All-American, celebrity-endorsed credit card lifestyle will make them anything but bankrupt." Pitchfork Media's Ryan Dombal compares his "unrepentant navel-gazing and obsession with lost love" to Marvin Gaye's 1978 album Here, My Dear, adding that Drake's "penchant for poetic oversharing" makes him "an apt avatar" for the Information Age. Drake's songwriting is characterized by wistful introspection, existential contemplation, and minimal boasting, with lyrics that convey frankness, vulnerability, melancholia, and narcissism. Andy Gill of The Independent writes that he "eschews anger or threat for a weariness shadowed by wistful regret." Music journalist Greg Kot comments that Drake does not "indulge in the macho poses that have dominated mainstream hip-hop for decades, and blur[s] the line between singing and rhyming", adding that he "makes his rhymes sound conversational, matter of fact, like he's talking to the listener one-one-one". Tim Sendra of AllMusic notes that his "introspective tone [...] is only rarely punctured by aggressive tracks, boasts, and/or come-ons." Drake's persona on songs shows traits of sincerity, self-doubt, regret, passive-aggressiveness, and self-absorption. Kazeem Famuyide of The Source explains his conflicted persona as being "arrogant enough to know his place as one of the most successful artist in hip-hop, and comfortable enough to realize his own faults in his personal life." Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone writes that Drake "collapse[s] many moods – arrogance, sadness, tenderness and self-pity – into one vast, squish-souled emotion." Kevin Ritchie of NOW notes "an overwhelming sense of alienation, and sadness" on Take Care, calling it "an idiosyncratic, aggressively self-conscious and occasionally sentimental album". Release and promotion The first track Drake released was "Dreams Money Can Buy" on May 20, 2011 through his October's Very Own blog. Drake mentioned this song was "A Story of Dreams, mixed with reality," and that this was not his first single off the album but that it would be included on Take Care. On June 9, 2011, a second track titled "Marvins Room" was released via his blog. Drake initially stated that the song would not be featured on Take Care, but because of the song's unexpected success, prompting it was released as a digital and radio single on July 22, 2011 and would be on Take Care. "Trust Issues" was then released shortly after on his blog, but was confirmed not to be on the album via Drake's Twitter. He explained that the song was an idea he had from I'm On One and made it "just for fun." However, in an interview, Drake stated that Trust Issues, along with Dreams Money Can Buy, would be included in the Birthday Edition of the album. On September 10, 2011, Drake released a new song titled "Club Paradise" on his October's Very Own blog. "Dropping this for our boy Avery...this was his favorite sh*t during the recording process. 2 more songs coming tonight as well. ovoxo," he wrote on his blog. On September 11, 2011, Drake released another track entitled "Free Spirit" featuring Rick Ross and blogged that another was to be released that night, as well. Later that night he released a remix of Waka Flocka Flame's "Round of Applause". On September 23, 2011, Drake released the official album cover to Take Care. On October 20, 2011, an unfinished version of "The Real Her" featuring only Lil Wayne was leaked online. On October 8, 2011, Drake announced on his OVO blog that Take Care would be pushed back until November 15 because of three sample clearances ("Take Care", "Cameras", and "Practice"). It was originally to be released on his 25th birthday, October 24, 2011. The Club Paradise Tour was revealed to start in November on Twitter. However, it was revealed that the tour was delayed until after Christmas/New Year break so Drake could perform at more schools. A chopped and screwed version of the album remixed by OG Ron C and DJ Candlestick of the Chopstars titled Chop Care was released on November 29, 2011, and received over 1 million downloads in the first 48 hours. It was featured on a variety of media blogs, magazines, and newspapers. It was included on year-end lists by several publications, including The New York Times which gave major praise. Singles According to Billboard, as of 2022, Take Care is one of the 15 best-performing 21st-century albums without any of its singles being number-one hits on the Billboard Hot 100. The album's lead single, "Marvins Room" impacted urban radio on June 28, 2011; peaking at number 21 on the US Billboard Hot 100. Following by the second single, "Headlines", which was released through his blog on July 31, 2011. The production on both of these songs was handled by Boi-1da and Noah "40" Shebib; it was released to radio and iTunes on August 9, 2011. "Headlines" debuted at number 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 98 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. "Make Me Proud" featuring Nicki Minaj, was released through Drake's blog on October 13, 2011, as the album's third single. The song was produced by T-Minus and Kromatik. It was released to iTunes on October 16, 2011. The song peaked at number 9 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The album's fourth single, "The Motto" featuring Lil Wayne, impacted rhythmic radio and urban radio stations on November 29, 2011. It was re-released to rhythmic radio on January 10, 2012. It officially impacted Top 40/Mainstream radio on April 10, 2012. The single debuted at number 18 on the US Billboard Hot 100, with first-week sales of 124,000 copies. It has since sold over 3 million copies in the United States, becoming the most successful single from the album thus far and his third single overall to reach the milestone. "Take Care" featuring Rihanna, was released as the album's fifth single. It impacted US rhythmic contemporary radio on January 17, 2012. Prior to its release as a single, the song entered the UK Singles Chart on November 20, 2011, at number 12. It also debuted at number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100. "Take Care" became one of Drake's highest-charting songs as a solo artist in the United Kingdom and United S, with first-week sales of 162,000 in the US. In its seventeenth week on the Hot 100, the track rose to a new peak of number seven. As of July 2012 the single has sold over two million digital copies. "HYFR (Hell Ya Fucking Right)" was released as the album's sixth single. Lil Wayne is also featured on this track. The music video shoot for the song took place on March 21, 2012. The video was released on April 6, 2012. It officially impacted rhythmic and urban radio on April 24, 2012. "Crew Love" was released as the album's seventh single in the United Kingdom on July 30, 2012. The song peaked at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart and number 80 on both the US Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100. Critical reception Take Care received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 78, based on 34 reviews. John McDonnell of NME dubbed it "an affecting masterpiece" and commended its "delicate, mellifluous sound and unashamedly candid, emotive lyrics." Pitchforks Ryan Dombal found Drake's "technical abilities" to be improved and stated, "Just as his thematic concerns have become richer, so has the music backing them up." Andy Hutchins of The Village Voice called it "a carefully crafted bundle of contradictory sentiments from a conflicted rapper who explores his own neuroses in as compelling a manner as anyone not named Kanye West." Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot complimented the depth of Drake's "moral psychodramas" and stated, "the best of it affirms that Drake is shaping a pop persona with staying power." Nitsuh Abebe of New York wrote that the album "is full of gorgeous tones ... And the lyrics surrounding them can be rich with meaning". Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club found it "plenty downbeat, but [also] gorgeous, an immersive headphone masterwork that's tender and intimate like little else in contemporary rap and R&B." Ann Powers of NPR felt that "the artfulness of this music allows me an in to that experience. I can make that leap and identify with Drake, or at least be intrigued by multiple characters in the little dramas he designs." Jon Caramanica of The New York Times called it "an album of eccentric black pop that takes" hip hop and R&B "as starting points, asks what they can do but haven't been doing, then attempts those things. In the future an album like this will be commonplace; today, it's radical." With Take Care, he named Drake "hip-hop's current center of gravity". In a mixed review, Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly panned its content as "one overlong woozy monologue" and called the album a "total downer", adding that "Drake half-bakes his woozy rap-croon and glazes it with sluggish keyboard hums, stalling the album's momentum". In a negative review, Alex Macpherson of The Guardian found his singing "insipid", his rapping "inert", and his lyrics "hollow", writing that "he doesn't seem to realise that introspection is only worth a damn if you're an interesting person." The Globe and Mails Robert Everett-Green criticized Drake's lyrics as "drawling patter" and found the songs to "noodle around [...] aimlessly". Accolades According to Metacritic, Take Care was the ninth-highest-ranked album in year-end top 10 lists by music critics, based on 135 lists. It was named the best album of 2012 by the Los Angeles Times and The New York Times, and was ranked number three by Now and MTV, number four by Slate, number five by Billboard and The Washington Post, number seven by Fact, number eight by The Globe and Mail, NPR, and Pitchfork, number 14 by Slant Magazine, and number 22 by Rolling Stone and Spin. It was also named as a longlisted nominee for the 2012 Polaris Music Prize on June 14, 2012. In 2012, Complex named the album one of the classic albums of the last decade. Take Care won a Grammy Award for Best Rap Album at the 55th Grammy Awards. In October 2013, Complex named it the fourth-best hip hop album of the last five years. In January 2015, Billboard named it the sixth-best album of the 2010s (so far). In September 2020, it was named the 95th greatest album of all time by Rolling Stone. Commercial performance Take Care debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 631,000 copies, becoming Drake's second number-one album. The album also topped the Billboard Rap Albums and R&B/Hip-Hop Albums in its debut week. On January 31, 2012, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of one million copies in the United States. As of August 2015, the album has sold 2,260,000 copies in the United States. On September 27, 2019, the album was certified six times platinum for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over six million copies in the United States. In Canada, the album debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 48,000 copies in its first week. It has been certified double platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association, indicating shipments of 160,000 copies. In the United Kingdom, Take Care entered at number five on the UK Albums Chart and on January 18, 2013, the album went platinum with the British Recorded Music Industry, with 300,000 copies shipped to UK retailers. Track listing Credits adapted from the album's liner notes. Notes signifies a co-producer signifies an additional producer Beck is only a credited writer for the song "Good Ones Go Interlude" On the physical edition of the album, "Headlines" has a run time of 3:26 and features the "Crew Love" introduction. On the digital edition of the album, the original single version of "Headlines" is used On the physical edition of the album, "Marvins Room" and "Buried Alive Interlude" are listed as a single track, and Kendrick Lamar is uncredited "Cameras" on track 12 was co-produced by Drake, and "Good Ones Go (Interlude)" was produced by Noah "40" Shebib Sample credits "Over My Dead Body" contains elements of "Sailin' Da South" (written by Cedric Hall) performed by DJ Screw. "Shot for Me" contains a sample of "Anything" (written by Tyrone Armstrong, Brian Morgan and Ray Smith) performed by SWV. "Take Care" contains elements of "I'll Take Care of You" (written by Brook Benton) performed by Gil Scott-Heron. "Under Ground Kings" contains elements of "Neck of the Woods" (written by Batman, Dwayne Carter, Jr., Tristan Jones, Bryan Williams and Ronald Williams) performed by Birdman featuring Lil Wayne; elements of "Duffle Bag Boy" (written by Joshua Banks, Dwayne Carter, Jr., Earl Conyers and Tauheed Epps) performed by Playaz Circle featuring Lil Wayne; and elements of "Farmer's Pleasure (Loving This) (Remix)" (written by Siccature Alcock, Troy Azore and Trayon Garrett) performed by Jah Cure. "Cameras" contains excerpts of "Calling on You" (written by Jonathan Buck and Ngai McGee) performed by Jon B. "Doing It Wrong" contains elements of "The Wrong Thing to Do" written and performed by Don McLean. "Look What You've Done" contains elements of "If U Scared, Say U Scared" (written by Jawann Peacock and Stephen Garrett) performed by Playa. "HYFR (Hell Ya Fucking Right)" contains elements of "Swanging and Banging" written and performed by E.S.G. (Cedric Hall). "Practice" contains elements of "Back That Azz Up" (written by Dwayne Carter, Jr., Terius Gray and Byron Thomas) performed by Juvenile featuring Lil Wayne and Mannie Fresh. "The Motto" contains elements of "She Will" (written by Dwayne Carter, Jr., Aubrey Graham and Tyler Williams) performed by Lil Wayne featuring Drake; and elements of "Baby Got Back" written and performed by Sir Mix-a-Lot (Anthony Ray). Personnel Credits for Take Care adapted from AllMusic and album's liner notes. Derek "MixedByAli" Ali – engineer (track 7) Hyghly Alleyne – photography André 3000 — vocals (track 14) Bonnie Artis – choir (track 1) Alyse Barnhill – choir (track 7) Les Bateman – system engineer Divine Brown – background vocals (tracks 3, 20) Wado Brown – organ (track 17) Cortez Bryant – executive producer Sean Buchanan – assistant engineer (track 9) Michael "Banger" Cadahia – engineer (tracks 14, 16, 19) Noel Cadastre – engineer (track 13), assistant engineer (1-6, 8-12, 14–18, 20), assistant mix engineer (2-4, 6, 7, 12, 13, 16, 18) Becky Campbell – assistant mix engineer (track 10) Noel "Gadget" Campbell – mixing (tracks 1, 2, 5, 8-10, 12.1, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20), additional bass (10) Dwayne "Lil Wayne" Carter – vocals (tracks 14, 16, 19), executive producer Lyttleton "Cartwheel" Carter – assistant engineer (tracks 13, 18) Chase N. Cashe – producer and instrumentation (track 15) Dwayne "Supa Dups" Chin-Quee – producer (track 7) Ariel Chobaz – engineer (track 10) Romy Madley Croft – guitar (track 5) Adrian "X" Eccleston – guitar (tracks 6, 12.1, 13, 17, 18) Oliver El-Khatib – A&R, executive producer Alvin Fields – choir director (track 11) Elizabeth Gallardo – assistant engineer (track 16) Chris Gehringer – mastering Chilly Gonzales – outro piano (track 6), Rhodes and lead synthesizer (track 12.2) Aubrey Drake Graham – executive producer, vocals, co-producer (tracks 12.1, 14, 17) Ricardo Gutierrez – additional mastering (track 11) Rose Hart – choir (track 11) Taylor Hill – choir (track 11) Sam Holland – assistant engineer (track 10) John Holmes – engineer (track 14) Tammy Infusino – choir (track 11) Ebony Jackson – choir (track 11) Erika Johnson – choir (track 11) Just Blaze – producer and mixing (track 11) Brent Kolatalo – additional engineering and additional instrumentation (track 11) Chantal Kreviazuk – co-producer, additional vocals, and additional piano (track 1), background vocals (20) Kendrick Lamar — vocals (track 7) Ken Lewis – choir director, additional engineering, and additional instrumentation (track 11) Roman Marshall – choir (track 11) Doc McKinney – producer and engineer (track 18) Nicki Minaj — vocals (track 10) Carlo "Illangelo" Montagnese – producer and engineer (track 4) John Morgan – choir (track 11) Greg Morrison – assistant mix engineer (track 5) Syren Lyric Muse – additional vocals (track 6) John Nettlesbey – assistant engineer (tracks 6, 13, 18) Nikhil – additional lead synthesizer (track 10) Jawan Peacock – piano and backing vocals (track 15) Isaiah Raheem – choir (track 11) Rihanna — vocals (track 5) Ruben Rivera – engineer (tracks 4, 5, 8-11, 16) Gee Roberson – executive producer Carmen Roman – choir (track 11) Rick Ross — vocals (track 11) Matthew "Boi-1da" Samuels – producer and instrumentation (track 3) Gil Scott-Heron – background vocals (track 5) Travis Sewchan – assistant engineer (track 2) Noah "40" Shebib – executive producer, A&R, producer (tracks 1, 2, 4–9, 12–14, 17, 20), engineer (1-6, 8-10, 12–15, 17, 18, 20), instrumentation (1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12–14, 17, 20), mixing (3, 4, 6, 7, 12.2, 13, 16, 18), additional production (3, 15), additional keyboards (3, 8), drum programming (5), additional bass and assistant mix engineer (10, 19) Evelyn "Bubu" Sher – background vocals (track 15) Sasha Sirota — engineer (track 19) Jamie "xx" Smith – producer and instrumentation (track 5) Trey Songz — additional background vocals (track 20) Static Major – background vocals (track 15) David "Gordo" Strickland – mixing assistant (tracks 8, 9) T-Minus – producer and instrumentation (tracks 8-10, 16, 19) T-Pain - background vocals (track 14) Lamar Taylor – photography The Weeknd – producer (tracks 4, 18), vocals and instrumentation (4), backing vocals (12.2) Drew White — assistant engineer (track 20) Bryan "Birdman" Williams – vocals (track 9), executive producer Ronald "Slim Tha Don" Williams – executive producer Dylan Wissing – live drums (track 11) Stevie Wonder – harmonica (track 13) Martin "Drop" Wong – artwork, design William World – choir (track 11) Andrew Wright – mixing (track 11) Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Decade-end charts Certifications Release history See also List of number-one albums of 2011 (U.S.) List of number-one R&B albums of 2011 (U.S.) List of number-one R&B albums of 2012 (U.S.) List of number-one rap albums of 2011 (U.S.) List of number-one rap albums of 2012 (U.S.) List of number-one albums of 2011 (Canada) PBR&B References External links Take Care at Metacritic 2011 albums Drake (musician) albums Albums produced by Boi-1da Albums produced by Illangelo Albums produced by Jamie xx Albums produced by Just Blaze Albums produced by Noah "40" Shebib Albums produced by Supa Dups Albums produced by T-Minus (record producer) Albums produced by the Weeknd Albums recorded at Metalworks Studios Cash Money Records albums Young Money Entertainment albums Universal Republic Records albums Grammy Award for Best Rap Album Juno Award for Rap Recording of the Year recordings
4635444	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%20%28music%29	March (music)	A march, as a musical genre, is a piece of music with a strong regular rhythm which in origin was expressly written for marching to and most frequently performed by a military band. In mood, marches range from the moving death march in Wagner's Götterdämmerung to the brisk military marches of John Philip Sousa and the martial hymns of the late 19th century. Examples of the varied use of the march can be found in Beethoven's Eroica Symphony, in the Marches Militaires of Franz Schubert, in the Marche funèbre in Chopin's Sonata in B flat minor, the "Jäger March" in the by Jean Sibelius, and in the Dead March in Handel's Saul. Characteristics Marches can be written in any time signature, but the most common time signatures are , (alla breve , although this may refer to 2 time of Johannes Brahms, or cut time), or . However, some modern marches are being written in or time. The modern march tempo is typically around 120 beats per minute. Many funeral marches conform to the Roman standard of 60 beats per minute. The tempo matches the pace of soldiers walking in step. Both tempos achieve the standard rate of 120 steps per minute. Each section of a march typically consists of 16 or 32 bars, which may repeat. Most importantly, a march consists of a strong and steady percussive beat reminiscent of military field drums. A military music event where various marching bands and units perform is called tattoo. Marches frequently change keys once, modulating to the subdominant key, and occasionally returning to the original tonic key. If it begins in a minor key, it modulates to the relative major. Marches frequently have counter-melodies introduced during the repeat of a main melody. Marches frequently have a penultimate dogfight strain in which two groups of instruments (high/low, woodwind/brass, etc.) alternate in a statement/response format. In most traditional American marches, there are three strains. The third strain is referred to as the "trio". The march tempo of 120 beats or steps per minute was adopted by the Napoleonic army in order to move faster. Since Napoleon planned to occupy the territory he conquered, instead of his soldiers carrying all of their provisions with them, they would live off the land and march faster. The French march tempo is faster than the traditional tempo of British marches; the British call marches in the French tempo quick marches. Traditional American marches use the French or quick march tempo. There are two reason for this: First, U.S. military bands adopted the march tempos of France and other continental European nations that aided the U.S. during its early wars with Great Britain. Second, the composer of the greatest American marches, John Philip Sousa, was of Portuguese and German descent. Portugal used the French tempo exclusively—the standard Sousa learned during his musical education. A military band playing or marching at the traditional British march tempo would seem unusually slow in the United States. March music originates from the military, and marches are usually played by a marching band. The most important instruments are various drums (especially snare drum), horns, fife or woodwind instruments and brass instruments. Marches and marching bands have even today a strong connection to military, both to drill and parades. March music is often important for ceremonial occasions. Processional or coronation marches, such as the popular coronation march from Le prophète by Giacomo Meyerbeer and the many examples of coronation marches written for British monarchs by English composers, such as Edward Elgar, Edward German, and William Walton, are all in traditional British tempos. History Marches were not notated until the late 16th century; until then, time was generally kept by percussion alone, often with improvised fife embellishment. With the extensive development of brass instruments, especially in the 19th century, marches became widely popular and were often elaborately orchestrated. Composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Hector Berlioz, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Gustav Mahler, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Charles Ives, Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, Alban Berg, Sergei Prokofiev, Paul Hindemith, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Leonard Bernstein wrote marches, sometimes incorporating them into operas, sonatas, suites, and symphonies. The popularity of John Philip Sousa's band marches has been unmatched. The style of the traditional symphony march can be traced back to symphonic pieces from renaissance era, such as pieces written for nobility. National styles European march music Many European countries and cultures developed characteristic styles of marches. Britain British marches typically move at the standard pace of 120 beats per minute, have intricate countermelodies (frequently appearing only in the repeat of a strain), have a wide range of dynamics (including unusually soft sections), use full-value stingers at the ends of phrases (as opposed to the shorter, marcato stinger of American marches). The final strain of a British march often has a broad lyrical quality to it. Archetypical British marches include "The British Grenadiers" and those of Major Ricketts, such as the well-known "Colonel Bogey March" and "The Great Little Army". Scottish bagpipe music makes extensive use of marches played at a pace of approximately 90 beats per minute. Many popular marches are traditional and of unknown origin. Notable examples include Scotland the Brave, Highland Laddie, Bonnie Dundee and Cock of the North. Retreat marches are set in 3/4 time, such as The Green Hills of Tyrol and When the Battle's O'er. The bagpipe also make use of slow marches such as the Skye Boat Song and the Cradle Song. These are set in 6/8 time and are usually played at around 60 beats per minute if played by only pipe bands (and 120 if played with a military band). Those marches indicative of the light infantry and rifle regiments of the Army (today The Rifles and the Royal Gurkha Rifles), like "Silver Bugles" and "Bravest of the Brave", move at a faster 140 beats per minute pace and feature the distinctive bugle sounds common to the bands of these units (plus bagpipes for the Gurkhas). Germany and Austria German marches move at a very strict tempo of 114 beats per minute, and have a strong oom-pah polka-like/folk-like quality resulting from the bass drum and low-brass playing on the downbeats and the alto voices, such as peck horn and snare drums, playing on the off-beats. This provides a very martial quality to these marches. The low brass is often featured prominently in at least one strain of a German march. To offset the rhythmic martiality of most of the strains, the final strain (the trio) often has a lyrical (if somewhat bombastic) quality. Notable German and Austrian march composers include Carl Teike ("Alte Kameraden"), Hermann Ludwig Blankenburg, Johann Gottfried Piefke ("Preußens Gloria"), Johann Strauss I ("Radetzky-Marsch"), Johann Strauss II, Hans Schmid, Josef Wagner, and Karl Michael Ziehrer. Sweden Swedish marches have many things in common with the German marches, much due to historical friendship and bonding with states like Prussia, Hesse and, from 1871 and on, Germany. The tempo is strict and lies between 110 and 112 beats per minute. The oom-pah rhythm is common, although it is rarely as distinctive as in a typical German march. The first bars are nearly always played loudly, followed by a cheerful melody, often with pronounced countermelodies in the euphoniums and trombones. At least one strain of a Swedish march is usually dedicated to the low brass, where the tubas also play the melody, with the rest of the instruments playing on the off-beats. The characteristics of the trio vary from march to march, but the final strain tends to be grand and loud. Examples of Swedish marches are "Under blågul fana" by Viktor Widqvist and "På post för Sverige" by Sam Rydberg. France French military marches are distinct from other European marches by their emphasis on percussion and brass, often incorporating bugle calls as part of the melody or as interludes between strains. Most French marches are in common metre and place a strong percussive emphasis on the first beat of each bar from the band and field music drumlines, hence the characteristic BOOM-whack-whack-whack rhythm. Many, though not all French marches (in particular marches dating from the period of the French Revolution) make use of triplet feel; each beat can be felt as a fast triplet. Famous French marches include "Le Régiment de Sambre et Meuse", "La Victoire est à Nous", "Marche de la garde consulaire à Marengo", "La Galette", the "Chant du départ", "Le Chant des Africains", "Le Caïd", "la Marche Lorraine" and "Le Boudin". While many are of the classic quick march time used today, there are several which are of slow time, harking to the slow and medium marches of soldiers of the French forces during the Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Part of the French Foreign Legion's current march music inventory includes at lot of slow marches. Also, there are marches similar to those of British rifle regiments which are used by the Chasseur infantry battalions of the Army. Greece Greek marches typically combine French and German musical traditions, due to the modern Greek State's history of Germanic royal dynasties, combined with Francophile governments as well as French and Bavarian officers and military advisors, who brought their respective musical traditions with them, with later British influences. Among the most famous marches are "Famous Macedonia" (Μακεδονία Ξακουστή), a march to commemorate Greece's victory in the Balkan Wars, "Greece never dies" (Η Ελλάδα ποτε δεν πεθαίνει), "The Aegean Sailor" (Ο Ναύτης του Αιγαίου), "The Artillery" (Το Πυροβολικό), "From flames, Crete" (Από φλόγες, η Κρήτη), and "The Army Marches Forth" (Πέρναει ο Στρατός). Almost all Greek marches have choral versions. Many of these marches, in the choral versions, are also popular patriotic songs, which are taught to Greek children in school and are sung along on various occasions, such as national holidays and parades. "Famous Macedonia" also serves as the unofficial anthem of the Greek Region of Macedonia. The Greek Flag March () is the sole march used during the parading of the Greek Flag at ceremonies. Composer Margaritis Kastellis contributed to the development of many Greek pieces for military bands only. Netherlands Dutch marches typically feature a heavy intro, often played by the trombones, euphoniums, drums, and tubas, followed by a lighthearted trio and a reasonably fast and somewhat bombastic conclusion, while maintaining occasional bugle calls due to the former wide presence of field music formations (particularly in the Army). Dutch emphasis on low brass is also made clear in that some Dutch military bands use sousaphones, which have a more forward projection of sound, rather than the regular concert tubas used by most other European military styles. Some well-known Dutch march composers are Jan Gerard Palm, Willy Schootemeyer, Adriaan Maas, Johan Wichers, and Hendrik Karels. By far, most Dutch military bands perform their music on foot; however, some Dutch regiments (most notably the Trompetterkorps Bereden Wapens) carry on a Dutch tradition in which its historical bicycle infantry had a mounted band, thus playing march music on bikes. Italy Italian marches have a very light musical feel, often having sections of fanfare or soprano obbligatos performed with a light coloratura articulation. This frilly characteristic is contrasted with broad lyrical melodies reminiscent of operatic arias. It is relatively common to have one strain (often a first introduction of the final strain) that is played primarily by the higher-voiced instruments or in the upper ranges of the instruments' compass. Examples of Italian march music is "Il Bersagliere" (The Italian Rifleman) by Boccalari and "4 Maggio" by Creux. Uniquely, the Bersaglieri regiments always move at a fast jog, and their running bands, mostly all-brass, play at this pace, with marches like "Passo di Corsa dei Bersaglieri" (Double March of the Bersaglieri) and "Flick Flock" as great examples. Spain The most characteristic Spanish march form is the pasodoble. Spanish marches often have fanfares at the beginning or end of strains that are reminiscent of traditional and popular music. These marches often move back and forth between major and (relative) minor keys, and often show a great variation in tempo during the course of the march reminiscent of a prolonged Viennese rubato. Military marches are an adapted form of the pasodoble, which feature strong percussion and have British and French influences as well, as well as German, Austrian and Italian elements. Typical Spanish marches are "Amparito Roca" by Jaime Teixidor, "Los Voluntarios" by Gerónimo Giménez, and "El Turuta" by Roman de San Jose. Many of these marches are also of patriotic nature. Czech Republic Notable Czech (Bohemian) march composers include František Kmoch and Julius Fučík, who wrote "Entrance of the Gladiators". Russia, Ukraine and Belarus While many of the marches of Tsarist Russia share similar characteristics with German marches of the period, and indeed some were directly borrowed from Germany (such as "Der Königgrätzer Marsch") and later on France and Austria, the indigenous, pre-revolutionary Russian march has a distinctly Russian sound, with powerful strains in minor keys repeated with low brass with occasional flashes of major chords between sections. The Soviet period produced a large number of modern marches incorporating both Russian themes and structure reminiscent of Dutch marches. Frequently in major keys, Soviet marches often span a wide range of dynamics while maintaining a strong melody well-balanced with the percussion, entering the bombastic range without overpowering percussion as is common with French marches. They are often in the A-B/Cb-A form or ternary form. Agapkin's "Farewell of Slavianka" is one common example of the classical Russian march, while notable examples of Soviet-style Russian marches include "Den Pobedy", "The Sacred War", "V Put", and "March of the Defenders of Moscow". In Ukraine, military marches were originally written to emulate the Russian model, with folk songs and natively Ukrainian marches only recently being used. The Zaporizhian March (also known as the Cossack march) is one of the main marches of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and even replaced Farewell of Slavianka in 1991 as the official march being played during the induction of recruits to the military. The same concept is applied in Belarus but on a much more toned down style due to the fact that the country still borrows Russian marches. The few homegrown military marches in Belarus include the Our Fatherland's Flag (Айчыны нашай сцяг), as well as the remastered Motherland My Dear (Радзіма мая дарагая), Victory March (Марш Перамогi) and Song from 45 (Письмо из 45-го). Other marches include the Vajacki marš of the Belarusian Democratic Republic. American march music The true march music era existed from 1855 to the 1940s when it was overshadowed by jazz, which the march form influenced (especially through ragtime). American march music cannot be discussed without mentioning "The March King", John Philip Sousa, who revolutionized the march during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Some of his most famous marches are "Semper Fidelis", "The Washington Post", "The Liberty Bell", and "The Stars and Stripes Forever". Sousa's marches are typically marked by a subdued trio, as in "The Stars and Stripes Forever" in which the rest of the band becomes subordinated to arguably the most famous piccolo solo in all of music. Typically, an American march consists of a key change, quite often happening in coordination with the Trio. The key may change back before the song is over, especially if the Trio ends well before the last few bars of the march. A specialized form of the typical American march music is the circus march, or screamer, typified by the marches of Henry Fillmore and Karl King. These marches are performed at a significantly faster tempo (140 to 200 beats per minute) and generally have an abundance of runs, fanfares, and other showy features. Frequently, the low brass has one or more strains (usually the second strain) in which they are showcased with both speed and bombast. Stylistically, many circus marches employ a lyrical final strain which (in the last time through the strain) starts out maestoso (majestically, slower and more stately) and then, in the second half of the strain, speeds up to end the march faster than the original tempo. Marches continued to be commissioned throughout the 20th century to commemorate important American events. In the 1960s, Anthony A. Mitchell, director of the United States Navy Band, was commissioned to write "The National Cultural Center March" for the center that would later become known as the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. Asian march music The Caucasus The Caucasus consisting of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia often have a Soviet/Russian influence due to the three countries period under the USSR. Following the Russo-Georgian War, all Russian military marches in the repertoire of the Military Band of the National Guard of Georgia were weeded out in favor of native Georgian marches. Many Armenian patriotic military marches were developed during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. In Azerbaijan, many military marches such as Azadlıq Marşı (Freedom's March) and Görüş Marşı (Slow March) are used as inspection marches while others such as the March of the Azerbaijan Higher Military Academy or the Marş «Vətən» (Fatherland March) are used in military parades. Other marches are holdovers from the Soviet era, such as Yaxşı Yol (Farewell). Bangladesh Bengali march music tradition began in the 19th century, during the Bengali Renaissance by the Bengali nationalists. Kazi Nazrul Islam, the national poet of Bangladesh and active revolutionary during the Indian Independence Movement create a separate subgenre of Bengali music known as Nazrul Geeti included march music against fascism and oppression. His writings and music greatly inspired Bengalis of East Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War. The most famous of Bengali marches is the Notuner Gaan, which is the national march of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Among the most popular Bengali marches are the following: Pralayollas (প্রলয়োল্লাস (Pralay.ōllās); The Ecstasy of Destruction or Destructive Euphoria) Bidrohi (বিদ্রোহী (Bidrōhī); The Rebel) (Marchpast of the Bangladesh Army) Kandari Hushiar (কান্ডারী হুশিয়ার (Kānḍārī Huśiy.ār); Captain Alert) (Marchpast of the Bangladesh Navy) Mora Jhonjhar Moto Uddam (মোরা ঝঞ্ঝার মত উদ্দাম (Mōrā Jhañjhār Mata Uddām); A Mountain Song) (Marchpast of the Bangladesh Air Force) India Currently, marches played at military ceremonies in India have British origins. For example, ‘Auld Lang Syne’ played during passing out parades at various military academies is a tune that originated in Britain. Similarly, ‘Abide With Me’, is a Christian hymn, that is traditionally played as the last tune at the Beating the Retreat ceremony on January 29 every year. The marches that independent India’s military bands plays is a mix of British classics (The British Grenadiers, Trafalgar, Gibraltar) and tunes composed by officers. Over the years, the military bands began to play an eclectic mix of the standard marching songs, as well as jazz, Bollywood and Indian compositions. The Indian military bands consists of musicians from the Indian Army, Navy and Air Force. The primary bands include Indian Army Chief's Band, Indian Naval Symphonic Band and No. 1 Air Force Band. Today, the Indian Armed Forces have more than 50 military brass bands and 400 pipe bands and corps of drums. A Tri-Services Band refers to a joint Indian Armed Forces military band that performs together as a unit. The band performs a number of slow and quick marches such as: Sare Jahan se Accha (Patriotic March) Qadam Qadam Badaye Ja (Army Quick March) Samman Guard (Army Slow March) Desh Pukare Jab Sab Ko (Air Force Quick March) Vayu Sena Nishaan (Air Force Slow March) Jai Bharati (Navy Quick March) Anand Lok (Navy Slow March) Vande Mataram Deshon Ka Sartaj Bharat General Salute Naval Ensign Sea Lord Indian Fleet Voice of the Guns Have the NCC Spirit in You Bravo Warriors Flying Star Battle of the Sky Stride Gulmarg Benihaal Nirmaljit Amar Senani (The Immortal Soldier) Dhwaj Ka Rakshak (Defenders of the Flag) Uthari Seemaye (The Northern Frontiers) Suvruth (The Holy Oath) Vijayi Bharath (India, the Victorious) Hind Maha Sagar (The mighty Indian Ocean) Nabh Rakshak (Defenders of the Air) Antariksh Baan (Arrow in the Air) Dhwani Avrodh (Sound Barrier) Siki Amole (Precious Coins) Iran We are armed with Allahu Akbar Japan Japan's march music (Koushinkyoku, 行進曲) tradition began in the 19th century after the country's ports were forced open to foreign trade by the Perry Expedition. An influx of Western musical culture that the newly arrived traders and diplomats brought with them swept through Japanese musical culture, leaving a lasting legacy on the country's music. Japanese and foreign musicians of the time sought to impart Western musical forms to the Japanese, as well as combining Japanese-style melodies with Western-style harmonization. Furthermore, with Japan's government and society stabilized after the Meiji Restoration, the country sought to centralize and modernize its armed forces, with the armed forces of France and Prussia serving as models. All of these helped augur in what would later become modern Japanese music. The march genre, already sharing roots with the preexisting tradition of "gunka", or military songs, became very popular, especially in the years after Japan's victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War. One of the earliest and most enduring of Japanese marches is the Defile March (分列行進曲) composed in 1886 by Charles Leroux, an officer with the French Army serving as an advisor to the Imperial Japanese Army. Originally two separate marches based on Japanese melodies—Fusouka (扶桑歌) and Battotai (抜刀隊), inspired by the Satsuma Rebellion and reportedly a favorite song of the Emperor Meiji—they were later combined in the march currently recognized today. It soon became a very popular band standard, with the Imperial Japanese Army adopting it as their signature march. After World War II the JGSDF and the Japanese police would adopt the march, where it continues to be a core part of their repertoire. In the years before 1945, many distinguished composers such as Yamada Kōsaku, Nakayama Shimpei, Hashimoto Kunihiko, Setoguchi Tōkichi, and Eguchi Yoshi (Eguchi Gengo) all contributed to the genre. Some were military and nationalist in tone. Others, like Nakayama's 1928 Tokyo March (東京行進曲), were meant for popular consumption and wholly unrelated to military music. Among the most popular Japanese marches are the following: Defile March (分列行進曲) (Marchpast of the Imperial Japanese Army and of today's Japan Ground Self-Defense Force) Warship March (Gunkan, 行進曲「軍艦」) (Marchpast of the Imperial Japanese Navy and of today's Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force) Kankanshiki March (観艦式行進曲) Kimigayo March (君が代行進曲) Pacific March (太平洋行進曲) Patriotic March (愛国行進曲) Oozora (行進曲「大空」) (Marchpast of the Self-Defence Forces) Tokyo Olympic March (オリンピック・マーチ), composed for the 1964 Summer Olympics Shukuten march (祝典行進曲) (For crown prince Akihito celebration of marriage in 1959) Sora no Seiei (空の精鋭) (Marchpast of Japan Air Self-Defence Force) Philippines The Philippine march tradition is a mix of European and American traditions plus local musical styles. Several famous Philippine composers composed marches, and even Julián Felipe composed the march that would become Lupang Hinirang, the national anthem. Several marches are adaptations of local folk music, others have a patriotic feeling. The Philippine march music tradition began in the 19th century, during the Philippine Revolution, as an offshoot of the Spanish march tradition. This is a popular form of music as a battle hymn in the same way as in the US or France specially if Filipino soldiers are going to war or winning battles, is also the way of the Filipino to express their nationalistic affection to their native land. This style of music was also popular during the Philippine–American War and during the Second World War. During the late 1960s this form of music begun to be widely used as a part of military drills, parades and exercises of the Armed Forces, National Police and Coast Guard, as well as by youth uniformed groups and athletes. Prominent local march composers include Antonio Buenaventura and National Artist Lucio San Pedro. Some famous marches are: Thailand Thailand's late king, Bhumibol Adulyadej, is a march composer. His most famous march piece, the "Royal Guards March", is played by military bands during the Thai Royal Guards parade at the Royal Plaza at Bangkok every 2 December yearly. It reflects the use of German and British military band influences in Thai military music. China Chinese marches tend to originate from time of the Second Sino-Japanese War, with very few still being performed that were composed before 1930 (one notable exception to this is the Military anthem of China, which dates back to the late Qing Dynasty with lyrics commissioned by Zeng Guofan). They are typically written in a major key, and performed at around 120 beats per minute. Prussian style oom pah rhythm is heavily used, seen in the Presentation March and March Past of the People's Liberation Army. The most famous of Chinese marches is the March of the Volunteers, which is the national anthem of the People's Republic of China. North Korea North Korean marches are heavily influenced by the Soviet military band tradition mixed with Korean influences. Most of the marches are dedicated to the party and to their revolution and leaders. Use of a grandiose brass sound is almost always present in the music. Many marches are adapted from the North Korean revolutionary and patriotic song tradition, known as the genre. Among the more popular North Korean marches played during state ceremonies are: Victorious Military Parade Footsteps Song of the Korean People's Army Guerrillas' March Long Live Great General Kim Il-sung Defend with our lives the Supreme Commander Defending the Headquarters of Revolution Defending Kim Jong-un with our Lives Our Revolutionary Armed Forces Follows Only the Marshal Song of Guards Units' Pride Song of National Defense General of Korea Song of the Proclamation of the Democratic People's Republic Death to US Aggressors Look at Us July 27 March Song of the Coast Artillerymen Turkey Modern Turkey's national anthem is the march, "İstiklâl Marşı", which has an aggressive tune. Generally, old Turkish marches from the Ottoman Empire have aggressive lyrics, for instance in "Mehter Marşı". It is notable that Mozart and Beethoven also wrote popular Turkish marches. Modern marches played during ceremonies include the Atatürk March, played as the march-in and march-off piece of military bands in military parades and ceremonies. Central Asia Central Asian march traditions have spanned centuries and consists of many different military and national cultures. The main five Central Asian nations (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan) commonly utilize Russian military marches during state functions, although they have made much quicker efforts unlike their Ukrainian and Belarusian counterparts to distinguish their military traditions from Russia. Most Central Asian nations have a Turkic culture and therefore uses marches with a mix of Russian and Turkish traditions. Tajikistan is an outlier in that it has a more Persian musical tradition. Afghanistan, like Tajikistan, has military marches that are similar to those in Iran, but with more recent American and British influence in combination with the Russian tradition. Some the more popular Central Asian marches are the following: March of Ablai Khan (Kazakhstan) Kirghiz March (Kyrgyzstan) Morşi Didor (Tajikistan) Nyýazow's Honour March (Turkmenistan) Slow March of the Turkmen Flag (Turkmenistan) Sunny March (Uzbekistan) Mustaqillik March (Uzbekistan) Latin American march music Although inspired by German, Spanish and French military music, marches of South and Central America are unique in melody and instrumentation. Argentina Argentine marches are inspired by its military history and the influx of European immigration in the 19th and 20th centuries. Cayetano Alberto Silva's "San Lorenzo march" is an example that combines German and French military musical influences. Other examples include the "Avenue of the Camelias" March and the March of the Malvinas, used during the Falklands War and in military parades and ceremonies. Brazil Brazilian military marches are popular called by the name "Dobrado", a reference to the most popular type of bar on this music genre, the 2/4. This type of music is influenced by the European and American march styles. Almost all states of Brazil have contributed to the growth of this tradition with a number of marches composed by local musicians, many of patriotic nature. Most popular composers are Antônio Manuel do Espírito Santo, with "Cisne Branco" (the official march of the Navy), "Avante Camaradas" e "Quatro Dias de Viagem" and Pedro Salgado, with "Dois corações" e "Coração de Mãe". Manoel Alves' "Batista de Melo" March, played widely in military and civil parades, while being the song of the Brazilian Army artillery and quartermaster services, is de facto the army's quick march past tune. Colombia Colombian military march music, like "The National Army of Colombia Hymn", "Commandos March" and "Hymn of the Colombian Navy" is an adaptation of the European and the American march styles. Venezuela Venezuela's "The Indio and the Conquistador" is the official marchpast of the Military Academy of Venezuela. It is more famous for being played in slow time in military parades and ceremonies. Also famous is the official double march of the National Armed Forces of Venezuela's special forces and airborne units, "Carabobo Reveille", and the "Slope Arms" March, played in ceremonies featuring the Flag of Venezuela and the first march in the beginning of parades. Marches like these (including the anthem of the 114th Armored Battalion "Apure Braves", "Fatherland Beloved") show British, American and Prussian influence. Mexico Mexican marches, like the "March of the Heroic Military College", "Airborne Fusiliers March", "National Defense March" and the "Viva Mexico March", are all inspired by American, Spanish, and French military music but have a faster beat. Some marches have direct French influence of bugle acommpaniment during parades for infantry units, since the Mexican Armed Forces has always maintained drum and bugle bands at the unit level. Cuba Cuban military marches are inspired by both American, Spanish and Soviet military music. German military marches such as the Yorckscher Marsch and Preußens Gloria are commonly used by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces Band during official functions such as military parades. A notable Cuban military march is the Hymn of July 26 (Himno del 26 de Julio). Other musical compositions include the Marcha de la alfabetización and the Marcha De La Revolución. Peru Other Latin American marches are inspired by both European and Native American influences, such as the Peruvian marches "Los peruanos Pasan" and "Sesquicentenario" and the Ecuadorian military march "Paquisha". Chile Marches from Chile are a mix of European march music especially the German march tradition, and many are locally composed. Los viejos estandartes, the official march of the Chilean Army, is one such example. Several German, British and French marches (and even the US march Semper Fidelis) are also used by military and civil bands in parades and ceremonies most especially during national holidays. See also Authorized marches of the Canadian Forces Drum cadence Heritage of the March Military cadence Martial music Classical music References Further reading * External links Dr. Stephen Rhodes, podcast on history of the march Military music
4635545	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolimnology	Paleolimnology	Paleolimnology (from Greek: παλαιός, palaios, "ancient", λίμνη, limne, "lake", and λόγος, logos, "study") is a scientific sub-discipline closely related to both limnology and paleoecology. Paleolimnological studies focus on reconstructing the past environments of inland waters (e.g., lakes and streams) using the geologic record, especially with regard to events such as climatic change, eutrophication, acidification, and internal ontogenic processes. Paleolimnological studies are mostly conducted using analyses of the physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties of sediments, or of biological records such as fossil pollen, diatoms, or chironomids. History Lake ontogeny Most early paleolimnological studies focused on the biological productivity of lakes, and the role of internal lake processes in lake development. Although Einar Naumann had speculated that the productivity of lakes should gradually decrease due to leaching of catchment soils, August Thienemann suggested that the reverse process likely occurred. Early midge records seemed to support Thienemann's view. Hutchinson and Wollack suggested that, following an initial oligotrophic stage, lakes would achieve and maintain a trophic equilibrium. They also stressed parallels between the early development of lake communities and the sigmoid growth phase of animal communities – implying that the apparent early developmental processes in lakes were dominated by colonization effects, and lags due to the limited reproductive potential of the colonizing organisms. In a classic paper, Raymond Lindeman outlined a hypothetical developmental sequence, with lakes progressively developing through oligotrophic, mesotrophic, and eutrophic stages, before senescing to a dystrophic stage and then filling completely with sediment. A climax forest community would eventually be established on the peaty fill of the former lake basin. These ideas were further elaborated by Ed Deevey, who suggested that lake development was dominated by a process of morphometric eutrophication. As the hypolimnion of lakes gradually filled with sediments, oxygen depletion would promote the release of iron-bound phosphorus to the overlying water. This process of internal fertilization would stimulate biological productivity, further accelerating the in-filling process. Deevey and Lindemann's ideas were widely accepted. Although these ideas are still widely held by some limnologists, they were refuted in 1957 by Deevey's student Daniel A. Livingstone. Mel Whiteside also criticized Deevey and Lindemann's hypothesis; and paleolimnologists now think that a host of external factors are equally or more important as regulators of lake development and productivity. Indeed, late-glacial climatic oscillations (e.g., the Younger Dryas) appear to have been accompanied by parallel changes in productivity, which shows that lake development is not a unidirectional process, and climatic change can have a profound effect on lake communities. Anthropogenic eutrophication, acidification, and climate change Interest in paleolimnology eventually shifted from esoteric questions of lake ontogeny to applied investigations of human impact. Torgny Wiederholm and Bill Warwick, for example, used chironomid fossils to assess the impact of increased, human-caused nutrient loading (anthropogenic eutrophication) on lake communities. Their studies revealed pronounced changes in the bottom fauna of North American and European lakes as a consequence of severe oxygen depletion. From 1980 to 1990 the primary focus of paleolimnologists' efforts shifted to understanding the impact human activity had (e.g., acid rain) versus natural processes (e.g., soil leaching) as drivers of pH change in northern lakes. The pH-sensitivity of diatom communities had been recognized as early as the 1930s, when Friedrich Hustedt developed a classification for diatoms, based on their apparent pH preferences. Gunnar Nygaard subsequently developed a series of diatom pH indices. By calibrating these indices to pH, Jouko Meriläinen introduced the first diatom-pH transfer function. Using diatom and chrysophyte fossil records, research groups were able to clearly demonstrate that many northern lakes had rapidly acidified in consequence of increased industrialization. Although lakes also showed a tendency to acidify slightly during their early (late-glacial) history, the pH of most lakes had remained stable for several thousand years prior to their recent human-driven acidification. In recent years paleolimnologists have recognized that climate is a dominant force in aquatic ecosystem processes, and have begun to use lacustrine records to reconstruct paleoclimates. Detailed records of historical climate change have been developed from a variety of indicators, including, for example, paleotemperature reconstructions derived from chironomid fossils, and paleosalinity records inferred from diatoms. Recent studies in the Arctic show that changes in biodiversity are largely due to warming, rather than other associated factors, such as human alteration and acidification. In the Himalayas, bodies of water are not only affected by the anthropogenic disturbances but also impacted by the different types of pollutants that are transferred to the area from afar. Therefore, it is vital to understand all the associated factors acting on aquatic biodiversity, while analyzing the impact of climate change over the years, with the help of lake sediments. It is also important to consider that the impact of climate-change varies depending on an ecosystem's sensitivity to change, when assessing climate change from a paleolimnological perspective. Paleoclimate proxies Paleoclimatology (the study of past climates) uses proxy data in order to relate elements collected in modern-day samples to climatic conditions of the past. In paleolimnology, proxy data refer to preserved or fossilized physical markers which serve as substitutes for direct meteorological measurements. Sediment cores Sediment cores are one of the primary tools for studying paleolimnology because of the role lake and river sediments play in preserving biological information. Paleolimnologists collect sediment cores and observe various proxy indicators in order to reconstruct the past limnology of an area. Such proxy data include geochemical markers and isotope data as well as fossilized pollen, charcoal, diatoms, chironomids, and other organic matter. These proxies show distributions and characteristics that can indicate past limnological conditions. In order to calibrate the proxy data extracted from sediment cores, the new core is compared to a group of those from around 40 or more calibration lakes. This allows researchers to assess key differences in the limnological conditions of the lake from which the core is taken. Lake-sediment cores, in particular, facilitate a more comprehensive analysis of an area because of the continual accumulation of sediment as well as other organic matter such as pollen and charcoal. Sediment cores can also be dated quite accurately, often allowing for lake histories to be reconstructed in chronological sequence. Pollen records Pollen and spores of terrestrial vegetation around a lake are often found within sediment cores and can be analyzed in a lab setting to determine the taxonomy of the pollen grains. The distribution of these pollen grains can offer insight into the historical distribution of vegetation around the lake. Pollen records derived from paleolimnological assessments also allow researchers to track the distribution and density of different vegetation classes across large periods of time, and allow modeling of the successive ecologies of the surrounding landscape. Several studies have been able to assess transitions in vegetation profiles by examining the relationship between different types of land cover. For instance, an increase in the presence of fern pollen and herbaceous plant pollen coinciding with a decrease in grassland pollen often indicates a major disturbance or significant land clearance. Another trend that can be observed from historical pollen records is rates of soil erosion around the lake, as arboreal pollen rates often increase with soil erosion due to increased pollen levels in surface soils. Vegetation profiles derived from historical pollen analysis are also seen as a key tool in assessing historical climate trends and disturbances. Pollen analysis offers a historical record of vegetation profiles that are sensitive to abrupt changes in climate conditions. Therefore, historical climate events, including human-induced climate change, can shift vegetation profiles relatively rapidly compared to natural transitions. For example, the quantity of poplar pollen increased dramatically at the beginning and end of the Younger Dryas period, serving as a biological marker for that time period. Comparing historical vegetation profiles also allows researchers to compare successive changes in vegetation between two specific regions and correlate these differences with the corresponding climates of each region. A recent study conducted at Shudu Lake in the Hengduan Mountains of Yunnan, , southwestern China, was able to correlate changes in temperature and humidity with the development of needleleaf forests, as well as model recent anthropogenic effects on vegetation distribution in the area. Diatoms The taxonomic assemblages of diatoms reflect many aspects of the temperature, chemical, and nutrient environment of a lake. Diatoms are particularly suited to paleolimnology, due to their silica-based frustules, which are preserved in sufficient condition, and in large enough quantities, to be extracted from sediment cores and identified at the species level. Diatoms have also been examined in conjunction with chrysophycean statospores to estimate nutrient conditions of prehistoric temperate lakes. Such estimations can be derived due to the fact that the predominance of either algal group varies depending on the nutrient conditions of their limnic environment. Diatoms show a high degree of success in water with a high nutrient content as opposed to chyrsophytes, which are better in water with a lower nutrient content. Certain species of diatoms also demonstrate a preference for specific aquatic pH, which allows researchers to estimate the historical pH conditions of a body of water by analyzing the species of diatoms within a sediment core. This makes diatom samples well suited for determining the impact of acid rain on a specific body of water, as diatom inference techniques are advanced enough to estimate relatively small numeric ranges of nutrient levels and pH values, as well as fluctuations in these measurements over a certain paleolimnological period. Organic matter analysis Examinations of the deposition and makeup of organic matter in the sediments of lakes has often been utilized in paleolimnological assessments. A variety of factors are taken into consideration when examining deposited organic matter, including the quantity, origin, and variety of isotopes and biomarkers. Diagenesis can have a significant impact on these factors, and thus careful consideration of such impact is required when drawing conclusions about records of organic matter. Quantity The quantity of organic matter from a sediment core can offer a variety of insights into paleolimnological conditions of a body of water. It often serves as an indicator of primary productivity levels as well as terrestrial nutrient input, as well as serving as a bridge between paleolimnology and geochemistry in demonstrating the relationship between lake geochemistry and organic matter deposition. For instance, a study in eastern China found that larger and deeper highstand lakes in warmer, more humid climates tended to show higher levels of organic matter deposition than lowland lakes in cooler, arid climates. The same study found that the only factor controlling organic matter deposition in the lowland lakes was primary productivity, whereas organic matter deposition in the highland lakes was controlled by a wider array of factors within the lake ecosystem, including terrestrial nutrient input and freshwater inflow. Origin By determining the origins of fossilized organic matter, researchers can make assessments about the vegetation profile in and around the lake, as well as gain a better understanding of microbial density within lake sediments. A key technique in determining the origin of deposited organic matter is to examine the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N). Aquatic plants are largely non-vascular, which results in their organic matter having a relatively low C:N ratio relative to that of vascular terrestrial plants. This disparity is usually quite large; and although it is lessened by alterations to the C:N ratio during diagenesis, the original disparity is still evident enough to allow researchers to accurately assess from C:N ratios the origin of the organic matter in the lake. This helps researchers determine algal density and terrestrial organic matter inputs during specific historical periods. Several biomarkers also aid in the determination of organic matter origin. Lipid extraction, in particular, is a common practice, as it can reveal acids and alcohols characteristic of algal plants, as well as diagnostic lipids generated in the waxy cuticle of terrestrial plants. Lignin phenols also serve as key biomarkers, helping researchers distinguish the source, plant type, tissue type, and age of organic matter. Lignin is particularly useful in distinguishing between angiosperms and gymnosperms, as well as between woody and non-woody tissue types, which help researchers further develop their knowledge of the surrounding vegetation. It is also important to note that both biomarkers and the C:N ratio can be altered by microbial interactions, some of which can serve as metrics for measuring microbial density, further adding to the breadth of paleolimnological information that can be derived from examinations of organic matter. Carbon isotope analysis Three main carbon fixation pathways exist for plants that end up as deposited organic matter: the C3, C4, and CAM pathways, which all contain slightly different carbon isotope shifts. These shifts further diversify when examining the differences in these pathways between terrestrial and aquatic plants. However, the impact of microbial degradation and food-web interactions diminishes the usefulness of carbon isotopes when differentiating the origins of organic matter. Nonetheless, the total quantity of carbon isotopes can reveal characteristics of lake biochemistry, as periods of time characterized by excessive nutrient cycling generally demonstrate lower carbon isotope loads in deposited organic matter. Additionally, greater carbon-isotope shifts are sometimes observed in organic matter deposited during periods with drier conditions. Nitrogen isotope analysis Nitrogen, like carbon, shows characteristic isotope shifts, depending on the fixation pathway, that can be used to assess certain paleolimnological indices. However, also like carbon, a variety of factors go into the nitrogen isotope composition of lake sediments, which makes assessments derived from this method somewhat speculative. In particular, δ15N values can vary based on productivity levels in aquatic ecosystems. A study that reconstructed lake conditions of Lago Taypi in Cordillera Real, Bolivia, found that when Nitrogen served as the limiting nutrient, levels of nitrogen-fixating algae significantly rose. These algal groups produce δ15N values that closely aligned with those of atmospheric N2, which allowed the researchers to draw conclusions about nutrient cycling and productivity in the lake by examining specific nitrogen isotopes of their sediment cores. Furthermore, in examinations of historic eutrophication trends, δ15N values can be used to differentiate human-driven nitrogen loads from natural inputs, allowing researchers to track the impact of agriculture on the basis of historic nitrogen trends. Human and animal waste, as well as synthetic fertilizers, have diagnostic isotopic shifts that allow researchers to characterize specific nitrogen inputs and track potential human-induced changes in nutrient flux, using δ15N measurements. Chironomids Chironomids as a paleoclimate proxy Lake deposits have a rich diversity of fossilized insects that trace back to middle Paleozoic era, further increasing in abundance during the Quaternary period. Among the diverse array of aquatic invertebrates, different families of aquatic fly larvae can be extracted from sediments of the Quaternary era. Among them, Chironomids, two-winged flies that belong to the family Chironomidae, are of greatest ecological importance due to their diverse feeding habitats and their role as an important component of the food web. Chironomids complete their larval stage in the water, with their adult life stage outside of the water lasting only a very short time. During their larval stages, Chironomids play an important part in the degradation of material in the aquatic ecosystem. Ecologically they are considered bottom dwellers and are very responsive to any fluctuation in the surrounding environment. Their head capsule and feeding structures are commonly fossilized in lake sediments, allowing them to serve as a valuable paleoclimate proxy. Factors influencing chironomid distribution and abundance One of the major factors that affect chironomid distribution is the climate conditions at local, regional, and global scales. Changes in these conditions are preserved as a fossil record over large periods of time. Through paleolimnological methods, including chironomid assessment, these changes can be extrapolated to predict future climate change. Being very responsive to any fluctuation in the surrounding environment, Chironomids are good indicators of a variety of factors, including salinity, water depth, stream flow, aquatic productivity, oxygen level, lake acidification, pollution, temperature, and overall ecosystem health. Chironomid distribution can be related to those factors using a transfer function to connect a particular group of organisms to a specific environmental variable. A variety of disparate factors have influenced the abundance and distribution patterns of chironomids in recent history. Therefore, it is important to be careful when making broader interpretations from their fossil records. The impact of temperature on chironomid abundance and diversity, along with other associated factors, has recently been debated. Accurate interpretations of chironomid fossil records must consider a wide array of associated factors within the ecosystem. In order to understand the different forces that have been affecting the fossil data of a lake, it is important to reconstruct the physical, chemical, and nutrient content that actually shape the lake communities. Their distribution and abundance are highly influenced by the combination of human disturbance and changes in climate, both of which influence the catchment area that resulted in changing vegetation, hydrology, and nutrient cycles. Any change at the regional level, especially temperature, affects local water quality and then ultimately has a species-specific effect on habitat. Chironomids and reconstruction of quantitative change in Holocene climate Researchers assessing chironomid distribution primarily examine the temperature, while considering supporting factors, such as pH, salinity, nutrient flow, and productivity, especially of the late Pleistocene/Holocene time period. For many years, research has been carried out into the relationship between temperature and chironomid distribution due to the impact of temperature on chironomid emergence. Chironomids are directly and indirectly affected by temperature during their entire life cycle, including larval emergence, growth, feeding and reproduction. According to Eggermont and Heiri, the indirect impact of temperature on different physical and chemical aspects determines chironomid distribution and abundance. There is also a strong relationship between chironomid abundance, emergence, and distribution and mean water and air temperatures. According to research conducted in the high-altitude lake Lej da la Tscheppa, Switzerland, seasonal temperature reconstruction can be done with the help of independent chironomids and diatoms. Any change in the assemblage of chironomids reflects change in the temperature and duration of ice cover of that body of water due to climate change. According to their findings, chironomids respond mostly to change in summer temperature, so seasonal variation in temperature can be inferred from sediment cores. Use of chironomids in assessments of anthropogenic climate change According to the fifth IPCC report (2014), a key factor in the shaping of aquatic biodiversity is the progression of human-induced climate change. Macroinvertebrates, especially chironomids, have been considered an important indicator of past climate change, in particular with regard to temperature. There is a strong correlation between the chironomid assemblage and water temperature, lake depth, salinity, and nutrient concentrations. Therefore, the impact of climate change on lake water levels can be related to changes in the pattern of chironomid distribution and abundance. This strong correlation indicates the evaporation and precipitation profiles of the lake in the past. Past climatic conditions are reconstructed based on paleolimnology with the help of different fossilized records, especially lake sediments that help differentiate regional and local climate change. References Aquatic ecology Limnology Lakes Paleoclimatology Paleoecology Paleogeography Limnology
4636744	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20contract%20law	Australian contract law	The law of contract in Australia is similar to other Anglo-American common law jurisdictions. Contract law in Australia differs from other jurisdictions because of statute law, and divergent development of common law by the High Court, particularly since the since the 1980s. A brief history Australian courts take the view that contract law arose in the actions of assumpsit, and concepts of motive and reliance. Bargain theory is an important part of how contract law is understood; quid pro quo, is understood to be an essential element. The law of equity plays an important role in Australian contracts, and will affect which remedies may be available when a contractual promise is breached. Doctrines of importance to contract law practitioners include negligent mis-statement, promissory estoppel, and misleading or deceptive conduct. Formation There are five essential elements necessary for legally binding contract formation: Agreement between the parties. There cannot be a unilateral contract. Consideration (a bargain requirement: generally, the supply of money, property or services or a promise to undertake, or not undertake a particular act in exchange for something of value); Capacity to enter legal relations (e.g. of sound mind and legal age); Intention by the parties to enter into legal relations (private non-commercial agreements between family members may not indicate intention to enter a legally binding contract and therefore may not be enforceable); and Certainty (the contract has to be complete, certain, clear and binding). The absence of any of these elements will signify either that there is in law no agreement or that the agreement is not enforceable as a contract. In most jurisdictions contracts do not need to be represented in writing and oral contract are as enforceable as written contracts. However, there are a number of exceptions that have been created by statute follow from the Statute of Frauds 1677 (UK) and were principally designed to reduce fraud. Examples are marine insurance which is not enforceable unless it is documented in writing. Also consumer credit must be documented in written form with a copy provided to the consumer. Similar formalities are required for the sale of land. The courts however will intervene so that the Statute of Frauds is not made an instrument of fraud. Agreement The existence of an agreement between the parties is usually analysed through the rules of offer and acceptance. This may be expressed as a clear indication ("offer") by one party (the "offeror") of a willingness to be bound on certain terms. accompanied by a communication by the other party (the "offeree") to the offeror of an unqualified assent to that offer ("acceptance"). An offer indicates an intention by the offeror to be bound without further discussion or negotiation, on acceptance of the terms set out. The court will determine the offeror's intention objectively. It is distinguished from an "invitation to treat", which is a request to others to make offers to engage in negotiations with a contract in mind. Items displayed for sale are invitations to treat. An offer is also distinguished from "mere puff". An offer may be made to become liable to anyone who, before it is withdrawn, accepts the offer. It may be restricted to certain classes of people; or on the other hand be made to anyone who, before it is withdrawn, accepts the offer, including unascertained persons, or to the public at large. However, an offer is ineffective until it has been communicated, either by the offeror or a third person acting with the offeror's authority. In some circumstances, the difference between an offer and an invitation to treat can be hard to recognize. For example, in property auction cases the auctioneers language should generally be constructed to be inviting bids, as opposed to offering the house. According to the New South Wales Supreme Court case of AGC (Advances) Ltd v McWhirter, withdrawing a properties reserve price during an auction does not obligate the sale. This is different to the British case, Barry v Davies which found that if an auctioneer removes the reserve, they are bound to sell to a bona fide purchaser. An acceptance of the offer resulting in a binding contract must take place with knowledge of the offer and an intention to accept the offer. Although acceptance need not be express and may be implied from conduct, it must correspond with the offer; be unequivocal; and in general, be communicated to the offeror. Silence cannot be requested by the offeror to be, or used by the offeree as a method of communication for acceptance. Rather, if after a reasonable period has lapsed, silence will be seen as a rejection to the offer, unless the offeree's actions objectively show otherwise. Where a purported acceptance proposes one or more additional or different terms it is ineffective as an acceptance, unless the variation is solely in favour of the offeror. A purported acceptance will also be ineffective if made at a time when the offer has lapsed by virtue of time; if it is made subject to a contingency and that contingency ceases to exist; if the offeror dies and the offeree has notice of this fact; by the revocation of the offeror or the rejection by the offeree. Furthermore, it is important to note that the postal rule is an exception to the general rule that acceptance of an offer takes place when communicated to the offeror. Under the rule, acceptance of an offer is effective as soon as it is posted, notwithstanding it may be lost in the delivery process and not received by the offerer. However, the postal acceptance rule does not extend to instantaneous telecommunication methods, such as telephone, facsimile, and, presumably, emails. This means that, where acceptance is communicated electronically, contract is formed when and where acceptance is received, rather than at the moment it is posted. Transactions via electronic communications are now governed by statute. However, the rules of offer and acceptance are merely "an aid to analysis", and may sometimes prove inconclusive or artificial. A contract can be made without an identifiable offer and acceptance, provided the parties have manifested their mutual assent. The "acid test" in a case where offer and acceptance cannot be identified, according to Justice Cooke in Meates v Attorney-General, "is whether, viewed as a whole and objectively from the point of view of reasonable persons on both sides, the dealings show a concluded bargain." Consideration The second element necessary for contract formation is consideration. A promise will be enforceable as a contract only if it is supported by consideration, Consideration can be anything from money to a promise to undertake or not undertake a particular act, even a mere peppercorn could suffice. In Australian law, the question of sufficiency of consideration does not refer to 'adequacy' as it is not the role of the judge to determine and value whether something is adequate or valuable or not. This accounts for the fact that different things mean differently to different parties. Sufficient consideration may also include abstract exchanges such as 'love and affection'. "Consideration" in this context means that a promise is given in return for a promise received. The usage of the word derives from expressions such as: "I will give you ten pounds in consideration of the apples you are delivering to me." Joint promisees: Consideration given in return for a promise must move from the promisee; where there are joint promisees in a contract, consideration may be provided by one on behalf of both of them, or consideration may be provided by both promisees. Generally past consideration is not sufficient consideration but a past service performed at the request of the promisor with an implication they will be paid for is sufficient consideration for a subsequent promise to pay for them. Illusory Consideration: An agreement may be held as void if a vital provision is deemed to be illusory. That is, that one part has a discretion either to the performance or to the content of that provision. Note, if one party has some latitude or discretion as to the manner in which certain agreed provisions will be effected, but that discretion is limited, then the provisions are not illusory. Further, a contract will not be illusory where an essential term is left to the discretion of a third party. Capacity Contractual capacity refers to the ability of a party to enter into a legally binding contract. Minors, drunks, and the mentally impaired may not possess adequate capacity however the ordinary reasonable person is presumed by default to have contractual capacity. Where there is a lack of capacity to contract, an agreement may be rendered void. Intention The fourth element is that the parties must create an intention to create legal relations. The intention requirement has often been approached on the basis that parties to commercial arrangements are presumed to intend legal consequences, while parties to social or domestic agreements are presumed not to intend legal consequences. Such presumptions determine who bears the onus of proof. In Ermogenous v Greek Orthodox Community of SA, a case relating to the engagement of a minister of religion, the High Court was, however, critical of the utility of a language of presumptions in this context. Preliminary agreements become apparent when parties enter into an agreement, however that is yet to have been formalised in a more intricate agreement which will be signed by both parties. Where one party later refuses to continue with the agreement, the question thus arises whether the first agreement was intended to be enforceable. In Masters v Cameron the High Court held three possibilities to be available; The parties are immediately bound to the bargain, but they intend to restate the deal in a more formalized contract that will not have a different effect; or, Parties intended to be immediately bound, however their performance of terms is suspended until their intention is formalised through conclusion of legal documentation; or, Parties do not intend to be immediately bound, instead they intend to be bound only when a properly drawn contract has been signed. There is a prima facie presumption that this third category is evident where the phrase 'subject to contract' has been utilised. Subsequent authorities have been willing to recognize a fourth category in addition to those stated in Masters v Cameron. The parties intend to immediately bound by the terms agreed upon and expect to create a further contract as a replacement for the initial contract which will contain additional terms (if agreed upon). Although the fourth category may seem similar to the first Masters v Cameron category, the distinction is the formal contract may differ in effect from the initial agreement. Certainty For contract formation the agreement must be sufficiently certain and sufficiently complete that the parties' rights and obligations can be identified and enforced. The topic of certainty encompasses three related and often overlapping problems: The agreement may be incomplete because the parties have failed to reach agreement on all of the essential elements or have decided that an essential matter should be determined by future agreement; The agreement may be uncertain because the terms are too vague or ambiguous for a meaning to be attributed by a court; A particular promise may be illusory because the contract effectively gives the promisor an unfettered discretion as to whether to perform the promise. The case law reflect the tension between, on the one hand, the desire to hold parties to their bargains in accordance with the principle pacta sunt servanda and, on the other hand, the courts' reluctance to make a bargain for the parties. Although there have been differences in Australian judicial opinion as to the role of the court in giving effect to a contract, in general the courts give primacy to the need to uphold agreements, particularly executed agreements and commercial arrangements. Terms A term is any clause or provision in a contract. The two main issues which arise in relation to contractual terms are: what are the terms of the contract (identification) and what are their legal effects (construction). Express terms An express term is an enforceable, promissory statement, written or oral, that makes up part of a contract. Only terms made reasonably available to each party before a contract is made can be incorporated into the contract. For example, a party can incorporate terms when the other party knows, before or at the time the contract was made, that a delivered document or a displayed sign on premises contained the contractual terms in question. However, for tickets with unusual and obscure terms, the passenger must be given reasonable notice and time to read the provisions, especially if they refer to terms found elsewhere. If parties have had a history of dealings, the contractual terms introduced in earlier contracts may be incorporated into a subsequent contract, as being known by the parties. For these terms to be incorporated into the present contract, the course of dealings between the parties needs to have been regular and uniform, contractual in nature, consistent, and sufficiently long. Although some statements made before the contract was entered into may have been intended to operate as terms, not all such statements will in fact operate as terms. Whether or not a statement made during negotiations is an enforceable term depends on whether or not the contract is one that is fully in writing, or one that contains an oral agreement. If a contract is fully in writing, then no statements made outside of the contractual document will be enforceable. This is known as the Parol evidence rule. This is sometimes made even more explicit by the inclusion of an entire agreement clause, which clarifies that no other statements or extrinsic materials may have any bearing on the terms. In the absence of an entire agreement or merger clause, the parties' intention for the whole of the agreement to be in the written contract must be considered. By the flexible approach, extrinsic evidence may be admitted in the determination of whether the agreement is wholly in writing. That is, the prima facie appearance of the contract to be a complete contract provides no more than an evidentiary basis for inferring that the document was wholly written. The presence of a written document creates a presumption that all the terms are contained in that document, but courts have recently been willing to allow this presumption to be rebutted. If the extrinsic evidence was promissory in nature and viewed objectively was intended by the parties to supplement the written document and form part of the contract, the existence of the evidence may support the view that the document was not wholly in writing and thus could be incorporated into the contract. Such a contract would be considered to be partly written and partly oral. For contracts that are made entirely by oral agreement, a statement will be an express term if it is promissory in nature. Implied terms Apart from the terms expressly agreed, by reason of what the parties have written or said, implied terms may also exist to impose obligations on the parties or to qualify the terms of their bargain. Implied terms are not necessarily excluded by entire contract clauses. Terms implied in fact A term may be implied ‘in fact’ into a contract, to give full effect to the presumed intentions of the contracting parties. Terms implied in fact are terms that are ‘tailored’, and therefore unique, to the particular contract in question. Terms implied in fact are traditionally said to be based on the ‘presumed’ intentions of the parties concerned. In formal contracts, in ascertaining a party's presumed intentions, reliance is placed on the rule handed down in BP Refinery (Westernport) Pty Ltd v Shire of Hastings (1977) where, for a term to be implied, the following conditions must be satisfied: Reasonable and Equitable: it must be reasonable and equitable. Reasonableness alone is not a sufficient reason for implying a term. Business Efficacy: it must be necessary to give business efficacy to the contract so that no term will be implied if the contract is effective without it. This question may be interpreted as being whether or not reasonable persons would consider that the proposed term was necessary to enable the contract to operate in a businesslike manner. Obviousness: it must be so obvious that "it goes without saying". Prima facie, that which in any contract is left to be implied and need not be expressed is something so obvious that it goes without saying; so that, if, while the parties were making their bargain, an officious bystander were to suggest some express provision for it in their agreement, they would testily suppress him with a common ‘Oh, of course!’. Clarity: it must be capable of clear and precise expression. Consistency: it must not contradict any express term of the contract. These criteria have been approved by the High Court on numerous occasions. In the case of an informal contract, where the parties have not attempted to stipulate the full terms, the courts should imply a term upon referring to the imputed intention of the parties, provided that the particular term is necessary for the effective operation of the contract. In implying terms in an informal contract, the High Court has suggested that a flexible approach is required. In a case where it is apparent that the parties have not attempted to spell out the full terms of their contract, the court should imply a term by reference to the imputed intentions of the parties if, but only if, it can be seen that the implication of the particular term is necessary for the reasonable or effective operation of a contract of that nature in the circumstances of the case. Obviousness also remains an important element in implying a term in an informal contract. Terms implied in law Terms implied in law are terms automatically implied in contracts of a particular class or description deriving from legal principles rather than the intentions of the parties to the contract. For a term to be implied in law, the relevant test is whether the omission of the term would significantly diminish the rights of the parties under contract. This has been referred to as the test of necessity, which has been differentiated from the business efficacy test conducted in the implication of terms in fact, due to the former test taking into regard considerations of policy, and among other things such as the nature of the contract, and justice and policy. Terms implied by custom A term can also be implied by customs. The existence of a custom or usage that will justify the implication of a term into a contract is a question of facts. There must be evidence that the custom relied on is so well known and acquiesced in that everyone making a contract in that situation can reasonably be presumed to have imported that term into the contract. The custom is only to be inferred from a large number of individual acts which shows an established understanding of a course of business. The implied term cannot contradict an existing express term. However, a person may still be bound by a custom notwithstanding the fact that he had no knowledge of it. Construction of terms Where the terms of the contract are ambiguous or susceptible to more than one meaning, evidence of surrounding circumstances and context may be admissible to assist in its interpretation. The High Court has recently reiterated the Codelfa ruling regarding the use of existence evidence in the interpretation of contacts. For example, this would commonly invite one to examine the commercial purpose of the transaction, its background and context, common practices etc. Moreover, courts tend to favour an interpretation that produces a reasonable commercially accepted result and avoids unjust or inconvenient consequences to both parties. It is also important to note that the subjective intention of the parties is irrelevant. The construction of contractual documents is determined by what a reasonable person in the position of the party would have understood the words to mean. With regard to a recent judgment made by the High Court in Western Export Services Inc v Jireh International Pty Ltd, Justices Gummow, Heydon and Bell agree the position of the Australian courts: where a court is not justified in disregarding unambiguous language simply because the contract would have a more commercial and businesslike operation if an interpretation different to that dictated by the language were adopted. This High Court decision defends the original NSW Court of Appeal judgment and ultimately upholds the rule observed in Codelfa and Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust v South Sydney City Council. Effect of a signature The L'Estrange Rule governs the effect of a signature in contracts law, which states that a party is bound by the terms of a contractual document once it is signed regardless of whether or not the party has read or understood the terms in a contract. Toll (FGCT) Pty Ltd v Alphapharm Pty Ltd affirms this objective approach as it upholds that a person who signs either has read and approved the contents of the document or is willing to take the chance of being bound by the content. To undermine that assumption would cause serious mischief. This is on the basis that it provides an objective criteria as to whether a party has agreed to the terms of a contract. However, this rule is subject to exceptions. A signature will not be binding where the signature was obtained by a fraud or misrepresentation, or where document was not known to be a contract by the party signing it. The signature will not be binding if the document signed cannot be reasonably considered a contractual document, this includes receipts, vouchers, timesheet etc. The act of signature or executive enables third parties to assume the legal efficacy of the contract. Illegality A contract may be illegal because it is prohibited by statute or because it infringes a rule of public policy. Where a contract is not expressly or implicitly prohibited by statute, the court must discern from the scope and purpose of the relevant statute "whether the legislative purpose will be fulfilled without regarding the contract or the trust as void and unenforceable". There are a range of consequences of illegality: Unenforceable contract: Where a contract is found to be unenforceable, it continues to be valid if both parties perform the agreement, but the court will not enforce it. However, there is some support for the view that a plaintiff who was innocent should be able to enforce the contract. Non-Retrieval: Another consequence of illegality is that neither party may recover money or property transferred under the affected contract. However, there are exceptions where the plaintiff is a victim of the contract, or where the plaintiff repents and repudiates the contract before the illegal purpose is carried out. Estoppel: A party may be prevented from avoiding his or her contractual obligations under the doctrine of estoppel, where there are notions of unconscionability, despite the illegality. Rescission: Puts party in positions before the formation of the contract. E.g., any deposits held previously by a vendor in a sale shall be returned. Parties in rescission cannot be awarded compensation for collateral loss. Statutory penalty if a statutory penalty has been provided for an offence, this may diminish the effect of the common law in determining the legal consequences. Thus where the statute provides for an authority to have a supervisory role, the court should not pre-empt the effect of the exercise of those regulatory powers. Termination The common law rule against perpetuities means that every contract must come to an end in one way or an other. The contract may be completed, it may be for a fixed period of time, in which case the contract automatically comes to an end once that time expires. Express right to terminate A contract may include an express term grant an express right for either or both parties to terminate. Such a clause may provide for the termination of the contract in 3 ways, 'at will' (granting a right to terminate at any time), with notice (granting a right to terminate in compliance with a notice termination procedure), or when triggered by specified events (such as a breach of contractual condition or non-fulfilment of a contingent condition). Implied right to terminate Where a contract does not contain an express right to terminate, courts may find that the contract includes an implied right for one or both of the parties to terminate the contract. An implied termination clause usually requires the giving of reasonable notice of termination. What constitutes 'reasonable notice' is a question of fact, and will depend on the circumstances of the individual case. Termination by Subsequent Agreement Parties may terminate a contract by making a subsequent agreement under which they both agree to release the other party from their obligations under the original contract. This subsequent contract must comply with the ordinary rules of contract formation, including consideration. Where both parties still have obligations to perform under the contract, each party will provide consideration in agreeing to release the other part from his or her remaining obligations. In cases where contracts have been partly performed (where one party has fully performed their obligations under the contract), the non-performing party can also provide fresh consideration by an accord and satisfaction. This is the purchase of a release from an obligation by giving any valuable consideration that is not the actual performance of the original obligation. The need for consideration can be avoided by executing a deed. Where parties make no express statement of how the subsequent agreement interacts with the original, it can be inferred from the circumstances whether the original contract has been terminated. The parties may have intended the subsequent agreement to replace the original contract, or they may have intended it to vary the terms of the original contract. Whether the agreement was intended to replace or vary the original is a 'matter of degree'. Dependent upon the circumstances in each case different aspects may be considered by a court. Concut v Worrell illustrates some factors that may be assessed in employment relationships. Termination for breach In the absence of an express term for the termination of a contract, whether a breach of the contract gives rise to a right for the innocent party to terminate the contract depends on the classification of the term as a: Condition: An aggrieved party will be entitled to terminate for any breach of that term by the other party regardless of the gravity or consequences of that breach. The appropriate test is the test of essentiality. The promise is of such importance to the promisee that he would not have entered into the contract unless he had been assured of a strict or a substantial performance of the promise and this ought to have been apparent to the promisor. This is an objective test of the parties' intention at the time of formation of the contract. Warranty: Warranties arise if, in the absence of a clear expression to the contrary, there is no possibility that a breach of a particular term would deprive the aggrieved party of all or part of their expected benefit from the contract as a whole. Therefore, the aggrieved party will not be entitled to terminate merely by reason of a breach of the term by the other party. Intermediate or innominate term: the aggrieved party's right to terminate will depend on the severity of the breach and its consequence. The seriousness of the breach will determine whether termination is allowed or the party can sue for damages. If the breach is likely to have serious consequences for further performance then they will be entitled to terminate. The test for serious innominate terms is whether the breach would deprive the aggrieved party of substantially the whole benefit intended under the contract. The test for whether the term is essential and therefore gives rise to the right to terminate is: whether it appears from the general nature of the contract, or from some particular term or terms, that the promise is of such importance to the promisee that he would not have entered into the contract unless he had been assured of a strict or substantial performance of the promise and that this was apparent to the promisor. Termination for failure of contingent condition Parties may make the formation and performance of their contract conditional upon the occurrence of a specified event that neither party promises to ensure will occur. If the event does not occur, then one or both parties will be entitled to terminate the contract. The parties must do everything reasonably in their power to see that the contingent condition is fulfilled. The time for fulfilment of a contingent condition may be expressly specified in the condition. If no time is specified, the courts will construe the contract as requiring the condition be fulfilled within a reasonable period of time, having regard to the circumstances of the case. In certain contracts, it may be unclear if non-fulfilment of a contingent condition has occurred where there is a subjective requirement in the contract, such as whether one party has achieved "satisfactory finance." If the contingent condition is a subjective fact, parties must act "honestly" or genuinely believe the condition to be true. Both parties may act together to agree to waive a contingent condition, meaning that they would be bound by that agreement and many not terminate the contract for non-fulfillment of the condition. A party can waive the contingent condition if the contingent condition was for the benefit of that party. Termination for repudiation Where one party manifests an unwillingness/inability to perform his/her contractual obligations, the other party has the right to terminate. This does not depend upon the subjective intention of that party. An intention to repudiate may be evinced through either express or implied conduct, or may be ascertained from a combination of smaller breaches. The unwillingness/inability to perform must relate to whole of the contract, to a condition of the contract or be "fundamental". This may be evidenced by a single act or by an accumulation of conduct. It has been laid down by the High Court in Shevill v Builders Licensing Board (Shevill) that the lessor cannot claim for loss of damages but is entitled to receive arrears in rent because the lessor could only rely on a contractual right to terminate, and not on a common law right. It is noteworthy that the said anti-Shevill clauses have been commonly included in the leasing agreements since Shevill, which provide that specified terms are essential terms or conditions, that any breach of such terms will be fundamental and the landlord has the rights to claim for damages on termination on the ground of a breach of essential terms. The High Court confirmed that the anti-Shevill clauses are effective in Gumland Property Holdings Pty Limited v Duffy Bros Fruit Market (Campbelltown) Pty Limited. A party may also repudiate a contract through a lack of willingness or ability to perform some particular obligations. That will be the case where the particular obligations is "fundamental", and it would deprive the aggrieved part of substantially the whole of the benefit of the obligations remaining to be performed under the contract. Anticipatory Breach is an important aspect of the doctrine of repudiation. Anticipatory Breach occurs where one party repudiates their obligations under the contract prior to the time set to perform obligations. In response, an aggrieved party may, by accepting the repudiation, elect to terminate the contract and claim damages. However, in an instance where an aggrieved party chooses not to accept the repudiation occurring before the time set for performance, the contract will continue on food and the aggrieved party will have no right to damages unless and until an actual breach occurs. A party that acts on a genuine but erroneous view of its obligations under the contract will not for that reason alone have repudiated it. That party may still be willing to perform the contract according to its tenor; to recognise its heresy; or to accept an authoritative exposition of the contract Renunciation is an alternate term where the conduct of a party is no longer willing or able to perform see Koompahtoo Local Aboriginal Land Council v Sanpine Pty Limited. Termination by frustration Frustration occurs whenever the law recognises that without fault of either party, a contractual obligation has become incapable of being performed because the circumstances in which performance is called for would render it a thing radically different from that which was undertaken by the contract. The elements of frustration are: The event occurring after the contract was made, must make it physically or legally impossible to perform what was originally promised (i.e. it is not enough that it makes it more difficult or more expensive) The party seeking to rely on the frustration is not at fault for the frustrating event; The contract must not have exhibited an intent that one or other was to bear the risk of occurrence of events of this kind; Frustration is seldom found in unexpected (and unprovided for) circumstances that could reasonably have been foreseen at the time of contracting. A contract may be frustrated by events which cause, or are likely to cause, an inordinate delay in the performance of the contract. The delay must be such as to seriously affect the intended performance of the contract. Examples of frustration include: where as a result of a change in the law, performance of a contract is rendered illegal; where a particular thing which forms the subject matter of a contract, and whose continued existence of which is essential to the performance of that contract, ceases to exist; where the basis of the contract is dependent on the continued existence of a particular set of circumstances which cease to exist; Where the decisions of government interferes to render a contract something entirely different from the one the parties originally made. Termination by delay Whether delay gives rise to a right to terminate will depend on the terms of the contract. Where the contract stipulates a time for performance, the issue is whether the time stipulation can be regarded as being a condition of the contract, that is the time is considered to be "essential" and time is "of the essence". If time is of the essence and there is a failure by one party to perform their obligations under the contract by the appropriate time, the innocent party will have a right to elect to terminate the contract. Where the contract stipulates a time for performance, however time is not of the essence and there is a failure by one party to perform their obligations under the contract by the appropriate time, the innocent party may still gain a right to terminate for the delay through use of the notice procedure. Either the delay must be shown to be unreasonable, after which a party can issue a notice with regards to termination, or the offending party must already be in actual breach of the time stipulated in the contract. The notice must specify a reasonable time for completion, indicate that time is of the essence and that failure to adhere to the conditions will result in termination of the contract. Additionally, the non-offending party must be ready, willing and able to perform their contractual obligations at the time the notice is issued. Where there is no time is specified for performance, the law implies an obligation to perform within a reasonable time. In such circumstances, it is highly unlikely that time will be viewed as being "of the essence", unless failure to perform within a reasonable time will have serious consequences for the aggrieved party. Restrictions on termination Restrictions on the right to terminate for non-fulfilment of a contingent condition A party may lose the right to terminate for non-fulfilment of contingent condition if the party has prevented the condition's performance or has intimated that they do not intend to perform the contract. Furthermore, a party who waives the right to rely on non-fulfilment of contingent condition will be bound by this decision once it has been communicated to other party. The right to terminate for non-fulfilment of a contingent condition can also be restricted by doctrines of estoppel, good faith, where one party falsely leads other party into believing they will not exercise their right to terminate contract on the basis of non fulfilment of contingent condition, misleading or deceptive conduct or unconscionable conduct in breach of the Australian Consumer Law. Election and affirmation When the aggrieved party gains the right to terminate (whether by breach, repudiation or other causes), they must make a decision whether to terminate or not. This decision is referred to as 'election'. The Aggrieved party must elect whether to terminate the contract, or to affirm it (and thus continue it). Once a decision is made, it cannot be reversed. For there to be an election the aggrieved party must be aware that they have the right to terminate and must display unequivocal conduct that is only consistent with the performance of the contract. Election If the aggrieved party elects to terminate, both parties are discharged from future obligations and the aggrieved party can receive damages. In order for this to occur, the aggrieved party must be ready and willing to perform the contract at the time of breach. Affirmation In order to affirm a contract, the aggrieved party must have Knowledge of facts giving rise to right to terminate. Act in a way that is unequivocally consistent with choice to continue contract Because the Aggrieved Party has affirmed the contract, they do not have the right to terminate any longer. The non-performing party is thereby absolved and is treated as a normal party. They are henceforth entitled to rely on subsequent events e.g. frustration or breach of term by the Aggrieved party to their own advantage. Australian legislation affecting contracts Most States have effected statutes relating to the sale of goods, such as the Sale of Goods Act 1896, (Qld) which imply conditions and warranties in relation to fitness and merchantability. However, in many instances such implied terms can be displaced by the contrary intention appearing in the contract between the parties. This has meant that, in practice, in many sale of goods contracts these provisions are displaced. There are similar implied terms under the Australian Consumer Law relating to fitness and duty to take reasonable care in some classes of contract, and these particular terms are unable to be displaced by contrary intention: that is, the term will be implied into a contract of that kind irrespective of the parties' intention. The Australian Consumer Law, together with Fair Trading legislation in all states, also allows a corporation or person to be sued where they have engaged in misleading or deceptive conduct regarding commercial or trade matters. Independent Contractors Act 2006 (Cth) Frustrated Contracts Act 1978 (NSW) Contracts Review Act 1980 (NSW) When Equity may intervene The common law will hold a contract to be binding as long the essential elements for a contract are present (i.e. agreement, consideration, certainty etc.). However, in certain situations equity may intervene and make the contract either voidable or void. The rule in Yerkey v Jones and the principles of non-est factum, misrepresentation, and special disadvantage. are some of the situations in which equity may intervene and make the contract voidable or void. To note, a defence to the principle in Yerkey v Jones, is that the "wives guarantee" will not apply if the lender can show that they took reasonable steps to ensure they had reasonable grounds for believing that the consent was fairly obtained. Furthermore, equitable relief seeks to remedy unconscionability and not to punish the wrongdoer. An important equitable remedy is the order of equitable rescission where the advantage over its common law counterpart is that the parties need not be restored precisely to their position before the contract. Vitiating factors A number of decisions from Australian courts have also affected the circumstances where legal action can be taken regarding contracts, recognising factors that change contractual obligations. These include situations involving "unconscionable dealings", where one party is at a "special disadvantage", or where a party exercises "undue influence", and will commonly result in the contract being declared void or voidable by the court. Other vitiating factors may include "misrepresentation" if it amounts to a false statement of a material fact made by the representor to the represent in order to induce the represent to enter into the contract and which has this effect, "misleading and deceptive conduct", "mistake", "duress", and "unconscionable conduct". In general law, the remedy for vitiating factors is rescission and full restoration, even in cases of third party impropriety. References External links The Law Handbook series published in each state NSW Chapter 12 NT: Qld: SA: Tas: Vic: Australian Contract Law
4636993	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%20Milan	Gabriel Milan	Gabriel Milan ( – 26 March 1689) was a Sephardic colonial administrator and planter who served as governor of the Danish West Indies from 7 May 1684 to 27 February 1686. Though he mainly went by the name of 'Gabriel Milan', he identified himself as "Don Franco de Tebary Cordova" in his correspondence with King Frederick III of Denmark-Norway. Like many of the early Danish West Indies governors, Milan's term was short, as he disagreed with the Danish management on several issues. He was called to Denmark after less than two years and executed after a lengthy trial. Early life Milan came from a reputable Sephardic Jewish family, likely from Spain, and had connections in Portugal, Flanders, and Hamburg. Some genealogists note that he is the son of Manuel Cardoso de Miläo and Sara de Cáceres. At some point, his family was forced into a Catholic baptism, however, they had re-assumed their Jewish identity by the time of Milan's life. Milan was first married to the daughter of Benjamin Musaphia, a Jewish scholar and author of a number of scientific works regarding archaeology, Semite philology, and alchemy. His wife's given name was not recorded in any sources, except that her last name was De Castro and her family's coat of arms depicting a moor's head. Thus, his family was related by marriage to the well-known Portuguese-Jewish houses of da Costa. Among the people connected to this family was Emanuel Teixiera Cardosa de Milan (also known as Isaac Haim Senior Teixeira – d. 1705), a wealthy merchant of the Portuguese Jewish community in Hamburg who was Milan's uncle by marriage. Another of Milan's uncles was Moseh Abenzur, a shipowner and jeweller who was also known by the names, Paulo de Milao, Milan, and Poul Didricksen. Moseh's oldest son, Josua Abenzur, was the brother-in-law of Milan and in his early dealings, Milan often borrowed money from Josua. Milan begun his career as a soldier, notably as a colonel in the Spanish cavalry in Flanders (1654–55). He participated in the Thirty Years' War on the Spanish side against France in 1657, and fought at the Battle of Dunkerque. During this period, Milan was living in Brussels and later served under Cardinal Mazarin. In 1667, Milan was an Amsterdam merchant, concerned with financing Prince George of Denmark. In 1668, he was made Danish Factor, and, in 1670, Factor-General in Amsterdam. In this capacity, Milan composed reports on political and commercial matters, which afforded him confidential relations with various important people at the Danish Court. Here Milan learned to speak Spanish, French, Portuguese, German, and Dutch. Milan's first wife died in 1675, leaving behind two children. Shortly thereafter, Milan married the widow Juliane Regina von Breitenbach. With Juliane, Milan had five children (see The children of Gabriel Milan). By 1684, the affairs of St. Thomas were moving too swiftly for the comfort of the directors at Copenhagen. George Iversen, the first Governor of St. Thomas, recounted that he was forced to conform to Adolph Esmit and later, Esmit's older brother, Nicolai, and was held in his office until a new incumbent was secured. The patience of the English government was exhausted, and they had no interest in hearing Esmit's complaints. At a shareholders' meeting on March 10, the directors of the Danish company were asked to choose a new Governor. Two candidates presented themselves, Balthasar Lachmann, who was an auditor, and Gabriel Milan. Milan was selected because for his linguistic knowledge and business ability. The recommendation, dated March 14, was signed by the executive committee of the directors, consisting of Albert Gyldensparre, a brother of the disgraced Count Griffenfeld; Abraham Wüst, later to become a member of the Board of Trade; and Edward Holst. On May 7, 1684, the King issued an order that deposed Adolph Esmit and named Gabriel Milan as Governor of St. Thomas. Governorship To take the new governorship and his retinue over to the West Indies, the King set aside the warship Fortuna, armed with forty guns, and provided the ship with a crew of eighty men. Captain George Meyer, a German-speaking officer who was in the Danish-Norwegian service for five years, commanded the boat. Milan brought his family (his wife; his grown son, Felix; and his other four children), a governess, three maids, three lackeys and laborer, and a Tartar. The directors also sent Niels Lassen as Lieutenant Governor of sorts, and John Lorentz to serve as an assistant. Lavish provisions were made for the Governor's comfort. Various foreign wines were on board, and place was found for six to seven dogs. The King furnished Milan with 6,000 rigsdaler (rdl) cash for Milan's immediate needs and gave him part of his salary in advance. Captain Meyer was entrusted with the secret order directing that, in case of Milan's death, Lassen would succeed him as the Governor. In case of Lassen's death, Lieutenant Christopher Heins of St. Thomas would take charge. Milan tried in vain to get an appointment to the Board of Trade on the ground that he knew the tricks of traders and money-changers, and he accumulated a list of claims against his royal master for services rendered in the Netherlands—from espionage to loans of money—which he had small chance of collecting in cash. His prospects of getting into the employ of the state were improved when, on January 18, 1682, he secured a certificate showing that he had discussed with a Hamburg Lutheran minister the relative merits of Catholicism and Protestantism, and thereby become convinced of the truth of the Augsburg Confession, and partook of the Holy Communion. In depending upon the favor of princes, he had been forced, even before his appointment as Governor, to drink deep from the cup of misfortune. However praiseworthy the King's selection of this 53-year-old soldier of fortune for service in the company might have been from motives of humanity, his choice could scarcely have been looked upon by hard-headed business men with anything but misgivings. The Fortuna arrived at St. Thomas on October 13, 1684, after a voyage of about nine weeks. At Nevis Milan called on October 6 to pay his respects to Governor Stapleton and to receive the latter's "instruction". Sir William seems to have availed himself of the opportunity to accompany Milan and to witness Adolph Esmit's final disgrace. Esmit handed over the reins of office without delay or resistance. He also handed over a treasury so empty that when the English were ready to depart, after having been entertained for ten days, the money needed for the purchase of parting gifts for English dignitaries had to be borrowed by the government from a planter. What was worst of all, Esmit handed over to Milan an island that had become an outlaw among its more reputable neighbors. This was shown clearly enough two months before the latter's arrival, when, on May 22, a Spanish captain, Antonio Martino, landed and carried fifty-six slaves off to Hispaniola or Haiti. Lieutenant Heins had been sent over with two planters to demand the return of the loot, but without success. That Esmit had been prepared for the present contingency there could be no doubt. The gold, silver, and other property that he was able to scrape together had been sent to the Dutch island of St. Eustatius, whence they were to be shipped to Flushing. Although Milan had been instructed only to secure the persons of Esmit and his family and to have them sent to Copenhagen, he took it upon himself to try to secure the latter's property as well, by sending Niels Lassen to Governor Houtcooper of St. Eustatius with an alleged copy of his instructions and a demand for the delivery of the goods. But neither this nor subsequent attempts availed the crafty governor. Instead of seeking redress through diplomatic channels, as his masters expected him to do, he authorized Captain Delicaet to take the company's ship Charlotte Amalie (named after Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Kassel or Hesse-Cassel), find the skipper who had transported the goods and make his ship lawful prize. It was to avoid just this sort of complication that Esmit had been displaced. But Milan was an exponent of direct action, he sought advice from none, and the council dared not oppose his will. Instead of sending his deposed predecessor back to Copenhagen to answer for his stewardship over the company's affairs, and to act as defendant in a suit brought by his brother Nicholas, he clapped him into confinement, first keeping him at the fort as his guest, but later putting him in a prison cell. Madame Esmit had rightly decided that she could be more useful in Copenhagen than in St. Thomas and had started on her journey before Milan arrived. By this time, matters had grown rather beyond her power of control despite all her influential friends and her genius for intrigue, so she confined herself to taking measures to save what she could of the family property. She returned to St. Thomas in December to share the hardships of prison life with her husband. The story of how Governor Milan, his sick body racked with fever almost from the first, restlessly suspicious and ofttimes with reason of his fellow men, jealous of his official power and position, administered the affairs of St. Thomas during his sixteen months' incumbency may be dealt with rather briefly. In Captain Meyer's attempt to provide the Fortuna, with a good return cargo, the governor took but an indifferent interest, and as to the Esmits' returning on the Fortuna, he would have none of it. Just why he should deliberately keep with him persons who could not but be a source of trouble as long as they were near, is difficult to explain on other grounds than cupidity. Milan had been unable to lay his hands on Esmit's gains. In his relations with his council, he showed his arbitrariness and wilfulness. In place of Lieutenant Heins, who happened to be absent on the company's business when Milan arrived, the governor promptly appointed his son, Felix. Instead of selecting permanent councilors from among the planters as he had been instructed to do under certain specified conditions, he put in now one, now another, until fourteen planters had taken part in the government with him. With the other planters Milan was equally whimsical. For trifling misdemeanors, he instituted elaborate investigations and meted out extravagant fines and punishments where a wiser man would have overlooked the whole matter. Offending slaves were made to feel the pressure of the governor's heavy hand. A runaway who might have been mercifully beheaded was impaled alive on a sharpened stick to die in horrible agony. Another slave, arrested on a similar charge, had his foot cut off, after which he was confiscated to the governor's use and put to work in his kitchen. When in the spring following the departure of the Fortuna (on March 31, 1685), Milan got wind of what he at once suspected to be a nefarious plot against his life, he vented his fury upon the unfortunate persons with swift and fiendish vengeance. In the midst of charges and counter-charges, one fact stood out with a clearness that was unmistakable. Milan's stewardship of his own plantation property was above reproach; seventy slaves remained on the plantation even after twenty-five had been returned to an Englishman from whom they had been forcibly seized. Here prosperity was rife. In Copenhagen, Captain Meyer's arrival was naturally awaited with a good deal of interest, even anxiety. The captain's report when he arrived on June 10, 1685, without Adolph Esmit, and even without a word from Milan, gave the directors and shareholders food for thought. Although they had only the captain's unsupported word, the small cargo and Milan's silence could not but rouse their fears that something was seriously wrong at St. Thomas. A meeting of the Company's shareholders was held within two days, and it was decided that the situation was serious enough to justify sending a memorial to the king asking once more for the loan of the Fortuna, and for the sending thence of a commissioner with power to settle all the difficulties. They suggested an attorney or fiscal in the navy department, Mikkel Mikkelsen. The king could do nothing but fall in with the company's recommendations. Commissioner Mikkelsen, armed with full power, left Copenhagen on the Fortuna October 15, 1685, touched at Nevis on February 19 to get the latest St. Thomas advices, and arrived at his destination on February 24, 1686. The governor's son, Ferdinand, had already sent his father a warning from Copenhagen that it was planned to send out a new governor, namely, Captain Meyer, whom the governor had blamed for most of his misfortunes, even his illness. Milan, whose nerves had scarcely recovered from the shock of the "conspiracy," called the planters together in the "German" church. There he informed them of this last "conspiracy," namely, the attempt to place this "rascal" Mikkelsen in the governor's seat "whom he ought to be hanged to the highest tree.". He counselled resistance, exhorted their aid, and by cajolings and threats secured their signatures to a document by which they pledged themselves to leave the land before they would see their governor leave them. But if he proposed to give battle, he needed to secure the sinews of war. He chose a method consistent with his nature. On February 17, 1686, just as the royal commissioner was approaching the West Indian Waters, the governor authorized Captain Daniel Moy to take the company's ship, Charlotte Amalia, and cruise upon the Spaniards wherever they might be of thirty men; Captain Moy put to sea to make war upon the kingdom of Spain. The Charlotte Amalia had no difficulty in finding a Spanish ship on the Porto Rico coast, but the latter vessel had the temerity to answer Captain Moy's fire, wounding one man, killing another, and forcing the valiant captain to beat a nasty retreat to St. Thomas. It was withal an inglorious ending to a sorry enterprise, and not calculated to redeem the good name of the island. The commissioners had arrived in the harbor before the news of the "reprisal" fiasco could reach the governor, and before his "valet", Moses Caille, could return from the French islands, whence he had been sent by the desperate governor in search of help. Sitting in his private room and surrounded by all manner of firearms, the governor drew the parley out for three days before he finally surrendered to the king's representative. Mikkelsen's intimation that Milan's attitude rendered him liable to the charge of rebellion, combined with the fact that the men on whom he could depend were rapidly diminishing in number, brought the governor to his knees. A guard consisting of twelve men from the Fortuna and twelve planters, all under the command of Christopher Heins, was placed at the fort. With his removal to the ship, the reign of Gabriel Milan came to a sudden end. Adolph Esmit and his wife, Charity, likewise the company's merchant, Niels Lassen, who had been in prison since April 30, were taken out of their dungeons and put on board ship. The scene of interest, as far as the company is concerned, was soon to shift to Copenhagen. Nicholas Esmit had already lost his wits while in a Copenhagen prison waiting for a chance to clear himself and to bring action against his brother. The two successors of Nicholas were now to be given a chance to defend their official actions in the Danish courts and before the directors of the company. Commissioner Mikkelsen was employed from March until July with collecting evidence from the planters concerning Milan's conduct. A few extracts from a letter written by the official reporter, Andrew Brock, to director Albert Gyldensparre on June 30, 1686, just before the Fortuna sailed, will give an idea of the proceedings. "I wish for my part that your Excellency could have been here a single day and heard what thundering there has been in the commission, with howling, shouting, and screaming, one against the other, and I had to write it into the protocol just as fast [as they spoke] . . . but God be thanked it is over, and former Lieutenant Christopher Heins was yesterday made governor and vice commandant here. May God in heaven aid him to carry on his government better than his predecessors, which I expect him to do, as he has shown himself only as an honest and upright man. . . . " Milan himself dictated a letter to the directors in justification of his conduct in which he vented his wrath on those inhabitants and employees who had attested to his zeal and faithfulness, but were now shouting, "Crucify him, crucify him!" The letters of the two prisoners, Esmit and Lassen, which were sent over at the same time, bore out on the whole the testimony of the planters, whose sympathies were on the side of those two victims of Milan's wrath. Trial and death Mikkelsen left St. Thomas with his rather uncongenial company on July 5, and did not arrive in Copenhagen until October 12, 1686. Besides the two governors with their families and enslaved servants, the list of passengers included Niels Lassen, Gerhart Philipsen, and John Lorentz, whose testimony was desired in the suits. A commission was appointed within a week to try the case against Milan, but delays in getting the tangled evidence straightened prevented a decision being reached before November 17, 1687. An appeal to the Supreme Court brought further delays, but finally the case was opened on February 14, 1689. The judges rendered their individual opinions on March 14, and judgment was finally pronounced on March 21. The sentence was reported to be not a surprise to those who had followed the case. After an allegedly (by 17th century standards, as anti-Semitism was rampant in Denmark as the first Jewish community in Denmark was only 'permitted' to be established in 1682 see History of the Jews in Denmark) impartial trial Gabriel Milan was found guilty and condemned to lose his property, honor, and life, and his head and hand were to be put upon a stake. A royal pardon saved him from the last grim disgrace, and at dawn on March 26, 1689, he was beheaded on Nytorv Square in Copenhagen. Succession Adolph Esmit's long imprisonment both on St. Thomas and in Copenhagen in 1686 and 1687 had given him grounds for appearing as the injured party, and for demanding some form of restitution. While the Milan trial was dragging slowly on, the former governor and his wife seemed to have been kept in prison in Copenhagen. From their arrival on October 12, 1686, until March, 1687, when Nicholas' case against his brother was finally ready for trial, they remained in confinement. Here, as in the case of Milan, a commission was appointed, and although a number of petty irregularities and cases of tampering with accounts were found, Adolph Esmit was on November 2, 1687, given a verdict of not guilty. On the same day, the directors of the company named him governor of St. Thomas, A few days later a fleet of three ships, the Young Tobias, the Red Cock (Den Røde Hane) and the Maria left Copenhagen for the West Indies. Accompanying Adolph Esmit, and in command of the fleet, was vice-admiral Iver Hoppe who seems to have had secret orders to being Esmit back with him to Denmark in case he proved intractable. In 1689, the governor and council proposed that a sugar mill should be put up on Milan's former plantation, and ventured the opinion that if sugar cane should prove successful on the Company's plantations, it would prove more profitable than cotton or tobacco. The children of Gabriel Milan After the execution of Gabriel Milan, his second wife stayed in Denmark with some of the children. She was granted 100 rdl. by the crown, as she had lost all. By Unknown de Castro (?–1675), the daughter of Benjamin Musaphia. Felix Milan (<1658– >1689) possibly in Brussels. Was on Milan's council during his governance. Probably left Denmark after Gabriel Milan's execution. Frantz Ferdinand Milan (1658– >1687) in Brussels (possibly Amsterdam). At differing times lieutenant in the Danish, Dutch and Swedish armies. Later life unknown. By Juliana Regina von Breitenbach (? – September, 1698), a widow, likely born in the Netherlands. Died in Denmark. Carl Friderich Milan (ca. 1676–1738) in Amsterdam. Died in Copenhagen, Denmark. Painter. By Anna Marie Kesler (February 14, 1676 – November 25, 1730). Gabriel Ferdinand Milan (ca. 1700 – November 1777) in Copenhagen, Denmark. Died in Helsingør, Denmark where he was court gilder and vicemayor. Casper Felix Milan (ca. 1701– >1730) in Copenhagen. Juliana Regina Milan (ca. 1709– >1754) died in Norway (possibly Frederiksværn). Friderich Carl Milan (November 20, 1711 – September 8, 1787) in Fyn, Denmark. Court painter and court guilder. Anna Christiana Dorothea Milan: (June 22, 1717 – December 2, 1752) in Copenhagen, Denmark. Christian Ulrich Milan, lived in Copenhagen 1698, probably died young. Conrad Adam Milan (ca. 1676 – 1684) in the West Indies. Unknown Milan (July 1686 - ca. 1686), a son, born on board the ship between the west indies and Denmark, died as an infant. Charlotta Isabella Milan (?– ca. 1685) in St. Thomas. Bibliography Janus Fredrik Krarup, Gabriel Milan og Somme af hans Samtid in Personalhistorisk Tidsskrift, 3 R. 2 B. (Kjöbenhavn, 1893), 102-130, and 3 R. 3 B. (1894), 1-51. Zvi Locker, 'Yehūdīm Sfāraddīm b-tafqīdīm dīplōmaṭiyyīm' ('Sefāraddī Jews in diplomatic rôles'). Sheveṭ w-'ām 5.10 (October 1984): 136-141. H. C. Terslin, Guvernør over Dansk Vestindien Gabriel Milan og hans Efterkommere (Helsingør, 1926) Waldemar Westergaard, The Danish West Indies under Company Rule (1671 - 1754) (MacMillan, New York, 1917) References 1631 births 1689 deaths 17th century in the Danish West Indies 17th-century Danish Jews 17th-century Danish politicians 17th-century German Jews 17th-century Danish businesspeople 17th-century Danish military personnel Danish planters Danish Sephardi Jews Danish slave owners Dutch Sephardi Jews German Sephardi Jews Governors of the Danish West Indies People of Spanish-Jewish descent People from Steinburg United States Virgin Islands Jews 17th-century Danish farmers 17th-century Danish landowners Danish people of Portuguese-Jewish descent
4637004	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartington%20College%20of%20Arts	Dartington College of Arts	Dartington College of Arts was a specialist arts college located at Dartington Hall in the south-west of England, offering courses at degree and postgraduate level together with an arts research programme. It existed for a period of almost 50 years, from its foundation in 1961, to when it closed at Dartington in 2010. A version of the College was then re-established in what became Falmouth University, and the Dartington title was subsequently dropped. The College was one of only a few in Britain devoted exclusively to specialist practical and theoretical studies in courses spanning right across the arts. It had an international reputation as a centre for contemporary practice. As well as the courses offered, it became a meeting point for practitioners and teachers from around the world. Dartington was known not only as a place for training practitioners, but also for its emphasis on the role of the arts in the wider community. History Dartington Hall Trust The College was one of a complex of organisations linked to the Dartington Hall Trust, mostly grouped on, or around, the Dartington Hall estate in South Devon. The College emerged out of the already well established activities in arts, education and social and economic reconstruction instigated and funded by Dorothy and Leonard Elmhirst at Dartington Hall from the mid 1920s. Under the umbrella of The Dartington Hall Trust Arts Department, a variety of courses had been offered as privately run initiatives during the 1940s and 1950s, including the first music course started by Imogen Holst in 1944. The Adult Education Centre, which opened in 1955 under the direction of Ivor Weeks, mainly offering evening, short and part-time courses, provided a springboard for a fully-fledged college of arts. The 1950s also saw the formation of the Dartington String Quartet, 1958-1981, which became internationally famous and would play a significant part in the subsequent the musical life of the College for two decades. Founding the College The new College was opened in 1961 within the public sector with local authority support. The Dartington Hall Trust would continue to own the College's buildings and to extend these as time went on. The College's development can best be described in a number of phases, as set out below, although with overlap of individual courses across these phases. In each phase the structure and rationale of the College shifted, largely as a survival strategy in the face of changes in local and national policy and funding. The College managed to keep its independence and ethos throughout, but not without difficulty. Peter Cox, the founding principal, who had previously been Warden of The Dartington Hall Arts Centre, did more than anyone to ensure the College's viability in the early years. He worked at Dartington for over 40 years, from 1940 to 1983. Phase 1: training specialist arts teachers, 1961-1973 The initial focus was on separate specialist teacher training courses in Music (led by Michael Lane), Dance/Drama (led by Ruth Foster) and Visual Art (led by Ivor Weeks), each of which was housed in its own department. The courses were based on the belief that teachers in the arts should be practitioners in their own right. Approval of this programme was based on an association with Rolle College, a teacher training establishment in Exmouth, which would offer a top-up year following either one or two years at Dartington. Although the three separate departments went their own way to a large extent, there was some commonality of approach: a John Dewey-inspired philosophy of "learning by doing." The teacher training courses were established over a period of time, starting with Music, initially led by Doris Gould, and then Dance and Drama, initially led by Ruth Foster. The Art course was the last of the three to come on stream in 1967 led by Ivor Weeks. The strong influence of Corsham (Bath Academy of Art) was a feature of the art teaching at Dartington since the majority of the staff in the early years were Corsham trained. In addition to the new courses for the 18 plus age group, a two-year music preparatory course for 16 to 18 year olds, led by Nigel Amherst was established in 1961 and ran successfully for many years. Similar courses in the other arts were set up around this time, but ran on a smaller scale and for much shorter periods. Phase 2: honours degree courses, 1973-1990 The James Report in 1972 led to a change of Government policy, which now required all teachers in Britain to be graduates. It signalled the beginning of the end for Dartington's involvement in specialist arts teacher training. At the same time there was a shift in funding sources for colleges in higher education from local authority to central government. Fortunately for Dartington, the College was able to apply for so called "assisted status," enabling Devon County Council to top up the finances and the students to apply for grants, then a key factor in recruitment. During the 1970s and 1980s, new degree courses were set up in Music, Theatre and Visual Art. The courses were now validated by the CNAA (Council for National Academic Awards). During this period, College resources, including space and technical support, were steadily improved and staffing was diversified and enhanced. For initial and for continuing validation, adequate levels of student achievement in practice and theory had to be demonstrated. Once established, the longer courses inevitably led to higher standards overall. The following degree courses were set up during this period: The 3 Year Hons. Degree in Music, established in 1974 and led by Jack Dobbs, then Janet Ritterman and then Bob Hanson. The new degree followed a short experiment in running a degree in Music and English with the University of Exeter. While the specific teacher training focus was now dropped, the long-held Dartington belief in ‘music for all’ remained as an underlying philosophy. There were practical options not only in the Western classical tradition, but also jazz, popular music, folk music, improvisation, experimental contemporary music, electronic music and the music of other cultures. This last category was one where Dartington offered, uniquely at the time, practical studies in Indian classical music, in the Balinese Gamelan and in Japanese Shakuhachi flute playing. Work was also offered in the field of music and special needs education led by David Ward, with inter-arts collaboration from Bruce Kent and Keith Yon. A ‘Music in Society’ option was added when the course was revised in 1981 to replace the 2 year Dip HE. Music in the Community, previously established in the early 1970s by Gordon Jones. The 4 Year Hons. Degree in Theatre, established in 1976, led by Collette King, followed by Peter Hulton and then Claire Macdonald. The course included three areas of work: movement/choreography, writing, and acting/directing with some specialisation in one or other of these from the second year onwards. A unique feature of the new course was its 4 year duration allowing for a third year off-campus involving community-based work. The emphasis continued to be on the creation of new work, as distinct from training actors for the stage. Although integrated into a broader theatre degree, Dartington's already established reputation for Dance grew internationally during these years. It became known for its emphasis on experimental dance making and its early introduction of Release Work under Mary Fulkerson. Mary was succeeded by Katy Duck and then others in the next phase of the College. The writing element of the course was led by Peter Hulton, who worked in the College from 1969-1990, later becoming Head of Theatre and then Principal. He was the instigator of the Dartington Theatre Papers and subsequently the Arts Archive (a digital collection of theatre and dance research, now hosted by the University of Exeter). Assistant editors of the Theatre Papers included in succession: Alan Read, David Williams and Ric Allsopp. Acting and directing was led by Roger Sell who also led the Dartington College of Arts International Office supervising Erasmus student and staff exchanges and other international connections, for example with the Cornish Institute, Seattle. The 3 Year Hons. Degree in Art and Social Context, established in 1986, led by Chris Crickmay, replaced the two-year Dip. HE with a similar title which had been launched by Paul Oliver in 1977. By the time the three-year degree was launched, the earlier two-year course had already been much developed, with particular inputs from Chris Crickmay and David Harding who had both arrived at Dartington in 1978. The focus on social context proved generative on many levels. Besides the usual studio-based activity, the course included elements of group work, site-specific work and a student residency. Students were able to opt for work in the full range of media generally covered in fine art: painting, sculpture, print making, photography, video, live art and installation. The prevalence of social and cultural concerns in the work of many Turner Prize winners in recent years is just one example of a widening social consciousness in the arts suggesting that this Dartington initiative was well ahead of its time. Following Peter Cox, College Principals in this period included Curtis Roosevelt, Peter Hulton and Janet Ritterman. Phase 3: unifying and extending the programme 1990-2010 With the 1988 Education Reform Act, the College found itself again in a financially vulnerable position. Changes in national policy put an end to previous local authority support via the Assisted Status programme. To make matters worse, in 1989, accounts showed that the College was operating at a considerable loss. Extreme measures were required if it were to survive. Most contentiously, the relatively new BA Hons. in Art and Social Context was discontinued, with the loss of its staff and facilities. The College would now focus purely on Performance Arts. The unique four-year format of the theatre degree was another casualty, along with its urban outposts. The option to study Indian music was dropped. In the shake up, the Polytechnic South West (later University of Plymouth) agreed to play an active part in a necessarily unequal partnership, assuming a full quality assurance role and making some conditions for their support. The parameters were set for a new academic structure: a single framework across the undergraduate programme leading to three-year courses as either single honours, or combined awards. The entire programme was established and initially led by John Hall. A common modular structure would make cross-disciplinary work and collaboration across courses easier than it had been in the earlier years. Major and minor options were available, which also encouraged students to explore across disciplines. Existing degree courses were re-written within a common modular template, which included a common approach to off-campus work in the final year and a common approach to Cultural Studies which had previously been taught differently in the separate departments. A final year dissertation was now included as part of the common approach. During this phase, the following programmes were available: BA Hons. Music led by Trevor Wiggins. The focus and content of the degree continued to be unique in comparison with other institutions. There was a focus on all genres of contemporary music, a requirement to combine practice and theory, and to explore this in relation to a specific context off-campus, as well as the possibility of work across disciplines. These precepts led to the development of a four-year "International" award in 2000 that included a year in a partner institution in Europe, the USA, or New Zealand. BA Hons. Theatre led in succession by: Roger Sell, Josie Sutcliffe, David Williams, Simon Murray and Fred McVittie. As with the previous theatre degree, the course focussed on contemporary devised theatre including group and solo practices. Students developed their work both in studios and on-site on the estate, in South Devon, nationally and abroad. Aspects of the work included physical theatre, experiments in writing, site-specificity, improvisation and digital technologies. But overall the emphasis was on making new theatre work and a student’s creative practice. Exploration across the arts was also encouraged. In the final year students developed their own contextual enquiry, a "statement in action", a group devised piece and a dissertation. Dance/ Movement within the Theatre degree was led by Diana Theodorus, but later separated from Theatre and re-titled as Choreography (see below). Several new courses were introduced during this phase of the College's development. They included: BA Hons. Visual Performance, established 1991, led successively by Sally Morgan, Roger Bourke, Roddy Hunter, and Rob Gawthrop. The new course covered those areas of visual art that overlap and inform the performing arts. It included contemporary visual art practices such as Live Art and Installation, which arguably required no specialist facilities in the College, beyond those needed for Theatre and Music. BA Hons. Performance Writing, established 1994, initially led by John Hall, with significant contributions in the earlier years from Caroline Bergvall, and those others who were part of the teaching team, including many visitors. The course was designed to make sense of writing in the context of performance practices and of a wider understanding of the various circumstances where writing combines with other media. With its intention to stimulate new approaches to writing, it carried much of the enthusiasm of a pioneering subject field and quickly proved influential internationally. BA Hons in Choreography was established in 2003 led successively by Emilyn Claid, Sara Reed and Suzanne Thomas. An Integrated Masters Programme, which included the MA in Performance Practices, was approved in 1997, with students registering from 1999. Students welcomed the cross-disciplinary framework. It was initially led by John Hall and later by Catherine Laws and then Mark Leahy. MA in Arts and Ecology, established in 2006, was led initially by Alan Boldon and subsequently by Richard Povall, with some academic links to the Trust’s Schumacher College, it combined some set modules along with students’ own independent arts practice. MA in Choreography, established in 2004, initially led by Emilyn Claid. MA in Arts and Cultural Management, established in 2006, led by Tracey Warr. A College Research Programme was formally established in 1996, approved within the UK Research Assessment Exercise (RAE), with students taking PhDs. and a number of staff engaging in their own dramaturgy, site-specific theatre, and musical practices. This work was coordinated, first by Edward Cowie, and later by Prof. Antonia Payne. Dartington hosted the journal Performance Research from 2002-2007. Ric Allsopp, one of its co-founders, was a Research Fellow and Visiting Reader in Performance Research (1997-2001) and Director of Writing 2001-2004. College Principals in this period included: Janet Ritterman, Kevin Thompson and Andrew Brewerton. Context and community A belief in the value of active participation in the arts in the wider community bound the College’s work into a common enterprise and linked it back to the early history of Dartington. This commitment ran deep in the courses, affecting almost all curriculum decisions and approaches to the work. But, in view of its educational rather than training remit, Dartington was not at any point offering a training in Community Arts or other vocational areas. Rather, the focus was to expose students to practical and theoretical questions regarding the role of the arts in the wider world. A major device for doing this was through off-campus project work. Approaches to this varied according to art form, but converged over time. Thus, in the 70s and 80s, Theatre went for a whole third year experience out-of-college in urban outposts, where work could be, to an extent, ongoing from year to year. Outposts existed in Rotherhithe, London, run by Alan Read and in the Stonehouse area of Plymouth, run initially by Will Fitzgerald and Roger Sell. Joe Richard’s role-playing work in Dartmoor prison, and with young offenders at Glenthorne Youth Treatment Centre in Birmingham, is also relevant here. Music in Society opted for a more limited student placement, set in Bristol, and lasting just one term. It included work in schools and other community settings. It was coordinated by Gordon Jones, David Ward and Nick Brace. Art adopted a somewhat different artists residency, model, in which students would individually negotiate a setting in the local region to which a significant part of their final year's work would relate, directly or indirectly involving members of the public. This allowed a flexible and ongoing engagement, where students could research a setting over time, find an appropriate strategy of intervention and work in, or out, of College at different stages as circumstances required. Choices of residency varied enormously, from a light house, to a fish shop, to a water company, to working with a single child with a disability. After 1990, a unified strategy for off-campus work was adopted across the College, taking the form of an individually negotiated contextual enquiry project, with no general stipulation as to where it could take place: many students went abroad. In all cases, whatever the approach, the idea was to find a role for the arts in communities or settings the established arts did not normally serve. All of this work required students to develop an open and responsive attitude in tailoring their practice to particular circumstances. Broader social and cultural questions inevitably arose in the work and were addressed in strands of Cultural Studies throughout, as well as in one-to-one and group supervision of project work. Dartington College of Arts and other Dartington organisations The Dartington Hall Trust initiated a large number of associated organisations and events. These included numerous industries, gardens, farms, research projects, training schemes, short courses, conferences, talks and festivals. Taken together, they contributed significantly to the region and to the wider world and enriched the environment of the College. Some continue to this day. Besides the College, other educational and training initiatives included: Dartington Hall School(1926-1987), The Devon Centre for Further Education (1963-89), Schumacher College: (started in 1990) and The Old Postern Youth Training Scheme (1979-91). Other arts initiatives besides the College included: the Dartington Arts Society: emergin out of the Dartington Hall Arts Centre in 1967, it was responsible for a diverse programme of public arts events, including film, theatre, music, and dance, for most of which it drew heavily upon the expertise of College staff, and is latterly known as 'Dartington Arts'; a specific film study programme was part of the art course in the 70s and 80s; the Dartington Music Summer School and Festival: a major 4 week annual event, with concerts, talks, master classes and workshops, which moved to Dartington in 1953 and still continues. Besides the above, the College also ran its own festivals, summer schools, short courses and special events which ran for certain periods in its history, mostly out of term time, altogether significantly enriching the cultural life of the area. Recent history Relocation of 'Art and Social Context' to Bristol in 1991 The degree in Art and Social Context, one of the main casualties of the 1989 financial crisis at Dartington, was re-established in The Faculty of Art Media and Design at what was then Bristol Polytechnic (later to become University of the West of England). The course was moved, along with a small contingent of ex-Dartington staff, including Chris Crickmay and Sally Morgan. The latter became course leader. It flourished in this new urban environment for a further decade. It was then gradually wound down following the departure of specialist staff. Relocation of the College to Falmouth in 2010 In the autumn of 2006, financial problems began to emerge once again and there was a sense that the College might be facing closure, although there was no inevitability in that outcome. In the years 2006-8 the College was far from being a failing institution. Student numbers at undergraduate and postgraduate level were higher than they had ever been and the College was performing well. Whilst Government policy was to reduce the number of smaller colleges in favour of larger institutions, this was not the reason for, or cause, of the closure and there is no knowing how it would have played out in the ensuing years had it remained open. For a while there seemed to be ways out through an increase in student numbers and the upgrading of student accommodation on the estate, but the College and the Trust could not agree on these matters and the College’s status of not owning its own campus and being a tenant of the Trust, ultimately made it critically vulnerable. The crisis led to a controversial and contested merger with the then University College Falmouth and the relocation of most courses and some staff and students to Cornwall. The courses were based in a new purpose-built Performing Arts Centre on the Penryn campus. Main programmes in Dance, Choreography, Theatre, Acting and Music with some, more vocational additions including Arts Management, still continue successfully in that location. Falmouth already had, and still has, its own long-established art school with courses in visual art that are also ongoing. Writing was already taught at Falmouth, so Performance Writing was not continued, apart from at research and Masters level. 2022 and beyond In 2022, the Trust opened a new Dartington Arts School offering a programme of postgraduate courses across the arts with an emphasis on ecology, place and imagination. Students study both on-site and remotely. This new initiative will continue to run in parallel with Dartington’s existing Schumacher College, which offers a range of post-graduate courses in ecology. References External links University College Falmouth website Save Dartington College of Arts website Dartington College of Arts to close at the World Socialist Web Site. The Dartington School The Dartington Arts School Universities and colleges established in 1961 Art schools in England Education in Devon Falmouth University 1961 establishments in England
4637061	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destroyer%20minesweeper	Destroyer minesweeper	Destroyer minesweeper was a designation given by the United States Navy to a series of destroyers that were converted into high-speed ocean-going minesweepers for service during World War II. The hull classification symbol for this type of ship was "DMS." Forty-two ships were so converted, beginning with , converted to DMS-1 in late 1940, and ending with , converted to DMS-42 in mid-1945. The type is now obsolete, its function having been taken over by purpose-built ships, designated as "minesweeper (high-speed)" with the hull classification symbol MMD. The s and s chosen for conversion were obsolete four-stack destroyers built in 1918 that still had usable power plants; they were nicknamed "four-pipers" on account of their four smokestacks. Although the full conversion process to minesweepers for the original 17 Wickes and Clemson-class destroyers began in October—November 1940, it was not completed for all 17 until around mid-1942. When they were fully converted from destroyers to destroyer minesweepers, the number 4 boiler, the fourth stack from the bow, and the torpedo tubes were removed, the depth charge racks repositioned forward from the stern and angled outboard, and the stern modified to support sweep gear: davits, winch, paravanes, and kites. Two 60-kilowatt turbo-generators replaced the three original 25-kilowatt generators to improve capability for sweeping magnetic and acoustic mines. The majority of mines left by the Japanese in the Pacific were contact mines which were usually moored and could be removed by a paravane. The Japanese never created their own magnetic or pressure mines, though they captured a very limited number of magnetic mines from the British which they laid off Balikpapan in 1945. Magnetic mines in the European theater were usually disabled by towing a magnetized cable, often swept by wooden-hulled ships, but occasionally swept by iron-clad ships that were degaussed to mask their magnetic properties. Minesweeping in the Pacific theater in World War II consisted primarily in the use of sweep wires suspended between paravanes and kites, particularly among destroyer minesweepers. Wickes-class minesweepers Conversion of the initial seventeen ships, begun in October and November 1940, included eight and nine s. Following are the Wickes-class destroyers that were converted to minesweepers and subsequently designated DMS-1 to DMS-8: (DD-117) (DD-119) (DD-136) (DD-146) (DD-161) (DD-178) (DD-179) (DD–180) (DD-141)(Converted later in 1941) Clemson-class minesweepers In 1941 ten more destroyers were converted, and designated DMS-9 to DMS-18. This time nine were Clemson-class ships and only DM-18 came from the Wickes class. The Clemson-class destroyer USS Hovey, is shown at right, not fully converted, in June 1942, still with four smokestacks. The fully converted USS Hovey is shown below right, with three smokestacks, a squared off stern with two cranes visible for hauling minesweeping gear, and three guns visible fore, midship, and one on the aft deckhouse. The nine converted Clemson-class destroyers and one Wickes-class destroyer completed by November 1940 are listed below: (DD-206) (DD-207) (DD-208) (DD-209) (DD-249) (DD-337) (DD-338) (DD-339) (DD-340) While holding the rank of lieutenant, the author Herman Wouk worked on the destroyer minesweeper USS Zane from February 1943 to February 1945. He based much of his Pulitzer Prize winning novel The Caine Mutiny on his experiences on the Southard from May–October 1945, particularly when she was run aground at Okinawa in October 1945 by typhoon Louise. The fictional USS Caine, DMS-18, from Wouk's novel is sketched within the novel itself. Although showing only two smokestacks, the sketch illustrates a flush deck and a galley deckhouse similar to the converted Wickes-class destroyer minesweepers which actually had three smokestacks, as did the two converted Clemson-class destroyers on which Wouk served. At first the ships above retained their initial four 4 inch guns for defense. In 1942 they were scheduled to get 3"/50 caliber dual purpose guns as they needed to be prepared to face air attack in WWII. By 1944, their armament included two or three 3"/50 caliber dual purpose guns and twin power operated Bofors guns, which were highly effective against enemy aircraft. Their dual purpose 3 inch guns could be used against enemy shore batteries, to fire on surfaced submarines, and as effective anti-aircraft weapons. The destroyer minesweepers usually lost all four of their original four 4 inch guns when they received their 3"/50 caliber and Bofors guns, but they retained a significantly improved capability against Japanese enemy aircraft including kamikazes which many of these ships faced between January and May 1945. Fates of WWII destroyer minesweepers The USS Wasmuth, after spending much of her WWII career sweeping and escorting ships in the Aleutians, was sunk when a gale in Alaskan waters dislodged two of her depth charges that exploded by her hull in December 1942. The threat of a depth charge dislodging and exploding during a storm was a topic covered by Herman Wouk in the climax to his novel The Caine Mutiny. The executive officer Steve Maryk urged Captain Queeg to set the depth charges on destroyer minesweeper Caine on "safe" during a storm, though Queeg was enraged when he discovered this had been done earlier without his knowledge or permission. The Perry, a Wickes-class destroyer in the list above, was sunk by naval mines on September 13, 1944, off Palau while she was involved in sweeping duties. Records indicate she may have been the only destroyer minesweeper sunk by a naval mine while sweeping in WWII. The Wickes-class minesweeper Dorsey had to be destroyed after she ran aground off Okinawa from Typhoon Louise in October 1945, and the Wickes-class Lamberton was run aground with minor damage in the same storm. In the Battle of Lingayen Gulf, from January 3–7, 1945, three Clemson-class destroyer minesweepers listed above, the Hovey, the Long, and the Palmer, were sunk primarily by kamikazes and the Southard was lightly damaged by a kamikaze, though she later had to be destroyed after running aground at Okinawa during Typhoon Louise in October 1945. The Hopkins survived the Battle of Lingayen Gulf off Luzon unscathed, though four of the seven ships in Hopkinss minesweeping Task Force 77.6, Unit 1 were hit. The destroyer minesweeper Chandler initially rescued the survivors of minesweepers Hovey and Long as well as a few of the survivors of Clemson-class destroyer Brooks at Lingayen on January 7, 1945 and served out WWII without damage from combat. The Dorsey, the Hogan, the Hamilton, and the Howard escaped damage in the Battle of Lingayen Gulf, the most dangerous battle of the war for Clemson-class destroyer minesweepers, and survived the war. Around fifty American naval vessels, five destroyer minesweepers among them, were lost or damaged at Lingayen Gulf in the first two weeks of 1945. Full assault by Japanese torpedo planes, bombers, and kamikazes against the semi-isolated destroyer minesweepers in the difficult waters of Lingayen Gulf proved too much for their antiaircraft capabilities when isolated from the screening that could be provided by more heavily armed destroyers and battleships. As the Naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison noted with respect to the destroyer minesweepers at the Battle of Lingayen Gulf, the “Japanese seemed to pick on minecraft because they were usually isolated and had no good antiaircraft support”. Nonetheless, only one destroyer minesweeper, the highly upgraded Gleaves-class Emmons, was sunk in combat by kamikazes after Lingayen Gulf, and she was struck a remarkable total of five times at the Battle of Okinawa before sinking. The Navy itself acknowledged the daunting task faced by minesweepers in defending against enemy aircraft with relatively light armament, as the commendation for the Emmons presented by the Secretary of the Navy acknowledged that she was "lightly armed and highly vulnerable while operating in dangerous mined waters". It should be noted again that the Emmons had significantly more anti-aircraft guns than the Wickes and Clemson-class destroyer minesweepers that battled kamikazes and Japanese escort planes at Lingayen Gulf only three months earlier. Few destroyer minesweepers had been lost in combat prior to the Battle of Lingayen Gulf, as their primary and essential function was to sweep mines or hunt the occasional submarine, not to engage in ship to ship combat, particularly since they lacked torpedoes after their full conversion to minesweepers in 1942. Once their minesweeping duties were completed, they were usually vacated to another area, or performed escort duties protecting supply vessels from enemy aircraft and submarines. The Battle of Okinawa would prove to be even more disastrous for the destroyer minesweeper fleet than Lingayen Gulf, with roughly seven times more Japanese aircraft engaged as kamikazes. Minesweeping methods WWII Japan never developed its own magnetic or pressure mines, so for those destroyer minesweepers in the Pacific, mines were usually cut from their mooring by a paravane, shown at left, extended by a sweep line from the rear or sides of a minesweeper, assisted by the use of sonar to locate the submerged mines. Sonar could operate at a few thousand hertz to around ten thousand hertz for shallower mine location, but sonar frequencies as high as 24 thousand hertz were routinely used to track submarines at depth. WWII mine location sonar in the Pacific in WWII was one of the first true search sonars and employed frequency modulation. Its range, in perfect conditions, could not exceed 800 yards or 730 meters, which was inadequate for purposes other than locating and plotting minefields. The sonar had a Plan Position Indicator, similar to those on high quality modern radar, which showed mines as bright green "pears". The sonar also conveniently made a sound audible to the minesweeping crewman, when a mine was swept by its beam, a clear ringing note the mine crews dubbed "hell's bells." Paravanes could be towed from one or both sides of a ship's stern, or occasionally bow, though destroyer minesweepers nearly always towed them from the stern. The sweep line caught the moored mine's cable below the surface, causing the paravane to slide to the mine and have its blades cut the mine from its mooring cable. The mine then floated to the top and was usually destroyed or sometimes sunk by gunfire from an American naval ship. In some applications, cutting devices were placed on the sweep line itself, or the sweep line could be serrated to do the cutting, but paravanes with blades were used much more frequently by American ships to cut mooring cables in the Pacific in WWII. In most configurations, a kite, basically an unbladed paravane, could be used near the ship to maintain the sweep wire parallel to the bottom at a specified distance from the paravane. The paravane operator would need to know the depth of the moored mines to set the proper depth of the paravane and kite, and could use sonar for this purpose. Minesweeping ships would often travel side by side in formation to sweep a larger channel. Large winches and two large davits which looked like cranes on each side of the stern of minesweepers were used to haul minesweeping gear. Acoustic mines were destroyed by sound generators that imitated the sound frequencies of a passing ship, and electrical mines, though rarely used by the Japanese, could be destroyed by an electrical device or cable passed close to the mine causing it to detonate. Ship sonar was used as an invaluable tool in locating mines in WWII. More sophisticated pressure mines were used by Germany in the Atlantic but were not frequent and their use was delayed by the Germans until 1944 at the Battle of Normandy. Pressure mines were activated by the increase in water pressure under a moving vessel, and had to be swept using a towed hulk large enough to produce the required pressure surge. Markers in the form of buoys were often used to mark mineswept lanes where transport ships or landing craft could find safe passage to beach heads or other destinations. Buoys were usually used to mark the end of a mine sweep cable floated directly above the paravane, and could be particularly helpful when minesweepers were sweeping in formation. Gleaves-class minesweepers The 24 subsequent ships in the series were s completed during the war. They had a longer range, a larger crew, and guns highly effective against aircraft, 5 × 5 in (127 mm) dual purpose guns, and 6 × 0.50 in. (12.7 mm) guns. The later Gleaves-class destroyers had 6 × 0.50 in. and (12.7 mm) guns. Twelve Atlantic Fleet ships (DD-454–458, 461, 462, 464, 621, 625, 636, and 637) were converted in 1944, with the rest in the Pacific in 1945 (DD-489, 490, 493–496, 618, 627, and 632–635). Many of these Atlantic based minesweeper fleets were switched to the Pacific by the end of the war however, a few as early as late 1944. Viewing the table below, an argument could be made that even the increased firepower and accuracy of the antiaircraft guns on the Gleaves-class destroyers did not adequately protect them from the wide scale attack by kamikazes at Okinawa, but one might assert that if Clemson-class destroyers had been used more widely at Okinawa, they might have suffered greater damage and experienced more sinkings. Magnetic and acoustic minesweeping gear was fitted to the new Gleaves-class minesweepers, while armament was somewhat reduced from the former destroyer configuration to three 5 in guns, no torpedo tubes, two K-guns for launching depth charges, four 40 mm guns, likely Bofors, in two twin mounts, and seven 20 mm Oerlikon antiaircraft guns on the Atlantic ships. The Pacific ships and Hobson had increased light AA armament, with eight 40 mm guns, likely Bofors, in two quad mounts and six 20 mm Oerlikon antiaircraft guns in two twin and two single mounts. For their size, these ships carried some of the most highly effective anti-aircraft weaponry of the war. At lower right, the USS Hambleton, is shown fully converted to minesweeper in 1944. Note the large number of fully shielded and more modern antiaircraft guns, a major improvement over converted Clemson-class sweepers, and the stern crane or davits used to haul minesweeping equipment. Shown below is a list of the Gleaves-class destroyers, launched in 1941, and converted to destroyer minesweepers from 1944 to 1945, with their minesweeper hull designation first, and their former destroyer designation on the right. (DD-454) Atlantic (DD-455) Atlantic (DD-456) Atlantic (DD-457) Atlantic (DD-458) Atlantic (DD-461) Atlantic (DD-462) Atlantic (DD-464) Atlantic (DD-621) Atlantic (DD-625) Atlantic (DD-636) Atlantic (DD-637) Atlantic (DD-489) Pacific (DD-490) Pacific (DD-493) Pacific (DD-494) Pacific (DD-496) Pacific (DD-618) Pacific (DD-627) Pacific (DD-632) Pacific (DD-633) Pacific (DD-634) Pacific (DD-635) Pacific – not converted to DMS The Forrest, Hobson, Macomb, Dorsey, Hopkins, Ellyson, Hambleton, Rodman, Emmons, Butler, Gherardi, Jeffers, and Harding served in Okinawa in April 1945. All were Gleaves-class destroyer minesweepers with the exception of the Dorsey and Hopkins. WWII destroyer minesweepers damaged and sunk All but the Wasmuth, Zane, and Perry below were damaged at Luzon's Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines in January, or at Okinawa in April 1945. An asterisk indicates a destroyer minesweeper that was sunk or scuttled after irreparable damage. Okinawa proved to be the most devastating battle for destroyer minesweepers with eight Gleaves-class destroyer minesweepers damaged by kamikazes, which included one sunk, and one Clemson-class minesweeper, the Hopkins, hit by a kamikaze. Though the Brooks was not technically classified as a destroyer minesweeper, she was a Clemson-class destroyer transport, and had formerly acted as a sweeper before being irreparably damaged at Lingayen Gulf. \|- \| align="center" colspan=9\|Destroyer minesweepers lost or damaged in WWII, primarily PacificAll information is public domain from United States Navy, but table format, content, and structure is borrowed from Morison, Samuel, Eliot, Victory in the Pacific, Volume 14, (Copyright 1960), published in 2012, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland, Appendix II pgs. 389-92 \|- \| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"\|Day\| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"\|Time\| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"\|Ship\| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"\|Type\| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"\|Damage\| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"\|Cause\| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"\|Location\| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"\|Killed\| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"\|Wounded''' \|- \| 25 Oct 1942,20 Feb 1944 \| (1942) 1030 \| USS Zane\| Clemson \| (1942) Moderate(1944) Minor \| (1942) Destroyer shell(1944) Mines exploded nearby during mine disposal \| (1942) Solomon Islands(1944) Eniwetok, in the Marshall Islands \| (1942) 3(1944) 0 \| (1942) 0(1944) 0 \|- \| 25 Dec 1942 \| Unknown \| USS Wasmuth\| Clemson \| Sunk 29 Dec \| 2 depth charges exploded \| Aleutian Islands \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 12 Sept 1944 \| 1607 \| USS Perry\| Clemson \| Sunk \| Mine explosion \| Off Anguar, near Peleliu \| Unknown \| Unknown \|- \| 6 Jan 1945 \| 1215 \| USS Long\| Clemson \| Sunk \| Kamikaze \| Lingayen Gulf \| 1 \| 35 \|- \| 6 Jan 1945 \| 1252 \| USS Brooks\| Clemson TransportSometimes swept \| Extensive, retired shortly after \| Kamikaze \| Lingayen Gulf \| 3 \| 11 \|- \| 6 Jan 1945,9 Oct 1945 \| (1/1945) 1732 \| USS Southard\| Clemson \| (1/1945) Moderate(10/1945) Scuttled 14 January 1946 \| (1/1945) Kamikaze(10/1945) Grounded by typhoon Louise \| (1/1945) Lingayen Gulf(10/1945) Okinawa \| (1/1945) 0(10/1945) 0 \| (1/1945) 6(10/1945) 0 \|- \| 7 Jan 1945 \| 0430 \| USS Hovey\| Clemson \| Sunk \| Aerial torpedo \| Lingayen Gulf \| 46 \| 3 \|- \| 7 Jan 1945 \| 1835 \| USS Palmer\| Wickes \| Sunk \| 2 aerial bombs \| Lingayen Gulf \| 28 \| 38 \|- \| 11 Nov 1942,3 Apr 1945 \| Unknown \| USS Hambleton\| Gleaves \| (1942) Major(1945) Minor \| (1942) Torpedoed(1945) Kamikaze \| (1942) French Morocco(1945) Okinawa \| Unknown \| Unknown \|- \| 6 Apr 1945 \| 1734 \| USS Emmons\| Gleaves \| Sunk \| Kamikazes \| Okinawa \| 60 \| 77 \|- \| 6 Apr 1945 \| 1734 \| USS Rodman\| Gleaves \| Extensive \| Kamikazes \| Okinawa \| 16 \| 20 \|- \| 16 Apr 1945 \| Unknown \| USS Harding\| Gleaves \| Extensive, but repaired \| Kamikazes \| Okinawa \| 22 \| 10 \|- \| 16 Apr 1945 \| 0928 \| USS Hobson\| Gleaves \| Extensive (later sunk 1952) \| Kamikazes \| Okinawa \| 4 \| 6 \|- \| 3 May 1945 \| Pre-dawn \| USS McComb\| Gleaves \| Extensive \| Kamikazes \| Okinawa \| 7 \| 14 \|- \| 4 May 1945 \| Unknown \| USS Hopkins\| Clemson \| Minor \| Kamikaze \| Okinawa \| 1 \| 0 \|- \| 25 May 1945 \| Unknown \| USS Butler\| Gleaves \| Extensive, but repaired \| Kamikaze bombs \| Okinawa \| 9 \| 0 \|- \| 27 May 1945 \| Unknown \| USS Forrest\| Gleaves \| Extensive, but repaired \| Kamikaze \| Okinawa \| 5 \| 13 \|- \| 9 Oct 1945 \| Unknown \| *USS Dorsey \| Wickes \| Scuttled 1 January 1946 \| Grounded by typhoon Louise \| Okinawa \| 0 \| 3 \|- \| 1942,9 Oct 1945 \| Unknown \| USS Lamberton'' \| Wickes \| Minor, returned to service \| (1942) Minor damage in collision(1945) Grounded by typhoon Louise \| (1942) Aleutian Islands(1945) Okinawa \| 0 \| 0 See also List of destroyer-minesweepers References External links History of War, Clemson Class Destroyers Sources Navy Memorial Society website Minesweepers Ship types
4637216	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseases%20of%20poverty	Diseases of poverty	Diseases of poverty (also known as poverty-related diseases) are diseases that are more prevalent in low-income populations. They include infectious diseases, as well as diseases related to malnutrition and poor health behaviour. Poverty is one of the major social determinants of health. The World Health Report (2002) states that diseases of poverty account for 45% of the disease burden in the countries with high poverty rate which are preventable or treatable with existing interventions. Diseases of poverty are often co-morbid and ubiquitous with malnutrition. Poverty increases the chances of having these diseases as the deprivation of shelter, safe drinking water, nutritious food, sanitation, and access to health services contributes towards poor health behaviour. At the same time, these diseases act as a barrier for economic growth to affected people and families caring for them which in turn results into increased poverty in the community. These diseases produced in part by poverty are in contrast to diseases of affluence, which are diseases thought to be a result of increasing wealth in a society. Poverty and infectious diseases are causally related. Even before the time of vaccines and antibiotics, before 1796, it can be speculated that, leaders were adequately protected in their castles with decent food and standard accommodation, conversely, the vast majority of people were living in modest, unsanitary homes; cohabiting with their animals. During this time people were unknowingly dying of infectious diseases in an event that; they touched their sick animals, had cuts in their skins, drank something that was not boiled or ate food that was contaminated by microbes. To exacerbate the situation, epidemics known as plagues then would emerge and wipe out the whole community. During this time, people had no knowledge on infectious diseases and their causes. After speculations that their illnesses were being caused by an invisible army of tiny living beings, microorganisms, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek invented the first microscope that confirmed the existence of microorganisms that cannot be visualised with the naked eye (around the 17th century). Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), malaria, and Tuberculosis (TB) also known as “the big three” have been acknowledged as infectious diseases that disproportionately affect developing countries. HIV is a viral illness that can be transmitted sexually, by transfusion, shared needles and during child birth from mother to child. Due to its long latent period, there is a danger of its spread without action. It affects the human body by targeting T-cells, that are responsible for protection from uncommon infections and cancers. It is managed by life prolonging drugs known as Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs). TB was discovered by Robert Koch in 1882. It is characterised by fever, weight loss, poor appetite and night sweats. Throughout the years, there has been an improvement in mortality and morbidity caused by TB. This improvement has been attributed to the introduction of the TB vaccine in 1906. Despite this, each year the majority infected by TB are the poor. Finally, malaria used to be prevalent throughout the world. It is now limited to developing and warm regions; Africa, Asia, and South America. Contributing factors The prevalence of unfavorable environmental and social factors that contribute to disease are highest among individuals living in poverty. These communities are at a higher risk of adverse health outcomes, particularly with infectious diseases and noncommunicable diseases. Physical Activity Physical activity is a protective factor against chronic conditions such as type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, and coronary heart disease. Lack of physical activity is related to socioeconomic status, with a higher prevalence of sedentary lifestyles among less affluent groups. There are several factors which contribute to the barriers of exercise among these groups. Within low-income communities in the US, there is reduced access to environments that promote physical activity including parks, recreational facilities, and gyms. Only about one in five homes in low-income areas have parks within a half-mile distance, and about the same number have a fitness or recreation center within that distance. Expanded availability of local environments enabling exercise is associated with an increase in physical activity and a decrease in individuals with an overweight status. In addition, concerns of unsafe neighborhoods in low-income areas may result in reduced physical activity in both adults and children. Children from low-income families are more likely to engage in sedentary, indoor activities due to challenges in obtaining adult supervision of outdoor play and parental concern for noise complaints. One in three children are physically active on a daily basis, and children spend seven or more hours a day is spent in front of a screen whether it be a computer, a TV, or video games. Children and adults who do not exercise frequently lower their quality of life, which will impact them as they age. Mental Health Mental health is “a state of successful performance of mental function, resulting in productive activities, fulfilling relationships with other people, and the ability to adapt to change and to cope with adversity”. Poverty has a profound effect on a person's mental health. According to Alyssa Brown of the Washington D.C. Gallup, 31% of people living in poverty have reported at some point been diagnosed with depression compared with 15.8% of those not in poverty. There is evidence that low income or loss of income are associated with worsening mental health while wealth and gain of income are linked with improvements in mental health. Furthermore, individuals living in poverty are disproportionally exposed to air pollution, temperature extremes, and violence, which all negatively impact mental health. These factors can induce chronic stress, which result in high cortisol levels. Excess cortisol is associated with unfavorable health outcomes, such as hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis, and increased risk of infections. It is uncertain whether poverty induces depression or depression causes poverty. What is certain is that the two are closely linked. A reason for this link could be due to the lack of support groups such as community centers. Isolation plays an integral role in depression. Results from a cohort study of approximately 2,000 older adults aged 65 years and older from the New Haven Established Populations for the Epidemiological Study of the Elderly found that social engagement was associated with lower depression scores after adjustment for various demographic characteristics, physical activity and functional status. Contaminated Water Each year many children and adults die as a result of a lack of access to clean drinking water and poor sanitation, which enables the spread of poverty-related diseases. Contaminated water enables the spread of various waterborne-pathogens, including bacteria (E. coli, cholera), viruses (hepatitis A, norovirus), and protozoa (schistosomiasis). According to UNICEF, 3,000 children die every day, worldwide due to contaminated drinking water and poor sanitation. Although the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of halving the number of people who did not have access to clean water by 2015 was reached five years ahead of schedule in 2010, there are still 783 million people who rely on unimproved water sources. In 2010 the United Nations declared access to clean water a fundamental human right, integral to the achievement of other rights. This made it enforceable and justifiable to permit governments to ensure their populations access to clean water. There have been efforts to improve water quality using new technology, which allows water to be disinfected immediately upon collection and during the storage process. Clean water is necessary for cooking, cleaning, and laundry because many people come into contact with disease-causing pathogens through their food, or while bathing or washing. Though access to water has improved for some, it continues to be especially difficult for women and children as they bear most of the burden for accessing water and supplying it to their households. In India, Sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America, women are required to travel long distances in order to access a clean water source and then bring some water home. This has a significant impact on girls' educational attainment. An ongoing issue of contaminated water in the United States has been taking place in Flint, Michigan since 2014. The issue of lead-contaminated water began after the source of drinking water was changed from Lake Huron to the Flint River, resulting in corrosion of supply pipes and lead leaching into the city's water supply. Exposure to lead has serious health complications in developing fetuses, children, and adults. Children are particularly vulnerable to low levels of lead, and can display behavioral changes, hearing problems, and other neurologic consequences as a result of lead ingestion. Air Pollution Studies show that there is an association between low socioeconomic status and exposure to higher concentrations of air pollution. This relationship is especially apparent in North America, New Zealand, Asia, and Africa. Exposure to environmental toxins, like ambient particulate matter (or air pollution), has been linked to the development of diseases like cancer, immune system impairment, and reproductive dysfunction. According to the World Health Organization, 2.4 billion people are exposed to household air pollution through the use of open fire cooking and inefficient stoves. This resulted in 3.2 million deaths per year in 2020 and countless cases of stroke, heart disease, and lung cancer. Exposure to household air pollution is especially prevalent in lower-resourced areas, contributing to the high burden of air pollution-related disease in locations considered "impoverished." Women and children, especially those who bear the burden of household chores in under-resourced areas, face increased risks of household air pollution associated complications because they are the most exposed to cooking, burning, and other household pollution emitting chores. Education Education is affected by poverty, which is known as the income achievement gap. This gap shows that children living in poverty or have lower-income are less likely to have the cognitive development and early literacy levels of those who do not. The amount of income affects the amount of extra money a family has to spend on additional educational programs; including summer camps and out of school assistance. In addition to finances, environmental toxins, including lead and stress and lack of nutritious food can diminish cognitive development. In later education, low-income individuals or those living in poverty are more likely to dropout of school or only receive a high school diploma. The failure to achieve higher levels of education attributes to the cycle of poverty which can continue for generations in the same family and even in the community. Studies have linked adults with low educational achievement to worse general health and increases in chronic conditions and disabilities. These individuals are more likely to engage in behaviors that worsen health, such as smoke, have an unhealthy diet, and are less likely to exercise. Higher educational achievement correlates with more opportunities for secure jobs, which enables individuals to generate wealth that can be used to improve factors that impact health outcomes. Sanitation and Hygiene Inadequate sanitation is attributed to approximately 432,000 deaths in LMIC each year. Poor sanitation can lead to diarrheal disease and malnutrition, which can result in serious illness. Globally, 2.3 billion people do not have access to basic sanitation services, which include access to unshared facilities for disposal of human waste and waste management services. These inequalities in access result in open defecation and improperly treated wastewater that is used for food production. Countries where open defecation is seen have higher levels of poverty, adverse health outcomes, and death in children due to diarrheal disease. Further, one in four individuals lack access to a handwashing station with soap and water, thereby enabling the transmission of respiratory and diarrheal disease. In 2016, inadequate handwashing was attributed to 370,000 respiratory deaths and 165,000 diarrheal deaths. Diarrheal diseases contribute not only to the decreased health of an individual, but also to an increase in poverty. Diseases of this nature cause an inability to attend school and work, thus directly decreasing income as well as educational development. The problem of inadequate sanitation is cyclical in nature—just as it is caused by poverty, it also worsens poverty. Poor nutrition Malnutrition disproportionately affects those in sub-Saharan Africa. Over 35 percent of children under the age of 5 in sub-Saharan Africa show physical signs of malnutrition. Malnutrition, the immune system, and infectious diseases operate in a cyclical manner: infectious diseases have deleterious effects on nutritional status, and nutritional deficiencies can lower the strength of the immune system which affects the body's ability to resist infections. Similarly, malnutrition of both macronutrients (such as protein and energy) and micronutrients (such as iron, zinc, and vitamins) increase susceptibility to HIV infections by interfering with the immune system and promoting viral replication that contributes to greater risks of HIV transmission from mother-to-child as well as those through sexual transmission. Increased mother-to-child transmission is related to specific deficiencies in micro-nutrients such as vitamin A. Further, anemia, a decrease in the number of red blood cells, increases viral shedding in the birth canal, which also increases risk of mother-to-child transmission. Without these vital nutrients, the body lacks the defense mechanisms to resist infections. At the same time, HIV lowers the body's ability to intake essential nutrients. HIV infection can affect the production of hormones that interfere with the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. In the United States, 11.1 percent of households struggle with food insecurity. Food insecurity refers to the lack of access to quality food for a healthy lifestyle. The rate of hunger and malnutrition in female headed households was three times the national average at 30.2 percent. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 10 percent of the population in Latin America and the Caribbean are affected by hunger and malnutrition. Poor housing conditions Families living in poverty often struggle not only with housing problems, but neighborhood safety and affordability problems as well. Avoiding neighborhood safety problems often means staying home which reduces opportunity for exercise outside the home which exacerbates health issues due to lack of exercise. Staying in the home can mean exposure to lead, mold and rodents within that home that can lead to an increased risk of illness due to these inadequate housing issues. Lack of access to health services According to WHO, medical strategies report, approximately 30% of the global population does not have regular access to medicines. In the poorest parts of Africa and Asia, this percent goes up to 50%. The population below the poverty line lacks access due to higher retail price and unavailability of the medicines. The higher cost can be due to the higher manufacturing price or due to local or regional tax and Value Added Tax. There is a significant disparity in the research conducted in the health sector. It is claimed that only 10% of the health research conducted globally focuses on 90% disease burden. However, diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases etc. that traditionally were associated with the wealthier community are now becoming more prevalent in the poor communities as well. Hence, the research conducted now is relevant to poor population. Political priority is also one of the contributing factors of inaccessibility. The government of poor countries may allocate less funding to public health due to the scarcity of resources. Cycle of poverty The cycle of poverty is the process through which families already in poverty are likely to remain in those circumstances unless there is an intervention of some kind. This cycle of poverty has an impact on the types of diseases that are experienced by these individuals, and will often be passed down through generations. Mental illnesses are particularly important when discussing the cycle of poverty, because these mental illnesses prevent individuals from obtaining gainful employment. The stressful experience of living in poverty can also exacerbate mental illnesses. This cycle of poverty also impacts the familial diseases that are passed down each generation. By experiencing the same stressful situations for decades, individuals become more susceptible to diseases like cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, and mental illnesses including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Infectious Diseases Together, diseases of poverty kill approximately 14 million people annually. Gastroenteritis with its associated diarrhea results in about 1.8 million deaths in children yearly with most of these in the world's poorest nations. At the global level, the three primary PRDs are tuberculosis, AIDS/HIV and malaria. Developing countries account for 95% of the global AIDS prevalence and 98% of active tuberculosis infections. Furthermore, 90% of malaria deaths occur in African countries. Together, these three diseases account for 10% of global mortality. Treatable childhood diseases are another set which have disproportionately higher rates in poor countries despite the availability of cures for decades. These include measles, pertussis and polio. The largest three poverty-related diseases (PRDs) — AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis — account for 18% of diseases in poor countries. The disease burden of treatable childhood diseases in high-mortality, poor countries is 5.2% in terms of disability-adjusted life years but just 0.2% in the case of advanced countries. In addition, infant mortality and maternal mortality are far more prevalent among the poor. For example, 98% of the 11,600 daily maternal and neonatal deaths occur in developing countries. Three other diseases, measles, pneumonia, and diarrheal diseases, are also closely associated with poverty, and are often included with AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis in broader definitions and discussions of diseases of poverty. Neglected diseases Based upon the spread of research in cures for diseases, certain diseases are identified and referred to as "neglected diseases". These include the following diseases: African trypanosomiasis Chagas disease Leishmaniasis Lymphatic filariasis Dracunculiasis (“Guinea worm disease”) Onchocerciasis Schistosomiasis Trichomoniasis Tropical diseases such as these tend to be neglected in research and development efforts. Of 1393 new drugs brought into use over a period of 25 years (1975–1999), only a total of thirteen, less than 1%, related to these diseases. Of 20 MNC drug companies surveyed for research on PRDs, only two had projects targeted towards these neglected PRDs. However, the combined total number of deaths due to these diseases is dwarfed by the enormous number of patients affected by PRDs such as respiratory infections, HIV/AIDS, diarrhea and tuberculosis, besides many others. Similar to the spread of tropical neglected diseases in developing nations, these neglected infections disproportionately affect poor and minority populations in the United States. These diseases have been identified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, as priorities for public health action based on the number of people infected, the severity of the illnesses, and the ability to prevent and treat them. Trichomoniasis Trichomoniasis is the most common sexually transmitted infection affecting more than 200 million people worldwide. It is especially prevalent among young, poor and African American women. This infection is also common in poor communities in Sub-Saharan Africa and impoverished parts of Asia. This neglected infection is one of special concern because it is associated with a heightened risk for contracting HIV and pre-term deliveries. In addition, availability of cures and recent advances in medicine have led to only three diseases being considered neglected diseases, namely, African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease and Leishmaniasis. Malaria Africa accounts for a majority of malaria infections and deaths worldwide. Over 80 percent of the 300 to 500 million malaria infections occurring annually worldwide are in Africa. Each year, about one million children under the age of five die from malaria. Children who are poor, have mothers with little to no education, and live in rural areas are more susceptible to malaria and more likely to die from it. Malaria is directly related to the spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. It increases viral load seven to ten times, which increases the chances of transmission of HIV through sexual intercourse from a patient with malaria to an uninfected partner. After the first pregnancy, HIV can also decrease the immunity to malaria. This contributes to the increase of the vulnerability to HIV and higher mortality from HIV, especially for women and infants. HIV and malaria interact in a cyclical manner—being infected with malaria increases susceptibility to HIV infection, and HIV infections increase malarial episodes. The co-existence of HIV and malaria infections helps spread both diseases, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria vaccines are an area of intensive research. Intestinal parasites Intestinal parasites are extremely prevalent in tropical areas. These include helminths like hookworms, roundworms, and flukes and protozoa like giardia, amoebas and Leishmania. They can aggravate malnutrition by depleting essential nutrients through intestinal blood loss and chronic diarrhea. Chronic worm infections can further burden the immune system. At the same time, chronic worm infections can cause immune activation that increases susceptibility of HIV infection and vulnerability to HIV replication once infected. Schistosomiasis Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a parasitic disease caused by the parasitic flatworm trematodes. Moreover, more than 80 percent of the 200 million people worldwide who have schistosomiasis live in sub-Saharan Africa. Infections often occur in contaminated water where freshwater snails release larval forms of the parasite. After penetrating the skin and eventually traveling to the intestines or the urinary tract, the parasite lays eggs and infects those organs. It damages the intestines, bladder, and other organs and can lead to anemia and protein-energy deficiency. Along with malaria, schistosomiasis is one of the most important parasitic co-factors aiding in HIV transmission. Epidemiological data shows schistosome-endemic areas coincide with areas of high HIV prevalence, suggesting that parasitic infections such as schistosomiasis increase risk of HIV transmission. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis is the leading cause of death around the world for an infectious disease. This disease is especially prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, and the Latin American and Caribbean region. While the tuberculosis rate is decreasing in the rest of the world, it is increasing by rate of 6 percent per year in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is the leading cause of death for people with HIV in Africa. Tuberculosis (TB) is closely related to lifestyles of poverty, overcrowded conditions, alcoholism, stress, drug addiction and malnutrition. This disease spreads quickly among people who are undernourished. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, in the United States, tuberculosis is more prevalent among foreign born persons, and ethnic minorities. The rates are especially high among Hispanics, Blacks and Asians. HIV infection and TB are also closely tied. Being infected with HIV increases the rate of activation of latent TB infections, and having TB, increases the rate of HIV replication, therefore accelerating the progression of AIDS. AIDS AIDS is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Primary modes of HIV transmission in sub-Saharan Africa are sexual intercourse, mother-to-child transmission (vertical transmission), and through HIV-infected blood. Since rate of HIV transmission via heterosexual intercourse is so low, it is insufficient to cause AIDS disparities between countries. Critics of AIDS policies promoting safe sexual behaviors believe that these policies miss the biological mechanisms and social risk factors that contribute to the high HIV rates in poorer countries. In these developing countries, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa, certain health factors predispose the population to HIV infections. Many of the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are ravaged with poverty and many people live on less than one United States dollar a day. The poverty in these countries gives rise to many other factors that explain the high prevalence of AIDS. The poorest people in most African countries are malnourished, lack of access to clean water, and have improper sanitation. Because of a lack of clean water many people are plagued by intestinal parasites that significantly increase their chances of contracting HIV due to compromised immune system. Malaria, a disease still rampant in Africa also increases the risk of contracting HIV. These parasitic diseases, affect the body's immune response to HIV, making people more susceptible to contracting the disease once exposed. Genital schistosomiasis, also prevalent in the topical areas of Sub-Saharan Africa and many countries worldwide, produces genital lesions and attract CD4 cells to the genital region which promotes HIV infection. All these factors contribute to the high rate of HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa. Many of the factors seen in Africa are also present in Latin America and the Caribbean and contribute to the high rates of infections seen in those regions. In the United States, poverty is a contributing factor to HIV infections. There is also a large racial disparity, with African Americans having a significantly higher rate of infection than their white counterparts. Noncommunicable Diseases Noncommunicable diseases (NCD) such as cardiovascular disease, chronic respiratory diseases, cancer, and diabetes place a significant burden of disease in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). NCD cause 41 million deaths each year, which account for 71% of all deaths globally of which 77% are in LMIC. Respiratory Diseases More than 300 million people worldwide have asthma. The rate of asthma increases as countries become more urbanized and in many parts of the world those who develop asthma do not have access to medication and medical care. Within the United States, African Americans and Latinos are four times more likely to have severe asthma than whites. The disease is closely tied to poverty and poor living conditions. Asthma is also prevalent in children in low income countries. Homes with roaches and mice, as well as mold and mildew put children at risk for developing asthma as well as exposure to cigarette smoke. Unlike many other Western countries, the mortality rate for asthma has steadily risen in the United States over the last two decades. Mortality rates for African American children due to asthma are also far higher than that of other racial groups. For African Americans, the rate of visits to the emergency room is 330 percent higher than their white counterparts. The hospitalization rate is 220 percent higher and the death rate is 190 percent higher. Among Hispanics, Puerto Ricans are disporpotionatly affected by asthma with a disease rate that is 113 percent higher than non-Hispanic Whites and 50 percent higher than non-Hispanic Blacks. Studies have shown that asthma morbidity and mortality are concentrated in inner city neighborhoods characterized by poverty and large minority populations and this affects both genders at all ages. Asthma continues to have an adverse effects on the health of the poor and school attendance rates among poor children. 10.5 million days of school are missed each year due to asthma. Cardiovascular disease Though heart disease is not exclusive to the poor, there are aspects of a life of poverty that contribute to its development. This category includes coronary heart disease, stroke and heart attack. Heart disease is the leading cause of death worldwide and there are disparities of morbidity between the rich and poor. Studies from around the world link heart disease to poverty. Low neighborhood income and education were associated with higher risk factors. Poor diet, lack of exercise and limited (or no) access to a specialist were all factors related to poverty, though to contribute to heart disease. Both low income and low education were predictors of coronary heart disease, a subset of cardiovascular disease. Of those admitted to hospital in the United States for heart failure, women and African Americans were more likely to reside in lower income neighborhoods. In the developing world, there is a 10 fold increase in cardiac events in the black and urban populations. Cancer While cancer affects all populations, certain populations are disproportionally affected by the disease due to differences in risk factor exposures. People living in poverty are at an increased risk of cancer incidence and mortality, with annual death rates being 12% higher in countries living in poverty. Globally, two out of three cancer deaths are attributed to lifestyle and behaviors such as smoking, poor diet, physical inactivity, and insufficient cancer screenings. Individuals living in LMIC have greater exposure to these risk factors in the setting of reduced access to health care services. Inadequate access to health care presents a major barrier as individuals are less likely to receive regular cancer screenings resulting in a late-stage diagnosis, which is associated with worse health outcomes. People living in poverty have also higher levels of chronic stress, which also increases an individual's risk of cancer due to inflammatory changes. Obesity Obesity is a chronic non-communicable disease (NCD) that is diagnosed in individuals who have Body Mass Index (BMI) greater than 30 kg/m2. Generally, low-income populations, whether they live in high-income countries or in low-middle income countries (LMIC) suffer higher disease burden for chronic conditions including obesity when compared to their higher income counterparts. Higher obesity rates tend to be observed in LMICs and it has been believed that lower socio-economic statuses (SES) leads to higher obesity rates because individuals living in poverty are limited in their abilities to engage in healthy exercising and dieting practices. In the United States, there tends to be higher obesity rates in lower SES neighborhoods, which are called food deserts. A food desert lacks supermarkets that offer healthy and fresh food options and instead have highly processed foods. Because of the limited access to healthy foods, it follows that individuals who live farther away from supermarkets tend to have higher rates of obesity. Besides food access, individuals living in poverty may also be limited in their healthcare access, leading to later diagnosis and management of chronic conditions like obesity. Conversely, chronic conditions such as obesity can also increase rates of poverty via increased healthcare expenditures, wage loss during peak productive years, and missed schooling. These points underscore the positive effect poverty alleviation has on improving health outcomes as it concerns obesity and other chronic NCDs. In spite of this data, pervasive attitudes remain that individual behavior, not SES, is responsible for obesity. These attitudes stigmatize individuals with obesity, which further hampers public health interventions to reduce obesity rates and accelerates health disparities along SES lines. Other Health Complications Maternal Health Obstetric fistula or vaginal fistula is a medical condition in which a fistula (hole) develops between either the rectum and vagina (see rectovaginal fistula) or between the bladder and vagina (see vesicovaginal fistula) after severe or failed childbirth, when adequate medical care is not available. It is considered a disease of poverty because of its tendency to occur women in poor countries who do not have health resources comparable to developed nations. Dental Decay Dental decay or dental caries is the gradual destruction of tooth enamel. Poverty is a significant determinant for oral health. Dental caries is one of the most common chronic diseases worldwide. In the United States it is the most common chronic disease of childhood. Risk factors for dental caries includes living in poverty, poor education, low socioeconomic status, being part of an ethnic minority group, having a developmental disability, recent immigrants and people infected with HIV/AIDS. In Peru, poverty was found to be positively correlated with dental caries among children. According to a report by U.S health surveillance, tooth decay peaks earlier in life and is more severe in children with families living below the poverty line. Tooth decay is also strongly linked to dietary behaviors, and in poor rural areas where nutrient dense foods, fruits and vegetables are unavailable, the consumption of sugary and fatty food increases the risk of dental decay. Because the mouth is a gateway to the respiratory and digestive tracts, oral health has a significant impact on other health outcomes. Gum disease has been linked to diseases such as cardiovascular disease. Societal consequences Diseases of poverty reflect the dynamic relationship between poverty and poor health; while such diseases result directly from poverty, they also perpetuate and deepen impoverishment by sapping personal and national health and financial resources. For example, malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations, and by killing tens of millions in sub-Saharan Africa, AIDS alone threatens “the economies, social structures, and political stability of entire societies”. For women Women and children are often put at a high risk of being infected by schistosomiasis, which in turn puts them at a higher risk of acquiring HIV. Since the mode of schistosomiasis transmission is usually through contaminated water in streams and lakes, women and children who do their household chores by the water are more likely to acquire the disease. Activities that women and children often do around waterfront include washing clothes, collecting water, bathing, and swimming. Women who have schistosomiasis lesions are three times more likely to be infected with HIV. Women also have a higher risk of HIV transmission through the use of medical equipment such as needles. Because more women than men use health services, especially during pregnancy, they are more likely to come across unsterilized needles for injections. Although statistics estimate that unsterilized needles only account for 5 to 10 percent of primary HIV infections, studies show this mode of HIV transmission may be higher than reported. This increased risk of contracting HIV through non-sexual means has social consequences for women as well. Over half of the husbands of HIV-positive women in Africa tested HIV-negative. When HIV-positive women reveal their HIV status to their HIV-negative husbands, they are often accused of infidelity and face violence and abandonment from their family and community. Relating to human capabilities Malnutrition associated with HIV impacts people's ability to provide for themselves and their dependents, thus limiting the human capabilities of both themselves and their dependents. HIV can negatively affect work output, which impacts the ability to generate income. This is crucial in parts of Africa where farming is the primary occupation and obtaining food is dependent on the agricultural outcome. Without adequate food production, malnutrition becomes more prevalent. Children are often collateral damage in the AIDS crisis. As dependents, they can be burdened by the illness and eventual death of one or both parents due to HIV/AIDS. Studies have shown that orphaned children are more likely to display physical symptoms of malnutrition than children whose parents are both alive. Public policy proposals There are a number of proposals for reducing the diseases of poverty and eliminating health disparities within and between countries. The World Health Organization proposes closing the gaps by acting on social determinants. Their first recommendation is to improve daily living conditions. This area involves improving the lives of women and girls so that their children are born in healthy environments and placing an emphasis on early childhood health. Their second recommendation is to tackle the inequitable distribution of money, power and resources. This would involve building stronger public sectors and changing the way in which society is organized. Their third recommendation is to measure and understand the problem and assess the impact of action. This would involve training policy makers and healthcare practitioners to recognize problems and form policy solutions. Health in All Policies The 8th Global Conference on Health Promotion held in Helsinki in June 2013 has proposed an approach termed Health in All Policies. Health inequalities are shaped by many powerful forces and social, political, and economic determinants. Governments have a responsibility to ensure that their people are able to live healthy lives and have equitable access to achieving a reasonable state of good health. Policies that governments craft and implement in all sectors have a significant and ongoing impact on public health, health equity, and the lives of their citizens. Increases in technology, medical innovation, and living conditions have led to the disappearance of diseases and other factors contributing to poor health. However, there are many diseases of poverty that still persist in developed and developing countries. Tackling these health inequalities and diseases of poverty requires a willingness to engage the whole government in health. The Helsinki Statement lays out a framework of action for countries and calls on governments to make a commitment to building health equity within their country. Health in All Policies (HiAP) is an approach to public policies across all sectors of government that takes into account the health implications of all government and policy decisions to improve health equity across all populations residing within the borders of a country. This concept is built upon principles in line with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, The United Nations Millennium Development Declaration, and principles of good governance: legitimacy given by national and international law, accountability of government, transparency of policy making, participation of citizens, sustainability ensuring policies meet the needs of both present and future generations, and collaboration across sectors and levels of government. Finally the Framework lists and expands upon six steps for implementation that may be undertaken by a country in taking action towards Health in All Policies. These are components of action and not a rigid checklist of steps to adhere to. The most important aspect of this policy is that governments should adapt the policy to suit the needs of their citizens, their socioeconomic situation, and their governance system. Establish the need and priorities for HiAP Frame planned action Identify supportive structures and processes Facilitate assessment and engagement Ensure monitoring, evaluation, and reporting Build capacity. HIV/AIDS policy Nutrition Supplements: Focusing on reversing the pattern of malnutrition in sub-Saharan African and other poor countries is a one possible way of decreasing susceptibility to HIV infections. Micro-nutrients such as iron and vitamin A can be delivered and provided at a very low cost. For example, vitamin A supplements cost $0.02 per capsule if provided twice a year. Iron supplements per child cost $0.02 if provided weekly or $0.08 if provided daily. Eliminating Co-factors: Tackling the very diseases that increase risk of HIV infections can help slow down the rates of HIV transmission. Co-factors such as malaria and parasitic infections can be combated in an effective and cost-efficient manner. For example, mosquito nets can be easily used to prevent malaria. Parasites can be eliminated with medication that is cost-effective and easy to administer. Twice-yearly treatments range from $0.02 to $0.25 depending on the type of worm. See also References External links United Nations Population Fund: State of World Population 2002 RESULTS: World Health/Diseases of Poverty Roll Back Malaria Global Partnership Agriculture and HIV/AIDS : understanding the links between agriculture and health (brief) by Stuart Gillespie (2006) International Food Policy Research Institute The Poor Pay More—POVERTY'S HIGH COST TO HEALTH Human diseases and disorders Public health Poverty Epidemiology Health economics Social problems in medicine
4637301	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring%20Raiders	Ring Raiders	Ring Raiders is a 1989 animated television series based on a 1980s toy line made by Matchbox. The series began with a two-hour special by DIC Enterprises, followed by one week of five half-hour episodes syndicated by Bohbot Communications. Synopsis Set in the year 1998, the world is on the brink of a cataclysmic war. An organization dedicated to taking over the world, through the brutal use of air power, is about to realize its goal. It is known as the "Skull Squadron", founded by a band of renegades whose planes are capable of time travel. These pilots fall in love with the power they hold and see that they can use their planes to take control of the world. There are always pilots who, twisted by war's cruelties, are willing to join the Skull Squadron, causing it to grow bigger and more dangerous. In the 1990s, Skull Squadron is finally powerful enough to scramble for the master mission in its bid for world domination. By now, almost too late, the great nations of the world are aware of Skull Squadron's plot. They band together to produce an aircraft that gives them a fighting chance against the onslaught—the Justice-class air carrier, which can travel through time. The carrier is outfitted with a small crew, then sent back in time. The Justice crew beams the best planes and pilots right out of history's greatest air battles to train them to fight against the Skull Squadron. A handful of pilots are selected as "Ring Commanders" to train and supervise the hundreds who remain. Ring Commanders are identified by their special signal ring, through which they can summon (or be summoned by) a fellow Ring Raider in times of need. "Ring of Fire", "Scorch's Revenge", "All the Right Stuff", "The Best Man for the Job is a Woman" and "A Pilot's Faith" were all pilot episodes, but the series was never taken up as a full season show. The animation art design was done by Peter Chung, based on the Those Characters From Cleveland art and toy designs of Mark Spangler and Jim Groman. The show used the catchphrase "The command is in my hand" when characters wished to transform their planes, using their rings to make them more powerful. Their improved forms could only be held for a short time, or the pilot risked burning out their nervous system. Pilots and planes Justice Crew Victor Vector (voiced by Dan Gilvezan) – Victor was a stealth fighter squadron leader until 1993, when he was selected to command the first Justice-class air carrier and the Ring Raider squadrons. He is cool headed and always willing to risk his life for others. As trainer-commander of the elite "Justice Wing", he pilots the Victory 1, a customized F-19 stealth fighter. The series and toy line were developed before the public revelation of the F-117. Yuri Kirkov (voiced by Gregory Paul Martin) – Yuri was a solid, disciplined Soviet Air Force major; he is now one the Ring Raiders' foremost squadron leaders. He defected from the Russians by surrendering to the USMC during the Vietnam War. Tough-minded and stern to a fault, Kirkov often takes himself too seriously, yet he can also be a very nice guy, if and when it comes to such. Kirkov is easily surprised by the "free and easy" standards of his fellow Ring Raiders; he constantly wonders to himself, "Is this any way to run an Air Force?" As trainer-commander of "Freedom Wing", Kirkov pilots Kirkov's Comet, a customized F-4 Phantom II fighter-bomber. What makes Kirkov's Comet unique is its nose-mounted beam-cannon—it can cut up planes or blind opponents' infrared detection gear. Yinsu Yakamura (voiced by Townsend Coleman) – Yinsu was a space-fighter pilot picked up by a Justice-class air carrier in the year 2235. Computer educated, he is incredibly intelligent and knowledgeable about a wide range of subjects. With his past being the future, he is a natural expert on 20th Century technology. Yakamura possesses a high level of courage, and a deep sense of honor, to match his intellect. As trainer-commander of "Honor Wing", Yakamura pilots the Samurai Flyer, a customized Grumman X-29 loaded with complex battle computers and miniature AWACS gear. Along with several tons of high-tech weaponry, the Samurai Flyer also carries a 3-D split-laser "Deceptor". The Deceptor can cause 1–50 extra images to show up on radar scanners, so that Yakamura appears to have an entire squadron of Samurai Flyers backing him up. Joe Thundercloud (voiced by Efrain Figueroa) – A full-blooded Sioux (Native American), Joe was flying with the USAF in Korea when he was beamed aboard a Justice-class air carrier. By nature, Thundercloud is a reflective man of few words. That's why his fellow Ring Raiders always listen whenever he does speak up; with his keen mind and sense of strategy, there are few problems he cannot solve. In the air, he is always brave and tirelessly alert. He is known for his uncanny ability to "spot" enemies before they actually show up on radar. As trainer-commander of "Thunder Wing", Thundercloud pilots the Arrowhead, a customized F-86 Sabre fighter/bomber loaded with special warpaint-design Sidewinder missiles. Arrowhead's modified power plant makes it capable of short speed bursts up to Mach 2. "Cub" Jones (voiced by Ike Eisenmann) – "Cub" Jones was beamed aboard a Justice-class air carrier in 1943, having lied about his age so he could join the USN (Jones was only 16 at the time). He has more potential than most of the other Ring Raiders put together, in terms of mere flying ability. With his hot-tempered and cocky nature, there is much that he needs to learn. Still, he is a very likable young pilot with a bright future. In World War II, Jones flew an F6F Hellcat; as the trainer-commander of the "Courage Wing", he pilots the Sky Tiger, a customized Northrop F-5 interceptor. Of all the modifications done to this F-5, the most hazardous to Skull Squadron planes is its "Tigerclaw" missile system. Housed in Sky Tiger's forward underbelly, Tigerclaw is a retractable pod of 25 small missiles that can each be remote controlled by the plane's on-board computers for use against air, land or sea targets. Max Miles (voiced by Roscoe Lee Browne) – Max is the head of Ring Raider intelligence. He makes dangerous flights into Skull Squadron territory, gathering information and photographs, to determine what the enemy air force's next steps might be. Known for a careful sense of planning, Miles prides himself on minimizing the risks to "Valor Wing" (which he trains and commands) on any mission. But to get his data, this strong and cool-headed pilot takes all kinds of chances himself. He loves a good joke — even on himself — and his sardonic sense of humor makes him popular among the other Ring Raiders. Miles is no stranger to dogfights, either, but he specializes in night missions. He pilots the Knight Fighter, a customized SR-71 Blackbird strategic recon jet. In the toyline, Miles was Caucasian, but in the cartoon, he was redesigned to resemble his voice actor Roscoe Lee Browne. "Never" Evers – Evers is aptly nicknamed, since he never turns down any assignment regardless of how risky it may be. When other Ring Raiders don't want a mission because it's too dangerous, they call Evers...who wouldn't have it any other way. He's the ultimate showboat: cocky, and with little respect for authority, even Victor Vector's. Evers has been known to disobey a direct order when he thought his superiors were "being too cautious". This daredevil never flies anywhere without loud rock n’ roll blasting away in his cockpit. Happily, Evers is almost as good as he rates himself, which is very good indeed. Despite his penchant for bending procedures, and even breaking safety rules, he's a very capable wingman in the crunch. He'd be a better Ring Raider if he were less hot-headed and more reliable, but then he wouldn't be "Never" Evers. He pilots the Fearless Falcon, a customized F-16 fighter equipped with a special fuel-nozzle that allows it to train un-ignited fuel in the face of pursuing Skull Squadron planes. When Evers' afterburner is kicked in, the pursuer finds himself in a hot spot, and the Fearless Falcon finds itself miles away, almost instantly. Evers did not appear in the cartoon or the toy line. "Salty" Salton – "Salty" Salton was a USMC World War II flying ace who was beamed aboard a Justice-class air carrier while working as the director of his own flying circus. He is rough, tough and usually gruff to the younger Ring Raiders — never letting them forget that "I've been a pilot longer than most of you've been alive!". He frequently trades verbal abuse with "Never" Evers in particular. Salton has forgotten more about dogfighting, and about air-sea combat in particular, than most of his fellow Ring Raiders know. He thinks anybody who depends on radar and computers ought to just stay down on deck. Despite all his bluster, Salton backs it up with phenomenal flying ability. Salton refuses to trade in his old Corsair, souped-up though it may be, for a plane that would bring him into the jet age. He pilots the Sea Dragon, a customized F4U Corsair fighter that can split its gull-shaped wings, dragonfly-style, doubling its speed and firepower. With all this, in a dogfight, Sea Dragon seems to actually breathe fire. Salton did not appear in the cartoon or the toy line. Baron Von Claudeitz (voiced by Chuck McCann) – Baron Von Claudeitz is a cantankerous World War I Imperial German fighter pilot. Like "Salty" Salton, Von Claudeitz thinks his fellow pilots rely too much on technology, as seen in the episode "A Pilot's Faith". He retains his original (modified) aircraft, a Fokker Dr.I, but also piloted an Me 262 on one occasion. He is meant as an homage to the famous German flying ace Manfred von Richthofen (aka the Red Baron), who is considered the ace-of-aces of the First World War. The Baron existed only in the cartoon and the UK edition of the 1990 Ring Raiders Annual; he was not in the comic book or the toyline. Jenny Gail (voiced by Chris Anthony) – Jenny Gale is the highest-ranking female Ring Raider. A fully-trained doctor, she pulled double-duty as a helicopter pilot in the Vietnam War. Gail has had to deal with the distrustful attitude of Baron Von Claudeitz, who is biased against women in general; he thinks they should leave the dogfighting to men. She pilots a futuristic, jet-boosted medevac helicopter, one not based on any real-world design, called Nightingale. She often flies rings around the Skull Squadron, somehow making them look like amateurs almost without trying. She existed only in the cartoon; she was not in the comic book or the toy line. Skull Squadron Scorch (voiced by Rodger Bumpass) – Stanley "Scorch" Smith is the founder and director of the Skull Squadron. This fighter-tactics master knows every feint and trick—dirty and otherwise—under the sky. He's a relentless dogfighter who remains to be bested or outmaneuvered. Bitter to the core, Scorch lives for the day he can take on—and take out—Victor Vector, whom he blames for the burns that cover his left arm and his left face (hence his skull-like mask). As trainer-leader of the elite "Ambush Wing", Scorch pilots Scorch's Torch, a customized Saab Viggen fighter-interceptor that houses a full arsenal of incendiary weapons and electronic countermeasures. If there's one plane that can burn even Victor Vector in a dogfight, it's this one. Hubbub (voiced by Stuart Goetz) – Hubbub is a punk rocker who loves to create chaos wherever he goes. Heavily into electronics, he uses the myriad high-tech devices in his plane to baffle and confuse the Ring Raider squadrons. He's also a master at vocal impressions, and at locking onto Ring Raider frequencies to imitate a Ring Commander's voice issuing false orders. Hubbub doesn't just make a lot of noise, though. He's a tough but unconventional aerial combatant, basically a street-thug of the air. Nothing makes this punker's day like a good aerial rumble. As trainer-leader of "Rebel Wing", Hubbub pilots the Zapmaster, a customized Dassault Mirage III equipped with lightning capacitators that can electrify an entire cloud at the touch of a thumb trigger. Any Ring Raiders who underestimate Hubbub or his Zapmaster are literally in for a major shock. Cutthroat – Cutthroat is the Skull Squadrons' "spy pilot". This wicked agent just might be even more lethal on the ground than in the air...and you'd better believe he's plenty lethal in the air. A master of disguise and duplicity, Cutthroat is a constantly-dreaded yet grudgingly-respected threat to Ring Raider security. He pilots the Bayonet, a customized F19A stealth fighter. In a dogfight, he's likely to show up almost anywhere with little or no warning. Whether striking inside Ring Raider headquarters, or at 55,000 feet, Cutthroat's favorite attack is the classic knife-in-the-back ambush. Cutthroat did not appear in the toy line. Siren (voiced by Susan Silo) – Siren is the only female Skull Squadron leader. Her MiG-25 is armed with a complete arsenal of powerful sonic weapons. Siren existed solely in the cartoon; neither she nor her plane were a part of the comic book or the toy line. Chiller – Chiller is among the most feared Skull Squadron pilots. He puts the "cold" in "cold and ruthless". Chiller is also known for brooding, being a man with some dark secret that he is unable and/or unwilling to share with anyone else. He's a loner in the sky, too, preferring solo surprise attacks on straggling Ring Raiders. As trainer-leader of "Bandit Wing", Chiller pilots the Ice Machine, a customized Lockheed F-104 Starfighter with an arsenal of unusual "ice" weapons. The deadliest of these is a modified thermal-reverse beam gun that can freeze-dry anything up to a mile away. Slingshot – Slingshot (aka Shooter) lives by the old saying "shoot first and ask questions later". This Old West-style gunslinger pilots the Sixgun, a customized A-10 Thunderbolt II packed full of enough sophisticated weaponry to keep a whole air force at bay; and Slingshot knows how to use all of it with unmatched precision. It doesn't take a whole lot to make this airborne desperado "go for his guns". With six extra mini turbo jets to fire all at once, the Sixgun can jump over the top of Mach 2 for spring-loaded getaways and surprise attacks. He did not appear in the toy line. Mako (voiced by Jack Angel) – Mako is the last man you should ever mess with in air-sea operations. This bloodthirsty Skull Squadron tracker is normally cold and methodical, but when he's on the verge of a strike, he goes into a state of frenzied excitement, which makes escape from his gun sights almost impossible. Mako thinks nothing of holding a grudge either; he'll search the skies and the seven seas for anyone who has crossed him...particularly his former wingman, Yuri Kirkov. As trainer-leader of "Vicious Wing", Mako pilots the Sea Hunter: a customized Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29 specially adapted for sea duty. Sea Hunter is equipped with CADS (Computer-Aided Dimensional Sonar), as well as high-tech armaments. Moreover, the Sea Hunter gives literal meaning to the expression "flying fish"; it's capable of operating underwater. Wraith – Wraith (aka Wraither) has been spotted among the Skull Squadron flyers since World War II. Some say this deadly dogfighter is actually just a flight suit handed down from one Skull Squadron pilot to another. Yet those who have dueled with him and the Galloping Ghoul, his ghostly P-51 Mustang, come away sure that neither Wraith nor the Ghoul are of this world. When the skull visor is lifted on his helmet, there is no face behind it. Wraith is the trainer-leader of "Vulture Wing". The Galloping Ghoul carries more than a ton of serious combat equipment, and packs a few extra pounds of mysterious muscle: it is able to disappear into thin air and reappear, which gives it an eerie edge when taking on much-faster Ring Raiders. The name of his plane, the Galloping Ghoul, which is a P-51 Mustang, is likely a reference to The Galloping Ghost, a real-life P-51 that was used in air races. Blackjack – Blackjack specializes in night attacks and is the most daring member of the Skull Squadron, taking chances that most people in their right mind would never take. If Blackjack were ordered to fly his plane through the eye of a needle, he would...provided the odds were in his favor. As trainer-leader of "Havoc Wing", Blackjack pilots the Battle Bird, a customized Hawker Siddeley Harrier "jump jet" that is loaded with special night-combat gear. In addition to more than four tons of carry-on arms, the Battle Bird is equipped with an invisible infrared beam that detects objects in the dark...flashing them, in living-daylight colors, onto a 3-D view screen inside Blackjack's cockpit. Episodes "Ring of Fire" (written by Phil Harnage; originally aired September 16, 1989): Cub Jones, a novice US Navy pilot from World War II, is recruited by the Ring Raiders when the Skull Squadron emerges in his era. The plot of the first episode is Cub's rescue from peril at the hands of the Skulls and initiation into the Raiders — and the subsequent mission as the Skulls' delayed-reaction weapon sets off volcanoes all around the world. "The Best Man for the Job is a Woman" (written by Pat Allee and Ben Hurst; originally aired September 23, 1989): Jenny Gail must focus on rescuing the other Ring Raiders when they are in trouble and prove she is a capable pilot. "Scorch's Revenge" (written by Phil Harnage; originally aired September 30, 1989): In this episode, viewers learn that Scorch's real name is Stanley Smith. He attended the Top Flight Academy with Victor Vector, who scarred Scorch's face after a challenge to see who the better pilot was. Seeking revenge, Scorch kidnaps Jenny Gail and challenges Vector to discover who is the better pilot and stop Jenny from being sent to the Jurassic Period. "All the Right Stuff" (written by Mike O’Mahony; originally aired October 7, 1989): In the year 2038, Yinsu Yakamura was a member of the World Air Force and rescued astronauts in a space shuttle from a meteor shower. He also tried to rescue an alien life form on the shuttle, but the meteor shower was too strong. The Justice air carrier rescued him as he was crash landing and a starflyer became his alien pet parrot. Also in this episode, Scorch time travels to 2020 to steal a satellite that will enable him to take over the world. The Ring Raiders escape to Kansas in the year 1860 in order to prevent the Skull Squadron from attacking them. Yinsu suggests that the Ring Raiders travel to Edwards Air Force Base in the year 2023 to get a Gamma 2 Space Fighter to help defeat Scorch. "A Pilot's Faith" (written by Bob Forward; originally aired October 14, 1989): A mysterious plague is striking the world and the Ring Raiders have been asked to deliver a cure for it. "Cub" Jones learns he must rely on his pilot's instincts rather than technology when the Justice air carrier autopilot is out of commission. Home media The episode "Ring of Fire" was released as an American VHS tape. The tape included a special silver-painted Ring Raider plane. The tape also featured commercials for Ring Raiders products – some before the episode, some in the middle of the episode where commercials would have gone on the air. In the United Kingdom, a PAL VHS tape was released containing "Scorch's Revenge" and "All The Right Stuff". Toyline The Ring Raiders toyline consisted primarily of small (3–4 centimeters long) plastic toy planes mounted on plastic rings via a detachable display stand. The stands allowed the aircraft a small degree of mobility. Relatively few molds were produced for the toyline; most of the aircraft were repainted three or four times each. The line was rather short lived, lasting about six months. Wing Packs The bulk of the toy release consisted of packs of four aircraft, each squadron sporting their own distinctive color scheme. No two packs had exactly the same aircraft in them, but several had three shared aircraft. Twelve packs were released, six Ring Raiders and six Skull Squadron. Battle Packs These packs consisted of two aircraft, one Skull Squadron and one Ring Raider. The aircraft were simply repackaged versions of ones that had previously been sold in Wing packs. Towards the end of the line, these packs were sold bundled with other items from the line. Bases Four bases were released as a part of the line, three Ring Raiders and one Skull Squadron. The Air Carrier Justice was the largest single item in the line; it was a massive Flying Wing design, resembling a scaled-up version of the YB-49. The Skybase Freedom and Skybase Courage were two smaller bases. Both were able to connect to the Justice. The two bases were of similar design, and their toys shared almost all of their parts, albeit recolored. The Skull Squadron Mobile Base was a heavily armed and armored flying fortress. The toy was based on the same design as the Freedom/Courage and shared about half the parts. Battle Blasters A pair of accessories, these toys consisted of a soundbox shaped like a flight stick that was worn around the wrist. It had three sound effects (jet engine, cannon and missile launch), each triggered by a separate button. Two versions were produced, one Ring Raiders and one Skull Squadron. Both were virtually identical, save for the color scheme. The Skull Squadron version played a "revving" sound when it was started up, but apart from this it was identical to its Ring Raiders counterpart. Action Packs Released at the end of the line, these are probably the rarest items in the Ring Raiders line. These packs consisted of eight aircraft, four from each side. The aircraft were a mixture of previously released molds and new ones that had not yet been featured, and all had new color schemes. Featured aircraft The Ring Raiders toy line featured an array of aircraft dating from World War II to the present day, including the then-"Futuristic" designs. With the exception of the fictional Nightingale helicopter, Airborne aircraft carriers and both Monogram and Testors versions of the F-19 Stealth Fighter model kits, all were based on real aircraft. Almost all of the designs featured were Western (specifically American) aircraft. Real-life Aircraft in the toy line include: P-51 Mustang F4U Corsair F-86 Sabre F-104 Starfighter F-4 Phantom II F-5 Tiger II F-16 Falcon A-10 Thunderbolt II SR-71 Blackbird X-29 Harrier Mirage III Saab Viggen MiG-29 Fulcrum The cartoon featured numerous other aircraft that were not featured in the toyline, including the Fokker Dr.I, MiG-25, and A6M Zero and futuristic space-planes. In Europe, a second line of Ring Raiders toys was released. Though no new characters were affiliated with the new aircraft squadrons, their colors bore immense similarities to those of the previous series. Brand new aircraft included the F6F Hellcat, F7U Cutlass, BAE Hawk, Me 262, B-58 Hustler, Tu-22, MiG-21, B-1 Lancer, C-130 Hercules, and Handley Page Victor. Comic book A Ring Raiders comic book was published by Fleetway Publications in mid-1989. The comic was published fortnightly and ran for six issues. Rather than running self-contained stories, each issue would run 5–6 serialised stories. One of these was usually a one-shot featuring the origin story of one of the featured characters. Like the TV series and the toyline, the comic was a short lived. It was abruptly cancelled at the sixth issue, with most stories ending in cliffhangers. Save for a brief notice on the letters page stating this was happening "beyond our control", there was no indication that this was a final issue aside from the "Next issue" boxes at the end of each story now being blank. As promised, Fleetway released a big, thick special edition the following year around March, which concluded all the stories which had been left hanging and included another origin story. Also included were "mini posters" which were the already completed covers for what would have been the next few issues, and a couple of the airplane fact-files which had also already been completed for publication. The comic followed a different continuity from the cartoon series. The characters looked rather different from their animated counterparts, with several having radically different origin stories, their looks and origins tying in more with the original toyline on which the comic and cartoon were based. Ring Raiders Annual 1989 Ring Raiders Annual 1990 Trivia Like Saban's Adventures of the Little Mermaid, Masked Rider and the English dub version of the Dragon Quest anime, most of the music composed by Shuki Levy in this cartoon was later reused for the English dub Saban versions of the first two seasons of Digimon. References External links Cartoon Database Ring Raiders Episode Guide Virtual Toychest 1989 American television series debuts 1989 American television series endings 1980s American animated television series 1980s American time travel television series Television series by DIC Entertainment American children's animated action television series American time travel television series Television series set in 1998 Aviation television series English-language television shows Television series set in the future Television shows based on toys Television shows adapted into comics Mass media franchises Mass media franchises introduced in 1989 Fictional aviators Fictional aircraft Fictional military organizations 1980s toys Comics based on toys Aviation comics
4637590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Dylan	Bob Dylan	Bob Dylan (legally Robert Dylan; born Robert Allen Zimmerman, May 24, 1941) is an American singer-songwriter. Generally regarded as one of the greatest songwriters ever, Dylan has been a major figure in popular culture over his 60 year career. Much of his most celebrated work dates from the 1960s, when songs such as "Blowin' in the Wind" (1963) and "The Times They Are a-Changin' (1964) became anthems for the civil rights and antiwar movements. His lyrics during this period incorporated political, social, philosophical, and literary influences, defying pop music conventions and appealing to the burgeoning counterculture. Dylan was born and raised in St. Louis County, Minnesota. Following his self-titled debut album of traditional folk songs in 1962, he made his breakthrough as a songwriter with the release of The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan the next year. The album features "Blowin' in the Wind" and "A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall" which, like many of his early songs, adapted the tunes and phrasing of older folk songs. He went on to release the politically charged The Times They Are a-Changin' and the more lyrically abstract and introspective Another Side of Bob Dylan in 1964. In 1965 and 1966, Dylan drew controversy among folk purists when he adopted electrically amplified rock instrumentation, and in the space of 15 months recorded three of the most important and influential rock albums of the 1960s: Bringing It All Back Home, Highway 61 Revisited (both 1965) and Blonde on Blonde (1966). His six-minute single "Like a Rolling Stone" (1965) expanded commercial and creative boundaries in popular music. In July 1966, a motorcycle accident led to Dylan's withdrawal from touring. During this period, he recorded a large body of songs with members of the Band, who had previously backed him on tour. These recordings were later released as the collaborative album The Basement Tapes in 1975. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Dylan explored country music and rural themes in John Wesley Harding (1967), Nashville Skyline (1969), and New Morning (1970). In 1975, he released Blood on the Tracks, which many saw as a return to form. In the late 1970s, he became a born-again Christian and released a series of albums of contemporary gospel music before returning to his more familiar rock-based idiom in the early 1980s. Dylan's 1997 album Time Out of Mind marked the beginning of a renaissance for his career. He has released five critically acclaimed albums of original material since then, the most recent being Rough and Rowdy Ways (2020). He also recorded a series of three albums of traditional American standards, especially songs recorded by Frank Sinatra, and an album smoothing his early rock material into a mellower Americana sensibility, Shadow Kingdom (2023). Dylan has toured continuously since the late 1980s on what has become known as the Never Ending Tour. Since 1994, Dylan has published nine books of paintings and drawings, and his work has been exhibited in major art galleries. He has sold more than 145 million records, making him one of the best-selling musicians ever. He has received numerous awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, ten Grammy Awards, a Golden Globe Award and an Academy Award. Dylan has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame and the Songwriters Hall of Fame. The Pulitzer Prize Board in 2008 awarded him a special citation for "his profound impact on popular music and American culture, marked by lyrical compositions of extraordinary poetic power". In 2016, Dylan was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "for having created new poetic expressions within the great American song tradition". Life and career 1941–1959: Origins and musical beginnings Bob Dylan was born Robert Allen Zimmerman ( Shabtai Zisl ben Avraham) in St. Mary's Hospital on May 24, 1941, in Duluth, Minnesota, and raised in Hibbing, Minnesota, on the Mesabi Range west of Lake Superior. Dylan's paternal grandparents, Anna Kirghiz and Zigman Zimmerman, emigrated from Odesa in the Russian Empire (now Ukraine) to the United States, following the pogroms against Jews of 1905. His maternal grandparents, Florence and Ben Stone, were Lithuanian Jews who had arrived in the United States in 1902. In his autobiography, Chronicles: Volume One, Dylan wrote that his paternal grandmother's family was originally from the Kağızman district of Kars Province in northeastern Turkey. Dylan's father Abram Zimmerman and his mother Beatrice "Beatty" Stone were part of a small, close-knit Jewish community. They lived in Duluth until Dylan was six, when his father contracted polio and the family returned to his mother's hometown, Hibbing, where they lived for the rest of Dylan's childhood, and his father and paternal uncles ran a furniture and appliance store. In his early years he listened to the radio—first to blues and country stations from Shreveport, Louisiana, and later, when he was a teenager, to rock and roll. Dylan formed several bands while attending Hibbing High School. In the Golden Chords, he performed covers of songs by Little Richard and Elvis Presley. Their performance of Danny & the Juniors' "Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay" at their high school talent show was so loud that the principal cut the microphone. In 1959, Dylan's high school yearbook carried the caption "Robert Zimmerman: to join 'Little Richard. That year, as Elston Gunnn, he performed two dates with Bobby Vee, playing piano and clapping. In September 1959, Dylan moved to Minneapolis and enrolled at the University of Minnesota. His focus on rock and roll gave way to American folk music, as he explained in a 1985 interview: Living at the Jewish-centric fraternity Sigma Alpha Mu house, Dylan began to perform at the Ten O'Clock Scholar, a coffeehouse a few blocks from campus, and became involved in the Dinkytown folk music circuit. During this period, he began to introduce himself as "Bob Dylan". In his memoir, he wrote that he considered adopting the surname Dillon before unexpectedly seeing poems by Dylan Thomas, and deciding upon that less common variant. Explaining his change of name in a 2004 interview, he said, "You're born, you know, the wrong names, wrong parents. I mean, that happens. You call yourself what you want to call yourself. This is the land of the free." 1960s Relocation to New York and record deal In May 1960, Dylan dropped out of college at the end of his first year. In January 1961, he traveled to New York City to perform there and visit his musical idol Woody Guthrie, who was seriously ill with Huntington's disease in Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital. Guthrie had been a revelation to Dylan and influenced his early performances. Describing Guthrie's impact, he wrote: "The songs themselves had the infinite sweep of humanity in them... [He] was the true voice of the American spirit. I said to myself I was going to be Guthrie's greatest disciple". As well as visiting Guthrie in hospital, Dylan befriended Guthrie's protégé Ramblin' Jack Elliott, who channeled Guthrie's repertoire, as he recalled in Chronicles: Volume One. From February 1961, Dylan played at clubs around Greenwich Village, befriending and picking up material from folk singers there, including Dave Van Ronk, Fred Neil, Odetta, the New Lost City Ramblers and Irish musicians the Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem. In September, The New York Times critic Robert Shelton boosted Dylan's career with a very enthusiastic review of his performance at Gerde's Folk City: "Bob Dylan: A Distinctive Folk-Song Stylist". That month, Dylan played harmonica on folk singer Carolyn Hester's third album, bringing him to the attention of the album's producer John Hammond, who signed Dylan to Columbia Records. Dylan's first album, Bob Dylan, released March 19, 1962, consisted of traditional folk, blues and gospel material with just two original compositions. The album sold 5,000 copies in its first year, just enough to break even. In August 1962, Dylan took two decisive steps in his career. He changed his name to Bob Dylan, and he signed a management contract with Albert Grossman. Grossman remained Dylan's manager until 1970, and was known for his sometimes confrontational personality and protective loyalty. Dylan said, "He was kind of like a Colonel Tom Parker figure ... you could smell him coming." Tension between Grossman and John Hammond led to the latter suggesting Dylan work with the young African-American jazz producer Tom Wilson, who produced several tracks for the second album without formal credit. Wilson produced the next three albums Dylan recorded. Dylan made his first trip to the United Kingdom from December 1962 to January 1963. He had been invited by television director Philip Saville to appear in a drama, Madhouse on Castle Street, which Saville was directing for BBC Television. At the end of the play, Dylan performed "Blowin' in the Wind", one of its first public performances. While in London, Dylan performed at London folk clubs, including the Troubadour, Les Cousins, and Bunjies. He also learned material from UK performers, including Martin Carthy. By the release of Dylan's second album, The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan, in May 1963, he had begun to make his name as a singer-songwriter. Many songs on the album were labeled protest songs, inspired partly by Guthrie and influenced by Pete Seeger's passion for topical songs. "Oxford Town" was an account of James Meredith's ordeal as the first black student to risk enrollment at the University of Mississippi. The first song on the album, "Blowin' in the Wind", partly derived its melody from the traditional slave song, "No More Auction Block", while its lyrics questioned the social and political status quo. The song was widely recorded by other artists and became a hit for Peter, Paul and Mary. Another song, "A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall", was based on the folk ballad "Lord Randall". With veiled references to an impending apocalypse, it gained resonance when the Cuban Missile Crisis developed a few weeks after Dylan began performing it. Like "Blowin' in the Wind", "A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall" marked a new direction in songwriting, blending a stream-of-consciousness, imagist lyrical attack with traditional folk form. Dylan's topical songs led to his being viewed as more than just a songwriter. Janet Maslin wrote of Freewheelin: "These were the songs that established [Dylan] as the voice of his generation—someone who implicitly understood how concerned young Americans felt about nuclear disarmament and the growing Civil Rights Movement: his mixture of moral authority and nonconformity was perhaps the most timely of his attributes." Freewheelin also included love songs and surreal talking blues. Humor was an important part of Dylan's persona, and the range of material on the album impressed listeners, including the Beatles. George Harrison said of the album: "We just played it, just wore it out. The content of the song lyrics and just the attitude—it was incredibly original and wonderful". The rough edge of Dylan's singing unsettled some but was an attraction to others. Novelist Joyce Carol Oates wrote: "When we first heard this raw, very young, and seemingly untrained voice, frankly nasal, as if sandpaper could sing, the effect was dramatic and electrifying". Many early songs reached the public through more palatable versions by other performers, such as Joan Baez, who became Dylan's advocate and lover. Baez was influential in bringing Dylan to prominence by recording several of his early songs and inviting him on stage during her concerts. Others who had hits with Dylan's songs in the early 1960s included the Byrds, Sonny & Cher, the Hollies, Peter, Paul and Mary, the Association, Manfred Mann and the Turtles. "Mixed-Up Confusion", recorded during the Freewheelin''' sessions with a backing band, was released as Dylan's first single in December 1962, but then swiftly withdrawn. In contrast to the mostly solo acoustic performances on the album, the single showed a willingness to experiment with a rockabilly sound. Cameron Crowe described it as "a fascinating look at a folk artist with his mind wandering towards Elvis Presley and Sun Records". Protest and Another Side In May 1963, Dylan's political profile rose when he walked out of The Ed Sullivan Show. During rehearsals, Dylan had been told by CBS television's head of program practices that "Talkin' John Birch Paranoid Blues" was potentially libelous to the John Birch Society. Rather than comply with censorship, Dylan refused to appear. By this time, Dylan and Baez were prominent in the civil rights movement, singing together at the March on Washington on August 28, 1963. Dylan's third album, The Times They Are a-Changin', reflected a more politicized Dylan. The songs often took as their subject matter contemporary stories, with "Only a Pawn in Their Game" addressing the murder of civil rights worker Medgar Evers; and the Brechtian "The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll" the death of black hotel barmaid Hattie Carroll, at the hands of young white socialite William Zantzinger. On a more general theme, "Ballad of Hollis Brown" and "North Country Blues" addressed despair engendered by the breakdown of farming and mining communities. This political material was accompanied by two personal love songs, "Boots of Spanish Leather" and "One Too Many Mornings". By the end of 1963, Dylan felt both manipulated and constrained by the folk and protest movements. Accepting the "Tom Paine Award" from the National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee shortly after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, an intoxicated Dylan questioned the role of the committee, characterized the members as old and balding, and claimed to see something of himself and of every man in Kennedy's assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald.Another Side of Bob Dylan, recorded in a single evening on June 9, 1964, had a lighter mood. The humorous Dylan reemerged on "I Shall Be Free No. 10" and "Motorpsycho Nightmare". "Spanish Harlem Incident" and "To Ramona" are passionate love songs, while "Black Crow Blues" and "I Don't Believe You (She Acts Like We Never Have Met)" suggest the rock and roll soon to dominate Dylan's music. "It Ain't Me Babe", on the surface a song about spurned love, has been described as a rejection of the role of political spokesman thrust upon him. His newest direction was signaled by two lengthy songs: the impressionistic "Chimes of Freedom", which sets social commentary against a metaphorical landscape in a style characterized by Allen Ginsberg as "chains of flashing images," and "My Back Pages", which attacks the simplistic and arch seriousness of his own earlier topical songs and seems to predict the backlash he was about to encounter from his former champions as he took a new direction. In the latter half of 1964 and into 1965, Dylan moved from folk songwriter to folk-rock pop-music star. His jeans and work shirts were replaced by a Carnaby Street wardrobe, sunglasses day or night, and pointed "Beatle boots". A London reporter wrote: "Hair that would set the teeth of a comb on edge. A loud shirt that would dim the neon lights of Leicester Square. He looks like an undernourished cockatoo." Dylan began to spar with interviewers. Appearing on the Les Crane television show and asked about a movie he planned, he told Crane it would be a cowboy horror movie. Asked if he played the cowboy, Dylan replied, "No, I play my mother". Going electric Dylan's late March 1965 album Bringing It All Back Home was another leap, featuring his first recordings with electric instruments, under producer Tom Wilson's guidance. The first single, "Subterranean Homesick Blues", owed much to Chuck Berry's "Too Much Monkey Business"; its free-association lyrics described as harking back to the energy of beat poetry and as a forerunner of rap and hip-hop. The song was provided with an early music video, which opened D. A. Pennebaker's cinéma vérité presentation of Dylan's 1965 tour of Great Britain, Dont Look Back. Instead of miming, Dylan illustrated the lyrics by throwing cue cards containing key words from the song on the ground. Pennebaker said the sequence was Dylan's idea, and it has been imitated in music videos and advertisements. The second side of Bringing It All Back Home contained four long songs on which Dylan accompanied himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica. "Mr. Tambourine Man" became one of his best-known songs when the Byrds recorded an electric version that reached number one in the US and UK. "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue" and "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" were two of Dylan's most important compositions.Shelton, pp. 276–277. In 1965, headlining the Newport Folk Festival, Dylan performed his first electric set since high school with a pickup group featuring Mike Bloomfield on guitar and Al Kooper on organ. Dylan had appeared at Newport in 1963 and 1964, but in 1965 met with cheering and booing and left the stage after three songs. One version has it that the boos were from folk fans whom Dylan had alienated by appearing, unexpectedly, with an electric guitar. Murray Lerner, who filmed the performance, said: "I absolutely think that they were booing Dylan going electric." An alternative account claims audience members were upset by poor sound and a short set. Nevertheless, Dylan's performance provoked a hostile response from the folk music establishment.A year earlier, Irwin Silber, editor of Sing Out!, had published an "Open Letter to Bob Dylan", criticizing Dylan's stepping away from political songwriting: "I saw at Newport how you had somehow lost contact with people. Some of the paraphernalia of fame were getting in your way." Sing Out!, November 1964, quoted in Shelton, p. 313. This letter has been mistakenly described as a response to Dylan's 1965 Newport appearance. In the September issue of Sing Out!, Ewan MacColl wrote: "Our traditional songs and ballads are the creations of extraordinarily talented artists working inside disciplines formulated over time ...'But what of Bobby Dylan?' scream the outraged teenagers ... Only a completely non-critical audience, nourished on the watery pap of pop music, could have fallen for such tenth-rate drivel". On July 29, four days after Newport, Dylan was back in the studio in New York, recording "Positively 4th Street". The lyrics contained images of vengeance and paranoia, and have been interpreted as Dylan's put-down of former friends from the folk community he had known in clubs along West 4th Street. Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde In July 1965, Dylan's six-minute single "Like a Rolling Stone" peaked at number two in the US chart. In 2004 and in 2011, Rolling Stone listed it as number one of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". Bruce Springsteen, in his speech for Dylan's inauguration into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, said that on first hearing the single, "that snare shot sounded like somebody'd kicked open the door to your mind." The song opened Dylan's next album, Highway 61 Revisited, named after the road that led from Dylan's Minnesota to the musical hotbed of New Orleans. The songs were in the same vein as the hit single, flavored by Mike Bloomfield's blues guitar and Al Kooper's organ riffs. "Desolation Row", backed by acoustic guitar and understated bass, offers the sole exception, with Dylan alluding to figures in Western culture in a song described by Andy Gill as "an 11-minute epic of entropy, which takes the form of a Fellini-esque parade of grotesques and oddities featuring a huge cast of celebrated characters, some historical (Einstein, Nero), some biblical (Noah, Cain and Abel), some fictional (Ophelia, Romeo, Cinderella), some literary (T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound), and some who fit into none of the above categories, notably Dr. Filth and his dubious nurse". In support of the album, Dylan was booked for two US concerts with Al Kooper and Harvey Brooks from his studio crew and Robbie Robertson and Levon Helm, former members of Ronnie Hawkins's backing band the Hawks. On August 28 at Forest Hills Tennis Stadium, the group was heckled by an audience still annoyed by Dylan's electric sound. The band's reception on September 3 at the Hollywood Bowl was more favorable. From September 24, 1965, in Austin, Texas, Dylan toured the US and Canada for six months, backed by the five musicians from the Hawks who became known as The Band. While Dylan and the Hawks met increasingly receptive audiences, their studio efforts foundered. Producer Bob Johnston persuaded Dylan to record in Nashville in February 1966, and surrounded him with top-notch session men. At Dylan's insistence, Robertson and Kooper came from New York City to play on the sessions. The Nashville sessions produced the double album Blonde on Blonde (1966), featuring what Dylan called "that thin wild mercury sound". Kooper described it as "taking two cultures and smashing them together with a huge explosion": the musical world of Nashville and the world of the "quintessential New York hipster" Bob Dylan. On November 22, 1965, Dylan quietly married 25-year-old former model Sara Lownds. Some of Dylan's friends, including Ramblin' Jack Elliott, say that, immediately after the event, Dylan denied he was married. Journalist Nora Ephron made the news public in the New York Post in February 1966 with the headline "Hush! Bob Dylan is wed". Dylan toured Australia and Europe in April and May 1966. Each show was split in two. Dylan performed solo during the first half, accompanying himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica. In the second, backed by the Hawks, he played electrically amplified music. This contrast provoked many fans, who jeered and slow handclapped. The tour culminated in a raucous confrontation between Dylan and his audience at the Manchester Free Trade Hall in England on May 17, 1966. A recording of this concert was released in 1998: The Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966. At the climax of the evening, a member of the audience, angered by Dylan's electric backing, shouted: "Judas!" to which Dylan responded, "I don't believe you ... You're a liar!" Dylan turned to his band and said, "Play it fucking loud!" as they launched into the final song of the night—"Like a Rolling Stone". During his 1966 tour, Dylan was described as exhausted and acting "as if on a death trip". D. A. Pennebaker, the filmmaker accompanying the tour, described Dylan as "taking a lot of amphetamine and who-knows-what-else". In a 1969 interview with Jann Wenner, Dylan said, "I was on the road for almost five years. It wore me down. I was on drugs, a lot of things ... just to keep going, you know?" Motorcycle accident and reclusion On July 29, 1966, Dylan crashed his motorcycle, a Triumph Tiger 100, near his home in Woodstock, New York. Dylan said he broke several vertebrae in his neck. Mystery still surrounds the circumstances of the accident since no ambulance was called to the scene and Dylan was not hospitalized. Dylan's biographers have written that the crash offered him the chance to escape the pressures around him.Heylin (2000), p. 268. Dylan concurred in his autobiography Chronicles: "I had been in a motorcycle accident and I'd been hurt, but I recovered. Truth was that I wanted to get out of the rat race." He made very few public appearances, and did not tour again for almost eight years.Heylin (1996), p. 143. Once Dylan was well enough to resume creative work, he began to edit D. A. Pennebaker's film of his 1966 tour. A rough cut was shown to ABC Television, but they rejected it as incomprehensible to mainstream audiences. The film, titled Eat the Document on bootleg copies, has since been screened at a handful of film festivals. In 1967, secluded from public gaze, Dylan recorded over 100 songs at his Woodstock home and in the basement of the Hawks' nearby house, "Big Pink". These songs were initially offered as demos for other artists to record and were first heard in the shape of hits for Julie Driscoll, the Byrds, and Manfred Mann. Columbia released a selection in 1975 as The Basement Tapes double album. Other songs recorded by Dylan and his band in 1967 appeared piecemeal on bootleg recordings, but they were not released in their entirety until 2014 as The Basement Tapes Complete. In late 1967, Dylan returned to studio recording in Nashville, accompanied by Charlie McCoy on bass, Kenny Buttrey on drums and Pete Drake on steel guitar. The result was John Wesley Harding, a record of short songs thematically drawing on the American West and the Bible. The sparse structure and instrumentation, with lyrics that took the Judeo-Christian tradition seriously, was a departure from Dylan's previous work. It included "All Along the Watchtower".Later recorded by Jimi Hendrix, whose version Dylan acknowledged as definitive. Woody Guthrie died in October 1967, and Dylan made his first live appearance in twenty months at a memorial concert held at Carnegie Hall on January 20, 1968, where he was backed by the Band. Dylan's next release, Nashville Skyline (1969) featured Nashville musicians, a mellow-voiced Dylan, a duet with Johnny Cash, and the single "Lay Lady Lay". Variety wrote, "Dylan is definitely doing something that can be called singing. Somehow he has managed to add an octave to his range." During one recording session, Dylan and Cash recorded a series of duets, but only their version of Dylan's "Girl from the North Country" was released on the album. In May 1969, Dylan appeared on the first episode of Johnny Cash's television show and sang a duet with Cash of "Girl from the North Country", with solos of "Living the Blues" and "I Threw It All Away". Dylan next traveled to England to top the bill at the Isle of Wight festival on August 31, 1969, after rejecting overtures to appear at the Woodstock Festival closer to his home. 1970s In the early 1970s, critics charged that Dylan's output was varied and unpredictable. Rolling Stone writer Greil Marcus asked, "What is this shit?" on first listening to Self Portrait, released in June 1970. It was a double LP including few original songs and was poorly received. In October 1970, Dylan released New Morning, considered a return to form. This album included "Day of the Locusts", a song in which Dylan gave an account of receiving an honorary degree from Princeton University on June 9, 1970. In November 1968, Dylan had co-written "I'd Have You Anytime" with George Harrison; Harrison recorded "I'd Have You Anytime" and Dylan's "If Not for You" for his 1970 solo triple album All Things Must Pass. Dylan's surprise appearance at Harrison's 1971 Concert for Bangladesh attracted media coverage, since Dylan's live appearances had become rare. Between March 16 and 19, 1971, Dylan reserved three days at Blue Rock, a small studio in Greenwich Village, to record with Leon Russell. These sessions resulted in "Watching the River Flow" and a new recording of "When I Paint My Masterpiece". On November 4, 1971, Dylan recorded "George Jackson", which he released a week later. For many, the single was a surprising return to protest material, mourning the killing of Black Panther George Jackson in San Quentin State Prison that year. Dylan contributed piano and harmony to Steve Goodman's album, Somebody Else's Troubles, under the pseudonym Robert Milkwood Thomas (referencing Under Milk Wood by Dylan Thomas and his own previous name) in September 1972. In 1972, Dylan signed to Sam Peckinpah's film Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid, providing songs and backing music for the movie, and playing "Alias", a member of Billy's gang with some historical basis. Despite the film's failure at the box office, the song "Knockin' on Heaven's Door" became one of Dylan's most covered songs.Artists to have covered the song include Bryan Ferry, Wyclef Jean and Guns N' Roses. Also in 1972, Dylan protested the move to deport John Lennon and Yoko Ono, who had been convicted of possessing cannabis, by sending a letter to the US Immigration Service, in part: "Hurray for John & Yoko. Let them stay and live here and breathe. The country's got plenty of room and space. Let John and Yoko stay!" Return to touring Dylan began 1973 by signing with a new label, David Geffen's Asylum Records, when his contract with Columbia Records expired. His next album, Planet Waves, was recorded in the fall of 1973, using the Band as his backing group as they rehearsed for a major tour. The album included two versions of "Forever Young", which became one of his most popular songs. As one critic described it, the song projected "something hymnal and heartfelt that spoke of the father in Dylan", and Dylan himself commented: "I wrote it thinking about one of my boys and not wanting to be too sentimental". Columbia Records simultaneously released Dylan, a collection of studio outtakes, widely interpreted as a churlish response to Dylan's signing with a rival record label. In January 1974, Dylan, backed by the Band, embarked on a North American tour of 40 concerts—his first tour for seven years. A live double album, Before the Flood, was released on Asylum Records. Soon, according to Clive Davis, Columbia Records sent word they "will spare nothing to bring Dylan back into the fold". Dylan had second thoughts about Asylum, unhappy that Geffen had sold only 600,000 copies of Planet Waves despite millions of unfulfilled ticket requests for the 1974 tour; he returned to Columbia Records, which reissued his two Asylum albums. After the tour, Dylan and his wife became estranged. He filled three small notebooks with songs about relationships and ruptures, and recorded the album Blood on the Tracks in September 1974. Dylan delayed the album's release and re-recorded half the songs at Sound 80 Studios in Minneapolis with production assistance from his brother, David Zimmerman. Released in early 1975, Blood on the Tracks received mixed reviews. In the NME, Nick Kent described the "accompaniments" as "often so trashy they sound like mere practice takes". In Rolling Stone, Jon Landau wrote that "the record has been made with typical shoddiness." Over the years critics came to see it as one of Dylan's greatest achievements. For the Salon website, journalist Bill Wyman wrote: "Blood on the Tracks is his only flawless album and his best produced; the songs, each of them, are constructed in disciplined fashion. It is his kindest album and most dismayed, and seems in hindsight to have achieved a sublime balance between the logorrhea-plagued excesses of his mid-1960s output and the self-consciously simple compositions of his post-accident years". In the middle of that year, Dylan championed boxer Rubin "Hurricane" Carter, imprisoned for a triple murder in Paterson, New Jersey, with his ballad "Hurricane" making the case for Carter's innocence. Despite its length—over eight minutes—the song was released as a single, peaking at 33 on the US Billboard chart, and performed at every 1975 date of Dylan's next tour, the Rolling Thunder Revue. The tour featured about one hundred performers and supporters from the Greenwich Village folk scene, including T-Bone Burnett, Ramblin' Jack Elliott, Joni Mitchell, David Mansfield, Roger McGuinn, Mick Ronson, Joan Baez and Scarlet Rivera, whom Dylan discovered walking down the street, her violin case on her back. Running through late 1975 and again through early 1976, the tour encompassed the release of the album Desire, with many of Dylan's new songs featuring a travelogue-like narrative style, showing the influence of his new collaborator, playwright Jacques Levy.Gray (2006), p. 408. The 1976 half of the tour was documented by a TV concert special, Hard Rain, and the LP Hard Rain. The 1975 tour with the Revue provided the backdrop to Dylan's nearly four-hour film Renaldo and Clara, a sprawling narrative mixed with concert footage and reminiscences. Released in 1978, the movie received poor, sometimes scathing, reviews.Sounes, p. 313. Later in that year, a two-hour edit, dominated by the concert performances, was more widely released. More than forty years later, a documentary about the 1975 leg of the Rolling Thunder Revue, Rolling Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese was released by Netflix on June 12, 2019. In November 1976, Dylan appeared at the Band's "farewell" concert, with Eric Clapton, Joni Mitchell, Muddy Waters, Van Morrison and Neil Young. Martin Scorsese's 1978 cinematic chronicle of the concert, The Last Waltz, included most of Dylan's set. In 1978, Dylan embarked on a year-long world tour, performing 114 shows in Japan, the Far East, Europe and North America, to a total audience of two million. Dylan assembled an eight-piece band and three backing singers. Concerts in Tokyo in February and March were released as the live double album Bob Dylan at Budokan. Reviews were mixed. Robert Christgau awarded the album a C+ rating, giving the album a derisory review, while Janet Maslin defended it in Rolling Stone, writing: "These latest live versions of his old songs have the effect of liberating Bob Dylan from the originals". When Dylan brought the tour to the US in September 1978, the press described the look and sound as a "Las Vegas Tour". The 1978 tour grossed more than $20 million, and Dylan told the Los Angeles Times that he had debts because "I had a couple of bad years. I put a lot of money into the movie, built a big house ... and it costs a lot to get divorced in California". In April and May 1978, Dylan took the same band and vocalists into Rundown Studios in Santa Monica, California, to record an album of new material: Street-Legal. It was described by Michael Gray as, "after Blood On The Tracks, arguably Dylan's best record of the 1970s: a crucial album documenting a crucial period in Dylan's own life". However, it had poor sound and mixing (attributed to Dylan's studio practices), muddying the instrumental detail until a remastered CD release in 1999 restored some of the songs' strengths.Barker (2019), Bob Dylan Anthology, Volume 3. p. 357. Christian period In the late 1970s, Dylan converted to Evangelical Christianity, undertaking a three-month discipleship course run by the Association of Vineyard Churches.Dylan Interview with Karen Hughes, The Dominion, Wellington, New Zealand, May 21, 1980; reprinted in Cott (ed.), Dylan on Dylan: The Essential Interviews, pp. 275–278 He released three albums of contemporary gospel music. Slow Train Coming (1979) featured Dire Straits guitarist Mark Knopfler and was produced by veteran R&B producer Jerry Wexler. Wexler said that Dylan had tried to evangelize him during the recording. He replied: "Bob, you're dealing with a 62-year-old Jewish atheist. Let's just make an album." Dylan won the Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for the song "Gotta Serve Somebody". His second Christian album, Saved (1980), received mixed reviews, described by Michael Gray as "the nearest thing to a follow-up album Dylan has ever made, Slow Train Coming II and inferior". His third Christian album was Shot of Love in 1981. When touring in late 1979 and early 1980, Dylan would not play his older, secular works, and he delivered declarations of his faith from the stage, such as: Dylan's Christianity was unpopular with some fans and musicians. John Lennon, shortly before being murdered, recorded "Serve Yourself" in response to Dylan's "Gotta Serve Somebody". By 1981, Stephen Holden wrote in The New York Times that "neither age (he's now 40) nor his much-publicized conversion to born-again Christianity has altered his essentially iconoclastic temperament". 1980s In late 1980, Dylan briefly played concerts billed as "A Musical Retrospective", restoring popular 1960s songs to the repertoire. Shot of Love, recorded early the next year, featured his first secular compositions in more than two years, mixed with Christian songs. The lyrics of "Every Grain of Sand" resemble the verse of William Blake. In the 1980s, reception of Dylan's recordings varied, from the well-regarded Infidels in 1983 to the panned Down in the Groove in 1988. Michael Gray condemned Dylan's 1980s albums for carelessness in the studio and for failing to release his best songs. As an example of the latter, the Infidels recording sessions, which again employed Knopfler on lead guitar and also as the album's producer, resulted in several songs that Dylan left off the album. Best regarded of these were "Blind Willie McTell", a tribute to the dead blues musician and an evocation of African American history, "Foot of Pride" and "Lord Protect My Child". These three songs were released on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1–3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961–1991. Between July 1984 and March 1985, Dylan recorded Empire Burlesque. Arthur Baker, who had remixed hits for Bruce Springsteen and Cyndi Lauper, was asked to engineer and mix the album. Baker said he felt he was hired to make Dylan's album sound "a little bit more contemporary". In 1985 Dylan sang on USA for Africa's famine relief single "We Are the World". He also joined Artists United Against Apartheid providing vocals for their single "Sun City". On July 13, 1985, he appeared at the climax at the Live Aid concert at JFK Stadium, Philadelphia. Backed by Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood, he performed a ragged version of "Hollis Brown", his ballad of rural poverty, and then said to the worldwide audience exceeding one billion people: "I hope that some of the money ... maybe they can just take a little bit of it, maybe ... one or two million, maybe ... and use it to pay the mortgages on some of the farms and, the farmers here, owe to the banks". His remarks were widely criticized as inappropriate, but they did inspire Willie Nelson to organize a series of events, Farm Aid, to benefit debt-ridden American farmers. In April 1986, Dylan made a foray into rap music when he added vocals to the opening verse of "Street Rock", featured on Kurtis Blow's album Kingdom Blow. Dylan's next studio album, Knocked Out Loaded, in July 1986 contained three covers (by Little Junior Parker, Kris Kristofferson and the gospel hymn "Precious Memories"), plus three collaborations (with Tom Petty, Sam Shepard and Carole Bayer Sager), and two solo compositions by Dylan. One reviewer commented that "the record follows too many detours to be consistently compelling, and some of those detours wind down roads that are indisputably dead ends. By 1986, such uneven records weren't entirely unexpected by Dylan, but that didn't make them any less frustrating." It was the first Dylan album since his 1962 debut to fail to make the Top 50. Since then, some critics have called the 11-minute epic that Dylan co-wrote with Sam Shepard, "Brownsville Girl", a work of genius. In 1986 and 1987, Dylan toured with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, sharing vocals with Petty on several songs each night. Dylan also toured with the Grateful Dead in 1987, resulting in a live album Dylan & The Dead. This received negative reviews; AllMusic said it was "quite possibly the worst album by either Bob Dylan or the Grateful Dead". Dylan then initiated what came to be called the Never Ending Tour on June 7, 1988, performing with a back-up band featuring guitarist G. E. Smith. Dylan would continue to tour with a small, changing band for the next 30 years. In 1987, Dylan starred in Richard Marquand's movie Hearts of Fire, in which he played Billy Parker, a washed-up rock star turned chicken farmer whose teenage lover (Fiona) leaves him for a jaded English synth-pop sensation played by Rupert Everett. Dylan also contributed two original songs to the soundtrack—"Night After Night", and "Had a Dream About You, Baby", as well as a cover of John Hiatt's "The Usual". The film was a critical and commercial flop. Dylan was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in January 1988, with Bruce Springsteen's introduction declaring, "Bob freed your mind the way Elvis freed your body. He showed us that just because music was innately physical did not mean that it was anti-intellectual". The album Down in the Groove in May 1988 sold even more poorly than his previous studio album. Michael Gray wrote: "The very title undercuts any idea that inspired work may lie within. Here was a further devaluing of the notion of a new Bob Dylan album as something significant." The critical and commercial disappointment of that album was swiftly followed by the success of the Traveling Wilburys. Dylan co-founded the band with George Harrison, Jeff Lynne, Roy Orbison and Tom Petty, and in late 1988 their multi-platinum Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 reached three on the US albums chart, featuring songs that were described as Dylan's most accessible compositions in years. Despite Orbison's death in December 1988, the remaining four recorded a second album in May 1990 with the title Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3. Dylan finished the decade on a critical high note with Oh Mercy produced by Daniel Lanois. Michael Gray wrote that the album was: "Attentively written, vocally distinctive, musically warm, and uncompromisingly professional, this cohesive whole is the nearest thing to a great Bob Dylan album in the 1980s."Dylan, pp. 145–221. The track "Most of the Time", a lost love composition, was later prominently featured in the film High Fidelity, while "What Was It You Wanted" has been interpreted both as a catechism and a wry comment on the expectations of critics and fans. The religious imagery of "Ring Them Bells" struck some critics as a re-affirmation of faith. 1990s Dylan's 1990s began with Under the Red Sky (1990), an about-face from the serious Oh Mercy. It contained several apparently simple songs, including "Under the Red Sky" and "Wiggle Wiggle". The album was dedicated to "Gabby Goo Goo", a nickname for the daughter of Dylan and Carolyn Dennis, Desiree Gabrielle Dennis-Dylan, who was four. Musicians on the album included George Harrison, Slash from Guns N' Roses, David Crosby, Bruce Hornsby, Stevie Ray Vaughan, and Elton John. The record received negative reviews and sold poorly. In 1990 and 1991 Dylan was described by his biographers as drinking heavily, impairing his performances on stage.Sounes, 2001, Down The Highway: The Life Of Bob Dylan, pp. 396–398. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Dylan dismissed allegations that drinking was interfering with his music: "That's completely inaccurate. I can drink or not drink. I don't know why people would associate drinking with anything I do, really". Defilement and remorse were themes Dylan addressed when he received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award from American actor Jack Nicholson in February 1991. The event coincided with the start of the Gulf War against Saddam Hussein and Dylan performed "Masters of War". He then made a short speech: "My daddy once said to me, he said, 'Son, it is possible for you to become so defiled in this world that your own mother and father will abandon you. If that happens, God will believe in your ability to mend your own ways'".Heylin (2000), pp. 664–665. The sentiment was subsequently revealed to be a quote from 19th-century German Jewish intellectual Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch. Over the next few years Dylan returned to his roots with two albums covering traditional folk and blues songs: Good as I Been to You (1992) and World Gone Wrong (1993), backed solely by his acoustic guitar. Many critics and fans commented on the quiet beauty of the song "Lone Pilgrim", written by a 19th-century teacher. In November 1994 Dylan recorded two live shows for MTV Unplugged. He said his wish to perform traditional songs was overruled by Sony executives who insisted on hits. The resulting album, MTV Unplugged, included "John Brown", an unreleased 1962 song of how enthusiasm for war ends in mutilation and disillusionment. With a collection of songs reportedly written while snowed in on his Minnesota ranch, Dylan booked recording time with Daniel Lanois at Miami's Criteria Studios in January 1997. The subsequent recording sessions were, by some accounts, fraught with musical tension. Before the album's release Dylan was hospitalized with a life-threatening heart infection, pericarditis, brought on by histoplasmosis. His scheduled European tour was canceled, but Dylan made a speedy recovery and left the hospital saying, "I really thought I'd be seeing Elvis soon". He was back on the road by mid-year, and performed before Pope John Paul II at the World Eucharistic Conference in Bologna, Italy. The Pope treated the audience of 200,000 people to a homily based on Dylan's lyric "Blowin' in the Wind". In September Dylan released the new Lanois-produced album, Time Out of Mind. With its bitter assessment of love and morbid ruminations, Dylan's first collection of original songs in seven years was highly acclaimed. One critic wrote: "the songs themselves are uniformly powerful, adding up to Dylan's best overall collection in years". This collection of complex songs won him his first solo "Album of the Year" Grammy Award. In December 1997, US President Bill Clinton presented Dylan with a Kennedy Center Honor in the East Room of the White House, paying this tribute: "He probably had more impact on people of my generation than any other creative artist. His voice and lyrics haven't always been easy on the ear, but throughout his career Bob Dylan has never aimed to please. He's disturbed the peace and discomforted the powerful". 2000s Dylan commenced the 2000s by winning the Polar Music Prize in May 2000 and his first Oscar; his song "Things Have Changed", written for the film Wonder Boys, won an Academy Award for Best Song in 2001."Love and Theft" was released on September 11, 2001. Recorded with his touring band, Dylan produced the album himself under the pseudonym Jack Frost. The album was critically well received and earned nominations for several Grammy awards. Critics noted that Dylan was widening his musical palette to include rockabilly, Western swing, jazz, and even lounge ballads. "Love and Theft" generated controversy when The Wall Street Journal pointed out similarities between the album's lyrics and Japanese author Junichi Saga's book Confessions of a Yakuza. In 2003, Dylan revisited the evangelical songs from his Christian period and participated in the CD project Gotta Serve Somebody: The Gospel Songs of Bob Dylan. That year Dylan also released the film Masked & Anonymous, which he co-wrote with director Larry Charles under the alias Sergei Petrov. Dylan played the central character in the film, Jack Fate, alongside a cast that included Jeff Bridges, Penélope Cruz and John Goodman. The film polarised critics: many dismissed it as an "incoherent mess"; a few treated it as a serious work of art. In October 2004, Dylan published the first part of his autobiography, Chronicles: Volume One. Confounding expectations, Dylan devoted three chapters to his first year in New York City in 1961–1962, virtually ignoring the mid-1960s when his fame was at its height. He also devoted chapters to the albums New Morning (1970) and Oh Mercy (1989). The book reached number two on The New York Times' Hardcover Non-Fiction best seller list in December 2004 and was nominated for a National Book Award.No Direction Home, Martin Scorsese's acclaimed film biography of Dylan, was first broadcast on September 26–27, 2005, on BBC Two in the UK and PBS in the US. The documentary focuses on the period from Dylan's arrival in New York in 1961 to his motorcycle crash in 1966, featuring interviews with Suze Rotolo, Liam Clancy, Joan Baez, Allen Ginsberg, Pete Seeger, Mavis Staples and Dylan himself. The film received a Peabody Award in April 2006 and a Columbia-duPont Award in January 2007. The accompanying soundtrack featured unreleased songs from Dylan's early career. Modern Times Dylan's career as a radio presenter commenced on May 3, 2006, with his weekly radio program, Theme Time Radio Hour for XM Satellite Radio, with song selections on chosen themes. Dylan played classic and obscure records from the 1920s to the present day, including contemporary artists as diverse as Blur, Prince, L.L. Cool J and the Streets. The show was praised by fans and critics, as Dylan told stories and made eclectic references, commenting on his musical choices. In April 2009, Dylan broadcast the 100th show in his radio series; the theme was "Goodbye" and the final record played was Woody Guthrie's "So Long, It's Been Good to Know Yuh". Dylan resurrected his Theme Time Radio Hour format when he broadcast a two-hour special on the theme of "Whiskey" on Sirius Radio on September 21, 2020. Dylan released his Modern Times album in August 2006. Despite some coarsening of Dylan's voice (a critic for The Guardian characterized his singing on the album as "a catarrhal death rattle") most reviewers praised the album, and many described it as the final installment of a successful trilogy, embracing Time Out of Mind and "Love and Theft". Modern Times entered the US charts at number one, making it Dylan's first album to reach that position since 1976's Desire. The New York Times published an article exploring similarities between some of Dylan's lyrics in Modern Times and the work of the Civil War poet Henry Timrod. Nominated for three Grammy Awards, Modern Times won Best Contemporary Folk/Americana Album and Bob Dylan also won Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance for "Someday Baby". Modern Times was named Album of the Year, 2006, by Rolling Stone magazine, and by Uncut in the UK. On the same day that Modern Times was released the iTunes Music Store released Bob Dylan: The Collection, a digital box set containing all of his albums (773 tracks in total), along with 42 rare and unreleased tracks. In August 2007, the award-winning film biography of Dylan I'm Not There, written and directed by Todd Haynes, was released—bearing the tagline "inspired by the music and many lives of Bob Dylan". The movie used six different actors to represent different aspects of Dylan's life: Christian Bale, Cate Blanchett, Marcus Carl Franklin, Richard Gere, Heath Ledger and Ben Whishaw. Dylan's previously unreleased 1967 recording from which the film takes its name was released for the first time on the film's original soundtrack; all other tracks are covers of Dylan songs, specially recorded for the movie by a diverse range of artists, including Sonic Youth, Eddie Vedder, Mason Jennings, Stephen Malkmus, Jeff Tweedy, Karen O, Willie Nelson, Cat Power, Richie Havens and Tom Verlaine. On October 1, 2007, Columbia Records released the triple CD retrospective album Dylan, anthologizing his entire career under the Dylan 07 logo. The sophistication of the Dylan 07 marketing campaign was a reminder that Dylan's commercial profile had risen considerably since the 1990s. This became evident in 2004, when Dylan appeared in a TV advertisement for Victoria's Secret lingerie. Three years later, in October 2007, he participated in a multi-media campaign for the 2008 Cadillac Escalade.Dylan also devoted an hour of his Theme Time Radio Hour to the theme of "the Cadillac". He first sang about the car in his 1963 nuclear war fantasy, "Talkin' World War III Blues", when he described it as a "good car to drive—after a war". Then, in 2009, he gave the highest profile endorsement of his career, appearing with rapper will.i.am in a Pepsi ad that debuted during the telecast of Super Bowl XLIII. The ad, broadcast to a record audience of 98 million viewers, opened with Dylan singing the first verse of "Forever Young" followed by will.i.am doing a hip hop version of the song's third and final verse.The Bootleg Series Vol. 8 – Tell Tale Signs was released in October 2008, as both a two-CD set and a three-CD version with a 150-page hardcover book. The set contains live performances and outtakes from selected studio albums from Oh Mercy to Modern Times, as well as soundtrack contributions and collaborations with David Bromberg and Ralph Stanley. The pricing of the album—the two-CD set went on sale for $18.99 and the three-CD version for $129.99—led to complaints about "rip-off packaging" from some fans and commentators. The release was widely acclaimed by critics. The abundance of alternative takes and unreleased material suggested to one reviewer that this volume of old outtakes "feels like a new Bob Dylan record, not only for the astonishing freshness of the material, but also for the incredible sound quality and organic feeling of everything here". Together Through Life and Christmas in the Heart Bob Dylan released his album Together Through Life on April 28, 2009. In a conversation with music journalist Bill Flanagan, published on Dylan's website, Dylan explained that the genesis of the record was when French film director Olivier Dahan asked him to supply a song for his new road movie, My Own Love Song; initially only intending to record a single track, "Life Is Hard", "the record sort of took its own direction". Nine of the ten songs on the album are credited as co-written by Bob Dylan and Robert Hunter. The album received largely favorable reviews, although several critics described it as a minor addition to Dylan's canon of work. In its first week of release, the album reached number one in the Billboard 200 chart in the US, making Bob Dylan (67 years of age) the oldest artist to ever debut at number one on that chart. Dylan's album, Christmas in the Heart, was released in October 2009, comprising such Christmas standards as "Little Drummer Boy", "Winter Wonderland" and "Here Comes Santa Claus". Critics pointed out that Dylan was "revisiting yuletide styles popularized by Nat King Cole, Mel Tormé, and the Ray Conniff Singers". Dylan's royalties from the sale of this album were donated to the charities Feeding America in the USA, Crisis in the UK, and the World Food Programme. The album received generally favorable reviews. In an interview published in The Big Issue, journalist Bill Flanagan asked Dylan why he had performed the songs in a straightforward style, and Dylan replied: "There wasn't any other way to play it. These songs are part of my life, just like folk songs. You have to play them straight too". 2010s Tempest Volume 9 of Dylan's Bootleg Series, The Witmark Demos was issued in October 18, 2010. It comprised 47 demo recordings of songs taped between 1962 and 1964 for Dylan's earliest music publishers: Leeds Music in 1962, and Witmark Music from 1962 to 1964. One reviewer described the set as "a hearty glimpse of young Bob Dylan changing the music business, and the world, one note at a time". The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded the album a Metascore of 86, indicating "universal acclaim". In the same week, Sony Legacy released Bob Dylan: The Original Mono Recordings, a box set that for the first time presented Dylan's eight earliest albums, from Bob Dylan (1962) to John Wesley Harding (1967), in their original mono mix in the CD format. The CDs were housed in miniature facsimiles of the original album covers, replete with original liner notes. The set was accompanied by a booklet featuring an essay by music critic Greil Marcus. On April 12, 2011, Legacy Recordings released Bob Dylan in Concert – Brandeis University 1963, taped at Brandeis University on May 10, 1963, two weeks before the release of The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan. The tape was discovered in the archive of music writer Ralph J. Gleason, and the recording carries liner notes by Michael Gray, who says it captures Dylan "from way back when Kennedy was President and the Beatles hadn't yet reached America. It reveals him not at any Big Moment but giving a performance like his folk club sets of the period ... This is the last live performance we have of Bob Dylan before he becomes a star". The extent to which his work was studied at an academic level was demonstrated on Dylan's 70th birthday on May 24, 2011, when three universities organized symposia on his work. The University of Mainz, the University of Vienna, and the University of Bristol invited literary critics and cultural historians to give papers on aspects of Dylan's work. Other events, including tribute bands, discussions and simple singalongs, took place around the world, as reported in The Guardian: "From Moscow to Madrid, Norway to Northampton and Malaysia to his home state of Minnesota, self-confessed 'Bobcats' will gather today to celebrate the 70th birthday of a giant of popular music". On May 29, 2012, US President Barack Obama awarded Dylan a Presidential Medal of Freedom in the White House. At the ceremony, Obama praised Dylan's voice for its "unique gravelly power that redefined not just what music sounded like but the message it carried and how it made people feel". Dylan's 35th studio album, Tempest was released on September 11, 2012. The album features a tribute to John Lennon, "Roll On John", and the title track is a 14-minute song about the sinking of the Titanic. Reviewing Tempest for Rolling Stone, Will Hermes gave the album five out of five stars, writing: "Lyrically, Dylan is at the top of his game, joking around, dropping wordplay and allegories that evade pat readings and quoting other folks' words like a freestyle rapper on fire". The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded the album a score of 83 out of 100, indicating "universal acclaim". Volume 10 of Dylan's Bootleg Series, Another Self Portrait (1969–1971), was released in August 2013. The album contained 35 previously unreleased tracks, including alternative takes and demos from Dylan's 1969–1971 recording sessions during the making of the Self Portrait and New Morning albums. The box set also included a live recording of Dylan's performance with the Band at the Isle of Wight Festival in 1969. Another Self Portrait received favorable reviews, earning a score of 81 on the critical aggregator, Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". AllMusic critic Thom Jurek wrote, "For fans, this is more than a curiosity, it's an indispensable addition to the catalog". Columbia Records released a boxed set containing all 35 Dylan studio albums, six albums of live recordings, and a collection, titled Sidetracks, of non-album material, Bob Dylan: Complete Album Collection: Vol. One, in November 2013. To publicize the 35 album box set, an innovative video of the song "Like a Rolling Stone" was released on Dylan's website. The interactive video, created by director Vania Heymann, allowed viewers to switch between 16 simulated TV channels, all featuring characters who are lip-synching the lyrics of the 48-year-old song. Dylan appeared in a commercial for the Chrysler 200 car which was screened during the 2014 Super Bowl American football game played on February 2, 2014. At the end of the commercial, Dylan says: "So let Germany brew your beer, let Switzerland make your watch, let Asia assemble your phone. We will build your car". Dylan's Super Bowl commercial generated controversy and op-ed pieces discussing the protectionist implications of his words, and whether the singer had "sold out" to corporate interests. In 2013 and 2014, auction house sales demonstrated the high cultural value attached to Dylan's mid-1960s work and the record prices that collectors were willing to pay for artifacts from this period. In December 2013, the Fender Stratocaster which Dylan had played at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival fetched $965,000, the second highest price paid for a guitar. In June 2014, Dylan's hand-written lyrics of "Like a Rolling Stone", his 1965 hit single, fetched $2 million at auction, a record for a popular music manuscript. A 960-page, thirteen and a half pound edition of Dylan's lyrics, The Lyrics: Since 1962, was published by Simon & Schuster in the fall of 2014. The book was edited by literary critic Christopher Ricks, Julie Nemrow and Lisa Nemrow, to offer variant versions of Dylan's songs, sourced from out-takes and live performances. A limited edition of 50 books, signed by Dylan, was priced at $5,000. "It's the biggest, most expensive book we've ever published, as far as I know", said Jonathan Karp, Simon & Schuster's president and publisher. A comprehensive edition of the Basement Tapes, songs recorded by Dylan and the Band in 1967, was released as The Basement Tapes Complete in November 2014. These 138 tracks in a six-CD box form Volume 11 of Dylan's Bootleg Series. The 1975 album The Basement Tapes had contained just 24 tracks from the material which Dylan and the Band had recorded at their homes in Woodstock, New York in 1967. Subsequently, over 100 recordings and alternate takes had circulated on bootleg records. The sleeve notes for the new box set are by Sid Griffin, author of Million Dollar Bash: Bob Dylan, the Band, and the Basement Tapes. The box set earned a score of 99 on the critical aggregator, Metacritic. Shadows in the Night, Fallen Angels and Triplicate In February 2015, Dylan released Shadows in the Night, featuring ten songs written between 1923 and 1963, which have been described as part of the Great American Songbook. All of the songs on the album had been recorded by Frank Sinatra, but both critics and Dylan himself cautioned against seeing the record as a collection of "Sinatra covers". Dylan explained: "I don't see myself as covering these songs in any way. They've been covered enough. Buried, as a matter a fact. What me and my band are basically doing is uncovering them. Lifting them out of the grave and bringing them into the light of day". Shadows In the Night received favorable reviews, scoring 82 on the critical aggregator Metacritic, which indicates "universal acclaim". Critics praised the restrained instrumental backings and the quality of Dylan's singing. The album debuted at number one in the UK Albums Chart in its first week of release.The Bootleg Series Vol. 12: The Cutting Edge 1965–1966, consisting of previously unreleased material from the three albums Dylan recorded between January 1965 and March 1966: Bringing It All Back Home, Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde was released in November 2015. The set was released in three formats: a 2-CD "Best Of" version, a 6-CD "Deluxe edition", and an 18-CD "Collector's Edition" in a limited edition of 5,000 units. On Dylan's website the "Collector's Edition" was described as containing "every single note recorded by Bob Dylan in the studio in 1965/1966". The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded Cutting Edge a score of 99, indicating "universal acclaim". The Best of the Cutting Edge entered the Billboard Top Rock Albums chart at number one on November 18, based on its first-week sales. The sale of Dylan's extensive archive of about 6,000 items of memorabilia to the George Kaiser Family Foundation and the University of Tulsa (TU) was announced on March 2, 2016. It was reported the sale price was "an estimated $15 million to $20 million". The archive comprises notebooks, drafts of Dylan lyrics, recordings, and correspondence. The archive will be housed at Helmerich Center for American Research, a facility at the Gilcrease Museum. Dylan released Fallen Angels—described as "a direct continuation of the work of 'uncovering' the Great Songbook that he began on last year's Shadows In the Night"—in May. The album contained twelve songs by classic songwriters such as Harold Arlen, Sammy Cahn and Johnny Mercer, eleven of which had been recorded by Sinatra. Jim Farber wrote in Entertainment Weekly: "Tellingly, [Dylan] delivers these songs of love lost and cherished not with a burning passion but with the wistfulness of experience. They're memory songs now, intoned with a present sense of commitment. Released just four days ahead of his 75th birthday, they couldn't be more age-appropriate". The album received a score of 79 on critical aggregator website Metacritic, denoting "generally favorable reviews". A massive 36-CD collection, The 1966 Live Recordings, including every known recording of Bob Dylan's 1966 concert tour was released in November 2016. The recordings commence with the concert in White Plains New York on February 5, 1966, and end with the Royal Albert Hall concert in London on May 27. The New York Times reported most of the concerts had "never been heard in any form", and described the set as "a monumental addition to the corpus". Dylan released a triple album of a further 30 recordings of classic American songs, Triplicate, in March 2017. Dylan's 38th studio album was recorded in Hollywood's Capitol Studios and features his touring band. Dylan posted a long interview on his website to promote the album, and was asked if this material was an exercise in nostalgia. "Nostalgic? No I wouldn't say that. It's not taking a trip down memory lane or longing and yearning for the good old days or fond memories of what's no more. A song like "Sentimental Journey" is not a way back when song, it doesn't emulate the past, it's attainable and down to earth, it's in the here and now." The album was awarded a score of 84 on critical aggregator website Metacritic, signifying "universal acclaim". Critics praised the thoroughness of Dylan's exploration of the great American songbook, though, in the opinion of Uncut: "For all its easy charms, Triplicate labours its point to the brink of overkill. After five albums' worth of croon toons, this feels like a fat full stop on a fascinating chapter". The next edition of Dylan's Bootleg Series revisited Dylan's "Born Again" Christian period of 1979 to 1981, which was described by Rolling Stone as "an intense, wildly controversial time that produced three albums and some of the most confrontational concerts of his long career". Reviewing the box set The Bootleg Series Vol. 13: Trouble No More 1979–1981, comprising 8 CDs and 1 DVD, Jon Pareles wrote in The New York Times: "Decades later, what comes through these recordings above all is Mr. Dylan's unmistakable fervor, his sense of mission. The studio albums are subdued, even tentative, compared with what the songs became on the road. Mr. Dylan's voice is clear, cutting and ever improvisational; working the crowds, he was emphatic, committed, sometimes teasingly combative. And the band tears into the music". Trouble No More includes a DVD of a film directed by Jennifer Lebeau consisting of live footage of Dylan's gospel performances interspersed with sermons delivered by actor Michael Shannon. The box set album received an aggregate score of 84 on the critical website Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". Dylan made a contribution to the compilation EP Universal Love, a collection of reimagined wedding songs for the LGBT community in April 2018. The album was funded by MGM Resorts International and the songs are intended to function as "wedding anthems for same-sex couples". Dylan recorded the 1929 song "She's Funny That Way", changing the gender pronoun to "He's Funny That Way". The song was previously recorded by Billie Holiday and Frank Sinatra. Also in April 2018, The New York Times announced that Dylan was launching Heaven's Door, a range of three whiskeys: a straight rye, a straight bourbon and a "double-barreled" whiskey. Dylan has been involved in both the creation and the marketing of the range. The Times described the venture as "Mr. Dylan's entry into the booming celebrity-branded spirits market, the latest career twist for an artist who has spent five decades confounding expectations". On November 2, 2018, Dylan released More Blood, More Tracks as Volume 14 in the Bootleg Series. The set comprises all Dylan's recordings for his 1975 album Blood On the Tracks, and was issued as a single CD and also as a six-CD Deluxe Edition. The box set album received an aggregate score of 93 on the critical website Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". Netflix released the movie Rolling Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese on June 12, 2019, describing the film as "Part documentary, part concert film, part fever dream". The Scorsese film received an aggregate score of 88 on critical website Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". The film sparked controversy because of the way it deliberately mixed documentary footage filmed during the Rolling Thunder Revue in the fall of 1975 with fictitious characters and invented stories. Coinciding with the film release, a box set of 14 CDs, The Rolling Thunder Revue: The 1975 Live Recordings, was released by Columbia Records. The set comprises five full Dylan performances from the tour and recently discovered tapes from Dylan's tour rehearsals. The box set received an aggregate score of 89 on the critical website Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". The next installment of Dylan's Bootleg Series, Bob Dylan (featuring Johnny Cash) – Travelin' Thru, 1967 – 1969: The Bootleg Series Vol. 15, was released on November 1. The 3-CD set comprises outtakes from Dylan's albums John Wesley Harding and Nashville Skyline, and songs that Dylan recorded with Johnny Cash in Nashville in 1969 and with Earl Scruggs in 1970. Travelin' Thru received an aggregate score of 88 on the critical website Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". 2020s Rough and Rowdy Ways On March 26, 2020, Dylan released a seventeen-minute track "Murder Most Foul" on his YouTube channel, revolving around the assassination of President Kennedy. Dylan posted a statement: "This is an unreleased song we recorded a while back that you might find interesting. Stay safe, stay observant and may God be with you". Billboard reported on April 8 that "Murder Most Foul" had topped the Billboard Rock Digital Song Sales Chart. This was the first time that Dylan had scored a number one song on a pop chart under his own name. Three weeks later, on April 17, 2020, Dylan released another new song, "I Contain Multitudes". The title is a quote from Section 51 of Walt Whitman's poem "Song of Myself". On May 7, Dylan released a third single, "False Prophet", accompanied by the news that "Murder Most Foul", "I Contain Multitudes" and "False Prophet" would all appear on a forthcoming double album.Rough and Rowdy Ways, Dylan's 39th studio album and his first album of original material since 2012, was released on June 19 to favorable reviews. Alexis Petridis wrote in The Guardian, "For all its bleakness, Rough and Rowdy Ways might well be Bob Dylan's most consistently brilliant set of songs in years: the die-hards can spend months unravelling the knottier lyrics, but you don't need a PhD in Dylanology to appreciate its singular quality and power". Rolling Stone critic Rob Sheffield wrote: "While the world keeps trying to celebrate him as an institution, pin him down, cast him in the Nobel Prize canon, embalm his past, this drifter always keeps on making his next escape. On Rough and Rowdy Ways, Dylan is exploring terrain nobody else has reached before—yet he just keeps pushing on into the future". Critical aggregator Metacritic gave the album a score of 95, indicating "universal acclaim". In its first week of release Rough and Rowdy Ways reached number one on the UK album chart, making Dylan "the oldest artist to score a No. 1 of new, original material". In December 2020, it was announced that Dylan had sold his entire song catalog to Universal Music Publishing Group. Dylan's deal includes 100 percent of his rights for all the songs of his catalog, including both the income he receives as a songwriter and his control of each song's copyright. In exchange for its payment to Dylan, Universal, a division of the French media conglomerate Vivendi, will collect all future income from the songs. The New York Times stated Universal had purchased the copyright to over 600 songs and the price was "estimated at more than $300 million", although other reports suggested the figure was closer to $400 million. On February 26, 2021, Columbia Records released 1970, a three-CD set of recordings from the Self Portrait and New Morning sessions, including the entirety of the session Dylan recorded with George Harrison on May 1, 1970. Dylan's 80th birthday in May 2021 was commemorated by a virtual conference, Dylan@80, organized by the TU Institute for Bob Dylan Studies. The program featured seventeen sessions spread across three days delivered by over fifty scholars, journalists and musicians, contributing from around the world through internet connections. Several new biographies and studies of Dylan were published as journalists and critics assessed the scale of Dylan's achievements in a career spanning 60 years. Livestream platform Veeps presented a 50 minute performance by Dylan, Shadow Kingdom: The Early Songs of Bob Dylan, in July 2021. Filmed in black and white with a film noir look, Dylan performed 13 songs in a club setting with an audience. The performance was favorably reviewed, and one critic suggested the backing band resembled the style of the musical Girl from the North Country. The soundtrack to the film was released on 2 LP and CD formats on June 2, 2023. On September 17, Dylan released Springtime In New York: The Bootleg Series Vol. 16 (1980–1985), issued in 2 LP, 2 CD and 5 CD formats. The set comprised rehearsals, live recordings, out-takes and alternative takes from the albums Shot of Love, Infidels and Empire Burlesque. In The Daily Telegraph, Neil McCormick commented: "These bootleg sessions remind us that Dylan's worst period is still more interesting than most artists' purple patches". Springtime in New York received an aggregate score of 85 on Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". On July 7, 2022, Christie's, London, auctioned a new (2021) recording by Dylan of his song "Blowin' in the Wind". The record was in an innovative "one of one" recording medium, branded as Ionic Original, which producer T Bone Burnett claimed "surpasses the sonic excellence and depth for which analogue sound is renowned, while at the same time boasting the durability of a digital recording." The recording fetched GBP £1,482,000—equivalent to $1,769,508. Dylan published The Philosophy of Modern Song on November 1, 2022, a book containing 66 essays on songs by other artists. The New Yorker described the work as "a rich, riffy, funny, and completely engaging book of essays". Other reviewers praised the book's eclectic outlook, while some questioned its variations in style and dearth of female songwriters. Dylan released The Bootleg Series Vol. 17: Fragments – Time Out of Mind Sessions (1996–1997) on January 27, 2023, in multiple formats. The 5-CD version comprised: a re-mix of the 1997 album "to sound more like how the songs came across when the musicians originally played them in the room" without the effects and processing which producer Daniel Lanois applied later; 25 previously unreleased out-takes from the studio sessions; and a disc of live performances of each song on the album performed by Dylan and his band in concert. Never Ending Tour The Never Ending Tour commenced on June 7, 1988. Dylan has played roughly 100 dates a year since, a heavier schedule than most performers who started in the 1960s. By April 2019, Dylan and his band had played more than 3,000 shows, anchored by long-time bassist Tony Garnier and multi-instrumentalist Donnie Herron. In September 2021, Dylan's touring company announced a series of tours which were billed as the "Rough and Rowdy Ways World Wide Tour, 2021–2024". On August 21, Dylan announced a Fall 2023 tour of the U.S. beginning in Kansas City, MO, on October 1 and concluding in Evansville, IN on December 3. To the dismay of some of his audience, Dylan's performances are unpredictable as he often alters his arrangements and changes his vocal approach. Critical opinion about the shows is divided. Critics such as Richard Williams and Andy Gill have argued that Dylan has found a successful way to present his rich legacy of material. Others have criticized his live performances for changing "the greatest lyrics ever written so that they are effectively unrecognisable", and giving so little to the audience that "it is difficult to understand what he is doing on stage at all". Visual art Dylan's visual art was first seen by the public via a painting he contributed for the cover of The Band's Music from Big Pink album in 1968. The cover of Dylan's own 1970 album Self Portrait features the painting of a human face by Dylan. More of Dylan's artwork was revealed with the 1973 publication of his book Writings and Drawings. The cover of Dylan's 1974 album Planet Waves again featured one of his paintings. In 1994 Random House published Drawn Blank, a book of Dylan's drawings. In 2007, the first public exhibition of Dylan's paintings, The Drawn Blank Series, opened at the Kunstsammlungen in Chemnitz, Germany; it showcased more than 200 watercolors and gouaches made from the original drawings. The exhibition coincided with the publication of Bob Dylan: The Drawn Blank Series, which includes 170 reproductions from the series. From September 2010 until April 2011, the National Gallery of Denmark exhibited 40 large-scale acrylic paintings by Dylan, The Brazil Series. In July 2011, a leading contemporary art gallery, Gagosian Gallery, announced their representation of Dylan's paintings. An exhibition of Dylan's art, The Asia Series, opened at the Gagosian Madison Avenue Gallery on September 20, displaying Dylan's paintings of scenes in China and the Far East. The New York Times reported that "some fans and Dylanologists have raised questions about whether some of these paintings are based on the singer's own experiences and observations, or on photographs that are widely available and were not taken by Mr. Dylan". The Times pointed to close resemblances between Dylan's paintings and historic photos of Japan and China, and photos taken by Dmitri Kessel and Henri Cartier-Bresson. Art critic Blake Gopnik has defended Dylan's artistic practice, arguing: "Ever since the birth of photography, painters have used it as the basis for their works: Edgar Degas and Édouard Vuillard and other favorite artists—even Edvard Munch—all took or used photos as sources for their art, sometimes barely altering them". The Magnum photo agency confirmed that Dylan had licensed the reproduction rights of these photographs. Dylan's second show at the Gagosian Gallery, Revisionist Art, opened in November 2012. The show consisted of thirty paintings, transforming and satirizing popular magazines, including Playboy and Babytalk. In February 2013, Dylan exhibited the New Orleans Series of paintings at the Palazzo Reale in Milan. In August 2013, Britain's National Portrait Gallery in London hosted Dylan's first major UK exhibition, Face Value, featuring twelve pastel portraits. In November 2013, the Halcyon Gallery in London mounted Mood Swings, an exhibition in which Dylan displayed seven wrought iron gates he had made. In a statement released by the gallery, Dylan said, "I've been around iron all my life ever since I was a kid. I was born and raised in iron ore country, where you could breathe it and smell it every day. Gates appeal to me because of the negative space they allow. They can be closed but at the same time they allow the seasons and breezes to enter and flow. They can shut you out or shut you in. And in some ways there is no difference". In November 2016, the Halcyon Gallery featured a collection of drawings, watercolors and acrylic works by Dylan. The exhibition, The Beaten Path, depicted American landscapes and urban scenes, inspired by Dylan's travels across the USA. The show was reviewed by Vanity Fair and Asia Times Online. In October 2018, the Halcyon Gallery mounted an exhibition of Dylan's drawings, Mondo Scripto. The works consisted of Dylan hand-written lyrics of his songs, with each song illustrated by a drawing.Retrospectrum, the largest retrospective of Dylan's visual art to date, consisting of over 250 works in a variety of media, debuted at the Modern Art Museum in Shanghai in 2019. Building on the exhibition in China, a version of Retrospectrum, which includes a new series of paintings, "Deep Focus", drawn from film imagery, opened at the Frost Art Museum in Miami on November 30, 2021. Since 1994, Dylan has published nine books of paintings and drawings. In November 2022, Dylan apologised for using an autopen to sign books and artwork which were subsequently sold as "hand-signed" since 2019. Discography Bob Dylan (1962) The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan (1963) The Times They Are a-Changin' (1964) Another Side of Bob Dylan (1964) Bringing It All Back Home (1965) Highway 61 Revisited (1965) Blonde on Blonde (1966) John Wesley Harding (1967) Nashville Skyline (1969) Self Portrait (1970) New Morning (1970) Pat Garrett & Billy the Kid (1973) Dylan (1973) Planet Waves (1974) Blood on the Tracks (1975) The Basement Tapes (1975) Desire (1976) Street-Legal (1978) Slow Train Coming (1979) Saved (1980) Shot of Love (1981) Infidels (1983) Empire Burlesque (1985) Knocked Out Loaded (1986) Down in the Groove (1988) Oh Mercy (1989) Under the Red Sky (1990) Good as I Been to You (1992) World Gone Wrong (1993) Time Out of Mind (1997) "Love and Theft" (2001) Modern Times (2006) Together Through Life (2009) Christmas in the Heart (2009) Tempest (2012) Shadows in the Night (2015) Fallen Angels (2016) Triplicate (2017) Rough and Rowdy Ways (2020) Shadow Kingdom (2023) Written works Dylan has published Tarantula, a work of prose poetry; Chronicles: Volume One, the first part of his memoirs; several books of the lyrics of his songs, and eight books of his art. Dylan's third full length book, The Philosophy of Modern Song, which contains 66 essays on songs by other artists, was published on November 1, 2022. Dylan has also been the subject of numerous biographies and critical studies. Personal life Romantic relationships Echo Helstrom Echo Helstrom was Dylan's high school girlfriend. The couple listened together to rhythm-and-blues coming in on distant high-watt radio stations, and her family exposed him to singers such as Jimmie Rodgers on 78 RPM records, and a plethora of folk music magazines, sheet music, and manuscripts. Helstrom is believed by some to be the inspiration for Dylan's song "Girl from the North Country", though this is disputed and unprovable. Suze Rotolo Dylan's first serious relationship was with artist Suze Rotolo, a daughter of Communist Party USA radicals. According to Dylan, "She was the most erotic thing I'd ever seen ... The air was suddenly filled with banana leaves. We started talking and my head started to spin". Rotolo was photographed arm-in-arm with Dylan on the cover of his album The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan. Critics have connected Rotolo to some of Dylan's early love songs, including "Don't Think Twice It's All Right". The relationship ended in 1964. In 2008, Rotolo published a memoir about her life in Greenwich Village and relationship with Dylan in the 1960s, A Freewheelin' Time. Joan Baez When Joan Baez first met Dylan in April 1961, she had already released her first album and was acclaimed as the "Queen of Folk". On hearing Dylan perform his song "With God on Our Side", Baez later said, "I never thought anything so powerful could come out of that little toad". In July 1963, Baez invited Dylan to join her on stage at the Newport Folk Festival, setting the scene for similar duets over the next two years. By the time of Dylan's 1965 tour of the U.K, their romantic relationship had begun to fizzle out, as captured in D. A. Pennebaker's documentary film Dont Look Back. Baez later toured with Dylan as a performer on his Rolling Thunder Revue in 1975–76. Baez also starred as "The Woman In White" in the film Renaldo and Clara (1978), directed by Dylan and filmed during the Rolling Thunder Revue. Dylan and Baez toured together again in 1984 with Carlos Santana. Baez recalled her relationship with Dylan in Martin Scorsese's documentary film No Direction Home (2005). Baez wrote about Dylan in two autobiographies—admiringly in Daybreak (1968), and less admiringly in And A Voice to Sing With (1987). Baez portrayed her relationship with Dylan in her song "Diamonds & Rust", which has been described as "an acute portrait" of Dylan. Sara Lownds Dylan married Sara Lownds, who had worked as a model and a secretary at Drew Associates, on November 22, 1965. Their first child, Jesse Byron Dylan, was born on January 6, 1966, and they had three more children: Anna Lea (born July 11, 1967), Samuel Isaac Abram (born July 30, 1968), and Jakob Luke (born December 9, 1969). Dylan also adopted Sara's daughter from a prior marriage, Maria Lownds (later Dylan, born October 21, 1961). Sara Dylan played the role of Clara in Dylan's film Renaldo and Clara (1978). Bob and Sara Dylan were divorced on June 29, 1977. Jakob became well known as the lead singer of the band the Wallflowers in the 1990s. Jesse is a film director and business executive. Carolyn Dennis Dylan and his backup singer Carolyn Dennis (often professionally known as Carol Dennis) have a daughter, Desiree Gabrielle Dennis-Dylan, born on January 31, 1986. The couple were married on June 4, 1986, and divorced in October 1992. Their marriage and child remained a closely guarded secret until the publication of Howard Sounes's biography Down the Highway: The Life of Bob Dylan, in 2001. Home When not touring, Dylan is believed to live primarily in Point Dume, a promontory on the coast of Malibu, California, though he also owns property around the world. Religious beliefs Growing up in Hibbing, Minnesota, Dylan and his family were part of the area's small, close-knit Jewish community, and Dylan had his Bar Mitzvah in May 1954. Around the time of his 30th birthday, in 1971, Dylan visited Israel, and also met Rabbi Meir Kahane, founder of the New York-based Jewish Defense League. In the late 1970s, Dylan converted to Christianity. In November 1978, guided by his friend Mary Alice Artes, Dylan made contact with the Vineyard School of Discipleship. Vineyard Pastor Kenn Gulliksen recalled: "Larry Myers and Paul Emond went over to Bob's house and ministered to him. He responded by saying yes, he did in fact want Christ in his life. And he prayed that day and received the Lord".Gray, 2006, The Bob Dylan Encyclopedia, pp. 76–80. From January to March 1979, Dylan attended Vineyard's Bible study classes in Reseda, California.Heylin, 1996, Bob Dylan: A Life In Stolen Moments, p. 206. By 1984, Dylan was distancing himself from the "born again" label. He told Kurt Loder of Rolling Stone: "I've never said I'm 'born again'. That's just a media term. I don't think I've been an agnostic. I've always thought there's a superior power, that this is not the real world and that there's a world to come." In 1997, he told David Gates of Newsweek: Dylan has supported the Chabad Lubavitch movement, and has privately participated in Jewish religious events, including his sons' Bar Mitzvahs and services at Hadar Hatorah, a Chabad Lubavitch yeshiva. In 1989 and 1991, he appeared on the Chabad telethon. Dylan has continued to perform songs from his gospel albums in concert, occasionally covering traditional religious songs. He has made passing references to his religious faith, such as in a 2004 interview with 60 Minutes, when he told Ed Bradley, "the only person you have to think twice about lying to is either yourself or to God". He explained his constant touring schedule as part of a bargain he made a long time ago with the "chief commander—in this earth and in the world we can't see". Speaking to Jeff Slate of The Wall Street Journal in December 2022, Dylan reaffirmed his religious outlook: "I read the scriptures a lot, meditate and pray, light candles in church. I believe in damnation and salvation as well as predestination. The Five Books of Moses, Pauline Epistles, Invocation of the Saints, all of it." Accolades Dylan has won many awards throughout his career including the 2016 Nobel Prize in Literature, ten Grammy Awards, one Academy Award and one Golden Globe Award. He has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame, and Songwriters Hall of Fame. In May 2000, Dylan received the Polar Music Prize from Sweden's King Carl XVI. In June 2007, Dylan received the Prince of Asturias Award in the Arts category. Dylan received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in May 2012. In February 2015, Dylan accepted the MusiCares Person of the Year award from the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, in recognition of his philanthropic and artistic contributions to society. In November 2013, Dylan received the accolade of Légion d'Honneur from the French education minister Aurélie Filippetti. Nobel Prize in Literature The Nobel Prize committee announced on October 13, 2016, that it would be awarding Dylan the Nobel Prize in Literature "for having created new poetic expressions within the great American song tradition". The award was not without controversy, and The New York Times reported: "Mr. Dylan, 75, is the first musician to win the award, and his selection on Thursday is perhaps the most radical choice in a history stretching back to 1901." Dylan remained silent for days after receiving the award, and then told journalist Edna Gundersen that getting the award was "amazing, incredible. Whoever dreams about something like that?" Dylan's Nobel Lecture was posted on the Nobel Prize website on June 5, 2017. Legacy Dylan has been described as one of the most influential figures of the 20th century, musically and culturally. He was included in the Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century, where he was called "master poet, caustic social critic and intrepid, guiding spirit of the counterculture generation". In 2008, the Pulitzer Prize jury awarded him a special citation for "his profound impact on popular music and American culture, marked by lyrical compositions of extraordinary poetic power". President Barack Obama said of Dylan in 2012: "There is not a bigger giant in the history of American music." For 20 years, academics lobbied the Swedish Academy to give Dylan the Nobel Prize in Literature. He received the award in 2016, making Dylan the first musician awarded the Literature Prize. Horace Engdahl, a member of the Nobel Committee, described Dylan's place in literary history:Rolling Stone ranked Dylan at number one in its 2015 list of the 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time, at number 15 on its 2023 list of the Greatest Singers of All Time, and listed "Like A Rolling Stone" as the "Greatest Song of all Time" in their 2011 list. In 2008, it was estimated that Dylan had sold about 120 million albums worldwide. Initially modeling his writing style on the songs of Woody Guthrie, the blues of Robert Johnson, and what he termed the "architectural forms" of Hank Williams songs, Dylan added increasingly sophisticated lyrical techniques to the folk music of the early 1960s, infusing it "with the intellectualism of classic literature and poetry". Paul Simon suggested that Dylan's early compositions virtually took over the folk genre: "[Dylan's] early songs were very rich ... with strong melodies. 'Blowin' in the Wind' has a really strong melody. He so enlarged himself through the folk background that he incorporated it for a while. He defined the genre for a while". When Dylan made his move from acoustic folk and blues music to a rock backing, the mix became more complex. For many critics, his greatest achievement was the cultural synthesis exemplified by his mid-1960s trilogy of albums—Bringing It All Back Home, Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde. In Mike Marqusee's words: Dylan's lyrics began to receive detailed scrutiny from academics and poets as early as 1998, when Stanford University sponsored the first international academic conference on Bob Dylan held in the United States. In 2004, Richard F. Thomas, Classics professor at Harvard University, created a freshman seminar titled "Dylan", which aimed "to put the artist in context of not just popular culture of the last half-century, but the tradition of classical poets like Virgil and Homer". Literary critic Christopher Ricks published Dylan's Visions of Sin, a 500-page analysis of Dylan's work, and has said: "I'd not have written a book about Dylan, to stand alongside my books on Milton and Keats, Tennyson and T.S. Eliot, if I didn't think Dylan a genius of and with language". Former British poet laureate Andrew Motion suggested his lyrics should be studied in schools. The critical consensus that Dylan's songwriting was his outstanding creative achievement was articulated by Encyclopædia Britannica, where his entry stated: "Hailed as the Shakespeare of his generation, Dylan ... set the standard for lyric writing." Dylan's voice also received critical attention. Robert Shelton described his early vocal style as "a rusty voice suggesting Guthrie's old performances, etched in gravel like Dave Van Ronk's". David Bowie, in his tribute "Song for Bob Dylan", described Dylan's singing as "a voice like sand and glue". His voice continued to develop as he began to work with rock'n'roll backing bands; critic Michael Gray described the sound of Dylan's vocal work on "Like a Rolling Stone" as "at once young and jeeringly cynical". As Dylan's voice aged during the 1980s, for some critics, it became more expressive. Christophe Lebold writes in the journal Oral Tradition: "Dylan's more recent broken voice enables him to present a world view at the sonic surface of the songs—this voice carries us across the landscape of a broken, fallen world. The anatomy of a broken world in 'Everything is Broken' (on the album Oh Mercy) is but an example of how the thematic concern with all things broken is grounded in a concrete sonic reality". Dylan is considered a seminal influence on many musical genres. As Edna Gundersen stated in USA Today: "Dylan's musical DNA has informed nearly every simple twist of pop since 1962". Punk musician Joe Strummer praised Dylan for having "laid down the template for lyric, tune, seriousness, spirituality, depth of rock music". Other major musicians who acknowledged Dylan's importance include Johnny Cash, Jerry Garcia, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Pete Townshend, Neil Young, Bruce Springsteen, David Bowie, Bryan Ferry, Nick Cave, Patti Smith, Syd Barrett, Joni Mitchell, Tom Waits and Leonard Cohen. Dylan significantly contributed to the initial success of both the Byrds and the Band: the Byrds achieved chart success with their version of "Mr. Tambourine Man" and the subsequent album, while the Band were Dylan's backing band on his 1966 tour, recorded The Basement Tapes with him in 1967 and featured three previously unreleased Dylan songs on their debut album. Some critics have dissented from the view of Dylan as a visionary figure in popular music. In his book Awopbopaloobop Alopbamboom, Nik Cohn objected: "I can't take the vision of Dylan as seer, as teenage messiah, as everything else he's been worshipped as. The way I see him, he's a minor talent with a major gift for self-hype". Australian critic Jack Marx credited Dylan with changing the persona of the rock star: "What cannot be disputed is that Dylan invented the arrogant, faux-cerebral posturing that has been the dominant style in rock since, with everyone from Mick Jagger to Eminem educating themselves from the Dylan handbook". Fellow musicians have also presented differing views. Joni Mitchell described Dylan as a "plagiarist" and his voice as "fake" in a 2010 interview in the Los Angeles Times. Mitchell's comments led to discussions on Dylan's use of other people's material, both supporting and criticizing him. Talking to Mikal Gilmore in Rolling Stone in 2012, Dylan responded to the allegation of plagiarism, including his use of Henry Timrod's verse in his album Modern Times, by saying that it was "part of the tradition".Dylan told Gilmore: "As far as Henry Timrod is concerned, have you even heard of him? Who's been reading him lately? And who's pushed him to the forefront? ... And if you think it's so easy to quote him and it can help your work, do it yourself and see how far you can get. Wussies and pussies complain about that stuff. It's an old thing—it's part of the tradition." If Dylan's work in the 1960s was seen as bringing intellectual ambition to popular music, critics in the 21st century described him as a figure who had greatly expanded the folk culture from which he initially emerged. Following the release of Todd Haynes' Dylan biopic I'm Not There, J. Hoberman wrote in his 2007 Village Voice'' review: Archives and honors Dylan's archive, comprising notebooks, song drafts, business contracts, recordings and movie out-takes, was purchased in 2016 by the George Kaiser Family Foundation, which had also acquired the papers of Woody Guthrie. To house the Archive, The Bob Dylan Center in Tulsa, Oklahoma opened on May 10, 2022. In 2005, 7th Avenue East in Hibbing, Minnesota, the street on which Dylan lived from ages 6 to 18, received the honorary name Bob Dylan Drive. In 2006, a cultural pathway, Bob Dylan Way, was inaugurated in Duluth, Minnesota, where Dylan was born. The 1.8-mile path links "cultural and historically significant areas of downtown for the tourists". In 2015, a 160-foot-wide Dylan mural by Brazilian street artist Eduardo Kobra was unveiled in downtown Minneapolis. Notes References Citations Sources External links Expecting Rain – Dylan news and events, updated daily BobLinks – Comprehensive log of concerts and set lists Bjorner's Still on the Road – Information on recording sessions and performances 1941 births 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century American Jews 20th-century American songwriters 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American male singers 20th-century American singer-songwriters 21st-century American guitarists 21st-century American Jews 21st-century American songwriters 21st-century American male writers 21st-century American male singers 21st-century American singer-songwriters Album-cover and concert-poster artists American acoustic guitarists American autobiographers American blues guitarists American blues singers American country guitarists American country singer-songwriters American folk guitarists American folk rock musicians American folk singers American gospel singers American harmonica players American jazz singers American male guitarists American male singer-songwriters American multi-instrumentalists American Nobel laureates American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent American people of Turkish-Jewish descent American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent American radio DJs American rock guitarists American rock singers American rock songwriters Articles containing video clips Artists from Minnesota Asylum Records artists Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters Columbia Records artists Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Converts to Christianity from Judaism Country musicians from Minnesota Folk musicians from New York (state) Golden Globe Award-winning musicians Grammy Award winners Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Guitarists from California Guitarists from Minnesota Guitarists from New York City Jewish American musicians Jewish American poets Jewish American songwriters Jewish country singers Jewish folk singers Jewish jazz musicians Jewish rock musicians Jews and Judaism in Minnesota Kennedy Center honorees Living people Musicians from Duluth, Minnesota Nobel laureates in Literature Officers of the Legion of Honour People from Hibbing, Minnesota Musicians from Malibu, California People from Woodstock, New York Political music artists Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Pulitzer Prize winners Singer-songwriters from California Singer-songwriters from Minnesota Singers from New York City Sony Music Publishing artists Traditional pop music singers Traveling Wilburys members United States National Medal of Arts recipients University of Minnesota alumni Hibbing High School alumni Jazz musicians from California Jazz musicians from New York (state) Singer-songwriters from New York (state) American Christians
4637719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20V%C3%A1zquez%20de%20Mella	Juan Vázquez de Mella	Juan Vázquez de Mella y Fanjul (1861–1928) was a Spanish politician and a political theorist. He is counted among the greatest Traditionalist thinkers, at times considered the finest author of Spanish Traditionalism of all time. A politician active within Carlism, he served as a longtime Cortes deputy and one of the party leaders. He championed an own political strategy, known as Mellismo, which led to secession and formation of a separate grouping. Family and youth Juan Antonio María Casto Francisco de Sales Vázquez de Mella y Fanjul was descendant to an old, though not particularly distinguished Galician family; its best known representative was a 15th-century-cardinal of Zamora. There were mostly military men among Juan's ancestors along the paternal line, related to various towns in Galicia; military were also his grandfather, Andrés Vázquez de Mella, a native of Filgueira, and his father, Juan Antonio Vázquez de Mella y Várela (died 1874), born in Boimorto. The latter, rising to teniente coronel, proved a rather restless figure and by some was described as exaltado. The man of clear Liberal convictions, for supporting the Espartero coups he was fired from the post of administrador de aduanas in 1840 and imprisoned in 1843. Soon restored to previous post in Lugo, in 1848 he was promoted to intendente provincial in Oviedo, the same year posted to Seville and later to Málaga. In the late 1850s transferred to Covadonga, he resigned from the army in 1860, once his application to join the troops fighting in Morocco had been rejected. Active in the local Liberal realm, allegedly he declared the republic in Cangas in 1873; his son later denied that he had been a Republican. Juan Antonio married Teresa Fanjul Blanco (died 1893), a native of Amieva and descendant to a locally recognized family; her father ran a commerce and tanning business. The couple settled in Cangas and had only one child. After death of her husband, the widow was first assisted by her brother, who inherited the family enterprises; following differences with her sibling she moved to live with her cousins in Galicia, where Juan spent his childhood. It seems that he identified himself with Galicia rather than with Asturias. According to opponents he was "born into opulence"; he rather admitted "en las perspectivas de la opulencia", which failed to materialize following death of his father; according to some, he spent most of his life bordering poverty and actually died in poverty. In 1874 the young Juan entered Seminario del Valdediós near Villaviciosa; though not an excellent student, he used to gain "diplomas de tercera clase" a few times. He demonstrated a penchant for letters, reading books and periodicals instead of playing with his classmates. Having obtained bachillerato in 1877, he enrolled at Universidad de Santiago; he preferred to study Filosofia y Letras, but as such department did not exist in Santiago at the time, he settled for law, the subject he approached with disgust. As a result, he did not make a systematic student, recorded rather for pursuing his own interest and spending more time in libraries than in lecture halls. The year of his graduation is not clear; none of the sources consulted clarifies how he made a living in the early 1880s, when he lived with his mother in Santiago. Tending to solitude from early childhood he has never married and had no children, though at one point he was supposed to marry a Pamplonesa, María Baleztena Ascárate. Provincial columnist to Madrid editor-in-chief (before 1890) Juan was orphaned by his militantly Liberal father when entering the teenage period; despite Carlist antecedents among his paternal uncles, there is neither any indication that he inherited Traditionalist outlook along the family line. Scholars tend rather to suspect that the young Vázquez de Mella embraced it during the academic period. For some time he served as secretary to professor José Fernández Sánchez, an acquaintance of Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo; de Mella had access to their lengthy correspondence and was exposed to the doctrine. He left the university already as a Traditionalist; unlike most Carlists, he espoused the concept not by means of inheritance or intuition, but as a result of intellectual speculation. In the early 1880s he was first noted in public realm as an orator in the compostelan Ateneo and in Academia Católica de Santiago. At unspecified time though probably in the mid-1880s de Mella commenced co-operation with some conservative periodicals; the two identified are La Restauración, a Madrid weekly managed by Francisco de Paula Quereda, and the Santiago daily El Pensamiento Galaico. Little is known about his contributions, as there are almost no copies of both preserved in the archives. At least his Pensamiento pieces must have made an impact beyond Galicia, as they were noticed in Madrid; this refers in particular to a series of vehemently anti-Nocedal articles, published in wake of the Integrist breakup from Carlism in the late 1880s. As the breakaway Nocedalistas controlled El Siglo Futuro, previously the national party mouthpiece, the claimant Carlos VII decided to set up a new semi-official Carlist newspaper; the daily materialized in 1888 as El Correo Español, desperately short of good contributors. According to some scholars it was the Carlist political leader, Marqués de Cerralbo, who invited de Mella to contribute; according to the others, it was rather the manager of Correo, Luis Llauder. At the turn of the decades de Mella started to contribute to Correo as a correspondent; in the meantime he grew to manager of El Pensamiento Galaico, the job held until 1890. Initially he kept publishing under various pen-names, most of his essays having been doctrinal ones, with some focus also on society and regional establishments. At some point de Mella was invited to move to Madrid and enter the editorial board, the offer he accepted. When Correo achieved stability and moved out of its teething phase, Llauder decided to return to Barcelona; his position of director was assumed by the former redactor jefé, Leandro Herrero, whose job was in turn offered to de Mella. Either in 1890 or 1891 de Mella became editor-in-chief, formally subordinate of Herrero, but politically instructed to follow the guidance of Cerralbo. Scholars are not certain who followed whom; they note that already at that point Cerralbo was visibly impressed by de Mella and tended to accept his authority of a theorist. Rise to political prominence (1890–1900) De Mella's assumption of chief editor role stirred controversy. He was reported as rather loosely approaching his duties, working short hours, being absent from the office for 2–3 days and pursuing own interests. Alarmed by Herrero, in the early 1890s the claimant's secretary Melgar repeatedly demanded from Venice that Cerralbo brings his protégé into discipline, the calls which produced little effect. De Mella kept contributing broadly aimed and high quality pieces, but the daily was left mostly to Herrero and the administrative manager, Puiggrós. This was to continue until the late 1890s, also de Mella himself increasingly disappointed with editorial work. De Mella owed his position not only to his pen, but also to co-operation with Cerralbo. In the early 1890s the marquis launched an innovative scheme of touring the country and mobilizing support by means of public gatherings and close meetings; de Mella used to accompany him, acknowledging the journeys and Cerralbo's addresses in booklets. At times he took the floor himself, due to oratorical skills gaining more and more attention. During the 1891 elections to the Cortes he was placed on the Carlist list in Valls; a typical cuckoo candidate, he lost. He renewed his bid from the Navarrese Estella, another constituency he had no personal relation with. Following enormously conflictive campaign against the governmental candidate this time de Mella won, commencing a string of Carlist Estella victories which was to last almost continuously until the end of Restoration. A member of tiny Carlist minority, in the Cortes de Mella exercised little influence over the legislative work. However, he soon gained attention as an individual, taking on most respected politicians and his exhilarating addresses exercising hypnotic effect. Increasingly respected especially among the Conservatives, in the mid-1890s he was offered Ministry of Education, the post he declined. Re-elected from Estella in 1896 and 1898, he was already a Carlist and parliamentary star; also addresses at public meetings were received frenetically. The claimant was delighted; in 1897 de Mella was invited to visit him in Venice, when he heavily contributed to the programmatic document known as Acta de Loredan. Acting on Carlos VII's order de Mella resigned from the parliament in 1898 and did not take part in the 1899 elections. At that time the Carlists were mounting a coup supposed to topple the Restoration regime; de Mella contributed propaganda wise, fathering ambiguous press notes and public addresses. Following another visit to Venice in 1899 he entered a Carlist junta entrusted with wartime preparations. As the claimant developed doubts, in 1900 de Mella seemed to side with those determined to rise even in case no order is given, though there is no evidence that he actually instigated the rising, which boiled down to a series of minor October 1900 revolts known as La Octubrada. In the aftermath his Madrid house was raided by the police, which seemed minor inconvenience compared to wrath of the claimant. Suspecting the entire party leadership of treason, he ordered de Mella out of Correo. Fall from grace and road back to power (1900–1912) De Mella decided to comply with the order of his king. It is not clear whether there were any official administrative measures intended against him; possibly fearing further governmental reprisals, in the very late 1900 via France he left for Portugal and settled in Lisbon. He spent there some 3 years on intermittent basis, at times visiting Spain and contributing to various Spanish periodicals. Not reconciled with the claimant, in 1901 he was even suspected of plotting with Cerralbo and Solferino; the scheme comprised forced abdication of Carlos VII in favor of his son, Don Jaime. In 1903 he obtained the royal pardon and was allowed to renew his Cortes bid. Following death of a Carlist Aoiz deputy Miguel Irigaray, de Mella took his seat in 1904. In the 1905 campaign he stood and won in Pamplona, the constituency he would represent continuously for 13 years to come, though sporadically he also stood in his native Asturias. De Mella's position within Carlism was still precarious. As a nationally recognized figure – in 1906 he received invitation to the Academy - he was an asset the party could not have afforded to ignore, though the claimant remained suspicious and the new party leader, Matías Barrio y Mier, was determined to impose total loyalty. De Mella developed particular dislike towards him, in private sparing his jefe little insult. Apart from personal enmity, the two clashed in terms of political strategy, as de Mella first demonstrated what would later become a trademark of Mellismo: a penchant for maximalist extreme-Right coalitions. Following death of Barrio in early 1909 de Mella campaigned to have Cerralbo restored as leader and was furious to see Bartolomé Feliú appointed instead; some considered also himself a possible candidate. Following 1909 death of Carlos VII his son as the new Carlist king found himself pressed to dismiss Feliú; he opted for a compromise, confirming the nomination but appointing de Mella his own personal secretary. He was called to Frohsdorf to prepare something like a new Acta de Loredan, but relations did not go smoothly, the two developing suspicions versus each other. After a joint trip to Rome in May 1910 de Mella was replaced with Artero Samaniego, disillusioned - rather mutually - with his new monarch. During the next 2 years the group, already dubbed Mellistas, sabotaged Jefe Delegado, in 1910 openly promoting non-dynastic ultra-conservative coalitions against Feliú-approved accords strictly conditioned by dynastic claims. Constantly dubbing Feliú as incompetent leader, in 1912 Mella decided to launch a full-scale onslaught; he accused jefe delegado of illegitimately holding the jefatura and demanded his deposition, in private threatening the claimant with rejecting his rule as deprived of "legitimacy of execution". Don Jaime gave in and by the end of 1912 he re-appointed de Cerralbo as president of Junta Superior. In control (1912–1918) Some scholars claim that with de Cerralbo aging, tired of conflict and increasingly disoriented politically, it was rather de Mella who assumed command of the party from the back seat. The Carlist parliamentarian contingent was dominated by his personality; in the 30-member party top body, Junta Superior, around one third were leaning towards Mellismo. As de Cerralbo re-organized the national executive in 10 sections, Mella monopolized the ones of propaganda and press while his followers dominated in electoral and admin ones. Only El Correo Español remained a battlefield with supporters of Don Jaime, but it was increasingly taken over by the Mellistas. De Mella was already planning general overhaul of the party, waiting only for the old-style leaders to die out. At that stage he probably hoped that Don Jaime could be pushed to a decorative role, reduced to "un rey a su imagen y semejanza". Outbreak of the Great War played into de Mella's hands: Don Jaime was left hardly contactable in his house arrest in Austria. The Mellistas took almost full control of the election strategy; the Carlist Cortes campaigns of 1914, 1916 and 1918 were visibly marked by de Mella's vision. It aimed at a non-dynastical alliance of ultra-Right, leading to emergence of a maximalist ultra-Right party, perhaps a new incarnation of Traditionalism, which in turn would do away with liberal democracy and ensure passage to Traditionalist, corporative system. The strategy produced co-operation with a branch of the Conservatives named Mauristas, with another branch named Ciervistas, with the Integrists and with other small groups, but it also demonstrated its limitations. The alliances hardly outlived electoral campaigns and did not improve Carlist standing in the parliament; in regions with strong local identity party militants grumbled that fuerismo might suffer in a hypothetical ultra-Right alliance. Following outbreak of the Great War earlier demonstrated pro-German de Mella's sympathies, very much shared by the party rank and file, turned into a full-blown campaign. Combined with his personal gallophobia and traditional Carlist anti-British sentiment, it produced numerous booklets and lectures; technically they supported Spanish neutrality, but effectively they favored the Central Powers. The claimant remained ambiguous and it was rather some Carlists from his entourage, especially Melgar, who openly opposed de Mella with their pro-Entente campaign. Today there are different opinions as to the role of World War One alliances in general de Mella's vision. According to some the question was central and Mellismo is simply a pro-German stance. Most suggest that it stemmed from ideological premises, quote passages praising anti-Liberal German regime and lambasting Masonic, democratic, parliamentarian British and French systems. Some relate germanophilia to the Mellista version of regeneracionismo in international politics. There are comments suggesting that victory of the Central Powers was expected to facilitate takeover of Spanish political scene by extreme Right, while few students suggest that the war issue was of no relevance at all. Breakup (1919) In 1918 de Mella was losing ground: electoral alliances failed to produce major gains, course of the Great War made pro-German attitude pointless and undermined position of its advocates, some regional jefaturas kept voicing dissent and de Cerralbo, increasingly tired of his own double-loyalty, finally managed to have his resignation accepted, temporarily replaced by another Mellista, Cesáreo Sanz Escartín. Moreover, during the 1918 elections supposed to run as usual from Pamplona, for reasons which are not entirely clear de Mella withdrew. In early 1919 the claimant was released from his house arrest in Austria, arrived in Paris and after 2 years of almost total silence came out with 2 manifestos In somewhat unclear circumstances published in early February in Correo Español, they explicitly denounced disobedience of unnamed Carlist leaders failing to sustain neutral policy and indicated that command structures of the party would be re-organized. De Mella and his supporters concluded that the strategy employed previously in struggle for domination in the party – cornering the claimant in private to elicit his conformity – would no longer work and that an ultimate all-out confrontation was imminent. He mounted a media counter-offensive, going public with charges disseminated confidentially in 1912 and presenting Don Jaime as a ruler who lost his legitimacy: for years he remained passive and inactive, pursued hypocritical policy of declaring neutrality but in fact supporting Entente, departed from Catholic orthodoxy, ignored traditional Carlist collegial bodies embarking on Cesarist policy, toyed with the party and - clear reference to his lack of offspring - behaved irresponsibly; all in all, his latest moves were nothing but a "Jaimada", a coup within and against Traditionalism. None of the conflicting parties referred to the question of political strategy as to the point of contention. Though initially it might have appeared that the strengths of both sides were comparable, Don Jaime soon tilted the balance in his favor. His men reclaimed control over El Correo Español and he replaced San Escartín with former germanophile politicians who seemed pro-Mellistas but turned loyal to the royal house, first Pascual Comín and then Luis Hernando de Larramendi. When Alfonsist and Liberal press cheered anticipated demise of conflict-ridden Carlism, many party members earlier demonstrating unease about Don Jaime started to have second thoughts. Vázquez de Mella, conscious of his strong position among MPs and local jefes, responded with a call to stage a grand assembly, hoping that the party heavyweights would help him regain control. Some scholars claim that at that point he already acknowledged that the struggle to control Jaimist structures was pointless; they interpret his appeal as decision to walk out and build a new party. The showdown lasted no longer than two weeks. By the end of February 1919 de Mella openly opted for an own organization, setting Centro de Acción Tradicionalista as his temporary headquarters in Madrid. Political failure and retirement (after 1919) Though de Mella lost the battle to control Carlism, on rebellious path he was followed by most of its local leaders, MPs and otherwise distinguished figures; it was only among the rank and file that Mellistas gained little support, the group resembling an army of generals with rather few soldiers. Before the 1919 elections de Mella set up Centro Católico Tradicionalista, intended as a stepping stone towards an ultra-Right alliance; the campaign produced mere 4 mandates and de Mella himself failed to gain a ticket. Offered a ministerial post in a new government of national unity he declined, claiming he could never align himself with the 1876 constitution and its system. The 1920 elections proved even worse, with Mellistas gaining only 2 tickets; de Mella, who lost again, soon launched his bid for seat in Tribunal Supremo, but failed to mount sufficient support among conservative parties and suffered prestigious defeat. By 1921 it was clear that de Mella was struggling organizing his own party. His dislike for systematic effort and commitment - demonstrated already during academic years, Correo management, inability to produce a major written opus, never completed Academia entry address and solitary lifestyle - again took its toll. He was withdrawing into periods of inactivity and already pondered upon his role of a pundit, providing guidance from the back seat. In the meantime, more and more of his followers were defecting to other Right-wing formations. When a grand Mellist assembly materialized in October 1922 in Zaragoza, it was controlled by supporters of Víctor Pradera, who instead of an ultra-Right maximalist coalition advocated a broad conservative alliance based on the lowest common denominator. Anticipating defeat de Mella did not attend; instead he sent a letter. Once again reasserting his anti-system views he confirmed Traditionalist monarchy as an ultimate goal and declared himself committed to work towards it as theorist and ideologue, though not as a politician any more. De Mella did not take part in works of the newly established Partido Católico Tradicionalista, the more so as in 1923 the Primo de Rivera coup brought national political life to a standstill by banning all political parties. Initially he might have been inclined to support the dictatorship, as the press informed about his work to set up a new political formation and in 1924 he was received by Primo himself. Whatever his views were, in early 1925 he already had few doubts about la dictadura; he considered it a pocket version of a grand political shakeup needed by the country and in January 1925 ridiculed it as "golpe de escoba", though he also allegedly confirmed that directorio implemented some Traditionalist ideas. His last public appearance fell on early 1924; a diabetic, he suffered further health problems and in the summer of 1924 had his leg amputated. He remained a public figure and until early 1925 the press systematically reported about his health conditions. He died shortly after having completed a philosophical study on Eucharist, his death widely discussed by Spanish periodicals. Thought De Mella's writings are typically categorized as political theory. He is considered indebted mostly to Balmes and Dónoso, though also to Aparisi and other Neo-Catholics, Aquinas, Suárez and Leo XIII. Some students maintain that de Mella was greatly influenced by Gil Robles. He was not familiar with works of the most notable foreign Traditionalist thinkers. In terms of doctrinal profile de Mella is almost unanimously considered a Traditionalist; moreover, his vision is often presented as one of the most classical incarnations – if not the most classical incarnation indeed – of the doctrine. As such, it features a loosely organized and rather withdrawn state, envisioned as a lightweight superstructure placed over different types of largely autonomous and overlapping functional, geographical or professional communities. Political sovereignty lies with a monarch equipped with strong but highly limited powers; such entity is united by common orthodoxy, defined by Catholic faith and Spanish tradition. Exact nature of these components were elaborated down to minuscule details. Key elements of de Mella's thought are defined as society, religion, family, regionalism, tradition and monarchy. The very core of de Mella's concept, however, considered also his most original contribution to Traditionalist thought, was his idea of a society. Though many thinkers before him dedicated considerable attention to the problem and underlined that it was not a contractual body but a result of natural development, most scholars agree that it was de Mella who introduced the theory of social sovereignty. Different from political sovereignty exercised exclusively by the monarch, it attributes to communities the right to govern themselves with no interference on part of external agents, be it the king or other communities; social sovereignty is embodied in the Cortes. Other scholars maintain that the concept was coined by others, but de Mella elevated it to the form he named sociedalismo, which stands for superiority of such a society over state. The concepts of de Mella and Gil led to major transformation of Traditionalism; in the previous phase centred on monarchy, in the subsequent one, to last until the late 20th century, it was centred on society. There are scholars who emphasize Mellista regionalism, with state to be organized on a federative basis and regions being one type of intermediary bodies and local emanations of a nation. Others, however, tend to reverse the order and focus on nation. All agree that nation is principally about tradition and that neither a nation nor a state possessed own sovereignty. Other core concepts emphasized are family - the key element of social fabric, Catholic unity – the basic building block of Spanish nation, tradition – a general concept, labor, and monarchy, defined as traditional, hereditary, federative and representative. Though Carlist most of his life, de Mella did not emphasize the legitimist ingredient; he did espouse the doctrine of double legitimacy, but as individual who embraced Carlism out of intellectual speculation and not by heritage or intuition, he had little problem totally abandoning the legitimist thread later on. Orator and writer Most of his contemporaries were impressed not with de Mella's writings, his thought or leadership style, but rather with his oratorical skills. This applies to both young men and experienced statesmen; it is often quoted that when listening to a then unknown de Mella in the Cortes, Antonio Cánovas mumbled in amazement: "¿Quién es ese monstruo?" De Mella exercised hypnotic effect on huge public gatherings and limited audiences alike; it is not infrequent to find reports of listeners brought by his addresses to the borders of frenzy and hysteria. This was so despite the fact that de Mella was not gifted with impressive posture: mid-height, tending to overweight and lacking a mesmerizing voice, he used to transform when taking the floor. It is recorded that each his address was a great show: body language of eye movement, head movement, gestures and steps combined with master command of verbal communication bestowed upon him "a majesty of a lion". Some scholars consider de Mella one of the greatest speakers of Spanish parliamentarism. However, his harangues were not shows only; many of de Mella's addresses were printed as booklets. It is not clear whether in general he was improvising or rather coming with at least a sketch of the text pre-prepared; as a huge number of his addresses were reconstructed on basis of his private papers, it seems that the latter was the case. Most of the addresses published are in range of some 500–800 words, which would make less than 10 minute speech. Some are up to 1,600 words, requiring attention of a listener for slightly less than half an hour. There are scholars who make veiled references to Hitler and Mussolini, claiming that de Mella represented a new type of charismatic public speaker compared to old-style 19th century leaders. During his lifetime de Mella published mostly short pieces in various periodicals; apart from contributions signed with pen-names, especially in the 1880s, they were mostly editorials and essays to El Correo Español and El Pensamiento Español, though not only. Another category are booklets containing his addresses; probably no more than ten of them went to print. By the very end of his life the harangues delivered in the parliament were published in 2 volumes, titled Discursos Parlamentarios. Finally, shortly before death de Mella managed to complete and publish Filosofía de la Eucaristía, the only major book published in his lifetime and partially also a compilation of earlier writings. A huge number of pieces – press contributions, booklets, addresses and private papers – were published posthumously in the 31-volume Obras Completas series of the 1930s. Taken together they amount to massive opus; however, it is made of small – or at best mid-size writings, many of them circumstantial. As there is no in-depth, extensive and systematic treaty among them, a number of editors attempted sort of a synthesis by selecting pieces they deemed most representative and by combining them in topic-oriented sections; this is how de Mella's thought is usually absorbed. Reception and legacy Since the early 1900s de Mella enjoyed a popular standing nationwide among Conservatives, he grew into an iconic figure among the Spanish Traditionalists, disregarded by the foreign ones. Among Republicans and Liberals he was ridiculed as an apostle of outdated, medieval ideas. When a retiree he featured in the press as a point of reference, many reviews publishing huge all-page photos following the news of his death. Former Mellistas ensured that soon afterwards a commemorating plaque was mounted in Madrid. In the early 1930s most faithful disciples edited a monumental series of de Mella's works. For the progressists he was already a ludicrously prehistoric voice from "ultratumba". In 1946 a Madrid plaza was renamed to Plaza Vázquez de Mella, hosting also his modest monument. An informal Carlist Academia Vázquez de Mella existed in the 1940s, but de Mella enjoyed a revival in the mid-1950s; a new generation of Traditionalist thinkers, mostly Elías de Tejada and Gambra, made his thought a point of departure for their own works and elevated him to the status of an all-time Traditionalist great. In the 1960s the memory of de Mella became an object of competition between two increasingly hostile groupings within Carlism, the Traditionalists and the Progressists. The latter, posing as renovators of Carlism, tried to turn it into a Left-wing party and re-defined de Mella as a pre-socialist writer. Major scholarly and non-partisan works on de Mella started to appear in the 1980s; apart from minor studies, there were 5 published in Spain, the latest one completed in 2016. Currently among scientists of Spanish political thought Vázquez de Mella is usually considered one of the most eminent theorists of Traditionalism of all time; some tend to give him precedence over most others, while some tend to view him as a follower. His Carlist credentials are admitted somewhat hesitantly. Internationally he did not gain recognition; most encyclopedic entries on Traditionalism fail to mention his name, though in specialist studies ranging from America to Eastern Europe he features prominently. In historiography perhaps the most controversial question is de Mella's impact on Francoism. Also, some scholars note that de Mella fuelled anti-semitism and count him among "theorists of extermination". In Spanish popular discourse de Mella is moderately present, usually referred to as a political theorist, at times denounced as co-responsible for reactionary, anti-democratic, shameful past. In 1994 there were calls to restore the plaque in his honor, mounted in 1928 and since then destroyed with the Paseo del Prado 14 house he lived in. In 2016 Plaza Vázquez de Mella was renamed to honor homosexual rights activist and PSOE councillor Pedro Zerolo; in the accompanying debate the insults of "Fascists", "Francoists" and "homophobes" were used to describe de Mella and his supporters. Initiators of the motion claimed they collected 84,000 electronic signatures in support. A number of cities in Spain still maintain street names honoring de Mella. See also Carlism Traditionalism (Spain) Mellismo Navarrese electoral Carlism during the Restoration Electoral Carlism (Restoration) Osvaldo Lira Footnotes Further reading Carlos Abraira López, La idea del derecho en Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Anales de la Academia Matritense del Notariado 13 (1962), pp. 593–627 José Francisco Acedo Castilla, En el LXX aniversario de Mella, [in:] Razón española 88 (1998), pp. 161–176 José Francisco Acedo Castilla, La representación orgánica en el pensamiento tradicionalista, [in:] Razón española 112 (2002), pp. 155–180 Luis Aguirre Prado, Vázquez de Mella, Madrid 1953 Adelita B. Aguílar de Alfaro, Jorge Volio y Juan Vazquez Mella, [in:] Revista de filosofía de la Universidad de Costa Rica 5/18 (1966), pp. 207–213. Jens Albes, Worte wie Waffen. Die deutsche Propaganda in Spanien während des Ersten Weltkriegs, Essen 1996, Fernández Almúzar, El pensamiento filosófico de Juan Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Conferencias, vol. 1, Santiago de Compostela 1945 Francisco Javier Alonso Vázquez, El siglo futuro, El correo español y Vázquez de Mella en sus invectivas a la masonería ante el desastre del 98, [in:] J. A. Ferrer Benimeli (ed.), La masonería española y la crisis colonial del 98, vol. 2, Barcelona, 1999, pp. 503–525 Juan Ramón de Andrés Martín, El caso Feliú y el dominio de Mella en el partido carlista en el período 1909-1912, [in:] Espacio, tiempo y forma 10 (1997), pp. 99–116 Juan Ramón de Andrés Martín, El control mellista del órgano carlista oficial. "El Correo Español" antes de la Gran Guerra, [in:] Aportes 40/2 (1999), pp. 67–78 Juan Ramón de Andrés Martín, El cisma mellista: historia de una ambición política, Madrid 2000, Juan Ramón de Andrés Martín, La germanofilia de Vázquez de Mella hasta la visita de Poincaré en 1913, [in:] Rosa María Pardo Sanz; Javier Tusell Gómez (eds.), La política exterior de España en el siglo XX, Madrid 1997, , pp. 3–16 Juan Ramón de Andrés Martín, Precedentes del proyecto ultraderechista mellista en el periodo 1900-1912, [in:] Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia 202/1 (2005), pp. 119–134 Martín Andreu Valdés-Solís, Don Juan Vázque de Mella y Fanjul, recuerdo en el centenario de su nacimiento, [in:] Boletín del Instituto de Estudios Asturianos 15/42 (1961), pp. 172–178 José B. Arduengo Caso, Juan Vázquez de Mella y Fanjul: pensamiento filosófico, Gijón 1983, Miguel Ayuso Torres, El pensamiento de Vázquez de Mella. Su actualidad sesenta años después, [in:] Verbo 27 (1988), pp. 363–368 Miguel Ayuso Torres, Vázquez de Mella ante el Derecho político actual, [in:] Ius Publicum 6 (2001), pp. 45–49 Jacek Bartyzel, Ani centralizm, ani separatyzm, lecz jedność w wielości Las Españas: tradycjonalistyczna wizja regionalizmu, [in:] Studia Politicae Universitatis Silesiensis 8 (2012), pp. 73–85 Jacek Bartyzel, Synteza doktrynalna: Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Jacek Bartyzel, Umierać ale powoli, Kraków 2002, , pp. 276–285 Jacek Bartyzel, Tradycjonalistyczna wizja regionalizmu Juana Vázqueza de Melli, [in:] Jacek Bartyzel, Nic bez Boga, nic bez tradycji. Kosmowizja polityczna tradycjonalizmu karlistowskiego w Hiszpanii, Radzymin 2015, , pp. 189–201 Juan Beneyto Pérez, Sociedad y política en Juan Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Revista de Estudios Políticos 153-154 (1967), pp. 19–28 José Caamaño Martínez, Günther Krauss, Der traditionalistische Staat bei Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie 41/2 (1954), pp. 247–259 Ruben Calderon Bouchet, Tradición, Revolución y restauración en el pensamiento político de Don Juan Vazquez de Mella, Buenos Aires 1966 Boyd D. Cathey, Juan Vazquez de Mella and the Transformation of Spanish Carlism, 1885-1936, [in:] Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, John Radziłowski (eds.), Spanish Carlism and Polish Nationalism: The Borderlands of Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Charlottesville 2003, , pp. 25–45 José Díaz Nieva, Influencias de Juan Vázquez de Mella sobre Jaime Guzmán, [in:] Verbo 467-468 (2008), pp. 661–670 Agustín Fernández Escudero, El Marqués de Cerralbo (1845-1922): biografía política [PhD thesis Universidad Complutense], Madrid 2012 Agustín Fernández Escudero, El Marqués de Cerralbo: una vida entre el carlismo y la arqueología, Madrid 2015, Miguel Fernández (Peñaflor), Apuntes para una biografía, [in:] Obras completas del excmo. sr. D. Juan Vázquez de Mella y Fanjul, vol. 1, Madrid 1931, pp. XXIX-LV Sergio Fernández Riquelme, Del Antíguo Régimen a la Monarquía tradicional. El legado corporativo de Juan Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Arbil 117 (2009), pp. 49–60 Sergio Fernández Riquelme, El renacimiento tradicionalista: la figura de Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Sergio Fernández Riquelme, Sociología, corporativismo y política social en España [PhD thesis University of Murcia], Murcia 2008, pp. 195–204 Rafael Gambra Ciudad, Mella y las autonomías, [in:] Razón española 108 (2001), pp. 76–78 Rafael Gambra Ciudad, Vázquez de Mella. Estudio preliminar, [in:] Rafael Gambra (ed.), Vázquez de Mella. Textos de doctrina política, Madrid 1953, pp. 4–19 Rafael Gambra Ciudad, La monarquía social y representativa en el pensamiento tradicional, Madrid 1954 Rafael García y García de Castro, Vázquez de Mella. Sus ideas. Su persona, Granada 1940 Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, El pensamiento político de la derecha española en el siglo XX, Madrid 2005, Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Los tradicionalismos. El tradicionalismo como ideologia, [in:] Pedro Carlos González Cuevas (ed.), Historia del pensamiento político español del Renacimiento a nuestros días, Madrid 2016, , pp. 137–158 Osvaldo Lira, Nostalgía de Vázquez de Mella, Buenos Aires 2007, Raimundo de Miguel López, El sociedalismo de don Juan Vázquez de Mella, Sevilla 1979 Raimundo de Miguel López, Relaciones Iglesia-Estado según Vázquez de Mella, Sevilla 1980 Raimundo de Miguel López, El pensamiento social de Don Juan Vázquez de Mella, Sevilla 1980 Raimundo de Miguel López, Vázquez de Mella: el regionalismo nacional, Sevilla 1981 Raimundo de Miguel López, D. Juan Vázquez de Mella y la politica internacional de España, Sevilla 1981 Raimundo de Miguel López, La política tradicionalista para D. Juan Vázquez de Mella, Sevilla 1982 Fernanda Llergo Bay, Juan Vázquez de Mella y Fanjul: la renovación del tradicionalismo español [PhD thesis Universidad de Navarra], Pamplona 2016 María Cruz Mina Apat, La escision carlista de 1919 y la unión de las derechas, [in:] García Delgado (ed.), La crisis de la Restauración, Madrid 1986, , pp. 149–164 Jorge Novella Suárez, El pensamiento reaccionario español, 1812-1975: tradición y contrarrevolución en España, Madrid 2007, Víctor Eduardo Ordoñez, Esbozo de Juan Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Athens 2 (1997) [no pagination, electronic version] José Luis Orella Martínez, Consecuencias de la Gran Guerra Mundial en el abanico político español, [in:] Aportes 84 (2014), pp. 105–134 Manuel Rodríguez Carrajo, Vázquez de Mella: sobre su vida y obra, Madrid 1973 Manuel Rodríguez Carrajo, Vázquez de Mella, sobre su vida y su obra, [in:] Estudios 29 (1973), pp. 525–673 Manuel Rodríguez Carrajo, El pensamiento socio-político de Mella, Madrid 1974 Angel Luis Sánchez Marín, La teoría orgánica de la sociedad en el krausismo y tradicionalismo español, [in:] Eikasia 58 (2014), pp. 349–368 Juan M. Santos, Andrés Hermosa Gacho, The social doctrine in Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Carlismo.es (2006) [no pagination, electronic version] Francisco Sevilla Benito, Sociedad y regionalismo en Vázquez de Mella: la sistematización doctrinal del carlismo, Madrid 2009, Antonio Taboada Roca, D. Juan Vázquez de Mella y Galicia, [in:] Cuadernos de estudios gallegos 18/55 (1963), pp. 235–243 Rodrigo Del Val Martín, La filosofía política de Juan Vázquez de Mella [PhD thesis Universidad Pontificia Comillas], Madrid 1989 José María Valiente, En el centenario de Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Revista de Estudios Políticos 120 (1961), pp. 55–78 External links latest (2016) and downloadable PhD work on de Mella by Fernanda Llergo Bay some de Mella's works available online at carlismo.es service Obras Completas at google.books Por Dios y por España; contemporary Carlist propaganda 20th-century Spanish writers 20th-century male writers Spanish anti-communists Politicians from Asturias Carlists Members of the Congress of Deputies of the Spanish Restoration People from Cangas de Onís Spanish monarchists Spanish Roman Catholics Spanish political writers Spanish conspiracy theorists
4637978	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford%20Bypass	Bradford Bypass	The Bradford Bypass, also known as the Highway 400–404 Link is a proposed east–west 400-series highway in the northern Greater Toronto Area of the Canadian province of Ontario. The approximately route is currently undergoing planning and analysis under an environmental impact assessment (EA) by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) and the Government of Ontario. If approved, a new four-lane controlled-access highway would be built between Highway 400 near Bradford in Simcoe County, and Highway 404 near Queensville in York Region. It would serve as a bypass to the north side of Bradford. The corridor originated in 1978 as an eastern extension of Highway 89 along Ravenshoe Road. This proposal was cancelled in 1986 and collaborative studies were undertaken between the province and affected municipalities over the next several years. A refined proposal for a freeway along a more southerly route, referred to as the Bradford Bypass, was released in 1989, after which an began in 1993. The assessment was completed in 1997 and approved in 2002, after which it was announced that construction would begin by 2006 and be completed by 2010. However, following the 2003 Ontario general election, the Liberal government of Dalton McGuinty shelved several highway proposals — including the Bradford Bypass — to the "beyond 2031" timeframe. After the 2018 Ontario general election, the new Progressive Conservative (PC) government of Doug Ford announced that the would be reviewed and updated. Funding was committed to the project in the 2021 budget, with early works construction scheduled to begin in early 2022. The highway is currently estimated to cost C$800 million. The Bradford Bypass has been criticized for its potential environmental impacts, particularly to the Holland Marsh and surrounding wetlands draining into Lake Simcoe. While the route is endorsed by the municipalities surrounding it and through which it passes, critics note that the is outdated and that the highway would result in induced demand and encourage further reliance on personal vehicle usage. Route description The proposed route of the Bradford Bypass was established in the 1997 , including the location and design of interchanges. If built, the approximately corridor would consist of a four-lane rural freeway situated within a -wide right-of-way. It would feature a grass median, except at the two Holland River crossings, where the median would narrow to with a central concrete barrier. The proposed route of the Bradford Bypass would have it begin in the west at a freeway-to-freeway interchange with Highway400, midway between the 8th Line and 9th Line of Bradford West Gwillimbury. From there the four-lane rural highway would proceed east, crossing the 10th Sideroad and encountering an interchange with the northern section of Yonge Street (formerly Highway11 and presently Simcoe County Road 4) immediately north of the town of Bradford. It would then curve southeast to cross the West Holland River into the municipality of East Gwillimbury in York Region, after which it would encounter an interchange with Bathurst Street and straighten out towards the east. The highway would cross the East Holland River and pass immediately south of the Silver Lakes Golf and Country Club. It would cross the southern section of Yonge Street (thus resulting in an unusual crossing of both offset legs of the street) then cut through farmland, parallel with Queensville Sideroad. At Leslie Street (York Regional Road 12), immediately north of the community of Queensville, a partial interchange would provide westbound access to and eastbound access from the highway. It would end shortly thereafter at a freeway-to-freeway interchange Highway404. The Holland Marsh is a Provincially Significant Wetland, portions of which are also designated as a Life Science Area of Natural and Scientific Interest (ANSI) and the remainder under the Natural Heritage System (NHS) of the Greenbelt. The proposed route of the Bradford Bypass crosses the Holland Marsh between Yonge Street and Bathurst Street, and would require of land within the NHS portion; it will not cross any wetlands. Bridges of approximately 400and 600metres (1300and 2000feet) will cross the two branches of the Holland River. History Highway 89 extension Proposals for a highway corridor south of Lake Simcoe date as far back as the 1960s, but were not formally considered until the late 1970s. On June30, 1978, a extension of Highway89 east of Highway400 to Highway 12 was announced. It was to follow 11th Line from Highway400 east to the Holland Marsh, where it would cross towards the northeast onto the alignment of Ravenshoe Road (York Road32). The extension would have traversed the length of Ravenshoe Road to Lakeridge Road (Durham Road23), where it would zig-zag onto Concession Road7 and end immediately north of Sunderland. In June 1981, environmental approval was given for the project, excluding the portion crossing of the Holland Marsh. The marsh crossing was opposed by the Sierra Club, the Federation of Ontario Naturalists, the Canadian Wildlife Service, and the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR). The , then known as the Ministry of Transportation and Communications (MTC), conducted several studies on the crossing and alternatives to it, which were collectively published in July 1984. However, as a result of public opposition and due to the potential environmental impacts of crossing the marsh, Minister of Transportation Edward Fulton abruptly cancelled the project on April21, 1986. In his speech, Fulton said of the C$30million project: "The environmental impact outweighs the transportation benefits in the particular location." While this was applauded by environmental advocates, it was opposed by several local politicians, as well as the York Region Federation of Agriculture, both of which began to petition the government to reverse the decision. Highway 400 – Highway 404 Link The engaged in several years of consultations with York Region, Simcoe County, and various other project stakeholders. The resulting Highway404/89 Route Location Study, published in 1989, confirmed the need for a "Provincial facility north of Bradford linking Highway400 to the future Highway404 Extension." Highway404 was itself opened as far north as Davis Drive (York Regional Road31) on October24, 1989; the proposed extension largely succeeded the Highway89 extension east of Woodbine Avenue. Separate s for both the Bradford Bypass and the Highway404 extension began in 1993 and 1992, respectively. The for the Bradford Bypass was completed in December 1997, with environmental studies noting that the proposed highway may contaminate groundwater and the Lake Simcoe watershed. The Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation were noted to oppose the route due to archaeological concerns. Both s were approved on August28, 2002. Later that year on October4, Minister of Transportation Norm Sterling announced that design work was progressing, with construction set to begin in 2006, with completion expected by 2010. As an interim measure, several upgrades were made to the roads surrounding Newmarket in the early 2000s. The Newmarket Bypass – consisting of the widening to four lanes of Davis Drive (former Highway9) between Highway400 and Bathurst Street, Bathurst Street between Davis Drive and Green Lane, and Green Lane between Bathurst Street and Leslie Street – was approved by York Region in January 1999; construction began in September 2002. Construction began on a four-lane extension of Highway404 from Davis Drive to Green Lane, and the reconstruction of Green Lane into a four-laned arterial road between Leslie Street and Woodbine Avenue in September 2000. Both were completed and opened to traffic on February8, 2002, at a ceremony attended by for York North Julia Munro and York Region chairman Bill Fisch. The Newmarket Bypass was completed and opened on September1, 2004. Meanwhile, during the 2003 Ontario general election campaign, incumbent PC premier Ernie Eves pledged to build the Bradford Bypass. Liberal leader Dalton McGuinty, who would go on to win the election, promised to tackle gridlock with a transit-oriented approach, pledging only "the removal of highway bottlenecks." The McGuinty government passed the Places to Grow Act in 2005, which set forth consistent urban planning principles across the province for the following 25years. The Growth Plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe was released in June of the following year as a framework for implementing the act, which despite including the Highway404 extension as far as Ravenshoe Road, did not show the Bradford Bypass. Minister of Transportation Donna Cansfield confirmed in May 2007 that no further work was being undertaken on the corridor. The Bradford Bypass was first included in the 2002 Transportation Master Plan for York Region. Simcoe County followed suit in its 2008 Transportation Master Plan. In late 2011, York Region and Simcoe County commenced the York-Simcoe Boundary Area Transportation Needs Study as a basis to advocate for the bypass. Despite this and studies conducted by the , the provincial government did not change its stance in the five-year Growth Plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe in 2012. In 2014, a report into transportation needs in the Lake Simcoe area was positive about the highway, stating that the Bypass would be heavily used and easy to build. However, the report also stated that alternatives such as building high-occupancy vehicle lanes on Highway 400 and improving local roads and interchanges could deliver similar benefits with less environmental impact. Representatives from York Region, Simcoe County, East Gwillimbury, Georgina, Bradford West Gwillimbury, Innisfil, Essa Township and Newmarket together lobbied the provincial government in November 2015 to put the project on its growth plan. The bypass was revived on May18, 2017 when it was included in the five-year Growth Plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe, though without a timeline for construction. Current status On August15, 2019, Minister of Transportation and for York—Simcoe, Caroline Mulroney, announced that planning for the Bradford Bypass would resume after years of being shelved. The is currently in the process of updating the 1997 , with completion expected in 2023. Engineering and design work on the bypass began in the summer of 2020, while environmental studies to update the 1997 commenced in September. The 2021 Ontario Budget, released on March24, 2021, allocated funding towards the highway. Early works construction was tentatively scheduled to begin in the autumn of 2021, but was deferred until early 2022. As of June 2021, the project's estimated cost is C$800 million. On February3, 2021, Jonathan Wilkinson, the federal Minister of Environment and Climate Change, announced that he'd received a request for the project to undergo an at the federal level, following a formal request from Environmental Defence. On May3, 2021, Wilkinson announced that a federal would not take place for the Bradford Bypass, while the GTA West project would undergo this process. In February 2022, the federal government reiterated that the project would not undergo a federal , despite requests from environmental groups. In April and May 2021, a virtual public consultation regarding design alternatives for refinements to the route identified in the 2002 took place. Proposed changes included realigning the Holland River crossing to the south to reduce the impact on the river, new designs for interchanges to meet contemporary standards, and other minor realignments and changes. Following analysis of this consultation, a subsequent public consultation in the autumn of 2022 will present the preferred design for the route. The finalised design of the route and is currently anticipated to be completed in early 2023. In October 2021, a Toronto Star investigation into the Bypass found that the proposed modification to the route would remove it from a golf course jointly owned by the father of MPP Stan Cho, associate minister of transportation. Cho responded that the conflict of interest had been declared, and that he did not take part in any work connected to the Bypass. In February 2022, the Integrity Commissioner of Ontario found there was no evidence of wrongdoing by Minister Mulroney or Associate Minister Cho regarding the rerouting of the Bypass. A Freedom of information request demonstrated that the province had undertaken a business case on the potential of the Bypass being a toll road similar to Highway 407, to potentially reduce the cost of building the highway. However, the office of Minister Mulroney stated that "it is not our intention to toll this highway". Funding was committed to the project as part of the fall economic statement on November1, 2021. In November 2022, construction on the project began with work on the Yonge Street interchange Perspectives Construction of the highway is supported by the provincial government, the upper-tier governments of York Region and Simcoe County, and the local municipalities of Bradford West Gwillimbury, East Gwillimbury, Georgina, Innisfil, King and Newmarket. It is also supported by the Holland Marsh Growers Association and local businesses. , Liberal and candidates for the riding of York—Simcoe all publicly supported the highway during the 2018 provincial election campaign, with Liberal leader Steven Del Duca stating in 2021 that support from locals means that the highway proposal is worth consideration. A 2016 survey commissioned by the Town of Bradford West Gwillimbury showed that 85% of residents support construction of the Bradford Bypass, with stronger support among those familiar with the proposal. Claimed benefits of the bypass would include removing through traffic from nearby rural roads and urban areas, reduced congestion, improved air quality, and the potential revitalisation of downtown Bradford. Environmental groups including Environmental Defence Canada, the Rescue Lake Simcoe Coalition and Simcoe County Greenbelt Coalition oppose the highway, criticising the impact it would have on the environment. In addition to increasing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, opponents claim the highway would disrupt woodlands, provincially significant wetlands, the Lake Simcoe watershed, wildlife habitats and species at risk. The highway has also historically been criticised for its potential impact on the Holland Marsh and the Holland River. According to the 1997 , it would cause severe water quality impacts in the Lake Simcoe watershed, with further studies required if the project was proceeded with. The groups contend that there was "no climate change impact assessment required, no study of the impact on migratory birds or fish habitat, and no... archeological study" conducted as part of the . They have also criticised the 32year timeframe since the need for and alternatives to the project were last assessed, the changes in circumstances since then, the potential for urban sprawl along the highway, and a claim that the bypass would save drivers only "60 to 80seconds" of journey time. Archaeologists, historians, and Indigenous groups are also concerned about the threat the bypass would pose to the Lower Landing, a nationally significant historic site thought to be located along the proposed route. The Lower Landing was a key meeting place on the route connecting Lake Ontario to Lake Huron, and had been used for centuries by Indigenous peoples, explorers, fur traders, settlers, and soldiers travelling between the lower and upper Great Lakes prior to the mid-1800s. Indigenous groups and heritage advocates are concerned that construction of the proposed bypass would irreversibly destroy the site before it can be properly investigated. Local municipalities and the provincial government have pushed back on environmental concerns, noting that the will be updated to take into account existing and new federal & provincial legislation and standards. The , meanwhile, contends that the route would result in "10 to 35 minutes of travel time saved each way." Exit list The following table lists the proposed locations for interchanges along the Bradford Bypass contained within the MTO review. Notes References External links Official project website Government of Ontario page on the Highway 400 – Highway 404 Extension Link (Bradford Bypass) Information about the proposal from the Town of East Gwillimbury Roads in Simcoe County Roads in the Regional Municipality of York Proposed roads in Canada
4638069	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragile%20state	Fragile state	A fragile state or weak state is a country characterized by weak state capacity or weak state legitimacy leaving citizens vulnerable to a range of shocks. The World Bank, for example, deems a country to be ‘fragile’ if it (a) is eligible for assistance (i.e., a grant) from the International Development Association (IDA), (b) has had a UN peacekeeping mission in the last three years, and (c) has received a ‘governance’ score of less than 3.2 (as per the Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) index of The World Bank). A more cohesive definition of the fragile state might also note a state's growing inability to maintain a monopoly on force in its declared territory. While a fragile state might still occasionally exercise military authority or sovereignty over its declared territory, its claim grows weaker as the logistical mechanisms through which it exercises power grow weaker. While many countries are making progress toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, a group of 35 to 50 countries (depending on the measure used) are falling behind. It is estimated that out of the world's seven billion people, 26% live in fragile states, and this is where one-third of all people surviving on less than US$1.25 per day live, half of the world's children who die before the age of five, and one-third of maternal deaths occur. Not only are they falling behind, but the gap with other developing countries is widening since the 1970s. In 2006, per capita GDP grew only at 2% in fragile states, whereas it reached 6% in other low-income countries. Fragile states are projected (for example, World Bank, 2008) to constitute an even larger share of low-income countries in the future given that many better performing low-income countries graduate to a middle-income status. This is a major challenge for development efforts and it has been argued by the Overseas Development Institute that fragile states require fundamentally different approaches from the development models exercised in more resilient countries, because of the differences in their risk contexts. One common measure of state fragility is the World Bank's Country Policy and Institutional Assessment index, but more complex indexes, for example ones that include security dimensions, are increasingly being used. A fragile state in the brink of collapse may result in a failed state. Definition Fragile states are also known as weak states. Fragile states fail to fully meet key needs of their citizens. The shortcomings are termed gaps, with three core gaps: security gap, capacity gap, and legitimacy gap. The security gap means the state does not provide adequate protection to its citizens; the capacity gap means the state does not fully provide adequate services; and the legitimacy gap means that the authority of the state is not fully accepted. This differs from a failed state, whose governments totally lack legitimacy. Weak states may be difficult to define, as the states fail to collect thorough statistics on crime and education. In terms of dynamics, fragile states include: Conflict/post-conflict/crisis/war or political transition situations. Deteriorating governance environments. Situations of gradual improvement. Situations of prolonged political or economic crisis or impasse. A fragile state is significantly susceptible to crisis in one or more of its sub-systems. It is a state that is particularly vulnerable to internal and external shocks and domestic and international conflicts. Fragile states are not only evaluated by degree of fragility but also types of state fragility and threat they pose in to help policymakers to appropriate responses. In a fragile state, institutional arrangements embody and perhaps preserve the conditions of crisis: in economic terms, this could be institutions (importantly, property rights) that reinforce stagnation or low growth rates, or embody extreme inequality (in wealth, in access to property and land ownership, in access to the means to make a living); in social terms institutions may embody extreme inequality or lack of access altogether to health or education; in political terms, institutions may entrench exclusionary coalitions in power (in ethnic, religious, or perhaps regional terms), or extreme factionalism or significantly fragmented security organisations. In fragile states, statutory institutional arrangements are vulnerable to challenges by rival institutional systems be they derived from traditional authorities, devised by communities under conditions of stress that see little of the state (in terms of security, development or welfare), or be they derived from warlords, or other non-state power brokers. Fragile states might also offer citizens multiple, overlapping institutions from highly variant power sources that are competing for legitimacy. While, as opposed to a weak state, these different institutions might not be in direct conflict, they do offer strong competing narratives that hamper the progress of good governance. The opposite of a "fragile state" is a "stable state" one where dominant or statutory institutional arrangements appear able to withstand internal and external shocks and contestation remains within the boundaries of reigning institutional arrangements. With the right conditions, some countries such as Mozambique and Burundi have so far demonstrated a remarkable turn-around. To address the challenge of these countries falling behind, the international spotlight must be kept on countries where the Millennium Development Goals are hardest to achieve, using common principles for action; making the international aid architecture more rational; improving the organisational response of the wide range of actors involved (including "the 3Ds": diplomacy, defense and development); and measuring results. While there are no universal criteria to determine state fragility, the World Bank, through its LICUS programme (Low Income Countries Under Stress) and its Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) Index, has been able to establish a preeminent frame of reference for donor countries and other institutional partners. Based on four clusters (including economic management, structural policies, policies for social inclusion/equity and Public Sector Management and institutions) as well as 16 indicators, the CPIA index rates state performance, with those countries scoring under 3.2 out of a total of 6 qualifying as "fragile". Such low performing countries may then be, in turn, suitable for the allocation of financial assistance from a variety of international actors such as the International Development Association and other, similar bodies. Origins of the term and discussion Fragile state is an analytical category that gained prominence from the mid 1990s onwards and gained further traction after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Background is the belief held by many policy-makers and academics alike that the potential for contemporary conflict is harboured within, not between, states. Low capacity and low-income states of the Global South are thought to pose direct threats not only to their own populations, but by extension also to their neighboring Western countries. Following this logic, fragile states are in need of development in order to be able to provide security and basic services to its citizens, decreasing vulnerability and increasing resilience to internal and external shocks. In this way, fragile states exhibit a series of similar threats as failed states, but at a markedly lower magnitude. Their failures are an effective omen of what is to come if their administrative course remains unaltered. Followed by many donor countries and international organisations and institutions, this approach has led to debate within academia and beyond. Some scholars deem the categorisation of states as fragile as useful, highlighting the potential to predict state collapse and assess the many possibilities to prevent it. Two main criticisms of this notion exist: I) the potential of abuse of the category of state fragility, legitimising external intervention at the expense of the local agency; II) the analytical utility of the categorization effort itself is disputed, with the state-centric grouping together of a wide range of diverse countries leading to highly standardised development responses that cannot take into account often highly divergent political, economic and social conditions. Indicators The following factors are used by Fund For Peace to ascertain the status of a country. Social Mounting demographic pressures and tribal, ethnic and/or religious conflicts. Massive internal and external displacement of refugees, creating severe humanitarian emergencies. Widespread vengeance-seeking group grievances. Chronic and sustained human flight. Economic Widespread corruption High economic inequality Uneven economic development along group lines. Severe economic decline. Political Delegitimization of the state. Deterioration of public services. Suspension or arbitrary application of law; widespread human rights abuses. Security forces operating as a "state within a state" often with impunity. Rise of factionalized elites. Intervention of external political agents and foreign states. Intergovernmental organisations Fragile states and post-conflict countries have participated in many intergovernmental groups and associations since the Second World War, including the Group of 77 and regional groups such as ASEAN and the African Union. However until recently countries affected by conflict had no dedicated international platform. In 2010 the g7+ was founded by a group of post-conflict countries to better represent their interests on the international stage. The g7+ is an intergovernmental organisation bringing together countries that have recent experience of conflict. The group aims to draw attention to the special challenges faced by fragile states, provides a platform for conflict-affected countries to come together to discuss their shared development challenges, and advocates for better international policies to address the needs of conflict-affected countries. The g7+ has created own index for measuring state fragility, identifying five clusters (political legitimacy, justice, security, economic foundation, revenue and services), which are located on a fragility spectrum consisting of five stages. Main differences with other indices are constituted by privileged role of individual, state-specific characteristics and self- rather than external assessment. It is important to remember, however, that concepts such as a "State Fragility Index" are affirmatively placed in a philosophical tradition that places a strong emphasis on the inherent "goodness" of state formation. Therefore, it should be viewed NOT as a strictly value-neutral metric, but simply as an administrative one. Origins American international studies professor Joel Migdal looked into the relationship between state and society, where there is a disparity between the officially announced policies and the actual distribution of state resources. The list of countries included India, Mexico, Egypt and Sierra Leone etc. He traced this disparity to the lack of social control by the government - “the actual ability to make the operative rules of the game for people in the society." This not only includes existence of government agencies over the territory and extraction of resources but also the ability to appropriate resources and to regulate people's behavior. Migdal stated the expansion of European economy and world trade in the 19th century led to drastic changes in people's strategies of survival in countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. State policies enforced by Europeans, including land tenure laws, taxation and new modes of transportation, changed people's life situation and needs in these countries rapidly and deeply. Old rewards, sanctions and symbols became irrelevant under the new situation and previous social control and institutions were eroded. However, unlike western Europe in the earlier centuries, these countries did not establish a new concentration of social control as the base of a strong and capable state. This is because although these countries had the necessary condition for creating a strong state - old social control weakened by the world trade before World War I - they did not have the sufficient conditions: 1) world historical timing that encourages concentrated social control; 2) military threat either from outside or within the country; 3) the basis for an independent bureaucracy; 4) skillful top leadership that would take advantage of all the above conditions. Basic services provision There is a relationship between state fragility and service delivery and they are both seen as interrelated and mutually reinforcing, yet some also suggest that the provision of basic services can reduce state fragility. In fragile states service delivery may be impacted by financial constraints, limited expertise and a lack of information Long and protracted violence leads to the neglect and subsequent decay of the infrastructure required for provision. Governance and the breakdown of social order can also heighten the social exclusion of specific groups along ethnic, religious, political and gender lines. Such violence can be political, including conflict and terrorism, but can also be social or criminal, leading to a broad combination of security-based obstacles to effective service provision. Education, health, access to water and adequate sanitation are important not only for survival, but are also recognised human rights whose provision is demonstrated to be necessary for a transition away from conflict. States can develop trust and legitimacy over the long term through the provision of these basic services (known as the "peace dividend"). Education, for instance, can protect children and non-combatants during conflict, facilitate intergenerational change and lead to the socialisation of children and youth, be a catalyst for broader transformation, as well as provide a sense of normalcy and continuity. Furthermore, the delivery of some of these services can be seen as more neutral, such as immunisation, and can lead to conflicting groups uniting on specific issues and further result in increased legitimacy. However, how support is given to fragile states to provide these services is not so simple. Aid agencies who act independently of the state and provide parallel services risk undermining state legitimacy and capacity. On the other hand, supporting the state's own provision can be problematic as the state itself may be the cause of social divisions and a source of conflict. Limited evidence of varying quality on basic services and social protection in conflicted affected situations has been found. Research into the gaps in provision, delivery and access of basic services has queried whether social protection interventions have contributed to state-building processes. It highlighted that this assumption has already significantly begun shaping policy and programmes and that state-building outcomes in policy may outweigh other outcomes like better water, healthcare and education. State building and peacebuilding Whether or not to provide services in parallel is often framed as a debate between state building and peacebuilding. State building is argued to lead to peace when it involves seeking to develop an inclusive state, where legitimacy is built as the result of the state responding to the demands of all of society and providing public goods and services. However, supporting the state in this direction is not a simple task, especially for the following reasons: State-building may not automatically lead to peace as it is an inherently political process and will not automatically be inclusive or democratic. Political settlements that seek to appease those that threaten peace can strengthen the rule of repressive rulers. Political settlements that create power sharing agreements can weaken the state and lead to further entrenching divides. Focussing on state institutions may lead to overlooking domestic non-state actors, including traditional local leaders, and prevent the long term of a civil society. Equally, peacebuilding efforts that do not include the state can undermine its ability to function. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute emphasise the need for NGOs and other development actors to deepen knowledge of the context and maintain a constant awareness of the relationship between state- and peace-building. If NGOS and international organizations refuse to place additional authority on local state institutions, they risk creating an environment in which the perceived role of the state is less than what it ought to be as populations refuse to give newly constructed institutions necessary adherence. Case study: Sierra Leone The correct balance of state-building and peacebuilding has been argued to be highly elusive, even when peacebuilding and security have been achieved through the development of the state's own capacity. The UK government supported reforms in Sierra Leone along the principle of "security first" over the last decade, which is believed to have improved security, increased access to and the quality of justice, decreased corruption and positively reformed public service. Since the end of the civil war in 2002, there has been no major violence, peaceful elections were held in 2007 and there has been enough stability to help build sustainable institutions. Yet Sierra Leone suffers severe underdevelopment and ranked third to last on the UN Human Development Index for 2010. This in turn has created frustration and disappointment amongst the younger generation and poses a significant risk of a return to violence. International intervention or autonomous recovery Debates have been among scholars if post-conflict reconstruction intervention is the best strategy for state-building in fragile states. It is widely believed that multilateral intervention can interrupt the conflict trap of fragile states and set countries on a path toward postwar economic and political development. Responding to the failure of governance in fragile states, scholars have proposed new models of intervention, including neo-trusteeship and shared sovereignty. Supporters of International intervention encourage interventions led by the major powers or regional actors with the greatest national security or economic interest in restoring stability and democracy to the fragile state. They support developing agreements that authorize international intervention whereby the costs of third-party peacekeeping and state-building would increasingly be borne by the state being reconstructed. Another kind of opinion has been the autonomous recovery - fragile states can recover from a conflict in the absence of intervention and may be able to develop effective institutions of government out of warfare. Supporters of autonomous recovery argue that international assistance and external support undermines the self-sustaining nature of the compact between rulers and constituents. Examples of Uganda, Eritrea, and Somalia support the theory of autonomous recovery, where these weak states successfully achieved a lasting peace, a systematic reduction in violence, and post-war political and economic development in the absence of international intervention. Promoting democracy According to Samuel Huntington, “The most important political distinction among countries concerns, not their form of government but their degree of government.” The purpose of democratization and institutional development in fragile states is to help them improve both state capacity and development of inclusive institutions. Knutsen and Nygard (2015) emphasize that semi-democracies (fragile states in our discussion) are less stable than both autocracies and democracies. In other words, once the process of democratization begins, it is dangerous to stop midway. The purpose of democratization itself though is of concern before thinking about the means to achieve it. Ake (2000) says that democracy has mostly been analyzed in the context of its propensity to foster economic development. But in the context of its feasibility in Africa, the utility of democracy as measured by the “values, concerns and priorities of African peoples”, will determine to a considerable extent how far they will accept democracy. In general, the process of democratization is strongly mediated by normative values of the population of concern. In order to design interventions aimed at promoting inclusive institutions when the status quo witnesses prevalently weak state structures, tractability of theoretically analyzing regime transitions is critical. But according to Geddes (1999), this is because different kinds of authoritarianism differ from each other as much they differ from democracy. To facilitate the analysis of these differences, she classifies authoritarian regimes as 'personalist', military, single-party, or amalgams of the pure types. It is important to note that all of them can be conceptualized from the perspective of “Limited Access Order” societies (North 1999). According to Larry Diamond, in many of the fragile states promoting democracy is difficult simply because they lack the classic facilitating conditions for democracy—more developed levels of per capita income, civil society, independent mass media, political parties, mass democratic attitudes and values, and so on—but because they lack as well the more basic conditions of a viable political order. In these states, the challenge is not only (or in some cases, even at all) to pressure authoritarian state leaders to surrender power but rather to figure out how to regenerate legitimate power in the first place. The imperative is not only to empower citizens and their independent organizations but to endow state institutions as well with resources, training, organization, and a sense of a common mission. One point of caution is that progress in democratization in fragile states are vulnerable. According to Samuels (2013), history has witnessed regime changes from democracy to autocracy during the periods of 1925-1945 [e.g. Germany (1933) ] and 1960-1974 [e.g. Brazil (1964), Chile (1973)]. What he identifies as domestic causes of regime change are also the factors to be mitigated through institutional design. Some of these factors are civic culture, class conflicts arising from the unequal distribution of economic gains and military identity. Some of the international causes are the foreign policy of superpowers, the degree of participation in multilateral institutions, the extent of globalization and supranational impact of religious institutions on domestic political institutions. Non-state actors Individuals in fragile states often rely on non-state actors such as chiefs, tribal elders, secret societies, gangs, militias, insurgents, community or religious leaders to meet their justice and security needs. Lisa Denney, of the Overseas Development Institute, therefore stresses the need for development donors to engage with these non-state actors when attempting to reform justice and security services in fragile states. She suggests four rules of engagement: Accept that non-state actors are risky, but no more than many state partners Be fit for purpose – non-state support needs different skills and procedures Understand context Only engage when it adds value Non-state actors in a fragile state often compete for authority and legitimacy with both established federal institutions and other ambitious non-state actors. Private sector development Researchers found little evidence in literature on the impact of private sector development on state society relations and whether PSD and state relations meet public expectations. They thought one reason could be the lack of empirical data gathered from interviews and public surveys on the ground. The interlinkage of PSD on state society relations therefore definitely remain an area for further exploration and should receive greater attention in academic circles and among practitioners in respective publications. Key findings include: Legal reform requirements in fragile states' legal frameworks to boost Private sector Development are underestimated and deserve greater attention in development assistance. However, law-making is a long-term process and shouldn't violate tenets of representation and legitimacy. Although connections between economic growth and infrastructure are well established in literature, infrastructure project impact assessments that look beyond the first few years after a project are rare. Apart from the success in Cambodia the importance of instituting a solid labour rights regime in fragile states needs to be further explored. It's a balancing act to create labour rights and protect workers while maintaining flexibility to bring efficient levels of employment to foster PSD and for business. Microfinance isn't a one-stop solution to poverty reduction and depends on the fragile state in question. CSR interventions can potentially do more harm than good and should not substitute government services or any other forms of development assistance. Lack of access to capital to launch business and a dearth of local financial institutions like reliable central banks remain a major constraints to PSD especially in sub-Saharan African fragile states. The literature reveals a mixed picture of the effects of FDI on conflict and stability as success relies on context and environment. Relationships with other factors Economic performance A 2012 study by EPS-PEAKS investigated the relationship between state fragility, conflict and economic performance. It describes a large degree of variation among countries' experiences of conflict and foreign direct investment (FDI), with conflict accompanied by high levels of FDI in some countries and low levels of FDI in others. The study suggests that the majority of FDI in fragile states is driven by the motives of resource-seeking multinationals. While this investment can lead to economic growth, this potential is often not realised, and receiving investment solely for resource extraction can lead to further conflict: a phenomenon known as the resource curse. If a state cannot tax reasonably or spend responsibly a key element of statehood is missing, claim researchers at the Overseas Development Institute and World Bank. They explain that substantial progress can be made in public financial management in fragile states, with most progress made on budget execution, though critical gaps remain in knowledge of the relationship between PFM, statehood and development progress. An important economic component for failed states is reintegrating ex-fighters into society and the economy. Blattman and Annan conducted a study on how employment reduced risk of returning to violence for high-risk men after the Second Liberian Civil War. The study was on a program that provided agricultural training and capital inputs to the ex-fighters who still own rubber plantations or participated in illicit mining for precious minerals or logging. They found that the men responded well to agricultural training, reduced their illicit extraction of materials by roughly 20%, and about a quarter were less likely to be willing to fight in the election crisis in Côte d'Ivoire. However, the illicit activity did not stop completely. They also found that a promise of future returns was crucial in deterring men from fighting. Climate change A 2015 study, commissioned by the G7 member states, identifies seven climate-fragility risks that pose threats to the stability of states and societies in the decades ahead. The report finds that in fragile regions, where inequality persists and the government is unable to respond to stresses, the impacts of climate change on water, food and land will multiply existing pressures. It suggests that dynamics of state fragility, social and political fragility, may be exacerbated by climate change impacts and that the consequence of this is reduced adaptation capacity. A downward spiral of fragility or 'vicious climate-fragility cycle' begins. The report also describes how one can measure the capacity of states and societies to meet the challenges of environmental change along a 'spectrum of fragility', from 'most fragile' to 'most resilient'. In fragile situations, where the government lacks ability to carry out basic functions, the state is more vulnerable to and less able to cope with climate change pressures such as natural resource scarcity, land use change, extreme weather events or volatile food prices, and hence more at risk from further instability. Impacts Weak states have been hypothesized to contribute to terrorist activity. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes was the first to make the connection between the strength of a state and violence. He opined that a strong state with a monopoly on force was the only way to avoid a war of "all against all". After the September 11 attacks, US President George W. Bush said that it "taught us that weak states, like Afghanistan, can pose as great a danger to our national interests as strong states. Poverty does not make poor people into terrorists and murderers. Yet poverty, weak institutions, and corruption can make weak states vulnerable to terrorist networks and drug cartels within their borders". The link between weak states and terrorism has been disputed. In 2003, historian Walter Laqueur noted that a majority of poor, weak states had almost no terrorist activity. Weak states may also be more vulnerable to public health crises such as infectious disease, which can have spillover effects on other countries. See also Crisis States Research Centre Failed state Fragile States Index G7+ Ochlocracy Rogue state Stabilization of fragile states References Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development "Policy Commitment and Principles for Good International Engagement in Fragile States and Situations" (2007) Department for International Development (DFID) paper on Fragile States External links For more information on options to guide better policies for better lives in fragile contexts from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) For more information on the World Bank's engagement in fragile and conflict-affected states For more information on the Asian Development Bank's engagement in fragile and conflict-affected situations For more information on the European Union's engagement in situations of fragility For more information on fragile states from Crisis States Research Centre's website For links to some of the most recent donor, practitioner and academic literature on fragile states, see the Governance and Social Development Resource Centre's topic guide on fragile states For more information on the unique problems of these countries, see the book Fixing Fragile States: A New Paradigm for Development For more information on aid and public finances in fragile states, ODI's Budget Strengthening Initiative's website War, Conflict and Fragile States in Asia and the Pacific International relations Political neologisms Types of countries
4638190	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%20enlargement%20of%20the%20European%20Union	2013 enlargement of the European Union	The most recent enlargement of the European Union saw Croatia become the European Union's 28th member state on 1 July 2013. The country applied for EU membership in 2003, and the European Commission recommended making it an official candidate in early 2004. Candidate country status was granted to Croatia by the European Council in mid-2004. The entry negotiations, while originally set for March 2005, began in October that year together with the screening process. The accession process of Croatia was complicated by the insistence of Slovenia, an EU member state, that the two countries' border issues be dealt with prior to Croatia's accession to the EU. Croatian public opinion was generally supportive of the EU accession process, despite occasional spikes in euroscepticism. Croatia finished accession negotiations on 30 June 2011, and on 9 December 2011, signed the Treaty of Accession. A referendum on EU accession was held in Croatia on 22 January 2012, with 66% of participants voting in favour of joining the Union. The ratification process was concluded on 21 June 2013, and entry into force and accession of Croatia to the EU took place on 1 July 2013. The EU was thus at its largest territorial extent from 2013 until 2020, when the United Kingdom left the union. Accession requirements Judicial reform and human rights Accession requirements included: judicial reform to strengthen the independence, accountability, impartiality, professionalism and efficiency of the judiciary; a crackdown on corruption and organised crime (this resulted in the conviction of former Prime Minister Ivo Sanader for taking bribes); strengthen the protection of minorities; settle outstanding refugee return issues; improve the protection of human rights. Co-operation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia Croatia had to extradite several of its citizens to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), a United Nations body, an issue that was often contentious in domestic politics. Croatia's relations with the ICTY had continually been cited by the EU officials as something that required further improvement. Ratification of the EU Stabilisation and Association Agreement with Croatia had been stalled because of this. The European Council, after its summit of 20 December 2004, set the following 17 March as the date to start entry negotiations, provided that Croatia continued to co-operate fully with the ICTY. On 16 March 2005, the day before talks were to begin, the EU postponed the commencement of negotiations, because the ICTY prosecution assessed the Croatian efforts to capture the fugitive general Ante Gotovina (indicted by the ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, but at large since 2001) as neither timely nor sufficient. On 7 December 2005, the Spanish police finally arrested Ante Gotovina with the help of the Croatian government on the Spanish island of Tenerife, located in the Canary Islands. He was brought to The Hague to be tried for war crimes. With the arrest of Ante Gotovina this issue was resolved, and entry negotiations began anew, after the certification of ICTY chief prosecutor Carla Del Ponte that Croatia now fully cooperated with the ICTY. In April 2011, Croatian generals Gotovina and Markač were given extended prison sentences at the ICTY, which was widely perceived as unjust in the Croatian public. This caused a marked increase in opposition to the accession because, in the past, some countries like the Netherlands, conditioned their support for the Croatia's accession process with the continued Croatian co-operation with the ICTY. On 16 November 2012, the ICTY Appeals Chamber acquitted generals Gotovina and Markač and ordered their immediate release. Border disagreements Croatia has had long-standing border issues with Slovenia, especially over the Piran Bay boundary. Between December 2008 and September–October 2009, Slovenia blocked Croatia's EU accession over these border issues. On 6 June 2010, Slovenia voted to accept the ruling of United Nations arbitrators on the dispute, removing this obstacle. Croatia has border disputes with Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro, but these countries are not European Union members and cannot directly block the accession process. In December 2008, Croatia and Montenegro agreed that the outstanding sea border issue between the two countries should be settled before an international court whose decision would be accepted in advance by the parliaments of the two countries. Land ownership Free acquisition of real estate by foreigners is a sensitive issue in Croatia. This matter particularly concerns Italians, especially in Istria. While it has some ties with Italy, the events surrounding World War II, when Istria changed hands between the Kingdom of Italy and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, remain pertinent. Numerous Italian politicians expressed their discontent concerning the inability of Italians to purchase land in Croatia, considering it discriminatory treatment and stating that the issue should be resolved as soon as possible. Croatia subsequently denied any discrimination, and said that Croatian legislation provided for the same treatment of all EU citizens concerning land ownership. In mid-2006, Croatia and Italy came to an agreement allowing Italian citizens to purchase land in Croatia and Croatian citizens to purchase land in Italy. Other EU members had to resolve similar issues before their accession to the EU. Examples of this include Slovenia, Slovakia, Poland, and especially Malta. Shipyard privatisation Croatia was required to stop subsidising its shipbuilding industry, resulting in privatisations, closures and reduced production capacity. Following the events of the 1990s (dissolution of Yugoslavia and Croatian independence) and cheaper shipbuilding emerging on the Asian markets, Croatia's shipbuilding industry was not profitable with massive losses, resulting in government subsidies over the twenty years until privatisation talllying €3.75 billion. Negotiation progress Croatia applied for EU membership in 2003, and the European Commission recommended making it an official candidate in early 2004. Candidate country status was granted to Croatia by the European Council (the EU's heads of state and/or government) in mid-2004, but the date for the beginning of entry negotiations, while originally set for March 2005, was put off. In early March 2005, Croatia was formally warned by the EU that its failure to arrest the war crimes suspect Ante Gotovina would jeopardise the country's chances of starting the accession talks, in spite of Croatia insisting it was doing everything it could to find and arrest the fugitive and claiming that Gotovina was no longer in Croatia. In fact, the talks started in October 2005, shortly before Gotovina's arrest in Spain, which occurred in early December that year and was hailed by the EU as an important turning point for the whole region, as it turned "the page from the nationalist past to a European future". Before the start of negotiations with Croatia, the acquis was divided into 35 chapters, 4 more than the usual 31; the new chapters, previously part of the agricultural policy, are areas expected to be troublesome, as they were with the other applicants. Following the opening of accession negotiations on 3 October 2005, the process of screening 35 acquis chapters with Croatia was completed on 18 October 2006. Between December 2008 and October 2009, Slovenia blocked negotiations in 13 acquis chapters because of a border dispute with Croatia. In September 2009 it was announced that Slovenia would remove restraints on Croatia's negotiations with the EU without prejudice to the international mediation on the border dispute. Timeline Date of accession Originally Croatia had been aiming for a 2007 accession date, which would have broken Slovakia's record of 2.5 years of negotiations to complete the process. However, negotiations turned out to be tougher than expected. On 5 November 2008, the European Commission's annual progress report on Croatia's candidacy was published. Olli Rehn stated that the country should aim to complete accession negotiations by the end of 2009, with membership following by 2011 at the latest. In 2009 it was also reported that Iceland may be fast-tracked into the European Union, and Rehn said that "the EU prefers two countries joining at the same time rather than individually. If Iceland applies shortly and the negotiations are rapid, Croatia and Iceland could join the EU in parallel". The last non-acquis hurdle to membership, the maritime border dispute with Slovenia, was overcome in November 2009. Croatia ultimately finished its accession negotiations on 30 June 2011, and signed the Treaty of Accession 2011 in Brussels on 9 December 2011; followed by approval of it by a national referendum on 22 January 2012 and completing their ratification process on 4 April 2012. Entry into force and accession of Croatia to the EU took place on 1 July 2013, as all 27 EU members and Croatia have ratified the treaty before this date. The accession took place at a time of economic difficulty with Croatia in a fifth year of recession with 21% unemployment, and amid the European sovereign-debt crisis. As Croatia joined the EU, it exited the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). Areas of participation after EU accession Croatia became a member on 1 July 2013, but some areas of cooperation in the European Union were scheduled to apply to Croatia at a later date. These were: Passports of the European Union (the Croatian passport still does not follow the EU common passport design with burgundy coloured covers) Enlargement of the European Economic Area is a separate process. Since April 2014, Croatia's EEA agreement is being provisionally applied pending ratification by Croatia, all EEA states, and the European Union. Croatia has adopted the euro as its national currency in 2023. The Croatian Parliament passed legislation enacting a national framework for transitioning to the euro on 13 May 2022. Starting in September 2022 prices started to be displayed in both euro and kuna; euros became legal tender for all transactions on 1 January 2023; kuna remained in concurrent circulation until 14 January 2023. The country joined the Schengen area in 2023. On 1 January 2023, Croatia removed land borders with Slovenia and Hungary. Free movement of persons and visa policy Pre-accession entry arrangements for Croatian nationals travelling to EU member states Before accession to the European Union, Croatia was categorised as an Annex II country, which meant that Croatian citizens could stay in the Schengen Area without a visa for up to 90 days in a 180-day period. Croatian citizens were also able to stay without a visa in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Ireland and Romania for up to 90 days in each country, as well as in the United Kingdom for up to 6 months. The general rule was that non-EU citizens had to use a passport to enter EU member states. However, there was an exception to the Schengen Agreement rules for Croatian citizens. Based on the pre-Schengen bilateral agreements between Croatia and neighbouring EU countries (Italy, Hungary and Slovenia), Croatian citizens were allowed to cross the border with only a Croatian national identity card (a passport was not obligatory). Many people living near the border crossed it several times a day (some work across the border, or own land on the other side of the border), especially on the border with Slovenia, which was unmarked for centuries as Croatia and Slovenia were both part of the Habsburg Empire (1527–1918) and Yugoslavia (1918–1991). Prior to Croatia's accession to the EU on 1 July 2013, an interim solution, which received permission from the European Commission, was found: every Croatian citizen was allowed to cross the Schengen border into Hungary, Italy or Slovenia with an ID card and a special border card that was issued by Croatian police at border exit control. The police authorities of Hungary, Italy or Slovenia would then stamp the special border card both on entry and exit. Croatian citizens, however, were not allowed to enter any other Schengen Agreement countries without a valid passport, although they were allowed to travel between Hungary, Italy and Slovenia. These arrangements were discontinued on 1 July 2013 when Croatia became an EU member state. Since then, Croatian citizens have been able to enter any EU member state using only an ID card. Post-accession access to free movement in other EU member states On 1 July 2013, Croatian nationals became European Union citizens and acquired the right to move and reside freely in other EU member states, as well as in Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland. On the same day, 14 EU member states (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Sweden) allowed Croatian nationals to work without restrictions in their country. However, 13 other EU member states imposed transitional restrictions on Croatian nationals wishing to access their labour markets. Annex V of the Treaty concerning the accession of the Republic of Croatia to the European Union allows member states to apply national measures regulating Croatian nationals’ access to their labour markets for a period of up to five years, and in case of serious disturbance to their labour markets or the threat thereof, and after notifying the commission, for a further two years (i.e. up to a maximum of seven years in total). Croatian nationals who on 1 July 2013 had already resided in an EU member state for a continuous period of at least 5 years acquired the right of permanent residence (meaning that they could work without any restrictions in their host EU member state), as long as during their continuous residence of 5 years they were a worker, self-employed person, self-sufficient person, student or family member accompanying or joining an EU/EEA/Swiss citizen. On 1 July 2013, non-EU/EEA/Swiss citizens who were family members of a Croatian national and accompanying or joining him/her also acquired the right to move and reside freely in other EU member states. On 1 July 2020, restrictions were lifted in the last remaining member state (Austria), giving Croatian citizens right to work in all EU and EEA member states. Visa policy for third-country nationals In the run up to accession to the European Union, Croatia aligned its visa policy with that of the European Union. As a result of the new visa regime, some third-country nationals (such as Russian and Turkish nationals) who were previously temporarily exempt from having to obtain a visa to visit Croatia were now subject to a visa requirement. However, to mitigate the effect of the re-imposition of a visa regime on tourist numbers, the Croatian government has introduced a 'facilitated entry of aliens' procedure, exempting travellers who have a Schengen visa or residence permit from having to obtain an additional Croatian visa to visit Croatia until 31 December 2013. In addition, the Croatian government has extended the working hours and capacity of its foreign missions in countries such as Russia and Ukraine to ensure that applications for Croatian visas are processed more efficiently. Visa requirements for Croatian nationals visiting third countries Upon Croatia's accession to the European Union on 1 July 2013, several countries and territories outside the European Union aligned the visa requirements imposed on Croatian citizens with those imposed on other EU citizens. For example, on 1 July 2013, Hong Kong extended the visa-free period of stay for Croatian citizens from 14 days to 90 days in line with the visa-free period of stay granted to other EU citizens, whilst New Zealand introduced a 90-day visa exemption for Croatian citizens. It is likely that these countries and territories amended their visa policy for Croatian citizens because of the European Union's visa reciprocity mechanism. Membership of the Schengen Area During June 2011 Croatia began with implementation of the projects and reforms required to join the Schengen Area by 2015. By joining the Schengen Area, border checks will be eliminated at the land border with Hungary and Slovenia, as well as at airports and ports for flights and ships to/from Schengen member states, thus facilitating the freer movement of persons between Croatia and the rest of the Schengen Area. The influx of refugees and migrants from Greece through North Macedonia and Serbia to Croatia and then to current Schengen member states like Slovenia, Austria and Hungary, as part of the 2015 European migrant crisis, led some to question whether there will be the political consensus necessary for further enlargement of the Schengen Area. In September 2015, Hungary threatened to veto Croatia's accession to the Schengen Area after it allowed migrants to transit the country into Hungary. Slovenia has suggested it could veto Croatia's accession to the Schengen Area as a result of its border dispute. On 8 December 2022, the ministers of justice and home affairs representing their EU countries, called the Justice and Home Affairs Council, which is one of the configurations of the Council of the European Union, made the final decision to admit Croatia to the bloc. This will go in effect on 1 January 2023, which means that checks on persons at internal land and sea borders between Croatia and the other countries in the Schengen area will be lifted. Checks at internal air borders, meaning airports, will be lifted from 26 March 2023, given the need for this to coincide with the dates of IATA summer/winter time schedule. From 1 January 2023 Croatia will also start to issue Schengen visas and will be able to make full use of the Schengen Information System. Membership of the European Economic Area Croatia's accession to the EU obliges them to apply for membership in the European Economic Area (EEA). The Croatian government submitted their application on 13 September 2012, and membership negotiations started 15 March 2013 with the aim to enlarge both the EU and the EEA on the same date, 1 July 2013. However, this was not achieved. On 11 April 2014, the EU and its member states (including Croatia), Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein signed an agreement concerning the accession of Croatia to the EEA. It is yet to be ratified, but is provisionally applied with regards to Croatia. As of October 2023, the agreement has been ratified by 27 out of 30 parties. Public opinion Croatian public opinion was divided on EU accession. Opinion polling for the EU referendum showed the population was mostly in favour of joining. Public support ranged from a high of 80% to lows of 26–38%. Political analyst Višeslav Raos cited the economic problems within the EU among the factors: "[Croatians] know that the European Union is not a remedy to all economic and social problems. So the EU itself is in a sort of crisis, and that reflects on Croatia's accession." The government announced an information campaign to reverse the drop in support. A referendum was held in Croatia on 22 January 2012 on joining the European Union, and the result was 66% approval to join, though the turnout was low at 43.51%. Impact See also Croatia and the euro 1973 enlargement of the European Communities 1981 enlargement of the European Communities 1986 enlargement of the European Communities 1995 enlargement of the European Union 2004 enlargement of the European Union 2007 enlargement of the European Union References Further reading Tolksdorf, Dominik (April 2013). Croatia on the Verge of Joining the European Union: Outlook after the release of the latest EU monitoring report. Washington, DC: American Institute for Contemporary German Studies. External links Official EU-website concerning enlargement BBC News: inside Europe: EU enlargement 2013 in Croatia 2013 in the European Union Foreign relations of Croatia Historical enlargements of the European Union History of the European Union Croatia and the European Union July 2013 events in Europe Modern history of Croatia
4638199	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear%20decommissioning	Nuclear decommissioning	Nuclear decommissioning is the process leading to the irreversible complete or partial closure of a nuclear facility, usually a nuclear reactor, with the ultimate aim at termination of the operating licence. The process usually runs according to a decommissioning plan, including the whole or partial dismantling and decontamination of the facility, ideally resulting in restoration of the environment up to greenfield status. The decommissioning plan is fulfilled when the approved end state of the facility has been reached. The process typically takes about 15 to 30 years, or many decades more when an interim safe storage period is applied for radioactive decay. Radioactive waste that remains after the decommissioning is either moved to an on-site storage facility where it is still under control of the owner, or moved to a dry cask storage or disposal facility at another location. The final disposal of nuclear waste from past and future decommissioning is a growing still unsolved problem. Decommissioning is an administrative and technical process. The facility is dismantled to the point that it no longer requires measures for radiation protection. It includes clean-up of radioactive materials. Once a facility is fully decommissioned, no radiological danger should persist. The license will be terminated and the site released from regulatory control. The plant licensee is then no longer responsible for the nuclear safety. The costs of decommissioning are to be covered by funds that are provided for in a decommissioning plan, which is part of the facility's initial authorization. They may be saved in a decommissioning fund, such as a trust fund. There are worldwide also hundreds of thousands small nuclear devices and facilities, for medical, industrial and research purposes, that will have to be decommissioned at some point. Definition Nuclear decommissioning is the administrative and technical process leading to the irreversible closure of a nuclear facility such as a nuclear power plant (NPP), a research reactor, an isotope production plant, a particle accelerator, or uranium mine. It refers to the administrative and technical actions taken to remove all or some of the regulatory controls from the facility to bring about that its site can be reused. Decommissioning includes planning, decontamination, dismantling and materials management. Decommissioning is the final step in the lifecycle of a nuclear installation. It involves activities from shutdown and removal of nuclear material to the environmental restoration of the site. The term decommissioning covers all measures carried out after a nuclear installation has been granted a decommissioning licence until nuclear regulatory supervision is no longer necessary. The aim is ideally to restore the natural initial state that existed before the construction of the nuclear power plant, the so-called greenfield status. Decommissioning includes all steps as described in the decommissioning plan, leading to the release of a nuclear facility from regulatory control. The decommissioning plan is fulfilled when the approved end state of the facility has been reached. Disposal facilities for radioactive waste are closed rather than decommissioned. The use of the term decommissioning implies that no further use of the facility (or part thereof) for its existing purpose is foreseen. Though decommissioning typically includes dismantling of the facility, it is not necessarily part of it as far as existing structures are reused after decommissioning and decontamination.,p. 49-50 From the owner's perspective, the ultimate aim of decommissioning is termination of the operating license, once he has given certainty that the radiation at the site is below the legal limits, which in the US is an annual exposure of 25 millirem in case of releasing of the site to the public for unrestricted use. The site will be dismantled to the point that it no longer requires measures for radiation protection. Once a facility is decommissioned no radioactive danger persists and it can be released from regulatory control. The complete process usually takes about 20 to 30 years. In the US, the decommissioning must be completed within 60 years of the plant ceasing operations, unless a longer time is necessary to protect public health and safety; up to 50 years are for radioactive decay and 10 years to dismantle the facility. Steps in the decommissioning process The decommissioning process encompasses: pre-decommissioning development of a decommissioning plan involvement of the public (in democracies) application for a decommissioning license permanent shutdown removal and disposal of nuclear fuel, coolant(s) and/or moderator decommissioning dismantling and decontamination in the US, a License Termination Plan (LTP) has to be submitted two years prior to (the expected) termination of the plant license. restoration of the environment termination of the operating license; turn over responsibilities monitoring of the site (in case of deferred dismantling/Safstor) monitoring and maintenance of the interim storage of spent fuel final disposal of radioactive waste Decommissioning plan Under supervision of the IAEA, a member state first developes a decommissioning plan to demonstrate the feasibility of decommissioning and assure that the associated costs are covered. At the final shutdown, a final decommissioning plan describes in detail how the decommissioning will take place, how the facility will be safely dismantled, ensuring radiation protection of the workers and the public, addressing environmental impacts, managing radioactive and non-radioactive materials, and termination of the regulatory authorization. In the EU, decommissioning operations are overseen by Euratom. Member states are assisted by the European Commission. The progressive demolition of buildings and removal of radioactive material is potentially occupationally hazardous, expensive, time-intensive, and presents environmental risks that must be addressed to ensure radioactive materials are either transported elsewhere for storage or stored on-site in a safe manner. Disposal of nuclear waste Radioactive waste that remains after the decommissioning is either moved to an on-site storage facility where it still is under control of the plant owner, or moved to a dry cask storage or disposal facility at another location. The problem of long-term disposal of nuclear waste is still unsolved. Pending the availability of geologic repository sites for long-term disposal, interim storage is necessary. As the planned Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository – like elsewhere in the world – is controversial, on- or off-site storage in the US usually takes place in Independent Spent Fuel Storage Facilities (ISFSI's). In the UK, all eleven Magnox reactors are in decommissioning under responsibility of the NDA. The spent fuel was removed and transferred to the Sellafield site in Cumbria for reprocessing. Facilities for "temporary" storage of nuclear waste – mainly 'Intermediate Level Waste' (ILW) – are in the UK called Interim Storage Facilities (ISF's). Environmental impact assessment The decommission of a nuclear reactor can only take place after the appropriate licence has been granted pursuant to the relevant legislation. As part of the licensing procedure, various documents, reports and expert opinions have to be written and delivered to the competent authority, e.g. safety report, technical documents and an environmental impact assessment (EIA). In the European Union these documents are a precondition for granting such a licence is an opinion by the European Commission according to Article 37 of the Euratom Treaty. On the basis of these general data, the Commission must be in a position to assess the exposure of reference groups of the population in the nearest neighbouring states. Options There are several options for decommissioning: Immediate dismantling (DECON in the United States; ) Shortly after the permanent shutdown, the dismantling and/or decontamination of the facility begins. Equipment, structures, systems and components that contain radioactive material are removed and/or decontaminated to a level that permits the ending of regulatory control of the facility and its release, either for unrestricted use or with restrictions on its future use.,p. 50 The operating license is terminated. Deferred dismantling (SAFSTOR in the United States; "care and maintenance" (C&M) in the UK) The final decommissioning is postponed for a longer period, usually 30 to 50 years. Often the non-nuclear part of the facility is dismantled and the fuel removed immediately. The radioactive part is maintained and monitored in a condition that allows the radioactivity to decay. Afterwards, the plant is dismantled and the property decontaminated to levels that permit release for unrestricted or restrict use. In the US, the decommissioning must be completed within 60 years. With deferred dismantling, costs are shifted to the future, but this entails the risk of rising expenditures for decades to come and changing rules. Moreover, the site cannot be re-used until the decommissioning is finished, while there are no longer revenues from production. Partial entombment The US has introduced the so-called In Situ Decommissioning (ISD) closures. All aboveground structures are dismantled; all remaining belowground structures are entombed by grouting all spaces. Advantages are lower decommissioning costs and safer execution. Disadvantages are main components remaining undismantled and definitively inaccessible. The site has to be monitored indefinitely. This method was implemented at the Savannah River Site in South Carolina for the closure of the P and R Reactors. With this method, the cost of decommissioning for each reactor was about $73 million. In comparison, the decommissioning of each reactor using traditional methods would have been an estimated $250 million. This resulted in a 71% decrease in cost. Other examples are the Hallam nuclear reactor and the Experimental Breeder Reactor II. Complete entombment The facility will not be dismantled. Instead it is entombed and maintained indefinitely, and surveillance is continued until the entombed radioactive waste is decayed to a level permitting termination of the license and unrestricted release of the property. The licensee maintains the license previously issued. This option is likely the only possible one in case of a nuclear disaster where the reactor is destroyed and dismantling is impossible or too dangerous. An example of full entombment is the Chernobyl reactor. In IAEA terms, entombment is not considered an acceptable strategy for decommissioning a facility following a planned permanent shutdown, except under exceptional circumstances, such as a nuclear disaster. In that case, the structure has to be maintained and surveillance continued until the radioactive material is decayed to a level permitting termination of the licence and unrestricted release of the structure.,p. 50 Costs The calculation of the total cost of decommissioning is challenging, as there are large differences between countries regarding inclusion of certain costs, such as on-site storage of fuel and radioactive waste from decommissioning, dismanting of non-radioactive buildings and structures, and transport and (final) disposal of radioactive waste.,p. 61 Moreover, estimates of future costs of deferred decommissioning are virtually impossible, due to the long periode, where inflation and rising costs are unpredictable. Nuclear decommissioning projects are characterized by high and highly variable costs, long schedule and a range of risks. Compared with non-nuclear decommissioning, additional costs are usually related with radiological hazards and safety & security requirements, but also with higher wages for requiered higher qualified personal. Benchmarking, comparing projects in different countries, may be useful in estimating the cost of decommissioning. While, for instance, costs for spent fuel and high-level-waste management significantly impacts the budget and schedule of decommissioning projects, it is necessary to clarify which is the starting and the ending point of the decommissioning process. The effective decommissioning activities begin after all nuclear fuel has been removed from the plant areas that will be decommissioned and these activities form a critical component of pre-decommissioning operations, thus should be factored into the decommissioning plan. The chosen option – immediate or deferred decommissioning – impacts the overall costs. Many other factors also influence the cost. A 2018 KPMG article about decommissioning costs observes that many entities do not include the cost of managing spent nuclear fuel, removed from the plant areas that will be decommissioned (in the US routinely stored in ISFSIs). In 2004, in a meeting in Vienna, the International Atomic Energy Agency estimated the total cost for the decommissioning of all nuclear facilities. Decommissioning of all nuclear power reactors in the world would require US$187 billion; US$71 billion for fuel cycle facilities; less than US$7 billion for all research reactors; and US$640 billion for dismantling all military reactors for the production of weapons-grade plutonium, research fuel facilities, nuclear reprocessing chemical separation facilities, etc. The total cost to decommission the nuclear fission industry in the World (from 2001 to 2050) was estimated at US$1 trillion. Market Watch estimated (2019) the global decommissioning costs in the nuclear sector in the range of US$1 billion to US$1.5 billion per 1,000-megawatt plant. The huge costs of research and development for (geological) longterm disposal of nuclear waste are collectively defrayed by the taxpayers in different countries, not by the companies. Decommissioning funds The costs of decommissioning are to be covered by funds that are provided for in a decommissioning plan, which is part of the facility's initial authorization, before the start of the operations. In this way, it is ensured that there will be sufficient money to pay for the eventual decommissioning of the facility. This may for example be through saving in a trust fund or a guarantee from the parent company Switzerland has a central fund for decommissioning its five nuclear power reactors, and another one for disposal the nuclear waste. Germany has also a state-owned fund for decommissioning of the plants and managing radioactive waste, for which the reactor owners have to pay. The UK Government (the taxpayers) will pay most of the costs for both nuclear decommissioning and existing waste. The decommissioning of all Magnox reactors is entirely funded by the state. Since 2010, owners of new nuclear plants in the Netherlands are obliged to set up a decommissioning fund before construction is started. Underfunding The economic costs of decommissioning will increase as more assets reach the end of their life, but few operators have put aside sufficient funds. In 2016 the European Commission assessed that European Union's nuclear decommissioning liabilities were seriously underfunded by about 118 billion euros, with only 150 billion euros of earmarked assets to cover 268 billion euros of expected decommissioning costs covering both dismantling of nuclear plants and storage of radioactive parts and waste. In Feb 2017, a committee of the French parliament warned that the state-controlled EDF has underestimated the costs for decommissioning. France had set aside only €23 billion for decommissioning and waste storage of its 58 reactors, which was less than a third of 74 billion in expected costs, while the UK's NDA estimated that clean-up of UK's 17 nuclear sites will cost between €109-€250 billion. EDF estimated the total cost at €54 billion. According to the parliamentary commission, the clean-up of French reactors will take longer, be more challenging and cost much more than EDF anticipates. It said that EDF showed "excessive optimism" concerning the decommissioning. EDF values some €350 million per reactor, whereas European operators count with between 900 million and 1.3 billion euros per reactor. The EDF's estimate was primarily based on the single historic example of the already dismantled Chooz A reactor. The committee argued that costs like restoration of the site, removal of spent fuel, taxes and insurance and social costs should be included. Similar concerns about underfunding exist in the United States, where the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has located apparent decommissioning funding assurance shortfalls and requested 18 power plants to address that issue. The decommissioning cost of Small modular reactors is expected to be twice as much respect to Large Reactors. Examples by country In France, decommissioning of Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant, a fairly small 70 MW power plant, already cost €480 million (20x the estimate costs) and is still pending after 20 years. Despite the huge investments in securing the dismantlement, radioactive elements such as plutonium, caesium-137 and cobalt-60 leaked out into the surrounding lake. In the UK, the decommissioning of civil nuclear assets were estimated to be £99 to £232 billion (2020), earlier in 2005 under-estimated to be £20-40 billion. The Sellafield site (Calder Hall, Windscale and the reprocessing facility) alone accounts for most of the decommissioning cost and increase in cost; as of 2015, the costs were estimated £53.2 billion. In 2019, the estimate was even much higher: £97 billion. A 2013 estimate by the United Kingdom's Nuclear Decommissioning Authority predicted costs of at least £100 billion to decommission the 19 existing United Kingdom nuclear sites. In Germany, decommissioning of Niederaichbach nuclear power plant, a 100 MW power plant, amounted to more than €143 million. Lithuania has increased the prognosis of decommissioning costs from €2019 million in 2010 to €3376 million in 2015. United States The decommissioning can only be completed after the on-site storage of nuclear waste has been ended. Under the 1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act, a "Nuclear Waste Fund", funded by tax on electricity was established to build a geologic repository. In May 2016, collection of the fee was suspended after a complaint by owners and operators of nuclear power plants. By 2021, the Fund had a balance of more than $44 billion, including interest. Later, the Fund has been put back into the general fund and is being used for other purposes. As the plan for the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository has been canceled, DOE announced in 2021 the establishing of an interim repository for nuclear waste. Because the government has failed to establish a central repository, the federal government pays about half-a-billion dollars a year to the utilities as penalty, to compensate the cost of storage at more than 80 ISFSI sites in 35 states as of 2021. As of 2021, the government had paid $9 billion to utility companies for their interim storage costs, which may grow to $31 billion or more. Nuclear waste costed the American taxpayers through the Department of Energy (DOE) budget as of 2018 about $30 billion per year, $18 billion for nuclear power and $12 billion for waste from nuclear weapons programs. KPMG estimated the total cost of decommissioning the US nuclear fleet as of 2018 to be greater than US$150 billion. About two-thirds can be attributed to costs for termination of the NRC operating licence; 25% to management of spent fuel; and 10% to site restoration. The decommissioning of only the three uranium enrichment facilities would have an estimated cost (2004) of US$18.7 to 62 billion, with an additional US$2 to 6 billion for the dismantling of a large inventory of depleted uranium hexafluoride. The cost will exceed the revenues by billions. International collaboration Organizations that promote the international sharing of information, knowledge, and experiences related to nuclear decommissioning include the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development's Nuclear Energy Agency and the European Atomic Energy Community. In addition, an online system called the Deactivation and Decommissioning Knowledge Management Information Tool was developed under the United States Department of Energy and made available to the international community to support the exchange of ideas and information. The goals of international collaboration in nuclear decommissioning are to reduce decommissioning costs and improve worker safety. Decommissioning of ships, mobile reactors, and military reactors Many warships and a few civil ships have used nuclear reactors for propulsion. Former Soviet and American warships have been taken out of service and their power plants removed or scuttled. Dismantling of Russian submarines and ships and American submarines and ships is ongoing. Russia has a fleet of nuclear-powered vessels in decommissioning, dumped in the Barents Sea. Estimated cost for the decommissioning of the two K-27 and K-159 submarines alone was €300 million (2019), or $330 million. Marine power plants are generally smaller than land-based electrical generating stations. The biggest American military nuclear facility for the production of weapons-grade plutonium was Hanford site (in the State of Washington), now defueled, but in a slow and problematic process of decontamination, decommissioning, and demolition. There is "the canyon", a large structure for the chemical extraction of plutonium with the PUREX process. There are also many big containers and underground tanks with a solution of water, hydrocarbons and uranium-plutonium-neptunium-cesium-strontium (all highly radioactive). With all reactors now defueled, some were put in SAFSTOR (with their cooling towers demolished). Several reactors have been declared National Historic Landmarks. List of inactive or decommissioned civil nuclear reactors A wide range of nuclear facilities have been decommissioned so far. The number of decommissioned nuclear reactors out of the List of nuclear reactors is small. As May 2022, about 700 nuclear reactors have been retired from operation in several early and intermediate stages (cold shut-down, defueling, SAFSTOR, internal demolition), but only about 25 have been taken to fully "greenfield status". Many of these sites still host spent nuclear fuel in the form of dry casks embedded in concrete filled steel drums. As of 2017, most nuclear plants operating in the United States were designed for a life of about 30–40 years and are licensed to operate for 40 years by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. As of 2020, the average age of these reactors was about 39 years. Many plants are coming to the end of their licensing period and if their licenses are not renewed, they must go through a decontamination and decommissioning process. Generally are not included the costs of storage of nuclear waste, including spent fuel, and maintenance of the storage facility, pending the realization of repository sites for long-term disposal,p. 246 (in the US Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations (ISFSI's). Thus many entities do not include the cost of managing spent nuclear fuel, removed from the plant areas that will be decommissioned. There are, however, large differences between countries regarding inclusion of certain costs, such as on-site storage of fuel and radioactive waste from decommissioning, dismanting of non-radioactive buildings and structures, and transport and (final) disposal of radioactive waste.,p. 61 The year of costs may refer to the value corrected for exchange rates and inflation until that year (e.g. 2020-dollars). The stated power in the list is preferably given in design net capacity (reference unit power) in MWe, similar to the List of commercial nuclear reactors. United Kingdom United States See also Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents Marcoule Nuclear Site in France Nuclear Decommissioning Authority Nuclear entombment Ship-Submarine Recycling Program References External links NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation & Development: Cost of Decommissioning Nuclear Energy Plants (2016) UNITED STATES NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION: Backgrounder on Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants Business Insider – UK: Getting Rid Of Old Nuclear Reactors Worldwide Is Going To Cost Way More Than People Think Germany's economy minister Sigmar Gabriel says state won't pay for nuclear decommissioning (May 18, 2014) Nuclear Decommissioning Report (www.ndreport.com) is the multi-media platform for the nuclear decommissioning industry. decommissioning.info is a portal with information on nuclear decommissioning US Sites Undergoing Decommissioning European website on decommissioning of nuclear installations Decommissioning Fund Methodologies for Nuclear Installations in the EU, rapport by the German Wuppertal Institute, commissioned by the European Commission. May 2007. Master 'Nuclear Energy' – Decommissioning and Waste management Nuclear technology Nuclear power stations Radioactive waste Nuclear liability Radioactive contamination
4638589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varavara%20Rao	Varavara Rao	Pendyala Varavara Rao (born 3 November 1940) is an Indian activist, poet, teacher, and writer from Telangana, India. He is an accused in the 2018 Bhima Koregaon violence and has been arrested under the non-bailable Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act . Rao was arrested on the charge of plotting to assassinate Indian prime minister, possibly based upon planted evidence. In August 2022, he was released on bail by the Supreme Court of India, on medical grounds. Personal life and education Pendyala Varavara Rao was born on 3 November 1940 in Chinna Pendyala, Warangal district into a Telugu Brahmin family. He studied at Chinna Pendyala, Warangal and Hyderabad. In 1960, he completed a post-graduate degree in Telugu literature from Osmania University. Career and teaching Rao initially taught Telugu literature at two different private colleges in Telangana, before joining the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting of the Government of India as a publication assistant. He retired from teaching in 1998. But later he left research to join a private college at Siddipet, Medak district as a lecturer. From there he switched over to DAVP, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi to work as a Publication Assistant. Again he left the job to join as a lecturer in another private college at Jadcherla, Mahabubnagar district. He moved to Warangal to join Chanda Kanthaiah Memorial College (CKM College) where he worked as Telugu lecturer and later became its principal. Writing Rao is considered as one of the best critics in Telugu literature and taught Telugu literature to graduate and undergraduate students for about 40 years. He is known as an orator and had addressed thousands of public gatherings. Publications and editorial work In 1966, Rao founded a group called Saahithee Mithrulu (Friends of Literature), which started producing a literary journal called Srujana. The journal was initially published on a quarterly basis, but following wide popularity, it became a monthly journal in 1970. Srujana was published from 1966 to 1992, and focused on publishing the works of young, local poets. Srujana was later replaced with a new journal named Arunatara. Rao, along with a group of Telugu writers, periodically self-published stories, poems, and other literature, and sold them directly to book sellers. Poetry Rao began publishing poetry in the late 1950s in journals and magazines, and his first poetry collection Chali Negallu (Camp Fires) was published in 1968. Varavara Rao has published fifteen poetry collections of his own besides editing a number of poetry anthologies. His poetry collections are: Chali Negallu (Camp Fires, 1968), Jeevanaadi (Pulse, 1970), Ooregimpu (Procession, 1973), Swechcha (Freedom, 1978), Samudram (Sea, 1983), Bhavishyathu Chitrapatam (Portrait of the Future, 1986), Muktakantam (Free Throat, 1990), Aa Rojulu (Those Days, 1998), Unnadedo Unnattu (As it is, 2000), Dagdhamauthunna Bagdad (Burning Bagdad, 2003), Mounam Oka Yuddhaneram (Silence is a War Crime, 2003), Antassootram (Undercurrent, 2006), Telangana Veeragatha (Legend of Telangana, 2007), Palapitta Paata (Song of Palapitta, 2007) and Beejabhoomi (Field of Seeds, 2014). In 2008, an anthology of selected poetry by Rao, titled Varavara Rao Kavitvam (1957-2007) (Varavara Rao's Poetry) was published. Rao's work has been translated into English by Dr. D Venkat Rao (professor at the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad). His poetry has been translated into almost all Indian languages. His poetry collections appeared in Malayalam, Kannada and Hindi and a few Bengali and Hindi literary journals brought out special numbers of his poetry and writings. In 1986, one of his poetry anthologies, Bhavishyathu Chitrapatam (Portrait of the Future), was banned by the state government. Criticism Rao's book, Telangana Liberation Struggle and Telugu Novel – A Study into Interconnection between Society and Literature (1983) is considered to be a landmark in Marxist literary criticism in Telugu. He published half a dozen volumes of literary criticism and a volume of his editorials in Srujana. Prison diaries During his periods of incarceration, Rao maintained and published a personal journal, Sahacharulu (1990), which was translated into English and published in 2010 as Captive Imagination. He also translated Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o's prison diary, Detained, and novel, Devil on the Cross, into Telugu. Political activism 1960s: Founding of Virasam In 1967, Rao formed part of a generation of writers and poets that criticized the Telugu literary community's disengagement with politics. He was instrumental in founding two writer's associations that actively engaged in politics; the Tirugubatu Kavulu (Association of Rebel Poets) in Warangal, and the Viplava Rachayitala Sangham (Revolutionary Writers’ Association), popularly known as Virasam, in 1970. The group was inspired by the Naxalbari uprising and the Other members of Virasam included author Kutumba Rao, dramatist Rachakonda Viswanatha Sastri, poet and historian K.V. Ramana Reddy, Jwalamukhi, Nikhileswar, Nagna Muni and Cherabanda Raju. Virasam was closely associated with Dalit politics. As a member of Virasam, Rao participated in educational campaigns and contributed to several anthologies of writing published by authors connected with Virasam. He has been part of the executive committee of Virasam since its inception. Virasam was subsequently banned by the Andhra Pradesh State Government in 2005, for one year, under the Andhra Pradesh Public Security Act, 1992. It was banned again in 2013. 1973–75: Imprisonment during the Emergency Rao was initially arrested in 1973 by the Andhra Pradesh State Government, under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act, on charges of inciting violence through his writing. Although he was released by a order of the Andhra Pradesh High Court, which rebuked the State Government for failing to show that his writings had resulted in actual violence, he was rearrested in 1975, during the Emergency, under the same law. He was released after this second arrest, as well. The High Court of Andhra Pradesh struck down the order and released him after a month and a half. The High Court judgment asked the government not to resort to such actions against writers unless their writings have an immediate and direct bearing in a physical action. After a few months, the government charged a conspiracy case wherein all the actions of revolutionaries were shown as the direct consequences of a poem or a speech or a writing of revolutionary writers. Prominent Virasam leaders Cherabanda Raju, K. V. Ramana Reddy, T. Madhusudana Rao, M. T. Khan, Varavara Rao and M Ranganatham were implicated in the case along with 41 revolutionary activists. This conspiracy case, known as Secunderabad Conspiracy Case, was filed in May 1974 and ended in acquittal in February 1989, after 15 years of prolonged and tiresome trial. In connection with the Conspiracy Case, Varavara Rao was arrested in May 1974. He was denied bail several times and finally released on conditional bail in April 1975.Varavara Rao was arrested again on 26 June 1975, on the eve of proclamation of Indian Emergency. During Emergency, he was a detainee under the MISA. He was one of the few prisoners whose interviews with their relatives were restricted and their mail was subjected to stringent scrutiny. Though all the prisoners were released on the day when Emergency was lifted, Varavara Rao was arrested again at the entrance of the jail and was kept behind the bars for a week more on a fresh MISA warrant. He was released only when the new Janata Party government repealed the Act itself. Varavara Rao was at the forefront in mobilising popular and democratic support to the widespread mass movements in northern Telangana during post-emergency days. As a consequence, he had to face mental harassment and physical assaults. He survived several attempts on his life by mercenaries of landlords as well as anti-social elements. A police official at Mandamarri, Adilabad district in April 1979, beat him on a public platform. 1980s: Labour Movement and Arrests In 1985, Rao was one of 46 persons accused of attempting to overthrow the Andhra Pradesh Government in the Secunderabad Conspiracy Case. He was arrested in connection with this case, but subsequently released. Rao was also one of those arrested in the Ramnagar conspiracy case, and accused of attending a meeting in which there was a plan made to assassinate two police officials. Seventeen years later, in 2003, he was completely acquitted of all charges in relation to this case. After Varavara Rao went to jail, his interviews were restricted and under severe surveillance. His mail, including registered newspapers, was censored for months together. He was implicated in two more cases while he was in jail. After a stifling repression period between 1985–89 under the Telugu Desam Party rule, the newly-elected Indian National Congress government allowed a little relaxation for a short period after December 1989. In May 1990, Rao spoke at an event organised by the Andhra Pradesh Raitu Coolie Sanghama labourers' political party which holds an annual conference for laborers and peasants in Hyderabad. 1.2. million people attended the event, in which Rao spoke about providing land rights to farm laborers and workers. 2004: Peace Emissary to Naxals In 2001, the Telugu Desam government in Andhra Pradesh accepted a proposal to have peace negotiations with members of two banned organisations, Communist Party of India (Maoist) and People's War. Varavara Rao, Kalyana Rao and Gaddar were accepted by both sides as peace emissaries, to establish the conditions under which the peace agreement would be negotiated. Rao called for a partial lifting of the ban on these organisations in order to facilitate peace talks, and advocated a peaceful resolution of the ongoing conflict. Three meetings to negotiate a resolution to the conflict were held; however, Rao and the other emissaries resigned from their positions before the fourth scheduled meeting, citing the fact that the Naxal parties had pulled out of negotiations and that the State government had not, in their view, participated in good faith. Rao also noted that there were five police encounters during the negotiations, in which members of the banned parties were killed despite a temporary cease-fire. His efforts were subsequently lauded by the then-Home Minister for the State of Andhra Pradesh, K Jana Reddy who wrote to Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2020 asking him to grant bail to an unwell, imprisoned Rao and, noting that, "As the then Home Minister I carried the responsibility of holding peace talks between the then AP government and Naxal parties in the year 2004 October. Mr Rao played a significant role in creating cordial climate in conducting these peace talks and was genuinely interested in bringing peace in the state.” The peace process ended with the imposition of ban on CPI (Maoist), Virasam and some other people's organisations on 18 August 2005. 1990s2010s: Telangana Movement Varavara Rao, along with a number of organisations stood in the forefront in exposing and resisting the pro-globalisation and liberalisation policies of Chandrababu Naidu who came to power in 1994. During Chandrababu Naidu's government, three Central Committee members of Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Peoples War were arrested in Bangalore and killed. Some private criminal gangs killed T. Purushotham and Md Azam Ali, leaders of APCLC and life-threat to Varavara Rao turned imminent. Within 24 hours of imposition of ban on Virasam, Varavara Rao and Kalyana Rao, were arrested on 19 August 2005 under AP Public Security Act and sent to Chanchalguda Central Prison in Hyderabad. Since his arrest, 7 new cases were charged against him. Apart from an earlier case of 1999 (pertaining to a protest meeting against the killings of three top leaders of Peoples War), and the case regarding the ban on Virasam, the remaining six cases pertain to the period of talks between the government and the Naxalites. When the government revoked the AP Public Security Act against Virasam through GO Ms No. 503 of 11 November 2005, the cases against Varavara Rao and Kalyana Rao should have become redundant. In the normal course, Public Prosecutor should have informed the court about the redundancy of the cases. However, that order has not reached the court and Varavara Rao and Kalyana Rao had to undergo a number of adjournments of the case after the lifting of the ban. Finally, the court struck down the case on Varavara Rao under the Public Security Act on 31 March 2006 and he obtained bails for all other cases by the time. He was released from jail under bail on 31 March 2006 after a period of about eight months. In 2010, police ordered the arrest of Rao on the basis of a speech that he made at a convention in Delhi, concerning the state of Kashmir. A First Information Report was registered against Rao, along with writer Arundhati Roy, professor S.A.R. Geelani, who was acquitted in the Parliament attack case, and several Kashmir University professors. In 2011, Maoist leader Kishenji was killed in an encounter with police. Rao criticised the police for the encounter, claiming that he had seen the body and that it showed distinct signs of torture. In 2011, Rao was one of several persons accused in a case concerning a bomb placed near the car of a police superintendent in Ongole. Rao was an active participant in the Telangana movement, which aimed for the creation the separate state of Telangana, by bifurcating the existing state of Andhra Pradesh. Although the state of Telangana was formed in 2014, Rao was arrested in 2018 while paying homage, along with others, at a memorial for those killed during the movement. 2018: Elgaar Parishad case On 28 August 2018, Rao was arrested in his home in Hyderabad for his alleged involvement in the Bhima-Koregaon violence that occurred on 1 January 2018. A First Information Report filed concerning that event alleged that on the 200th anniversary of the battle of Bhima-Koregaon, a program called the Elgaar Parishad had been organised in which leftist groups and Naxalites had participated. The police alleged that the speeches made at this event, including those by Rao and others, were responsible for inciting violence that occurred the next day. Some reports also suggest that there was an alleged plot to assassinate Prime Minister Narendra Modi discussed at this event. These appear to be based a letter obtained by the police which refers to a person only identified as 'R'. Rao has denied any involvement in the alleged plot. Covid-19 and NHRC Intervention During Rao's detention in Taloja Jail in Maharashtra, he was hospitalised and admitted to J.J. Hospital in Mumbai. Following this, a special court ordered a report on his health while detained. In June 2020, Rao applied again for bail, on the grounds that he was highly vulnerable to Covid-19, and following a government recommendation that elderly inmates and those with co-morbidities should be released from jail in light of the Covid-19 pandemic, but were unsuccessful. His application for bail was supported by fourteen Members of Parliament, who wrote a letter to Maharashtra Chief Minister Uddhav Thackeray, raising concerns about his health as well as jail conditions during the Covid-19 pandemic in India. It was also supported by two former Chief Election Commissioners of India, who raised doubts about the alleged conspiracy case, and called on the NIA to share information with the Mumbai Police regarding the case. On 16 July, Rao was once again admitted to J.J. Hospital in Mumbai, where he tested positive for Covid-19. Following reports that Rao had been injured again while in the care of the hospital, resulting in a head injury, the National Human Rights Commission ordered that he be moved to a private facility for medical treatment. Rao was then shifted to Nanavati Hospital in Mumbai. The NIA opposed Rao's plea for bail in court, arguing that he was trying to "take undue advantage" of the Covid-19 pandemic, although the hospital confirmed that Rao had tested positive for Covid-19 and was undergoing treatment. Bombay High Court disapproved of the stance taken by the NIA and granted him a medical bail. Grant of bail Rao and others currently face charges under the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, and attempts to bail Rao out, on grounds of his failing health, finally came to fruition as the Bombay High Court granted him a six month bail on medical grounds and disapproved the stand of the National Investigation Agency (NIA) in February 2022. On 10 August 2022, the Supreme Court converted the temporary bail granted to by the Bombay High Court to permanent bail, on medical grounds, citing both, his ill health as well as the fact that he had complied with all the temporary bail conditions, as the reason. See also Stan Swamy Vernon Gonsalves References External links Further reading आईबीएनखबर पर क्रांतिकारी कवि वरवर राव का इंटरव्यू 1940 births Living people Indian male journalists Indian male poets Indian Marxist journalists Indian Marxist writers Telugu people Indian Communist poets Political repression in India Naxalite–Maoist insurgency Poets from Andhra Pradesh Journalists from Andhra Pradesh 20th-century Indian journalists Osmania University alumni People from Warangal Telangana movement
4638751	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agiasos	Agiasos	Agiasos () is a small town and a former municipality on the island of Lesbos, North Aegean, Greece. Since the 2019 local government reform, it became a municipality unit that is part of the municipality Mytilene. The municipal unit has an area of 79.924 km2. It is located at the slopes of mount Olympos, at a height of , from Mytilene. It is known for its special bright green landscape, its narrow cobbled streets lined by ranks of tiled-roof houses, the traditional architecture and its restless and religious inhabitants. Agiasos, the artistic and religious centre of the island, is a preserved settlement that has many to offer to visitors. The reading society of Anaptixi, a local cultural institution, was established in 1894, when the village was still under Turkish rule. Today it has a great library, a theatre hall, a folklore museum and an active organization which tries to continue the traditions that were passed by the old inhabitants. History The history of the village (population 2,498 in 2001 census) is identified with the history of Panayia of Ayasos (the Greek word for Virgin Mary of Agiasos). About 1,200 years ago, during the Byzantine Era, toward the end of the 8th century, it was a time of the wars of iconoclasm. In Constantinople, Aghathon the Ephesian, priest of the Chapel of the Palaces, who was an iconophile, fell into the disfavour of Emperor Leo I and was self-exiled to Jerusalem. In early 802, Aghathon heard that Empress Irene of Athens, who was also an iconophile, lived in exile on Lesvos island. Wishing to meet her and be nearer to Constantinople, he sets off for Lesvos, taking with him an icon of "Panayia I Vrefokratousa" (Madonna and the Holy Infant), a Silver Cross with wood from the True cross, a manuscript Gospel, and other relics. He arrived on the island. Meanwhile, Irene of Athens had died. Aghathon followed the current of a stream and reached a remote wooded area which was a safe environment in which to stay. This site in Carya, where the chapel of Zoodochos Pigi (the life-giving source) with the Holy Water stands today, is where Aghathon hid the Holy Relics and built his hermitage. He became familiar with the local inhabitants of the nearby villages of Karyni and Penthili, and gained their trust and respect. He revealed his secret and vows that the icon of Panayia (Our Lady) – measuring – was painted on wax and mastic by Luke the Evangelist. The icon bore the inscription "Mitir Theou, Agia Sion", that is, "Mother of God, Holy Sion". In those times, Jerusalem was called "Agia Sion". With the passage of time, the small, humble hermitage evolved into a monastery, where devout men from the neighboring villages came to live. The elderly Aghathon died on February 2, in the year 830. The monks, respecting his last wish, continued to keep the icon of Our Lady and the other relics in the monastery crypt. The monks feared the iconoclasts and pirates who ravaged the islands and coastal towns of Asia Minor. In 842, Orthodoxy triumphed and holy icons were raised all over the territory of the Byzantine Empire. From then on the hermitage of Agathon became a pilgrimage site. The icon of Panayia by Luke the Evangelist became renowned, not merely on the island, but all over facing Aeolis. Two pilgrimages to Agia Sion were equivalent to one pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The Church of Panayia (Our Lady) The first church of Panayia In 1170, Constantinos Valerios granted the monks of Karya permission to erect the Church of Panayia on the elevation where the holy relics of Aghathon lay. The church survived 636 years. A small settlement named Agia Sion (Agiasos) developed around the church. This settlement gradually grew, becoming an important provincial town. When the island was subjugated by the Ottoman Turks, many Christian families sought refuge inside the protective walls of the Church of Panayia. In 1701 a Sultan's firman (decree) vested Ayasos the right not to pay taxes. The Turkish Governor of the region, whose headquarters were in Sykounta, fell seriously ill. In despair, he agreed to be incensed and aspersed with the Holy Water of Zoodhochos Pigi, and he was saved by a miracle. The Ottoman Governor was so taken by enthusiasm and gratitude that he felt the need to make a very valuable offering to the Church of Our Lady, however this was forbidden by the Koran. So, he went to Constantinople and passed a firman (decree) exempting the inhabitants of Agiasos the obligation to pay taxes to the Ottoman government or to the Dignitaries of Mytilene. This exemption was a strong incentive for inhabitants from the vicinity to move to Agiasos in order to avoid tax-paying. Agiasos became a renowned centre of handicraft. In 1729 the number of families in the village had risen to 500. The firman was abolished in 1783. The second church of Panayia However the church was now very old and derelict so it had to be torn down. In 1806 reconstruction work was initiated by the Metropolite of Mytilene Ieremios and the dignitaries of Agiasos. A new church was built in its place, only larger than the first, despite the strict Order issued by the Turkish authorities stipulating that the new church had to be built exactly where the old foundations lay. The work to decorate the exterior and interior of the church took many years to complete. The décor of the interior of this church, like the first church, was very heavy, so rich it was in offerings made by the believers. The church acquired a number of fine ecclesiastical wood carvings, such as its iconostasis, throne, pulpit and the icon-stands. The third church of Panayia The craftsmen were still working on the wood carving when suddenly, on the 6th night of August 1812, the church went up in flames in the great fire that destroyed a large section of the town. Fortunately, all but one icon on the iconostasis were salvaged. The only icon that was destroyed was the icon of Our Lord. Indescribable was the sorrow and anguish of the devout Christians of Agiasos and the deep mourning all over the island at the loss of such a unique monument of the Christian faith. Nonetheless, the donations which believers of Agiasos offered and the fund-raisers initiated by the Metropolite of Mytilene Callinicus and his emissaries who carried his word to the rural areas and to the opposite coasts of Asia Minor, enabled a third church, which is still standing today, to be built in 1815. Sultan Mahmud II granted permission for the church to be built as requested by the inhabitants of Agiasos, on condition that the size of the building would not exceed that of the previous one. The church was . This three-aisle basilica had three apses and three Lord's Tables; the one on the right was dedicated to Saint Charalampus, and the one on the left to Saint Nicholas. Almost all of the glebes had to be sold in order to finance the reconstruction work of the Church. In 1816 a second fund-raiser was held among the Christians in the towns and villages of Aeolis, in order to finance the completion of the interior decoration work. The construction of the iconostasis, the throne and pulpit by fine craftsmen lasted twenty years. The church of Panayia contains offerings and treasures of priceless worth. Icons from Byzantine and Post-Byzantine era adorn the church. A second fire, which broke out in 1877, almost destroyed the entire village. However, the church remained intact. Up until then, the upper section of the houses that projected onto the narrow roads were made of wood. After the fire these houses were rebuilt, only this time the upper section was made of stone rather than wood and the roads were widened. The village took its present form. Agiasos has a population of 2,500 permanent residents, while it had 8,000 in the 1960s. The 'Paniyiri' of Panayia (The festival / feast day of Our Lady) The feast day of Panayia takes place on 15 August. Pilgrims begin arriving weeks before the 15th not only from Lesbos but from all over Greece in order to spend the first fortnight of August ("dekapentizo") in the monk cells or camp out in the churchyard. A carnival-like atmosphere slowly builds up, peaking on the eve of the feast day. The pilgrims arrive by all means of transportation. In fact many pilgrims walk all the way to Ayasos from Mytilene and other villages on the island, admiring the scenery along the way on the warm summer night in August. Most of the pilgrims walking to Ayasos make a stop at Karyni, in order to catch their breath and cool off under the shade of the perennial plane trees joining in the traditional festivities and merry-making. At this point of the walking trip the more daring and determined pay special tribute to the icon of Panayia Vrefokratousa by taking the old cobblestone path called "patomeni", a shortcut through the olive groves leading to Agiasos. The village comes alive with ceremony on the eve of the Feast Day of Panayia (15 August). The town of Mytilene is literally a ghost town for a couple of days, since everybody has set off for Agiasos in order to promenade and frolic through the cobbled lanes around the church, the squares and the Garden of Panayia. This large religious celebration/market fair attracts many stall-holders who display their merchandize anywhere they can, and the shop-keepers advertise their local products such as halva, sour apples, pears as best they can, while the spicy fragrance of oregano and aromatic leaves of sage are there. Many people are still awake when dawn breaks and the fresh morning breeze blows from the mountain. The festive atmosphere is unique for all those who happen to experience it. On the feast day of Panayia, after the observance, the holy icon is circulated around the church. Monuments - Sights The church of Panayia, a major tourist attraction on the island, is a three-aisle basilica, surrounded by high walls since it was once a monastery. Inside, in front of the iconostasis, on an inclined support stands the miracle working icon of Our Lady dating from the 4th century AD. It was brought to Agiasos from Jerusalem by the monk Aghathon the Ephesian. Directly above a silver gilt replica of the icon dating from the 12th century AD. A number of old icons dating from the Byzantine era are set on the ledges of the iconostasis. For more information about the Church, see “History of the village”. "The Garden of Our Lady" is a cool area with a lovely view of the village from below. Here stands the 600-year-old towering plane tree with its enormous branches, under which Eleftherios Venizelos is said to have danced. The chapel of "Holy Apostles" (Agii Apostoli), located inside the yard walls of the Church of Panayia is of remarkable architecture, and the chapel of the "life-giving source" (Zoodhochos Piyi), where, legend says, Aghathon the Ephesian, the monk who brought the miracle-worker icon of Panayia from Agiasos, built his hermitage during the Iconoclast times. The church of the Holy Trinity, the second largest church in Ayasos, is located in the Kampoudi area in the upper entrance of the village. Built in 1870, it is a replica of the Church of Panayia and other Basilicas of the 18th century. The church has many remarkable icons, some of which date back to the 17th century. Noteworthy is the small but elegant church bell tower. The church's fair is held on the feast day of the Holy Spirit, marking the beginning of summer for all village activities. Access to the church is easiest by taking the upper entrance to the village, is found if you turn left at the crossroad leading to Megalochori. The Market Square lined with neoclassical style coffee houses ("kafeneio"). The "Kasteli" is a magnificent verdurous height covered in pine trees at an altitude of , northwest of the town. Here stands two picturesque little church among flower gardens and vegetable patches, one of which is dedicated to the Archangel. Ruins of a medieval fortification can also be seen. Just before the ascent to Agiasos, there is the Reservoir of Karyni, plunged in perennial planes dating from the Roman times. One of these planes is a tourist attraction because of the enormity of its hollow. Folk Art Museum. The museum operates from January to December and is located in the Church yard. One of the exhibits is the life-size model of a room in a traditional house of Ayasos. The museum collections include fine works of folk art (embroidery, textile works, traditional costumes, old copperware etc.), old jewelry which are pilgrims’ offerings to the church (rings, bracelets, ear-rings, brooches, barrettes etc.), an old coin collection etc. An "Ayasotiki ghonia" (traditional corner of Agiasos) is exhibited at the Museum. Ecclesiastical Museum. The museum operates in the Church yard. Its collection items include: The Holy Rood made with wood from the True Cross, the sacred relics of the Saints, holy vessels, old hanging oil-lamps (18th century), a stole embroidered with gold (ecclesiastical vestment) (16th century), an embroidered epitaph of Panayia (Our Lady), embroidered testers (canopy over altar or pulpit) an old icon-stand, an old piece of Venetian furniture, etc. Folk art Ceramics The history of the art of ceramics in Agiasos is as old as the history of the town itself. The arrival of the icon of Our Lady and the other relics to the island on the one hand, and the foundation of the monastery on the other, contributed to transforming Agiasos into a place of pilgrimage. This pilgrimage attracted thousands of believers, especially during the Turkish Rule. Thus, production of pottery such as water pitchers, plates, etc., in order to meet the demands of the throngs of devout Christians. Nowadays, a new series of pottery products has been introduced; small fonts (receptacles for holy water) used by the pilgrims to transport the holy water to their homes and other clay knickknacks and souvenirs. It is noteworthy to say that, this increased demand for production combined with the migration to Agiasos of a great number of craftsmen from Çanakkale in Asia Minor, have contributed to a greater development of the art of ceramics in Agiasos than in the eastern areas of the island. Due to these special circumstances, potters and other craftsmen have established trade unions, known as “sinafia”. A money box dating from 1864 is evidence of the existence of the “sinafia” of Agiasos. However the flourishing art of ceramics in Agiasos, is slowly diminishing along with the old way of life, as a consequence of new needs society and introduction of new, more resistant materials in the market. Thus, while 40 years ago there were 10 pottery workshops, only two operate today. Still, the presence of art of ceramics in the town is apparent anyone who visits the town. The unique feature of the art of pottery in Agiasos is the multitude of small objects created to serve solely ornamental purposes. The themes portrayed on these objects are usually borrowed from the scenes of daily life in Agiasos, such as loaded donkeys, shepherds, women spinning wool, pitcher-whistles for little children – toys that whistle when water is added etc. In the by-gone days, these potters created their clayware without the use of a potter's wheel. Today they use plaster casts (molds). Once the finishing touches are added to the product eliminate all traces left by the mold, the objects are painted with colours that are true to the prototypes that they portray. Wood carving The traditional art of woodcraft using olive and walnut tree wood is particularly developed. Their carved icons and furniture of Agiasos which are hand wrought are displays of fine artistry for which wood carvers of Agiasos are famous. The tradition of woodcarving is said to have its origins among the craftsmen who created the wood-carved iconostasis of the Church of Panayia in 1812. Originally these craftsmen were the Greeks of Asia Minor, who had astute apprentices from Agiasos to whom they passed on their trade and who inherited their legacy. The families of the “Sentoukadhes” (chest-makers) were named after the trade of some of their members were chest-makers who made fine “sentoukia” (chests/trunks). A large number of houses in Agiasos are decorated with old furniture (mainly chests) which are decorated with carved fretwork designs. During the postwar times, Dhimitris Kamaros, the grandson of a wood-carver, carried on this trade. Most of today’s young carvers were his apprentices. Each of these fine carvers have evolved and developed their own personal style and personality. Folklore tradition There is a particularly rich folklore tradition in Agiasos. The cultural lighthouse is the Reading Society "I ANAPTIXI" (development) the influence of which goes far beyond the town itself. The island was still under Turkish Domination, the Reading Society expressed the need of certain restless intellectuals for cultivation and information, through books and newspapers. Then in 1894 a night school, amateur theatre company, and choir which organised music – literary nights. It was a nucleus of national uplifting and offered significant support to the Macedonian Struggle. Its activity and presence in the cultural and artistic life of Ayasos is significant up to our days. The Reading Society which is housed in a private building complex, just outside the lower entrance to the town, includes: a Library with over 20,000 volumes of old and new books on all every fields of science, a large reading room, a theatre for theatrical performances and screening of films, a folklore museum and an exhibition room with a permanent collection of paintings. The Arts department stages a large number of plays of both foreign and Greek playwrights (In fact many are from Ayasos). Since 1954 the Reading Society has staged more than 35 theatrical plays. Some of its performances have been staged in Mytilene and almost all other villages of Lesvos, in Athens, Piraeus and even as far away as Australia, always with tremendous success. The Chairman, Panos Pratsos, has been the soul of the Reading Society for the past forty five years. His knowledge and love for music resulted in the establishment of a Music department and the Children's Choir, which often make appearances. Lectures and literary events are also organised by the Reading Society. Carnival Agiasos is the site of the Carnival of Lesvos, where thousands of people visit every year to take part in its festivities. The carnival of Agiasos differs from the carnivals of the rest of Greece because of its eccentricity, mordacity and witty satyres (iambic fifteen syllable verse) expressed by the folk poet in the vernacular of Agiasos. The Carnival’s history begins in the times of the Turkish Domination and continues to this day. In the course of its century-old history this custom went through a number of stages as it was influenced by countless events and evolved with each historical time. Today it retains the form it took during the post-war period, that is, a folklore event with distinct theatrical elements held in open air, creating a thematic unity combining satiric verses and carnival floats. Its folk muse themes cover a broad spectrum. A famous myth is usually chosen, through which the current socio-political situation is portrayed by using allegorical representation and symbolism. Public figures and current affairs issues are satirized through parallelism. The folk poet does not to go about merrymaking in disguise during the festival just to amuse his audience, but seeks to inspire, to set an example, to cauterize the decayed section of the social body with the thermocautery of his fountain pen. The folk poet is not prudish, instead, he lashes out mercilessly against all that is wrong or unjust, he speaks his mind and is honest. He is daring and prophetic. He does not fear or compromise, nor does he come out in favor of anyone. His caustic sauciness is like an injection used to treat an ailing social body. There are close correlation between the carnival of Agiasos and the cultural creation and tradition of ancient Greece. The Carnival is a tragic figure. It tries to deal with the buffets of fate by mocking its own trials, it manages to get the society to laugh about its own farrago of sufferings, in order to be able to bear them both in body and soul and ultimately to survive. These carnivals were bacchic festivals devoted to the worship of Dionysus, where eternal recreation, fertility and regeneration of nature during spring were exalted. They were characterised by the dionysian orgy of those initiated to divine worship, by which it was believed achieved catharsis of the soul, spiritual renewal and the exaltation caused by perfection of unearthly life. The carnival of today preserved relics of the bacchic perception of life such as the “tripsimata”, songs of rhyming couplets that are a hymn to the genitals and the “im’ tzouromata” of those who “archionti” (the word archiomi, is derived from the ancient Greek verb “orchoumai” which means to participate in an orcho (pool), to dance, to take part in the circle of those initiated to the Dionysian worship, whose bodies were painted with tartar, the residue of the grapes and wine, which were red). The Carnival of Agiasos is a vivid cultural symbol. It is a unique sample of local folk cultural and artistic creation on the national scale. Despite the fact that it receives little support by the State, the carnival manages to survive, thanks to the sacrifices and will of the people of Agiasos. Traditional costume The distinctive feature of the traditional costume of Ayasos dating from the 18th century, are the pleated bloomers or breeches called a “salvari”. This loose fitting garment was worn in a number villages on the island, e.g. Plomari. These bloomers are usually six-leaved, with a width of three leaves. The material covering the inner part of the legs, from the crotch to below the knee named “kalamovrakia” or “klapatses” - are longer than the middle section i.e. the seat of the (bloomers). The length of the bloomer leg in relation to the seat of the bloomers varied according to the woman’s height. The snugness of the fit depended on the how correct these measurements were. The bloomer legs, which were often made from a plain fabric for reasons of thrift, were gathered below the knee. The bloomer leg cuffs had eyelets through which crocheted cordons called “vrakothilies” were passed, thus ensuring the pleated material fit snugly around the ankles. The features that made the bloomers of Agiasos special, particularly those worn by young women, are the textiles from which they were made, the colour of the dyes created warm colours such as red and yellow. The warmth of the tartan and striped designs that were more vivid in combinations of white and the various shades of “geranium” red, dark blue and green. Another feature of the bloomer was the puffed effect created by the “overstuffing” by two, three or more pairs of underpants, of the same or smaller size which were worn under the outer garment. These underpants or “katovrakia” as the people of Agiasos call them and an underskirt were worn next to the skin and were indispensable especially for an appearance on a special occasion. These clothing accessories insured there was enough volume to create a plasticity effect and thus highlight a plethoric femininity, according to aesthetic views of the time. The traditional garment was supplemented by a camisole and a brocade bolero worn over the young woman’s Sunday-best shirt. From the first decades of the 20th century, European fashion reached the villages of the island and influenced aesthetic tastes to such a degree that the local traditional garment was gradually put aside. The higher social classes were, as one would expect, the first to forsake the traditional costume, purchasing their garments from Constantinople, Smyrna and other centres of fashion abroad. This trend was more popular in the town of Mytilene. Close-pleated skirts were now considered to be very fashionable. The bright-coloured textile bloomers were now a thing of the past. Nevertheless, some of the elderly women of highland Ayasos can still be seen wearing their traditional “vraka” (bloomers). Today even farmers’ wives who now follow the trends of fashion, wear the special bloomer (salvari) when they work in the fields during the winter. They put on their traditional bloomer or a less intricate version which is somewhat more easily worn, and take to the slopes for the olive or chestnut harvest. Though it has now become a museum item, this well preserved traditional garment, the “salvari” is still worn by women both young and old during the olive and walnut cultivation. Gallery References External links Infos For Agiasos Agiasos Travel Guide The Municipality of Agiasos Populated places in Lesbos
4638888	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver%20Scouts%20%28The%20Scout%20Association%29	Beaver Scouts (The Scout Association)	Beaver Scouts, often shortened to Beavers, is the second youngest official section of Scouting operated by The Scout Association in the United Kingdom. The core age range for Beaver Scouts is six to eight years. Sections of Beaver Scouts are known as Colonies and are run locally by Scout Groups. After reaching the age of eight, a Beaver Scout will then move on to Cub Scouts. The section officially launched in 1986 but had existed before this as trial and unofficial sections as far back as 1963. Beaver Scouts share many of the features of older Scouting sections such as badges for skills learned and challenges and a uniform consisting of a light blue sweatshirt. They take a simplified version of the Scout promise. Beavers Scouts are open to boys and girls, a change introduced in 1991, and are open to those of different faiths, or none. History Early ideas: 1960s Since the creation of the Scouting movement in 1907, there was demand from the younger brothers of Scouts who wanted to join in with their older siblings. This demand would lead to the creation of Wolf Cubs in 1916 for boys 8 years of age and up but there was still pressure from the younger brothers to become involved. The first pre-Cub scheme was set up in Northern Ireland by the 1st Dromore Group in 1963 and was called The Little Brothers, spreading to Belfast with seven groups two years later. The creation of an under eight provision was sparked by the launch of other younger sections in other youth organisations at the time, including the Anchors section of the Boys' Brigade, which some feared was partly causing a drop in numbers of Cubs experienced at the time. As the scheme expanded throughout the rest of the province, it was given the official name of Beavers in 1966, which had been a name considered by Robert Baden-Powell when creating Wolf Cubs. That year The Chief Scout's Advance Party Report was published, which brought to a close a period of reflection undertaken since January 1964 and led to significant structural changes within the organisation, with the question of a pre-Cubs section having been looked into. The report came to the conclusion that any lowering of the age for the newly renamed Cub Scouts below 8 years old would result in difficulties in retaining the older Cub Scouts and that allowing boys under 8 should not be allowed, to maintain a uniform approach. Any provision for boys under 8 must therefore be developed as their own section, which was not recommended as being followed at that time. It did however recommend that any developments in this area be monitored by national Cub Scout leadership. Trials: 1970s Despite the report's recommendations other under eight provisions were trialled and investigated in a number of different locations internationally and unofficially in the United Kingdom. By 1975 there existed in England an 'Adventurers' section in Dulwich and West Peckham in South London, 'Mini-Cubs' in Lancashire, 'Tweenies' in Southwark and 'Pre-Scout training' in Brighton. There were also a number of sections in Scotland including Acorns (A Cub OR Nearly So) in Coatbridge, Mini-Cubs and Tenderpads in Dundee and over a dozen groups in Glasgow of varying names including Panthers, Beavers, Chimps, Sparks and Mini-Cubs, with an advisory body. All of these organisations differed wildly in programme, uniform, structure and whether they had a law and promise. By 1975 however, Beavers in Northern Ireland had advanced significantly to include approximately 100 Beaver groups, 2,500 boy members and 200 leaders; this compared to around 4,500 Cub Scouts in 520 packs at the same time. In September 1968, the Beavers Association was set up to oversee development of the section and they published a Beavers Handbook and organised an annual conference for leaders. It was noticed that a number of adults had stepped forward to help run the section who had no previous connection to youth work, which allayed fears over the growth of the new section by some. A common uniform of a grey shirt and emerald green necker was introduced, as was a programme that did not use any of the Cub Scout content at all, instead linked to four pawprint badges and the name Beavers as a backronym: Building, Energy release, Adventure, Variety, Entertaining, Religion and Storytelling. In 1973, a resolution was published requesting Beavers be formally adopted into the structure of Scouting in Northern Ireland, and in early 1975 this was approved. In 1974, the youth scene had developed enough that a new review and report were commissioned to look into the matter of a Pre-Cub section. The Wellbeloved Report, which was published in 1975, recommended the development of an under eight section as a priority. It determined a section could be delivered in line with the aims of the movement and would not cause significant reputational or organisational problems for the other older sections. Launch and growth: 1982-2002 In October 1982 Beavers were introduced throughout the rest of the United Kingdom with a uniform of a grey jumper, turquoise necker, maroon woggle and optional grey tracksuit bottoms. The section officially became part of The Scout Association and the World Scout Organisation on 1 April 1986 with the introduction of a simplified promise for the section. The initial award for the section was a singular Beaver Scout Award, awarded for at least nine months of participation in a varied programme, at least one visit and at least one good turn. By the time Beavers was officially launched, there were 60,000 Beaver Scouts in the UK. A small change to the uniform came in 1990 when Beaver Scouts were able to wear their group necker instead of a turquoise one. A larger change came in 1991 when girls were allowed into the section for the first time. This change was confirmed in 2007 when all Beaver Scout sections were made coeducational (with some exceptions). As of January 2020, the number of Beaver Scouts in the UK was 127,030, of whom 100,997 were recorded as male and 25,633 were recorded as female, meaning at present 20.1% of the section are female. A small re-launch to the section came in 1995 when the Beaver Scout Badge was removed and replaced by two separate badges. The rationale for this replacement was that a year was a long time for a Beaver Scout to wait for a reward for taking part, so this was split into two awards, each awarded for 6–8 months' participation in a varied programme. The Scout Association also launched an optional Beaver Scout Challenge, awarded for completing four challenges that matched the programme areas: a personal challenge, a scouting challenge, an exploring challenge and a caring activity. The uniform was also modified to allow for different coloured woggles with a scarf as a 'lodge' system of grouping young people had become popular and many wished to display this through coloured woggles. In 1997 the ability to hold sleepovers, limited to one night, with the Beaver Scout section was added to the programme as an option with the aim of giving Beavers a taster of the longer residential experiences offered in Cub Scouts and Scouts as well as a way of developing independence skills. Re-launch: 2002-2015 In 2002 the Beaver Scout programme, badges and uniform were completely overhauled. The uniform was now a light blue sweatshirt and there was a much bigger range of badges for the Beaver Scouts to earn, aligning the programme with the other sections. A logo was introduced along with all publications for the section being relaunched to reflect the new programme and wider Scout Association brand and visual identity. The First and Second Beaver Scout awards were discontinued, and two Joining In Awards were introduced to recognise a year's participation in the new programme, now divided into five programme zones. While participation was now marked through the Joining In Awards, new Challenge awards and a top award for the section were introduced to mark achievement. Initially there were three (the Outdoor Challenge, the Discovery Challenge and the Friendship Challenge), each requiring the Beaver Scout to complete six activities from areas that linked to the wider programme objectives and zones. The top award for the section, the Chief Scout's Bronze Award, was achieved for completion of the Outdoor challenge, one of the other challenges and a personal challenge. In addition, Activity Badges were introduced to the section for the first time, mirroring the ability to be rewarded for progression in a skill that had existed in older sections for decades. Initially five were launched: Animal Friend, Creative, Experiment, Explore and Faith. In October 2006 the five badges were updated and seven new badges were added to give greater choice and to provide coverage into more areas of the programme: Adventure, Air Activities, Health & Fitness, Healthy Eating, Hobbies, Imagination and Safety. Beaver Scouts also benefited from the introduction of Staged Activity Badges and the Group Awards (later renamed Partnership Awards) in 2002 which were available to all sections under 18 years. The Group Awards were a series of three (International friendship, Environment and Faith) that encouraged multiple sections within a group to work together or to work with outside organisations to complete a project or activity. The Staged Activity Badges mirrored the new activity badges in each section but consisted of stages (five initially) that members could achieve at any age and often included skills that were developed over time. Upon their launch there were four focusing on Information Technology, Musician, Swimming and Nights Away (with the five stages recognising one, five, 10, 20 and 50 cumulative nights away from home respectively) before gaining badges in Emergency Aid and Hikes Away in October 2006 (with the Nights and Hikes away changing from five stages to more frequent stages numbered to directly reflect the number required). In 2008, the Scout Association re-launched the programme zones so that there were now six zones with common themes for all four under 18 sections. As part of this, the Challenge Awards for the section were entirely re-written and replaced with six Challenge Awards that aligned with the six new zones: Promise, Friendship, Fitness, Creative, Global and Outdoor challenges. The Chief Scout's Bronze Award was also altered to make achievement of the award as simple as achieving all six Challenge Awards. Being much younger than the other sections, the Beaver Scout section celebrates anniversaries more often than some of the other sections (often every five years). The 20th anniversary, celebrated in 2006, was marked with a special birthday edition of the Fundays event, as the Cub Scouts also celebrated their 90th anniversary that year and the 100th anniversary of Scouting was the following year. The 25th anniversary was celebrated in 2011 with various events around the country and a book published for the event. In 2014, the Scouting for All strategic plan for the next four years was launched, which included an increased focus of community impact, youth voice and inclusion in the programme and which emerged from youth feedback. Off the back of this, a refresh of the programme was scheduled for 2015 and in April 2014, the Scout Association released nine new activity badges and one new staged activity badge which were to be added as part of the refresh. These nine new badges looked at Camp Craft, Collector, Communicator, Cyclist, Disability Awareness, Gardener, Photographer, Space and Sports with a new staged activity badge that captured the number of water activities completed (Time on the Water). Skills for life refresh: 2015-present In January 2015, the Beaver Scout programme received a refresh along with the programmes of all other sections and saw a renewed emphasis on outdoor activities, skills and world activities and the dropping of programme zones and partnership awards. Subsequently, the six Challenge Awards were replaced with six new hexagonal Challenge Awards: My Adventure, My Outdoors, My Skills, My World, Teamwork and Personal Challenges. The number of Activity badges for the section had already been bolstered by the new additions in 2014 but changes were made to the remaining badges. The Adventure badge was discontinued and replaced with the My Adventure Challenge, the Air Activities badge was replaced by a new Air Activities staged activity badge, the Healthy Eating badge was re-launched as a Cook badge, the Health and Fitness and Imagination badges were discontinued and two new badges for Global Issues and International were launched. The number of Staged activity badges was also expanded greatly: the Information Technology badge was discontinued and replaced by a Digital Citizen (using technology) and Digital Maker (coding and uses of technology) badge; a new Air Activities staged badge for aeronautical skills and to link in with Air Scouts was launched; new Nautical skills, Paddle sports and Sailing staged badges to link with water activities and Sea Scouts were launched; a Navigator staged badge was launched to develop map-reading and navigating skills and a Community Impact staged activity badge was launched linking into the Scout's focus on community action and the A Million Hands partnership with charities. In 2016, the Beaver Scouts celebrated their 30th anniversary with a badge and local events, but national recognition was more muted celebration as the centenary of the Cub Scouts that year received the focus of attention. That same year the Health and Fitness activity badge was reintroduced and the following year new resources and leader stripes were introduced to recognise Beavers who were made Lodge Leaders or Peer Leaders. In January 2018 the latest activity badges were added for Book Reader, mirroring some of the requirements of the Summer Reading Challenge run by libraries each year, and Builder, which involved using construction toys such as Lego. In May 2018 the Scouts published their Skills for Life plan to 2023 which included improved tools for leaders, a refresh in the wider Scout visual identity and a promise to review uniforms. A part of this plan was a commitment to investigate an Early Years provision for Scouts, a section for four and five year olds that would feed into Beaver Scouts. A series of 29 pilot sections were established during 2018 and 2019, informally called Hedgehogs, trialling three different ways of running (family-run, Scout run and partnership-run). The trials were considered a success and the Scouts approved for them to continue and be expanded in August 2020. Organisation The Beaver Scout section is run locally by Scout groups, along with the Cub Scout and Scout sections, by a leader team led by a Beaver Scout Leader (often abbreviated to BSL). The leadership team is often supplemented by a number of other volunteers ranging from Assistant Beaver Scout Leaders, who share the same level of training as BSLs; Sectional Assistants, regular helpers supported by basic training; Young Leaders, 14-18 year olds who volunteer in the section; and occasional helpers who may be parents assisting as part of a rota. Often meeting weekly, a Beaver Scout group is referred to as a colony with usually no more than 24 young people. A Beaver Scout colony may divide the Beavers in it into smaller peer groups, the most common name for which is 'lodges' but use of this is not universal across the section. The core age range for Beaver Scouts is between six and eight years although members can join up to three months before their sixth birthday or leave for Cub Scouts up to six months after their eighth birthday. These age ranges can be flexed further if required for inclusion requirements. The activities undertaken by Beaver Scouts are collectively called the 'programme' and include activities, games, visits and residential experiences. The badges and awards achieved by the young people help support this programme and were initially divided into themed areas. Between 1995 and 2002, the programme was divided into four areas: learning about themselves, getting to know people, exploring and caring. With the re-launch of every section's programme in 2002, the four areas were tweaked into five programme zones: getting to know other people, learning about yourself, exploring the world around us, discovering creativity and practical skills and discovering beliefs and attitudes. Creativity had always been a part of the programme before being made a separate zone, but previously it had been used as a way of exploring the other areas. In 2008 the zones were updated again into six zones with themes common to all under-18 sections in Scouting: beliefs & attitudes, community, fitness, creative, global and outdoor & adventure. In 2015, the concept of zones was dropped across the movement with the focus now being on three core areas of outdoor & adventure, world and skills with outdoor & adventure making up half of time spent on the programme. Membership Beaver Scouts is, as of 2020, currently the third biggest section run by the Scout Association, behind Cub Scouts and Scouts respectively. From the mid-2000s until 2018 the number of Beaver Scouts had been steadily increasing, and from the same point to date the number of Beaver Scout colonies has increased every year. There was a slight decrease in numbers between 2018 and 2020 which matches a similar decline in the overall birthrate; 2012 was the high point for births in the UK with these children reaching Beaver Scout age in 2018. The COVID-19 pandemic caused a significant decline between 2020 and 2021 as scouting activities were suspended. Promise In common with other sections in Scouting, Beaver Scouts make a promise when they start in the section, normally in a ceremony in front of family members. The Beaver Scout promise is a simpler version of the Scout promise and makes no reference to a Scout law. The promise originally devised for the section, and the promise still used for Christians, Jews and Sikhs is: I promise to do my best, To be kind and helpful, and to love God. Muslims use a wording of the promise similar to that above but with the word 'God' replaced with 'Allah', while Buddhists and Hindus replace the word 'God' with 'my Dharma'. A promise for those of no faith was introduced in January 2014 and substitutes the word 'God' in the promise above for 'our world'. Motto Since 2002, the Beaver Scout section shares the general Scout motto of Be Prepared. Prior to 2002, the motto was Fun and Friends, which is reflected in the usual programme for the section, which made use of play to put across Scouting ideas of friendship and community. Awards and badges Beaver Scouts can gain a number of awards and badges covering the range of the programme. A number are core badges that are often earned by members as part of their time in the section. The Membership Award is given to Beavers after they have made their promise and been invested into the Movement, the Joining In Award recognises participation in the programme in yearly chunks and the Moving-On Award is given once a Beaver Scout has completed their time in Beavers and moved into Cub Scouts. Activity Badges As of September 2020, Beaver Scouts can earn 22 activity badges covering a range of skills and pursuits which can be earned as part of colony programme activities or at home in their own time. The current badges are: Animal Friend, Book Reader, Builder, Camp Craft, Collector, Communicator, Cook, Creative, Cyclist, Disability Awareness, Experiment, Explore, Faith, Gardener, Global Issues, Health and Fitness, Hobbies, International, Photographer, Safety, Space and Sports. The requirements have been updated and changed over time and a few badges have been discontinued. In 2015 as part of a re-fresh, the Adventure, Air Activities and Healthy Eating activity badges were all replaced (with the My Adventure Challenge award, Air Activities Staged Activity badge and Cook activity badge respectively) and the Imagination and Health & Fitness badges were discontinued with the requirements being covered in the My Skills challenge. The Health and Fitness badge was later re-introduced with different requirements in 2016. They are circular yellow badges with a navy blue border, a design maintained since 2002. Staged Activity Badges Staged Activity Badges can be completed by any member of the movement between the age of 6 and 18. They are completed in different stages, so after completing each stage members are awarded the relevant badge and can advance to the next level while still in a younger section. Current Staged Activity badges that are available are Air Activities, Community Impact, Digital Citizen, Digital Maker, Emergency Aid, Hikes Away, Musician, Nautical Skills, Navigator, Nights Away, Paddle Sports, Sailing, Snowsports, Swimmer and Time on the Water. The number of stages in each badge varies but most have around five stages. The Nights Away, Hikes Away and Time on the Water stages have more, and count the number of cumulative experiences in that area the young people have, with sixteen milestones for Nights Away ranging from 1 to 200 nights away from home and eight for Hikes away and Time on the Water. The badge's design is a circular blue badges with a purple border, a design adopted in 2002 and with a slight darkening of the blue colour from 2018. Challenge and Top Awards Challenge Awards are often completed as a Colony as part of their normal activities rather than individually, and cover the range and aims of the programme. The six red hexagonal badges, worn on the chest, are entitled My Adventure, My Outdoor, My Skills, My World, Teamwork challenge and Personal challenge. They were introduced in January 2015 and replaced six previous yellow diamond-shaped awards that reflected the programme zones used prior to 2015. The top award for the section that Beaver Scouts aim to achieve is the Chief Scout's Bronze Award. In order to attain it, Beaver Scouts must have completed the six Challenge Awards and four other activity badges by the time they join Cub Scouts or shortly after moving to the section. Visual identity Uniform As part of the wider uniformed Scout movement, Beaver Scouts have a uniform consisting of a sky blue jumper and neckerchief for the group. A branded baseball cap, navy blue activity trousers and sky blue polo shirt can also form part of the uniform as well as other informal clothing such as hoodies as the situation requires it. It was designed by fashion designer Meg Andrew in 2000 as being a stylish and affordable uniform that was suited to outdoor wear and activity use. The uniform is used by any Beaver Scout, with those who are part of an Air Scout or Sea Scout group also wearing this uniform style. The uniform is a departure from the uniform worn before 2001 which did not have as wide a range of options and instead focused on a grey, long sleeved sweatshirt and neckerchief which could be either in the group's colours or turquoise in colour. The transition to a blue jumper was well supported by members when consulted in 2000 and many of the suggestions were adopted, with only the proposed activity skirts, canvas belt and ski hat finding disfavour and not being adopted. Flags In common with other sections of the movement, Beaver Scouts have a flag for use to identify the section, in parades or when a member is being invested. Uniquely, it is smaller than the other sections so that the flag and pole can be carried by a Beaver Scout, with the flag measuring 2 by 3 feet. The pole is similarly lightweight, usually made of aluminium and with a wooden pike mount. The flag is turquoise with white lettering, a white scout emblem on a purple circular background in the centre of the flag and the scout motto 'Be Prepared' underneath. Logo and visual identity When the section was relaunched in 2002, the Beaver Scout logo consisted of the uppercase red word 'Beavers' with a thick yellow outline laid on top of a circular motif that resembled a cross section of a tree, showing the bark and tree rings in different shades of brown. The typeface used for the logo and for headings in Beaver Scout publications was House Industries' Funhouse with Frutiger used for body text in line with the rest of the association. A smaller logo version, where just the letter 'B' was placed atop the log outline, was available as a variant. The brand was updated in 2012 so that text and pictures focused on fun, friendship and adventure of Beavers although the logo did not change and the colours used only changed in a minor way. This emphasis on adventure, and in particular how trying something new is an everyday adventure for a young Beaver Scout, tied in to the association brand focusing on everyday adventure introduced in 2008. The look also introduced a mascot for the section replacing the generic beaver figure in use previously and creating instead a set of four anthropomorphised Beaver characters from different cultures and named after trees (Ash, Chery, Woody and Holly). In 2015, the Scout Association updated their visual identity style, including the section brands, to focus on the Scouting fleur-de-lis. As part of this, the new Beaver Scout logo was simplified to a turquoise wordmark with a small fleur-de-lis either located to the top right of the wordmark or a larger version located directly above the wordmark. The logo was either available in one colour, turquoise, or in a brighter version with a yellow outline and different coloured letters chosen from the wider association colour palette. The wordmark retained the Funhouse typeface of the previous look; however, this was not used in any other publication; instead TheSerif was used for headings in line with the rest of the association and Frutiger continued to be used for body text. Beaver Scout publications moved away from pictures and outlines and instead featured a character-led artwork style that the association intended as "joyous and imaginative". As part of this illustration style, the mascots were replaced with five represented by anthropomorphised animals: Bobbi (Beaver) their leader and four Beaver Scouts Harry (hippo), Erin (emu), Kyla (kangaroo) and Tareq (turtle). When the Scout Association brand was updated in May 2018, with a new and stylised fleur-de-lis, the Beaver Scout logo was altered to remove the previous fleur-de-lis mark. The logo colours were also updated with the blue logo becoming darker and the multi-coloured one having its colours changed to reflect the updated corporate colour palette. Publications either continued the use of the previous artwork or used the new image style of the association and the typeface for all documents was updated to use the Google Fonts typeface Nunito Sans. Events Being a younger section in Scouting there are comparatively fewer national events for Beaver Scouts; however, events for the section run at district or county level are common with these mostly being open to the young people in that region. Scout campsites and activity centres may also run their own events although advertising of this is not accomplished through national Scout Association channels. Fundays Fundays is a national event for Beaver Scouts, Cub Scouts, Rainbows and Brownies and run by Scout Adventures. It is run annually at Gilwell Park and since 2015 has also been run at Woodhouse Park Scout Adventures in June. The event is designed as a 'turn up and try' activity day so that Beaver Scouts and their leaders and are able to move around the site trying the activities on site without the need to pre-select or choose activities. A range of activities are offered including adventurous activities such as climbing and high ropes, creative endeavours and themed activities such as magic shows, circus acts or jousting. Damboree Established in 2018, Damboree is a grass-roots movement to encourage Beaver Scout Leaders to apply for a camp site permit to enable Beaver Scouts to camp. The name is a combination of 'Dam', named for the dams built by beavers, and 'jamboree' which refers to any large gathering of Scouts especially at a national level. Prior to 2015, Beaver Scouts were prohibited from camping but knowledge of the change had not spread sufficiently through the movement, meaning many leaders and local organisations were not camping with Beaver Scouts; the movement led by Andy Sissons the UK Camping advisor was to combat this misconception. It is part of the Scout Association, being a Scout Active Support unit of Milton Keynes Scouts, but is not directly controlled by Scouts HQ. While the event is not one specific event, there is a focus weekend planned each year which colonies are encouraged to host their camps on. See also The Scout Association - the parent organisation of Beaver Scouts Cub Scouts (The Scout Association) - the section that follows Beaver Scouts Age Groups in Scouting and Guiding Beavers (Scouting) - other similarly aged sections in the UK and around the world Joey Scouts - equivalent age group in Australian Scouting Rainbows (Girl Guides) - equivalent section in Girlguiding References External links Official Beaver Scout website The Scout Association Early childhood education in the United Kingdom
4639196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Power%20of%20Five	The Power of Five	The Power of Five (re-titled as The Gatekeepers in the US) is a series of five fantasy and suspense novels, written by English author Anthony Horowitz. Published between 2005 and 2012, it is an updated re-imagining of Horowitz's Pentagram series, which the author had left unfinished in the 1980s after he only wrote four of the five planned books in the series. The novels deal heavily in the occult and examples of things such as human sacrifice and blood rituals are major plot elements, such as in the first book, where Matthew Freeman is hunted by a Cult who want to conduct a blood sacrifice on him to blast open a portal using a combination of nuclear physics and black magic, to unlock another dimension which is holding a group of ancient evil demons captive. The series is published in the United Kingdom by Walker Books Ltd and in the United States by Scholastic Press. Plot overview The series focuses on five children: Matthew Freeman, Pedro, Scott Tyler, Jamie Tyler, and Scarlett Adams, a group of five modern day teenagers with some sort of power who are expected to defeat the Old Ones and save humanity. Books Raven's Gate (2005) Matthew Freeman is a fourteen-year-old boy who lives in Ipswich with his aunt, Gwenda Davis and her boyfriend, Brian Conran. He lives with her because his parents died in a car crash when he was eight years old. While living with his aunt, he breaks into a warehouse filled with electronic equipment with his friend, Kelvin Johnson. The security guard apprehends them and tells them he has called the police. Kelvin panics and stabs the guard and then runs away. But when he is caught, he blames it on Matt. After they are caught, Matt is sent to Yorkshire on the L.E.A.F. (Liberty and Education Achieved through Fostering) Project, which involves sending troubled children into the countryside to get away from city temptations. Matt's foster parent is a woman named Jayne Deverill, who lives on a farm named Hive Hill, with a strange farmhand named Noah, who doesn't talk much. When Matt goes down to the nearby village of Lesser Malling on an errand for Mrs Deverill he receives a warning from a strange man. The man warns him to get away from Lesser Malling before it is too late. So Matt tries to escape, and while trying to find some money he goes into Mrs Deverill's bedroom and finds a copy of the police report detailing his parents' deaths and his clairvoyant powers. Matt tries to escape Hive Hall by stealing the bike of Mrs Deverill's missing husband. He tries to ride away, but finds it impossible to escape, because which ever way he goes, he always ends up back at the same intersection in the forest he started at. He hears strange whispers and sees a light in the trees. After a while, Matt discovers Omega One, an abandoned nuclear power station, in the woods and meets the man from Lesser Malling again. The man introduces himself as Tom Burgess, gives Matt a charm that prevents him from going in circles like before, and tells Matt to meet him at his house. Matt visits his house the next day and finds Tom Burgess murdered, with the words "Raven's Gate" painted on the wall in green. Matt runs away as fast as possible, then finds the police and tells them what he saw. They go back to the house where a woman named Miss Creevy says that Tom Burgess has gone to tend to his sheep and visit someone far away. He shows the police officers the scene where he saw Tom Burgess's body, but finds nothing. The words painted on the wall have been painted over. To get information about Raven's Gate, he finds a book by someone called Elizabeth Ashwood, but the chapter on Raven's Gate is ripped out. When he searches on the Internet, an instant-mail box appears, and a man called Professor Sanjay Dravid talks to him, asking Matt who he is. Matt tells him his name, then the pop-up window disappears. The librarian tells Matt to go to the Greater Malling Gazette to find articles on Raven's Gate, and there he meets Richard Cole, a young journalist working there. Matt tells his story to him, but Cole doesn't believe him. And oddly, when he leaves the Gazette he finds Mrs Deverill waiting for him with Noah. They forcefully take Matt back to Hive Hall. Later that night, Matt wakes up to see another light coming from Omega One, even though he found out from the gazette that it hadn't been used in 20 years. Matt knows something is going on and explores the woods. Near the power station he finds an old witchcraft ceremony going on with all the inhabitants of Lesser Malling involved. The power station lights are coming on and men are carrying materials into the building. Matt is noticed and Mrs Deverill summons some gruesome hounds from a fire to kill Matt. While Matt is being chased, he accidentally falls into a bog and begins to sink. Richard Cole arrives and rescues him, as Matt had used his power to call for help. The dogs arrive and Richard kills them by getting a can of gasoline stuffed with a handkerchief, lights it on fire, then throws it at the dogs setting them on fire. They then go back to Richard's house in York. Richard now believes Matt's story because he remembers Omega One and says there were sections of the story he "couldn't get out of his head". Since Matt suspects that there is something odd about Omega One, they meet with the engineer who designed and built it, Sir Michael Marsh, but find out nothing except how a nuclear power plant works. Matt and Richard then go to visit Elizabeth Ashwood, the author of the book in the library. Elizabeth Ashwood is revealed to have died, but her daughter Susan is there. She advises them to go meet Professor Sanjay Dravid in London after Matt demands to know about Raven's Gate. She also tells them that she and Dravid are part of an organization known as the Nexus. Richard and Matt travel to the Natural History Museum in South Kensington, London. Dravid tells Matt about the Old Ones. They were dark creatures who survived on human misery many years ago, and once wanted to rule the world, but were transported to another dimension by five children with supernatural powers. The Five, or the Gatekeepers, as they are also known, then built Raven's Gate to hold the evil creatures away. According to Dravid, Mrs Deverill and the villagers of Lesser Malling are part of a group of witches who seek the return of the Old Ones by opening Raven's Gate using witchcraft. Dravid tells Matt that he is a part of one of the five children who defeated the Old Ones, and has inherited their powers while Mrs Deverill and the citizens of Lesser Malling, who are all descendants of witches and warlocks, want to sacrifice him on the night of Roodmas, the day black magic is most powerful. Richard doesn't believe Dravid and begins to leave with Matt. But as Professor Dravid returns to his office to contact the Nexus and get his keys, he is attacked and walks out of his office with a cut in his neck and dies. Richard quickly takes his keys, but then is also attacked by dinosaur skeletons in the museum and at that moment hundreds of skeleton dinosaurs turn to life and attempt to kill Matt and Richard. Richard is trapped by a diplodocus's rib cage and then crushed by a girder. Matt is recaptured by Mrs Deverill, who animated the dinosaurs to kill them. Matt wakes in the barn at Hive Hall, and to escape he slowly removes the floorboards in his room with a makeshift chisel. When Noah enters the room to take Matt to Mrs Deverill, he falls through the hole made by Matt, which was covered by a rug, and dies because he fell on his sickle. Matt runs away to the road, and a car comes towards him. It is the nuclear scientist who built Omega One, Sir Michael Marsh. But then Matt realises that Sir Michael is a traitor, working with the inhabitants of Lesser Malling, and Sir Michael explains that he was the one who bought the power station's uranium in the first place. Matt is taken inside Omega One, and realizes that it was built where Raven's Gate once stood. Richard Cole survived the ordeal at the museum and has been recaptured by the witches. They are taken to the inner sanctum, where Matt and the villagers are held in a magical protective circle, but Richard is left outside it to die in the heat of the nuclear reactor. Sir Michael Marsh reveals that he needs Matt's blood to complete the black magic ritual that will open Raven's Gate. Marsh is about to stab the knife into Matt when Matt uses his powers to stop the knife. He defeats Marsh and frees himself and Richard. They escape to the lower levels of the power station but are followed by Mrs Deverill. She knocks out Richard and is about to kill Matt when Richard recovers and shoves Deverill into a pool of radioactive acid. Then they escape from Omega One by jumping into an underground river under the building. Back in the inner sanctum, the station's levels are at critical mass. The villagers panic and run out of the protective circle, killing them all and leaving Sir Michael Marsh alone. Marsh then realises there is a tiny drop of Matt's blood on the knife and stabs down with the knife, causing Raven's Gate to break and explode open. The King of the Old Ones climbs out of the portal and crushes Sir Michael to death. The power station then overloads and explodes, but all the heat and radiation is sucked into the gate, taking the Old Ones with it. The portal and the Gate are sealed and the Old Ones are once again trapped in their separate dimension. Matt ends up living with Richard in York. They get a visit from Fabian, a member of Nexus, who has come to talk to him about a second gate in Peru. Richard doesn't want to go through all this again, but Matt explains he has no choice because he is a Gatekeeper and, as the Old Ones will try to break out again, it is his destiny to stop them when they do. Evil Star (2006) After the events of Raven's Gate, Matt goes to a new private school in which the Nexus are paying for, but is left friendless due to a bully named Gavin Taylor, who Matt unintentionally injures with his powers. Susan Ashwood and Fabian, members of the Nexus, ask him to help them acquire an old diary which could enable them to stop a second gate being opened. He refuses. Meanwhile, Gwenda Davis, his aunt, has fallen under the influence of dark forces in the form of television host, Rex McKenna. She kills her spouse Brian, steals a petrol tanker, and drives it into Matt's new school in a desperate attempt to kill him. Fortunately, he uses his clairvoyance powers and manages to evacuate the whole school before it happens. Matt realizes that he must stop the gate from being opened and agrees to meet the bookseller, Morton, at St Meredith's Church after a meeting with the Nexus. Morton affirms him to be one of the Five, but he is killed in the process and the diary is stolen by Diego Salamanda, another bidder who wants to use the diary to open the second gate. The Nexus persuade Matt and his carer, Richard Cole, to fly to Peru, find the second gate, and stay at a house belonging to Fabian. However, on their way to the planned rendezvous, the Hotel Europa, the car is ambushed and Richard is kidnapped but Matt manages to escape. With the help of a local Peruvian, Pedro, Matt manages to get to the meeting place but is captured by the Peruvian police at the hotel, led by the sadistic Captain Rodriguez, and brutally beaten. Pedro saves him. Then, they escape to the Poison Town, where Pedro lives. Strangely while all the town is affected by diseases, the street in where Pedro lives in seems unaffected. Here, they meet the man Sebastian (who can speak English, unlike Pedro), who agrees to help Matt. As night passes, Matt meets Pedro in a dream, revealing that he is one of the Five. Matt finds the markings of his previous beatings have all gone. Thinking Salamanda had Richard kidnapped, Matt and Pedro travel to his hacienda in Inca, but they are discovered. Salamanda reveals that he does not have Richard. An Inca, Micos, one of Richard's kidnappers, helps them escape, and he is killed in the process. He tells them to travel to Cuzco before he dies, and there, Matt manages to contact Fabian and the Nexus on their whereabouts. However, Rodriguez and the police arrive but Matt and Pedro escape with the help of several Incas, led by Atoc, Micos' brother. Then they are taken to the Mountain of the Sleeping God Mandingo. From there, they descend into the town of the last Incas, Vilcabamba, where Richard, having been staying there after being separated, is waiting for them. There, Richard reveals that the kidnapping was conducted to prevent Matt from reaching the Hotel Europa. Based on the Salamanda's knowledge of their movements, Matt and Richard deduce that there is a traitor in the Nexus tipping him off. At the village, it is learned that the gate is located somewhere in the Nazca Desert. They travel to the Nazca Desert with Professor Chambers, an expert on everything Peruvian, and Matt realizes that the Nazca lines are the second gate. The gate will only open once all the stars align with each of the drawings, however, the gate has been constructed such that the stars will never all align at once, and in this case, the star Cygnus is not in its proper position. However, Salamanda has sent a satellite as a substitute star, an evil star, to open the gate. Matt and Pedro break into Salamanda's headquarters with some help of the Incas in an attempt to stop his plan by destroying the radio mast controlling the satellite. At the control center, it is revealed that Fabian is the traitor in the Nexus, having believed it was pointless to try and stop the opening of the gate. Rodriguez then bursts into the room and shoots Fabian when he tries to stop Matt and Richard from being killed. The radio mast is destroyed and falls into the building, flattening Rodriguez. In his dying moments, Fabian reveals that Salamanda had taken control of the satellite once it was in range, using a different satellite dish out in the desert. Atoc takes Matt and Pedro on a helicopter to the dish, but the helicopter crashes, killing Atoc and breaking Pedro's ankle. Matt has no choice but to stop the gate from being opened alone. He manages to trigger his power, destroying the dish and trailer Salamanda is using, and kills Salamanda when he shoots at Matt by deflecting two bullets back to him. However, the satellite is revealed to still be continuing on its trajectory, opening the gate. The Nazca lines crack open and an army of demons arise, before the King of the Old Ones himself appears, and challenges Matt. Matt uses his powers to wound them but he over-exerts himself and falls into a coma. The Old Ones, biding their time, temporarily hide from the world. Matt is taken to Professor Chambers' house and a doctor examines Matt but does not think he will survive. But Pedro comes back from hospital early and insists on being alone with Matt. At this point, Pedro's power is revealed to be the power to heal. This explains the reason why the street Pedro lived in was the only place in Poison Town that was unaffected by disease. Matt awakes from his coma thanks to Pedro and decides that the only way they can defeat the Old Ones is to find the other three Gatekeepers. Nightrise (2007) This story begins with two men, Colton Bane and Kyle Hovey, who work for an evil corporation called Nightrise, waiting outside a theatre in Reno, Nevada. They are waiting to kidnap identical twin brothers Jamie and Scott Tyler, who are part of a magic show in the theatre. Their foster parent, Don White, sells the twins off to them, but Jamie and Scott escape and are pursued. Scott is captured but Jamie is rescued by a woman. He awakens at the woman's house, who introduces herself as Alicia and tells that her son, Daniel, was kidnapped by the same corporation after exhibiting clairvoyant powers. She takes Jamie to his foster parents' house only to realize they have been murdered, and escape the police only when Jamie uses his telepathic powers. Alicia and Jamie go to Los Angeles where he reveals his backstory. He tells her of his previous foster parents and the weird and inexplicable "accidents" associated with them. He tells her about the strange tattoo he has and that he thinks he is an Indian. After these incidents, he and Scott refused to read or control anyone's minds but each other's. They find a lead to one of the men that kidnapped Scott, Colton Banes, and Alicia persuades Jamie to read his mind to find out where Scott is. Jamie manages to find out where Scott is being held: Silent Creek, a juvenile Centre, where he is being tortured in order to be on Nightrise's side. Alicia decides to seek help from her boss, John Trelawny, who is running for presidency, and manages to convince him about Jamie's powers and to help him get into Silent Creek. Trelawny affirms Jamie's powers and agrees to help him. Jamie is given a false identity and crime and is put into the juvenile Centre. When he arrives, Jamie meets an intake guard named Joe Feather. Jamie manages to discover his brother is there in solitary confinement and Alicia's son Daniel is there too. One night, when he demands that a supervisor named Max Koring take him to his brother, he realizes that his powers do not work in the prison, because of some magnetic field that neutralizes special powers. Koring puts him in solitary confinement for his rudeness and secretly calls Banes to tell him he has found a Gatekeeper. Jamie does not realize that the second gate was opened. In Peru, Richard and Professor Chambers find Pedro by the helicopter. Pedro tells them that Matt went by himself to stop the gate from opening. Thinking Matt is dead, Richard runs until he finds Matt. Matt "looks like all the life was sucked out of him" and is in a coma. After seeing he has a pulse, Richard runs back to bring get help for Matt. Feather had examined him earlier and knew about his mysterious tattoo. He explains to Jamie that the twins are two of the Five, but Scott has already left Silent Creek. They work out a convincing plan to save Daniel and escape, whilst at the same time Colton Banes is on their way to Silent Creek. A fight goes on between Feather's tribe and Banes' men, resulting in Jamie being shot in the shoulder and Banes killed by an arrow. Feather manages to break out with Daniel and Jamie, but Jamie falls unconscious when he is hit by a bullet, and a shaman is called on to bring him back. During this however, Jamie is transported back in time to the height of the war between humanity and the Old Ones ten thousand years ago in England. It becomes clear that the original Gatekeepers are exactly the same as the Gatekeepers in the present, just with different names (except for Matt, who says "I prefer to use my name from your world"). Matt is obviously the leader, and most knowledgeable of the Gatekeepers. In this past life, Jamie's gatekeeper persona was named Sapling. He tells Jamie that he sent Sapling to his death on purpose, as the King of the Old Ones would then think he had won, however, should that occur, his counterpart from the future/past would take his place, hence why Jamie was there. Jamie then participates in the battle against the Old Ones, in which the Old Ones are defeated and banished, having mistakenly thought that only four of the Five could come together and letting their guard down. At the place where the Five congregate, a gate is built at the location the Old Ones were banished to, and would be called Raven's Gate by future generations. Jamie sees an eagle which Matt explains is there to take him back. Jamie's body wakes up in the present and with Feather and Daniel travels back to Reno to reunite Daniel with Alicia, parting ways with Feather afterwards. When he is asleep that night, he is spoken to again by a grey man in the dream world of the Gatekeepers, who says that 'he is going to kill him'. He finally realised what it means, originally mistaking that the man was telling him that Scott was the one going to be killed, but he realizes that Scott is the person going to kill John Trelawny. Throughout the book, Nightrise has always wanted the other candidate, Charles Baker, to become president, who will support the return of the Old Ones. However, when Trelawny became too popular, assassination seemed the only option. It becomes apparent that this will take place during his birthday parade in his home town of Auburn. Alicia, Danny and Jamie hurry to Auburn to stop the assassination. Jamie sees Scott with Susan Mortlake, a leader of Nightrise, in the crowd, and he tries to send a telepathic message to him, but it fails. Desperate, Jamie commands Warren Cornfeld, Trelawny's bodyguard and would-be assassin (being controlled by Scott), to aim the gun at Susan Mortlake. Cornfield shoots and kills Mortlake, and in chaos Jamie takes Scott and meets up with Alicia and Danny. They meet Natalie Johnson, a member of the Nexus and a friend of Trelawny, who gives them her car to escape. Policemen immediately come after them and the twins bid farewell to Alicia and Danny. Jamie and Scott use a hidden doorway in a cave at Lake Tahoe, and emerge in Cuzco, Peru at the Temple of Coricancha. The twins find their way to the Nazca desert and meet with Matt and Pedro, the first and second Gatekeepers. Meanwhile, Scarlett Adams takes an airplane to Hong Kong to meet her father, who works for Nightrise. As Scarlett is about to go she finds out that John Trelawny has lost the election and that it is suspected that Nightrise has rigged the ballots. Necropolis (2008) Scarlett Adams' school tutor group is taken on a trip to St Meredith's Church where she sees a vision of Matt Freeman, who leads her to the door with the pentagram etched into it. There, she is transported to Ukraine, inside a monastery where she is captured by monks who worship the Old Ones. She is taken to the leader of the monastery, Father Gregory, who tells Scarlett of the Gatekeepers and the Old Ones. He and his followers built the monastery around the door in order to catch any of the Gatekeepers for the Old Ones should they come through. Scarlett is taken to a cell, and that night she has a dream about a dragon and a strange neon sign that says "SIGNAL ONE". Later, she escapes by attacking the monks and returning through the door. She returns to St Meredith's, but her eighteen-hour long disappearance has sparked a media storm. In Peru, at Professor Chambers' hacienda, Matt finds out who Scarlett is through the media storm and decides that he should go back to London with the rest of the Five and his friend Richard Cole. However, later that night, a man named Ramon brings the diary belonging to St Joseph of Cordoba, claiming that he feels remorse for helping Diego Salamanda decode the diary. The diary contains the locations of twenty-five doors around the world that serve as portals to other doors. After studying the diary using his skills of reading old maps he learnt at university, Richard says that there are doors in Tuscany, Lake Tahoe, Cuzco, London, Ukraine, Cairo, Istanbul, Delhi, Mecca, Buenos Aires, the Australian outback, Antarctica and Hong Kong. Scott Tyler confirms Ramon's truthfulness by reading his mind, but the hacienda is then attacked and set on fire by strange zombies who kill Ramon with a fence post. Although their Inca allies arrive and finish off the zombies, Professor Chambers is mortally wounded and dies. Matt decides that the Five should split up so that the Old Ones cannot capture them all in one shot, and he, Jamie and Richard go to find Scarlett while Pedro and Scott go to the hidden Inca city of Vilcabamba to stay. In London, Scarlett is trying to get back to her normal life, but can't when she notices strange men following her. She receives a strange phone call from her friend Aidan, who persuades her to go to Happy Garden, a Chinese restaurant, for a Chinese man wants to see her. However, the restaurant is destroyed by a bomb. She unwillingly goes to Hong Kong for her father, Paul Adams, who works for Nightrise Corporation. Matt, Richard and Jamie arrive in London and nearly cross paths with Scarlett, but are held up by an accident orchestrated by the shape changers working for the Old Ones. They go to the Nexus headquarters where Matt realises Ramon's arrival at the hacienda was a trap laid by the Old Ones to stop them from getting to England before Scarlett left for China. Matt theorises that Ramon was hypnotized to give the diary back to the group to create the idea of using one of the doors to get to Hong Kong. There would be agents waiting to immediately capture them once they emerged through the Hong Kong door, so they decide to fly to Macau to seek help from one of the Nexus' contacts, Han Shan-tung on the recommendation of Mr. Lee, before taking a boat into Hong Kong. Meanwhile, Scarlett arrives in Hong Kong, being looked after by Audrey Cheng, who claims her father is away on urgent business. Scarlett meets the sinister Chairman of Nightrise at The Nail, Nightrise's Hong Kong headquarters, who gives her an ornate jade necklace, which is in fact a tracking device. Whilst in Hong Kong, strange and ominous things start happening around her. A person trying to give her a letter disappears in a swarming crowd, and the people that she meets stare at her intently. Mrs Cheng and Karl, the chauffeur, seem robotic and lifeless, and the smog surrounding Hong Kong is thickening. Scarlett follows a trail of clues telling her to go to The Peak and over there, two agents kill Mrs Cheng, who is revealed to be a shape-changer who is one of the Old Ones in human form. Scarlett is then taken to Lohan, whose agents have just helped her escape the Old Ones, and when the building is attacked by Old Ones and the police, they help her to escape again. She is then disguised as a boy, and pretends to be the son of a couple who are boarding a ship departing Hong Kong to Macau, where she will meet with the other Gatekeepers. However, her father, stationed at the jetty, finds her and hands her over to the chairman, who recaptures her believing that it will help her, and keeps her at Victoria Prison. A dream call by Scarlett wakes a dragon (a metaphor for a typhoon), which starts to move towards Hong Kong. Matt, Jamie and Richard arrived in Macau where they meet Han Shan-tung, who reveals himself as "The Master of the Mountain", the leader of the White Lotus Society, a Triad based in Macau and Hong Kong. Shang-tung explains that Scarlett has been taken prisoner by the Old Ones who plan to turn Hong Kong into a necropolis, a city of the dead, by using poisonous gases mixed with the pollution from mainland China that will suffocate and kill the residents there. Shang-Tung believes Scarlett is a reincarnate of the Chinese weather goddess, Lin Mo, and has had his people watch over her all her life. He agrees to help them after affirming that Matt and Jamie are indeed part of the Five with a test: climbing a sword ladder. Later that night Richard, Matt and Jamie Tyler travel by boat to Hong Kong and come under attack by the Hong Kong police (under the control of the Old Ones) after they are betrayed by the captain. In the struggle, Matt loses Richard and Jamie, arriving in Hong Kong alone. He sees people dying in the street because of the pollution, and recognizes several of the Old Ones' servants. Matt makes his way to Wisdom Court, where Scarlett's father now resides. Once there Matt lets himself be captured by the Chairman after being betrayed by a despondent Paul Adams, attempting to barter him for Scarlett. However, Adams is killed and Matt is taken to the same cell as Scarlett in Victoria Prison where they share their experiences. Matt reveals that his being captured was in fact a plan he had made with her father. He knew that the only way to get near her was to be caught, so he had contacted Lohan and his men earlier, telling them of his plan, and then Scarlett's father had agreed to call Nightrise in order to turn in Matt, even at expense of his own life. Matt also explained that he knew the Old Ones would think it was amusing to see two of the five Gatekeepers briefly imprisoned in the same room, before they were imprisoned in different rooms in different sides of the world. Because their powers are strengthened when together they begin to think of escaping. The meaning of "Signal One" is then explained. It is part of the Hong Kong Observatory warning system on the intensity of typhoons. To the Chinese, typhoons are also known as the dragon's breath, explaining the dragon Scarlett had been dreaming of in the Gatekeeper's dream world. She has the ability not just to predict, but to control weather conditions. It is also revealed that Scarlett knew of the typhoon and the power it would bring. Richard and Jamie find Lohan and he bands together his men to rescue Scarlett and Matt under cover of the rising storm Scarlett has made and take the prison, where he followed Matt to when he was being captured. The impending storm is creeping higher up the scale. Jamie knows that Scott will be able to feel the danger Jamie is in, and that he will try and use the door that leads to the Tai Shan Temple, which will undoubtedly be guarded. The group, along with Scarlett, who diverts the storm from them while it destroys everything around them, run to the temple to kill the guards protecting it before Scott arrives, which would result in his death or capture. At The Nightrise headquarters, a wooden sampan picked up by the typhoon smashes into the Chairman's office and ironically kills the Chairman. Meanwhile, Lohan's men kill all but one of the Old Ones' agents, who is wounded but hides. Scott and Pedro travel through the door and the last Old One agent aims at Jamie, but Scott pushes him out of the way and the bullet hits Scarlett in the head, rendering her unconscious. Without Scarlett to hold the typhoon back, it unleashes its full strength on them and disintegrates the temple. Jamie and Scott, Richard and Scarlett, Pedro, and Matt and Lohan dash through the door moments before the temple is destroyed, escaping the typhoon. Then the storm finally abates, revealing Hong Kong completely destroyed (although all the pollution was swept away). All of the Five are separated all over the world with their partners, due to having no preassumed destination decided between all of them, also it is said that since the door collapsed as they were going through it, one final trick was played on them. They jumped 10 years in time after entering the door, and meanwhile, Chaos, the King of the Old Ones, prepares to commence the war to conquer the planet and wipe out humanity. Oblivion (2012) Jamie Tyler ends up in St Botolph's church in Boston, England where he meets Holly, a Villager. The other four Gatekeepers have ended up across the world, and after coming through the doors they realize that the world they knew has changed dramatically owing to the fact that ten years have passed in the time it took them to pass through the doors. Scarlett Adams, accompanied by Richard Cole, ends up at the great pyramids of Giza, in Egypt. As soon as they arrive, they are attacked by soldiers working for the Old Ones, but the rebel militia, supported by Nexus, arrive and bring them to a rebel hospital where Albert Rémy is waiting for them. Tarik, the head of the rebel resistance, asks Scarlett to assassinate the dictator of Egypt, Scarlett refuses to kill in cold-blood. Rémy dies in a shoot-out, and Scarlett and Richard travel to Dubai in the hopes of securing a plane ride. To gain the attention of the ruling Sheikh, Scarlett gambles a large sum of money at his casino. The Sheikh rules her win void as she is underage, but he invites her and Richard to dinner. Matthew Freeman ends up, accompanied by Lohan Shan-tung, at the Basilica de Nossa Senhore de Nazare in Belem, Brazil. With no means of transport, they decide to sell Matt off to buyers for a lot of money, since he is white and in good health, but then Lohan follows him and rescues him. This happens three times, but on the fourth time, the previous owner of Matt, a drug lord, sends his minions to bring him back. Scott Tyler and Pedro are captured by the Old Ones after they exit the door at the Abbey of San Galgano in Italy. Jonas Mortlake converts Scott to the ways of the Old Ones, by offering him wealth and a luxury lifestyle, whilst Pedro has his little finger broken by Jonas' henchmen under orders from Scott. Scott travels with Jonas to Oblivion, Antarctica and tricks Matt into meeting with him. Even though Matt knew it was trap, he still came and tells Scott so. Scott is surprised and even angry, but Matt tells him that they all have a part to play, but Matt's was never to save the world, it was Scott's. Matt is tortured on a rack by the Old Ones and the chairman of Nightrise Corporation. Richard is brought in to witness it, and to be killed in front of Matt in order to spite him. However, Richard kills Matt with the sacrificial tumi given to him by The Incas. This allows the Past Matt to be brought forward into the future to defeat the Old Ones. At the same time, Scott feels guilt over his actions and goes to the 25th door to open it. He is ambushed by Jonas who beats him up, but is saved by the arrival of Scarlett and Lohan, who kills Jonas with a knife. Scott immobilises Scarlett and Lohan so he can sacrifice himself to allow Pedro, his brother (and Holly) to travel through the door, by opening it but gets electrocuted in the process. Scott dies in Jamie's arms, and Richard exits from the crumbling fortress of the Old Ones, with Matt's body. But the Past Matt and Scott from the past, Flint, arrive. Once again the downfall of the Old Ones is due to the fact that the Five are replaced by their predecessors from 10,000 years ago when they die. The Five Gatekeepers defeat Chaos by impaling him with their swords, forming a five pointed star. After the battle, they all have a celebratory meal. Matt gives the other Gatekeepers a chance to stay and rebuild Earth or come with him to the Dreamworld. All the five decide to travel to the Dreamworld, where they meet the Librarian, and a woman, who to each of them has a different appearance (their mother). The end is narrated by Holly who travels back home with Richard and Lohan. Lohan goes East to find his family and friends, he is never heard from again but Holly is sure that as a hardened criminal, he would have reached home. Holly and Richard travel back to the underground pod in London, where they find that Susan Ashwood has died peacefully. The survivors decide to move and live in an abandoned village. Both Holly and Richard marry and have children. They both know that one day, they will visit the Dreamworld and never return. List of characters Main characters Matthew Freeman (introduced in Raven's Gate) Matt is the leader of the Five. He was born in London, England, to an English mother and a father from New Zealand. However, after the death of his parents, he went to live in Ipswich with his aunt, then York. He spent the first few years of his life growing up with his kind and loving parents. They were of comfortable financial stature, though they were not rich. On the morning of the wedding of a family friend, Matt claimed he was ill (when really what had happened was that he had had a premonition of his parents' death, and did not want to go with them, later regretting not trying to save them from their death) and was left with a neighbour, Rosemary Green, while his parents went. Matt reveals to the disbelieving neighbour the details of an accident in which his parents are killed. Afterwards, a police officer arrived and informs them that his parents' car has toppled off a bridge and that both his parents are dead. Mrs Green is sick with shock. Matt was fostered by his Aunt Gwenda and her partner, Brian Conran, who was abusive to his girlfriend and spent Matt's inheritance on luxuries. They then started to abuse and neglect Matt when the money ran out. His performance at school suffered accordingly and he soon falls under the influence of a local petty criminal, Kelvin Johnson, who encouraged him to start stealing, truancy, vandalism, smoking and petty crime. After a botched warehouse theft which culminated in the stabbing of a security guard, Matt is placed on the LEAF project (Liberty and Education Achieved through Fostering). He is placed in the care of Jayne Deverill, an old lady living in Lesser Malling. Taking an immediate disliking to her, Matt tries to escape several times but does not succeed. After spending three days in a fever hearing people talk about him in a sinister fashion and seeing an odd ritual going on in the remains of an abandoned nuclear power plant he encounters Richard Cole, a local journalist. Matt attempts to explain but Cole does not believe him and leaves him on his own. After speaking with the nuclear plant's creator, Sir Michael Marsh and two members from a shadowy organisation known as Nexus, Matt realised that he was one of five Gatekeepers, reincarnated after ten thousand years. He is then captured, dragged inside the power plant and tied upon an altar with a cross of Jesus Christ hanging above him upside down. Matt finds that he is going to be sacrificed with a sacrificial knife for his blood in satanic rituals, and a nuclear explosion will be used to open the gate. Richard Cole is going to be burnt to death after being left out of the protective circle. However, before the Old Ones can escape Raven's Gate, Matt managed to trigger his power and stop the knife from going through his heart. The vacuum created by the subsequent nuclear explosion sucks the Old Ones back in along with the villagers. Before the explosion, a furious Mrs Deverill chases Matt and Richard downstairs into a power plant room with an acid pool. Mrs Deverill manages to knock Richard out, and she and Matt have a fight which ends in Mrs Deverill attempting to crush Matt's windpipe with an extremely heavy pole. Before this can occur, however, Richard regains consciousness and pushes Mrs Deverill into the pool of acid. After this incident, Matt begins living with Richard in York, supported by the Nexus. At the beginning of Evil Star, Matt is attending a private school, financed by The Nexus. He uses his powers to save the entire school from being blown up by his possessed aunt Gwenda driving a petrol tanker, after murdering her boyfriend Brian Conran with a kitchen knife. The Nexus recruited him once again in order to prevent Diego Salamanda from opening the second gate, built into the Nazca plains to release the Old Ones. Matt travels to Peru and is collected by the manservan of Fabian, a member of the Nexus to be taken to the Hotel Europa. Their car is ambushed by some mysterious attackers who kidnap Richard Cole but Matt escapes. Upon hiding from the ambushers, Matt discovers a boy of his age known only as Pedro, who it is revealed is another Gatekeeper. Matt decides to go to the hotel after all but is ambushed by the Peruvian police force, led by Captain Rodriguez, who viciously attacks him. Escaping with some cracked ribs, Matt manages to travel to Pedro's home, where he learns of Pedro's past and the situation of the poor Peruvians. Matthew is sent, with Pedro, to travel to Cuzco, where they would find aid. Eventually, they gained the friendship of the local Incas, and traveled to the city of the Incas where Matt finds Richard, who was kidnapped by the Incas prior to Matt's travels. Matt journeys upland where he meets Professor Joanna Chambers and learned the location of the second gate, and learns that Salamanda has a base in the desert. Matt, Richard, the Incas and Pedro attack the base, disarming the headquarters which Salamanda is using to awaken the Old Ones, where it is revealed Fabian is at traitor, employed by Salamanda Matt and Pedro are flown to Salamanda's main base of operations, in the desert but their helicopter is shot at and they crash. This leads the Old Ones to triumph and enter the Earth once again. They defeat Matt and leave him to die. However, Richard and Professor Chambers arrive. Pedro returns from hospital and uses his power, faith healing, at the last minute and revives Matt. Matt only makes two very brief appearances in Nightrise: in a flashback when he was left to die in the desert and Richard Cole rescues him, and at the end of the book when he and Pedro meet Jamie and Scott Tyler at Professor Chambers's hacienda. His past self also appears in Nightrise when Jamie is sent back into the past, at approximately 8000 BCE. In Necropolis, Matt is living with Professor Joanna Chambers, Richard, Pedro, Jamie and Scott in Peru. He reads an article about Scarlett Adams who had been missing for a day after walking through a door in Saint Meredith's Church in London, England. He determines that she is the fifth and final Gatekeeper but so do the Old Ones. He goes to London to find her with Richard and Jamie. They arrive to find out from Scarlett's housekeeper, Mrs Murdoch, that Scarlett's father has rushed her to Hong Kong on apparent "urgent business". A subsequent meeting with the Nexus confirms that the Old Ones have trapped Scarlett in Hong Kong in hope of luring Matt there too. It is then revealed that Scarlett's father works for Nightrise Corporation and so will give Scarlett to the Old Ones. With no other choice Matt, Richard and Jamie travel to Macau and meet Han Shan-tung, who is the leader of the White Lotus triad, he tells them to meet his son, Lohan, once they arrive in Hong Kong. Matt is separated from Jamie and Richard after Nightrise Corporation attack their boat. Matt is forced to walk the streets alone, covered in a thick smog that suffocates the residents. This is the Old One's plan to turn Hong Kong into a necropolis, a city of the dead. Matt sees people dead or dying on Hong Kong's streets. He even sees some of the creatures that broke out of the Nazca Lines such as a horse with a knife struck through its head like an evil unicorn. Matt visits Paul Adams' apartment where he discovers that Paul is worried sick about Scarlett. The next morning The Chairman of Nightrise kills Paul, captures Matt and takes him to where Scarlett is being held hostage, as an attempt to humiliate two of the Gatekeepers. Richard, Jamie and two of Lohan's men break Scarlett and Matt out of prison. Matt and Scarlett then discover the typhoon which is destroying Hong Kong. Scarlett manages to protect her and the others with her powers and they finally reach a temple with a magic door, which can take them safely back to Peru. The temple is protected from the typhoon whilst Scarlett is inside. As they reach the door, Scarlett is shot by a Nightrise agent, leading the temple to collapse. The Gatekeepers travel through the door by the storm but are separated and scattered around the world in the process. They also jump 10 years in time, during which The Old Ones along with Nightrise Corporation extend their influence throughout the world and wreak havoc. By the start of Oblivion, Matt is travelling with Lohan through Brazil after travelling through the door in Hong Kong. Matt is repeatedly sold as a slave by Lohan and then rescued in order to make money. One night, Matt falls asleep and visits the Dreamworld, there he visits the Library and asks the Librarian for his story, to know what will happen in the end. He is horrified at reading what will happen to him, but he summons the other Gatekeepers by ringing a bell. Pedro, Scarlett, Jamie and Scott Tyler arrive, and greet him, although Scott is distant. Matt tells them that he knows what will happen but does not reveal anything else, he tells them to get to a door and travel to Oblivion, Antarctica. The doors are locked but he tells them that they will know when to travel. Lohan sells Matt for a fourth time but they are both taken as slaves to a gold mine. Matt comes down with a fever and is too ill to use his powers to escape. When Matt is recovering, they initiate their escape when Matt collapses the mine tunnels and breaks the ladders causing mass panic. Matt and Lohan travel towards the helicopter pad, Lohan decides to desert him and travel away. Matt senses this and comes after him, Lohan changes his mind and they fly to Oblivion. After reaching Oblivion, they meet Scarlett and Richard who have flown from Dubai to Antarctica. They meet the commander of the World Army, the human army opposing the Old Ones. The commander wants to attack the Old Ones' palace, but it is all a ruse and the World Army is overrun. Only Matt holds the Old Ones' minions back. Matt is captured by Scott, who has defected, and is tortured by the Old Ones and the Chairman of Nightrise. Richard is taken up to see him, and is heartbroken, but Matt mouths something to him and Richard understands. Richard plunges the sacrificial tumi, the 'invisible sword' from the Incas, into Matt's heart, killing him. Everyone is shocked but at the same time an earthquake seems to happen. Richard escapes the rubble with Matt's body. Chaos arrives as does, the Matt from the Past, and Flint, Scott from the past, who have been brought forward in time after their future selves both died. The Five Gatekeepers battle Chaos and kill him when they each impale him with their swords, forming a five pointed star. In his past life Matt was the leader of the Gatekeepers. He alone had the knowledge of the Old Ones and how to defeat them, although the source of this knowledge seems to have from been his life story that he read in the Library. Unlike the other Gatekeepers of that period, Matt was referred to by his modern name, saying "he likes that one better". It is possible that Matt could have some kind of divine name as the past battle with the Old Ones was so long ago that myth may have been passed down depicting Matt as a god or another celestial being. Indeed, this is highly likely as Pedro's past life, Inti, was worshiped by the Incas, in Scar's past life, she was Lin Mo, the Chinese goddess of the sea, and in Jamie and Scott's past lives, they were the Iroquois Indian gods, Sapling and Flint. The four of them represent South America, Asia, and North America, respectively, with Matt representing Europe. Matt is a very advanced telekinetic, but does not have full control over his abilities and it is stated it can only work under massive desperation. However, by the fourth book, Necropolis, he has learned to use his abilities on command as he has met three of the other Gatekeepers. The full extent of his powers remains unknown. Towards the end of the final book, his telekinetic powers have grown to such an extent that he is (almost singlehandedly) able to hold his own against all thirteen of the fire riders. At one point Matt is able to crack and push apart an Antarctic ice shelf to create a chasm "... hundreds of meters deep ..." and has Scarlett Adams wondering "... if there was any limit to his power ..." Pedro (introduced in Evil Star) Pedro is the second of the Five and is first introduced in the second book, Evil Star. Pedro lived as a beggar in Lima, Peru. Pedro began life in a small village in the Canta province. When he was young the River Chillón burst its banks and Pedro's family were killed. A group of survivors traveled with Pedro to Lima. Pedro eventually ended up in the care of a man named Sebastian with many other children in Poison Town. He lived there performing tricks to people passing by and robbing rich tourists. However, he then met Matthew Freeman and travelled with him. Pedro also bears a strong resemblance to Manco Cápac, the founder of the Inca Empire. Pedro's power is healing. He could heal people by being around them. He only realised his power at the end of Evil Star when he helped Matt after he was injured by Chaos, the King of the Old Ones. He discovered that during the stay with his carer Sebastian in Ciudad del Veneno, known as Poison Town in English, none of the people around him got sick due to his healing abilities, and when Matt slept at the house where Pedro lived he noticed his scars from a previous fight had vanished. He is described as being extremely skinny with long dark brown hair and brown eyes. His past incarnation is named Inti. Pedro is 14 years old in Evil Star and Nightrise, but is then 15 in Necropolis. He had tried to heal Scott after Susan Mortlake tortured him by trying to control him but could not as the scars of the wound were too deep. By the time of Necropolis, he had learned enough of the English language to be able to communicate with the other four gatekeepers. In Necropolis, he went through the doorway in the Tai Shan Temple along with Scott, and ended up in Italy 10 years later. He was held as a prisoner in a castle situated in Naples, along with Scott. After a few weeks of being held in prison, Scott under the influence of the Old Ones joins their side along with Jonas Mortlake, son of Susan Mortlake, while Pedro afterwards escaped the prison and travelled to Rome with the help of an Italian boy named Giovanni. He used the door in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome to get to Oblivion, Antarctica where he and the remaining four finally defeat the Old Ones. After winning the battle, he joins Matt and the other three to live in the dreamworld situated beyond the mountains of Oblivion. Pedro can communicate with the other four of the five in the dream world. Scott and Jamie Tyler (introduced in Nightrise) Native-American twins Jamie and Scott Tyler are two of the Five Gatekeepers. Jamie and Scott are orphans who, after several failed fostering attempts, ended up with an abusive guardian known as 'Uncle Don' where they were forced to work as part of a magic act in Reno, Nevada, USA. After a performance Scott is kidnapped and both physically and mentally tortured by the sinister Nightrise Corporation at a privately owned juvenile prison called Silent Creek, in the outskirts of Nevada. Jamie is rescued by a woman of the name Alicia McGuire, who is on a quest to find her long lost son Daniel McGuire, and suspects that Nightrise had kidnapped him and many other children with paranormal abilities (Daniel has a Precognition ability). With the help of John Trelawney, a senator going for president of the US, Jamie creates a plan to free Scott by going to Silent Creek, a place of which Nightrise was keeping Scott which Jamie found out after seeing into the mind of a Nightrise worker. Jamie almost doesn't escape but is saved by an Incan tribe. He is too late to rescue Scott and is injured while escaping from the prison, however, he does manage to find Daniel McGuire. While he is injured and close to death Jamie is transported to the past, during the war against the Old Ones ten thousand years ago. He learns that he and Scott are Gatekeepers, and that he has replaced his previous incarnation Sapling, who had been killed. After helping to seal the Old Ones in the past, Jamie is returned to his time, where he is able to track down Scott. Jamie arrives in time to stop Scott, who had been brainwashed into killing Senator Trelawney, in order for Nightrise's candidate, Charles Baker, to win the election. The two of them escape through a doorway in a cave in Lake Tahoe where they were found when they were born, and arrive in Cuzco, Peru where they meet Matt and Pedro. However, Scott is still mentally damaged due to his torture and despite Pedro's healing abilities he becomes unbalanced after being separated from Jamie. When all of the Gatekeepers are scattered, Scott ends up captured with Pedro in Italy and Jamie appears alone in England. As the others work to reunite in Antarctica, the Old Ones take advantage of Scott's mental state and convince him to betray the others until Matt sacrifices himself, allowing Scott to realise the error of his ways. To make amends Scott sacrifices himself to bring the other Gatekeepers together, after which he dies and is replaced by his previous incarnation, Flint, allowing Jamie and the other Gatekeepers to defeat the Old Ones. Jamie and Flint then enter the restored dream world with the other Gatekeepers. Jamie and Scott are identical twins and members of the Washoe tribe. Their previous incarnations are Sapling (Jamie) and Flint (Scott). Jamie and Scott have the power of astral projection and Telepathy (including mind control), particularly between each other, at times exhibiting Morphic resonance. Scarlett Adams (introduced at the end of Nightrise and in Necropolis) Scarlett is the fifth Gatekeeper. She appears to be Eurasian, or completely Asian, but was adopted by Europeans and lived in Dulwich. Her parents divorced and moved to other countries, leaving Scarlett behind to complete her studies. Scarlett is first found by the Old Ones when she goes through one of the doorways in St Meredith's Church while on a school trip, and ends up in the Cry For Mercy in Ukraine, where she is captured by a monk who tells her the story of who she is, and makes a narrow escape. Her father, Paul Adams, worked for the Nightrise Corporation and forced Scarlett to fly to Hong Kong to see him, saying that a crisis had arisen, although it was a trap as the Old Ones had control of the city and knew she was a Gatekeeper. However, Scarlett was able to escape temporarily with help from a man called Lohan and a group of Triads known as the White Lotus. The Triads also try to smuggle Matt and Jamie into the city, but they were betrayed and separated. Matt and Scarlett were both captured and held prisoner by the Nightrise Corporation, but escaped with help from the White Lotus triads during a powerful typhoon that Scarlett had unconsciously summoned. The Five are briefly united at the Tai Shan Temple, but Scarlett is shot and seriously injured. When the Gatekeepers are separated she ends up in Cairo, Egypt with Matt's friend Richard Cole. The two of them narrowly avoid becoming unknowing suicide bombers and head to Dubai where they hope to find a plane to take them to Antarctica where they can reunite with the other Gatekeepers. They rescue the pilot of an airbus from the mad king of Dubai and are the first of the Five to arrive at Oblivion, Antarctica. After the defeat of the World Army at Oblivion, Scarlett and Lohan sneak into the Old Ones' fortress and find Scott, but are unable to stop him from sacrificing himself. Once the Old Ones are defeated, Scarlett joins the other Gatekeepers in the restored dream world. Scarlett bears a strong resemblance to and is described by some as Lin Mo, the Chinese goddess of the sea. Her previous incarnation, also called Scarlett but known as Scar, found Jamie when he was transported to the past. Scarlett has the power of Weather manipulation, including forecasting, as well as astral projection. Other characters Richard Cole (introduced in Raven's Gate) Richard Cole makes an appearance throughout Raven's Gate, Evil Star, Nightrise, Necropolis and Oblivion. Richard is Matt Freeman's guardian following the events in Raven's Gate. He worked as a journalist for a small newspaper before he got fired. When the Five get separated after going through the door in Hong Kong, Richard follows Scarlett and vows to protect and stay with her. At Oblivion, when the Old Ones are torturing Matt they take Richard up to the podium so Matt can watch Richard be killed, but using the knife the Inca's gave him he kills Matt, to save him from a lifetime of torture. Richard ends up in a small village with Holly, married and with one son that he called Matt. It is thought that when he dies, he will live in the dream world. Lohan (introduced in Necropolis) Lohan appears in the fourth and fifth books of the series, Necropolis and Oblivion. He is Incense Master in the White Lotus Society and his father is Master of the Mountain. He is appointed as Scarlett Adams’ protector during the events of Necropolis. In Oblivion, he ends up with Matt in Brazil, where he sells Matt to become a slave, takes the money, and rescues him. He almost abandoned Matt at a gold mine to save himself, but Matt stops him. Holly (introduced in Oblivion) Holly appears in the fifth book of the series, Oblivion. She accompanies Jamie Tyler after the society she lives in is burnt down by the police in an attempt to kill the inhabitants. With help from the 'Traveler' they escape to London. At Oblivion, Antarctica she shoots a series of bullets into Chaos. She also is the «author» of the books. Noah (introduced in Raven's Gate) Noah appeared in the first book of the series, Raven's Gate. He is Mrs Deverill's farmhand. He can't speak properly and takes a dislike to Matt. It is believed that he has mental problems. At the end of the novel he dies when he is killed by his own sickle plunging through his stomach when he falls through the top floor of the barn made by Matt. Matt describes him as being fat and greasy. George (introduced in Oblivion) George appears in the fifth book of the series, Oblivion. He is one of the Villagers, living with Rita, John and Holly and working at the local village bakery. George is at home when Holly comes in to tell them about Jamie Tyler. When Jamie comes to stay at Rita and John's house, it appears that George is jealous of him and the attention . He doesn't talk to him. At school, Jamie and George get into a fight, after George apparently goads Jamie. When Miss Keyland calls the police about Jamie, they round up the Villagers in the square. When no one knows where Jamie is, the police kill everyone. However George manages to escape but is shot in the process. He finds Holly, Jamie and the Traveller about to be shot by a policeman. Although he is injured, he hits the police man over the head with a cricket bat, and picks up his machine gun. He creates a diversion whilst the others flee onto the Lady Jane. As they leave, Holly hears a scream and knows that George has died. He is eighteen years old. He is described as rather plump, although muscular due to working at the village bakery, he had blond hair and blue eyes. He is quite quiet. Although he does not look like much, according to Holly, she would choose him to stick up for herself. Holly loves him like a brother. Captain Rodriguez (introduced in Evil Star) Captain Rodriguez appears in the second book of the series, Evil Star. At first he was an ordinary policeman, but when Diego Salamanda takes over the police, Rodriguez becomes his head of security at the base in Nazca, after being corrupted by Salamanda's money. Charles Baker (introduced in Nightrise) Charles Baker appears in the third book of the series, Nightrise, and is mentioned in the fourth book, Necropolis. According to Nightrise employee Susan Mortlake, Baker is sympathetic to their aims. The Nightrise Corporation back Baker financially throughout the campaign channeling millions of dollars in his direction. Earlier in Nightrise, the Chairman and Nightrise executives form a plan to assassinate Senator Trelawny using Scott Tyler, the third of the Five. However this plan fails when Scott's brother Jamie uses his mind powers to tune Scott's powers into killing the wrong person. Despite the plan failing, Charles Baker manages to win the campaign; a vast majority of Americans were very displeased with the results. It is implied Trelawny lost the election due to the votes being rigged at the last minute. Baker makes a brief appearance at the end, making a speech. His eyes aren't quite in focus, implying that the Old Ones could be controlling him, like with Gwenda Davis. Kelvin Johnson (introduced in Raven's Gate) Kelvin Johnson appears in the first book of the series, Raven's Gate. He is Matthew Freeman's friend who smokes and shoplifts. He lives in Ipswich. In Raven's gate, Kelvin convinces Matt to steal from a warehouse that his brother has told him about. They are caught by a security guard, Mark Adams and Kelvin cowardly stabs him in the back and runs off, leaving Matt behind. He is then caught and is taken to a juvenile detention center. Chaos (introduced in Raven's Gate) Chaos appears in all five books, but is first directly mentioned in the third book, Nightrise. He is the King of the Old Ones. How exactly Chaos came into being is unknown, but according to Dravid, Chaos lived on human misery for many years. Eventually, Chaos attempted to take over the world by driving the human race into extinction, but was defeated by five children with supernatural powers called the Gatekeepers. After his defeat, the Gatekeepers imprisoned Chaos in another dimension along with his minions, the Old Ones. The Gatekeepers then built Raven's Gate to prevent Chaos from escaping his extra dimensional prison. Even imprisoned, Chaos had human followers to release him. Two of them were Jayne Deverill and Sir Michael Marsh, who sought to free Chaos and the Old Ones from Raven's Gate by using the blood of one of the Gatekeepers, now reincarnated as teenagers. The two captured the gatekeeper Matt Freeman and Sir Michael Marsh used Matt's blood to open Raven's Gate. With Raven's Gate destroyed, Chaos finally escaped from his prison and crushed Michael to death, having outlived his usefulness. Chaos then proceeded to destroy Matt, who had killed Jayne Deverill, but an explosion caused by the destruction of the power plant caused Raven's Gate to be rebuilt and Chaos is re-imprisoned in his dimension. John (introduced in Oblivion) In Oblivion, John is the adopted grandfather of Holly and George. He lived in the village surrounding St Botolph's Church, Hardham, which is where the Door was the Jamie came through from the Tai Shan Temple in Hong Kong. He was married to Rita. Alicia McGuire (introduced in Nightrise) Alicia McGuire appears in the third book, Nightrise. She is an American woman who used to work for the Presidential Candidate, Senator John Trewlawny. She helps Jamie Tyler try to find his brother, Scott Tyler, when he gets kidnapped. They meet at one of Jamie and Scott's performances, as she is trying to find her son, Daniel, who was kidnapped by the Nightrise organisation due to his clairvoyant powers. Luckily for Jamie, Alicia still had contact with the presidential hopeful. At the end of Nightrise, she is nearly arrested, but then she persuades the police to contact Senator Trelawney. It is presumed he lets her off the hook. Doorways The Doorways are a series of 25 doorways built all around the world for the Gatekeepers to use. The Doors do not lead anywhere normally, except when they are opened by a Gatekeeper. The Gatekeeper can walk in one Door and out of another, with a choice of 25 locations across the world. If a Gatekeeper enters a door without a location in mind, then they will be randomly transported to any of the other Doors. If they enter with a location in mind, that is where they will appear. Each Gatekeeper can also take one companion through the Door with them if they want to: Matt escaped from Hong Kong with Lohan; Richard carried Scarlett through the Door from Hong Kong; Jamie brought Holly with him from St Meredith's Church to Oblivion. The Gatekeepers don't even need to be aware of the Doors, or conscious, to use them; Matt and Scarlett both used the Door from St Meredith's Church without wanting to; Richard carried Scarlett through the Door at Tai Shan Temple when she was unconscious, and it still worked. If any of the 25 Doors are locked, like how Chaos locked the Door at Oblivion using a chain powered by a cosmic force, then all of the other Doors will lock too, rendering them unable to be used until the locked Door is unlocked. The Doors are located at religious or important sites - but usually, the religious site is built because of the Door. Eleven of the Doors' locations are known specifically, seven are known vaguely, and seven remain unknown. By the time the events of Oblivion took place, the Old Ones knew the locations of nineteen of the doors. The Doors are not always physically doors - they are also known to be caves. For example, the Door at Oblivion in Antarctica was a cave; the Door at Lake Tahoe was a cave; and it is unlikely that there was a physical Door at the Great Pyramid of Giza. The Library in the Dreamworld is a massive structure, and so has Doors around it to allow easy access to all of the Library. As the Library is so vast, it can be presumed that there are hundreds, if not thousands of doors located in it. Only Matt and The Librarian are known to have used these Doors. Specific Door Locations are: St Meredith's Church, Moore Street, London, United Kingdom Mutitjulu Cave, Uluru, Australian Outback St Botolph's Church, Boston, United Kingdom Great Pyramid of Giza, near Cairo, Egypt Tai Shan Temple, Hong Kong (destroyed by the typhoon in Necropolis) St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, Rome. The Abbey of San Galgano, Lucca, Italy The Monastery of Cry for Mercy, Ukraine Lake Tahoe, California and Nevada, United States of America The Temple of Coricancha, Cuzco, Peru Basilica de Nossa Senhora de Nazaré, Belém, Brazil Oblivion, Antarctica Marktkirche, Hannover, Germany Vague Door Locations are: Istanbul, Turkey Delhi, India Buenos Aires, Argentina Tokyo, Japan Mecca, Saudi Arabia 7 unknown locations. Trivia Matt was born to be the leader of the Gatekeepers, the reason unknown. In his past life, Matt knew all that was going to happen in the future and knew from the start of his life to find the other four boys and girl in his dream. How he knows this is unknown, though it is expected that he read the book of his life, like his future incarnation did. Matt's name in his past life is never revealed. When Jamie asks him when he goes to the first battle, Matt only tells him that he prefers to use his future reincarnation name. How the doorways came to be is unknown.They were built by the gatekeepers of the past. How the gatekeepers along with their companions jumped ten years in time when they entered the door in Tai Shan Temple, Hong Kong, is unclear but it is believed to have something to do with the door being destroyed whilst they were travelling through it. The story behind the dreamworld is unknown. In Evil Star, the Inca named Atoc died. But in Oblivion, he comes back in chapter 49. This was confirmed to be a mistake by the author. Adaptations Walker Books has so far released graphic novel adaptations for the first three novels in the series, with all three being written by Tony Lee. Raven’s Gate was released on 3 August 2010, with Evil Star and Nightrise released on 2 January 2014 and 6 November 2014 respectively. In 2012, Horowitz tweeted that he had finished writing a 99 page screenplay of Raven's Gate, describing it as “a bit like Terminator but with demons”. In 2014, there were rumours that Warner Bros. have acquired the film rights to the book series, but Horowitz confirmed on Twitter a few years later that this wasn’t so. As of 2021, despite Horowitz’s wishes and recent success with the Alex Rider series adaptation, there has been no further development as of yet on any possible film or TV adaptation of the Power of Five series. References External links The Power of Five official website Official Anthony Horowitz website The Power of Five official Facebook page British children's novels Fantasy novel series Novels by Anthony Horowitz Walker Books books
4639256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiktaalik	Tiktaalik	Tiktaalik (; Inuktitut ) is a monospecific genus of extinct sarcopterygian (lobe-finned fish) from the Late Devonian Period, about 375 Mya (million years ago), having many features akin to those of tetrapods (four-legged animals). Tiktaalik is estimated to have had a total length of based on various specimens. Unearthed in Arctic Canada, Tiktaalik is a non-tetrapod member of Osteichthyes (bony fish), complete with scales and gills – but it has a triangular, flattened head and unusual, cleaver-shaped fins. Its fins have thin ray bones for paddling like most fish, but they also have sturdy interior bones that would have allowed Tiktaalik to prop itself up in shallow water and use its limbs for support as most four-legged animals do. Those fins and other mixed characteristics mark Tiktaalik as a crucial transition fossil, a link in evolution from swimming fish to four-legged vertebrates. This and similar animals might be the common ancestors of all vertebrate terrestrial fauna: amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The first well-preserved Tiktaalik fossils were found in 2004 on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut, Canada. The discovery, made by Edward B. Daeschler of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Neil H. Shubin from the University of Chicago, and Harvard University Professor Farish A. Jenkins Jr, was published in the April 6, 2006, issue of Nature and quickly recognized as a transitional form. Description Tiktaalik provides insights on the features of the extinct closest relatives of the tetrapods. Tiktaalik was a large fish: the largest known fossils have an estimated length of 2.75 m (9.02 feet), with the longest lower jaws reaching a length of 31 cm (1.0 feet). Skull and neck The skull of Tiktaalik was low and flat, more similar in shape to that of a crocodile than most fish. The rear edge of the skull was excavated by a pair of indentations known as otic notches. These notches may have housed spiracles on the top of the head, which suggest the creature had primitive lungs as well as gills. Tiktaalik also lacked a characteristic that most fishes have—bony plates in the gill area that restrict lateral head movement. This makes Tiktaalik the earliest known fish to have a neck, with the pectoral (shoulder) girdle separate from the skull. This would give the creature more freedom in hunting prey on land or in the shallows. Forelimbs The "fins" of Tiktaalik have helped to contextualize the origin of weight-bearing limbs and digits. The fin has both a robust internal skeleton, like tetrapods, surrounded by a web of simple bony fin rays (lepidotrichia), like fish. The lepidotrichia are thickest and most extensive on the front edge and upper side of the fin, leaving more room for muscle and skin on the underside of the fin. The pectoral fin was clearly weight bearing, being attached to a massive shoulder girdle with expanded scapular and coracoid elements attached to the body armor. Moreover, there are large muscle scars on the underside of the forefin bones, and the distal joints of the wrist are highly mobile. Together, these suggest that the fin was both muscular and had the ability to flex like a wrist joint. These wrist-like features would have helped anchor the creature to the bottom in a fast current. One of the persistent questions facing paleontologists is the evolution of the tetrapod limb: specifically, how the internal bones of lobed fins evolved into the feet and toes of tetrapods. In many lobe-finned fish, including living coelacanths and the Australian lungfish, the fin skeleton is based around a straight string of midline bones, making up the metapterygial axis. The component bones of the axis are known as axials or mesomeres. The axis is flanked by one or two series of rod-like bones known as radials. Radials can be characterized as preaxial (in front of the axials) or postaxial (behind the axials). This semi-symmetrical structure is difficult to homologize with the more splayed lower limbs of tetrapods. Tiktaalik retains a metapterygial axis with distinctly enlarged axial bones, a very fish-like condition. Even Panderichthys, which is otherwise more fish-like, seems to be more advanced towards a tetrapod-like limb. Nevertheless, the internal skeleton of the pectoral fin can still be equated to the forelimb bones of tetrapods. The first axial, at the base of the fin, has developed into the humerus, the single large bone making up the stylopodium (upper arm). This is followed by the two bones of the zeugopodium (forearm): the radius (i.e., the first preaxial radial) and ulna (i.e., the second axial). The radius is much larger than the ulna, and its front edge thins into a sharp blade like that of Panderichthys. Further down, the internal skeleton transitions into the mesopodium, which in tetrapods contains the bones of the wrist. Tiktaalik has two large wrist bones: the narrow intermedium (i.e., the second preaxial radial) and the blocky ulnare (i.e., the third axial). In tetrapods, the wrist is followed by the hand and finger bones. The origin of these bones has long been a topic of contention. In the early 20th century, most paleontologists considered the digits to develop symmetrically from the distal fin radials. Another school of thought, popularized in the 1940s, is that the hand was neomorphic. This means that it was an entirely new structure that spontaneously evolved once the distal axials and radials were reduced. A third hypothesis, emphasized by Shubin and Alberch (1986), is that digits are homologous to postaxial radials in particular. This interpretation, better known as the digital arch model, is supported by numerous developmental studies. A consistent set of Hox genes are responsible for moderating both the rear edge of the fin (in several modern fish) and the digits of modern tetrapods as their embryos develop. The digital arch model posits that the metapterygial axis was bent forwards at a sharp angle near the origin of tetrapods. This allowed the axials to transform into wrist bones, while the narrower postaxial radials splay out and evolve into fingers. Tiktaalik presents a contradictory set of traits. As predicted by the digital arch model, there are at multiple (at least eight) rectangular distal radials arranged in a dispersed pattern, similar to fingers. Some of the radials are even arranged sequentially, akin to finger joints. However, the metapterygial axis is straight and runs down the middle of the fin. Only three of the finger-like radials are postaxial, while the model predicts that most or all of the radials should be postaxial. It remains to be seen whether any of the distal radials of Tiktaalik are homologous to fingers. Finger-like distal radials are also known in other elpistostegalians: Panderichthys (which has at least four) and Elpistostege (which has 19). Hip and hindlimbs As with other regions of the body, the pelvis (hip) was intermediate in form between earlier lobe-finned fish (like Gooloogongia and Eusthenopteron) and tetrapods (like Acanthostega). The pelvis was much larger than in other fish, nearly the same size as the shoulder girdle, like tetrapods. In terms of shape, the pelvis is a single bone, much more similar to fish. There is a broad upper iliac blade continuous with a low semi-cartilaginous pubic process in front of the acetabulum (hip socket). This contrasts with the more complex pelvis of tetrapods, which have three separate bones (the ilium, pubis, and ischium) making up the hip. In addition, in tetrapods the left and right pelvises often connect to each other or the spinal column, while in Tiktaalik each side of the pelvis is fully separate. The orientation of the hip socket is halfway between the rear-facing socket of other fish and the sideways-facing socket of tetrapods. The hindlimbs, also known as pelvic fins, appear to be almost as long as the forelimbs. This is yet another trait more similar to tetrapods than to other fish. Though not all bones are preserved in the fossil, it is clear that the hindlimbs of Tiktaalik had lepidotrichia and at least three large rod-like ankle bones. If fully preserved, the pelvic fins would probably have been internally and externally very similar to the pectoral fins. Torso The torso of Tiktaalik is elongated by the standards of most Devonian tetrapodomorphs. Although the vertebrae are not ossified, there are about 45 pairs of ribs between the skull and the hip region. The ribs are larger than in earlier fish, imbricating (overlapping) via blade-like flanges. Imbricating ribs are also known in Ichthyostega, though in that taxon the ribs are more diverse in shape. Tiktaalik most likely lacked dorsal fins, like other elpistostegalians as well as tetrapods. The shape of the tail and caudal fin are unknown, since that portion of the skeleton has not been preserved. Many lobe-finned fish have a single anal fin on the underside of the tail, behind the pelvic fins. While not reported in Tiktaalik, an anal fin can be observed in Elpistostege, a close relative. Tiktaalik was covered by rhombic (diamond-shaped) bony scales, most similar to Panderichthys among lobe-finned fish. The scales are roughly-textured, slightly broader than long, and overlap from front-to-back. Strong lungs (as supported by the plausible presence of a spiracle) may have led to the evolution of a more robust ribcage, a key evolutionary trait of land-living creatures. The more robust ribcage of Tiktaalik would have helped support the animal's body any time it ventured outside a fully aquatic habitat. Tiktaalik is sometimes compared to gars (especially Atractosteus spatula, the alligator gar) of the family Lepisosteidae, with whom it shares a number of characteristics: Diamond-shaped scale patterns common to the Crossopterygii class (in both species scales are rhombic, overlapping and tuberculated); Teeth structured in two rows; Both internal and external nostrils; Tubular and streamlined body; Absence of anterior dorsal fin; Broad, dorsoventrally compressed skull; Paired frontal bones; Marginal nares; Subterminal mouth; Lung-like organ. Paleobiology Tiktaalik generally had the characteristics of a lobe-finned fish, but with front fins featuring arm-like skeletal structures more akin to those of a crocodile, including a shoulder, elbow, and wrist. The fossil discovered in 2004 did not include the rear fins and tail, which were found in other specimens. It had rows of sharp teeth indicative of a predator fish, and its neck could move independently of its body, which is not common in other fish (Tarrasius, Mandageria, placoderms, and extant seahorses being some exceptions; see also Lepidogalaxias and Channallabes apus). The animal had a flat skull resembling a crocodile's; eyes on top of its head; a neck and ribs similar to those of tetrapods, with the ribs being used to support its body and aid in breathing via lungs; well developed jaws suitable for catching prey; and a small gill slit called a spiracle that, in more derived animals, became an ear. Spiracles would have been useful in shallow water, where higher water temperature would lower oxygen content. The discoverers said that in all likelihood, Tiktaalik flexed its proto-limbs primarily on the floor of streams and may have pulled itself onto the shore for brief periods. In 2014, the discovery of the animal's pelvic girdle was announced; it was strongly built, indicating the animal could have used them for moving in shallow water and across mudflats. Neil Shubin and Daeschler, the leaders of the team, have been searching Ellesmere Island for fossils since 2000: Paleoecology The fossils of Tiktaalik were found in the Fram Formation, deposits of meandering stream systems near the Devonian equator, suggesting a benthic animal that lived on the bottom of shallow waters and perhaps even out of the water for short periods, with a skeleton indicating that it could support its body under the force of gravity whether in very shallow water or on land. At that period, for the first time, deciduous plants were flourishing and annually shedding leaves into the water, attracting small prey into warm oxygen-poor shallows that were difficult for larger fish to swim in. Classification and evolution Tiktaalik roseae is the only species classified under the genus. Tiktaalik lived approximately 375 million years ago. It is representative of the transition between non-tetrapod vertebrates (fish) such as Panderichthys, known from fossils 380 million years old, and early tetrapods such as Acanthostega and Ichthyostega, known from fossils about 365 million years old. Its mixture of primitive fish and derived tetrapod characteristics led one of its discoverers, Neil Shubin, to characterize Tiktaalik as a "fishapod". Tiktaalik is a transitional fossil; it is to tetrapods what Archaeopteryx is to birds, troodonts and dromaeosaurids. While it may be that neither is ancestor to any living animal, they serve as evidence that intermediates between very different types of vertebrates did once exist. The mixture of both fish and tetrapod characteristics found in Tiktaalik include these traits: Fish Fish gills Fish scales Fish fins "Fishapod" Half-fish, half-tetrapod limb bones and joints, including a functional wrist joint and radiating, fish-like fins instead of toes Half-fish, half-tetrapod ear region Tetrapod Tetrapod rib bones Tetrapod mobile neck with separate pectoral girdle Tetrapod lungs Classification history 2006–2010: Elpistostegids as tetrapod ancestors The phylogenetic analysis of Daeschler et al. (2006) placed Tiktaalik as a sister taxon to Elpistostege and directly above Panderichthys, which was preceded by Eusthenopteron. Tiktaalik was thus inserted below Acanthostega and Ichthyostega, acting as a transitional form between limbless fish and limbed vertebrates ("tetrapods"). Some press coverage also used the term "missing link", implying that Tiktaalik filled an evolutionary gap between fish and tetrapods. Nevertheless, Tiktaalik has never been claimed to be a direct ancestor to tetrapods. Rather, its fossils help to illuminate evolutionary trends and approximate the hypothetical true ancestor to the tetrapod lineage, which would have been similar in form and ecology. In its original description, Tiktaalik was described as a member of Elpistostegalia, a name previously used to refer to particularly tetrapod-like fish such as Elpistostege and Panderichthys. Daeschler et al. (2006) recognized that this term referred to a paraphyletic grade of fish incrementally closer to tetrapods. Elpistostegalian fish have few unique traits which are not retained from earlier fish or inherited by later tetrapods. In response, Daescler et al. (2006) redefined Elpisostegalia as a clade, including all vertebrates descended from the common ancestor of Panderichthys, Elpistostege, and tetrapods. Nevertheless, they still retained the phrase "elpistostegalian fish" to refer to the grade of early elpisostegalians which had not acquired limbs, digits, or other specializations which define tetrapods. In this sense, Tiktaalik is an elpistostegalian fish. Later papers also use the term "elpisostegid" for the same category of Devonian fish. This order of the phylogenetic tree was initially adopted by other experts, most notably by Per Ahlberg and Jennifer Clack. However, it was questioned in a 2008 paper by Boisvert et al., who noted that Panderichthys, due to its more derived distal forelimb structure, might be closer to tetrapods than Tiktaalik or even that it was convergent with tetrapods. Ahlberg, co-author of the study, considered the possibility of Tiktaalik's fin having been "an evolutionary return to a more primitive form." 2010–present: Doubts over tetrapod ancestry The proposed origin of tetrapods among elpistostegalian fish was called into question by a discovery made in the Holy Cross Mountains of Poland. In January 2010, a group of paleontologists (including Ahlberg) published on a series of trackways from the Eifelian stage of the Middle Devonian, about 12 million years older than Tiktaalik. These trackways, discovered at the Zachełmie quarry, appear to have been created by fully terrestrial tetrapods with a quadrupedal gait. Tiktaalik's discoverers were skeptical about the Zachelmie trackways. Daeschler said that trace evidence was not enough for him to modify the theory of tetrapod evolution, while Shubin argued that Tiktaalik could have produced very similar footprints. In a later study Shubin expressed a significantly modified opinion that some of the Zachelmie footprints, those which lacked digits, may have been made by walking fish. However, Ahlberg insisted that those tracks could not have possibly been formed either by natural processes or by transitional species such as Tiktaalik or Panderichthys. Instead, the authors of the publication suggested that "ichthyostegalian"-grade tetrapods were the responsible trackmakers, based on available pes morphology of those animals. Narkiewicz, co-author of the article on the Zachelmie trackways, claimed that the Polish "discovery has disproved the theory that elpistostegids were the ancestors of tetrapods", a notion partially shared by Philippe Janvier. To resolve the questions posed by the Zachelmie trackways, several hypotheses have been suggested. One approach maintains that the first pulse of elpistostegalian and tetrapod evolution occurring in the Middle Devonian, a time when body fossils showing this trend are too rare to be preserved. This maintains the elpistostegalian-tetrapod ancestor-descendant relationship apparent in fossils, but also introduces long ghost lineages required to explain the apparent delay in fossil appearances. Another approach is that elpistostegalian and tetrapod similarities are a case of convergent evolution. In this interpretation, tetrapods would originate in the Middle Devonian while elpisostegalians originate independently in the Late Devonian, before going extinct near the end of the period. Estimates published after the discovery of Zachelmie tracks suggested that digited tetrapods may have appeared as early as 427.4 Ma ago and questioned attempts to read absolute timing of evolutionary events in early tetrapod evolution from stratigraphy. However, a reanalysis in 2015 of the Zachelmie trackways find that it fails the criteria for it being identified as Devonian tetrapod trackways and were instead reinterpreted as fish nests or feeding traces, with the trackways at Easter Ross, Valentia Island, and Genoa River being interpreted to have been produced by tetrapods. Until more data become available, the phylogenetic position of Tiktaalik and other elpistostegids remains contested. Discovery In 2004, three fossilized Tiktaalik skeletons were discovered in the Late Devonian fluvial Fram Formation on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, in northern Canada. Estimated ages were reported at 375 Ma, 379 Ma, and 383 Ma. At the time of the species' existence, Ellesmere Island was part of the continent Laurentia (modern eastern North America and Greenland), which was centered on the equator and had a warm climate. When discovered, one of the skulls was found sticking out of a cliff. Upon further inspection, the fossil was found to be in excellent condition for a 375-million-year-old specimen. The discovery by Daeschler, Shubin, and Jenkins was published in the April 6, 2006, issue of Nature and quickly recognized as a transitional form. Jennifer A. Clack, a Cambridge University expert on tetrapod evolution, said of Tiktaalik, "It's one of those things you can point to and say, 'I told you this would exist,' and there it is." The name Tiktaalik is an Inuktitut word meaning "large freshwater fish". The "fishapod" genus received this name after a suggestion by Inuit elders of Canada's Nunavut Territory, where the fossil was discovered. The specific name roseae cryptically honours an anonymous donor. Taking a detailed look at the internal head skeleton of Tiktaalik roseae, in the October 16, 2008, issue of Nature, researchers show how Tiktaalik was gaining structures that could allow it to support itself on solid ground and breathe air, a key intermediate step in the transformation of the skull that accompanied the shift to life on land by our distant ancestors. More than 60 specimens of Tiktaalik have been discovered, though the holotype remains the most complete and well-described fossil. Cultural significance Tiktaalik has been used as the subject of various Internet memes. The images generally humorously criticize Tiktaalik for its evolutionary adaptations, construing them as playing a critical role in the chain of events that would eventually lead to all human suffering. See also Walking fish Alligator gar Amphibious fish Spotted handfish Other lobe-finned fish found in fossils from the Devonian Period: Coelacanth Eusthenopteron Gogonasus Ichthyostega Panderichthys References External links University of Chicago website dedicated to the discovery Finding Tiktaalik: Interview with Neil Shubin, Royal Institution video, February 2013 A today's fish with tetrapod anatomy, able to move like an early tetrapod – Cryptotora thamicola Elpistostegalians Monotypic fish genera Prehistoric lobe-finned fish genera Devonian fish of North America Paleozoic life of Nunavut Evolution of tetrapods Transitional fossils Fossil taxa described in 2006 Taxa named by Ted Daeschler Taxa named by Neil Shubin
4639364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20giant%20flying%20squirrel	Red giant flying squirrel	The red giant flying squirrel or common giant flying squirrel (Petaurista petaurista) is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae (squirrels). It is found in a wide variety of forest–types, plantations and more open habitats with scattered trees in Southeast Asia, ranging north to the Himalayas and southern and central China. One of the largest arboreal squirrels, all populations have at least some reddish-brown above and pale underparts, but otherwise there are significant geographic variations in the colours. The taxonomic position of those in the Sundaic region is generally agreed upon, but there is considerable uncertainty about the others, which variously have been included in this or other species, or recognized as their own species. Like other flying squirrels, the red giant flying squirrel is mostly nocturnal and able to glide (not actually fly like a bat) long distances between trees by spreading out its patagium, skin between its limbs. It is a herbivore and the female has one, infrequently two, young per litter. Although declining locally due to habitat loss and to a lesser degree hunting, it remains overall common and it is not a threatened species. Distribution, appearance and taxonomy The red giant flying squirrel is among the largest flying squirrels and longest squirrels. It has a head–and–body length of , tail length of and weighs about . Within each region, males are generally somewhat smaller, at least in weight, than females. It varies considerably in appearance depending on subspecies and location. Roughly, it can be divided into the following subspecies groups, some of which variously have been regarded as part of this species, the Indian giant flying squirrel (P. philippensis), the red and white giant flying squirrel (P. alborufus) or the spotted giant flying squirrel (P. elegans), or their own separate species. Up until the 1980s, some authorities even listed the Indian giant flying squirrel itself as a subspecies of the red giant flying squirrel. Nominate subspecies group The red giant flying squirrel sensu stricto is the nominate subspecies group (P. p. petaurista and most other subspecies, excluding those mentioned in later groups). The distribution of this group essentially equals the Sundaic region, including Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Thai-Malay Peninsula, nearby smaller islands, and Singapore (last Singaporean record in 1986, possibly extirpated). They generally inhabit lowlands and foothills, typically below elevation. Members of the nominate group are medium to dark reddish-brown above and the underparts, including the face, are light orangish-brown to buff. The tail is reddish-brown or orangish-brown and its tip is black. The feet/hands, rings around the eyes and area near the nose are black. The various subspecies in this group are generally quite similar, varying primarily in the exact hue of the upper- and underparts, and to a small degree their size. In the darkest, the upperparts have some black hairs intermixed with the reddish-brown. In Java, much of the tail (not just the tip) can be black. Two subspecies, terutaus from Ko Tarutao in the Andaman Sea off the Thai mainland and taylori from Tenasserim in southern Myanmar and adjacent western Thailand, are located roughly in between the nominate subspecies group and the barroni–candidula subspecies group. Although largely similar to the former group, they have some grizzling to the upperparts and more whitish to the head, thus approaching the latter group. Although the members of the nominate subspecies group are quite similar and appear to be part of the same species, considerable taxonomic uncertainty exists for all populations (groups) outside the Sundaic region. Locally in Thailand, the nominate subspecies group and the barroni–candidula subspecies group are sympatric, leading some authors to recognize them as separate species. The other groups have ranges that are fully separated from the nominate subspecies group. Limited genetic data is available for the nominate subspecies group. A study in 2002 found that Bornean red giant flying squirrels (a part of the nominate group) were relatively closely related to a clade that contains the white-bellied (albiventer) and Yunnan giant flying squirrels (yunanensis subspecies group), but more distantly related to a clade that contains red giant flying squirrels from an unspecified location in southern China and perhaps Laos. Using several of the same samples, a genetic study in 2004 came to another result, finding that Bornean red giant flying squirrels were very closely related to the southern China population, but more distant to the white-bellied giant flying squirrel (albiventer). The same southern Chinese and perhaps Laos specimens have been used in other genetic studies in 2004–2006 where they were labelled as melanotus, a subspecies in the nominate group from the Thai-Malay Peninsula (far from China and Laos). Later studies that used these samples have typically only listed them as red giant flying squirrels from southern China and perhaps Laos without exact subspecies, although likely rufipes (at least in part) as all other groups found in southern China were listed separately. The southern China–perhaps Laos population is very close to the Formosan giant flying squirrel (grandis), but distant from the white-bellied giant flying squirrel (albiventer), Yunnan giant flying squirrel (yunanensis subspecies group) and other giant flying squirrel species. Based on these data, each of these could be regarded as its own species. Alternatively, the southern China–perhaps Laos population and Formosan giant flying squirrel could be regarded as subspecies of one species and the white-bellied and Yunnan giant flying squirrels as subspecies of another species; whether the nominate subspecies group is associated with the former or the latter is disputed. Merging the nominate subspecies group, southern China–perhaps Laos population, and the Formosan, white-bellied and Yunnan giant flying squirrels into a single species would however result in a strongly polyphyletic grouping. Barroni–candidula subspecies group The taxon barroni is found in central and southeastern Thailand and southern Laos. The taxon candidula is found in Myanmar, northern Thailand, and northeastern India (at least eastern Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Assam and Nagaland). Individuals in eastern Bangladesh are similar in their appearance, if not the same. Members of the barroni–candidula subspecies group are chestnut-brown above with the central parts, from the nape to the rump, with many whitish hairs resulting in a grizzled appearance. The underparts, including the throat, are whitish. The black-tipped tail is buffy-grey (candidula) or grey-brown (barroni). Much of the head, including the cheeks and forehead, is grey-white, but with blackish-red rings around the eyes. This is overall similar to the very rare Namdapha flying squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi), which has resulted in frequent misidentifications. Based on a small number of specimens, members of the barroni–candidula subspecies group are medium-large in size, with measurements in the mid to upper range of that reported for the red giant flying squirrel. Since the 1950s, both barroni and candidula have generally been included either as subspecies or as synonyms in the red giant flying squirrel or the red and white giant flying squirrel. Despite the close similarity, barroni and candidula have otherwise frequently been treated very differently in terms of their taxonomy. For example, in 2005, Mammal Species of the World opted to regard candidula as a subspecies of the red giant flying squirrel, while barroni was regarded as a synonym of albiventer (albiventer being a subspecies of the red giant flying squirrel according to that review). In a review in 2012, albiventer was recognized as a separate species, but—partially affected by the review in 2005—opted to include barroni as a valid subspecies of it, although noting that its position requires further study. In contrast, candidula was considered a subspecies of the red and white giant flying squirrel based on its colours. White-bellied giant flying squirrel The white-bellied giant flying squirrel (albiventer) is from the western and central Himalayan region in northeastern Afghanistan, through northern Pakistan and northern India, at least to Nepal (formerly reported east to Yunnan in China, but this is now recognized as separate, see Yunnan giant flying squirrel). In Nepal it occurs at altitudes from , but in Pakistan from with the upper limit equalling the tree line. Its upperparts are reddish-mahogany or reddish-chestnut with many whitish hairs resulting in a grizzled appearance. The underparts are pale buffy to whitish, and the throat and cheeks are whitish. The tail is brown, often with a black tip, and the feet/hands are blackish. Melanistic individuals are known from the Kaghan Valley in Pakistan. The white-bellied giant flying squirrel is medium-large in size, with measurements in the mid to upper range of those reported for the red giant flying squirrel. Since the 1950s, most authorities placed albiventer as a subspecies of the red giant flying squirrel. In the early 2000s, several genetic studies revealed that albiventer is relatively closely related to the members of the yunanensis group, but quite distantly related to other giant flying squirrels. As a consequence, recent authorities often have recognized it as a separate species, the white-bellied giant flying squirrel (P. albiventer), sometimes with barroni or members of the yunanensis group as its subspecies. Yunnan giant flying squirrel The yunanensis subspecies group (including nigra, muzongensis and mechukaensis), often incorrectly modified to yunnanensis, is found in highlands of northeast India (at least northern and eastern Arunachal Pradesh), far northwestern Yunnan and southeastern Xizang in China, Myanmar, northern Laos and northern Vietnam, although the extent of its range in the last three countries is labelled with considerable uncertainty. Members of this group have dark reddish-chestnut upperparts, darker towards the upper back and head, a blackish tail with a greyish or reddish-chestnut base, and brown-black feet/hands, muzzle and around the eyes. The underparts are light ochraceous-buff and the throat is whitish. In yunanensis, the central upperparts, from the top of the head and shoulders to the rump, have extensive scattered creamy-white guard hairs resulting in a grizzled appearance. In nigra, this is of more limited extent, mostly on the mid and lower back. In muzongensis and mechukaensis, this is essentially absent. Despite being distantly related, yunanensis is easily confused with the rare Mount Gaoligong flying squirrel (Biswamoyopterus gaoligongensis). Members of the yunanensis subspecies group are medium-large in size, with measurements in the mid to upper range of that reported for the red giant flying squirrel. Traditionally, only yunanensis was recognized, variously as a subspecies of the red or the Indian giant flying squirrel, and often including several highly distinctive populations, notably hainana, rubicundus and rufipes, as synonyms. In 2006, a genetic study showed that yunanensis is fairly closely related to the white-bellied giant flying squirrel (albiventer), but quite distantly related to other giant flying squirrels, leading several recent authorities to recognize it as its own species, the Yunnan giant flying squirrel (P. yunanensis). In 2017, a review of Chinese "yunanensis" found that nigra (typically considered a synonym of yunanensis) of northwestern Yunnan is distinct and that individuals from southeastern Xizang should be recognized as the new subspecies muzongensis; thus effectively limiting the Chinese range of true yunanensis to southwestern Yunnan. Samples used in the 2006 genetic study (and a few other studies that used the same) actually were nigra rather than yunanensis. Although all are very similar in their general appearance, it was suggested that yunanensis should remain part of the Indian giant flying squirrel based on cranial morphometrics, while nigra and muzongensis should be considered subspecies of the white-bellied giant flying squirrel. An alternative option is to recognize it as its own species, P. nigra with subspecies muzongensis, or all as subspecies of P. yunanensis. In 2007 and 2009, two very similar new species were described from northeastern India: the Mechuka giant flying squirrel (P. mechukaensis) of north-central Arunachal Pradesh and Mishmi giant flying squirrel (P. mishmiensis) of northeastern Arunachal Pradesh. In 2016, it was proposed that mechukaensis is a part of P. nigra, but the taxonomic position of both it and mishmiensis require further study. Subspecies rubicundus and rufipes Both rubicundus and rufipes are restricted to China, with the former from the central states of Gansu, Shaanxi and Sichuan, and the latter from the southeastern states of Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Yunnan. Although rufipes does occur very close to the border with northern Laos and northern Vietnam, it has not been confirmed in either country. They generally resemble typical members of the nominate subspecies group, but they have brown (not black) feet/hands, especially rufipes is more ferruginous or tawny above, and the entire tail of rufipes is ferruginous or tawny (no black tail-tip). The taxonomic position of these Chinese taxa has been greatly disputed. In 2003 and 2008, Chinese authorities recognized rufipes as a subspecies of the red giant flying squirrel, while rubicundus variously was placed as a subspecies of the Indian or the Chindwin giant flying squirrel (itself often considered a subspecies of the spotted giant flying squirrel). Despite their appearance, it was suggested in 2005 in Mammal Species of the World that both rubicundus and rufipes should be regarded as synonyms of yunanensis, which was repeated in another taxonomic review in 2012. The cranial morphometrics of rufipes (data is lacking for rubicundus) differ distinctly from those of the yunanensis subspecies group. A secondary problem is related to the name rufipes: In 1925, the population in southeastern China was described using this name. In 1949, the population in southeastern Sumatra (a part of red giant flying squirrel's nominate subspecies group) was described, also using the name rufipes. Consequently, if both are recognized as valid subspecies of the red giant flying squirrel, the replacement name sodyi is used for the southeast Sumatran population. Formosan giant flying squirrel The Formosan giant flying squirrel (grandis) is from Taiwan, historically known as Formosa, at altitudes of , but mostly . Although there is significant overlap and they do occur together, the Formosan giant flying squirrel tends to occupy lower altitudes than the Taiwan giant flying squirrel (P. (alborufus) lena). These are the only giant flying squirrels of the island. The Formosan giant flying squirrel is dark reddish-chestnut above, including the head, and the underparts, including the throat, are orange-ochre. Except for its reddish-chestnut base, the tail is black. It is relatively small in size, with measurements in the lower range of those reported for the red giant flying squirrel. Since the 1950s, grandis has most often been included as a subspecies of the Indian giant flying squirrel, although sometimes of the red giant flying squirrel. In 2006, a genetic study revealed that it is fairly closely related to the red giant flying squirrel, but quite distantly related to other giant flying squirrels. This has been confirmed by other studies, and recent authorities have placed it as a subspecies of the red giant flying squirrel or recognized it as its own species, the Formosan giant flying squirrel (P. grandis). Behavior The red giant flying squirrel is largely nocturnal, starting its activity just before dusk and retreating at dawn. On occasion it may stay out until the mid-morning. The day is typically spent in a hole in a tree that is or more above the ground, although sometimes in rock crevices or a nest made of vegetation in a tree instead. In a study of seven nests in India's Namdapha National Park, one tree hole was above the ground, while the remaining were between about above the ground. Red giant flying squirrels and hornbills sometimes compete for the same tree holes. Gliding The red giant flying squirrel usually travels between trees by long glides, up to at least , reputedly even . Most glides are no longer than . Glides are most often launched from the upper tree canopy, less often the mid or lower canopy. The animal lands well below its launch height, as the typical glide angle is about 14–22°. Nevertheless, landing heights generally are more than above the ground and typically much higher. As long as the separation between remaining tall trees does not exceed its typical glide distance, this species survives well in degraded habitats, even willingly crossing highways. However, if distances between trees exceed the typical glide distance, it forms an efficient barrier for the species. Feeding The red giant flying squirrel is a herbivore, primarily a folivore, and has been recorded feeding on the leaves of many plant species. Young leaves are preferred over older leaves. Other items recorded in its diet are shoots, flowers, fruits, nuts, seeds, lichen, moss, twigs, bark and in the northern part of its range pine cones. In Taiwan alone, P. (p.) grandis has been recorded feeding on at least 30 species of plants from 19 families. When feeding extensively on bark it may kill trees in the process and for this reason it is sometimes considered a pest in conifer plantations, while its frugivory can result in conflicts with humans in fruit plantations. Although not fully confirmed, there are strong indications that flower-feeding red giant flying squirrels may function as pollinators of certain trees. Some populations, at least P. (p.) yunanensis, will visit specific locations to feed on minerals directly from cliffs/earth. When only relatively poor food sources like older leaves are available, the red giant flying squirrel is still active, but less so compared to periods where richer food sources like young leaves and fruits are available. The populations that live in colder mountainous regions (for example, P. (p.) albiventer) remain active even when there is deep snow on the ground, but during this time may move to lower altitudes. While some species of giant flying squirrels will supplement their diet with small animals, primarily insects, this has not been reported in the red giant flying squirrel. Social life and breeding Densities vary greatly in the red giant flying squirrel. In Taiwan (P. (p.) grandis), it varies from an average of around five animals per in hardwood forests to around one-fifth that density in conifer plantations, although there are also reports of home ranges in the latter habitat that are as small as, or even a bit smaller, than the average reported in the former habitat. It is often the most common species of giant flying squirrel in the Sundaic region. It has an oft-uttered call that especially is given at dusk, and in Himalaya (P. (p.) albiventer) has been described as a "monotonous repeated wail" or a "loud, penetrating and drawn-out whine". Sometimes small groups may actively call out to each other over a longer period. Otherwise the species typically occurs alone, or in pairs. The mother or pair are sometimes accompanied by a young, as they forage together for a few to several months after birth. There is usually only one, infrequently two, young in a litter, as typical of giant flying squirrels. In Taiwan (P. (p.) grandis), there are two breeding seasons per year, with most births in January–February and July–August. In Uttarakhand of India, a young was found in a nest in May and in Malaysia pregnant females have been recorded in February. The young suckle for an extended period of time after being born; more than two months in P. (p.) albiventer. References Mammals of Afghanistan Rodents of India Rodents of China Rodents of Pakistan Rodents of Singapore Rodents of Malaysia Rodents of Indonesia Mammals of Borneo Mammals described in 1766 Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas Petaurista
4639425	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters%3A%20Legion	Ghostbusters: Legion	Ghostbusters: Legion is a 2004 comic book mini-series published by the Quebec-based publisher, 88MPH Studios run by Canadian Sebastien Clavet. It was written by Andrew Dabb, with pencils by Steve Kurth and inks by Serge LaPointe. The series ran 4 issues from February through May 2004. It was collected as a hardcover collection in 2005 by 88MPH and was supposed to be released via a Diamond Comic Distributors "Previews" exclusive. However, the hardcover never came to pass due to the company's financial problems. It was reprinted as a softcover trade paperback that year, for the UK market by the British Titan Books. A proposed follow up series from the same comic publisher was announced but ultimately cancelled. Synopsis Legion saw the return of the four Ghostbusters and the principal cast from the movie. Set six months on from the Gozer incident the series was designed to follow the Ghostbusters as their initial fame faded and they returned to the regular chore of busting ghosts on a daily basis. The series sees the team run ragged as a spate of supernatural crimes and other related occurrences plague the city. Main characters Dr. Peter Venkman: A wisecracking ladies man with little apparent interest in the scientific side of the company. However, despite the fact he is usually outwardly sarcastic and lazy it masks a deeper dedication to both the job and his friends. Despite having an ongoing relationship with cellist Dana Barrett, he is concerned that not only are they growing apart romantically, but also that he is being overshadowed by über geek Louis Tully. Dr. Ray Stantz: An emotional but highly intelligent young man, Ray is possibly the only member to put his full heart into both the company and the job, often seeking enjoyment from the variety of entities and situations they encounter. However, during the events of the story he is quickly becoming disillusioned with both himself and their stance as proponents of a defense science. Dr. Egon Spengler: The brains behind the operation, Egon is the scientific mind that keeps the equipment functional and is instrumental to solving the mystery in Legion. Winston Zeddemore: Still an everyman but with a greater character development from the film, Winston is still finding himself asking a lot of questions, specifically in relation to the three founding Ghostbusters' pasts. Janine Melnitz: Janine returns pretty much unchanged, she is still pursuing a romantic involvement with Egon and has remained at opposites with Peter, to the point of a welcome return of the verbal sparring which made the pair an interesting dynamic on The Real Ghostbusters cartoon series. Dana Barrett: Following the events of the first movie, Dana has pursued a shaky relationship with Peter. Despite their feelings for each other, their relationship is in the lurch and whether it will survive with their work commitments and outside forces remains to be seen. Louis Tully: By far the most successful of the group. While the fame the Ghostbusters received is fading, Louis has become a media darling following the explosion at Gozer's temple. Featuring at charity events, draped in women and receiving many requests for autographs, it would appear that Louis is content with his rich bachelor lifestyle. However, it would appear that his splurging out on expensive baubles and surrounding himself with beautiful women might be masking something deeper and darker. Michael Draverhaven: A dark and dirty secret from Peter, Ray and Egon's collective pasts. A former colleague who had been held within a psychiatric institution in Albany, his unsettled and unstable mind may be hiding the clues to revealing the final outcome in the Legion storyline. Production Andrew Dabb: Series Writer Steve Kurth: Series Artist Serge LaPointe: Series Inker (With additional work from Chuck Gibson, Michel Lacombe, Ulises Grostieta and Marco Galli "Blond" AKA Kevin Senft: Series Colourist Ed Dukeshire: Series Letterer Sebastien Clavet: Editor and Owner of 88MPH Studios Publishing The following were the intended release dates for the four part Legion series as well as the expected ongoing monthly comic book series. Ghostbusters: Legion (1 of 4) – February 2004 Ghostbusters: Legion (2 of 4) – March 2004 Ghostbusters: Legion (3 of 4) – April 2004 Ghostbusters: Legion (4 of 4) – May 2004 Ghostbusters Ongoing #1 – June 2004 Ghostbusters Ongoing #2 – July 2004 Ghostbusters Ongoing #3 – August 2004 Delays One of the commonly related problems experienced with the Legion miniseries, and often cited as the reason for the dramatic drop in sales after the first issue, as well as a source of fan grievance, were the extended delays that affected the series. The delays were so severe that issues drifted months from their release dates. Ghostbusters: Legion (1 of 4) – February 2004 (Released April 2004) TOP 300 Rank #170 Est. Sales 9000 Ghostbusters: Legion (2 of 4) – March 2004 (Released July 2004) TOP 300 Rank #182 Est. Sales 7900 Ghostbusters: Legion (3 of 4) – April 2004 (Released November 2004) TOP 300 Rank #235 Est. Sales 3600 Ghostbusters: Legion (4 of 4) – May 2004 (Released January 2005) TOP 300 Rank #151 Est. Sales 6900 Note: Sales numbers off of Diamond Comics' Distributions Top 300 ranked comics. These do not include the Dan Brereton variant covers for the 4 issues. If included, would make the order/sales numbers a little higher. 0 Issue Originally intended as a 0 issue to have been released before Legion, the one shot story The Zeddemore Factor was later released as a convention exclusive at the San Diego Comic Con stall operated by 88MPH Studios to help promote the comic. Financial problems Reported but unconfirmed financial issues had apparently plagued the series as well. While these may have possibly led to delays, sources claimed that inker Chuck Gibson and colorist Adam Nichols (who coloured the convention trade The Zeddemore Factor) had been unpaid for their work on the comics. As of this writing, Adam Nichols and Chuck Gibson have both been paid for their work. Ongoing series Originally planned for a June 2004 release to coincide with the 20th Anniversary of the movie, the ongoing series of the comic was to officially start in the Summer of 2004 with three known stories. The following synopses have been collected from the official site: Ghostbusters Monthly #1 – In June 1984, GHOSTBUSTERS exploded into theaters and captivated a generation. Twenty years later, the boys are back in a brand-new ONGOING comic book series. Now that they’ve saved the world twice, the Ghostbusters want to go global…but that’s easier said than done. Meanwhile, a dead man is wandering the streets of New York and something wicked stirs in the Central Park Zoo. Old foes, new enemies and trusty unlicensed nuclear accelerators, this exciting first issue has it all. Because even after two decades, you know who to call. Ghostbusters Monthly #2 – Romance is in the air as Egon and Janine go out on their first official date, and with Peter playing the role of Cyrano things are bound to get interesting. Meanwhile, Winston goes solo, Louis gets an unwelcome visit from an old friend, and Ray takes a trip to a dark, dangerous place…the library. Ghostbusters Monthly #3 – With the powerful ghost known as Ahriman making trouble and Vinz Clortho back for an encore, the Ghostbusters find themselves racing from one disaster to the next. And that’s before things get really bad. It turns out there's one thing worse than having two evil spirits rampaging through New York; when they get together. Influences The mini-series in overall design and quality has borrowed extensively from the original movies as reference for the technology and science behind Ghostbusters. While some things have been changed for obvious reasons (such as the characters, to avoid additional licensing fees) the following items have been retained true to the movies: The Firehouse (In reality the Hook & Ladder No. 8 FDNY company which served as the Ghostbusters' headquarters (Exterior) in both movies), Proton Packs, Ghost trap, PKE Meter, and Ecto-1. However, there were some small changes made to the series. The most notable was the Containment Unit which had a design inspired by its counterpart in The Real Ghostbusters and Extreme Ghostbusters. Clavet's reasoning behind the change in the Firehouse basement and the Containment Unit is commonly put down to a similar reason used by many fan writers: that a larger basement and containment system would allow for a larger collection of ghosts and a better containment system to be developed. Clavet had also admitted that he liked the design of the Containment Unit in the cartoon and that it seemed like a reasonable development. An additional reference for The Real Ghostbusters fans was seen in Legion #2, which featured Egon Spengler 'doing his hair crazy'. His 'crazy' hair resembled the style worn by his cartoon counterpart in The Real Ghostbusters. The jumpsuits also had a slight revision as well. Unlike the cartoon, the color of the uniform remained the same. The yellow tubing on the left side was removed however. The cover of the Second Printing Edition of Legion #1, featuring Ecto-1 borrowed heavy inspiration from the film poster of the movie Christine, a stated favorite of Clavet's. Design Before all of the angles of the comic series had been finalised, a series of design sketches prepared for by comic artist Mark Brooks depicted a series of renderings for the proposed designs of the four principal characters. Despite still wearing tan suits, the designs featured heavy inspiration from The Real Ghostbusters cartoon, to the point of having Egon with blond hair and featuring the 'funnel' style haircut; a red haired overweight Ray Stantz, and cartoon styled and coloured equipment. An amusing caricature featured the design for Winston being larger and more solidly built then the other three Ghostbusters, spawning the popular and often referenced phrase 'Winston SMASH!' due to his Hulk like appearance. Clavet mentioned that Brooks (at the time only mentioned as 'El Diablo', his popular internet nickname), would not be working on the full series. After a period, a set of final designs were released of the four Ghostbusters as drawn by artist Billy Dallas Patton. The characters were more realistically proportioned then the 'El Diablo' concepts but they did feature specific facial styling which led to them being referred to as 'Disney-esque' designs. It is Patton's character designs that were featured on the poster on the right. Patton only remained with the series for one issue, leaving apparently due to medical issues at the time. His work exists solely as the four rendered character shots and the one-shot story, The Zeddemore Factor. Following Patton's departure, Steve Kurth was hired to much applause within the fan community. In the promotional period for Legion teaser pictures of Slimer and The Stay Puft Marshmallow Man were released showing more of the artist's style. In 2005, Adam Nichols was hired to colour The Zeddemore Factor and provided an alternate but also respected colouring style to the rich colours in the miniseries which had been crafted by colourist 'Blond'. Licensing issues One of the most widely publicized licensing issues to date pertains to the use of Ecto-1, the modified 1959 Cadillac ambulance used as the pursuit/transportation vehicle by the Ghostbusters. It would appear from Clavet's comments that the fees involved with the licensing for the vehicle chassis from General Motors has caused him to take careful consideration in regards to the inclusion of the vehicle. He has made mention of plans for an alternate car, should he be unable to utilize the original design. Fans had been divided on the proposed idea; many expressed willingness in the hope that they could still have a comic while others have voiced dissatisfaction that such an iconic vehicle might be lost from the property. Covers During the run of Legion, a large series of covers were released for the comic. Cited as one of the other major complaints of the series was the overuse of variant issues. Despite this, the selection of covers has proven an unusual and unique collection. Ghostbusters: Legion (1 of 4) featured 6 different covers: Regular cover of the four Ghostbusters in a ruined, slimey environment by regular art team. Variant painted cover of Dr. Peter Venkman by artist Dan Brereton. Retailer Incentive cover of the Ghostbusters logo, using ultraviolet inks. Graham Crackers Comics Exclusive Edition featuring Peter Venkman and Stay Puft by regular art team. Toyzz Exclusive Edition of Vinz Clortho (Terror Dog) by regular art team. Second Printing Edition of Ecto-1 by regular art team. Ghostbusters: Legion (2 of 4) featured 2 different covers: Regular cover of the four Ghostbusters surrounded by a legion of ghosts, watched over by a psychotic Michael Draverhaven. Variant painted cover of Winston Zeddemore by artist Dan Brereton. Ghostbusters: Legion (3 of 4) featured 2 different covers: Regular cover of slime covered equipment. Variant Painted cover of Dr. Ray Stantz by artist Dan Brereton. Ghostbusters: Legion (4 of 4) featured 3 different covers: Regular cover of the four Ghostbusters in Ecto-1, evading a legion of ghosts. Variant Painted cover of Dr. Egon Spengler by artist Dan Brereton. Bulldog Collectibles Exclusive Edition of Egon Spengler being overshadowed by a large, spectral bulldog. Promotional artwork Prior to be released, the miniseries featured 5 pieces of promotional artwork featuring all 4 Ghostbusters. Two other pieces of promotional artwork were also featured on the back of the comic books once the miniseries had begun :A promo of a melting Stay Puft featuring the phrase "S'mores Anyone?" A Promo of Slimer featuring the phrase "Vermin Problems?" A special 'Christmas card' was created specially for the site, drawn by well-known Ghostbusters prop member Sean Bishop and coloured by one of the comic production staff. Collected editions In early 2005 Sebastien Clavet announced the official trade collection of the series which would include a coloured version of The Zeddemore Factor one shot, concept art, 'Ecto-Logs', a foreword by Ghostbusters creator Dan Aykroyd and a proposed afterword by an as yet unknown actor related to the film. The cut-off date for pre-orders was extended several times, while a firm release date had never been announced. However, it would appear that financial problems have plagued this venture despite hundreds of paid pre-orders. Clavet has since closed his own company's message boards and removed contact information from 88MPH Studios website, leaving many disgruntled fans to level claims of fraud against Clavet. Presently, a version of the Legion Trade in Soft Cover has been released for commercial purchase, however it lacks the foreword by Aykroyd and the concept art. The book is available in the United Kingdom and was published by Titan Books (). A post made on January 14, 2007 on the new 88MPH Studios website states that pre-orders placed with them and Graham crackers are guaranteed and that more information will be posted shortly. Posts entered onto the Weaver Hall forum on January 17 reference Clavet's intent to offer the hardcover to fans via the 88MPH Studios online store (a feature which is still unavailable. A subsequent notice on the 88MPH Studios website directed those who wished to change their shipping address for the hardcover to click on a button marked Update which can be found in the site navigation panel. The page accessed through this link gives an explanation to the 88MPH customer as to how they can change their shipping details. In addition to this the page contains a notice that the deadline for updating an address is August 31, 2007. The sentence after the closing date announcement states that "Legion ships in Fall 2007", which as of May 2016 has still yet to occur. It is likely they have officially lost the license for Ghostbusters now that IDW Publishing has begun publishing their own licensed Ghostbusters comics, Ghostbusters: The Other Side, and the closing of the 88MPH Studios website and the message board. See also List of comics based on films Notes References External links 88MPH Studios – Official Site Ghostbusters Comic Shop NYGB Comicguide's page on the series Mark Brook's deviantART Page Adam Nichol's deviantART Page 2004 comics debuts 2005 comics endings Canadian comics titles Comics based on films Comics set in New York City Ghostbusters comics
4639454	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validation%20%28drug%20manufacture%29	Validation (drug manufacture)	The process of establishing documentary evidence demonstrating that a procedure, process, or activity carried out in testing and then production maintains the desired level of compliance at all stages. In the pharmaceutical industry, it is very important that in addition to final testing and compliance of products, it is also assured that the process will consistently produce the expected results. The desired results are established in terms of specifications for outcome of the process. Qualification of systems and equipment is therefore a part of the process of validation. Validation is a requirement of food, drug and pharmaceutical regulating agencies such as the US FDA and their good manufacturing practices guidelines. Since a wide variety of procedures, processes, and activities need to be validated, the field of validation is divided into a number of subsections including the following: Equipment validation Facilities validation HVAC system validation Cleaning validation Process Validation Analytical method validation Computer system validation Similarly, the activity of qualifying systems and equipment is divided into a number of subsections including the following: Design qualification (DQ) Component qualification (CQ) Installation qualification (IQ) Operational qualification (OQ) Performance qualification (PQ) History The concept of validation was first proposed by two Food and Drug Administration (FDA) officials, Ted Byers and Bud Loftus, in 1979 in USA, to improve the quality of pharmaceuticals. It was proposed in direct response to several problems in the sterility of large volume parenteral market. The first validation activities were focused on the processes involved in making these products, but quickly spread to associated processes including environmental control, media fill, equipment sanitization and purified water production. The concept of validation was first developed for equipment and processes and derived from the engineering practices used in delivery of large pieces of equipment that would be manufactured, tested, delivered and accepted according to a contract The use of validation spread to other areas of industry after several large-scale problems highlighted the potential risks in the design of products. The most notable is the Therac-25 incident. Here, the software for a large radiotherapy device was poorly designed and tested. In use, several interconnected problems led to several devices giving doses of radiation several thousands of times higher than intended, which resulted in the death of three patients and several more being permanently injured. In 2005 an individual wrote a standard by which the transportation process could be validated for cold chain products. This standard was written for a biological manufacturing company and was then written into the PDA's Technical Report # 39,thus establishing the industry standard for cold chain validation. This was critical for the industry due to the sensitivity of drug substances, biologics and vaccines to various temperature conditions. The FDA has also been very focused on this final area of distribution and the potential for a drug substances quality to be impacted by extreme temperature exposure. 4.6. Accuracy: Accuracy of an analytical procedure is the closeness of test results obtained by that procedure to the true value. The accuracy of an analytical procedure shall be established across its range. 4.7. Precision: The precision of an analytical procedure expresses the closeness of agreement between a series of measurements obtained from multiple sampling of the same homogeneous sample under the prescribed conditions. 4.8. Method precision (Repeatability): Method precision carried out on different test preparation of a homogenous sample within short interval of time under same experimental conditions. 4.9. Intermediate precision (Ruggedness): Intermediate precision (Ruggedness) expresses within-laboratories variations i.e. different days, different analysts, different equipment etc. 4.10. Range: The range of an analytical procedure is the interval between the upper and lower concentration of analyte in the sample for which it has been demonstrated that the analytical procedure has a suitable level of precision, accuracy and linearity Reasons for validation FDA, or any other food and drugs regulatory agency around the globe not only ask for a product that meets its specification but also require a process, procedures, intermediate stages of inspections, and testing adopted during manufacturing are designed such that when they are adopted they produce consistently similar, reproducible, desired results which meet the quality standard of product being manufactured and complies the Regulatory and Security Aspects. Such procedures are developed through the process of validation. This is to maintain and assure a higher degree of quality of food and drug products. "Process validation is defined as the collection and evaluation of data, from the process design stage through commercial production, which establishes scientific evidence that a process is capable of consistently delivering quality product. Process validation involves a series of activities taking place over the lifecycle of the product and process.". A properly designed system will provide a high degree of assurance that every step, process, and change has been properly evaluated before its implementation. Testing a sample of a final product is not considered sufficient evidence that every product within a batch meets the required specification. Validation Master Plan The Validation Master Plan is a document that describes how and when the validation program will be executed in a facility. Even though it is not mandatory, it is the document that outlines the principles involved in the qualification of a facility, defines the areas and systems to be validated and provides a written program for achieving and maintaining a qualified facility with validated processes. It is the foundation for the validation program and should include process validation, facility and utility qualification and validation, equipment qualification, cleaning and computer validation. The regulations also set out an expectation that the different parts of the production process are well defined and controlled, such that the results of that production will not substantially change over time. The validation process The validation scope, boundaries and responsibilities for each process or groups of similar processes or similar equipment's must be documented and approved in a validation plan. These documents, terms and references for the protocol authors are for use in setting the scope of their protocols. It must be based on a Validation Risk Assessment (VRA) to ensure that the scope of validation being authorised is appropriate for the complexity and importance of the equipment or process under validation. Within the references given in the VP the protocol authors must ensure that all aspects of the process or equipment under qualification; that may affect the efficacy, quality and or records of the product are properly qualified. Qualification includes the following steps: Design qualification (DQ)- Demonstrates that the proposed design (or the existing design for an off-the-shelf item) will satisfy all the requirements that are defined and detailed in the User Requirements Specification (URS). Satisfactory execution of the DQ is a mandatory requirement before construction (or procurement) of the new design can be authorised. Installation qualification (IQ) – Demonstrates that the process or equipment meets all specifications, is installed correctly, and all required components and documentation needed for continued operation are installed and in place. Operational qualification (OQ) – Demonstrates that all facets of the process or equipment are operating correctly. Performance qualification (PQ) – Demonstrates that the process or equipment performs as intended in a consistent manner over time. Component qualification (CQ) – is a relatively new term developed in 2005. This term refers to the manufacturing of auxiliary components to ensure that they are manufactured to the correct design criteria. This could include packaging components such as folding cartons, shipping cases, labels or even phase change material. All of these components must have some type of random inspection to ensure that the third party manufacturer's process is consistently producing components that are used in the world of GMP at drug or biologic manufacturer. There are instances when it is more expedient and efficient to transfer some tests or inspections from the IQ to the OQ, or from the OQ to the PQ. This is allowed for in the regulations, provided that a clear and approved justification is documented in the Validation Plan (VP). This combined testing of OQ and PQ phases is sanctioned by the European Commission Enterprise Directorate-General within ‘Annex 15 to the EU Guide to Good Manufacturing Practice guide’ (2001, p. 6) which states that: "Although PQ is described as a separate activity, it may in some cases be appropriate to perform it in conjunction with OQ." Computer System Validation This requirement has naturally expanded to encompass computer systems used both in the development and production of, and as a part of pharmaceutical products, medical devices, food, blood establishments, tissue establishments, and clinical trials. In 1983 the FDA published a guide to the inspection of Computerized Systems in Pharmaceutical Processing, also known as the 'bluebook'. Recently both the American FDA and the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency have added sections to the regulations specifically for the use of computer systems. In the UK, computer validation is covered in Annex 11 of the EU GMP regulations (EMEA 2011). The FDA introduced 21 CFR Part 11 for rules on the use of electronic records, electronic signatures (FDA 1997). The FDA regulation is harmonized with ISO 8402:1994, which treats "verification" and "validation" as separate and distinct terms. On the other hand, many software engineering journal articles and textbooks use the terms "verification" and "validation" interchangeably, or in some cases refer to software "verification, validation, and testing (VV&T)" as if it is a single concept, with no distinction among the three terms. The General Principles of Software Validation (FDA 2002) defines verification as "Software verification provides objective evidence that the design outputs of a particular phase of the software development life cycle meet all of the specified requirements for that phase." It also defines Validation as "Confirmation by examination and provision of objective evidence that software specifications conform to user needs and intended uses, and that the particular requirements implemented through software can be consistently fulfilled". The software validation guideline states: “The software development process should be sufficiently well planned, controlled, and documented to detect and correct unexpected results from software changes." Annex 11 states "The validation documentation and reports should cover the relevant steps of the life cycle." Weichel (2004) recently found that over twenty warning letters issued by the FDA to pharmaceutical companies specifically cited problems in Computer System Validation between 1997 and 2001. Probably the best known industry guidance available is the GAMP Guide, now in its fifth edition and known as GAMP5 published by ISPE (2008). This guidance gives practical advice on how to satisfy regulatory requirements. Scope of Computer Validation The definition of validation above discusses production of evidence that a system will meet its specification. This definition does not refer to a computer application or a computer system but to a process. The main implications in this are that validation should cover all aspects of the process including the application, any hardware that the application uses, any interfaces to other systems, the users, training and documentation as well as the management of the system and the validation itself after the system is put into use. The PIC/S guideline (PIC/S 2004) defines this as a 'computer related system'. Much effort is expended within the industry upon validation activities, and several journals are dedicated to both the process and methodology around validation, and the science behind it. Risk Based Approach To Computer Validation In the recent years, a risk-based approach has been adopted within the industry, where the testing of computer systems (emphasis on finding problems) is wide-ranging and documented but not heavily evidenced (i.e. hundreds of screen prints are not gathered during testing). Annex 11 states "Risk management should be applied throughout the lifecycle of the computerised system taking into account patient safety, data integrity and product quality. As part of a risk management system, decisions on the extent of validation and data integrity controls should be based on a justified and documented risk assessment of the computerised system." The subsequent validation or verification of computer systems targets only the "GxP critical" requirements of computer systems. Evidence (e.g. screen prints) is gathered to document the validation exercise. In this way it is assured that systems are thoroughly tested, and that validation and documentation of the "GxP critical" aspects is performed in a risk-based manner, optimizing effort and ensuring that computer system's fitness for purpose is demonstrated. The overall risk posed by a computer system is now generally considered to be a function of system complexity, patient/product impact, and pedigree (Configurable-Off-The-Shelf or Custom-written for a certain purpose). A lower risk system should merit a less in-depth specification/testing/validation approach. (e.g. The documentation surrounding a spreadsheet containing a simple but "GxP" critical calculation should not match that of a Chromatography Data System with 20 Instruments) Determination of a "GxP critical" requirement for a computer system is subjective, and the definition needs to be tailored to the organisation involved. However, in general a "GxP" requirement may be considered to be a requirement which leads to the development/configuration of a computer function which has a direct impact on patient safety, the pharmaceutical product being processed, or has been developed/configured to meet a regulatory requirement. In addition if a function has a direct impact on GxP data (security or integrity) it may be considered "GxP critical". Product life cycle approach in validation Validation process efforts must account for the complete product life cycle, including developmental procedures adapted for qualification of a drug product commencing with its research and development phase, rationale for adapting a best fit formula which represents the relationship between required outputs and specified inputs, and procedure for manufacturing. Each step is required to be justified and monitored in order to provide a good quality food and drug product. The FDA emphasizes the product life cycle approach in its evaluation of manufacturer regulatory compliance as well. See also Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) Verification and Validation Pharmaceutical Inspection Convention and Pharmaceutical Inspection Co-operation Scheme Regulation of therapeutic goods United States Pharmacopeia References Bibliography Health Canada Validation Guidelines Akers, J. (1993), 'Simplifying and improving Process Validation', Journal of Parenteral Science and Technology, vol. 47, no. 6, pp. 281–284. ASTM E2537 Guide for Application of Continuous Quality Verification for Pharmaceutical and Biopharmaceutical Manufacturing EMEA (1998), EUDRALEX Volume 4 – Medicinal Products for Human and Veterinary Use : Good Manufacturing Practice, European Medicines Agency, London European Commission Enterprise Directorate-General (2001), Final Version of Annex 15 to the EU Guide to Good Manufacturing Practice, Qualification and Validation, Brussels. European Commission Enterprise Directorate-General. US FDA: Guideline on general principles of Process Validation Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures,Code of Federal Regulations Garston Smith, H. (2001), 'Considerations for Improving Software Validation', Journal of Validation Technology, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 150–157. IT Pharma Validation Europe: News and Updates on Computer System Validation and Infrastructure Qualification – e.g. EudraLex Volume 4 – Annex 11 computerised systems – revision January 2011 Lopez, Orlando (2002), “21 CFR Part 11 – A Complete Guide to International Compliance,” published by Sue Horwood Publishing Limited. McDowall, R. D. (2005), 'Effective and practical risk management options for computerised system validation', The Quality Assurance Journal, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 196–227. Parker G, (2005) ‘Developing Appropriate Validation and Testing Strategies’ Presented for Scimcon Ltd at the Thermo Informatics World Conference. North America. Powell-Evans, K. (1998), 'Streamlining Validation', Pharmaceutical Technology Europe, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 48–52. Segalstad, S.H (2008), ‘International IT Regulations and Compliance: Quality Standards in the Pharmaceutical and Regulated Industries, John Wiley & Sons , pp. 157 – 178. Swartz, M. (2006) ‘Analytical Instrument Qualification’, Avanstar [online], available at: http://www.advanstar.com/test/pharmascience/pha-sci_supp-promos/phasci_reg_guidance/articles/Instrumentation1_Swartz_rv.pdf (Accessed 29 March 2009). Validating Software used for the Pharmaceutical Industry. (2007). Retrieved July 6, 2009, from http://www.plainsite.net/validation/validation.htm WHO Technical Report Series, No. 937, 2006. Annex 4. Appendix 5. 2006 Wingate, G.A.S. (2004), 'Computer Systems Validation: Quality Assurance, Risk Management, and Regulatory Compliance for the Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Industry', Interpharm Press. Guidance for Industry. Process Validation: General Principles and Practices. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration. January 2011. Clinical research Pharmaceutical industry Quality Clinical data management
4639555	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Xavier%20of%20Bourbon-Parma	Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma	Xavier, Duke of Parma and Piacenza, known in France before 1974 as Prince Xavier de Bourbon-Parme, known in Spain as Francisco Javier de Borbón-Parma y de Braganza or simply as Don Javier (25 May 1889 – 7 May 1977), was the head of the ducal House of Bourbon-Parma and Carlist claimant to the throne of Spain. He was the second son of the last reigning Duke of Parma Robert I and his second wife Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal, although born after his father lost the throne. Educated with austerity at Stella Matutina, he grew up in France, Italy and Austria, where his father had properties. During World War I, he joined the Belgian army, fighting with distinction. With his brother Sixtus he was a go-between in the so-called Sixtus Affair, a failed attempt by his brother-in-law, Emperor Charles I of Austria to negotiate a separate peace with the Allies (1916–1917) through the Bourbon-Parma brothers. In 1936 Don Alfonso Carlos de Borbón, Duke of Madrid died, ending the male line of Carlist pretenders to the Spanish throne descended from Infante Carlos, Count of Molina. Having no children with his wife, Maria das Neves of Portugal, Don Alfonso Carlos designated her nephew Xavier to succeed him as regent in exile of the Carlist Communion and as Grand Master of the Order of Prohibited Legitimacy. During the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), he entered Spain twice and the Carlist troops, known as Requetés, sided with the Nationalist faction of General Franco. He visited the North Front and Andalusia, but was expelled from Spain in 1938. He settled in France at the castle of Bostz, a property of his wife. During World War II, he reenlisted in the Belgian army. After Belgium and France were invaded by the Nazis, he moved to Vichy and took part in the French Resistance. Arrested by the Gestapo in 1941, he was condemned to death for espionage and terrorism. Pardoned by Marshal Pétain, he was confined in Clermont-Ferrand, Schirmeck, Natzwiller and lastly, in September, he was imprisoned in Dachau from which he was freed by the Americans in April 1945. During the 1950s and 1960s he was active in the Carlist movement. In May 1952, persuaded of the need to be appointed king by the National Council of Traditionalist Communion, he agreed to conclude the sixteen years of his regency by being proclaimed King of Spain in Barcelona under the name Javier I. Soon thereafter he was expelled from Spain by order of the Francoist government. At the death of his unmarried nephew Robert of Parma in 1974, Prince Xavier became titular Duke of Parma. By then he was in frail health, having suffered life-threatening injuries in a 1972 traffic accident. He transferred all political authority to his eldest son, Prince Carlos Hugo of Bourbon-Parma, and formally abdicated as the Carlist king in his elder son's favor in 1975. Road to Spain Family Xavier was born to a highly aristocratic Bourbon-Parma family; in the mid-18th century the branch diverged from the Spanish Bourbons, who in turn had diverged from the French Bourbons few decades earlier. Along the patriline Xavier was descendant to the king of France Louis XIV and to the king of Spain Felipe V. Among his great-great-grandparents, Ludovico I was the king of Etruria, Vittorio Emanuele I was the king of Sardinia and the duke of Savoy, Charles X was the king of France, Francesco I was the king of Two Sicilies, Pedro III was the king of Portugal, Maria I was the queen of Portugal and Brazil, and Carlos IV was the king of Spain; among his great-grandparents, Carlo II was the duke of Parma and João VI was the king of Portugal; among his grandparents, Carlo III was the duke of Parma and Miguel I was the king of Portugal. Xavier's father, Robert I (1848–1907) was the last ruling duke of Parma, and Xavier's mother, Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal (1862–1959), was exile-born daughter of the 1834-deposed king of Portugal. Many of Xavier's uncles and aunts came from European royal or ducal families, though the only one actually ruling was his mother's sister, Infanta Maria Ana of Portugal, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. The other three were claiming the throne: his mother's brother, the Portuguese Miguelist pretender Dom Miguel, Duke of Braganza, his father's sister, the Carlist queen of Spain Margarita de Borbón-Parma and another sister of his mother, also the Carlist queen of Spain, Infanta Maria das Neves of Portugal. One uncle, archduke Karl Ludwig, was official heir to the throne of Austro-Hungary. Of Xavier's cousins the only two who actually ruled were Elisabeth, the queen consort of Belgium and Charlotte, the Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. Xavier's step-cousin, archduke Franz Ferdinand, was official heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Two cousins were legitimist pretenders; along the paternal line Don Jaime, the Carlist claimant to the Spanish throne, and along the maternal line Dom Duarte Nuño, the Miguelist claimant to the Portuguese throne. Some of Xavier's siblings have married into the ruling European houses and few have actually ruled: these were the cases of his younger sister Zita, who in 1911 married into the imperial Habsburg family to become the empress of Austria and the queen of Hungary in 1916–1918, and this of his younger brother Felix, who in 1919 married into the ducal Nassau family and was the duke-consort of Luxembourg in 1919–1970. Some of Xavier's siblings were closely related to actual rulers: these were the cases of his younger brother René, who in 1921 married into the royal Danish family, this of his younger brother Louis, who in 1939 married into the royal Italian family, and this of his older half-sister Maria Luisa, who in 1893 married into the royal Bulgarian family. Some of Xavier's siblings married into ducal or otherwise distinguished highly aristocratic houses. Six mentally handicapped older half-siblings have never married and three of Xavier's sisters became Benedictine nuns. Infancy, childhood and youth (before 1914) Though deposed as Duke of Parma in 1859, Xavier's father kept claiming the title. He retained massive wealth, comprising estates in Italy and Austria; moreover, in the late 19th century the Bourbon-Parma inherited the magnificent Chambord castle. The family, consisting of Robert, his second wife and some 20 children from both marriages lived in two homes, in Pianore and in Schwarzau. They used to spend half a year in each location, shuttling in a special train and taking even children's horses with them. Xavier's childhood was full of serenity, luxury and cheerfulness, though relations with half-siblings from the first marriage were not equally cordial. The Bourbon-Parma were deeply Roman Catholic and essentially French in culture and understanding; another language spoken was German. In his childhood Xavier picked up also Italian – spoken with the Pianore locals, English – spoken with various visitors, Portuguese and Spanish – used in certain relations, and Latin – used in church. The family were frequently visited by guests from the world of aristocracy, books and universities. In 1899 Xavier followed in the footsteps of his older brother Sixte and entered Stella Matutina, a prestigious Jesuit establishment in the Austrian Feldkirch. Though catering to Catholic aristocracy from all over Europe, the school offered Spartan conditions; when later enquired how he survived the Nazi concentration camp, prince Xavier joked: "I attended the Stella. It's not easy to kill us". The school ensured a model of humble religiosity, the staff ensured high teaching standards, and the mix of boys from different countries ensured a spirit of international comradeship. Xavier graduated in the mid-1900s; in 1906 moved to Paris, still trailing his older brother and commencing university studies. Unlike Sixte, who studied law, he pursued two different paths: political-economic sciences and agronomy. He completed both, graduating as engineer in agronomy and doctor in politics/economy. The year or years of him completing the curriculum are not clear; one source points to 1914. He has never commenced a professional career. In 1910 the wealth of the late Robert Bourbon-Parma was divided among the family. Children from the first marriage, and especially Élie, custodian of his handicapped siblings, were allocated most of the real estate; Robert's second wife and children from the second marriage were earmarked hefty financial compensation, usufruct rights and minor properties. Already on his own, Xavier was based in Paris but cruised across Europe. One reason was family business, often with political background; e.g. in 1911 Xavier travelled to Austria to attend the wedding of his sister with archduke Karl Habsburg, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne; in 1912 he travelled via Spain to Portugal, accompanying his aunt during a Portuguese legitimist plot. Another reason was following his personal interest. Xavier seemed heavily influenced by Sixte, who developed a knack for geographical exploration. In 1909 both brothers travelled to the Balkans; in 1912 they roamed across Egypt, Palestine and the Near East. In 1914 they intended to travel to Persia, India and possibly the Himalayas. Soldier and diplomat (1914–1918) News of the Sarajevo assassination reached Xavier and Sixte in Austria, en route to Asia. Enraged by murder of their step-cousin, both brothers intended to enlist in the Austrian army to pursue revenge. Things changed when France declared war on Vienna. Though some of the Bourbon-Parma siblings – Zita, René, Felix and Élie – sided with Austria-Hungary, with males joining the imperial troops, Xavier and Sixte felt themselves thorough Frenchmen. They openly made plans to enlist in the French army, which might have evoked their detention. It took personal appeals from Zita before the Emperor took steps which prevented their incarceration, and allowed them to leave Austria for a neutral country. When back in France Xavier and Sixte indeed volunteered, only to find that French law banned members of foreign dynasties from serving. Determined to fight, they contacted their cousin, Queen Elisabeth of Belgium, who saw to it that both were allowed to serve in the Belgian military. Due to a car accident involving Sixte, however, the brothers joined the ranks of the Belgian army no sooner than late November 1914. Xavier was initially accepted as a private in medical services and was seconded to the 7th artillery regiment. Exact details of his service are not clear; what was left of the pre-war Belgian army served on a relatively calm sector of the frontline in Flanders and France, next to the English Channel. At an unspecified time Xavier was released from the line and assigned to an officer training course, organized by the Belgian general staff, which he completed. By mid-1916 he was sub-lieutenant, later promoted to captain. In late 1916 Xavier became involved in the Sixtus Affair, a secret Austrian attempt to conclude a separatist peace. The new emperor, Karl I, decided to exploit his family ties and friendship with the Bourbon-Parma brothers, trusting especially in the skills and intelligence of Sixte. As French citizens, both agreed to undertake the mission only upon obtaining the consent of the French government. The role of Xavier is generally considered secondary to that of Sixte, though he was present during some crucial meetings, whether with the French authorities in Paris or with the Austro-Hungarian envoys in Switzerland, and in Vienna; and some scholars do refer to "mediation des princes Sixte et Xavier". Negotiations broke down in early 1917 and the matter seemed closed; leaked by Clemenceau in May 1918, it turned into a political crisis and a scandal, which damaged the prestige of the young emperor. Xavier and Sixte, at that time in Vienna, were considered endangered, menaced either by the Austrian foreign minister Czernin's willingness to eliminate witnesses, or as victims of popular wrath. The incident is considered "perhaps the ultimate example of amateurish aristocratic diplomacy gone awry during the First World War", although none of the sources consulted tends to blame Xavier for the final failure. It is not clear whether he returned to military service afterwards. At the moment of the armistice he was a major in the Belgian army, awarded the French Croix de Guerre, the Belgian Croix de Guerre, and the Belgian Ordré de Léopold. Plaintiff and husband (1920s) Immediately after the war Xavier was engaged in assisting Zita and Karl following their deposition. In 1919 together with Sixte he travelled to England and contacted king George V; the British support materialized as a liaison officer, dispatched to the republican Austria to assist the unhappy couple on their route to exile. However, it soon turned out that it was his own business which attracted most of Xavier’s attention. Following wartime financial turmoil and expropriations of some family estates, economic prospects of both brothers seemed rather bleak. As a counter-measure, they decided to challenge the French state, which in 1915 seized Chambord as property of Élie, the Austrian officer; the Versailles Treaty stipulations allowed to conclude the seizure legally if combined with paying compensation fee. Sixte and Xavier sued; they claimed that the family-agreed 1910 partition, based on the Austrian concept of an indivisible majorate, was not applicable in the French law, and that the Chambord property should be divided; they claimed also that as volunteers to the French and Belgian armies, they should be exempted from expropriation procedure. Centred on fortune-worth Chambord property, in fact the lawsuit was directed against Élie. In 1925 the court accepted brothers’ point of view, the decision immediately appealed by their half-brother. In 1928 the case was overturned in favor of Élie, the decision appealed by both brothers. In 1932 the Court of Cassation upheld the 1928 decision, which eventually left Xavier and Sixte frustrated in their bid. Resident in Paris and living off the family wealth remaining, Xavier reached his mid-30s when he was attracted to Madeleine de Bourbon-Busset, 9 years his junior, daughter to Count de Lignières and descendant to a cadet branch of the French Bourbons. The Bourbon-Bussets have been related to a centuries-old aristocratic controversy; historically regarded non-dynastic as set up in the 15th century by an illegitimate relationship, by enemies the branch was lambasted as bastards. Would-be marriage of prince Xavier and Madeleine might have resulted in stripping their children off Bourbon-Parma ducal heritage rights, depending upon decision of head of the branch. Since the death of Robert, it was Élie who headed the family; he declared the would-be marriage non-dynastic and morganatic. Despite this stand, Xavier wed Madeleine in 1927 and some newspapers titled her "princesse". As the Bourbon-Bussets enjoyed significant wealth the marriage changed financial status of Xavier, especially that Madeleine had no living older brothers. The couple settled in Bostz castle, where Xavier managed the rural economy of his in-laws; their first child was born in 1928, to be followed by the other 5 throughout the 1930s. Following the 1932 death of his father-in-law, Xavier became head of the family business, crowned with the Lignières castle. Little is known of his public activity at that time, except that he was engaged in various non-political though conservatism-flavored Catholic initiatives. Perhaps the most happy period of his life was punctured by the premature 1934 death of Sixte, for decades Xavier’s best friend and sort of a mentor. From prince Xavier to Don Javier (1930s) Exact political views of Xavier are not clear; until the mid-1930s he did not engage in openly political activity, though he figured prominently in some French royalist initiatives. Himself son of a deposed ruler and his own sister deposed as empress, he had some relatives – associated with France, Spain and Portugal – engaged in legitimist politics, though others – associated with Luxembourg, Belgium, Denmark and Italy – fit rather in a general liberal-democratic monarchist framework. None of the sources consulted provides information on his views on ongoing French politics. Few note that his brother Sixte was a legitimist, who in scientific dissertation advanced rights of the Spanish Bourbons to the crown of France; on the other hand, his half-brother Élie openly abandoned the legitimist outlook. Some scholars claim that prince Xavier remained within "más pura doctrina tradicionalista"; others suggest that he nurtured democratic ideas. Though his paternal uncle was until 1909 the legitimist claimant to the throne of Spain, succeeded by prince Xavier’s own cousin, prince Xavier – a Frenchman at heart – himself did not reveal any particular interest in Spanish issues, even though he maintained close links with his cousin, in the 1920s resident in Paris. This changed when Jaime III died unexpectedly in 1931 and was succeeded in his Carlist claim by Alfonso Carlos I. Resident in Vienna, octogenarian and childless, Alfonso Carlos was doubly related to the Bourbon-Parmas; the two families remained on close terms. His ascendance to the Carlist claim was from the onset plagued by the succession problem, as it was already evident that the Carlist dynasty would extinguish. As measure to address the issue, in the early 1930s Alfonso Carlos pondered upon reconciliation with the Alfonsine branch. It is not clear whether he commenced talks with other members of the family about a strictly Carlist succession in parallel, as option B, or whether he embarked on this course having abandoned the plans of dynastic agreement in 1934-1935. Following the death of Sixte in 1934 Xavier became the most senior Bourbon-Parma partner of Alfonso Carlos. The two must have discussed the question of Carlist succession extensively, yet there is no information on details. In particular, it is not clear whether Alfonso Carlos suggested that Xavier succeeds him as a king – proposal possibly rejected by the Bourbon-Parma, or whether regency was the option preferred from the onset. Scholars speculate that it was prince Xavier’s legitimism, Christian spirit, modesty, impartiality and lack of political ambitions which prompted Alfonso Carlos to appoint him as a future regent. What prompted Xavier to accept the proposal remains unclear. Some suspect that he gave in to the pressure of his uncle, and considered accepting the regency as his family, legitimist and Christian duty. In any case, Xavier probably viewed his future regency, announced in the Carlist press in April 1936 and to commence after death of Alfonso Carlos, in terms of months rather than years. It was supposed to provide royal continuity before a general Carlist assembly appoints a new king. Regent Wartime leader (1936–1939) Contrary to expectations, the Spanish February 1936 elections produced victory of the Popular Front and the country embarked on a proto-revolutionary course. The Carlists first commenced preparations to their own rising, and then entered into negotiations with the conspiring military. For prince Xavier events took an unexpected turn. Instead of calmly familiarizing himself with the Spanish Carlists to organize smooth election of a new king following anticipated death of Alfonso Carlos, the latter asked him to supervise the conspiracy. Prince Xavier, in Spain known as Don Javier, set his headquarters in Sant-Jean-de-Luz and from June to July kept receiving Carlist politicians. In terms of negotiations with the generals, he adopted an orthodox Carlist, rigorous and intransigent stand. Though some Carlists pressed almost unconditional adherence to military conspiracy, Don Javier demanded that a partnership political deal is concluded first. He was eventually outmaneuvered and the Carlists joined the coup on vague terms; their key asset was the pre-agreed Jefe Supremo del Movimiento, General Sanjurjo, who in earlier Lisbon talks with Don Javier pledged to represent the Carlist interests. The death of Sanjurjo was a devastating blow to Carlist plans; political power among the rebels slipped to a group of generals, indifferent if not skeptical about the Carlist cause. Don Javier, in the late summer watching the events unfold from Sant-Jean-de-Luz, was supervising increasing Carlist military effort, yet was unable to engage in discussion with the generals. Following the death of Alfonso Carlos on 1 October Don Javier was declared the regent. He found himself heading the movement during overwhelming turmoil. Denied entry to Spain, he limited himself to written protests over the marginalisation of Carlism within the Nationalist faction. Faced with growing pressure to integrate the Carlist organization within a new state party in early 1937, he advocated intransigence, but was again outmaneuvered into a silent wait-and-see stance. Following the Unification Decree he entered Spain in May; sporting a requeté general's uniform, and in apparent challenge to Franco he toured the front lines, lifting Carlist spirits. A week later he was expelled from Spain. Following another brief visit and another expulsion in late 1937, Don Javier aimed at safeguarding Carlist political identity against the unification attempts, though he refrained also from burning all bridges with the emerging Francoist regime. He permitted few trusted Carlists to sit in the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (FET y de las JONS) executive, but expelled from the Comunión Tradicionalista those who had taken seats without his consent. In full accord with the Carlist leader in Spain, Manuel Fal Conde, in 1938–1939 Don Javier managed to prevent incorporation into the state party, thus the intended unification turned into absorption of offshoot Carlists. On the other hand, Don Javier failed to prevent the marginalisation of Carlism, the suppression of its circulars, periodicals and organizations, and failed to avert growing bewilderment among rank and file Carlists. In 1939 he repeated his offer to Franco in Manifestación de ideales, a document was put forth recommending immediate restoration of Traditionalist monarchy with a transitory collective regency, possibly encompassing Don Javier and Franco. In historiography there are conflicting accounts of this episode, yet there was no follow-up on part of Franco. Soldier, incommunicado, prisoner (1939–1945) Upon the outbreak of World War II Prince Xavier resumed his duties in the Belgian Army, serving as major in his old artillery unit. As the Germans advanced swiftly, the Belgians were pushed back to Flanders, towards the English Channel. Incorporated into the French troops, the regiment was withdrawn into Dunkerque. In the mayhem that followed, the Belgians did not make it to the British evacuation ships and Don Javier became a German POW. Released promptly, he returned to the family castles of Lignières in Berry and of Bostz, in Besson dans l’Allier. The properties were divided by the demarcation line, Lignières in the occupied zone and Bostz in the Vichy zone. In late 1940 and early 1941, Prince Xavier assisted in opening the so-called "Halifax-Chevalier negotiations", a confidential correspondence exchange between the British Foreign Secretary and the Petain-government's education minister, centred mostly on working out a modus vivendi between the British and French colonies. The exact role of Prince Xavier is unclear. Some scholars claim he served as an intermediary, trusted by the British royal family, including King George VI, and by Pétain; as he did not leave France, it seems that he wrote letters which provided credibility for the envoys sent. Though the episode is subject to controversy, by some viewed as a proof of Pétain's double game and by some largely as a hagiographic mystification, the debate hardly relates to the role of Xavier. In the early 1940s, Prince Xavier was increasingly isolated from Spanish affairs; neither he nor the Spanish Carlists were permitted to cross the frontier, while correspondence remained under wartime censorship. Documents he passed, the most notable of which was the Manifiesto de Santiago (1941), urged that intransigence, though not openly rebellious anti-Francoist actions, be maintained. With the regent, and periodically detained Fal, largely incommunicados, Carlism decayed into bewilderment and disorientation. In 1941–1943 Prince Xavier lived in political isolation, devoting time to his family and managing the Bourbon-Parma fortune. In 1941 he inherited from his late aunt the Puchheim castle in Austria. Prince Xavier became increasingly sympathetic to the anti-Pétain opposition and, via local priests, maintained informal contact with district Resistance leaders. At one point he joined works of the Comité d'Aide aux Réfractaires du STO and welcomed labor camp escapees in wooden areas of his estates, providing basic logistics and setting up shelters for the sick in his library. When two of them were detected and detained, Prince Xavier cycled to Vichy and successfully sought their release. Exposing himself, following a surveillance period in July he was arrested by the Gestapo. Sentenced to death for espionage and terrorism, he was pardoned by Pétain; first confined in Clermont-Ferrand, Schirmeck and Natzwiller, in September he was finally imprisoned in Dachau. The Nazis asked Franco about his fate; the Caudillo declared total disinterest. Periodically condemned to the starvation bunker, when freed by the Americans in April 1945, Prince Xavier weighed 36 kg. Re-launch (1945–1952) Having returned to health, in late summer of 1945 prince Xavier testified at the trial of Pétain; his account was largely favorable for the marshal. In December he clandestinely entered Spain for a few days. In a series of meetings held mostly in San Sebastián, the regent and the Carlist executive agreed re-organisation basics of the Carlist structures. Don Javier fully confirmed the authority of Fal Conde and affirmed the intransigent political line, formulated in a 1947 document known as La única solución. It was based on non-collaborative though also non-rebellious stand versus Francoism, refusal to enter into dynastic negotiations with the Alfonsine branch, and hard line versus those who demonstrated excessive support for own Carlist royal candidates, even if theoretically they did not breach loyalty to Don Javier’s regency. With the rank and file Don Javier communicated by means of manifestos, read during Carlist feasts and urging loyalty to Traditionalist values. He also pretended to headship of the Borbon-Parmas. In the late 1940s the policy of Don Javier and Fal Conde, dubbed javierismo or falcondismo, was increasingly contested within the Comunión. The Sivattistas pressed for terminating the regency and for Don Javier to declare himself the king. They suspected that the overdue regency was an element of Don Javier’s policy towards Franco; according to them, the regent intended to ensure the crown for the Bourbon-Parma by means of appeasement rather than by means of open challenge. In particular they were enraged by allegedly ambiguous stand versus the proposed Francoist Law of Succession, considering it an unacceptable backing of the regime. On the other hand, the possibilists were getting tired of what they perceived as ineffective intransigence and lack of legal outposts, recommending more flexible attitude. Especially following the 1949 news about Franco’s negotiations with Don Juan, Don Javier found himself under pressure to assume a more active stance. Don Javier and Fal stuck to rigorous discipline and dismissed Sivatte from Catalan jefatura, though they also tried to reinvigorate Carlism by permitting individual participation in local elections, seeking a national daily or building up student and workers’ organizations. However, gradually also Fal was getting convinced that the regency was a burden rather than an asset. There were almost no calls to terminate it as initially envisioned by Alfonso Carlos, i.e. by staging a grand Carlist assembly, and there are no signs that Don Javier contemplated such an option; almost all voices called for him simply to assume monarchic rights himself. During the 1950 tour across Vascongadas and 1951 one across Levante he still tried to maintain low profile, but in 1952 Don Javier decided to bow to the pressure, apparently against his own will and considering it another cross to bear. During the Eucharistic Congress in Barcelona he issued a number of documents, including a manifesto to his followers and a letter to his son; in vague terms they referred to "assumption of royalty in succession of the last king", though also to pending "promulgation at the nearest opportunity" and with no mention about the regency. King Rather not a king (1952–1957) The Carlist leaders were exhilarated and made sure that the Barcelona 1952 declaration, presented as end of the regency and commencing the rule of king Javier I, gets distributed across the party network; upon receiving the news, the rank and file got euphoric. However, the very next day Don Javier shared comments which put that understanding in doubt. When some time later approached by the Minister of Justice, he declared having signed no document and explained that his statement in no way implied he had proclaimed himself a king. These assurances did not work with the Francoist regime, and in a matter of hours Don Javier was promptly expelled from Spain. The years of 1953–1954 provided a contrasting picture: the Carlist leaders boasted of having a new king, while Don Javier withdrew to Lignières, reducing his political activity to receiving guests and to correspondence. In private he played down what had already become known as "Acto de Barcelona", dubbing it "un toutté petite ceremonie". Carlist dissenters, temporarily silenced, started to be heard again. Don Javier seemed increasingly tired of his role and leaning towards a dynastical understanding with Don Juan. His brief early 1955 visit to Spain en route to Portugal fuelled angry rumors of forthcoming rapprochement with the Alfonsists as Don Javier made some ambiguous comments, named the 1952 statement "a grave error" and declared having been bullied into it. At this point relations between him and Fal reached the lowest point; Fal, attacked from all sides and feeling no royal support, resigned. According to some scholars, Don Javier sacked him in "a rather cowardly, backhand manner". Fal was soon replaced by a collegial executive. In late 1955 Don Javier issued a manifesto which declared the Carlists "custodians of patrimony" rather than political party seeking power and in private considered his royal claim a hindrance to alliance of all reasonable people. The year of 1956 proved convulsing, with a number of contradictory declarations following one another in circles; one episode cost Don Javier another expulsion from Spain. The apparent stalemate was interrupted by emergence of a new force. The young Carlists, disappointed with vacillating Don Javier, focused on his oldest son Hugues instead. Entirely alien to politics and at the time pursuing PhD in economics in Oxford, he agreed to throw himself into the Spanish affairs. Don Javier consented to his 1957 appearance on the annual Montejurra gathering, where the young prince, guided by his equally young aides, made explicit references to "my father, the king". As prince Hugues was ignorant as to Carlism and he barely spoke Spanish, it seems that his father has never considered him own successor, eager rather to free himself and the entire family from the increasingly heavy Carlist burden. It is not clear what he thought about his son unexpectedly engaging in Spanish politics; perhaps he felt relieved having found a replacement or support. To many, it seemed that he "had given up prevaricating". Rather a king (1957–1962) Under leadership of José María Valiente and with the consent of Don Javier, the collegial Carlist executive commenced cautious collaboration with the regime. The young entourage decided to introduce Hugues as representing a new strategy and presenting an offer to Franco. According to another interpretation, Don Javier saw his son's involvement as an opportunity to consider new strategies for long-term gains, and changed course in the hope that the regime might one day crown the younger prince. Still another view was that the changing political course and the political coming of age of Hugues simply coincided. One way or another, starting in 1957 Don Javier gradually permitted his son to assume an increasing role within Carlism. In the late 1950s Don Javier firmly abandoned any discussion of reconciliation with the Alfonsinos. He instructed that harsh measures be taken against those who approached them. However, he remained respectful towards Don Juan and avoided open challenge, He also stopped short of explicitly claiming the kingly title. He supported Valiente – his position gradually reinforced formally up to the new Jefe Delegado in 1958–1960 – in attempts to eradicate internal forces of rebellion against collaboration, and to combat new openly secessionist groups. Though 20 years earlier he expelled from the Comunión those who had accepted seats in Francoist structures, at the beginning of the sixties Don Javier viewed the appointment of five Carlists to the Cortes as the success of the collaborationist policy, especially because the Franco regime permitted new Carlist legal outposts, and the movement participated openly in the public discourse. Another milestone came in 1961–62. First, in a symbolic gesture Don Javier declared Hugues "Duque de San Jaime", a historic title borne by Alfonso Carlos; then, he instructed his followers to envision the prince as the embodiment of "a king". Hugues, legally renaming himself "Carlos Hugo", settled in Madrid and set up his Secretariat, a personal advisory body. Yet for the first time in history, a Carlist heir officially lived in the capital and openly pursued his own politics. From this moment onwards, Don Javier was increasingly perceived as ceding daily business to his son and merely providing general supervision from the back seat. Carlos Hugo gradually took control of communication channels with his father, replacing him also as a key representative of the House of Bourbon-Parma in Spain. Moreover, the three daughters of Don Javier, all in their 20s, with apparent consent of their father engaged themselves in campaigns intended to enhance the standing of their brother with the Spanish public; the younger son of Don Javier, Sixte, soon followed suit. King, the father (1962–1969) Carlos Hugo and his aides embarked on an activist policy, launching new initiatives and ensuring that the young prince gets increasingly recognized in national media. In terms of political content the group started to advance heterodox theories, focused on society as means and objective of politics. In terms of strategy, until the mid-1960s it was formatted as advances towards the socially-minded, hard Falangist core; later it started to assume an increasingly Marxist flavor. Orthodox Traditionalists grew increasingly perturbed by Carlos Hugo's active political advances toward the socially-minded, hard Falangist core, which assumed an increasingly Marxist flavor. They tried to alert Don Javier. However, Don Javier gave them repeated assurances that he maintained full confidence in Carlos Hugo. In 1967 Don Javier confirmed that nothing need be added to the Carlist dogma of "Dios, Patria, Fueros, Rey". Yet he also affirmed that new times required new practical concepts. He endorsed subsequent waves of structural changes, and declared some personal decisions. By the mid-1960s Don Javier allowed the Comunión in Carlos Hugo's control and that of his supporters. In the so-called Acto de Puchheim of 1965, for the first time Don Javier explicitly called himself "rey", and consistently claimed that title henceforth. Such writers as Josep Carlos Clemente and Fermín Pérez-Nievas Borderas maintain that Don Javier was fully aware and entirely supportive of the transformation of Carlism triggered by Carlos Hugo, helped among others by Artur Juncosa Carbonell, intended as renovation of genuine Carlist thought and as shaking off Traditionalist distortions. Another group of scholars claim that the aging Don Javier, at that time in his late 70s, was increasingly detached from Spanish issues and substantially unaware of the political course sponsored by Carlos Hugo. They argue that he was, perhaps, manipulated – and at later stages even incapacitated – by his son and two daughters, who intercepted incoming correspondence and re-edited their father's outgoing communications. Another group of scholars largely refrain from interpretation, confining itself to referring readers to correspondence, declarations and statements. As late as 1966 Don Javier continue to court Franco, but the years of 1967–1969 re-defined his relation with Carlism and with Spain. In 1967 he accepted the resignation of Valiente, the last Traditionalist bulwark in the executive, and entrusted political leadership of the Comunión to a set of collegial bodies dominated by hugocarlistas; the move marked their final victory in the struggle to control the organization. In 1968 Carlos Hugo was expelled from Spain; In a gesture of support, a few days later Don Javier flew to Madrid and was promptly expelled – for the fifth time. This episode marked the end of an increasingly sour dialogue with the regime and the Carlist shift to unconditional opposition; In 1969 the Alfonsist prince Juan Carlos de Borbón was officially introduced as the future king and successor to Franco, with the title Prince of Spain; the ceremony marked the ultimate crash of the Bourbon-Parmas' hopes for the crown. When Franco died in 1975, Juan Carlos did indeed become king of Spain. Old king, former king (1969–1977) Resident mostly at Lignières, Don Javier withdrew, issuing sporadic manifestos, read by his son at Carlist gatherings. In 1972 Don Javier suffered life-threatening injuries resulting from a traffic accident and formally transferred all political authority to Carlos Hugo. In 1974, upon the childless death of his half-nephew Prince Robert, Duke of Parma, Don Javier ascended as head of the Bourbon-Parmas and assumed the Duke of Parma title. On the one hand, he was in a position to enjoy family life; though his four younger children did not marry, the elder two did, the marriages producing eight grandchildren (born between 1960 and 1974). On the other hand, family relations were increasingly subject to political tension. While Carlos Hugo, Marie-Thérèse, Cécile and Marie des Neiges formed one team advancing the progressive agenda, the oldest daughter Françoise Marie, the youngest son Sixte, and their mother Madeleine opposed the bid. Sixte, in Spain known as Don Sixto, openly challenged his brother; he declared himself the standard-bearer of Traditionalism and started building his own organization. In 1975 Don Javier abdicated as the Carlist king in favor of Carlos Hugo and according to a source, he would have expelled Sixto from Carlism for refusing to recognize the decision. It is not clear what his view on the commencing Spanish transición was; following the 1976 Montejurra events he lamented the dead, officially disowned the political views of Don Sixto and called for Carlist unity. However, in a private letter, Don Javier claimed that at Montejurra "the Carlists have confronted the revolutionaries", which has been interpreted as the followers of Don Sixto being the real Carlists according to Don Javier. Early March 1977 proved convulsive. On Friday 4th, accompanied by his son Sixto, he was interviewed by the Spanish press and his responses showed Carlist orthodoxy. That same day he issued a declaration certified by a Paris notary objecting to his name being used to legitimize a "grave doctrinal error within Carlism", and implicitly disowned the political line promoted by Carlos Hugo. In order to justify that declaration, Carlos Hugo alerted the police that his father had been abducted by Sixto, an accusation which was denied publicly by Don Javier himself, who had to be hospitalized heavily affected by the scandal generated. Shortly afterwards Don Javier issued another declaration, certified by a different Paris notary, confirming his oldest son as "my only political successor and head of Carlism". Then it was Doña Madalena who declared that her husband had been taken by Carlos Hugo from hospital against medical advice and his own will, and that Carlos Hugo had threatened his father to obtain his signature on the second declaration. Eventually Don Javier was transferred to Switzerland, where he soon died. The widow blamed the oldest son and three daughters for his death. Reception and legacy Barely noted in Spain until the Civil War, also afterwards Don Javier remained a little known figure, partially the result of censorship; Franco considered him a foreign prince. Among European royals he was respected but politically isolated. In the Carlist realm he grew from obscurity to iconic status, yet since the late 1950s he was being abandoned by successive groups, disappointed with his policy. Disintegration of Carlism accelerated after Don Javier's death; Partido Carlista won no seats in general elections and in 1979 Carlos Hugo abandoned politics. This was also the case of his three sisters, though Marie Therese became a scholar in political sciences and advisor to Third World politicians. Sixte is heading Comunión Tradicionalista, one of two Traditionalist grouplets in Spain, and poses as a Carlist standard-bearer. The oldest living grandson of Don Javier, Charles-Xavier, styles himself as the head of the Carlist dynasty, oddly enough, without claiming the Spanish throne. In France a grouplet referred to as Lys Noir called him in 2015 a "king of France for tomorrow". The group is classified by some as Far Right and by some associated with Trotsky, Mao and Gaddafi. In partisan discourse Don Javier is generally held in high esteem, though Left-wing Partido Carlista militants and Right-wing Traditionalists offer strikingly different pictures of him. Authors admitting their Hugocarlista pedigree claim that from his youth Don Javier has nurtured democratic, progressive ideas, and in the 1960s he lent his full support to renovation of Carlist thought. Authors remaining within the Traditionalist orthodoxy suggest that although generally conservative, but in his 70s impaired by age, bewildered by Vaticanum II, misled and possibly incapacitated by his children, Don Javier presided over destruction of Carlism. A few go farther, claiming that evidence points to Don Javier having been fully supportive of the course sponsored by his son, they either talk about "deserción de la dinastía" or – with some hesitation – point to treason. Some, highly respectful though disappointed by Don Javier's perceived ineptitude and vacillation as a leader, consider him a candidate for sainthood rather than for kingship. In historiography Prince Xavier has earned no academic monograph yet; books published fall rather into hagiography. Apart from minor pieces related to the Sixtus Affair, Chambord litigation and Halifax-Chevalier negotiations, he is discussed as a key protagonist in various works dealing with Carlism during the Francoist era. There are four PhD dissertations discussing post-civil-war Carlism, yet they offer contradictory conclusions. One presents Don Javier as a somewhat wavering person who eventually endorsed changes to be introduced by Carlos Hugo. One carefully notes his "peculiar position" yet it cautiously claims he kept backing the transformation. Two point to his "contradictory personality" and admit that his stand "might seem confusing", though they claim that he was generally conservative and was faithful to Traditionalist principles, Don Javier was misguided and manipulated, inadvertently legitimizing the change he did not genuinely support. Some hints suggest that he never seriously contemplated his own royal bid, and headed Carlism as a cultural-spiritual movement, perhaps modelled on French legitimism. At least since 1957 Don Javier purported to exercise the kingly prerogative as a fount of honour, occasionally conferring Carlist chivalric orders, such as the Legimitad Proscrita, upon Valiente, Fal and Zamanillo; in 1963 he conferred the Gran Cruz of the same order on his wife. Don Javier has also created and conferred a number of aristocratic titles, but with one exception (Fal Conde) only for members of his family: Duque de Madrid and Duque de San Jaime for Don Carlos Hugo; Condesa de Poblet for Doña Cecilia; Condesa del Castillo de la Mota for Doña María de las Nieves; Duque de Aranjuez for Don Sixto. Children Princess Marie Françoise of Bourbon-Parma, born on , married Prince Edouard de Lobkowicz (1926–2010) and had issue. Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma, 8 April 1930 – , married Princess Irene of the Netherlands (born 1939) and had issue. Princess Marie Thérèse of Bourbon-Parma, 28 July 1933 – . Victim of COVID-19. Princess Cécile Marie of Bourbon-Parma, 12 April 1935 – . Princess Marie des Neiges of Bourbon-Parma, born on . Prince Sixtus Henry of Bourbon-Parma, born on . In fiction The television series The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles presents Xavier (played by Matthew Wait) and his brother Sixtus (played by Benedict Taylor) as Belgian officers in World War I who help the young Indiana Jones. Writings La République de tout le monde, Paris: Amicitia, 1946 Les accords secrets franco-anglais de décembre 1940, Paris: Plon, 1949. Les chevaliers du Saint-Sépulcre, Paris: A. Fayard, 1957. Honours Calabrian House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies Knight Grand Cross of Justice of the Calabrian Two Sicilian Order of Saint George : Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold : Croix de Guerre : Croix de Guerre : Sovereign Knight of the Order of Prohibited Legitimacy Ancestry See also Carlism Traditionalism (Spain) House of Bourbon-Parma Robert I of Parma Prince Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma Prince Sixtus Henry of Bourbon-Parma Footnotes Further reading René Baret, Un Saint ami, le prince Xavier de Bourbon, duc de Parme, s.l. 1984 Edvard op de Beeck, Z. K. H. Prins Xavier de Bourbon-Parma: Biografisch Essai, Aarschot 1970 Wolfdieter Bihl, Marianne Walle, La mission de médiation des princes Sixte et Xavier de Bourbon-Parme en faveur de la paix, [in:] Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains 170 (1993), pp. 31–75 María Teresa Borbón Parma, Josep Carles Clemente, Joaquín Cubero Sánchez, Don Javier: una vida al servico de la libertad. Barcelona 1997, María Teresa Borbón Parma, Asi fueron, asi son, Barcelona 2009, Francisco Javier Caspistegui Gorasurreta, El naufragio de las ortodoxias. El carlismo, 1962–1977, Pamplona 1997; Josep Carles Clemente, Aproximación biográfica a un rey carlista: Don Javier de Borbón y Parma, Sevilla 2008, Joaquín Cubero Sánchez, Don Javier de Borbón Parma en el exilio: El carlismo contra el fascismo, Madrid 2017 [no ISBN] Eusebio Ferrer Hortet. Los Reyes que Nunca Reinaron: Los Carlistas, Kindle edition, ASIN: B00YASODW4 Daniel Jesús García Riol, La resistencia tradicionalista a la renovación ideológica del carlismo (1965–1973) [PhD thesis UNED], Madrid 2015 Tamara Griesser-Pečar, Die Mission Sixtus: Österreichs Friedensversuch im Ersten Weltkrieg. München 1988, Francisco Manuel Heras y Borrero, Carlos Hugo el Rey que no pudo ser, Madrid 2010, Manuel Martorell Pérez, La continuidad ideológica del carlismo tras la Guerra Civil [PhD thesis UNED], Valencia 2009 Javier Onrubia Rebuelta, El pensamiento cristiano de Don Javier de Borbón Parma, Pamplona 1997 Javier Onrubia Rebuelta (ed.), El pensamiento político de Don Javier de Borbón Parma (1968–1977), Sevilla 2006, J. Pelluard, La familie de Bourbon-Parma, Chambord, enjeu d’un procés de famille, [in:] Memoires de la Societe des sciences et lettres de Loir-et-Cher 37 (1982), pp. 53–61 Ramón María Rodón Guinjoan, Invierno, primavera y otoño del carlismo (1939–1976) [PhD thesis Universitat Abat Oliba CEU], Barcelona 2015 Ignacio Romero Raizabal, El prisionero de Dachau 156.270, Santander 1972 Gaston Schmitt, Les accords secrets franco-britanniques de novembre-décembre 1940. Histoire de ou Mystification, Paris 1957 Mercedes Vázquez de Prada, El final de una ilusión. Auge y declive del tradicionalismo carlista (1957–1967), Madrid 2016 Alexandra Wilhelmsen, The Adventures of a Stateless Prince: Francis Xavier of Bourbon Parma, [in:] Aportes 34/100 (2019), pp. 181-238 External links best biography available online by Alexandra Wilhelmsen official Borbon-Parma website Le Souvenir Vendéen website Puchheim castle gallery website Por Dios y por España; contemporary Carlist propaganda 1889 births 1977 deaths People from the Province of Lucca Spanish Roman Catholics House of Bourbon-Parma Carlist pretenders to the Spanish throne Dukes of Parma Princes of Bourbon-Parma Princes of Parma and Piacenza Belgian military personnel of World War I Belgian military personnel of World War II French Resistance members Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Recipients of the Order of Leopold II Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France) Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium) Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp survivors Dachau concentration camp survivors Spanish monarchists Belgian Army officers Navarrese titular monarchs Sons of monarchs Exiled royalty
4639751	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20impression	Dental impression	A dental impression is a negative imprint of hard and soft tissues in the mouth from which a positive reproduction, such as a cast or model, can be formed. It is made by placing an appropriate material in a dental impression tray which is designed to roughly fit over the dental arches. The impression material is liquid or semi-solid when first mixed and placed in the mouth. It then sets to become an elastic solid, which usually takes a few minutes depending upon the material. This leaves an imprint of a person's dentition and surrounding structures of the oral cavity. Digital impressions using computerized scanning are now available. Uses Impressions, and the study models, are used in several areas of dentistry including: diagnosis and treatment planning prosthodontics (such as making dentures) orthodontics restorative dentistry (e.g. to make impressions of teeth which have been prepared to receive indirect extracoronal restorations such as crowns, bridges, inlays and onlays) maxillofacial prosthetics (prosthetic rehabilitation of intra-oral and extra-oral defects due to trauma, congenital defects, and surgical resection of tumors) oral and maxillofacial surgery for both intra-oral and or extra-oral aims (e.g. dental implants) The required type of material for taking an impression and the area that it covers will depend on the clinical indication. Common materials used for dental impressions are: non rigid materials: reversible hydrocolloids: agar irreversible hydrocolloids: sodium alginate elastomeric materials: silicones (polyvinyl siloxane): condensation-cured silicones, addition silicones, vinyl polyether silicones (VPES) polyethers polysulphides rigid materials: plaster of Paris impression compound zinc oxide and eugenol-based impression paste Techniques for taking impression Impressions can also be described as mucostatic or mucocompressive, being defined both by the impression material used and the type of impression tray used (i.e. spaced or closely adapted). Mucostatic means that the impression is taken with the mucosa in its normal resting position. These impressions will generally lead to a denture which has a good fit during rest, but during chewing, the denture will tend to pivot around incompressible areas (e.g. torus palatinus) and dig into compressible areas. Mucocompressive means that the impression is taken when the mucosa is subject to compression. These impressions will generally lead to a denture that is most stable during function but not at rest. Dentures are at rest most of the time, so it could be argued that mucostatic impressions make better dentures, however in reality it is likely that tissue adaption to the presence of either a denture made with a mucostatic or a mucocompressive technique make little difference between the two in the long term. Another type of impression technique is selective pressure technique in which stress bearing areas are compressed and stress relief areas are relieved such that both the advantages of muco static and muco compressive techniques are achieved. User Guide of Dental Impression material: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-keGMbCHC2A Special techniques "Wash impression" – this is a very thin layer of low viscosity impression material which is used to record fine details. Usually it is the second stage, where the runny impression material is used after an initial impression taken with a more viscous material. Two phase one stage: the putty and low body weight impression materials are inserted to the mouth at once . Two phase two stage: first the putty is set in the mouth then low body weight material is added on the top of ready impression and inserted to the mouth to get the final accurate impression Functional impression (also known as secondary impression) Neutral zone impression Window technique Altered cast technique Applegate technique Impression for provision of fixed prosthesis The preparation border must be accurately captured by the light bodied impression material when taking impressions for crown and bridge work. As a result, the gingival tissues must be pushed away from the preparation margin in order for the impression material to be accessible. Inserting a retraction cord into the gingival crevice is one method of retracting gingival tissues away from the tooth. Impression materials Impression materials can be considered as follows: Rigid Plaster of Paris (impression plaster) Plaster of Paris is traditionally used as a casting material once the impression has been taken, however its use as an impression material is occasionally useful in edentate patients. The tissues are not displaced during impression taking, hence the material is termed mucostatic. Mainly composed of β-calcium sulphate hemihydrate, impression plaster has a similar composition and setting reaction to the casting material with an increase in certain components to control the initial expansion that is observed with Plaster of Paris. Additionally, more water is added to the powder than with the casting material to aid in good flow during impression taking. As the impression material is very similar to the casting material to be used, it requires the incorporation of a separating medium (e.g. sodium alginate) to aid in separating the cast from the impression. If a special tray is to be used, impression plaster requires 1–1.5mm spacing for adequate thickness. Advantages: Hydrophilic Good detail reproduction Good dimensional stability (contraction on setting) Good patient tolerance 2–3 minutes working time Disadvantages: Brittle No recovery from deformation. Therefore, if an undercut is present the material will have to be broken off the impression and then glued back together prior to casting Excess salivation by the patient could have adverse effect on detail reproduction Impression compound Impression compound has been used for many years as an impression material for removable prostheses. Although its use has recently declined with the advent of better materials. Due to its poor flow characteristics, it is unable to reproduce fine detail and so its use is somewhat limited to the following scenarios: Primary impressions of complete dentures Border moulding of trays Extension of trays Achieving mucocompression in the post-dam area when working impressions are taken for complete dentures Impression compound is a thermoplastic material; it is presented as a sheet of material, which is warmed in hot water (> 55–60 °C) for one minute, and loaded on a tray prior to impression taking. Once in the mouth, the material will harden and record the detail of the soft tissues. The impression can further be hardened by placing it in cold water after use. Impressions with compound should be poured within an hour as the material exhibits poor dimensional stability. There are two main presentations of impression compound: red compound and greenstick. The latter is mainly used for border moulding and recording the post-dam area. Vinyl polysiloxane impression material (impression material) vinyl polysiloxane dental impression materials used for making accurate dental impressions with excellent reproducibility. It is available in Putty and light body consistencies to aid dentists make perfect impressions for fabrication of crowns, bridges, inlays, onlays and veneers. Example Flexceed Advantages: Better reproduction detail with two viscosities (Putty & Light Body) Exhibits pseudo-plastic properties for precision which is not found in alginates Superior tear strength than any other VPS material Better dimensional stability – multiple models can be poured up to two weeks Good hydrophilicity Compatible with gypsum products Superior wetting characteristics ensuring gypsum working cast is hard with smooth surface Can be subjected to cold sterilization without compromising the details and dimensional stability of the impression Zinc-oxide eugenol plaster (impression paste) Impression paste is traditionally used to take the working (secondary) impressions for a complete denture. When used with a special tray it requires 1 mm of spacing to allow for enough thickness of the material; this is also termed a close fitting special tray. It is available as a two-paste system: Base paste: zinc oxide Catalyst paste: eugenol The two pastes should be used in equal amounts and blended together with a stainless steel spatula (Clarident spatula) on a paper pad. Zinc-oxide Eugenol plaster will produce a mucostatic impression. Advantages: Thermoplastic – can be heated to aid removal from the casting material Good detail reproduction Good dimensional stability (0.15% shrinkage on setting) Disadvantages: Rigid – presence of undercuts can distort the final material or cause the section engaged to separate from resultant impression Impression waxes Non rigid Hydrocolloid Agar Agar is a material which provides high accuracy. Therefore, it is used in fixed prosthodontics (crowns, bridges) or when a dental model has to be duplicated by a dental technician. Agar is a true hydrophilic material, hence the teeth do not need to be dried before placing it into the mouth. It is a reversible hydrocolloid which means that its physical state can be changed by altering its temperature which allows to reuse the material multiple times. The material comes in form of tubes or cartridges. A special hardware is required in the process of taking agar impressions, namely a water bath and rim lock trays with coiled edges allowing passage of cold water for cooling the material to set while in the mouth. The bath consists of three containers filled with water at different temperatures: the first is set at 100 °C to liquefy the agar, the second is used to lower down the temperature of the material for safe intra-oral use (usually set at 43–46 °C) and the third one is used for storage and is set at 63–66 °C. The storage container can maintain agar tubes and cartridges at temperature 63–66 °C for several days for convenient immediate use. The tray is connected to a hose, material is loaded onto the tray and placed in the mouth over the preparation – an adequate thickness of the material is required, otherwise distortion may occur upon removal from the mouth. The other end of the hose is connected to a cold water source. The hydrocolloid is then cooled down through the tray wall which results in setting of the material. The models should be poured as soon as possible to avoid changes in dimensional stability. Modern dentistry offers other materials (e.g. elastomerics) which provide high accuracy impressions and are easier to use hence agar is used less frequently. Advantages: high accuracy hydrophilic reusable Disadvantages: complex procedural steps significant start-up cost of the hardware Alginate Alginate, on the other hand, is an irreversible hydrocolloid. It exists in two phases: either as a viscous liquid, or a solid gel, the transition generated by a chemical reaction. The impression material is created through adding water to the powdered alginate which contains a mixture of sodium and potassium salts of alginic acid. The overall setting double composition reaction is as follows: Potassium (sodium) alginate + calcium sulphate dihydrate + water → calcium alginate + potassium (sodium) sulphate Sodium phosphate is added as a retarder which preferentially reacts with calcium ions to delay the set of the material. Alginate has a mixing time of 45–60 secs, a working time of 45 secs (fast set) and 75 secs (regular set). The setting time can be between 1 – 4.5 mins which can be varied by the temperature of water used: the cooler the water, the slower the set and vice versa. You want to ensure that the material is fully set before removal from the mouth. The water content that the completed impression is exposed to must be controlled. Improper storage can either result in syneresis (the material contracts upon standing and exudes liquid) or imbibition (water uptake which is uncontrolled in extent and direction). Therefore, the impression must be stored correctly, which involves wrapping the set material in a damp tissue and storing it in a sealed polythene bag until the impression can be cast. Alginate is used in dental circumstances when less accuracy is required. For example, this includes the creation of study casts to plan dental cases and design prosthesis, and also to create the primary and working impressions for denture construction. Several faults can be encountered when using an alginate impression material, but these can generally be avoided through adequate mixing, correct spatulation, correct storage of the set material, and timely pouring of the impression. Due to the increased accuracy of elastomers, they are recommended for taking secondary impressions over alginate. Patients both preferred the overall experience of having an impression taken with an elastomer than with alginate, and also favoured the resultant dentures produced. Advantages: Easy flow Cheap Reproduction of adequate detail Fast setting time Minimal tissue displacement in the mouth Disdavantages: It has poor dimensional stability Poor tear strength If it is unsupported, it distorts Easy to include air during mixing A minimum thickness of 3 mm is required which is hard to achieve in thin areas in between the teeth Non-aqueous elastomeric impression materials As stated above, there are times clinically where the accuracy of an alginate impression is not acceptable, particularly for the construction of fixed prosthodontics. Agar may be used but as discussed has a number of technical difficulties in its use. As such elastomers were developed to capture the fine detail and accuracy required. Polysulphides Polysulphides have become increasingly unpopular due to their unpleasant taste/smell. The material is presented as a paste to paste system mixed by a dental nurse prior to use. The material sets by a condensation polymerisation reaction. Initially the polymer chains increase in length causing a slight increase in temperature, of 3–4 °C. This is then followed by cross linking of the polymer chains and finally the release of water as a by product. This later reaction slightly contracts the material making it stiffer and more resistant to permanent deformation. When poured and cast this slight contraction means the resulting model is slightly larger and as such creates space for the luting cement. Advantages: Good tear resistance Dimensionally stable – some shrinkage on set with release of by-product Good Accuracy Most flexible elastomer Disadvantages: Reduced patient satisfaction – distinct unpleasant taste and smell Long setting time Requires excellent moisture control Difficult to mix Polyethers Polyethers are the most hydrophilic impression material of the hydrophobic elastomers. This property makes it a commonly used material in general practice as it more likely to capture preparation margins when moisture control is not perfect. Presented as a paste to paste system the material is often used with a monophase impression technique, meaning both the material syringed round the preparation and the bulk within the tray are the same material. Note when mixing polyether the base to accelerator ratio is not 1:1 like with most elastomers, but 1:4. Advantages: Most hydrophilic elastomeric impression material Dimensionally stable – minimal shrinkage on set with release of by-product Good accuracy Monophase impression Good tear resistance Disadvantages: Can be too stiff – deep undercuts and space under a bridge pontic should be blocked out with soft (modelling) wax to prevent inadvertently removing bridge with impression Indications: Indirect cast restorations, especially in cases where moisture control cannot be guaranteed Locating and the pick up of implant analogues in preparation for placement of superstructure Functional impression taking in removable prosthodontics Silicones There are two types of silicone resin impression material, addition and condensation (reflecting each of their setting reactions). Silicones are inherently hydrophobic and as such require excellent moisture control for optimal use. Addition silicone Addition silicones have become the most used impression material in advanced restorative dentistry. There are many forms available, based on their differing amounts of filler content. This dictates the flow properties of each type with more filler resulting in a thicker, less flowable material. The most common forms are: extra light-bodied (low filler content), light-bodied, universal or medium-bodied, heavy-bodied and putty (high filler content). However each type follows the same addition polymerisation reaction and is presented as a paste to paste system. The reaction does not produce any by-product making it dimensionally stable and very accurate. Advantages: Good detail reproduction Excellent dimensional stability – no shrinkage on set High patient acceptance More than one model can be poured from one cast Disadvantages: Hydrophobic – requires excellent moisture control Too accurate – impression may not be compensated for during investment and casting, resulting in too small a die being produced and subsequently too small a restoration. Poor tear resistance Expensive Indications: Indirect cast restorations Multiple models required Impressions for removable prosthodontics Bite registration material Contraindications Inadequate moisture control Condensation silicone Condensation silicones are commonly used as a putty, paste or light bodied material. The systems are usually presented as a paste or putty and a liquid/paste catalyst; meaning accurate proportioning is difficult to achieve resulting in varied outcomes. For example, the setting reaction of putty is started by kneading a low viscosity paste accelerator into a bulk of silicone with high filler content. As stated the material sets by a condensation reaction forming a three-dimensional silicone matrix whilst releasing ethyl alcohol as a by-product. This in turn results in a minimally exothermic set with marked shrinkage on setting (shrinkage being relative to filler content, where high filler content has reduced shrinkage). Advantages: Accurate High patient acceptance Disadvantages: Hydrophobic – requires excellent moisture control Unreliable dimensional stability – difficult to accurately proportion components leading to variable results Marked shrinkage on setting with release of by-product Indications: Indirect cast restorations Matrices for indirect/direct restoration Working impressions for metal based removable prosthodontics and relines Lab putty Impression trays An impression tray is a container which holds the impression material as it sets, and supports the set impression until after casting. Impression trays can be separated into two main categories- stock trays and special trays. Stock trays Stock trays are used to take primary impressions and come in a range of sizes and shapes, and can be plastic or metal. Stock trays can be rounded (designed to fit the mouths of people with no remaining teeth) or squared (designed to fit people with some remaining teeth). They can be full arch, covering all the teeth in either the upper or lower jaw in one impression, or a partial coverage tray, designed to fit over about three teeth (used when making crowns). The stock tray with the closest size and shape to the patient's own arch dimensions is selected for impressions. Stock trays must meet various requirements in order to obtain a satisfactory impression. A good stock tray will: Be rigid enough to endure the force of the dental impression material being positioned in the mouth. Flexure of the tray under force would cause the tray to be distorted, so when the impression tray is removed the impression would be narrower and distorted. This is particularly important for plastic stock trays. Be of appropriate dimensions to obtain the most accurate impression of the region being reproduced possible. Inadequate extension of an impression tray where the impression material is not supported would likely cause distortions in the impression of the area. Be loose enough around the dental arch to not touch the soft tissues of the mouth. Have a sturdy handle to allow the tray to be easily removed from the mouth. Be easily disinfected, unless for single use. Disposable trays are often preferred due to increasing legislation about infection control in medicine and dentistry. Stock trays can be dentate or edentulous, and perforated (used with alginate) or non-perforated (allows the impression material to run through the holes and increase the bond of the impression material to the tray when set). Plastic stock trays Plastic stock trays are generally injection moulded from a high-impact styrene such as polystyrene. The Triple Tray is a type of plastic tray used for taking impressions for a crown using the double arch or dual bite impression technique. It is used for taking impressions of the tooth preparation and the opposing teeth, by the use of a special impression material, usually elastomer. The accuracy of the results is however subject to the ability of the patient to close their teeth when the tray is present in the mouth. It cannot produce results of the complete arch, therefore its usefulness is limited. Metal stock trays Metal stock trays are often preferred over plastic stock trays, due to the lack of rigidity in plastic stock trays. Although expensive to purchase, they have the benefit of being reusable, so can be more cost-efficient in the long-term. Custom trays A special tray is an impression tray custom made for an individual patient by a denturist (dental technician), usually made from acrylic, such as polymethyl methacrylate, or shellac. A stock tray is used to make a preliminary impression, from which a model can be cast. This is then used for wax to make the tray to be laid down. The thickness corresponds to specific spacing, and can be classed as spaced, where about 3mm of space is left between the tray and the mucosa for the impression material to occupy, or closely adapted, where less space is left for the impression material. This is determined by the impression material to be used. Specific features can be given to the special tray to improve the accuracy of the impression such as a window which can help to record displaceable tissues such as flabby ridges when used with a less viscous impression material. Special trays can be given perforations if required by drilling holes in tray. Customised trays have been less frequently used since the advent of putties. This is due to the putty providing good support for light bodied material, and showing very little dimensional change which provides a fine detailed dental impression. There is now a large increase in the variety of stock trays available. Tray adhesives Tray adhesives are used to ensure the retention of the impression material in the impression tray, with or without the presence of perforations, and are based on contact adhesive technology. Maximum retention can be achieved with the presence of both a tray adhesive and perforations in the impression tray. The adhesive is applied to the internal surface of the tray, as well as over the margins to ensure the binding of the outer edge of the impression material to the tray. A suitable amount of adhesive (usually two thin coats) should be applied to the tray to prevent pooling of the adhesive which can weaken the bond between the tray and impression material. The adhesive should be completely dried prior to impression-taking. Tray adhesives usually come in a screw-top bottle with a brush attached to the lid that can be used for applying the adhesive. Overtime, the adhesive can accumulate around the cap, causing the evaporation of the solvent, and consequently the thickening of the adhesive. This can reduce the efficacy of the adhesive to bind to the tray. Types Various tray adhesives are available, corresponding to the impression material used. Digital impressions Digital impressions using extra-oral or intra-oral scanner systems are being adopted in dentistry. A model can be produced from the digital scan by milling or stereolithography. References Dentistry Dental materials
4639874	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiological%20transition	Epidemiological transition	In demography and medical geography, epidemiological transition is a theory which "describes changing population patterns in terms of fertility, life expectancy, mortality, and leading causes of death." For example, a phase of development marked by a sudden increase in population growth rates brought by improved food security and innovations in public health and medicine, can be followed by a re-leveling of population growth due to subsequent declines in fertility rates. Such a transition can account for the replacement of infectious diseases by chronic diseases over time due to increased life span as a result of improved health care and disease prevention. This theory was originally posited by Abdel Omran in 1971. Theory Omran divided the epidemiological transition of mortality into three phases, in the last of which chronic diseases replace infection as the primary cause of death. These phases are: The Age of Pestilence and Famine: Mortality is high and fluctuating, precluding sustained population growth, with low and variable life expectancy vacillating between 20 and 40 years. It is characterized by an increase in infectious diseases, malnutrition and famine, common during the Neolithic age. Before the first transition, the hominid ancestors were hunter-gatherers and foragers, a lifestyle partly enabled by a small and dispersed population. However, unreliable and seasonal food sources put communities at risk for periods of malnutrition. The Age of Receding Pandemics: Mortality progressively declines, with the rate of decline accelerating as epidemic peaks decrease in frequency. Average life expectancy increases steadily from about 30 to 50 years. Population growth is sustained and begins to be exponential. The Age of Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases: Mortality continues to decline and eventually approaches stability at a relatively low level. Mortality is increasingly related to degenerative diseases, cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, violence, accidents, and substance abuse, some of these due primarily to human behavior patterns. The average life expectancy at birth rises gradually until it exceeds 50 years. It is during this stage that fertility becomes the crucial factor in population growth. In 1998 Barrett et al. proposed two additional phases in which cardiovascular diseases diminish as a cause of mortality due to changes in culture, lifestyle and diet, and diseases associated with aging increase in prevalence. In the final phase, disease is largely controlled for those with access to education and health care, but inequalities persist. The Age of Declining CVD Mortality, Aging and Emerging Diseases: Technological advances in medicine stabilize mortality and the birth rate levels off. Emerging diseases become increasingly lethal due to antibiotic resistance, new pathogens like Ebola or Zika, and mutations that allow old pathogens to overcome human immunity. The Age of Aspired Quality of Life with Persistent Inequalities: The birth rate declines as lifespan is extended, leading to an age-balanced population. Socioeconomic, ethnic, and gender inequalities continue to manifest differences in mortality and fertility. The epidemiological transition occurs when a country undergoes the process of transitioning from developing nation to developed nation status. The developments of modern healthcare and medicine, such as antibiotics, drastically reduce infant mortality rates and extend average life expectancy which, coupled with subsequent declines in fertility rates, reflects a transition to chronic and degenerative diseases as more important causes of death. The theory of epidemiological transition uses patterns of health and disease as well as their forms of demographic, economical and sociological determinants and outcomes. History In general human history, Omran's first phase occurs when human population sustains cyclic, low-growth, and mostly linear, up-and-down patterns associated with wars, famine, epidemic outbreaks, as well as small golden ages, and localized periods of "prosperity". In early pre-agricultural history, infant mortality rates were high and average life expectancy low. Today, life expectancy in developing countries remains relatively low, as in many Sub-Saharan African nations where it typically doesn't exceed 60 years of age. The second phase involves improved nutrition as a result of stable food production along with advances in medicine and the development of health care systems. Mortality in Western Europe and North America was halved during the 19th century due to closed sewage systems and clean water provided by public utilities, with a particular benefit for children of both sexes and to females in the adolescent and reproductive age periods, probably because the susceptibility of these groups to infectious and deficiency diseases is relatively high. An overall reduction in malnutrition enabled populations to better resist infectious disease. Treatment breakthroughs of importance included the initiation of vaccination during the early nineteenth century, and the discovery of penicillin in the mid 20th century, which led respectively to a widespread and dramatic decline in death rates from previously serious diseases such as smallpox and sepsis. Population growth rates surged in the 1950s, 1960's and 1970's to 1.8% per year and higher, with the world gaining 2 billion people between 1950 and the 1980s. A decline in mortality without a corresponding decline in fertility leads to a population pyramid assuming the shape of a bullet or a barrel, as young and middle-age groups comprise equivalent percentages of the population. Omran's third phase occurs when human birth rates drastically decline from highly positive replacement rates to stable replacement numbers. In several European nations replacement rates have even become negative. This transition generally represents the net effect of individual choices on family size and the ability to implement those choices. Omran gives three possible factors tending to encourage reduced fertility rates: Bio-physiologic factors, associated with reduced infant mortality and the expectation of longer life in parents; Socioeconomic factors, associated with childhood survival and the economic challenges of large family size; and Psychological or emotional factors, where society as a whole changes its rationale and opinion on family size and parental energies are redirected to qualitative aspects of child-raising. Impact on fertility Improvements in female and childhood survival that occur with the shift in health and disease patterns discussed above have distinct and seemingly contradictory effects on fertility. While better health and greater longevity enjoyed by females of reproductive age tend to enhance fertility, the reduced risks to infants and young children that occurs in the later stages of the transition tends to have the opposite effect: prolonged breastfeeding associated with reduced mortality among infants and toddlers, together with parental recognition of improved childhood survival, tend to lengthen birth intervals and depress overall reproductive rates. Economic impact The transition may also be associated with demographic movements to urban areas, and a shift from agriculture and labor-based production output to technological and service-sector-based economies. This shift in demographic and disease profiles is currently under way in most developing nations, however every country is unique and transition speed is based on numerous geographical and sociopolitical factors. Whether the transition is due to socioeconomic improvements (as in developed countries) or by modern public health programs (as has been the case in many developing countries), the lowering of mortality and of infectious disease tends to increase economic productivity through better functioning of adult members of the labor force and through an increase in the proportion of children who survive and mature into productive members of society. Models of transition Omran developed three models to explain the epidemiological transition. Classical/Western model: (England, Wales, and Sweden) Countries in Western Europe typically experienced a transition that began in the late eighteenth century and lasted over 150 years to the post-World War II era. The lengthy transition allowed fertility to decline at virtually the same rate that mortality also declined. Germany might be considered another example of this model. Accelerated model: (Japan) Japan experienced a rapid transition as a result of a few decades of intensive war-driven industrialization followed by postwar occupation. The accelerated transition follows a pattern similar to the Classical/Western Model except that it occurs within a much shorter time span. China might be considered another example of this model. Contemporary/Delayed model: (Chile, Ceylon) Due to slow economic development, Chile and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) experienced delayed transitions that have lasted into the 21st century. Medical and public health improvements have reduced mortality, while the birth rate remains high. Cultural traditions combined with political and economic instability and food insecurity mean that mortality for women and children fluctuates more than for men. Mauritius might be considered another example of this model. Determinants of disease Ecobiological: changing patterns of immunity, vectors (such as the black rat partially responsible for spreading bubonic plague in Europe), and the movement of pathogenic organisms. These alter the frequency of epidemic infectious diseases as well as chronic infections and other illnesses that affect fertility and infant mortality. Socioeconomic: political and cultural determinants, including standards of living, health habits, hygiene and nutrition. Hygiene and nutrition are included here, rather than under medical determinants, because their improvement in western countries was largely a byproduct of social change rather than a result of medical design. Medical/Public health: specific preventive and curative measures used to combat disease, including improved public sanitation, immunization and the development of decisive therapies. Medical and public health factors came into play late in the western transition, but have an influence early in certain accelerated and contemporary transitions. Other perspectives McMichael, Preston, and Murray offer a more nuanced view of the epidemiological transition, highlighting macro trends and emphasizing that there is a change from infectious to non-communicable disease, but arguing that it happens differently in different contexts. One of the first to refine the idea of the epidemiological transition was Preston, who in 1976 proposed the first comprehensive statistical model relating mortality and cause-specific mortality. Preston used life tables from 43 national populations, including both developed countries such as United States and England and developing countries such as Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, México, Panama, Taiwan, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela. He used multiple linear regression to analyze the cause-specific-age-standardized death rates by sex. The estimated slopes represented the proportional contribution of each cause to a unit change in the total mortality rate. With the exception of neoplasms in both sexes and cardiovascular disease in males, all of the estimated slopes were positive and statistically significant. This demonstrated that the mortality rates from each specific cause were expected to decline as total mortality declined. The major causes accounting for the decline were all infectious and parasitic diseases. McMichael et al. argue (2004) that the epidemiological transition has not taken place homogeneously in all countries. Countries have varied in the speed with which they go through the transition as well as what stage of the transition they are in. The global burden of disease website provides visual comparisons of the disease burdens of countries and the changes over time. The epidemiological transition correlates with changes in life expectancy. Worldwide, mortality rates have decreased as both technological and medical advancements have led to a tremendous decrease in infectious diseases. With fewer people dying from infectious diseases, there is a rising prevalence of chronic and/or degenerative diseases in the older surviving population. McMichael et al. describe life expectancy trends as grouped into three categories, as suggested by Casselli et al.: Rapid gains among countries such as Chile, Mexico and Tunisia that have strong economic and technical relationships with developed countries Slower plateauing gains mostly among developed countries with slower increases in life expectancy (for example, France) Frank reversals occurring mostly in developing countries where the HIV epidemic led to a significant decline in life expectancy, and countries in the former Soviet Union, afflicted by social upheavals, heavy alcohol consumption and institutional inadequacy (for example, Zimbabwe and Botswana) Murray and Lopez (1996) offered one of the most important cause-of-death models as part of the 1990 Global Burden of Disease Study. Their "cause of death" patterns sought to describe the fraction of deaths attributed to a set of mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive causes. They divided diseases into three cause groups and made several important observations: Group 1 - communicable, maternal, perinatal, and nutritional: These causes of death decline much faster than overall mortality and comprise a small fraction of deaths in wealthier countries. Group 2 - non-communicable diseases: These causes of death are a major challenge for countries that have completed or nearly completed the epidemiological transition. Group 3 - injuries: This cause of death is most variable within and across different countries and is less predictive of all-cause mortality. The regression approach underlying the Global Burden of Disease received some critique in light of real-world violations of the model's "mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive" cause attribution. Building on the existing body of evidence, Salomon and Murray (2002), further add nuances to the traditional theory of epidemiological transition by disintegrating it based on disease categories and different age-sex groups, positing that the epidemiological transition entails a real transition in the cause composition of age-specific mortality, as opposed to just a transition in the age structure. Using Global Burden of Disease data from 1990, they disintegrate the transition across three cause groups: communicable diseases, non-communicable diseases and injuries, seeking to explain the variation in all-cause mortality as a function of cause-specific mortality in 58 countries from 1950 to 1998. This analysis validates the underlying premise of the classic epidemiological transition theory: as total mortality declines and income rises, communicable diseases cause less and less mortality compared to non-communicable diseases and injuries. Decomposing this overall impact by age-sex groups, they find that for males, when overall mortality decreases, the importance of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) increases relative to the other causes with an age-specific impact on the role of injuries, whereas for women, both NCDs and injuries gain a more significant share with mortality decreases. For children over one year, they find that there is a gradual transition from communicable to non-communicable diseases, with injuries remaining significant in males. For young adults, the epidemiological transition is particularly different: for males, there is a shift from injuries to NCDs in lower income settings, and the opposite in higher-income settings; for females, rising income also signifies a shift from NCDs to injuries, but the role of injuries becomes more significant over time compared to males. Finally, for both males and females over 50, there is no epidemiological transition impact on the cause composition of mortality. Current evidence The majority of the literature on the epidemiological transition that was published since these seminal papers confirms the context-specific nature of the epidemiological transition: while there is an overall all-cause mortality decline, the nature of cause-specific mortality declines differs across contexts. Increasing obesity rates in high-income countries are further confirming the epidemiological transition theory as the epidemic leads to an increase in NCDs. The picture is more nuanced in low- and middle-income countries, where there are signs of a protracted transition with the double burden of communicable and noncommunicable disease. A recent review of cause-specific mortality rates from 12 low- and middle-income countries in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa by Santosa and Byass (2016) shows that broadly, low- and middle-income countries are rapidly transitioning to lower total mortality and lower infectious disease mortality. A more macro-level analysis from the Global Burden of Disease data conducted by Murray and others (2015) finds that while there is a global trend towards decreasing mortality and increasing NCD prevalence, this global trend is being driven by country-specific effects as opposed to a broader transition; further, there are varying patterns within and between countries, which makes it difficult to have a single unified theory of epidemiological transition. A theory of epidemiological transition aimed at explaining not just describing changes in population disease and mortality profiles would need to encompass the role in different morbid conditions of infectious diseases contracted over the life course. The concept of linear transition from infectious diseases to other conditions referred to as degenerative or non-communicable, was based on a false dichotomy as common microorganisms have now been confirmed as causal agents in several conditions recorded as the underlying cause of many deaths. A revised transition model might focus more on disease aetiology and the determinants of cause-specific mortality change, while encompassing the possibility that infectious causation may be established for other morbid conditions through the vast amount of ongoing research into associations with infectious diseases. See also Demographic transition Medical anthropology Medical sociology Nutrition transition Notes Further reading . Contains three articles by four authors. Epidemiology Demography Population geography
4639959	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric%20Picnic	Electric Picnic	Electric Picnic is an annual arts-and-music festival which has been staged since 2004 at Stradbally Hall in Stradbally, County Laois, Ireland. Overview It is organised by Pod Concerts and Festival Republic, who purchased the majority shareholding in 2009. It was voted Best Medium-Sized European Festival at the 2010 European Festival Awards, and has been voted Best Big Festival at each of the last four Irish Festival Awards since they began in 2007. The Electric Picnic won eight awards in Hot Press's 2011 Festival Awards, including 'Best Large Festival'. In 2023, it was awarded 'Festival of the Year' in the Ticketmaster Awards. The Picnic has been described as "Ireland's version of Glastonbury" and "a great inspiration to Latitude" by one of its business partners, Laois. US magazine Billboard calling it as "a magnificent rock n roll circus, a textbook example of everything a festival should be" and Rolling Stone describing it as "one of the best festivals we've ever been to". The 2008 event was described by The Irish Times as "the best Electric Picnic yet". There is also an emphasis on eco-friendly initiatives. History Electric Picnic began as a one-day event in 2004, before growing to a weekend-long festival within a year. The festival incorporates attractions such as the 24-hour cinema tent, the Body and Soul arena (offering an ambient lounge with beanbags, massages and tarot card readings) and the Comedy Tent (curated by Gerry Mallon) and a silent disco. In 2008, Amnesty International attended the festival to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, whilst renowned American Burning Man artist, David Best constructed a Temple of Truth on site. Electric Picnic has been described as an "enormously successful, award-winning, established brand" which "attempts to bring to life a microcosmic cultural experience where music is just the tip of the iceberg". Festival summary by year 2004 festival The 2004 festival was a one-day event, which was headlined by 2 Many DJs. Other acts included Groove Armada, Arrested Development, Jurassic5, Grand Master Flash, Super Furry Animals, Plump DJ's, David Kitt, Soulwax and Mylo. Despite the fact that there was no organised camping, a number of groups camped in the field designated as the car park overnight and stayed up talking and exploring the (then pristine and nettle-free) woods. Thus, the relaxed and friendly vibe of the earlier Electric Picnic festivals was established. 2005 festival The 2005 festival took place on Saturday 3 September and Sunday 4 September. It is best remembered for Arcade Fire's performance which came before their subsequent mainstream success. Headlining acts included Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, Kraftwerk, The Flaming Lips, Röyksopp, Mercury Rev and The Human League. The premiere of "Electric Picnic: The Documentary" took place at the Irish Film Institute on Tuesday 4 July 2006 at 19:00. The critically acclaimed documentary directed by Nick Ryan, was filmed by a small camera crew who recorded the events of Electric Picnic 2005. Narrated by musician Nick Seymour and economist David McWilliams, the documentary includes footage from Kraftwerk's first recorded live performance in twelve years plus interviews with the performing bands and comedians, with a few festival-goers and with the locals of Stradbally Village, who claimed: "We get more trouble at the Vintage Steam Rally". Kraftwerk Fatboy Slim The Flaming Lips Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds Röyksopp Mercury Rev Arcade Fire Soulwax / 2 Many DJs Damien Dempsey Lemon Jelly Laurent Garnier Dublin Gospel Choir The Human League LCD Soundsystem Audio Bullys Doves Vitalic JJ72 The Rakes Hot Chip Boss Volenti James Blunt Be Your Own Pet Ben Watt Channel One Goldfrapp The Subways The Chalets Clor The Unabombers Mr Scruff De La Soul Stereo MCs DJ Format Mixmaster Mike Matthew Herbert Big Band The Kills Toots & the Maytals The Herbaliser 2006 festival In 2006 the festival gained momentum, with all 30,000 tickets (each costing €175 including camping) selling out more than seven weeks in advance. Presale tickets went on sale on Monday 28 November 2005. The event took place on the weekend of 1–3 September 2006, with the line-up being revealed on Friday 24 March. Artists who performed across the seven stages included Sparks, New Order, Pet Shop Boys, Basement Jaxx, Rufus Wainwright, Bloc Party, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Gary Numan, François Kevorkian, Groove Armada, Damien Rice and The Frames. The Blue Nile's appearance was their only live performance of the year. The festival's biggest casualty was Gnarls Barkley who had to cancel their appearance after rapper/singer Cee-Lo strained his vocal cords. David McWilliams made an appearance as a celebrity. RTÉ Two televised the festival, with a special RTÉ Two Green Room being set up at Stradbally Hall Estate for presenters Tom Dunne and Jenny Huston. Journalist and television presenter Joe O'Shea was arrested for driving in an intoxicated state on his way home from the event. Groove Armada New Order Basement Jaxx Yeah Yeah Yeahs The Frames Massive Attack Bloc Party Pet Shop Boys Josh Ritter Laurent Garnier Rufus Wainwright Elbow Paul Noonan Belle & Sebastian Jape Amadou & Mariam Minotaur Shock Tom Vek Aberfeldy The Archie Bronson Outfit The Swell Season Damien Rice Super Furry Animals Antony and the Johnsons DJ Shadow PJ Harvey Red Sirus Graham Coxon Mogwai Devendra Banhart Sparks Yo La Tengo David Kitt Mundy Broken Social Scene Messiah J & The Expert Dancepig Laura Izibor Tapes 'n Tapes dEUS The Skatalites Cora Venus Lunny Gary Numan The Rapture Hot Chip Tilly and the Wall Saul Williams Soulwax / 2 Many DJ's Tiefschwarz Dublin Gospel Choir François K Coldcut Spank Rock Modeselektor Digital Circus Tadhg Cooke Semifinalists Vyvienne Long Gang of Four Michael Franti David Geraghty Cut Chemist Hystereo Mad Professor Hexstatic Warlords of Pez Nouvelle Vague Zen Hussies The Rumours The Comedy Tent in 2006 featured PJ Gallagher, Des Bishop, Neil Delamere, and Eric Lalor. 2007 festival Electric Picnic 2007 was once again a three-day event and ran from 31 August until 2 September. The festival maintained its current size of 32,500 festival goers and kept all the same elements plus some new additions. "Early-bird" tickets for the 2007 festival went on sale between Monday 11 December 2006, and Saturday 24 February 2007, costing €199, taking into account the VAT that must now be paid on all outdoor events. Full price tickets went on sale on Tuesday 3 April at a price of €220. The first acts were officially announced on Monday 2 April. Besides the music other attractions included an inflatable church offering mock weddings, luxury tents, massage chambers, a fairground and silent disco. Acii Disco DJs began the festival on the Friday at 12 p.m. in the Bodytonic Tent. Amongst others to take to the stage on Friday were Björk, Hot Chip, Scott Matthews, Manic Street Preachers and Oppenheimer whilst the unnamed band responsible for The Good, the Bad & the Queen headlined the Electric Arena tent. The Sunday night was brought to a close by Primal Scream. The festival was marred by the death of a 23-year-old fan. The incident occurred as The Chemical Brothers came to a climax at 2 a.m. early on the Sunday morning. Organiser John Reynolds extended his sympathies and said: "A young man took ill at the festival, was treated at the medical centre, removed to Portlaoise Hospital and was later pronounced dead." Gardaí said they were not treating the death as suspicious. Beastie Boys Björk The Chemical Brothers Dublin Gospel Choir Sonic Youth LCD Soundsystem Primal Scream Jarvis Cocker M.I.A. Modest Mouse The Good, the Bad & the Queen Jamie Lidell Acii Disco DJs Easy Star All-Stars Ratatat Patrick Wolf The Flaws Mainlines Hexstatic Ukulele Orchestra of Great Britain Fujiya & Miyagi 65daysofstatic Two Gallants Erasure Nouvelle Vague Duke Special Dave Couse Manic Street Preachers Soul II Soul The Jesus and Mary Chain Paul Hartnoll Shy Child !!! The Go! Team Aim Clap Your Hands Say Yeah Camera Obscura Fionn Regan Emporium Tobias Froberg PC Radio SiSi Ladytron Marlena Shaw Bonde Do Role Architecture in Helsinki The Stooges Spiritualized The Undertones Polyphonic Spree UNKLE The Magic Numbers Fluke Damien Dempsey Derrick Carter DJ Marky Sons and Daughters Greenskeepers Gaudi Jinx Lennon The Dead Milkmen Simian Mobile Disco (live) Josh Wink Deerhoof Hot Chip The Fall Lisa Hannigan The Rumours Brontosaurus Chorus Si Schroeder 2008 festival Electric Picnic 2008 took place at Stradbally from 29 to 31 August, attended by 35,000 people. Presale tickets went on sale on 9 November 2007 and full price tickets went on sale on Friday 28 March at 9 p.m., costing €240 including camping, with the various sites opening at 9 a.m. on Friday 29 August. Tickets had sold out by 17 June. Sigur Rós, George Clinton and Sex Pistols headlined. Other musicians appearing included Franz Ferdinand, My Bloody Valentine, German rockers Faust, Tindersticks, The Breeders, Grinderman, Goldfrapp, Gossip, CSS, Duffy, Foals, Hadouken!, Wilco, The Roots, Turin Brakes, Carbon/Silicon, Conor Oberst and New Young Pony Club. Irish acts to appear included Kíla, The Stunning, Sinéad O'Connor, Christy Moore, Liam Ó Maonlaí, Boss Volenti, The Waterboys, The Flaws, Ham Sandwich, Fred, Super Extra Bonus Party, Jape, Lisa Hannigan, Le Galaxie, Cathy Davey, Gemma Hayes and Mark Geary. Also attending were Amnesty International, which celebrated the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights with a singalong of "Happy Birthday" on the Sunday night. 2009 festival Electric Picnic 2009 took place at Stradbally from 4–6 September. The British promoter Festival Republic bought out the share of Aiken Promotions as well as a further majority shareholding in Electric Picnic in March 2009. The festival was launched on 15 April 2009, with tickets going on sale two days later. The launch saw the announcement of forty-seven acts. Orbital, The Flaming Lips, Imelda May, Brian Wilson, Basement Jaxx, Madness, Klaxons, Bell X1, Fleet Foxes and MGMT were some of the musical acts which appeared, whilst Tommy Tiernan headlined in the comedy tent. 2010 festival Early bird tickets for Electric Picnic 2010 went on sale on 4 December 2009. The festival was launched on 24 March 2010, with Leftfield, Roxy Music, Public Image Ltd., LCD Soundsystem, Massive Attack, Modest Mouse, Mumford & Sons, Jón Þór Birgisson, Paul Brady, Imelda May and The Frames among the first acts to be confirmed. 2011 festival Artists who played in 2011 included Arcade Fire, Pulp, The Chemical Brothers, Interpol, PJ Harvey, Beirut, Blonde Redhead, Zola Jesus, The Drums, Santigold, The Family Stone, Joan As Policewoman, Best Coast, 3epkano, Power of Dreams, Yuck, Foster The People, Alexandra Stan, The Undertones, Public Enemy, Jimmy Cliff, DJ Shadow, Flying Lotus, The Charlatans, Mogwai, Sinéad O'Connor, White Lies, OMD, Toots & the Maytals, Lykke Li, Midlake, The Rubberbandits, Death in Vegas, The Go! Team, Big Audio Dynamite, Boys Noize, Paul Kalkbrenner, Dave Clarke, Twin Shadow, Willy Mason, Trentemøller, Killing Joke, Health, Mundy, Gavin Friday, The Walkmen, Adam Beyer, Sharon Shannon, Ivan St. John, The Cast of Cheers, Micah P. Hinson, Caitlin Rose, The Potbelleez, Adebisi Shank, The Danger Is, Codes, And So I Watch You From Afar, and O Emperor. The festival triumphed at the Irish Festival Awards, winning seven gongs, including Best Large Festival, Best Line up and Best Toilets. 2012 festival Artists who performed at the 2012 festival included The Cure, The Killers, Elbow, Sigur Rós, Christy Moore, Orbital, Hot Chip, The xx, Wild Beasts, Of Monsters and Men, Patti Smith, The Roots, Crystal Castles, Grandaddy, SBTRKT, Mmoths, Metronomy, Bat for Lashes, The Maccabees, The Horrors, Richard Hawley, Azealia Banks, Ed Sheeran, The Jezabels, Michael Kiwanuka, Gavin Friday, Ryan Sheridan, Róisín O, Van Dyke Parks, Roots Manuva, Bell X1, Dublin Gospel Choir, Glen Hansard, Grizzly Bear, Willis Earl Beal, Alabama Shakes, Tindersticks, Fatoumata Diawara, Land Lovers, Eagle and the Worm, Solar Bears, Staff Benda Bilili, Little Roy, Lanterns on the Lake, Jonathan Wilson, Baxter Dury, Cranes, Milagres, In Tua Nua, Codes, Conor Linnie, Ocho and more to be announced. 2013 festival The announcement of the 2013 festival was delayed significantly owing to a legal dispute regarding ownership of the festival between the festival's founder POD Concerts and its majority shareholder Festival Republic Dublin (FRD). Despite fears that Electric Picnic would not return in 2013, Electric Picnic was subsequently scheduled to take place between 30 August and 1 September. The initial line-up for the festival was announced on 25 April 2013 to much fanfare. The line-up included Björk, Fatboy Slim, Robert Plant, My Bloody Valentine, Arctic Monkeys, Franz Ferdinand, Wu-Tang Clan, David Byrne & St Vincent, Eels, Noah & The Whale, Johnny Marr, Disclosure, Ocean Colour Scene, Hurts, Mick Flannery, The Walkmen, Baauer, Tiga, Warpaint, Savages, The Strypes, Poliça, Chvrches, Parquet Courts, Clinic, Deap Vally and Soak. 2014 festival Electric Picnic 2014 took place at Stradbally from 29 to 31 August, attended by 41,000 people. Early bird tickets went on sale on 19 March 2014. A Full weekend ticket cost €154.50 for purchasers who could prove they had been to three or more picnics, €174.50 for those who could prove they had been to the picnic once or twice previously. Tickets then increased to €194.50 until 4 July and, €229.50 after that date. Sunday tickets were priced at €90. Sunday tickets had sold out by 13 June. Full weekend tickets sold out on 31 July 2015 festival Electric Picnic 2015 took place at Stradbally from 4 to 6 September. The first acts were announced in March 2015. There was speculation that the capacity would be raised from the present 42,000 to 47,000 to cater for increased demand. The headliners were Sam Smith, Blur, and Florence and the Machine. 2016 festival Electric Picnic 2016 took place from 2 to 4 September. It was headlined by LCD Soundsystem, Lana Del Rey, The Chemical Brothers, New Order and Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds. Line ups Main Stage Friday: Ryan Sheridan, ABC, Nas, The 1975, The Chemical Brothers Saturday: Trinity Orchestra, Hermitage Green, The Lightning Seeds, Gavin James, Catfish and the Bottlemen, Bell X1, Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds, LCD Soundsystem Sunday: Dublin Gospel Choir, Toots and the Maytals, Local Natives, James Bay, Nathaniel Rateliff & the Night Sweats, New Order, Lana Del Rey 2017 festival Electric Picnic 2017 took place on 1–3 September. It was headlined by Duran Duran, A Tribe Called Quest and The xx. Line ups Main Stage Friday: Little Hours, Hudson Taylor, The Divine Comedy, London Grammar, The xx Saturday: Keywest, The Strypes, Giggs, Madness, Run the Jewels, Phoenix, A Tribe Called Quest, Pete Tong Sunday: Dublin Gospel Choir, The Skatalites, Rag'n'Bone Man, The Pretenders, Chaka Khan, Elbow, Duran Duran 2018 festival Electric Picnic 2018 took place at Stradbally from 31 August to the 2 September. Tickets for the festival sold-out in less than 24 hours after the lineup was announced in March 2018. Main stage Friday 10.40pm – midnight - Kendrick Lamar 9–10pm - Walking on Cars 7:30 – 8:30pm - Chvrches 6–7pm - Ash 5–5:30pm - Brand New Friend Saturday 12:15 – 1:30am - Massive Attack 10:30 – 11:30pm - NERD 8:45 – 9:45pm - Dua Lipa 7–8pm – Gavin James 5:15 – 6:15pm - Mavis Staples 3:30 – 4:30pm - Gomez 1:45 – 2:45pm - Hudson Taylor Sunday 10:30pm – midnight - The Prodigy 8:45 – 9:45pm - Picture This 7–8pm - George Ezra 5:30 – 6:30pm - Nile Rodgers & Chic 4:15 – 5pm - Garbage 2:30 – 3:30pm - Inner Circle 1–2pm - Dublin Gospel Choir 2019 festival Electric Picnic 2019 took place at Stradbally from 30 August to the 1 September. Friday 10:30pm Hozier 9pm Dermot Kennedy 7:30pm Billie Eilish 6:00pm Christine and the Queens Saturday 11:30pm The 1975 9:15pm Royal Blood 7:45pm Kodaline 6pm Gerry Cinnamon 4:30pm Years & Years 3:15pm Wild Youth 1:45pm The Riptide Movement 6pm David Kennan Sunday 10:30pm Florence and the Machine 8:30pm Tame Impala 7pm Richard Ashcroft 5:30pm Jess Glynne 4:15pm Razorlight 2:30pm Soja 1pm Dublin Gospel Choir 2020 festival The 2020 event was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2021 festival The 2021 event was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2022 festival Electric Picnic 2022 took place at Stradbally from 2 to 4 September after a gap of two years. Dermot Kennedy, Tame Impala and the Arctic Monkeys headlined the festival. Almost 70,000 people attended the event. The HSE issued a drug warning to festivalgoers after "high strength" MDMA with two times the average dose was found. An anonymous drug testing facility was set up at the festival for the first time. 2023 festival Electric Picnic 2023 took place at Stradbally from 1 to 3 September. Billie Eilish, Fred Again and The Killers headline the festival. 2024 festival Electric Picnic 2024 will take place two weeks earlier than the traditional dates, from 16 to 18 August. Headline act on Sunday 18th August has been confirmed as COLDPLAY. The planned dates were not well received by local farmers, who cited issues with the festival taking place in the middle of harvest season. Festival director Melvin Benn stated the change was a once-off for 2024 to facilitate a particular artist, believed to be Coldplay. See also List of electronic music festivals Longitude Festival Oxegen References External links Review of the 2005 Electric Picnic Festival Review of the 2005 Electric Picnic Festival Review of the 2006 Electric Picnic Festival The Ticket at Electric Picnic 2007 Electric Picnic 2008 Playlist Electric Picnic V Oxegen 2009, FIGHT! Music festivals established in 2004 2000s in Irish music 2010s in Irish music Annual events in Ireland Music in County Laois Rock festivals in Ireland Stradbally Culture in County Laois Tourism in County Laois Electronic music festivals in Ireland
4640304	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickie%20Guerrero	Vickie Guerrero	Vickie Lynn Benson (formerly Guerrero, née Lara; born April 16, 1968), better known as Vickie Guerrero, is an American professional wrestling personality and manager and retired professional wrestler. She is best known for her tenure with WWE. She most recently worked for All Elite Wrestling (AEW) as the manager of Nyla Rose and Marina Shafir. In wrestling, she has appeared as an on-screen authority figure, storyline lover to several WWE wrestlers, occasional professional wrestler in the WWE Divas division, and as a manager for numerous wrestlers. She was best known in her role as general manager of SmackDown from 2007 to 2011, and of Raw from 2011 to 2013. Since leaving WWE in 2014, she has made sporadic appearances in the company. She is known for her villainous persona and igniting negative reactions from audiences with her catchphrase, "Excuse me!". She is the widow of professional wrestler Eddie Guerrero, which has been occasionally incorporated into WWE storylines. Professional wrestling career World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE Storyline with Eddie and Chavo (2005–2006) In 2005, Vickie Guerrero made her debut as a face with her husband Eddie Guerrero and Rey Mysterio, when a storyline escalated in which Eddie promised to reveal a secret concerning Mysterio's son, Dominik. Vickie was on the July 14 episode of SmackDown! with two of Eddie's three daughters to stop Eddie from revealing Mysterio's secret. Eddie promised not to reveal the secret, if he lost to Mysterio at The Great American Bash, though that turned out to be another one of his character's trademark lies, as Eddie revealed that Dominik was really his (kayfabe) biological son. Vickie later reappeared at SummerSlam to convince Eddie to put a stop to his war with Mysterio and not to go through with the "Custody of Dominik" ladder match that night. When that failed, she cost him the match by pushing over the ladder he was on as he was about to win. After doing so, she held Eddie down on the ground so he couldn't get up and stop Mysterio from climbing the ladder. On November 13, 2005, Eddie Guerrero died of heart failure in his Minneapolis hotel room and was found by his nephew Chavo. On-screen, this led to Rey Mysterio, Eddie's real-life friend, getting more screen time and higher profile matches, including defeating Kurt Angle and Randy Orton at WrestleMania 22 for the World Heavyweight Championship. The night before WrestleMania, Eddie was posthumously inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame, and Vickie accepted the honor on his behalf. In 2006, approximately seven or eight months after Eddie's death, Vickie started appearing more prominently in more controversial storylines. She first asserted herself during a feud between Mysterio and Chavo Guerrero when Chavo accused Mysterio of being "nothing but a leech living off the blood of the Guerrero name" on the August 4 SmackDown!. Subsequently, she acted as peacemaker between the two former friends until she seemingly inadvertently interfered in their match at SummerSlam in 2006, costing Mysterio the match. Vickie later openly sided with Chavo and hit Mysterio in the back with a chair on the following SmackDown!, turning heel in the process. On the September 1 SmackDown!, the evil Vickie declared herself Chavo's business manager and Mysterio an "insignificant chapter" in her past. At No Mercy, Chavo lost to Mysterio in a Falls Count Anywhere match. On October 20, Rey Mysterio lost an "I Quit" match against Chavo after interference from Vickie. On October 27, 2006, Chris Benoit became involved in the storyline. He tried to figure out what Vickie was doing with Eddie's estate while also defending the WWE United States Championship in a rivalry with Chavo. At Survivor Series, Chavo kicked out of an attempted sharpshooter, causing Benoit to knock Vickie off the ring apron and on her head, causing her to begin to wear a neck brace and blame Benoit for "intentionally" hitting her. At the end of December, she interfered in a United States Championship match between Chavo and Benoit, which caused Chavo to lose and Benoit to retain the title. As a result, Chavo shouted "If you wanted me to win the title, then stop getting me disqualified," before pushing Vickie over. Relationship with Edge; La Familia (2007–2009) In May 2007, Kristal, the on-screen girlfriend of general manager Theodore Long, convinced him to give Guerrero an interview for the position as his assistant. A week after the interview, Vickie was given the job, turning face once again. On the June 29 episode of SmackDown!, Vickie acted as interim general manager of SmackDown! while Long was planning his wedding with Kristal. She was soon named the maid of honor at Long and Kristal's "wedding". On the September 21 episode of SmackDown!, Long suffered a kayfabe heart attack during his wedding to Kristal before they had legally wed. The following week, Vince McMahon named Vickie the new general manager. On the November 23 episode of SmackDown!, she "punished" Edge for his interference in the championship match at the Survivor Series by making him the number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship, before revealing that she had begun a romantic relationship with him and had facilitated his "plan" to regain the belt. As a result, Vickie turned heel once again. Later in the night, as she stood alone in the ring, after watching Edge be attacked by Batista, The Undertaker appeared and performed a Tombstone Piledriver on Vickie. After being off-air for several weeks, she returned on the December 14 episode of SmackDown! in a wheelchair, making biased matches in favor of Edge which led to him winning the World Heavyweight Championship at Armageddon. In early 2008, she formed La Familia with her nephew Chavo, Edge, the team of Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder, and later, Bam Neely. One of her first acts as part of the new group was to help Chavo win the ECW Championship from CM Punk. At the Royal Rumble, Vickie interfered in the World Heavyweight Championship match between Edge and Rey Mysterio, allowing Edge to retain his title. On the subsequent airing of SmackDown, Edge proposed to Vickie, who accepted, but the event was interrupted by Mysterio. After Vickie had helped Edge to retain his championship for almost four months, he eventually dropped the title to The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXIV. This started a feud between Edge and the Undertaker, with Vickie giving Edge numerous title opportunities and placing The Undertaker in difficult matches. On the May 2 episode of SmackDown, she stripped The Undertaker of his championship after deciding that his new gogoplata (dubbed Hell's Gate) submission hold was too dangerous and made a Tables, ladders, and chairs match at One Night Stand between The Undertaker and Edge for the vacant title with the stipulation that Undertaker would be banished from WWE if he lost. Following interference, Edge won the match and the World Heavyweight Championship and Vickie 'banished' Undertaker. However, Edge lost his title shortly afterwards to CM Punk on the June 30 episode of Raw. On the July 4 episode of SmackDown, Edge took his frustrations for losing the World Heavyweight Championship out on Vickie by telling her the wedding was off. The next week, however, Edge re-proposed to Vickie after SmackDown had gone off the air. On the July 18 episode of SmackDown, at the wedding reception (the wedding had occurred off-screen before the show) Triple H came out and showed a video of Edge cheating on Vickie the day before with Alicia Fox, the wedding planner. The storyline continued at The Great American Bash when Fox attempted to hand Edge the WWE Championship belt to use as weapon, but was stopped with a clothesline by Vickie. Edge attempted to spear the referee to delay the match, but hit Vickie instead. Triple H used this distraction to recover and hit a Pedigree to retain his title. On the July 25 episode of SmackDown, Edge attempted to get Vickie to forgive him, but instead she announced the reinstatement of his former enemy The Undertaker, whom Edge would face at SummerSlam in a Hell in a Cell match, turning her into a face in the process. A few weeks later, as revenge, Edge attacked the members of La Familia and tipped Vickie from her wheelchair. The Undertaker refused to accept her apology for his banishment, but Vickie stated that she was not afraid of him. She also stated that at Unforgiven, she would force him to apologize to her, but at Unforgiven when The Undertaker did not comply, the Big Show knocked him out and Vickie spat in his face, turning heel once again. Big Show then aligned himself with Vickie, and for the next two weeks they continued to gloat at how they beat The Undertaker. After Undertaker attacked Chavo, Vickie pleaded with Undertaker for forgiveness for her actions. Undertaker, however, once again hit her with a Tombstone Piledriver, forcing Vickie to rely on both a neckbrace and a wheelchair again. Over the following weeks, Vickie put the Undertaker in matches against the Big Show that seemed impossible for him to win. The feud ended after Big Show lost to Undertaker in a casket match at Survivor Series. At Survivor Series, during a match for the WWE Championship between the champion Triple H and Vladimir Kozlov, Vickie came out to the arena making the announcement that "he's here". Edge's music was played and he came out to compete, making it a triple threat match. Edge won the championship, and as he went to the back, he greeted Vickie with a hug. On the December 5 episode of SmackDown they shared a kiss, thus reinstating their on-screen relationship. On the special December 8 episode of Raw, Vickie and Edge won a Slammy Award for the Couple of the Year. On February 23, 2009, she was appointed the interim general manager of Raw during Stephanie McMahon's absence. On the following Raw, Guerrero announced that Edge would be facing Big Show for his World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania 25. On the March 9 episode of Raw, John Cena showed footage of Vickie cheating on Edge with Big Show after Guerrero had added Cena to the World Heavyweight Title match through blackmail of revealing the secret affair, making it a triple threat in the process. At WrestleMania, Edge lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Cena after Cena pinned Big Show after Cena delivered the Attitude Adjustment to Edge onto the Big Show. On the April 6 episode of Raw, Guerrero was given the choice of either being general manager of Raw or SmackDown. She then announced that she would move to Raw in order to become its new general manager, subsequently resulting in her being separated from Edge. However, Big Show and her nephew Chavo were also moved to Raw during the 2009 WWE Draft and Supplemental Draft, respectively. After being insulted for a few weeks because of her weight by Santino Marella, Vickie, with help from William Regal, won the "Miss WrestleMania" crown from Santina Marella, Santino's "twin sister", in a No Disqualification match sanctioned by Chavo on the May 18 episode of Raw. On June 7 at the Extreme Rules pay-per-view, Vickie lost the "Miss WrestleMania" crown to Santina in a hog pen match with Chavo by her side. The following night on Raw, Vickie announced her resignation as Raw's general manager. After her announcement, Edge came out and told Vickie that he was sorry for saying disrespectful things about her, only to reveal that he only married her so she could help him in World Championship matches, and now that she quit, she was useless to him in his endeavors to become the champion again. He then told Vickie that he wanted a divorce, leading to her suffering from a nervous breakdown. In reality, Vickie had requested to leave WWE so that she could spend more time with her family. Managing and teaming with LayCool (2009–2010) Guerrero returned to WWE on the SmackDown 10th Anniversary special episode on October 2, with a drastically changed new look, where she introduced her storyline boyfriend, then-heel, Eric Escobar, who she would be managing on the SmackDown brand. On the November 20 SmackDown, Guerrero was named as a SmackDown consultant by WWE Chairman Vince McMahon. The following week after Escobar failed to capture the Intercontinental title from John Morrison, Vickie ended their relationship. Escobar claimed that he could not take it any longer, saying he only went out with her for power, mirroring what Edge admitted as to why he had married Vickie on the June 8 episode of Raw. Guerrero then put him in a handicap match with The Hart Dynasty the following week, and the week after put him in another handicap match against Chris Jericho and Big Show. The storyline was soon dropped when Escobar was released by WWE. Guerrero began involving herself in the already heated rivalry between WWE Women's Champion Mickie James and Michelle McCool and Layla, taking the sides of Team LayCool after Mickie accidentally doused her with cottage cheese on the February 12 episode of SmackDown. On the February 26 SmackDown, Guerrero acted as special guest referee for a title match between James and McCool, ultimately costing James the title after slapping her. Two weeks later she got involved in a match between WWE Women's Champion Michelle McCool and Tiffany causing Tiffany to win the match by DQ. After the match, McCool and Layla began to beat down Tiffany until Beth Phoenix made the save, in the process delivering a clothesline to Vickie. Two weeks later Guerrero appeared in a 5-on-1 handicap match with Alicia Fox, Maryse and Team LayCool against Beth Phoenix. Guerrero mainly hid behind Alicia Fox, Maryse, and Team LayCool, letting her partners do the dirty work until Phoenix was weakened and Guerrero made the pin, winning the match. At WrestleMania XXVI, Guerrero's team won a 10-woman tag team match when she climbed the turnbuckle and gestured to the sky before connecting a frog splash, as tribute to her late husband, Eddie. On the May 10 episode of Raw, Guerrero was named the permanent general manager of the Raw brand for the second time, but then resigned on the same night after being intimidated by Randy Orton. Although not the general manager, she returned to SmackDown as the Consultant on the May 14 episode and forced Phoenix to face Team LayCool in a handicap match, which Layla won to achieve her first WWE Women's Championship. Managing Dolph Ziggler (2010–2012) In June she began a romance storyline with Dolph Ziggler and began accompanying him to the ring. On the August 31 episode of NXT, it was announced that Vickie would be the storyline mentor of Aloisia for the all-female third season. However, due to certain circumstances, Aloisia was sent to Florida Championship Wrestling, WWE's developmental system and was later released. Vickie was assigned a new rookie on the show, Kaitlyn, whom she began feuding with. On October 5, she was defeated by Kaitlyn in a rookie versus pro match. Kaitlyn was caught backstage kissing Vickie's boyfriend, Ziggler, which added more fuel to the fire. Kaitlyn went on to win NXT and later joined SmackDown. In January 2011, she became the acting general manager of SmackDown after Theodore Long was found unconscious backstage. At the Royal Rumble pay-per-view, Kelly Kelly attacked Guerrero during Ziggler's match with Edge. On the February 4 episode of SmackDown, Ziggler and LayCool lost to Edge and Kelly in a two-on-three handicapped mix tag match for the World Heavyweight Championship. Afterwards, Guerrero fired Kelly, and announced a championship match between Edge and Ziggler, with her serving as the special guest referee of the match. The following week, while officiating the match, she attempted to spear Edge but injured her ankle as part of the storyline. While she was down, Clay Matthews of the Green Bay Packers replaced her as referee, and Edge went on to win the match. On SmackDowns 600th episode the following week, she stripped Edge of the title and fired him in the storyline. Later that night, there was a coronation for Ziggler as World Heavyweight Champion. However, the returning Theodore Long revealed that he was once again in charge and that Vickie and Ziggler were the culprits behind his assault, thus making an impromptu match between Ziggler and a reinstated Edge for the World Heavyweight Championship, in which Edge won. After the match, Long fired Ziggler. On the February 25 episode of SmackDown, Long announced that a match would take place with Edge and Kelly Kelly facing Vickie and Drew McIntyre. Vickie lost the match, and was then fired (kayfabe) from her consultant role by Long. On the March 7 episode of Raw, Guerrero and Ziggler made their return to the brand, with Vickie managing him in a singles match defeating John Morrison. After the match, the anonymous Raw General Manager informed Vickie that Ziggler had indeed been hired, but they did not hire her yet. The general manager then continued by issuing a match between her and Trish Stratus for the following week, with the stipulation being if Vickie wins, she would be hired. The following week, Vickie defeated Trish in a No Disqualification match with the help of Team LayCool. Afterwards, Guerrero challenged Stratus, Morrison, and that week's Raw guest star Snooki, who had slapped Guerrero earlier in the night, to a six-person mixed tag team match against LayCool and Ziggler at WrestleMania XXVII, which they accepted. On the March 21 episode of Raw, Guerrero, LayCool, and Ziggler lost to Stratus and Morrison in a 4-on-2 handicap match. At WrestleMania XXVII, Vickie's team of LayCool and Ziggler were defeated by Snooki, Stratus, and Morrison. The night after WrestleMania, on Raw, Vickie and Ziggler were defeated by Stratus and Morrison. At the Capitol Punishment pay-per-view, Ziggler won the United States Championship from Kofi Kingston, with the help of Guerrero. The next night on Raw, Ziggler retained the championship from Kingston by disqualification. Later that night, Vickie lost a dance contest to Michael Cole, despite Cole receiving the most boos. On the September 12 Raw, Vickie lost to the Divas Champion, Kelly Kelly, due to Ziggler fighting with Jack Swagger. On the September 19 Raw after weeks of pursuing for Vickie's services, Jack Swagger convinced Vickie to sign a managerial contract. At Tables, Ladders & Chairs, Ziggler lost the United States Championship to Zack Ryder, who lost the title to Swagger on the January 16, 2012, episode of Raw. On the March 5 Raw, Swagger lost the United States Championship to Santino Marella. On the June 18 episode of Raw, Vickie ended her clientele service with Jack Swagger and renewed her romantic relationship with Ziggler. Final storylines and departure (2012–2014) After showing "evidence" to the WWE Board of Directors of AJ Lee "fraternizing" with a WWE wrestler – which was later stated as John Cena – AJ was asked to resign. On the October 22 episode of Raw, Mr. McMahon announced Guerrero as the new Raw Managing Supervisor. On the December 10 episode of Raw, Guerrero defeated AJ with help from Brad Maddox, who was the special referee for the match. At the Tables, Ladders & Chairs pay-per-view, Guerrero tried to help Dolph Ziggler in his ladder match against Cena, until she was attacked by AJ, who betrayed Cena and helped Ziggler win. The following night on Raw, Guerrero teamed with Cena to defeat the new couple of Ziggler and AJ by disqualification due to interference from Big E Langston. On the February 18, 2013, episode of Raw, Guerrero named Brad Maddox as her assistant, where Maddox came up with the name of Team Brickie. In mid-2013, Vickie entered a storyline where Vince McMahon, Stephanie McMahon, and Triple H pressured her to increase the level of her authority. On the July 8 episode of Raw, after undergoing a job evaluation, the fans did not vote in Vickie's favor, resulting in her getting fired by Stephanie McMahon. Vince McMahon tried to console her afterwards, and appointed her assistant, Brad Maddox, as the new general manager. On the July 19 episode of SmackDown, Vince McMahon hired Guerrero as the new general manager of SmackDown. Guerrero told the fans she hated each and every one of them, blaming them for her getting fired as managing supervisor of Raw. In addition to this, when Maddox congratulated her, Guerrero slapped him, and in revenge for having security escort her out by Teddy Long's orders the week before, Vickie had Long escorted out by security. On the October 7 episode of Raw, after announcing that Alberto Del Rio would defend the World Heavyweight Championship against John Cena at Hell in a Cell, she distracted Del Rio in his match against Ricardo Rodriguez, allowing Rodriguez to pick up the win. Following this, Vickie argued with Kane and Brad Maddox over who should be in charge. On the November 18 episode of Raw, Stephanie McMahon forced Guerrero to compete in a match against the Divas Champion AJ Lee, which she lost. On March 24, 2014, episode of Raw, after hearing insulting comments from AJ towards her, Guerrero forced AJ to defend her Divas Championship in a 14-woman "Vickie Guerrero Invitational" at WrestleMania XXX. On the June 16 episode of Raw, Roman Reigns tried to convince Vickie to put him into the battle royal for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship opportunity at Money in the Bank pay-per-view, Vickie however refused, because The Authority wouldn't allow him in it. Reigns then spiked the coffee she gave to Stephanie McMahon, causing Stephanie to throw up on Vickie and leave with Triple H to the hospital. Vickie later gave Reigns a chance in the battle royal, which he won. On June 23 episode of Raw, Guerrero lost in a pudding match against Stephanie McMahon with her job on the line, after interference by Alicia Fox, Layla and Rosa Mendes. She was then fired as general manager of both shows, but got her retribution over McMahon by throwing her into the mud pool and mouthed, "I love you," a tribute to her late husband, Eddie Guerrero, and performed his signature taunt while leaving the stage, turning face for the first time since 2007. This was done to write her off television, as she had requested her release a few months before. Sporadic appearances (2016-2018) On the July 4, 2016 episode of Raw, Vickie returned to WWE as a villainess once again, announcing her intentions to become the new "SmackDown Chief Operating Officer" after the WWE Brand Extension returned on July 19; however, she was escorted out of the arena by two security guards. While being escorted out, Vickie encountered Dolph Ziggler backstage, who denied knowing her at all. On January 28, 2018, at the Royal Rumble, Vickie made a surprise entrance at number 16 during the first women's Royal Rumble match, in which she was eliminated by Becky Lynch, Michelle McCool, Ruby Riott, & Sasha Banks in 57 seconds. Afterwards, she attacked Carmella, who entered at number 17, by hitting her with her Money in the Bank briefcase. On the 1000th episode of Smackdown she returned as a face All Elite Wrestling (2019–2023) On December 11, 2019, she appeared as a guest commentator for All Elite Wrestling taping of AEW Dark Episode 11 that premiered December 17, 2019 on YouTube. According to Vickie, this appearance caused WWE to "cut her off". On July 15, 2020, at Fight for the Fallen, Vickie was revealed as Nyla Rose's manager. On the special Friday June 4, 2021, edition of Dynamite. Vickie introduced Andrade El Idolo to AEW. For the next two years, Guerrero would primarily appear on AEW's second-tier programming, AEW Dark and Dark: Elevation alongside Nyla Rose and Marina Shafir. In February 2023, it was revealed that Vickie and AEW management came to an agreement that Vickie's contract would not be renewed once it expired. On April 6, 2023, Vickie's roster page was removed from the AEW website. Professional wrestling style and persona Guerrero's approach to her work as manager is "to make them shine and do my little part and just be there at the right moment and the right time to do the right thing" while "my role is just an embellishment of the superstar that’s in the ring. I don’t want to overshadow them". She uses the catchphrase "Excuse me". Other media Vickie has appeared in two video games. She made her in-game debut in WWE '12 as a playable DLC character and in WWE 2K15 as an exclusive manager for the Microsoft Windows, Xbox One and PlayStation 4 versions. In 2019, Vickie began hosting her own podcast, Excuse Me: The Vickie Guerrero Show. Personal life Benson is a Christian of French and Mexican descent. Vickie married Eddie Guerrero on April 24, 1990, after three years of dating. Guerrero's father encouraged them to marry following the announcement of Vickie's first pregnancy. Together, Vickie and Eddie had two daughters: Shaul Marie Guerrero (born October 14, 1990), who is married to fellow professional wrestler Aiden English, and Sherilyn Amber Guerrero (born July 8, 1995). They were married until his death. On June 18, 2015, Vickie announced her engagement to partner Kris Benson, and the two were married on September 12, 2015. In March 2023, Vickie's younger daughter, Sherilyn, accused Benson of sexually assaulting her while on a cruise in 2020. Both Chavo Guerrero and Vickie's older daughter, Shaul, backed Sherilyn's claim, while Vickie and Benson vehemently denied the accusations. After leaving WWE in 2014, she revealed her plans to start a new career in medical administration. Vickie became officially certified as a medical office administrator and was hired by a pharmaceutical company as a medical administrator. In 2019, she graduated from Herzing University with a Bachelor of Science in healthcare administration. Awards and accomplishmentsThe Baltimore SunNon-Wrestler of the Year (2008)World Wrestling Entertainment / WWEMiss WrestleMania (1 time) Slammy Award for Couple of the Year (2008) – with EdgeWrestling Observer Newsletter''''' Best Non-Wrestler (2009, 2010) References Further reading External links 1968 births American color commentators American female professional wrestlers American people of French descent American professional wrestlers of Mexican descent American women podcasters American podcasters Christians from Texas Living people Los Guerreros People from El Paso, Texas Professional wrestlers from Texas Professional wrestling announcers Professional wrestling authority figures Professional wrestling managers and valets Professional wrestling podcasters Professional wrestling referees Twitch (service) streamers YouTubers from Texas 21st-century American women American actresses of Mexican descent
4641105	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dor%C4%87ol	Dorćol	Dorćol (; ) is an affluent urban neighborhood of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It is located in Belgrade's municipality of Stari Grad. Located along the right bank of the Danube, Dorćol is the oldest surviving neighborhood in Belgrade. It is known for its specific urban charm and the mentality of its residents. The neighborhood has experienced artistic revival since the 2000s concurrently with the Savamala neighborhood on the opposite, Sava, bank. After being featured in numerous reports, including by the BBC and The Guardian, Time Out magazine placed Dorćol on their list of "50 coolest neighborhoods". It has been described as a Belgrade "phenomenon", an "exciting, creative and inventive spot", and the "authentic, organic soul of the city". A section of Upper Dorćol was declared a spatial cultural-historical unit in 1989, and placed under protection as the "Area surrounding Dositej's Lyceum". Location Dorćol begins already some 700 meters north of Terazije, the central square of Belgrade. It can roughlyn be divided into two sections, Gornji (or Upper) Dorćol (formerly known as Zerek), which covers the area from Academy Park to Cara Dušana street, and Donji (or Lower) Dorćol, formerly called Jalija, which occupies the area between Cara Dušana, Bulevar despota Stefana and the right bank of the Danube. It borders (and largely overlaps) the neighborhoods of Stari Grad and Jevremovac (east and south) and the fortress of Kalemegdan (west). The population of the neighborhood in the widest sense was 22,707 in 2002. History Roman period The predecessor to Belgrade was Singidunum, a Celtic and, later, Roman fortified town. The original earthen and wooden fort stretched around Studentski Trg and Knez Mihailova Street. The oldest Roman graves were discovered in this section, dated to the 1st and early 2nd centuries. During the period of the Roman Empire, the Danube was much wider and modern Lower Dorćol didn't exist. Upper Dorćol was included in the city. The civilian zone spread from Kralja Petra Street, over both the Sava and Danube banks to Kosančićev Venac, extending in a series of necropolises from Republic Square, along the Bulevar kralja Aleksandra all the way to the Mali Mokri Lug. The highest, ending section of Upper Dorćol was part of the central axis of the city grid in the direction of modern Uzun Mirkova-Vasina-Republic Square. The necropolis at Republic Square contained well-shaped graves from the 1st century AD. In general, the largest section of the civilian settlement was situated between modern Simina Street in Dorćol, Brankova Street in Savamala and Zeleni Venac, and Republic Square. On the crossroads of Gospodar Jevremova and Kneginje Ljubice streets, a house of worship dedicated to the Greek goddess Hecate, a sort of "descent of Hades", was discovered in 1935. As foundations for a new building were being dug, a long architrave beam, with an inscription in Latin dedicated to Hecate, was discovered at the depth of . The inscription was written by Valerius Crescentio, a legionary of the Legio IV Flavia Felix, in the service of the emperor Maximinus Thrax. It is roughly dated to c. 235 AD. It disappeared after it was discovered but was found decades later and handed over to the National Museum in Belgrade. It is a rare finding of Hecate in Serbia. Her cult wasn't developed in this area, and she was mostly identified with the Roman goddess Diana, worshiped in the region as the protector of silver mines. The entire surrounding slope around the Gospodar Jevremova was a necropolis, so the temple was probably part of it since Hecate's temples were usually built on cemeteries. The beam ends in a step-like manner, so the temple was probably built in the Ionic order rather than the Tuscan order, which would be expected in Singidunum. Impressions of anta capital and their size on the lower side of the beam point to the existence of two columns and probably a rectangular gable above it. There is a possibility that due to the terrain, the temple was actually dug into the slope. The northern section of Academy Park was excavated in 1968 during the building of a furnace oil tank for the boiler room of Belgrade's City Committee of League of Communists, which were located nearby. Under the lawn, the remnants of the ancient Roman thermae were discovered, including the frigidarium (room with cold water), laconicum (room with the warm water where people would sweat and prepare), and caldarium (room with two pools of hot water). The site became an archaeological dig in 1969 and 8 rooms in total were discovered, including the remains of the brick furnace that heated the water. It was a public unisex bath dated to the 3rd or 4th century. The entire area of the park is actually within the borders of the "Protected zone of Roman Singidunum". It is situated in the area that used to be the civilian sector of the city, outside the fortress. The remnants were visible until 1978 and due to the lack of funds to continue excavations or to cover it with a roof or marquee, the remains were conserved and buried again. Remnants of the Roman castrum from the 2nd century were discovered beneath Tadeuša Košćuškog Street during the reconstruction in June 2009. They were conserved and reburied. In Cincar Jankova Street, five graves from the late 1st century were discovered so as three canals. As later development of Belgrade destroyed over 80% of the cultural layer within the current protected zone of Ancient Singidunum, that is, of the civilian settlement and necropolises, there are only three sections that were excavated, conserved, and reburied, two of them being in Upper Dorćol (Academy Park and Tadeuša Košćuškog), the third being Park Proleće on the opposite side of the central slope. Medieval period During the reign of Despot Stefan Lazarević, in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the settlement was an outer suburb of Belgrade. The settlement hosted a Ragusan merchant colony, so a modern street, roughly in this area, was named Dubrovačka in the late 19th century. Ottoman period The name of the neighborhood comes from Turkish words dört (four) and yol (road), literally meaning "four roads" or colloquially "intersection (of four roads)", "crossroads". There are several towns and villages with the same name in Turkic speaking areas, like Dörtyol in Turkey or Dyurtyuli in Bashkortostan, Russia. In 1522, the Ottomans opened a kafana in Dorćol, considered the oldest such venue in Europe. It served only Turkish coffee. After recapturing Belgrade from the Austrians in 1739, Kafana Crni Orao (Kafana Black Eagle) was opened at the corner of the modern streets of Kralja Petra and Cara Dušana. It was the first such facility with the recorded word kafana in its name. Apart from coffee, nargile was also on offer. During the Turkish rule of Belgrade, Dorćol was a well known trading center, with many markets and traders of different nationalities. Among others, it was a center of Belgrade's Jewish community, who settled in Belgrade in the early 16th century, a remnant of which is the modern Jevrejska ("Jewish") street in Dorćol. The area of Jalija, or Lower Dorćol, below the Duga čaršija (Long Çarşı), modern Cara Dušana, and the Danube was dotted with numerous mosques, each having its own mahallah. One of the mahallahs was Jewish. A synagogue was built in the neighborhood in the 16th century. After Belgrade became a capital of independent Serbia, Dorćol kept its multinational character for a long time. Apart from Serbs, Jews, and Ottomans, later settlers also included new Ragusan settlers after the Candian war, Greeks, Italians, Germans, Russians, Cincars, Armenians, Bosnian Muslims, and Albanians, so Dorćol was described as a "Babylonian mixture of people, religions, and languages". Dorćol was the location of famous farmers market, Bit-Pazar. The central thoroughfare in the neighborhood was hence named Bitpazar(ska), and it divided upper (Zerek) and lower (Jalija) sections of the neighborhood. During the Austrian occupation from 1718 to 1739, it was renamed Dunavska Street. The street is today called Cara Dušana. In 1783, a was built in the neighborhood, within the complex of the Dervish tekija. It survived until today, and was reconstructed. In June 2019 in the turbe, for the first time after 236 years, a group of Dervish performed a religious ritual in Belgrade. Austrian period During the Austrian occupation of northern Serbia in 1717-39, Belgrade was divided by the governing Austrian authorities into six districts: Fortress, Serbian Town (modern Kosančićev Venac), German Town (modern Dorćol), Lower Serbian Town (Savamala), Karlstadt (Palilula), and the Great Military Hospital (Terazije-Tašmajdan). German Town is today referred to as Baroque Belgrade. In this couple of decades, Austrians turned Belgrade from an Oriental town into a modern, European one, including several grandiose projects. German Town was divided into blocks and built according to the most modern rules of the Baroque architecture of the day. A series of houses with Baroque façades were built along the straight streets. Official buildings included hospitals, barracks, pharmacies, brewery, saltern, monasteries, schools and several official palaces. Also, it was the seat of the Prince Eugene of Savoy's court. For the first time, settlements outside of the fortress, German and Serbian towns, were fenced with the protective ramparts and gates which were connected by the four main city roads. As the Turks completely withdrew, Austrians settled people from all over the Habsburg Monarchy, including many merchants, traders, and artisans, but also war veterans and poor people. Chronicles record that the first theatrical shows were organized in this period, as they mention "comedies" being performed in some of the former mosques, which were abundant in Dorćol. Several hospitals were established in German Town, including the Capucines' hospital. The Capucines were granted permission to do missionary work in Belgrade on 23 August 1718, on the Emperor's decision. They were given one of the mosques, which they adapted and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. On the city plans, their monastery is located just within the outer walls, next to the Emperor's Gate. They possibly arranged the Bajram-beg mosque, also known as the Stambol mosque, below the modern National Theatre in Belgrade, approximately on the location of the modern Church of St. Alexander Nevsky. The Capucines had only nine monks by 1725 which was quite insufficient for their duties. They were handling all the Catholics in the occupied area, proclaimed by the Austrian court as the Kingdom of Serbia. They also took religious care of the soldiers who were scattered over the region, but they only had two parochial priests. Still, they converted over 1,000 imperial soldiers from Protestantism to Catholicism. They originally took care of the ill all over Belgrade, in the fortress, existing hospitals, and private houses. In the letter of an unknown city clerk from 10 November 1736, sent to the Vicar Provincial of the order in Vienna, it was mentioned that the Capucines asked for the field hospital to be established. It would take care of the soldiers and have a place for 1,500 people. The military commander of Belgrade agreed, providing permanent pay and food for the monks who would treat the soldiers. There was enough space next to their monastery for such a facility. Still, the care of the soldiers was first offered to the Jesuits, but they refused. Names of two especially dedicated Capucine priests are preserved in the documents: Father Oswaldus and Father Chrysogonus. However, the local population wasn't welcomed in German Town, though they welcomed Austrians as their Christian liberators. Division of Belgrade into German and Serbian towns was just the first step. German settlers asked the Austrian emperor on 8 April 1718 to allow only German Catholics to settle in German Town, to expel 40 Serbian families who already lived there, and to also expel or move into ghettos all Serbs, Armenians, Greeks, and Jews present there before the Austrians came. Germans openly stated that the local population, which lived there during the Ottoman period, moved into the largest and most beautiful Turkish houses, which Germans wanted for themselves. Emperor Charles VI granted almost the same rights to both towns, but on the pretext that they were fully separate. Statute of German Town stipulates that "Serbs, Armenians, and Greeks" will be tolerated only in separate municipalities. Non-German nationalities were finally completely expelled from German Town in 1726, when some estates were bought off, but the majority of people were relocated forcefully by the Austrian gendarmerie colonel Von Burg. By the end of their rule, there were massive differences between two parts of Belgrade, as the Austrians made no effort at all to cultivate Serbian Town, which remained an Oriental settlement, while German Town grew larger, both in area and population; new palaces, squares, and streets were built; and the fortress was reconstructed. Belgrade remained rich in kafanas in this period. There were almost 200 kafanas and meyhanas, and production of alcoholic beverages in the city bloomed. Rakia was mainly produced by the local Jewish population, while beer was produced by both Jews and German migrant brewers. Brothers Jakov and Abraham Kepiš, grain merchants from Timișoara, built a large brewery close to Long Street, central in the neighborhood (modern Dušanova Street). It was situated on the location of the former Turkish cemetery, between modern Jevrejska, Braće Baruh, and Visokog Stevana streets. A massive, L-shaped building had one floor, an attic, and a basement under the entire yard. When the Ottomans retook Belgrade, they demolished or closed all breweries. The Roman Catholic Church dedicated to Saint Peter the Apostle, at the corner of modern Dušanova and Cara Uroša Streets, began in 1732. After Austria lost the Austro-Turkish War of 1737–1739, northern Serbia, including Belgrade, was returned to the Turks. One of the provisions of the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade stated that Austria had to demolish all the fortifications and military and civilian buildings it had constructed during the occupation. Many Baroque buildings were demolished, including most of the hospitals. However, Austria didn't demolish the buildings outside the fortress walls. That way, the House at 10 Cara Dušana Street, built from 1724 to 1727, in the neighborhood of Dorćol also survived, being today the oldest house in Belgrade. Population also withdrew back to Austria, so the chronicles report that the Turks encountered only 8 Serbs and 45 Jews in the town. The Turks re-Orientalized Belgrade almost completely. In Belgrade, the building of German Town was the first pre-designed construction according to urban plans envisioned for the city as a whole after almost 1,500 years and the Roman Singidunum. Almost nothing remained of this period in Dorćol, but the basic street grid and urban blocks mostly follow the patterns set at this time. Later history Bitpazar market (flea market) was located at the crossroad of the Bitpazarska and the street, which connected it to downtown Belgrade. After the 1862 Ottoman bombing of Belgrade, the flea shops from Bitpazar scattered all over the city, until 1887 when they were ordered by the city to group along the Fišegdžijska Street. When Belgrade was divided into six quarters in 1860, Dorćol was one of them. By the census of 1883, it had a population of 5,728. Urban regulation of Dorćol began in the 1870s when the Association for the Improvement of the Danube Area was founded. They instigated cutting through the streets, their paving with cobblestone and embankment works on the Danube's bank. In this period the industrialization of Dorćol also began as numerous factories and workshops started to open. Among others, this included "Šonda", the first chocolate factory in Serbia. One of the most popular city kafanas was Jasenica, located in Dorćol. It was a favorite place of mathematician and fisherman Mihailo Petrović, nicknamed Mika Alas. In front of this venue, Major Dragutin Gavrilović held his famous address to the soldiers who defended Belgrade against German and Austro-Hungarian attack in October 1915. After the war, during the works to dig an underpass, 60 skeletons of the city defenders, both soldiers and gendarmes, were excavated. The remains were moved to the Memorial ossuary of the Belgrade defenders at the Belgrade New Cemetery, while their belongings, remarkably preserved, were sent to the Military Museum in the Belgrade Fortress, though they disappeared later. In Dorćol, a memorial plaque was posted in 1934 with the inscription "On this location, during the construction of the underpass, 60 skeletons of the defenders of Belgrade were excavated". Until World War II, the lowest part of Dorćol was a location of the city's only official fish market (Riblja pijaca). As there were no refrigerators at the time, the fishermen sold the fish themselves, though some were first dried or smoked. On 16 February 1919, one of the first kindergartens in Belgrade, and in Serbia in general, was opened in the Upper Dorćol, near the Čukur Fountain and close to the location of the demolished Stambol Gate. It was named Dunavsko obdanište (Danube's kindergarten), and as of 2020, it is still operation under that name, though it has moved to Lower Dorćol after Queen Maria, later during the Interbellum, donated a building for the kindergarten at 1 Cara Dušana Street. Today it is the oldest kindergarten in the territory of the Stari Grad municipality. In 1920, the Society for the Construction of the Catholic Church in Belgrade was founded. In the next years, the Society and the city administration couldn't find common ground on the location of the future Belgrade Cathedral. The locations asked for by the Society and those offered by the city included Krunski Venac, Savamala, Mostar, and Palilula, until the city proposed the lot in Dorćol in 1931, bounded by the streets Visokog Stevana, Despota Đurđa, Cara Uroša, and Princa Eugenija (today Braće Baruh). In 1930, the Society announced an international design competition, which resulted in 129 designs (79 from Germany, 18 from Austria, 15 from Yugoslavia, and the rest from Switzerland, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Hungary). The project of German architect Josef Wenzler was chosen. He planned a monumental, three-naves basilica, long and wide. Total floor area was to cover and host 4,300 people (3,390 sitting, 910 standing). It was to be dedicated to the Saint John of Capistrano who participated in the defense of Belgrade during the 1456 Ottoman siege. The Society disliked the location in Dorćol but planned to build the cathedral anyway. After the ensuing money problems, it was disbanded and, ultimately, the central church for Roman Catholics in Belgrade was never built. After World War II, the lot was nationalized by the state and the elementary school "Braća Baruh" was built on it. In the 1930s, railway was conducted from the Belgrade Main Railway Station, circling around the Belgrade Fortress, through Dorćol into Viline Vode industrial zone, and in 1935 further across the Bridge of King Peter II. "Oneg Shabbat and Gemilut hasadim" center was built in 1923, at 16 Jevrejska Street. It became the most important gathering place for Dorćol's Jews. After World War II, it was renamed the Braća Baruh Center for culture, while today it is known as the cinema "Reks". Construction of the First Belgrade Gymnasium, next to the Church of Alexander Nevsky, was finished in 1938. Dorćol was partially demolished during the heavy Easter bombing of Belgrade by the Allies on 16 April 1944. Eventually, the old low houses and narrow streets were changed into modern buildings. Still, some parts, though vanishing one by one, resemble the old look. In the 1950s and 1960s, Dorćol began to change, from a mixed, old-style neighborhood into the more modern one. Old synagogue in Mojsije's alley was demolished in 1954. Building next to it, at 14 Jevrejska Street, was one of the oldest in Belgrade, but it was also demolished in the late 1950s. After the 2010s, many parts were declared cheep "city building land", which resulted in accelerated demolition of the old houses, and construction of new, taller buildings. By the 2020s, "almost nothing" remained of "old Dorćol". In October 2022, removal of the 90 years old railway tracks in Dorćol started, as a result of shutting down the Main Station, and construction of the Belgrade's linear park. The tracks will be removed completely, as they have been disconnected already for several years, since the beginning of the construction of Belgrade Waterfront, on the other side of the city. Historical neighborhoods Zerek (Upper Dorćol) Zerek roughly encompassed the modern area bounded by the streets of Francuska, Vasina, Tadeuška Košćuška, and Cara Dušana. It was the original location of the neighborhood, where it developed during the Ottoman period and from where Dorćol spread as it grew. Its name originates from the Turkish language (zeyrek) and means scenic viewpoint, as Zerek developed on the slopes above the Danube. Other theories of the origin of the neighborhood's name, that it comes from the Turkish word meaning "wise (man)", or from Zeyrek, neighborhood of Istanbul, are considered less likely. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Zerek was a prosperous trading center, with numerous foreign trade colonies, including ones from the Republic of Ragusa. The neighborhood was originally centered around the modern Kralja Petra Street, which was previously named the Zerek Street. As in the 16th century city outside of the fortress was located only where the modern Kosančićev Venac neighborhood is, south of Zerek, Zerek was called the "first suburb of Belgrade" and is considered to be one of the oldest neighborhoods in the city. Even the Bajrakli mosque was once called Zerek mosque. Zerek Street, as the central in the neighborhood, was full of foreign trade representations, and as Serbian name for Ragusa is Dubrovnik, part of the street is still called Dubrovačka today. They used to build Mediterranean-style houses with one floor. Ground floor was a shop while the upper floor hosted the living quarters. Two of those old Ragusan houses survived at the corner of the Kralja Petra and Uzun Mirkova until the early 1900s. During the Austrian occupation, 1717–1739, they tried to modernize Zerek, building a settlement in the western style, and even settling 333 families of German immigrants, transforming Dorćol into the "German town" (Nemačka varoš). At this time, all the most important administrative buildings in Belgrade were located in the neighborhood. The top of the neighborhood, along the modern Knez Mihailova Street, was occupied by the rows of gardens. There were numerous kafanas in the neighborhood. At one point, there were 25 of them. Zerek was a grid of intertwined, curved streets (sokak). The houses in general were small, usually having small gate and just one window. There were numerous Turkish houses, almost all of which had textile shops and large gardens. By the mid-19th century, it was the busiest part of Belgrade and the best known and most popular shops of all kinds were located in the neighborhood, owned by some of the most distinguished families in the state at the time: Nasko, Kujundžić, Bodi, Kumanudi, etc. Famous pastry shop Pelivan was founded in 1851 in the neighborhood. As of 2020, it is the oldest, still operational pastry shop in Belgrade, although on another location. Šonda chocolate factory was also in the neighborhood, while in the lowest section, along the Cara Dušana Street the fish and meat were sold. Another characteristic of Zerek was its ethnic and religious diversity, unlike the Main Bazaar (Kosančićev Venac) which was almost exclusively Christian neighborhood. It was inhabited by the mix of Serbs, Cincars, Turks, Jews, Armenians, Bosnian Muslims, etc. There was also a Jewish quarter. Zerek used to be mostly inhabited by the Turks, but after they left Belgrade, Serbs and Cincars began to buy out their lots and properties. After World War I, Zerek ceased being a popular commercial part of the town. Jalija (Lower Dorćol) The Lower Dorćol used to be known as Jalija (Turkish yali, strand, bank). During the Austrian occupation of 1717–39, Jalija was the seat of the Prince Eugene of Savoy's court. Before the area was fully urbanized, Jalija was regularly flooded by the Danube. Jalija occupied the area between the Danube on the north, Cara Dušana Street on the south, Kalemgdan park on the west and the Old Power Plant (modern marina) on the east. At the time, the bank of the Danube was a sandy beach, separated from the urbanized part of Jalija by the meadows. The neighborhood mostly consisted of the small, irregularly oriented and asymmetrical houses with yards filled with the beds of roses and hyacinths. The streets, paved with the kaldrma-type cobblestone, were narrow, mostly dead ends, so the passages through the yards were used for passing by. Large section of the neighborhood was inhabited by Jews, so it was also known as the Jewish mala. They began settling in Jalija at least in the 16th century. The neighborhood was dotted with small grocery and craft shops. On Jewish holidays the fairs were organized, especially on Purim, when masked Jews were greeting Belgraders in the streets, giving away treats. After the intermittent occupations of Belgrade by the Austrians in the 18th century, number of Jews in Jalija grew, so the Sephardic, and later the Ashkenazi municipalities were founded. The neighborhood was described as the "part of Belgrade where you could breathe the most freely", and it never developed into the ghetto. By the 18thy century, Jewish settlement became a proper quarter, which included synagogue, school and hamam. Many Serbian-Jewish authors and artists lived in Jalija, including Hajim Davičo, Leon Koen, Moša Pijade and . The majority of Jalija's Jewish population was annihilated in World War II. Reminders of the previous inhabitants include the modern Jevrejska ("Jewish") Street and a memorial dedicated to the Jews perished in Holocaust. Sculptured by Nandor Glid, the sculpture named "Menorah in Flames" is erected on a quay along the Danube in the sub-neighborhood of 25 May. The monument was dedicated in 1990. The neighborhood is also described in literary works of writers such as Stevan Sremac, Branislav Nušić, Milutin Uskoković and David Alkalaj. Economy Western and northern sections of Dorćol are mainly residential, but eastern and riverside regions are heavily industrialized: depots and workshops of "GSP" (Belgrade City's transportation company), Belgrade City's Waterworks and Sewage company, heat plant "Dunav", Belgrade power station,"Žitomlin", "Jugošped", "Kopaonik", "Kompresor", numerous depots and hangars, etc. On the opposite, clothing company "Beko" is located in the westernmost section of Dorćol. The area is known for its promenade on the Danube bank, which is well developed with a long bicycle path for recreation and many night clubs on water. The promenade is called Obala majora Gavrilovića ("the riverbank of major Gavrilović") after Dragutin Gavrilović, a Serbian officer who took part in defense of Belgrade in World War I from the Austrian army on this place. Former grain silos in the western end of the Belgrade Port have been adapted into the "(Re-)Creational Center Belgrade Silos". The melliferous garden has been planted around the silos, containing over 700 melliferous plants, and in 2021 the honey production began. The honey park will be included in the future linear park, planned along the entire bank of Dorćol. Hospitality Dorćol is well known for tis hospitality and catering facilities. Upper section is full of cafés, bars and restaurants, mostly concentrated in the streets of Strahinjića Bana, Kneginje Ljubice and Kralja Petra. In the lower section of the neighborhood there are numerous small cafés, craft breweries and artistic centers. Transportation Traffic facilities include the railway which circles around the fortress of Kalemegdan, from the main railway station of Belgrade, through Dorćol, and over the Pančevo Bridge further into Vojvodina. Small marina is projected to be in the future one of the most modern and expensive parts of the neighborhood. Dorćol hosts the central depot for city trolleybuses, in the Dunavska Street. After the new city government took over in 2013, an idea of abolishing the trolleybus network was raised, due to the possible creation of the pedestrian zone in the entire central section of Belgrade. Propositions include the change of the routes in downtown, the relocation of the central terminus from Studentski Trg to Slavija Square and of the depo from Dorćol to Medaković. After public protests, the idea was modified in 2015 and the city announced that the terminus from Studentski Trg will be relocated to the Dunavska Street, extending the trolleybus lines to Dorćol, as a temporary solution. In August 2019, city confirmed its plans to relocate the depot to Medaković, along the Belgrade-Niš motorway. The plan envisions a major garage area, next to the already existing depot "Kosmaj 1". New planned additions are "Kosmaj 2", that is, the relocated trolleybuses depot and "Mala Autokomanda", for the city public transportation company's technical and auxiliary vehicles. The western part of the Port of Belgrade "Dunav" also belongs to Dorćol. City's general urban plan (GUP) from 1972 projected the removal of the Port of Belgrade and the industrial facilities by 2021. The cleared area was to encompass the Danube's bank from the Dorćol to the Pančevo bridge. At that time, the proposed new locations included the Veliko Selo marsh or the Reva 2 section of Krnjača, across the Danube. When the GUP was revised in 2003, it kept the idea od relocating the port and the industry, and as the new location only Krnjača was mentioned. There was an idea that the already existing port of Pančevo, after certain changes, could become the new Belgrade's port, but the idea was abandoned. After President of the People's Republic of China Xi Jinping visited Serbia in 2016, it was announced that the large, new port of Belgrade will be built in the central part of Beljarica, a wetland upstream the Danube, known as "Belgrade's Amazonia". The proposed area of the future port is almost half of the wetland and should cover in its central part. As of 2020, no works began. In December 2021, city announced restoration of the riverine public transportation, which was discontinued decades ago. One of the first two proposed lines should be New Belgrade's Block 45-Sports Center Milan Gale Muškatirović, at Dorćol. Even the second line, planned to eventually connect Borča and Ada Huja, will in the first, testing phase connect Dorćol and Zemunski Kej. But the New mayor Aleksandar Šapić stated in July 2022 that the project will not be pursued further, calling it too expensive and "pointless". Marina Dorćol Land in the Marina Dorćol was among the costliest pieces of land in Belgrade when it was leased to the Israeli investor "Engel Marina Dorćol" in 2006, which hired architect Rami Wimmer for the project. The land covers an area of and it is allowed to build a total floor area of . As per the detailed regulatory plan from 2005, the project of the new residential and commercial complex in marina, with high-rise buildings, shops, sports fields, public promenade with avenues, etc., was loudly advertised. The investor was litigating with the city for years due to the numerous things, which included the fee of the lease and city taxes. It is not clear whether the contract was mutually terminated in 2016, or,aAs by October 2017 nothing has been done on the lot, the lease contract was annulled and city decided to sell it. The area, with the neighboring lots, was now planned as the cultural, scientific and research complex, which would include the new building of the Nikola Tesla Museum. In 2017, someone illegally built an object on the lot while by April 2018 several construction barracks have been placed, too, and part of the land is turned into the illegal parking. In September 2019, Czech-based company "MD Investments 2000" purchased the marina and the surrounding of land. They were the only bidders and the total price was 3,86 billion dinars (€32.7 million). The investor had to follow the 2005 plan, including the partial reconstruction of the old power plant, which should be ultimately adapted into the Tesla museum, and construction of the berth, both of which will be then returned to the city. In February 2020 it was confirmed that the museum will be relocated to the building of the Belgrade Main railway station instead to the Old Power Plant. Just a few days later, the government stated that they actually didn't decide where the museum will be relocated and that it may be some completely different location. City then announced the power plant may become "a public object for the cultural activities...from creative industries", which should be finished in 2023. In December 2020 government confirmed that the Nikola Tesla Museum will be relocated into the building. In 2019 city announced creation of the linear park along the Sava and the Danube, from Savamala's Branko's Bridge to Pančevo Bridge, patterned after the High Line park in New York City and Zaryadye Park in Moscow. This includes the Dorćol's quay from the sports center, through marina, to the port. The park will stretch for and cover an area of . City planned to hire the Diller Scofidio + Renfro design studio but later announced that 10 different Serbian teams, each for one of 10 planned segments of the park, will be hired. Finances apparently were the problem, as the city refused to disclose how much the New York studio asked for, while the World Bank backed from financing the project, with city claiming the credit wasn't favorable anyway. Beginning of the construction was tentatively moved to 2021. Ten teams were publicly presented in February 2020 and the deadline for the completion of works is set for 2023. Chief city urbanist Marko Stojčić several times publicly said that the companies which are located along the route should donate money for the park. Marina's investors announced that through one of their connected companies, they will finance the drafting of the conceptual design of all 10 teams (55 architects in total). Stojčić said they didn't do this out of their kindness, but because they can't start any works until the detailed regulatory plan for the park is finished. In April 2020, the investors announced the construction of the €150 million worth project in 2021. They stated that the 2005 detailed regulatory plan "does not fit into their ideas", so they will work with the city to change it in their favor. They also claimed that there will be no skyscrapers and overcrowding and that the total floor area will be smaller than officially allowed, but couldn't specify how much that will be. The area under the crane will be adapted into the public, green square. Czech architect was hired to design the project. In May 2021, a computer imaging of the future "green" Marina was made public. Features Buildings Being one of the original settlements outside the Kalemegdan fortress, Dorćol is a location of some of the oldest city buildings. Bajrakli Mosque Belgrade's only mosque, Bajrakli Mosque, is located in the southernmost part of the neighborhood, in the Gospodar Jevremova street. Originally built from 1660 to 1688 as Çohaci mosque, it was turned into a Roman Catholic church during the Austrian rule in central Serbia in 1717–1739, then a mosque again. Renamed Bajrakli mosque (Turkish: bayrak, flag) in the 18th century, it has been demolished and rebuilt several times. House at 10 Cara Dušana Street The oldest surviving private house in downtown Belgrade that is still used as a residence is located in the House at 10 Cara Dušana Street. It was built in 1724–27. The house has an arched ceiling and is currently used as a bakery. In the same street, another cultural monument, the Steam Bath of Brothers Krsmanović, is located. Church of Alexander Nevsky Church of Alexander Nevsky was originally built by the Russian monks in 1876. Original stone church was demolished in 1891 due to the urban expansion of Dorćol. The foundation stone for the new church was laid down by the Serbian heir apparent Aleksandar Karađorđević in 1912 but the Balkan Wars and World War I prevented to completion of the church until 1930 with the Royal family of Karađorđević being the largest donors. The church is built in the medieval Serbian Moravian style. Memorial bust to Alexander Nevsky was dedicated in the churchyard on 18 November 2021. Building of the Red Cross of Serbia Foundations were laid on 28 June 1879. It was designed specifically to serve as the headquarters of the Red Cross of Serbia by Aleksandar Bugarski, on the vast lot donated by the Princess consort Natalie of Serbia bounded by the streets Simina, Kneginje Ljubice and Dobračina. The building served not only for the administrative purposes (Red Cross offices), but also as a hospital, medical supplies storage, war shelter, and a gathering point for supplies distribution. Because of this, though a ground floor building, it was spacious, with large inner yard. The façade was reduced and simple, with fanlights above the windows. The only specific ornament was decorative attic on the front façade, forming an emblem of the Red Cross. After World War I, two floors, mansard roof, and additional wing in the yard were added to the building. During the 1941 German bombing majority of it was demolished by the five bombs which hit the building, but it was reconstructed after the war. It served as a shelter again during the 1999 NATO bombing of Serbia. The building was declared a cultural monument in 1987. First Power Plant The first public thermal power plant in Serbia was . It became operational on 6 October 1893 and originally supplied city streets (65 lamps and 422 light bulbs), homes of the affluent families, trams and, still rare, industrial complexes. It was constructed by physicist , a friend of Nikola Tesla, and avid advocate of replacement of the gas lights with the electric ones. The power plant was closed on 14 May 1933, after the new, "Power and Light" power plant was also opened in the neighborhood. Since 2005, building of the former power plant at 51 Skender-begova Street hosts the . Within the museum, the "Molekul" scientific center for the elementary and secondary school students has been open since September 2021. House of bookseller Marko Marković The "House of bookseller Marko Marković" at 45-a Gospodar Jovanova street, has been declared a cultural monument in April 2013. It was projected by the first Serbian women architect, Jelisaveta Načić. Though there are her public works throughout the city, this is the only surviving family house she planned. The house was built in 1904 and the exterior remained unchanged. Still residential house today, it has been described as the "authentic urban expression of an era. Beth Israel Synagogue Sephardi Jews decided to build a new synagogue on their lot in the Kralja Petra Street. Architect Milan Kapetanović designed the building in 1901, with the wide main façade. As they weren't able to obtain permits, the Jewish Municipality decided to build it on the lot's section in 20 Cara Uroša Street. Kapetanović redesigned it, reducing it to the width of . In 1907, King Peter I Karađorđević laid the foundation stone for the Beth Israel Synagogue. It was finished next year and on 7 September 1908 the king was present at the consecration, symbolically declaring it opened. Built in the Moorish style, for several decades it was one of the most recognizable objects in Belgrade because of the façade with the horizontal stripes made of stones and bricks in different colors, so as for the terracotta ornaments on the façade. It was damaged and looted during the World War II and the retreating German occupational army burned it in 1944, causing major damage so it had to be demolished after the war. In the building on this location, constructed later, Gallery of the Frescoes is located today. The gallery was opened in 1952. Old Power Plant After World War I, city administration started extensive public works on repairing and expanding urban infrastructure: paving of the streets with cobblestone, construction of the sewage and waterworks system, public buildings, etc. As the city had no money, the administration took loans. It included the 1927 loan from the New York City bankers, in an amount of $3 million. City was to return the money in 1929, but there wasn't enough money in the city budget. A bidding for the concession for the construction of a power plant was set in early 1929. The winner was to pay off Belgrade's debt to the bankers, land a new loan to the city and build and operate the power plant. City councilors were against the arrangement and mayor Miloš Savčić had a hard time to convince them to vote for the deal. The bidding was won by the investors group from Basel, in Switzerland, headed by the Swiss Society for Electrification and Transportation. From 1930 to 1932, the "Power and Light" thermal power station was built in the Dunavski kej street, on the bank of the modern marina. It was designed in the Bauhaus manner. For the first time in Serbia, the low voltage distribution grid for the alternating power supply was built. The complex consists of the station building, portal crane with the hoist, pump station and the filtering machine. It was in use until the early 1960s and in 1970s was used as set for the cult TV serial Otpisani. It was declared a cultural monument in April 2013. Abandoned, it became the major nesting location of ravens in Belgrade. As of 2020, the construction still stands, but it is in total ruin. In June 2018 city government announced the selling of marina and use of that money for funding the works on the plant. It should be transformed into the scientific and research center and the new location of the Nikola Tesla Museum. In 2017 it was announced that it will cover but in 2018 it was reduced to . The complex should also include a library, science campus and promotional center for informational technologies and genetic engineering. Works should start by the end of 2019. In January 2019 city announced the drafting of the plan for the future museum. In February 2020, however, it was announced that the museum will be relocated to the building of the former Belgrade Main railway station in Savamala. Just few days later, the government stated that they actually don't know where the museum will be relocated and that it may be some third, completely different location. After president Aleksandar Vučić said in September 2020 that the former railway station will be turned into the Museum of Medieval Serbia, in October city officially asked the government to move the Nikola Tesla Museum into the former power station. Aero-Club Monumental, multi-functional building in the Art Deco style at the corner of Kralja Petra and Uzun Mirkova streets. It was projected in 1932 by Vojin Simeonović, and opened on 20 January 1935. The building has a lavish spiral staircase in the entry hall, which has been used in numerous movies and TV series. The hall has white steps, checkered floor and a two-stories high stained glass window Daedalus and Icarus, work of Vasa Pomorišac. The building hosts a gallery-legacy of Petar Dobrović. The "Aero-Club" was declared a cultural monument in 2007. Jewish Hospital Belgrade's Jewish community constructed a building at 2 Visokog Stevana Street in 1938. It was operated by the female members of the community and included a kindergarten, medical dispensary for children and the school of crafts for girls from the destitute families. After German occupation of Belgrade in April 1941, the Jews were banned from either working in hospitals or being treated as a patients, so the female home in Dorćol was transformed into the Jewish Hospital. They treated Jews from Belgrade, those banished from the Banat region and the severely ill from the Sajmište concentration camp. In March 1942, Germans drove a gas van (dušegupka) to Belgrade. In an operation, headed by two lower SS officers Götz and Meyer, which lasted from 18 to 22 March 1942, the entire hospital staff and over 800 patients were killed in the van. They were transported from the hospital to the execution ground in Jajinci, across the town, but as only 10 to 15 minutes was enough for the exhaust fumes to suffocate everyone tightly packed in the van, they all died during transport. Götz and Meyer organized Serbian prisoners in Jajinci to take the bodies out and bury them in mass graves. The people from the hospital were the first victims of the van in Belgrade, which was later used in the same manner for falsely transporting remaining Jews from all over Belgrade to the Sajmište camp. In 2003 David Albahari wrote a novel Götz and Meyer, depicting what happened. The building is today seat of the Faculty for Special Education and Rehabilitation. On 22 March 2018 a memorial plaque was placed on the building, commemorating the 1942 event. Strahinjića Bana - Silicone Valley Since the late 1990s, Strahinjića Bana street became a "café-street", with dozens of bars, restaurants and cafés. Since then, it became favorite entertainment place of the emerging classes of Belgrade's nouveau riche and gold diggers, and the street has been sarcastically nicknamed "Silicone Valley" because it is frequent by many trophy women (allegedly sporting surgical implants) and their wealthy businessmen. It may be considered as the modern successor of the old Zerek Street which was full of kafanas at its heyday. Sub-neighborhoods 25 May In the late 1970s construction of the buildings surrounding the 25th May Sports Center and the exclusive, now closed restaurant "Dunavski Cvet" began. In the 1980s the settlement was considered elite, but deteriorated later. K Distrikt In 2007, Greek real estate developer "Lamda Development" obtained the land in the neighborhood for €55 million. It was announced that the westernmost section of lower Dorćol, just below the zoo and centered around the former "Beko" factory, will be transformed into the new residential and commercial complex. The design for the "Beko" project as it became known, was work of Zaha Hadid's architectural bureau. It divided the public and local architects. Some thought it was a good solution for the location while others found the complex too bulky and instead of opening the fortress to the river, it was walling it up. The permit was granted by the State Institute for the Protection of the Cultural Monuments in 2012, but in 10 years "Lamda" didn't even demolish everything, let alone built something. In 2017 they sold the land to the investor Vladimir Gogoljev for €25 million. In February 2018 it was announced that the "Beko" project was officially replaced with the "K Distrikt" project. In the triangularly shaped area, bounded by the streets of Dunavska, Bulevar vojvode Bojovića and Tadeuša Košćuškog, buildings with the total floor area of will be built. The project is work of architect Boris Podrecca and the construction should commence in the fall of 2018. The "Beko" factory building itself has to be preserved as it is protected by the law as the cultural monument, but it is not known at the moment whether it will be a commercial building or a hotel. When announced, the project was the second largest in Belgrade after the Belgrade Waterfront. It was also presented as the Dutch investments, because of the involvement of the entrepreneurs Menno de Jong and Prince Bernhard of Orange-Nassau. By November 2018 no construction began as the Ministry of Construction denied to issue the permit to the investor in October, who, nevertheless, claimed that he already sold majority of apartments which are yet to be built. The history of the projects prompted investigative journalist who explored the story. It turned out that the Dutch are only partners, so it is not a Dutch project. Gogoljev himself admitted that he is close friend to Belgrade's City architect Milutin Folić and that Folić personally directed him where to invest, including the Beko parcel and the surrounding lots. Gogoljev's friend and attorney is Igor Isailović, also a close friend and attorney of Siniša Mali, who was a mayor when Gogoljev obtained the parcels. Gogoljev also acknowledged that Isailović, who was also a business partner with Serbian prime minister and Mali's school friend Ana Brnabić, connected him with the representatives of the previous Greek owners, who sold him the parcels. When the new project was announced, Mali, Folić and the Dutch were all present. Gogoljev resold the "Beko" building in April 2018, which is now planned as the separate business building, surrounded by the "K Distrikt". New urban project was done by the bureau of Ana Uskoković, collaborator of Folić's private family architecture bureau. Originally presented as the collaborator on the project, Boris Podrecca who already authored several controversial projects in Belgrade with the Mali administration, later refused to comment the "K Distrikt" project. As of November 2018 the partially demolished old "Beko" building was still standing. The building was purchased by the "Marera Properties" company which started the reconstruction of the building. The renovated "Beko", with the original façade kept, will have a total floor area of and should be transformed into the A-class commercial facility by the end of 2019. Despite the fact that the exterior of the building had to be preserved, it was allowed for the investor to add the seventh floor. The reconstructed building will be renamed as "Kalemegdan Business Center". New Dorćol The easternmost, industrialized section of Dorćol, was redeveloped in the late 2010s as Novi Dorćol ("New Dorćol"). It is located south of the Belgrade Port complex, and east of the, also heavily industrialized, Viline Vode neighborhood. The area contains some of the oldest factories in Belgrade, including "Platnara" (cloth factory), built in 1897 (after Communist takeover "David Pajić Daka"), Belgrade Wool Industry or the chemical plant "Duga". City plans from 2011 envisioned demolition of the now defunct industrial facilities and construction of the residential and business complex. Construction of New Dorćol began in 2017, and the first phase was finished in 2021. Parts of old, authentic industrial architecture, have been preserved and included into the new structures. Some of the preserved piles of cast iron from the old engineering hall were embedded in the construction of the renovated "Platnara", while others are laid out as monuments in the inner yard. Some parts of the old, brick facade were cut out and placed on the new facades at the ground floor level. The entire neighborhood will spread over , and on the north it will be bounded by the planned linear park. Culture and image Among schools in the district is the Dorćol Elementary School built in 1893 and is a listed monument. On 22 September 1924, the technical aviation school was founded in the newly constructed building at the modern address 2 Bulevar Vojvode Bojovića. After World War II it was adapted into the aviation middle school "Petar Drapšin", and since 2004 it is renamed to the Aviation Academy. On 21 December 2011 it became the authorized center of the Eurocontrol. In 2021 a Higher School of Aviation Studies was founded by the government and also seated in the same building. The Museum of Vuk and Dositej in Gospodar Jevremova street was officially opened in 1949 and dedicated to Dositej Obradović, a novelist, major Serbian enlightener and first minister of education, and Vuk Karadžić, the most important Serbian language reformer. The building itself is older and it was the seat of the former Belgrade Higher School, which became the University of Belgrade. Memorial plaque was placed at the corner of the Višnjićeva and Simina streets on 8 March 1970. It commemorates the murder of Mirosanda "Rosa" Satarić, which occurred on 22 June 1968. Former war militia member and executioner Milorad Golubović for a long time stalked and harassed much younger Satarić, married mother of two, before he riddled her with bullets in the street, in broad daylight, while she held her 7-years old daughter's hand. Due to the relatively unusual type of crime for a Communist country, cold-bloodedness of the execution, and subsequent behavior of the killer, the case became a cause célèbre. With apparent abolition of the killer by the state, this all prompted months long public protests at the crime scene. Retired Golubović, who claimed to have killed 1,000 people as an executioner, said that he had every right to kill Satarić cause she was rejecting his advances. He was sentenced to death, which was then commuted to 20 years, but it is not known how much time, if any, he spent in prison. He died in his 80s. The plaque was moved to the ground level later and deteriorated, but on 8 March 2022 it was fully restored and placed on the façade again. Galerija fresaka (Gallery of the Frescoes) was opened in 1973. It hosts the reproduction of the most important frescoes from the Serbian medieval monasteries (11th-15th century, many of them located today in Montenegro and North Macedonia), including the famed White Angel from Mileševa. The gallery is part of the National Museum of Serbia. In March 2021, it was announced that the Faculty of Music Arts, part of the University of Arts in Belgrade, will relocate to Dorćol. It will be incorporated into the projected linear park, in the section between the Marina Dorćol and Port of Belgrade. In February 2022 the design was selected by the city, work of "Biro 81000" from Podgorica, Montenegro. It will be built within the scopes of the line park. A tall, six-storey building with the total floor area of will consists of three lower floors made of the corten steel, and upper three made of aluminum "musical" boxes and pipes which represent wires of the musical instruments. Other important features are the avant-garde BITEF Theater on the Square of Mira Trailović, the monument to the Greek national hero Rigas Feraios (who was killed by the Turks in the nearby Kalemegdan), Ethnographic museum, Jewish museum, Pedagogical museum, Museum of the Theatrical Arts, Pančić Park (), Park Gundulićev Venac (), and the Academic park with the PMF, The faculty for the natural sciences and mathematics. Leading Serbian female novelist Svetlana Velmar-Janković wrote a book titled Dorćol, composed of short stories, each named after a street in Dorćol. Dorćol experienced artistic revitalization since the 2000s. The neighborhood is known for its eclectic gallery of murals. They are work of artistic group "GTR" (Grobarski treš romantizam - Grobari's trash romanticism), who are part of the Grobari, organized supporters group of the football club Partizan. Some of the murals depict Joe Strummer (with inscription The future is not yet written), Morrissey (To die by your side is such a heavenly way to die), Eddy Grant (I wanna show you Belgrade), George Orwell (Freedom is the right to tell people what they do not want to hear) and Duško Radović (Today is Sunday). In July 2023, street art artist Andrej Josifovski painted a mural dedicated to the first Serbian female architect, Jelisaveta Načić, at 15 Gospodar Jevremova Street. The revitalization was spontaneous, on the initiative of young artists and without major investments, which enhanced Dorćol's "autochthonous soul". Small houses with flower gardens have been renovated, some new buildings, up to five floors have been built, and numerous cafes, clubs and bakeries have been opened. Dorćol has been compared to New York City's Bushwick neighborhood of Brooklyn, as the Serbian version of refining the working neighborhood. Young artists, chefs and musicians are centered around the Dorćol Platz artistic establishment. Being known as family and pet friendly, the revitalized neighborhood is described as "part of the city with soul and spirit, social interactions, place of recreation with old linden trees and other details, which breathes warmth and organic communication with its surroundings". The movement was seen as a "self-developed, slightly poorish", especially compared to the new, generally disliked neighborhoods like Belgrade Waterfront. The Time Out magazine listed Dorćol on its 2019 list of the 50 coolest neighborhoods in the world, while The Guardian named it on its 2016 list of 10 of the best alternative city tours in Europe, and 2020 list of 10 of the coolest neighborhoods in Europe. Sport and recreation Neglected for many years, the sports and recreational complex of "Milan Gale Muškatirović" (formerly and better known as "25. maj") is also located on the riverside. The clay tennis courts have been restored in 2009 to host the Serbia Open, held for the first time from 4–10 May 2009. Bank around the complex is, with the altitude of 75.3 meters above sea level, one of the lowest parts of Belgrade urban area. Dorćol Rugby league Club won eleven consecutive Serbian Rugby League Championship titles (2002–2013) and are current "double crown" (domestic championship and Cup) holders (See Rugby league in Serbia). Dorćol RLC is the most decorated sports club in the neighbourhood and alongside Handball Club, Wrestling Club is founder of Dorćol Sport Association. Association Football Club and Boxing Club are likely to join the association. Based on the request of the members of the Dorćol Rugby League Club, Dorćol rapper Škabo alongside DJ Ape and beatmaker Šonsi Ras made a song named "Dorćol" - both the anthem of the club and dedication to the neighbourhood - and published it on his album Remek delo'' in 2008. References External links Dorćol at Virtualtourist Lyrics of the song "Dorćol" - Škabo feat. DJ Ape & Šonsi Ras Historic Jewish communities Jews and Judaism in Belgrade Neighborhoods of Belgrade Stari Grad, Belgrade
4641504	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20Puerto%20Rico	List of birds of Puerto Rico	This is a list of the bird species recorded in the archipelago of Puerto Rico, which consists of the main island of Puerto Rico, two island municipalities off the east coast (Vieques and Culebra), three uninhabited islands off the west coast (Mona, Monito and Desecheo) and more than 125 smaller cays and islands. The avifauna of Puerto Rico included a total of 385 species as of July 2022, according to Bird Checklists of the World. Of them, 201 are accidental, two have been extirpated, and one is believed to be extinct. Seventeen species are endemic. Non-native species are common; 43 listed here were introduced by humans. Individuals of many other species (mostly parrots, finches, and waxbills) are flying free, presumably after escaping or being released from captivity. For example, a 2018 study on introduced Psittacidae on the island found at least 46 species present, of which 24% are only found in the pet trade (captivity), 48% have been observed in the wild (but are not known to be breeding), and 28% are established (naturalized) and know to have bred or are currently breeding. Around 120 species breed in Puerto Rico while the majority of the others overwinter in the archipelago. This list is presented in the taxonomic sequence of the Check-list of North and Middle American Birds, 7th edition through the 63rd Supplement, published by the American Ornithological Society (AOS). Common and scientific names are also those of the Check-list, except that the common names of families are from the Clements taxonomy because the AOS list does not include them. The following tags have been used to highlight several categories of occurrence: (A) Accidental - a species that rarely or accidentally occurs in Puerto Rico (E) Endemic - a species endemic to Puerto Rico (Ex) Extirpated - a species that no longer occurs in Puerto Rico although populations exist elsewhere (I) Introduced - a species introduced to Puerto Rico as a consequence, direct or indirect, of human actions Ducks, geese, and waterfowl Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae The Anatidae include the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, bills which are flattened to a greater or lesser extent, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to special oils. Black-bellied whistling-duck, Dendrocygna autumnalis (A) West Indian whistling-duck, Dendrocygna arborea Fulvous whistling-duck, Dendrocygna bicolor (A) White-faced whistling-duck, Dendrocygna bicolor (Ex) Snow goose, Anser caerulescens (A) Brant, Branta bernicla (A) Canada goose, Branta canadensis (A) Tundra swan, Cygnus columbianus (A) Wood duck, Aix sponsa (A) Garganey Spatula querquedula (A) Blue-winged teal, Spatula discors Cinnamon teal, Spatula cyanoptera (A) Northern shoveler, Spatula clypeata (A) Gadwall, Mareca strepera (A) Eurasian wigeon, Mareca penelope (A) American wigeon, Mareca americana (A) Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos (A) American black duck, Anas rubripes (A) White-cheeked pintail, Anas bahamensis Northern pintail, Anas acuta (A) Green-winged teal, Anas crecca (A) Canvasback, Aythya valisineria (A) Ring-necked duck, Aythya collaris (A) Tufted duck, Aythya fuligula (A) Lesser scaup, Aythya affinis (A) Bufflehead, Bucephala albeola (A) Hooded merganser, Lophodytes cucullatus (A) Red-breasted merganser, Mergus serrator (A) Masked duck, Nomonyx dominicus Ruddy duck, Oxyura jamaicensis Guineafowl Order: GalliformesFamily: Numididae Guineafowls are a group of African seed-eating, ground-nesting birds resembling partridges, but with featherless heads and spangled gray plumage. Helmeted guineafowl, Numida meleagris (I) New World quail Order: GalliformesFamily: Odontophoridae The New World quails are small, plump terrestrial birds only distantly related to the quails of the Old World, but named for their similar appearance and habits. Northern bobwhite, Colinus virginianus (I) Pheasants, grouse, and allies Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds which consists of quails, partridges, snowcocks, francolins, spurfowls, tragopans, monals, pheasants, peafowls, and jungle fowls. In general, they are plump (although they vary in size) and have broad, relatively short wings. Red junglefowl, Gallus gallus (I) Flamingos Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae Flamingos are gregarious wading birds, usually tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down. American flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber (A) Grebes Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land. Least grebe, Tachybaptus dominicus Pied-billed grebe, Podilymbus podiceps Pigeons and doves Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. Rock pigeon, Columba livia (I) Scaly-naped pigeon, Patagioenas squamosa White-crowned pigeon, Patagioenas leucocephala Plain pigeon, Patagioenas inornata African collared-dove, Streptopelia roseogrisea (I) Eurasian collared-dove, Streptopelia decaocto (I) Diamond dove, Geopelia cuneata (I) Common ground dove, Columbina passerina Ruddy quail-dove, Geotrygon montana Key West quail-dove, Geotrygon chrysia Bridled quail-dove, Geotrygon mystacea (A) White-winged dove, Zenaida asiatica Zenaida dove, Zenaida aurita Mourning dove, Zenaida macroura Cuckoos Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners, and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails, and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites. Smooth-billed ani, Crotophaga ani Yellow-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus americanus Mangrove cuckoo, Coccyzus minor Black-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus erythropthalmus (A) Puerto Rican lizard-cuckoo, Coccyzus vieilloti (E) Nightjars and allies Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs, and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is cryptically colored to resemble bark or leaves. Common nighthawk, Chordeiles minor (A) Antillean nighthawk, Chordeiles gundlachii Chuck-will's-widow, Antrostomus carolinensis (A) Puerto Rican nightjar, Antrostomus noctitherus (E) White-tailed nightjar, Hydropsalis cayennensis (A) Potoos Order: NyctibiiformesFamily: Nyctibiidae Potoos are a group of large near passerine birds related to the nightjars and frogmouths. These are nocturnal insectivores which lack the bristles around the mouth found in the true nightjars. Northern potoo, Nyctibius jamaicensis (A) Swifts Order: ApodiformesFamily: Apodidae Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang. Black swift, Cypseloides niger White-collared swift, Streptoprocne zonaris (A) Chimney swift, Chaetura pelagica (A) Common swift, Apus apus (A) Alpine swift, Apus melba (A) Antillean palm-swift, Tachornis phoenicobia (A) Hummingbirds Order: ApodiformesFamily: Trochilidae Hummingbirds are small birds capable of hovering in mid-air due to the rapid flapping of their wings. They are the only birds that can fly backwards. Puerto Rican mango, Anthracothorax aurulentus Green mango, Anthracothorax viridis (E) Purple-throated carib, Eulampis jugularis (A) Green-throated carib, Eulampis holosericeus Ruby-throated hummingbird, Archilochus colubris (A) Vervain hummingbird, Mellisuga minima (A) Puerto Rican emerald, Riccordia maugaeus (E) Antillean crested hummingbird, Orthorhyncus cristatus Rails, gallinules, and coots Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots, and gallinules. The most typical family members occupy dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers. Clapper rail, Rallus crepitans Virginia rail, Rallus limicola (A) Sora, Porzana carolina (A) Common gallinule, Gallinula galeata American coot, Fulica americana Purple gallinule, Porphyrio martinicus Yellow-breasted crake, Hapalocrex flaviventer Black rail, Laterallus jamaicensis (A) Limpkin Order: GruiformesFamily: Aramidae The limpkin is an odd bird that looks like a large rail, but is skeletally closer to the cranes. Limpkin, Aramus guarauna (Ex) Stilts and avocets Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills. Black-necked stilt, Himantopus mexicanus American avocet, Recurvirostra americana (A) Oystercatchers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae The oystercatchers are large, obvious and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs. American oystercatcher, Haematopus palliatus Plovers and lapwings Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short thick necks, and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water. Northern lapwing, Vanellus vanellus (A) Black-bellied plover, Pluvialis squatarola American golden-plover, Pluvialis dominica (A) Killdeer, Charadrius vociferus Semipalmated plover, Charadrius semipalmatus Piping plover, Charadrius melodus (A) Wilson's plover, Charadrius wilsonia Snowy plover, Charadrius nivosus Jacanas Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Jacanidae The jacanas are a group of waders found worldwide within the tropical zone. They are identifiable by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation in the shallow lakes that are their preferred habitat. Northern jacana, Jacana spinosa (A) Sandpipers and allies Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers, and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Different lengths of legs and bills enable multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. Upland sandpiper, Bartramia longicauda (A) Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus (A) Eskimo curlew, Numenius borealis (A) (possibly extinct) Long-billed curlew, Numenius americanus (A) Eurasian curlew, Numenius arquata (A) Hudsonian godwit, Limosa haemastica (A) Marbled godwit, Limosa fedoa (A) Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres Red knot, Calidris canutus (A) Ruff, Calidris pugnax (A) Stilt sandpiper, Calidris himantopus Curlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea (A) Sanderling, Calidris alba Dunlin, Calidris alpina (A) Baird's sandpiper, Calidris bairdii (A) Least sandpiper, Calidris minutilla White-rumped sandpiper, Calidris fuscicollis (A) Buff-breasted sandpiper, Calidris subruficollis (A) Pectoral sandpiper, Calidris melanotos Semipalmated sandpiper, Calidris pusilla Western sandpiper, Calidris mauri Short-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus griseus Long-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus (A) Wilson's snipe, Gallinago delicata (A) Spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularius Solitary sandpiper, Tringa solitaria Lesser yellowlegs, Tringa flavipes Willet, Tringa semipalmata Spotted redshank, Tringa erythropus (A) Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia (A) Greater yellowlegs, Tringa melanoleuca Wilson's phalarope, Phalaropus tricolor (A) Red-necked phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus (A) Red phalarope, Phalaropus fulicarius (A) Skuas and jaegers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with gray or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants. Great skua, Stercorarius skua (A) South polar skua, Stercorarius maccormicki (A) Pomarine jaeger, Stercorarius pomarinus (A) Parasitic jaeger, Stercorarius parasiticus (A) Long-tailed jaeger, Stercorarius longicaudus (A) Gulls, terns, and skimmers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds and includes gulls, kittiwakes, terns, and skimmers. They are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with gray or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Skimmers are a small family of tropical tern-like birds. They have an elongated lower mandible which they use to feed flying low over the water surface and skimming the water for small fish. Black-legged kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla (A) Sabine's gull, Xema sabini (A) Bonaparte's gull, Chroicocephalus philadelphia (A) Black-headed gull, Chroicocephalus ridibundus (A) Little gull, Hydrocoloeus minutus (A) Laughing gull, Leucophaeus atricilla Franklin's gull, Leucophaeus pipixcan (A) Ring-billed gull, Larus delawarensis Herring gull, Larus argentatus (A) Yellow-legged gull, Larus michahellis (A) Lesser black-backed gull, Larus fuscus (A) Great black-backed gull, Larus marinus (A) Brown noddy, Anous stolidus Black noddy, Anous minutus (A) Sooty tern, Onychoprion fuscata Bridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus Least tern, Sternula antillarum Gull-billed tern, Gelochelidon nilotica Caspian tern, Hydroprogne caspia (A) Black tern, Chlidonias niger White-winged tern, Chlidonias leucopterus (A) Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii Common tern, Sterna hirundo Arctic tern, Sterna paradisaea (A) Forster's tern, Sterna forsteri (A) Royal tern, Thalasseus maxima Sandwich tern, Thalasseus sandvicensis Black skimmer, Rynchops niger (A) Tropicbirds Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their long wings have black markings, as does the head. White-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon lepturus Red-billed tropicbird, Phaethon aethereus Southern storm-petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae The storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, relatives of the petrels, feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Until 2018, this family's species were included with the other storm-petrels in family Hydrobatidae. Wilson's storm-petrel, Oceanites oceanicus (A) Northern storm-petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae Though the members of this family are similar in many respects to the southern storm-petrels, including their general appearance and habits, there are enough genetic differences to warrant their placement in a separate family. Leach's storm-petrel, Hydrobates leucorhous (A) Shearwaters and petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae The Procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterized by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary. Trindade petrel, Pterodroma arminjoniana (A) Black-capped petrel, Pterodroma hasitata (A) Cory's shearwater, Calonectris diomedea (A) Great shearwater, Ardenna gravis (A) Sooty shearwater, Ardenna griseus (A) Manx shearwater, Puffinus puffinus (A) Audubon's shearwater, Puffinus lherminieri Barolo shearwater, Puffinus baroli (A) Storks Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae Storks are large, heavy, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long stout bills and wide wingspans. They lack the powder down that other wading birds such as herons, spoonbills, and ibises use to clean off fish slime. Storks lack a pharynx and are mute. Wood stork, Mycteria americana (A) Frigatebirds Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black, or black-and-white, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have colored inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week. Magnificent frigatebird, Fregata magnificens Boobies and gannets Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish. Masked booby, Sula dactylatra Brown booby, Sula leucogaster Red-footed booby, Sula sula Northern gannet, Morus bassanus (A) Cormorants and shags Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage coloration is varied with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white, and a few being quite colorful. Double-crested cormorant, Nannopterum auritum (A) Neotropic cormorant, Nannopterum brasilianum (A) Pelicans Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae Pelicans are very large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak Like other birds in the order Pelecaniformes, they have four webbed toes. American white pelican, Pelecanus erythrorhynchos (A) Brown pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis Herons, egrets, and bitterns Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons, and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more secretive. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises, and spoonbills. American bittern, Botaurus lentiginosus (A) Least bittern, Ixobrychus exilis Great blue heron, Ardea herodias Great egret, Ardea alba Little egret, Egretta garzetta (A) Western reef-heron, Egretta gularis (A) Snowy egret, Egretta thula Little blue heron, Egretta caerulea Tricolored heron, Egretta tricolor Reddish egret, Egretta rufescens (A) Cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis Green heron, Butorides virescens Striated heron, Butorides striata (A) Black-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax nycticorax Yellow-crowned night-heron, Nyctanassa violacea Ibises and spoonbills Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and, rather surprisingly, given their size and weight, very capable soarers. White ibis, Eudocimus albus (A) Scarlet ibis, Eudocimus ruber (A) Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus (A) Roseate spoonbill, Platalea ajaja (A) New World vultures Order: CathartiformesFamily: Cathartidae The New World vultures are not closely related to Old World vultures, but superficially resemble them because of convergent evolution. Like the Old World vultures, they are scavengers. However, unlike Old World vultures, which find carcasses by sight, New World vultures have a good sense of smell with which they locate carcasses. Black vulture, Coragyps atratus (A) Turkey vulture, Cathartes aura (I) Osprey Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution. Osprey, Pandion haliaetus Hawks, eagles, and kites Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, and Old World vultures. These birds have very large powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight. Swallow-tailed kite, Elanoides forficatus (A) Northern harrier, Circus hudsonius (A) Western marsh harrier, Circus aeruginosus (A) Sharp-shinned hawk, Accipiter striatus Bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus (A) Mississippi kite, Ictinia mississippiensis (A) Common black hawk, Buteogallus anthracinus Ridgway's hawk, Buteo ridgwayi (A) Broad-winged hawk, Buteo platypterus Red-tailed hawk, Buteo jamaicensis Barn-owls Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae Barn-owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons. Barn owl, Tyto alba (A) Owls Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak, and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk. Puerto Rican owl, Gymnasio nudipes Short-eared owl, Asio flammeus Todies Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Todidae Todies are a group of small near passerine forest species endemic to the Caribbean. These birds have colorful plumage and resemble kingfishers, but have flattened bills with serrated edges. They eat small prey such as insects and lizards. Puerto Rican tody, Todus mexicanus (E) Kingfishers Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails. Ringed kingfisher, Megaceryle torquatus (A) Belted kingfisher, Megaceryle alcyon Woodpeckers Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails, and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks. Puerto Rican woodpecker, Melanerpes portoricensis (E) Yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus varius (A) Hairy woodpecker, Dryobates villosus (A) Falcons and caracaras Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles, and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons. American kestrel, Falco sparverius Merlin, Falco columbarius (A) Aplomado falcon, Falco femoralis (A) Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus Cockatoos Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Cacatuidae The cockatoos share many features with other parrots including the characteristic curved beak shape and a zygodactyl foot, with two forward toes and two backwards toes. They differ, however in a number of characteristics, including the often spectacular movable headcrest. Sulphur-crested cockatoo, Cacatua galerita (I) White cockatoo, Cacatua alba (I) New World and African parrots Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittacidae Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from to in length. Most of the more than 150 species in this family are found in the New World. Monk parakeet, Myiopsitta monachus (I) Orange-fronted parakeet, Eupsittula canicularis (I) Brown-throated parakeet, Eupsittula pertinax (I) Nanday parakeet, Aratinga nenday (I) Blue-and-yellow macaw, Ara ararauna (I) Puerto Rican parakeet, Psittacara maugei (E) (extinct) Red-masked parakeet, Psittacara erythrogenys (I) Hispaniolan parakeet, Psittacara choloropterus (I) White-winged parakeet Brotogeris versicolorus (I) Green-cheeked parakeet, Pyrrhura molinae (I) Orange-winged parrot, Amazona amazonica (I) White-fronted parrot, Amazona albifrons (I) Hispaniolan parrot, Amazona ventralis (I) Puerto Rican parrot, Amazona vittata (E) Red-crowned parrot, Amazona viridigenalis (I) Yellow-headed parrot, Amazona oratrix (I) Yellow-naped parrot, Amazona auropalliata (I) Tyrant flycatchers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tyrannidae Tyrant flycatchers are Passerine birds which occur throughout North and South America. They superficially resemble the Old World flycatchers, but are more robust and have stronger bills. They do not have the sophisticated vocal capabilities of the songbirds. Most, but not all, are rather plain. As the name implies, most are insectivorous. Caribbean elaenia, Elaenia martinica Great crested flycatcher, Myiarchus crinitus (A) Puerto Rican flycatcher, Myiarchus antillarum (E) Western kingbird, Tyrannus verticalis (A) Eastern kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus (A) Gray kingbird, Tyrannus dominicensis Loggerhead kingbird, Tyrannus caudifasciatus Scissor-tailed flycatcher, Tyrannus forficatus (A) Fork-tailed flycatcher, Tyrannus savana (A) Eastern wood-pewee, Contopus virens (A) Hispaniolan pewee, Contopus hispaniolensis (A) Lesser Antillean pewee, Contopus latirostris Acadian flycatcher, Empidonax virescens (A) Willow flycatcher, Empidonax traillii (A) Vireos, shrike-babblers, and erpornis Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vireonidae The vireos are a group of small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are typically greenish in color and resemble New World warblers apart from their heavier bills. White-eyed vireo, Vireo griseus (A) Puerto Rican vireo, Vireo latimeri (E) Yellow-throated vireo, Vireo flavifrons (A) Philadelphia vireo, Vireo philadelphicus (A) Warbling vireo, Vireo gilvus (A) Red-eyed vireo, Vireo olivaceus Black-whiskered vireo, Vireo altiloquus Crows, jays, and magpies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers, and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence. White-necked crow, Corvus leucognaphalus (Ex) Swallows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base. Bank swallow, Riparia riparia Tree swallow, Tachycineta bicolor (A) Violet-green swallow, Tachycineta thalassina (A) Northern rough-winged swallow, Stelgidopteryx serripennis (A) Brown-chested martin, Progne tapera (A) Purple martin, Progne subis (A) Cuban martin, Progne cryptoleuca (A) Caribbean martin, Progne dominicensis Barn swallow, Hirundo rustica Cliff swallow, Petrochelidon pyrrhonota (A) Cave swallow, Petrochelidon fulva Waxwings Order: PasseriformesFamily: Bombycillidae The waxwings are a group of birds with soft silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. In the Bohemian and cedar waxwings, these tips look like sealing wax and give the group its name. These are arboreal birds of northern forests. They live on insects in summer and berries in winter. Cedar waxwing, Bombycilla cedrorum (A) Mockingbirds and thrashers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Mimidae The mimids are a family of passerine birds that includes thrashers, mockingbirds, tremblers, and the New World catbirds. These birds are notable for their vocalization, especially their remarkable ability to mimic a wide variety of birds and other sounds heard outdoors. The species tend towards dull grays and browns in their appearance. Gray catbird, Dumetella carolinensis (A) Pearly-eyed thrasher, Margarops fuscatus Bahama mockingbird, Mimus gundlachii (A) Northern mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos Starlings Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae Starlings and mynas are small to medium-sized Old World passerine birds with strong feet. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Common hill myna, Gracula religiosa (I) European starling, Sturnus vulgaris (I) (A) Common myna, Acridotheres tristis (I) Thrushes and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae The Thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly but not exclusively in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs. Veery, Catharus fuscescens (A) Gray-cheeked thrush, Catharus minimus (A) Bicknell's thrush, Catharus bicknelli (A) Swainson's thrush, Catharus ustulatus (A) Wood thrush, Hylocichla mustelina (A) American robin, Turdus migratorius (A) Red-legged thrush, Turdus plumbeus Old World flycatchers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae Old World flycatchers are a large group of small passerine birds native to the Old World. They are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls. Northern wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe (A) Weavers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Ploceidae Weavers are a group of small passerine birds related to the finches. These are seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills, most of which breed in sub-Saharan Africa, with fewer species in tropical Asia. Weavers get their name from the large woven nests many species make. They are gregarious birds which often breed colonially. Northern red bishop, Euplectes franciscanus (I) Yellow-crowned bishop, Euplectes afer (I) Indigobirds Order: PasseriformesFamily: Viduidae The Viduidae is a family of small passerine birds native to Africa that includes indigobirds and whydahs. All species are brood parasites which lay their eggs in the nests of estrildid finches. Species usually have black or indigo predominating in their plumage. Pin-tailed whydah, Vidua macroura (I) Waxbills and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colors and patterns. Bronze mannikin, Spermestes cucullata (I) Indian silverbill, Euodice malabarica (I) Java sparrow, Padda oryzivora (I) Scaly-breasted munia, Lonchura punctulata (I) Tricolored munia, Lonchura malacca (I) Chestnut munia, Lonchura atricapilla (I) Red avadavat, Amandava amandava (I) Orange-cheeked waxbill, Estrilda melpoda (I) Black-rumped waxbill, Estrilda troglodytes (I) Old World sparrows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae Sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small plump brownish or grayish birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects. House sparrow, Passer domesticus (I) Finches, euphonias, and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae Finches are seed-eating passerine birds, that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well. Puerto Rican euphonia, Chlorophonia sclateri Yellow-fronted canary, Crithagra mozambica (I) (A) Red siskin, Spinus cucullata (I) Island canary, Serinus canaria (I) New World sparrows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passerellidae Until 2017, these species were considered part of the family Emberizidae. Most of the species are known as sparrows, but these birds are not closely related to the Old World sparrows which are in the family Passeridae. Many of these have distinctive head patterns. Grasshopper sparrow, Ammodramus savannarum Dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis (A) White-throated sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis (A) Lincoln's sparrow, Melospiza lincolnii (A) Puerto Rican tanager Order: PasseriformesFamily: Nesospingidae This species was formerly classified as a tanager (family Thraupidae) but was placed in its own family in 2017. Puerto Rican tanager, Nesospingus speculiferus (E) Spindalises Order: PasseriformesFamily: Spindalidae The members of this small family are native to the Greater Antilles. They were formerly classified as tanagers but were placed in their own family in 2017. Puerto Rican spindalis, Spindalis portoricensis (E) Troupials and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteridae The icterids are a group of small to medium-sized, often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World and include the grackles, New World blackbirds, and New World orioles. Most species have black as a predominant plumage color, often enlivened by yellow, orange, or red. Yellow-headed blackbird, Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (A) Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus (A) Puerto Rican oriole, Icterus portoricensis (E) Orchard oriole, Icterus spurius (A) Venezuelan troupial, Icterus icterus (I) Bullock's oriole, Icterus bullockii (A) Baltimore oriole, Icterus galbula (A) Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus (A) Yellow-shouldered blackbird, Agelaius xanthomus (E) Shiny cowbird, Molothrus bonariensis Brown-headed cowbird, Molothrus ater (A) Great-tailed grackle, Quiscalus mexicanus (A) Greater Antillean grackle, Quiscalus niger Yellow-hooded blackbird, Chrysomus icterocephalus (A) New World warblers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Parulidae The wood-warblers are a group of small often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal, but some are more terrestrial. Most members of this family are insectivores. Ovenbird, Seiurus aurocapilla Worm-eating warbler, Helmitheros vermivorum (A) Louisiana waterthrush, Parkesia motacilla Northern waterthrush, Parkesia noveboracensis Golden-winged warbler, Vermivora chrysoptera (A) Blue-winged warbler, Vermivora cyanoptera (A) Black-and-white warbler, Mniotilta varia Prothonotary warbler, Protonotaria citrea (A) Swainson's warbler, Limnothlypis swainsonii (A) Tennessee warbler, Leieothlypis peregrina (A) Nashville warbler, Leieothlypis ruficapilla (A) Connecticut warbler, Oporornis agilis (A) Mourning warbler, Geothlypis philadelphia (A) Kentucky warbler, Geothlypis formosa (A) Common yellowthroat, Geothlypis trichas Elfin-woods warbler, Setophaga angelae (E) Hooded warbler, Setophaga citrina (A) American redstart, Setophaga ruticilla Cape May warbler, Setophaga tigrina Cerulean warbler, Setophaga cerulea (A) Northern parula, Setophaga americana Magnolia warbler, Setophaga magnolia (A) Bay-breasted warbler, Setophaga castanea (A) Blackburnian warbler, Setophaga fusca (A) Yellow warbler, Setophaga petechia Chestnut-sided warbler, Setophaga pensylvanica (A) Blackpoll warbler, Setophaga striata Black-throated blue warbler, Setophaga caerulescens Palm warbler, Setophaga palmarum (A) Pine warbler, Setophaga pinus (A) Yellow-rumped warbler, Setophaga coronata (A) Yellow-throated warbler, Setophaga dominica (A) Prairie warbler, Setophaga discolor Adelaide's warbler, Setophaga adelaidae (E) Townsend's warbler, Setophaga townsendi (A) Black-throated green warbler, Setophaga virens (A) Canada warbler, Cardellina canadensis (A) Wilson's warbler, Cardellina pusilla (A) Cardinals and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cardinalidae The cardinals are a family of robust, seed-eating birds with strong bills. They are typically associated with open woodland. The sexes usually have distinct plumages. Summer tanager, Piranga rubra (A) Scarlet tanager, Piranga olivacea (A) Rose-breasted grosbeak, Pheucticus ludovicianus (A) Blue grosbeak, Passerina caerulea (A) Indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea (A) Dickcissel, Spiza americana (A) Tanagers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Thraupidae The tanagers are a large group of small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to the New World, mainly in the tropics. Many species are brightly colored. As a family they are omnivorous, but individual species specialize in eating fruits, seeds, insects, or other types of food. Red-crested cardinal, Paroaria coronata (I) Saffron finch, Sicalis flaveola (I) Bananaquit, Coereba flaveola Yellow-faced grassquit, Tiaris olivaceus Puerto Rican bullfinch, Melopyrrha portoricensis (E) Lesser Antillean bullfinch, Loxigilla noctis (A) Black-faced grassquit, Melanospiza bicolor See also Fauna of Puerto Rico List of birds List of birds of North America List of endemic fauna of Puerto Rico List of Vieques birds El Toro Wilderness References Further reading ' birds Puerto Rico Puerto Rico
4641516	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bump%20stock	Bump stock	Bump stocks or bump fire stocks are gun stocks that can be used to assist in bump firing. Bump firing is the act of using the recoil of a semi-automatic firearm to fire ammunition cartridges in rapid succession. The legality of bump stocks in the United States came under question following the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, in which 60 people were killed and 869 people injured. The gunman was found to have fitted them to his weapons. Several states passed legislation restricting ownership of bump stocks following this shooting and the Parkland high school shooting 4 months later. In December 2018, the United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) published an opinion that bump stocks constituted "machine guns", and thus were illegal under federal law. This position was explicitly refuted by the federal Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals in January 2023, which stated that "A plain reading of the statutory language, paired with close consideration of the mechanics of a semi-automatic firearm, reveals that a bump stock is excluded from the technical definition of 'machine gun' set forth in the Gun Control Act and National Firearms Act." (Cargill v. Garland). Bump fire stocks Bump fire stocks are gun stocks that are specially designed to make bump firing easier, but do not make the firearm automatic. Essentially, bump stocks assist rapid fire by "bumping" the trigger against one's finger (as opposed to one's finger pulling on the trigger), thus allowing the firearm's recoil, plus constant forward pressure by the non-shooting arm, to actuate the trigger. Bump fire stocks can be placed on a few common weapons such as the AR or AK families. They can achieve rates of fire between 400 and 800 rounds per minute depending on the gun. By 2018, bump fire stocks in the United States were sold for around $100 and up, with prices increasing prior to enactment of federal regulation. Slide Fire Solutions, the inventor, patent holder, and leading manufacturer of bump stocks, suspended sales after bump stocks were used in the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, and resumed sales a month later. On May 20, 2018, 95 days after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, Slide Fire Solutions permanently halted sales and production of its products. History of regulation In 2002, one of the first bump stock-type devices, the Akins Accelerator invented by Bill Akins, was deemed by the US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) to not be a "machinegun". The Akins Accelerator used an internal spring to force the firearm forward to re-make contact with the trigger finger after the recoil of the previous shot pushed the firearm rearward. The ATF interpreted a "single function of the trigger" to mean a "single movement of the trigger", and since the trigger moved for each shot, the Akins Accelerator was deemed to not be a machinegun. Later, in 2006, the ATF reversed course and reinterpreted the language to mean "single pull of the trigger", which reclassified the Akins Accelerator as a machinegun. The Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the new interpretation in February 2009. More modern bump stocks were invented by Slide Fire Solutions founder Jeremiah Cottle as a replacement stock for people who have limited hand mobility. Such bump stocks have no internal spring and require constant forward pressure by the non-shooting arm in order to maintain continuous fire. Between 2008 and 2017, the ATF issued ten letter rulings that classified bump stocks as a "firearm part", which are unregulated. However, in March 2018, as a result of the use of bump stocks in the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a plan to reclassify bump stocks as "machineguns" under existing federal law, effectively banning them nationwide. Only two states had banned bump stocks prior to the Las Vegas shooting. The final rule of the DoJ was issued on December 18, 2018. Now, , bump stocks are illegal for almost all US civilians, but multiple lawsuits are pending that challenge that rule. In May 2019, the Offensive Weapons Act 2019 prohibited bump stocks in the UK. Public opinion Immediately following the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, 72% of registered voters supported a bump stock ban, including 68% of Republicans and 79% of Democrats. A 2018 poll found 81% of American adults supported banning bump stocks with a margin of error of ±3.5%. A different poll around the same time found 56% of American adults supported banning bump stocks with a margin of error of ±4%. Regulatory status in the United States Federal The ATF ruled in 2010 that bump stocks were not a firearm subject to regulation and allowed their sale as an unregulated firearm part. In the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, twelve bump stocks were found at the scene. The National Rifle Association stated on October 5, 2017, "Devices designed to allow semi-automatic rifles to function like fully-automatic rifles should be subject to additional regulations", and called on regulators to "immediately review whether these devices comply with federal law". The 2017 shooting generated bipartisan interest in regulating bump stocks. On October 4, 2017, Senator Dianne Feinstein introduced a bill to ban bump stocks, but it was not acted upon. Instead, on February 20, 2018, President Trump instructed the ATF to issue regulations to treat bump stocks as machineguns. President Donald Trump blamed former President Barack Obama for having "legalized bump stocks", which he termed a "BAD IDEA", a claim which was found to be partly erroneous by USA Today, with an ATF official involved in the decision saying neither Obama nor then-Attorney General Eric Holder advised the agency on its ruling and a constitutional law professor explaining that the administration did not possess the legal authority to ban the sale of the devices. On March 23, 2018, at President Trump's request the Department of Justice announced a plan to ban bump stocks at the federal level. The proposed change would reclassify bump stocks as "machineguns" and effectively ban the devices in the United States under existing federal law. A notice of proposed rulemaking was issued by the ATF on March 29, 2018, and opened for public comments. Over 119,000 comments were submitted in support of the proposed rule, while over 66,000 comments expressed opposition to it. On December 18, 2018, the final regulation to ban bump stocks was issued by the Department of Justice and published in the Federal Register on December 26. The final rule states that "bump-stock-type devices" are covered by the Gun Control Act, as amended under the Hughes Amendment, which with limited exceptions, makes it unlawful for any person to transfer or possess a machinegun unless it was lawfully possessed prior to 1986. Since the bump-stock-type devices covered by this final rule were not in existence prior to 1986, they would be prohibited when the rule becomes effective. The ban went into effect on March 26, 2019, by which owners of bump stocks were required to destroy them or surrender them to ATF, punishable by 10 years imprisonment and a $250,000 fine. State Prior to the federal ban effective March 26, 2019, some states had taken action on their own to restrict ownership of the accessory. Since 1990, the sale of bump stocks has been illegal in California. They were banned in New York with the passage of the NY SAFE Act in 2013, and more explicitly banned in early 2019. The device's legal status is unclear in Connecticut, Michigan, Minnesota, and Puerto Rico. After the 2017 Las Vegas shooting In his final day as governor in January 2018, New Jersey Governor Chris Christie signed legislation making the gun accessory illegal in New Jersey. Massachusetts banned bump stocks after the 2017 Las Vegas shooting. In March 2018, following the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, Florida enacted SB 7026, which, among other things, banned bump stocks. The portion of the legislation banning bump stocks took effect in October 2018; possession in Florida is a third-degree felony. Vermont passed a similar law in 2018, which went into effect in October 2018; possession in Vermont is a misdemeanor. Delaware, Hawaii, Maryland, Washington, Washington D.C., and Nevada have also banned bump stocks. Some states that do not ban bump stocks may have localities that ban them, such as Northbrook, Illinois (April 2018); Boulder, Colorado (May 2018); and others. Federal lawsuits Several gun rights groups have challenged the federal regulation. Gun Owners of America In December 2018, Gun Owners of America sued the federal government in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Michigan, challenging the bump stock ban. On March 21, 2019, the group's request for a preliminary injunction was denied by the district court. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit and U.S. Supreme Court both denied a stay on the effective date of the regulation pending the appeal. Following oral argument in December 2020, the Sixth Circuit panel issued a 2–1 ruling in favor of the plaintiffs on March 25, 2021. The majority decision, written by Judge Alice M. Batchelder and joined by Judge Eric E. Murphy, ruled that (1) an agency's interpretation of a criminal statute is not entitled to Chevron deference, (2) bump stocks cannot be classified as machineguns, thus the ATF's rule is not the best interpretation of the law, and (3) the plaintiffs are likely to prevail in their challenge, therefore the district court should have granted an injunction. The court remanded the case back to the district court for proceedings in accordance with its opinion (i.e., to issue an injunction). Judge Helene White dissented, writing that the Supreme Court had previously applied Chevron deference to agency interpretations of criminal statutes in the cases of Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon and United States v. O'Hagan. The appeals court granted an en banc petition on June 25, 2021 and heard oral argument in October 2021. On December 3, 2021, the court issued an 8-8 split decision, thus leaving the district court's denial of a preliminary injunction in place. The Supreme Court declined to hear the case on October 3, 2022. Guedes (Firearms Policy Coalition) and Codrea The Firearms Policy Coalition and other gun-rights groups sued in the federal district court in Washington, D.C., also seeking an injunction. In February 2019, U.S. District Judge Dabney L. Friedrich denied the Firearms Policy Coalition's request for an injunction, determining that the group had not put forward convincing legal arguments that the ban was invalid. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit stayed the effective date of the regulation, but only as applied to the plaintiffs and their members. A broader injunction was denied by the Supreme Court. On April 1, 2019, the D.C. Circuit affirmed the district court's denial of a preliminary injunction in a per curiam decision, based largely on Chevron deference. The decision allowed the ban to go into effect for the plaintiffs. Judge Karen L. Henderson issued an opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part. A second stay application was denied by the Supreme Court on April 5, 2019, with Thomas and Gorsuch indicating that they would have granted the application. The Supreme Court denied a petition for a writ of certiorari (petition for review) on March 2, 2020; Gorsuch issued a statement agreeing that the time was not right for Supreme Court review, but criticizing the D.C. Circuit's position and writing that "Chevrons application in this case may be doubtful." The case then returned to the district court on the merits, and in February 2021, the court granted summary judgment in favor of the government, holding that Chevron deference applied; that ATF had the authority to state that the NFA's definition of "machinegun" includes bump stocks; and that ATF's interpretation of the statutory language was reasonable. The court also rejected the plaintiffs' Taking Clause and ex post facto clause claims, as well as their claim that the underlying statutes were impermissibly vague. On August 9, 2022, the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the ban by reasoning that it was the best reading of the law without applying Chevron deference. A petition for an en banc rehearing was denied on May 2, 2023. The case is pending before the Supreme Court. Aposhian and Cargill In 2019, W. Clark Aposhian, the chairman of the Utah Shooting Sports Council, a gun rights group, sued the ATF in the federal district court of Utah over the bump stock ban, arguing that the promulgation of the regulation exceeded the ATF's statutory authority. Aposhian is represented by the New Civil Liberties Alliance. The district court denied the plaintiffs' request for a preliminary injunction to block the ban in March 2019. In March 2019, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit granted a temporary stay that applies only to the plaintiff, but ultimately upheld the denial of a preliminary injunction. In April 2019, in a divided opinion, the Tenth Circuit denied the motion for a stay, and a divided panel upheld the district court's ruling. The appeals court granted review en banc (i.e., by the full court), but ultimately dismissed the grant of en banc rehearing as improvidently granted, allowing the panel decision (and thus the bump-stock ban) to stay in place. The Supreme Court declined to hear the case on October 3, 2022. On September 29, 2023, the district court upheld the rule under Chevron deference. An Austin, Texas gun rights activist, Michael Cargill, sued ATF in 2019, in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Texas, similarly challenging the authority of the agency to classify bump stocks as illegal machine guns. Cargill is also represented by the New Civil Liberties Alliance. The district court dismissed the suit in November 2020. On December 14, 2021, a unanimous three judge panel on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit upheld the ban. On June 23, 2022, the court vacated the decision and took the case en banc. Oral argument was heard on September 12, 2022. On January 6, 2023, the court's full panel ruled that bump stocks are not machine guns and reversed the district court. The case is pending before the Supreme Court. Takings Clause lawsuits In June 2018, the group Maryland Shall Issue filed a putative class action lawsuit in the federal district court in Maryland, challenged 2018 Maryland Senate Bill 707 which banned "rapid-fire trigger activators"; the plaintiffs alleged that the ban was an unconstitutional taking requiring just compensation, among other challenges. In November 2018, the district court dismissed the case. In June 2020, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit affirmed the dismissal of the suit in a 2–1 vote. In May 2021, the Supreme Court declined to hear the case. Two similar lawsuits were filed in the United States Court of Federal Claims challenging the federal bump-stock ban—one filed by bump stock owners (McCutchen), the other by bump-stock suppliers (Modern Sportsman and RW Arms). Both were dismissed. In the latter case, the court held that the ATF Final Rule banning bump stocks "was promulgated pursuant to the police power to protect public safety and therefore not a compensable taking under the Fifth Amendment." Both cases were unsuccessfully appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. En banc petitions were denied and the Supreme Court denied review. In another case, filed in the District Court for the Northern District of Texas, the government failed to have the case dismissed, but was given another opportunity to argue so. However, the case is now stayed pending the outcome of McCutchen and Modern Sportsman.,. Hardin Another challenge, filed in the District Court for the Western District of Kentucky, was unsuccessful. The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals heard the case on January 19, 2023 and ruled on April 25, 2023 that bump stocks are not machineguns. John Doe A class action lawsuit filed in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Illinois seeking immunity for legal purchasers of bump stocks prior to the ATF rule change was denied by the court in June 2020. On October 31, 2022, the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit upheld the ban. U.S. v. Alkazahg The Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals ruled on September 7, 2021, that a bump stock does not fall under the definition of a machinegun. The ruling was not appealed by the government. State lawsuits Florida Florida banned bump stocks in October 2018. A class action lawsuit challenging the ban as an unconstitutional taking requiring just compensation was unsuccessful in the Leon County circuit court in May 2019 and in the 1st District Court of Appeal in January 2021. Patent infringement suit Slide Fire Solutions filed suit against Bump Fire Systems for infringement of its patents on bump stock designs in 2014. The suit alleged that Bump Fire Systems infringed eight US Patents, for example, United States Patent No. 6,101,918 entitled "Method And Apparatus for Accelerating the Cyclic Firing Rate of a Semi-Automatic Firearm" and United States Patent No. 8,127,658 entitled "Method of Shooting a Semi-Automatic Firearm". The suit was settled in 2016, resulting in Bump Fire Systems ceasing manufacture of the product in contention. Other lawsuits Survivors of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting sued bump stock patent holder and manufacturer Slide Fire Solutions, claiming the company was negligent and that they deliberately attempted to evade U.S. laws regulating automatic weapons: "this horrific assault would not and could not have occurred, with a conventional handgun, rifle, or shotgun, of the sort used by law-abiding responsible gun owners for hunting or self defense." The suit was dismissed in September 2018; the court determined that the bump stocks of the sort used by gunman Stephen Paddock to commit the murders, were "firearm components" rather than "firearm accessories" and were therefore subject to the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act (PLCAA), a federal law immunizing manufacturers and sellers of firearms from liability for harm "caused by those who criminally or unlawfully misuse firearm products". See also Glock switch Gun politics in the United States Hell-fire trigger Recoil operation Binary trigger Trigger crank Forced reset trigger Slamfire Notes References External links SlideFire Website Archive circa. 2016 The Final Rule on Bump Stocks in the Federal Register 2017 Las Vegas shooting Firearm actions Gun politics in the United States
4641911	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20in%20Conflict	World in Conflict	World in Conflict is a 2007 real-time tactics video game developed by the Swedish video game company Massive Entertainment and published by Vivendi Games for Microsoft Windows. The game was released in September 2007, receiving generally favorable reviews and several awards. The game is considered by some to be the spiritual successor of Ground Control, another game by Massive Entertainment, and is generally conceived by its designers to be a real-time tactics game, despite being marketed as a RTS game. The game's setting and story takes place in an alternate 1989, in which an impending economic collapse and the failure to achieve aid diplomatically from the West, leads the Soviet Union to invade Western Europe, triggering World War III. The single-player story sees players assume the role of a United States Army officer who takes command of battalions of US and NATO forces; the main bulk of their operations focus on combating a surprise invasion of the United States from Seattle, Washington, as well as operations in Southern France, Russia, and New York. A March 2009 expansion pack, World in Conflict: Soviet Assault, added additional content, including additional campaign missions in which players assume the role of a Soviet military officer who commands Soviet forces in Europe, Russia and the US state of Washington. The game offers multiplayer functionality, supporting up to 16 players online or over LAN. In December 2015, Ubisoft shut down the official Massgate servers that supported multiplayer functions, though the player community restored these functions in 2016, through an unaffiliated version of Massgate. Ubisoft revived multiplayer through published open-source Massgate in 2017. Gameplay World in Conflict focuses on real-time tactics (RTT) gameplay, in a similar manner to Ground Control, a game also developed by Massive Entertainment, in which players deploy units onto a battlefield and must carefully make use of them to achieve victory, making use of support assets to further assist them. World in Conflict contains three factions: the United States, Soviet Union, and NATO. While players may only play as US and NATO forces during the single-player campaign, all three factions can be used in multiplayer games. During a game, players are given a pre-determined number of reinforcement points, with which to purchase units with varying costs. Once the player deploys the units they purchase, they must wait 20 seconds for them to be airdropped to the field. If a unit is destroyed, the points are refunded to the player in order to allow them to bring in more units. During the single-player campaign, most missions vary what units the player can recruit, while some missions will offer the opportunity to recruit free units, though these cannot be replaced if destroyed. Each unit has strengths and weaknesses, such as mobile anti-air guns being most effective against enemy helicopters, and repair tanks being most effective at keeping vehicles and armor repaired. Each unit possesses a defensive ability, such as deploying smokescreens, while some units possess an offensive ability, such as marking targets for bombardment or using grenade launchers on enemy infantry. Once a unit's special ability(ies) has been spent, players must wait for them to recharge before they can be used again. In addition to controlling units, players may also call in tactical aid by spending tactical aid points. Points are primarily earned from destroying enemy units in battle. Tactical Aids allow the player to call in anything, from airstrikes on enemy positions, the deployment of paratroopers, to launching carpet bombing raids and tactical nuclear strikes. Tactical aids can allow up to three deployments, after which the player must wait until the support has recharged. In the single-player campaign, players are restricted by what tactical aid they can use, which can change during a mission. The game interface for World in Conflict has no framing in the game. A list of units occupies the bottom center, whereas the top right-hand corner contains the expandable reinforcement procurement list. The mini-map is in the bottom left-hand corner, while the bottom right-hand corner contains the special abilities buttons (including unit formation). Players can also use a messaging system that is designed to allow conversation between individuals regardless of whether they are on the same server or playing the same game. World in Conflict features a fully rotational 360-degree camera. Single-player The single-player campaign places players in the role of Lieutenant Parker (voiced by Alec Baldwin), a United States Army officer, who takes command of a company of troops from both the US and NATO and who narrates the events of the game's campaign prior to each mission; he neither speaks during missions and cutscenes nor is his face shown. During missions, players take on enemies scripted for them to deal with while the AI handles the remainder of action on the battlefield, though a large portion of the action is still focused on the player, which is in contrast to the approach used in RTS titles, in which players are in charge of whole armies and thus responsible for most of the action on the battlefield. Unlike other game modes, players are restricted in missions by what units they can deploy and what tactical aid they can call in, sometimes having to rely on the units they begin with and acquire during a mission. The narrative of the single-player story owes much of its inspiration from both the Call of Duty and Medal of Honor series (see the 'Influences' section below) Multiplayer Multiplayer games support up to sixteen players and can be played on a LAN or over the Internet. Three types of maps are featured: domination maps, where players must control command points to win the game, assault maps, where one team defends a series of command points which the other teams' assaults, and tug of war maps, where teams must fight to capture a series of command points on the front line, whereupon the line shifts towards a new set of points closer to the losing team. One side plays as either the United States or NATO, while the other is the Soviet Union. In multiplayer gameplay the player may choose one of four roles in battle: infantry, air, support, or armor. The infantry role gives access to various infantry squads such as anti-tank teams, snipers, and light transport vehicles whereas armor allows players to use various classes of tanks, the dominant direct fire land combat unit of the game. Players choosing the air role have access to attack, scout, and transport helicopters. Finally, the support role contains anti-air, artillery, and repair units. Each role's basic units can be purchased by everyone but are more expensive for players with a different role. In addition, each role has its own exclusive units that aren't available for purchase by other roles. The game ends when one side is completely dominant over the other, or when 20 minutes are up, in which case, whichever side is winning at the time is declared the winner. A bar is displayed at the top of the screen showing the status of both armies. After the game is over, the score sheet will be displayed, and the players' rank updated. The online component of the game uses the in-game massgate system, which is derived from Ground Control. The system helps players keep track of friends, allowing them to see whether they are online or playing a game. Clans can be created and kept track of in-game, with features such as ranks and clan matches. Massgate includes leaderboards and a ranking system based on US Army military ranks. Players can increase their rank and leaderboard position in a way similar to Battlefield 2, by accumulating earnings and scoring points, medals, and badges. Achieving higher ranks becomes progressively more difficult. The leaderboard also keeps track of clan rankings. Plot In 1988, the economically crippled Soviet Union pursues military action against NATO. The United States deploys the bulk of its troops to reinforce Europe, but in doing so, is caught off guard when the Soviet Union invades the Northwestern United States, starting with Seattle in November 1989. Lieutenant Parker, the player's character, joins Captains Mark Bannon and James Webb in the retreat from the city under Colonel Jeremiah Sawyer, who held previous commands over all three. Under Sawyer's command, the Soviet advance is temporarily stalled, and the U.S. manages to win a tactical victory in the town of Pine Valley. By Christmas, Soviet troops launch a new offensive to capture Fort Teller, the headquarters for the Strategic Defense Initiative. Knowing that should the Soviets realize that the project is a ruse (thereby exposing America to a nuclear strike), Sawyer and his command are ordered to intercept, delay and ultimately halt the Soviet advance on the facility. At the garrison town of Cascade Falls, Sawyer leads an initially successful defense against the Soviets. However, he is soon informed the Soviets have deployed fresh reinforcements to the town, which are too many for his already under-strength forces to hold against. Sawyer is granted clearance to detonate a tactical nuclear missile above the Soviet formations, retreating just before impact. Bannon, however, volunteers to stay behind, knowing the Soviets will become suspicious. The nuclear blast annihilates the assaulting Soviet forces, as well as Bannon and his company. In the days following the outbreak of the war in Europe, Sawyer, as well as Bannon and Parker, are deployed to France to assist French forces in a counterattack against Soviet troops near Marseille. Bannon's arrogant lust for glory aggravates Sawyer, which inadvertently causes the death of Commandant Sabatier, Sawyer's French liaison, during a major operation. Sawyer is then deployed alongside Norwegian special forces on a raiding operation inside the Soviet Union. Bannon, however, sullies the mission by accidentally killing surrendering civil-defense volunteers and is unable to prevent the escape of a Soviet Typhoon-class submarine at berth near Murmansk. Fed up with Bannon's incompetence, Sawyer arranges for his transfer out of his battalion and replaces him with Webb, who has been serving as an instructor due to a sustained combat injury. Prior to rotating back home, Sawyer and his battalion are rerouted to New York City to assist U.S. Army Rangers in recapturing Ellis, Governors and Liberty Islands from Spetsnaz commandos. Returning to the immediate aftermath of the nuclear detonation, Parker contacts Webb and several friendly and hostile stragglers before reuniting with Sawyer. They also learn that China has entered the war, siding with the Soviets, and has sent a fleet to reinforce the Soviet beachhead in Seattle. The U.S. President orders Sawyer's forces to retake Seattle before the Chinese can land, but also plans to destroy the Chinese fleet and the city of Seattle with a nuclear missile should Sawyer fail. After successfully penetrating through the Soviet perimeter, U.S. forces successfully re-capture the city. The Chinese, lacking the amphibious means necessary for a landing, turn back. Development In December 2015, the official Massgate servers were shut down by Massive Entertainment for several reasons, despite a community outcry. In early 2016, online multiplayer functionality and a new community-run Massgate were restored by a group of players unaffiliated with Ubisoft or Massive Entertainment. Influences The game's designers have cited the 1984 film Red Dawn as one of their key influences. The film's main premise is the invasion of America by Soviet and Central American troops. Echoes of the film can be seen in the initial paratroop landings (though in the film they happen in Colorado) and in the use of civilian transports to disguise a Soviet invasion force; again, this differs slightly from the film. Also, in the Soviet Assault expansion, the name of the Soviet invasion of Germany (and presumably the United States) is referred to as Operation Red Dawn. Another influence for the game, according to issue 7 of the WiC Journal, are the first-person shooter game series Call of Duty and Medal of Honor, and how the games give the player a relatively small role in a big conflict and will command small numbers of units at a time rather than whole hordes. The developers, still according to the journal, have also looked to the games Battlefield 2 and Counter-Strike: Source for inspiration. Marketing The collector's edition of World in Conflict comes in a limited edition collector's box art cloth packaging (with a Soviet flag on one side and Russian wording of "World in Conflict", and the US flag on the other with English "World in Conflict") and includes an authentic piece of the Berlin Wall, Modern Marvels: The Berlin Wall DVD by the History Channel, Behind the Scenes DVD and World in Conflict exclusive Creative HS-390 headset (Europe Only). Those who had preordered the game were given access to the Beta, the ability to preserve their username and clans, and either received the Modern Marvels: Strategic Air Command or the Declassified: The Rise and Fall of The Wall DVD by the History Channel depending upon which area of the world one was situated in. The collector's edition in Poland is different compared to collector's editions in other countries. It includes an exclusive World in Conflict wooden container, limited edition collector's box art packaging (Soviet or US flag), a full-sized flag of the US or Soviet Union, an exclusive World in Conflict poster, a T-shirt and cap with the World in Conflict logo and decorations, and a World in Conflict exclusive Trust Hs-2200 headset. The collector's edition available in Taiwan is also different, as there was no preorder scheme put into place there. It includes an exclusive flag of the Soviet Union, a Modern Marvels: Strategic Air Command DVD by the History Channel, Special translated behind the scenes DVD, Metallic packaging featuring the Soviet flag on the front, and the US flag on the back. The game was re-released under World in Conflict Complete Edition including the new expansion Soviet Assault all in one game. Reception World in Conflict received "generally favorable reviews" from game critics according to the review aggregator Metacritic. GameSpot called the game "the studio's masterwork", giving it 9.5 out of 10. In PC Gamer (UK), Kieron Gillen singled out World in Conflict's multiplayer, praising the cooperative mechanics and the in-game communication system; while calling the single-player campaign "fun[...] but not exactly deep." Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer called the game "absorbing", highlighting the game's focus on tactical objectives instead of resource management, saying "it plays like a strategy game, but feels like an action game". Awards Prior to its initial release in September 2007, World in Conflict received several awards from its E3 presentation in 2007. IGN: Best PC Strategy Game, Best Strategy Game (All Platforms), Best Of E3 2007 GameSpot: Best Strategy Game Of E3, E3'07 Editors Choice Award GameTrailers.com: Best Strategy Game Of E3 Game Critics: E3 2007 Best Strategy Game, The Best Of E3 07 Winner After release, the game earned editor's choice awards from GameSpot, IGN and the Australian gaming magazine PC PowerPlay, as well as PC Zone's classic award. PC Gamer US also awarded the game its editor's choice award, as well as naming it the 2007 RTS game of the year. The game was included in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. Sales It topped weekly sales charts in North America, Germany, and Australia in the week it was released. Expansion A new expansion of the game, World in Conflict: Soviet Assault, was released for Windows in March 2009. Plans to release the game under the same name for home consoles, the Xbox 360 and the PlayStation 3, were dropped. The new edition included a brand new campaign from the Soviet perspective. New maps were included as well as new movies and cut scenes, however there were no new units included. On July 29, 2008, Activision dropped World in Conflict: Soviet Assault from production along with a number of other games putting the future of the game in question. On August 6, 2008, Activision Blizzard put Massive Entertainment up for sale. Massive Entertainment has since been acquired by Ubisoft. The game was released on March 13, 2009, in several formats. It was packaged under World in Conflict: Complete Edition which is the new retail collection, containing both World in Conflict and the expansion, Soviet Assault. The complete pack was available through retail stores, Steam download and Direct2Drive download. Soviet Assault was also released separately as a download for owners of the original World in Conflict, through Steam and D2D and also in a retail version. References External links World in Conflict official website 2007 video games Alternate history video games Cold War video games Cooperative video games Games for Windows Massive Entertainment games Real-time tactics video games Video games with expansion packs Windows games Windows-only games World War III video games Sierra Entertainment games Ubisoft games Video games developed in Sweden Multiplayer and single-player video games Video games set in 1989 Video games set in New York City Video games set in Seattle Video games set in Berlin Video games set in Washington (state) Video games set in France Video games set in the Soviet Union Video games set in Germany Video games set in East Germany Video games set in Norway Video games set in the United States Fiction about invasions Video games using Havok Vivendi Games games
4642205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20Railways%20Department	New Zealand Railways Department	The New Zealand Railways Department, NZR or NZGR (New Zealand Government Railways) and often known as the "Railways", was a government department charged with owning and maintaining New Zealand's railway infrastructure and operating the railway system. The Department was created in 1880 and was corporatised on 1 April 1982 into the New Zealand Railways Corporation. Originally, railway construction and operation took place under the auspices of the former provincial governments and some private railways, before all of the provincial operations came under the central Public Works Department. The role of operating the rail network was subsequently separated from that of the network's construction. From 1895 to 1993 there was a responsible Minister, the Minister of Railways. He was often also the Minister of Public Works. Apart from four brief experiments with independent boards, NZR remained under direct ministerial control for most of its history. History Originally, New Zealand's railways were constructed by provincial governments and private firms. The largest provincial operation was the Canterbury Provincial Railways, which opened the first public railway at Ferrymead on 1 December 1863. During The Vogel Era of the late 1860s to the 1870s, railway construction by central government expanded greatly, from just in 1869 to in 1880. Following the abolition of the provinces in 1877, the Public Works Department took over the various provincial railways. Since the Public Works Department was charged with constructing new railway lines (among other public works) the day to day railway operations were transferred into a new government department on the recommendation of a parliamentary select committee. At the time of railway lines were open for traffic, in the North Island and in the South Island, mainly consisting of the Main South Line from the port of Lyttelton to Bluff. Formation and early years The Railways Department was formed in 1880 during the premiership of Sir John Hall. That year, the private Port Chalmers Railway Company Limited was acquired by the department and new workshops at Addington opened. Ironically, the first few years of NZR were marked by the Long Depression, which led to great financial constraint on the department. As a result, the central government passed legislation to allow for the construction of more private railways. A Royal Commission, ordered by Hall, had removed plans for a railway line on the west coast of the North Island from Foxton to Wellington. Instead, in August 1881 the Railways Construction and Land Act was passed, allowing joint-stock companies to build and run private railways, as long as they were built to the government's standard rail gauge of and connected with the government railway lines. The Act had the effect of authorising the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company to build the Wellington-Manawatu Line. In 1877 the first American locomotives were purchased; the NZR K class (1877) from Rogers, followed by the NZR T class of 1879 from Baldwin. The most important construction project for NZR at this time was the central section of the North Island Main Trunk. Starting from Te Awamutu on 15 April 1885, the section—including the famous Raurimu Spiral—was not completed for another 23 years. The economy gradually improved and in 1895 the Liberal Government of Premier Richard Seddon appointed Alfred Cadman as the first Minister of Railways. The Minister appointed a General Manager for the railways, keeping the operation under tight political control. Apart from four periods of government-appointed commissions (1889–1894, 1924–1928, 1931–1936 and 1953–1957), this system remained in place until the department was corporatised in 1982. In 1895, patronage had reached 3.9M passengers per annum and 2.048M tonnes. NZR produced its first New Zealand-built steam locomotive in 1889; the W class built in the Addington Railway Workshops. Along with opening new lines, NZR began acquiring a number of the private railways which had built railway lines around the country. It acquired the Waimea Plains Railway Company in 1886. At the same time, a protracted legal battle began with the New Zealand Midland Railway Company, which was only resolved in 1898. The partially completed Midland line was not handed over to NZR until 1900. By that time, of railway lines were open for traffic. The acquisition in 1908 of the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company and its railway line marked the completion of the North Island Main Trunk from Wellington to Auckland. A new locomotive class, the X class, was introduced in 1909 for traffic on the line. The X class was the most powerful locomotive at the time. Gold rushes led to the construction of the Thames Branch, opening in 1898. In 1906 the Dunedin railway station was completed, architect George Troup. A. L. Beattie became Chief Mechanical Officer in April 1900. Beattie designed the famous A class, the Q class (the first "Pacific" type locomotive in the world), and many other locomotive classes. NZR's first bus operation began on 1 October 1907, between Culverden on the Waiau Branch and Waiau Ferry in Canterbury. By the 1920s NZR was noticing a considerable downturn in rail passenger traffic on many lines due to increasing ownership of private cars, and from 1923 it began to co-ordinate rail passenger services with private bus services. The New Zealand Railways Road Services branch was formed to operate bus services. In 1911 tenders for bookstalls were being advertised for 33 main stations - Auckland, Frankton Junction, Rotorua. Paeroa, Taumarunui, Ohakune, Taihape, Marton, Feilding, Palmerston North, Levin, Wellington Thorndon and Lambton, Masterton, Woodville, Dannevirke. Waipukurau. Hastings, Napier, New Plymouth, Stratford, Hāwera, Aramoho, Whanganui, Nelson, Christchurch, Ashburton, Timaru, Oamaru, Dunedin, Milton, Gore, and Invercargill. By 1912, patronage had reached 13.4M passengers per annum (a 242% increase since 1895) and 5.9M tonnes of freight (a 188% increase since 1895). In 1913, damages of £15 were awarded against New Zealand Railways to S. J. Gibbons by the Supreme Court in a precedent-setting case; for damages to a car that hit a train at a level crossing: see Cliff Road railway station. World War I The outbreak of World War I in 1914 had a significant impact on the Railways Department. That year the AA class appeared, and the following year the first AB class locomotives were introduced. This class went on to become the most numerous locomotive class in New Zealand history, with several examples surviving into preservation. The war itself led to a decline in passenger, freight and train miles run but also led to an increase in profitability. In the 1917 Annual Report, a record 5.3% return on investment was made. The war did take its toll on railway services, with dining cars being removed from passenger trains in 1917, replaced by less labour-intensive refreshment rooms at railway stations along the way. As a result, the "scramble for pie and tea at Taihape" became a part of New Zealand folklore. Non-essential rail services were curtailed as more staff took part in the war effort, and railway workshops were converted for producing military equipment, on top of their existing maintenance and construction work. The war soon affected the supply of coal to the railways. Although hostilities ended in 1918, the coal shortage carried on into 1919 as first miners strikes and then an influenza epidemic cut supplies. As a result, non-essential services remained in effect until the end of 1919. Shortages of spare parts and materials led to severe inflation, and repairs on locomotives being deferred. Similar coal-saving timetable cuts occurred at the end of the next war in 1945 and 1946. Increasing competition and great depression In 1920 the milestone of open railway lines was reached and 15 million passengers were carried by the department. An acute housing shortage following the war led to the creation of Railways Department's Housing Scheme in 1922. The first of the now-iconic railway houses were prefabricated in a factory in Frankton for NZR staff. This scheme was shut down in 1929 as it was considered improper for a government department to compete with private builders. The Otira Tunnel was completed in 1923, heralding the completion of the Midland Line in the South Island. The tunnel included the first section of railway electrification in New Zealand and its first electric locomotives, the original EO class. The section was electrified at 1,500 V DC, due to the steep grade in the tunnel, and included its own hydro-electric power station. The second section to be electrified by the department was the Lyttelton Line in Christchurch, completed in 1929, at the same voltage and current. This again saw English Electric supply locomotives, the EC class. Gordon Coates, on 24 October 1922, as Minister of Public Works, in introducing his Main Highways Act, said, “I say the day will come when it will be found that through the use of motor transport certain railways in New Zealand will be relegated to a secondary place altogether, and probably will be torn up, and we shall have motor traffic taking their place.” Section 12 of that Act allowed for government borrowing and Section 19 required local councils to provide half the cost of road improvements. By setting in place a system of subsidy from ratepayers and taxpayers, whilst requiring railways to make a 3¾% profit (at that rate, interest amounted to over 22% of total earnings), Coates ensured his prophecy came true, as railways gradually became uneconomic. The following year, Gordon Coates became the Minister of Railways. Coates was an ambitious politician who had an almost "religious zeal" for his portfolio. During the summer of 1923, he spent the entire parliamentary recess inspecting the department's operations. The following year, he put forward a "Programme of Improvements and New Works'". Coates scheme proposed spending £8 million over 8 years. This was later expanded to £10 million over 10 years. The programme included: The Auckland–Westfield deviation of the North Island Main Trunk; New marshalling yards at Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch; The Milson Deviation of the North Island Main Trunk through Palmerston North; The Rimutaka Tunnel under the Rimutaka Ranges in Wellington; The Tawa Flat deviation of the North Island Main Trunk out of Wellington; Electric lighting; New locomotive facilities and New signalling systems. An independent commission, led by Sir Sam Fay and Sir Vincent Raven produced a report known as the "Fay Raven Report" which gave qualified approval to Coates' programme. The reports only significant change was the proposal of a Cook Strait train ferry service between Wellington and Picton, to link the two systems up. Coates went on to become Prime Minister in 1925, an office he held until 1928 when he was defeated at the general election of that year. While the Westfield and Tawa Flat deviations proceeded, the Milson deviation and Rimutaka Tunnel projects remained stalled. The onset of the Great Depression from late 1929 saw these projects scaled back or abandoned. The Westfield deviation was completed in 1930 and the Tawa deviation proceeded at a snail's pace. A number of new lines under construction were casualties, including the Rotorua-Taupo line, approved in July 1928 but abandoned almost a year later due to the depression. An exception was the Stratford–Okahukura Line, finished in 1933. However, there was criticism that maintenance was being neglected. In the Liberals last year of office in 1912, of line had been relaid, but that was reduced to 118 in 1913, 104 in 1914, 81 in 1924 and 68 in 1925, during the Reform Government's years. Once again, growing traffic requirements led to the introduction of a new type of locomotive, the ill-fated G class Garratt locomotives in 1928. Three of the locomotives were introduced for operation on the North Island Main Trunk. They were not well suited to New Zealand conditions: they had overly complex valve gear, were too hot for crews manning them and too powerful for the wagons they were hauling. The failure of this class lead to the introduction of the K class in 1932. Government Railways Board Tough economic conditions and increasing competition from road transport led to calls for regulation of the land transport sector. In 1931 it was claimed half a million tons of freight had been lost to road transport. That year, the department carried 7.2 million passengers per year, down from 14.2 million in 1923. In 1930 a Royal Commission on Railways recommended that land transport should be "co-ordinated" and the following year Parliament passed the Transport Licensing Act 1931. The Act regulated the carriage of goods and entrenched the monopoly the department had on land transport. It set a minimum distance road transport operators could transport goods at before they had to be licensed. The Act was repealed in 1982. Alongside these changes, in 1931 the Railways Department was briefly restructured into the Government Railways Board. Another Act of Parliament, the Government Railways Amendment Act 1931 was passed. The Railways Board was independent of the Government of the day and answered to the Minister of Finance. During this period the Prime Minister George Forbes was also Minister of Railways, and Minister of Finance was former Minister of Railways Gordon Coates. The Railways Board was chaired by Herbert Harry Sterling, the former General Manager, and had 10 members from around the country. The Board stopped building on the Dargaville branch, Gisborne line, Main South Line, Nelson Section, Okaihau to Rangiahua line and Westport-Inangahua line. For that it was criticised by Bob Semple, the new Minister of Public Works, in a speech in 1935 and abolished by the First Labour Government in 1936. In 1933 plans for a new railway station and head office in Wellington were approved, along with the electrification of the Johnsonville Line (then still part of the North Island Main Trunk). The Wellington railway station and Tawa flat deviation were both completed in 1937. As part of attempts by NZR to win back passengers from private motor vehicles, the same year the first 56-foot carriages were introduced. Garnet Mackley was appointed General Manager in 1933, and worked hard to improve the standard and range of services provided by the Department. This included a number of steps to make passenger trains faster, more efficient and cheaper to run. In the early 20th century, NZR had begun investigating railcar technology to provide passenger services on regional routes and rural branch lines where carriage trains were not economic and "mixed" trains (passenger carriages attached to freight trains) were undesirably slow. However, due to New Zealand's rugged terrain overseas technology could not simply be directly introduced. A number of experimental railcars and railbuses were developed. From 1925 these included the Leyland experimental petrol railcar and a fleet of Model T Ford railbuses, the Sentinel-Cammell steam railcar and from 1926 the Clayton steam railcar and successful Edison battery-electric railcar. 10 years later in 1936 the Leyland diesel railbus was introduced, but the first truly successful railcar class to enter service began operating that year, the Wairarapa railcar specially designed to operate over the Rimutaka Incline. This class followed the building of the Red Terror (an inspection car on a Leyland Cub chassis) for the General Manager in 1933. More classes followed over the years, primarily to operate regional services. Following the success of the Wairarapa railcar class, in 1938 the Standard class railcars were introduced. A further improvement to passenger transport came in July that year, with electric services on the Johnsonville Line starting with the introduction of the DM/D English Electric Multiple Units. Three new locomotive classes appeared in 1939: the KA class, KB class and the J class. The KA was a further development of the K class, while the J class was primarily for lighter trackage in the South Island. The numerically smaller KB class were allocated to the Midland line, where they dominated traffic. This led to the coining of the phrase "KB country" to describe the area, made famous by the National Film Unit's documentary of the same title. World War II and its aftermath As with the first world war, the Second World War had a significant impact on railways. The war created major labour shortages across the economy generally, and while considered "essential industry", railways were no exception. A large number of NZR employees signed up to fight in the war. For the first time, the Department employed significant numbers of women to meet the shortages. The war created serious coal shortages as imported coal was no longer available. Despite this, NZR had record revenues in 1940. Despite the war and associated labour and material shortages, new railway construction continued. In 1942 the Gisborne Line was finally opened, followed by the Main North Line between Picton and Christchurch being completed in 1945. The final section of the then ECMT, the Taneatua Branch, was also completed. Centralised Traffic Control (CTC) was installed from Taumaranui to Auckland at the same time. In 1946 the last class of steam locomotives built by NZR was introduced, the JA class. Due to coal shortages the K, J, KA, JA classes of steam locomotives were converted from coal to oil burning. Following the war, NZR contracted the Royal New Zealand Air Force from 1947 to ship inter-island freight across Cook's Strait between Paraparaumu in the North Island and Blenheim in the South Island, as part of the "Rail Air" service. In 1950, Straits Air Freight Express (later known as SAFE Air) took over the contract from the RNZAF. The service was discontinued in the early 1980s. Modernisation The General Manager of NZR, Frank Aickin, was an advocate for electrifying the entire North Island Main Trunk to alleviate the shortage of coal and the cost of importing diesel fuel; though he also recognised that steam and diesel traction would be required on other lines. NZR's first diesel-electric locomotives, the English Electric built DE class, were introduced in 1951. The locomotives gave good service but were not powerful or numerous enough to seriously displace steam traction. In 1954, the New Zealand railway network reached its zenith in terms of distance with , 60% of it on gradients between 1 in 100 and 1 in 200 and 33% steeper than 1 in 100. The EW class electric locomotives introduced for the Wellington electric system. They were the second class of electric locomotive to be used on this section of electrification. They were the most powerful locomotives on the system till the DX class arrived in 1972. Aicken went as far as negotiating a tentative contract for the construction of electrification and locomotives for it, but fell out with the Government in late 1951 and resigned. His successor, H.C. Lusty, terminated the contract and entered into an agreement with General Motors for the supply of 40 EMD G12 model locomotives, designated by NZR as the DA class. The first of these locomotives entered service in September 1955, with all of this initial order running by September 1957. On Christmas Eve 1953, the worst disaster in NZR's history, and one of the worst in New Zealand's history occurred. 151 people died when the Wellington-Auckland express was derailed due to a bridge collapse north of Tangiwai due to a lahar from a volcanic eruption, in what became known as the Tangiwai disaster. The following year NZR introduced the dual-cab DF class in 1954, the first main-line diesel-electric locomotives in service. They proved to be unsuccessful in service and the original order of 31 was cancelled, and DG class locomotives, also built by English Electric, ordered instead. While the DG class proved more successful than the DF class, steam remained the dominant form of traction. This led to the introduction of the DA class in 1955, the largest fleet of diesel-electric locomotives NZR ever introduced. The DA class, more than any other class, displaced steam locomotives from the North Island. On 3 November of the same year the long Rimutaka Tunnel opened, greatly reducing transit times between the Wairarapa and Wellington. This led to the closure of the Rimutaka Incline and its unique Fell railway system. Because steam locomotives could not be operated through the new tunnel, the Wairarapa Line was the first to be fully "dieselised". Amid many protests, the isolated Nelson Section was closed, although future Nelson Railway Proposals resurfaced from 1957. The RM class "88 seater" or "Fiats" also began entering service from 1955. The railcars were designed to take over provincial inter-city routes but proved to be mechanically unreliable. Despite large orders for diesel-electric locomotives, NZR was still building steam locomotives until 1956, when the last steam locomotive built by NZR, JA1274, was completed at Hillside Workshops, Dunedin. The locomotive is now preserved in Dunedin near the railway station. During the 1950s New Zealand industry was diversifying, particularly into the timber industry. On 6 October 1952 the Kinleith Branch, formerly part of the Taupo Totara Timber Company's line, was opened to service a new pulp and paper mill at its terminus. NZR's first single-purpose log trains, called "express loggers", began to operate on this branch. The Kinleith Branch was shortly followed in 1957 by the long Murupara Branch, which was opened running through the Bay of Plenty's Kaingaroa Forest. The branch is the last major branch line to open in New Zealand to date. The line was primarily built to service the Tasman Pulp and Paper Mill in Kawerau, with several loading points along its length. The line's success led to several Taupo Railway Proposals being put forward, with extensions of the branch being mooted at various times. 1960s In 1960 the second Christchurch railway station, at Moorhouse Avenue, was opened. The station was closed in 1990, with a new station being built at Addington. In 1961, livestock was exempted from the Transport Licensing Act, effectively opening the sector up to competition. The introduction of GMV Aramoana in 1962 heralded the start of inter-island ferry services run by NZR. The service was very successful, leading to criticism, when the Wellington–Lyttelton overnight ferry was withdrawn, that NZR was competing unfairly with private operators. Before the Aramoana was introduced, NZR could not compete for inter-island freight business, and the rail networks of both the North and South Islands were not well integrated. To send goods between the islands, freight had to be unloaded from wagons onto a ship on one island, unloaded at the other and then loaded back into wagons to resume its journey by rail. The introduction of a roll-on roll-off train ferry changed that. Wagons were rolled onto the ferry and rolled off at the other side. This led to many benefits for NZR customers. NZR's 1963–1964 year-end financial report showed that inter-island ferry services contributed $1.07 million to NZRs profit of $1.077 million. A second ferry, MV Aranui, arrived in 1965. Closures of rural branch lines reduced the total network length to in 1966. In 1968 the "Blue Streak" refurbished railcars were introduced to the Wellington–Auckland run, having failed to raise patronage between Hamilton and Auckland. The success of the Blue Streaks led to the purchase of three new railcars in 1972. The Blue Streaks were then allocated to the Wellington—New Plymouth service. The introduction of the Japanese-built DJ class diesels from that year in the South Island accelerated the demise of steam, replacing the remaining steam locomotives. The final demise of steam came on 26 October 1971 with the withdrawal of the last class of mainline steam locomotives, the JA class in the South Island (although the NZR-operated heritage Kingston Flyer service, using two AB class steam locomotives began just two months later in December 1971). 1970s Railways' management had entered the 1970s with a modernisation plan around the theme "Great things are happening to Railways", to counter negative views of the railways' held by the general public and political elites. In 1970, a red, black and white corporate logo designed by Barry Ellis was introduced and a new Passenger Division was established. The Southerner between Christchurch and Invercargill was introduced, replacing the South Island Limited. The new service featured buffet cars and modernised rolling stock. New rolling stock included the Silver Star luxury Wellington–Auckland overnight train, sourced from Japan. The service never lived up to its promise and was withdrawn in 1979 due to poor patronage. In 1972 the first Silver Fern railcars were introduced for the daytime Wellington–Auckland run. Freight traffic was again changing. In October 1969, the first unit coal trains were introduced, between coal mines at Huntly and New Zealand Steel at Mission Bush. The US-built General Electric U26C DX class locomotives were introduced in 1972, with a further batch arriving in 1975. They were at the time the most powerful class of locomotives in New Zealand. At first, they were deployed to the North Island Main Trunk but gradually began working the express freight trains for which they were ordered throughout the North Island. The DX continued to dominate North Island traffic until the electrification of the main trunk in the 1980s. 1971 saw the introduction of scheduled ISO shipping container services to New Zealand. NZR introduced its first purpose-built container wagons, the UK class, for the growing traffic that was quickly changing freight patterns. NZR was criticized for not investing enough in new bogie wagons. Freight volumes greatly increased during the 1970s, despite the oil shocks of 1973 and 1979, with the greatest setback for freight volumes being Britain's entry into the European Economic Community in 1973. Inflationary pressures within the economy greatly rose, at the same time exports were falling. In reaction to this, the government attempted to control inflation by fixing prices; in 1972 it was decided that NZR could only charge for its services at no more than 1971 rates, despite rising fuel and labour costs. As a result, Railways' accounts were in a deficit for much of the decade and were topped up with a special "Vote Stabilisation" in the budget. Following a change of Government in 1975, the Robert Muldoon led National Government decided to increase the transport licensing limited from to 150 km. This change took effect from 1977, and greatly increased competition for NZR on key routes between larger centres within 150 km of each other—routes such as Auckland–Hamilton, Hamilton–Tauranga, Wellington–Palmerston North and Christchurch–Ashburton. In 1978 a major rebuilding program of the ageing DA class was launched, creating the DC class. Locomotives were sent to Australia for rebuilding, with five being rebuilt at the NZR's own Hutt Workshops. Ten of the DB class were rebuilt into the DBR class at the same time. The following year the Canadian built General Motors DF class was introduced. Despite these efforts, there was still considerable negativity about railways and the service they offered. In its 30 May 1979 issue, the National Business Review said "long-distance rail travel is likely to completely disappear in the early 1980s. This will leave the slow creaking third world narrow gauge network to bulk freight where it can be more efficient." Traffic Monitoring System On 12 February 1979, NZR introduced a computerised "Traffic Monitoring System", known as TMS. A pilot scheme of TMS began in 1973 on the Palmerston North - Gisborne Line between Woodville and Gisborne. TMS resulted in an 8 per cent improvement in wagon utilisation. As a result of the introduction of TMS, all locomotives, railcars, carriages and other rolling stock were re-numbered. Class notations changed to machine-readable capital letters, rather than the previous superscript capital letter (e.g. DA became DA.) TMS was replaced in 1989 with Amicus. "Time for Change" Following the increase in distance for road transport licensing in 1977, NZR General Manager Trevor Hayward published a pamphlet entitled "Time for Change". In it, he spelt out the basic challenge facing NZR at the time: providing both commercial and loss-making "social" services. While Hayward was not against road transport deregulation, he was in favour of greater investment in NZR to meet freight requirements and shutting down uneconomic services. In 1981, parliament passed the New Zealand Railways Corporation Act, and the department was corporatised as the New Zealand Railways Corporation on 1 April 1982. Branches The Railways Department followed a traditional branch structure, which was carried over to the corporation. Commercial; Finance and Accounts; Mechanical; Publicity and Advertising; Refreshment; Railways Road Services; Stores; Traffic; and Way and Works. Performance The table below records the performance of the Railways Department in terms of freight tonnage: Workshops The following NZR workshops were builders of locomotives: Hutt Workshops, Lower Hutt, at Petone to 1929 Hillside Workshops, Dunedin, now Hillside Engineering Addington Workshops, Christchurch (closed 1990) East Town Workshops, Wanganui (closed 1986) also Aramoho Newmarket Workshops, Auckland (opened 1875, closed 1928) Otahuhu Workshops, Auckland (opened 1928, closed 1992) Minor workshops None of these minor workshops manufactured locomotives, although major overhauls were carried out: Greymouth (Elmer Lane) Invercargill Kaiwharawhara (signals) Napier Nelson New Plymouth (Sentry Hill) from 1880 Westport Whanganui (East Town) Locomotives Steam locomotives built and rebuilt at NZR workshops: Nine of the ED electric locomotives were constructed (assembled) at the Hutt (7) and Addington (2) workshops. Various diesel locomotives have been rebuilt at NZR workshops, for example, five of the DA as DC, though most rebuilding has been contracted out. Hillside built 9 NZR TR class diesel shunters. The Auckland workshops (Newmarket, then Otahuhu) specialised in car and wagon work, and in repairs and maintenance. Private firms that built steam locomotives for NZR British companies, e.g.: Avonside Engine Company (Fairlie and Fell locomotives) Beyer, Peacock and Company Clayton Carriage and Wagon Dübs and Company Henry Hughes's Locomotive & Tramway Engine Works Hunslet Engine Company Nasmyth, Wilson and Company Neilson and Company North British Locomotive Company (built a quarter (141) of NZR steam locomotives; the NZR J class (1939)) Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns Sharp, Stewart and Company Vulcan Foundry Yorkshire Engine Co American companies, e.g.: Baldwin Locomotive Works Built 111 steam locomotives for NZR and the WMR, the first were the NZR T class of 1879. Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works Built eight NZR K class (1877), the first American locomotives purchased. Brooks Locomotive Works Built Ub17 during purchase by ALCO Richmond Locomotive Works Built Ub371 during purchase by ALCO (ten of the NZR Ub class were built by Baldwin). New Zealand companies: James Davidson & Co, Dunedin A & G Price, Thames E. W. Mills and Company Scott Brothers, Christchurch Companies that supplied NZR with diesel locomotives Clyde Engineering Commonwealth Engineering Drewry Car Co. Electro-Motive Diesel English Electric various British contractors and English Electric Australia General Electric General Motors Diesel Hitachi Hunslet Engine Company Mitsubishi Heavy Industries A & G Price, Thames Toshiba Vulcan Foundry Suppliers of electric traction to NZR English Electric (New Zealand DM class electric multiple unit and NZR EC class, NZR ED class, NZR EO class (1923), NZR EW class locomotives) Goodman Manufacturing (New Zealand EB class locomotive) Toshiba (New Zealand EA class locomotive) Suppliers of bus and coach chassis to NZR Associated Equipment Company Albion Motors Bedford Vehicles Supplied a record 1260 Bedford SB chassis (largest fleet of Bedford SB buses in the world). As well as around 400 trucks Ford Hino Motors Volvo Suppliers of ferries to NZR McGregor and Company, Dunedin, New Zealand. Builders of TSS Earnslaw. William Denny and Brothers, Dumbarton, Scotland. Builders of GMV Aramoana. Vickers Limited, Newcastle, England. Builders of GMV Aranui. Chantiers Dubegion, Nantes, France. Builders of MV Arahanga and MV Aratika. People A. L. Beattie, Chief Mechanical Engineer Whitford Brown, civil engineer, Mayor of Porirua Alf Cleverley, fitter at Petone and Hutt Workshops, Olympic boxer Major Norman Frederick Hastings DSO, engineering fitter at Petone Railways Workshop, killed on Gallipoli and commemorated on the Petone railway station memorial. Graham Latimer, was stationmaster Kaiwaka, later president of New Zealand Maori Council Ritchie Macdonald, worked at Otahuhu Workshops, union secretary, later member of parliament Garnet Mackley, General Manager 1933–1940, later member of parliament George Troup, Architect, Mayor of Wellington See also List of Chief Executives of New Zealand Railways New Zealand Railways Corporation Rail transport in New Zealand Railway houses References Citations Bibliography External links "Rail tourism" at NZHistory New Zealand Railways on Youtube at Youtube New Zealand Railways Magazine on NZETC New Zealand Railway Observer (Magazine) on NZRLS 1981 disestablishments in New Zealand Defunct transport organisations based in New Zealand Railways Department Locomotive manufacturers of New Zealand Rail transport in New Zealand Railway companies of New Zealand Rolling stock manufacturers of New Zealand Railway companies established in 1880 New Zealand companies established in 1880
4642635	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television%20licensing%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom	Television licensing in the United Kingdom	In the British Islands, any household watching or recording television transmissions at the same time they are being broadcast is required by law to hold a television licence. This applies regardless of transmission method, including terrestrial, satellite, cable, or for BBC iPlayer internet streaming. The television licence is the instrument used to raise revenue to fund the BBC; it is considered to be a form of hypothecated taxation. Businesses, hospitals, schools and a range of other organisations are also required by law to hold television licences to watch and record live TV broadcasts. The licence, originally a radio licence, was introduced in November 1923 by the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1923 and cost 10 shillings per annum. The licence was extended to televisions at a cost of £2 in June 1946. The radio part was abolished in February 1971. A television licence is also required to receive video on demand programme services provided by the BBC via its iPlayer service. Since April 2021, the annual cost has been £159.00 for a colour licence and £53.50 for a black and white licence. Income from the licence is primarily used to fund the television, radio and online services of the BBC. The total income from licence fees was £3.83 billion in 2017–18, of which £655.3 million or 17.1% was provided by the government through concessions for those over the age of 75 (this subsidy has now been phased out). Thus, the licence fee made up the bulk (75.7%) of the BBC's total income of £5.0627 billion in 2017–2018. In May 2016, the government's white paper announced that the licence fee would rise with inflation for the first five years of the Charter period, from 1 April 2017. Operation of the licensing system Licence fee collection and use The TV licence fee is collected by the BBC and primarily used to fund the radio, television and online services of the BBC itself. Licence fee collection is the responsibility of the BBC's Finance and Business division. Although the money is raised for its own use and collected by the BBC itself, the BBC does not directly use the collected fees. The money received is first paid into the government's Consolidated Fund. It is subsequently included in the 'vote' for the Department of Culture, Media and Sport in that year's Appropriation Act, and passed back to the BBC for the running of the BBC's own services (free from commercial advertisements). The money also finances programming for S4C and the BBC World Service, and included the running costs of BBC Monitoring at Caversham until it was relocated to London and the property sold in May 2018. Legal framework In 1991, the BBC assumed the role of TV Licensing Authority with responsibility for the collection and enforcement of the licence fee. The BBC is authorised by the Communications Act 2003 to collect and enforce the TV licence fee. Section 363 of the Act makes it against the law to install or use a television receiver to watch or record any television programmes as they are being broadcast without a TV Licence. Section 365 of the same Act requires the payment of the TV licence fee to the BBC. The licence fee is formally set by the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport by the use of statutory instruments. The relevant statutory instruments are the Communications (Television Licensing) Regulations 2004 and amendments since that time such as the Communications (Television Licensing) (Amendment) Regulations 2010. As well as prescribing the fees, the regulations also define "television receiver" for the purposes of the law. For people living in the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, TV licensing law is extended to their areas by Orders in Council made by agreement with their own governments. As part of its enforcement regime, the BBC is authorised to carry out surveillance using powers defined by the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 and the Regulation of Investigatory Powers (British Broadcasting Corporation) Order 2001. The BBC is permitted by the order to use surveillance equipment to detect unlicensed use of television receivers. As the public body responsible for issuing TV licences, licensing information held by the BBC and on the BBC's behalf by TV licensing contractors is subject to the Freedom of Information Act 2000. The BBC withholds some information on licence enforcement using exemptions under the Act; in particular, under section 31, which permits the withholding of information on crime prevention grounds and under section 43(2), which allows the BBC to retain information judged commercially sensitive. Reclassification as a tax In January 2006, the Office for National Statistics (ONS) changed the classification of the licence fee from a service charge to a tax. Explaining the change, the ONS said: "in line with the definition of a tax, the licence fee is a compulsory payment which is not paid solely for access to BBC services. A licence is required to receive ITV, Channel 4, Channel 5, satellite, or cable". A briefing paper from the House of Commons Library described the licence fee as a hypothecated tax (i.e. one raised for a particular defined purpose). TV Licensing Management Team The TV Licence Management Team, which is part of the Finance and Business division of the BBC, oversees the TV Licensing system. The TV Licence Management Team is based in the BBC buildings at White City Place in London. The majority of TV licensing administration and enforcement activities are carried out under contract by private companies. The TV Licence Management Team oversees the performance of the contractors. TV Licensing brand The BBC pursues its licence fee collection and enforcement under the trading name TV Licensing, but contracts much of the task to commercial organisations. TV Licensing is a trademark of the BBC used under licence by companies contracted by the BBC that administer the television licensing system. Concerning the relationship of the BBC brand with the TV Licensing brand, the BBC's position is stated as: "The TV Licensing brand is separate from the BBC brand. No link between the two brands should be made in customer facing communications, in particular, use of the BBC name and logo". However, it also states that the rules for internal communications and communications with suppliers are different: "the name BBC TV Licensing may also be used within department names or job titles for BBC employees". TV Licensing contractors and subcontractors Capita A major contractor is Capita. Capita is responsible for the administration and enforcement of the TV licence fee. It is expected that Capita will earn £1.10bn – £1.55bn from its contract with the BBC if it runs its maximum 15 years from July 2012. The services carried out by Capita on behalf of the BBC include dealing with TV licence queries, processing TV licence applications and payments and the maintenance of the licence database. Enforcement tasks include visiting addresses, identifying people watching TV without a licence, taking statements, and achieving prosecutions of TV licence evaders. TV Licensing debt collection is carried out by Akinika, which is a debt collection agency owned by Capita. Capita's TV Licensing headquarters is at India Mill, in Darwen, Lancashire. Capita employs a number of subcontractors for part of its TV Licensing operations – one important one being Computer Sciences Corporation which provides and modernises the required IT infrastructure. Since 2004, Capita has undertaken a proportion of TV licensing administration at locations outside of the UK and "has progressively increased the amount of work processed overseas each year". However, Capita has not set up any overseas call centres to carry out TV Licensing work and it would need the BBC's permission to do so in the future. Some of Capita's TV Licensing work is carried out in Mumbai, India but after reportage in Panorama about scammers from India, the Indian office of Capita was closed permanently. Proximity London Limited Marketing and printing services, including reminder letters and licence distribution, are carried out by Proximity London Limited. Havas Media Media services are contracted to Havas Media. Other contractors Other contractors involved in TV Licensing include PayPoint which provides over-the-counter services in the UK, and the post offices which provide the same services in the Isle of Man and Channel Islands. Also involved are: AMV BBDO which provides advertising services, and Fishburn Communications which carries out public relations. Duration of a TV licence A TV licence, once issued, is normally valid for a maximum of 12 months. The period of its validity depends on the exact day of the month it is purchased; this is because TV licences always expire at the end of a calendar month. If a licence were to be obtained in September 2014, for example, it would expire on 31 August 2015. Thus the period of validity would vary between 11 and 12 months depending how early in the month it was bought. If an existing licence is renewed on time, the new licence will last the full 12 months. The BBC sometimes issues 'short dated' licences in situations when a licence is renewed after the expiry date of the previous licence. The BBC does this as it assumes that TV was being watched in the interim period between expiry and renewal. Short dated licences are set to expire 12 months after the previous expiry date. If a UK resident aged 74 years wishes to purchase a TV licence, they can apply for a short-term TV licence to cover the time until they reach 75 when they become eligible for a free licence in the UK. Short-term licences for 74-year-olds are also available on the Isle of Man and Guernsey. If a TV licence is no longer needed for an address it is possible to cancel a licence and apply for a partial refund. The amount refunded will depend on the time left to the expiry date. Normally only full quarters (that is three consecutive calendar months) of unexpired licence period are refunded. The BBC may also revoke a licence under certain circumstances. Cost of a licence The level of the fee is decided following periodic negotiations between the UK Government and the BBC Trust. Before 1988, increases in the licence fee happened at irregular intervals, sometimes a few years passing between changes. From 1988 to 2010, the licence fee was increased annually each April. Between April 2010 and April 2017 the licence fee remained constant at £145.50 per year. As of 1 April 2021, it costs £159 for a colour licence and £53.50 for a black and white TV licence. Payment methods The BBC allows the following forms of payment of the licence fee: Direct debit. Payments may be made annually, quarterly or monthly. Debit or credit card. Annual payment. PayPoint. Annual payments may be made at PayPoint outlets (usually situated in shops) by cash or debit card. TV Licensing payment card. Holders of this card will have a payment plan showing when and how much they need to pay. Payments may be made weekly or monthly at PayPoint outlets. Payments may also be made online, by phone or by text message (with credit or debit card). TV Licensing savings card. This is a way for a licence fee holder to save for a subsequent licence. If enough money for the new licence is saved up, a new licence is sent automatically. Otherwise the balance has to be paid for. Cheque and postal orders. Annual payments may be made by post by these methods. BACS electronic transfer. Annual payments for renewal licences only. The payment methods mean that the licence fee is paid for either completely or partially in advance. Annual payments require complete payment in advance. For monthly direct debit, a new licence is paid off in 6 monthly instalments of just over £24 a month. Renewal licences are paid for in 12 monthly instalments starting 6 months before expiry of the licence in force i.e. starting 6 months before the renewal date. Quarterly payments made using direct debit carry an additional cost of £5.00 per year, or £1.25 a quarter, which is included in the licence fee total. This addition is described as "a small charge" in the generic letter issued by TV Licensing to those paying by direct debit, and on the TV Licensing website it is justified with: "By paying quarterly the majority of your licence is paid for as you use it. This differs from our other instalment schemes, where at least half of the licence fee is collected in advance. As a result, quarterly payments incur a small premium of £1.25 per quarter which is included in your payment." Typically, direct debit schemes in the UK for major utilities or publicly provided services operate in a reverse way, granting a discount to direct debit payers. In the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, over the counter services are provided by the Post Office rather than by PayPoint outlets. Concessions Over 75s Between November 2000 and April 2018, TV licences were provided to people over the age of 75, through full funding by central government. This concession covered the whole household, so that even if just one member of the household was over 75, then a free TV licence could be applied for to cover all the residents. Following a 2016 funding agreement between the Conservative government and the BBC, this funding was phased out between April 2018 and April 2020, after which time no further government funding was available for the scheme: Free TV licences based solely on age ended in August 2020 (previously planned to be June 2020 but extended as of the Coronavirus pandemic). It has been estimated that if full funding had been maintained, it would have contributed £745m to the BBC's 2020–21 budget. The BBC held a public consultation in November 2018 to decide whether the concession to the over-75s should continue after 2020 and, if so, in what form. The response to the BBC's questionnaire, 48% were in favour of retaining the existing concessionary system, 37% preferred reforming the concession and 17% preferred the option of abolition of the concession. The BBC discontinued the full concession, but continued to offer free licences on a means-tested basis; from August 2020, most over 75s were required to pay the full licence fee, but households where one person receives a pension credit benefit will continue to be eligible for a free licence. Crown dependencies On the Isle of Man, a free TV licence scheme was funded by the Isle of Man Department of Social Care. The BBC maintained the free licence scheme for all over 75s until 31 December 2020. From 1 January 2021, this was replaced by a scheme whereby the BBC funds free TV licences for the 500 over 75s in receipt of Income Support, and the Isle of Man Government is funding free TV licences for 2021 for the remaining 4,500 at a cost of around £800,000. There are schemes for elderly residents of the Channel Islands, but they vary in detail and eligibility. Residents of Guernsey and Alderney who are over 75 and are in receipt of Income Support are entitled to a free television licence funded by the BBC, whereas those under 75 but over pensionable age have a free licence funded by the States of Guernsey. Residents of Sark who are over the age of 75 are entitled to a free TV licence if they are receiving financial support from the Procureur des Pauvres. On the island of Jersey, concessionary licences continue to be available on a means-tested basis under the Social Security (Television Licence Benefit) (Jersey) Regulations 2011, but are now funded by the BBC rather than the Government of Jersey. Blind or severely sight impaired concessions Licences are half price for the legally blind. To qualify for the concession, a blind or severely sight-impaired person must apply to the TV Licensing Blind Concession Group with proof of impairment, either a copy of the document of blind registration or a certificate from an ophthalmologist. The concessionary TV licence covers TV use by the whole household. Residential care homes Those aged over 60 and in residential care homes (including nursing homes, public-sector sheltered housing and almshouses) qualify for Accommodation for Residential Care (ARC) licences for £7.50 a year. Total licence sales TV licence sales figures were quoted by the BBC to be 25.562 million in the year 2014–15, including 4.502 million concessionary licences for the over 75s, which were paid for by the UK government. The equivalent figures for the year 2013–14 were 25.478 million total licences including 4.328 million licences for the over 75s. In 2014–15, the BBC estimated that there were 26.916 million licensable properties in the UK (defined as premises where live TV was being watched), indicating that if the BBC estimates are correct, around 95% of properties are correctly licensed. The total income generated from licence fees was £3.8302 billion in 2017–18. The vast majority of TV licences are for colour TV. For example, there were 10,461 black and white TV licences in force on 31 August 2014, compared to 25,460,801 colour TV licences. The BBC has also stated that during the financial year 2013–14, a total of 41,483 blind concessionary (half-price) licences were issued in the UK of which 29 were blind concessionary black and white licences. Channel Islands In January 2012, there were 36,261 colour licences in force in Jersey as compared to 77,480 addresses (residential properties, businesses and other premises) on the TV Licensing database for the island (at the end of December 2011). This would suggest around 53% of Jersey addresses did not have a TV licence at the beginning of 2012. The comparable figures for Guernsey are 23,673 licences in force in January 2012 and 40,263 addresses on the database at the end of December 2011. Thus there were around 41% unlicensed properties in Guernsey at the beginning of 2012. History When television broadcasts in the UK were resumed after a break due to the Second World War, it was decided to introduce a television licence fee to fund the service. When first introduced on 1 June 1946, the licence covering the monochrome-only single-channel BBC television service cost £2 (equivalent to £ as of ). The licence was originally issued by the General Post Office (GPO), which was then the regulator of public communications within the UK. The GPO also issued licences for home radio receivers powered by mains electricity as well as non removable vehicle mounted radios and was mandated by laws beginning with the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1904, to administer the licensing system; however, the TV licence also covered radio reception. The BBC started regular colour TV broadcasts in the summer of 1967. On 1 January 1968, a "colour supplement" of £5 was added to the existing £5 monochrome licence fee; the £10 colour fee was the equivalent of £ in . The licence fee increases with inflation; on 1 April 2019 it rose to £154.50 for colour TV and £52 for monochrome TV. The radio-only licence was abolished on 1 February 1971, when it was £1-5s-0d (£1.25 in decimal UK currency) or the equivalent of £ at prices. On 1 April 1991, the BBC took over the administration of television licensing in the UK, assuming the responsibility of licence fee collection and enforcement. Since this date, the BBC has been the statutory authority for issuing television licences (before April 1991, the statutory authority was the UK Home Office), although the UK Government retains certain powers and responsibilities with regards to TV licences. In July 2002, the BBC awarded Capita the contract to manage the TV Licensing system, replacing the Post Office (which had been renamed "Consignia" at this time). In January 2006 the Office of National Statistics classified the licence fee as a tax; previously it had been classified as a service charge. Licence fee expenditure The BBC Trust gives the following information for expenditure of licence fee income during the year 2009–10 of £3.56 billion (expressed here in percentage terms): 66% – All TV 17% – National and local radio 6% – Online e.g. BBC websites, iPlayer 11% – Other e.g. transmission and licence fee collection costs* Since April 2014, the BBC World Service on radio and BBC Arabic Television have been funded from the licence fee. Prior to this date they were funded by a grant from the government's Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The World Service cost the BBC £268 million in the 2017–18 financial year. The BBC also paid in 2017–18 contributions to: broadband rollout (£80 million); partial funding of the Welsh channel (£74.8 million), S4C (which is also funded by the Department of Culture, Media and Sport); and a contribution towards the costs of local TV (£4.7 million). BBC World News and the BBC's other international television channels are operated commercially and will continue to not receive licence fee money. The revenues they generate supplement the licence fee in financing British services. In addition, the BBC Alba Gaelic language television service is predominantly funded by MG Alba, an organisation funded by the Scottish Government. (*) During 2007–2008, the BBC stated that 3.6% of the licence fee was spent on collection. TV licence legal requirements When a licence is required According to section 363 of the Communications Act 2003, a TV licence must be obtained for any device that is "installed or used" for "receiving a television programme at the same time (or virtually the same time) as it is received by members of the public". According to TV Licensing, "You need a TV Licence to use any television receiving equipment such as a TV set, digital box, DVD or video recorder, PC, laptop or mobile phone to watch or record television programmes as they're being shown on TV". Portable televisions and similar equipment such as laptops and mobile phones powered by internal batteries are covered for use anywhere under a licence held for their owner's residence. On 1 September 2016 the conditions under which a television licence is required changed to include receiving video on demand programme services provided by the BBC, on the iPlayer catch-up service. This was made possible by The Communications (Television Licensing) (Amendment) Regulations 2016. However, there are a few exceptional cases when live TV may be watched without a licence. When a licence is not required It is not necessary to have a TV licence for the purpose of: Operating a digital box used with a hi-fi system or another device that can only be used to produce sounds Installing and using a television set solely as a closed-circuit TV monitor Using a TV to play pre-recorded DVDs or videos (although to record live programmes it is necessary to hold a licence) Using a TV as a digital radio receiver Using a digital box to listen to radio through a TV Using a TV as a monitor for a computer games console Watching catch up TV services when the programme is not live except when using the BBC's iPlayer service to receive BBC catch-up programmes Listening to BBC radio programmes over the internet via BBC Sounds A (free) licence is required for non-exempt premises even when no fee is payable, e.g. premises with residents over 75. A recorded programme watched on unlicensed equipment is outside the scope of the Communications (Television Licensing) Regulations 2004, because it is not "received at the same time (or virtually the same time) as it is received by members of the public," although such recordings may infringe copyright. TV Licensing offers the following advice to those who have a TV but 'who wish to make it clear that they do not need a licence': Remove the television from the aerial. Cover the aerial socket so that it can't be used. Ensure that when channels on the television are selected no television signal is received. However, TV Licensing also says that it is not compulsory to follow this advice. To listen to digital radio on a TV, for example, it would be necessary to attach the TV to an aerial and tune the TV to different channels. The BBC has made it clear that it is legal to listen to digital radio using a TV without holding a TV licence. According to Ofcom, TV transmissions over the Internet are a grey area which in future might make fees based on television possession redundant. In 2005, a Green Paper by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport included suggestions of "either a compulsory levy on all households or even on ownership of PCs as well as TVs". However, TV Licensing later stated that use of any device (including a computer or mobile phone) receiving transmissions at or about the same time as they appear on TV requires a licence. The BBC is aware that new technology represents a threat to its revenue. A 2012 BBC report stated "there is a continued threat to the growth in TV Licence sales from the increasing number of people consuming television in a way that does not need to be licensed". Televisions receiving a transmission from outside the British Islands (e.g. broadcast from Germany, Italy, Greece, Turkey and the Netherlands via the Astra satellite, on which many channels are free-to-air) did not need a licence until the Communications Act 2003, which required a TV licence for the reception of television from any source. In 2012, more than 400,000 households informed the BBC that they did not need a TV licence. According to the BBC, the average number of addresses in the UK with a No Licence Needed (NLN) status in the 2013 calendar year was 1,879,877. In June 2013, 5,043 NLN declarations were made to the BBC on the grounds that the address was only watching catch up TV. Exceptions to the TV licensing regime There are a few exceptions to the TV licensing regime where live TV may be watched without a TV licence being held for that property. These cases are: Crown immunity. According to the BBC: "neither the Communications Act 2003 nor the Communications (Television Licensing) Regulations 2004 bind the Crown. Thus, the Crown is not subject to the TV Licensing regime." Prison authorities can assert Crown immunity to allow prisoners to watch TV without a TV licence. In 2012, the BBC recognised that the UK Parliament is exempt from the TV licensing regime, and so the Parliamentary Estate stopped purchasing TV licences from this date. Events of national importance. The BBC can grant a dispensation for the temporary use of TV sets away from the licensed address in what it calls 'exceptional circumstances'. One example of this was the screening of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2012. There are well defined criteria for when this exception is valid. Foreign ships. According to the BBC: 'Foreign Ships will not need a licence' Number of licences required per address A licence is required to watch live TV transmissions anywhere, including residential and business premises. For residential premises, only one licence is required per household per address, regardless of the number of licensed devices or the number of members of the household. However, the licence itself is always held in the name of an individual. A rented property in multiple occupation by a joint tenancy agreement is considered by TV Licensing as one household and requires only one licence, but a rented property with multiple, separate tenancy agreements is not considered a single household and each tenant may require a separate licence. For example, a house in multiple occupation may have private bedrooms and shared communal areas: if five occupants share such a property with individual tenancy agreements then they may require up to five television licences if each private room contains a television receiver, while a similar property housing five occupants under a joint tenancy agreement may require only one television licence. Television use away from home Use of television in a static caravan is covered by the licence held for the user's main address, provided there is no simultaneous use of television at both places, and the use of television in a touring caravan is always covered by the user's main home licence. The use of a television set which is powered solely by its own internal batteries is covered for any address by the user's main home licence, but requires a separate licence if it is plugged into the mains or other external power source, such as a car battery; this also applies to TV-enabled mobile telephones. Students during term-time may not need a separate TV licence if one is held at their permanent home-address if they watch TV on a device powered solely by its own internal batteries. Specifically: The out-of-term address must be covered by a TV licence Any TV receiving equipment used must be powered solely by its own internal batteries The TV equipment must not be connected to an aerial or plugged into the mains. People living exclusively in a mobile dwelling such as a touring caravan or a constantly cruising canal boat, who do not have a static address, are not legally able to watch a television as they cannot purchase a licence without one. Licence fee enforcement TV licence evaders A person who watches or records live TV without being in possession of a TV licence is referred to by the BBC as a 'TV licence evader'. Each year the BBC estimates the evasion rate (expressed as a percentage of total 'licensable properties') and publishes the value in its Annual Report and Accounts. The basic formula for estimating the evasion rate is: where: : number of TV Licences in force : number of domestic households : penetration rate of TVs into households : non-domestic licences required The figure for the number of licences in force is taken from the BBC's database. The other variables used to calculate the evasion rates are estimates. The data for the number of domestic households is taken from the Department of Communities and Local Government figures. The Broadcasters' Audience Research Board survey is used to estimate the rate of penetration of TV sets into domestic households. Non-domestic licences include licences required for students, military accommodation, hotels and businesses. Various sources are used to estimate this figure. The most recent published figures for 2018–19 state that the evasion rate is between 6 and 7%. For the year 2005–6, TV Licensing reported that they "reduced estimated evasion to a record low of 4.7%". However, this figure rose during the following year to 5.1% and remained at 5.1% during 2007–8. For the year 2010–2011 the evasion rate is stated as 5.2%. According to the BBC "the published rate of evasion has increased marginally to 5.5% in 2012/13". The evasion rate is far from uniform across the UK, with Scotland having a far higher rate than the UK as a whole. One reason given by the BBC for evasion is lack of money in a household. For example, in the BBC Full Financial Statement 2012–13 the BBC says: 'as household budgets come under pressure, we are starting to see an increase in licence fee evasion rates over their prior year level'. However, this is not the only reason given for TV licence evasion, since according to a submission made by the BBC to the Information Commissioner's Office: 'the BBC said that it is also aware that a growing number of individuals deliberately evade the licence fee due to dissatisfaction with the BBC'. According to a National Audit Office report from 2002: "Areas with high evasion rates are most likely to have, for example, a higher than average proportion of younger people, low income households, and students and single parent families, and a level of County Court judgments 50 per cent above the national average". However, according to the BBC, 'evasion is spread across all socioeconomic groups'. The BBC has also claimed that the 'TV Licensing evader profile' could be characterised by the distribution by social grade of 1.3m properties that were not licensed on 31 March 2007. The profile was given as follows: AB 20.1%, C1 29.1%, C2 13.6%, D 18.9%, E 18.3%. The Broadcasters' Audience Research Board estimated that of June 2004, 2.3% of UK households do not have television, and in September 2008, the BBC reported that some one million people do not need a TV licence. Alleged excuses given by householders for not having a licence include loss of mail, being "too busy" and suffering from polymorphous light eruption (sun allergy). The results of market research carried out on self-identified evaders concluded that roughly half were 'opportunistic delayers' who were playing the system to avoid immediate payment and that the others were 'deliberate evaders' who were trying to 'cheat the system'. Nearly one fifth of respondents claimed never to have bought a TV licence. In compiling these figures however, no reference is made to the number of people who do not require a licence, and who have not voluntarily replied to invitations to declare this. Instead, it is assumed they are also counted as 'evaders', despite lack of any evidence of wrongdoing on their part. LASSY database Since it is not possible to prevent a person buying and using TV receiving equipment, the TV licence system is enforced by first identifying TV licence evaders and then attempting to sell them a licence and, in some cases, prosecuting them. The critical method of detecting TV licence evaders is through the use of a database system known as LASSY, which contains 29.5 million addresses. LASSY is an acronym of 'Licence Administration and Support System'. According to the National Audit Office: "The database holds records of potentially licensable properties and basic details (such as the name of the licence holder and the licence expiry date) of those for which valid licences are held". This database is routinely updated with licence holders' details. Until 25 June 2013, dealers in television receiving equipment were required by law to provide TV Licensing with identifying information about everyone who buys or rents such equipment. However this requirement has been lifted by the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013. TV Licensing maintains permanent contact with every address in the database that is recorded as not having a TV licence until a licence is purchased for that address or until TV Licensing confirm that the household does not need a licence. If it is confirmed that a household does not watch or record live TV, the address is put into the NLCC (No Licence Needed Claim Confirmed) category. Residential properties put into this category are not visited or contacted for a period of two years from the time that the claim was confirmed. Business properties on the other hand, are exempted from visits or mailings for three years after confirmation. TV Licensing letters and telephone calls TV Licensing may make initial contact by letter or by phone with occupants of addresses for which there is no current licence. During the financial year 2012–13, approximately 21.5 million letters were sent to unlicensed addresses. The average postage cost to post one standard TV Licensing letter in the financial year 2012–13 was stated to be £0.2059. The methods by which an occupant can reply are in writing, by telephone or by filling in an online form. If there is no reply to the first letter and a TV licence is not bought by the occupant, then TV Licensing continues to write regularly to the address and "the tone of the letters progressively becomes stronger to encourage a reply". For example, one of its standard letters includes the phrase: "Official warning: We have opened an investigation". This warning was included in 940,615 letters sent in January/February 2013. Another standard letter states: 'Dear Sir/Madam, you have not responded to our previous letters. We want to ensure you have the information you may need before a hearing is set at your local court.' More than 3 million letters containing this phrase were sent in 2011. Three basic tones of voice are used in TV Licensing letters: "Customer Service", "Collections" and "Enforcement". According to the BBC: "Customer service is the brand experience we create for customers who are currently licensed, unknowingly unlicensed or who don't need a licence", whereas "Collections is the brand experience we create for those customers whose TV licence has expired and whom TV Licensing wants to motivate to renew." Finally, the enforcement tone is used for households who have been unlicensed for a longer period. This period is not specified in freely available documents but TV Licensing suggests it could be used, for example, for the third and fourth renewal reminder. Each of these 'tones' involves letters with a different colour palette. For example, green is used in 'Customer Service' letters and red may be used in 'Collections' and 'Enforcement' letters. In all cases, the vocabulary and format used in the letters is strictly defined. If a business or household is not obliged to have a TV licence then TV Licensing will request written confirmation of this, even though no such information is required to be given in law. According to the BBC, it is not possible to opt out of receiving TVL mailings since they 'are not advertising or marketing material'. Similarly, householders who do not have a licence cannot exclude themselves from unsolicited calls from TV Licensing by registering with the Telephone Preference Service. In 2014, a householder invoiced TV Licensing £40 as a 'processing fee' for 'opening, reading and filing' a TV Licensing letter. Because TV Licensing did not pay the charge, the householder took the claim to the County Court, eventually winning the case and receiving the fee plus other costs incurred. Enquiry officer visits If a colour TV licence is not purchased for an address, TV Licensing agents—known as "visiting officers", "enquiry officers" or "enforcement officers"—make unannounced visits to the address. In August 2013, there were reported to be 334 enquiry officers all employees of the BBC's main enforcement contractor, Capita. Enquiry officers make around four million visits a year to households in the UK and Crown dependencies. Each week an enquiry officer may upload a number of unlicensed addresses onto their "handheld device". The enquiry officer is only allowed to visit the addresses on this list, which are normally within a thirty-minute travelling distance from their home postcode. Enquiry officers do not visit addresses in their own postcode, however. Although TV Licensing enforces the BBC's statutory obligation to ensure that every address where a television licence is required is correctly licensed, its agents have no special right of access and, like any other member of the public, rely on an implied right of access to reach the front door. A householder may withdraw the implied right of access to TV Licensing personnel by contacting the BBC and informing them that this right has been revoked; the BBC says they respect such requests (although could still seek a warrant to search the property), except in Scotland. As of March 2014, 7299 households had withdrawn the implied right of access. This figure had increased to over 20,000 by December 2015. Upon visiting a property, enquiry officers ask a set of predetermined questions to whoever answers the door when they visit." They first try to find out if the person who responds to the enquiry officer is an "appropriate person" to interview (i.e. an adult who lives at the property). They then try to find out if that person has been receiving TV without a licence. If they suspect that this is the case, they issue an unofficial caution to the person that whatever they say may be used against them in court. They then take a prosecution statement and ask the interviewee to sign it. The enquiry officer may ask permission to enter the property and may examine any TV receiving equipment found there. According to the visiting procedures: 'circumstantial evidence of use should be noted on the Record of Interview whenever visible (e.g. sky dish, aerial lead plugged into TV, remote control on settee) as this provides supporting evidence for potential prosecution and may be vital if the confession should later be challenged.'. However, the occupant is well within his/her rights to deny answering any questions (remain silent) and is under no obligation to allow entry into the property. If an agent has evidence that television is being watched or recorded illegally but is denied entry by the occupants so that they cannot verify the suspicion, then TV Licensing may apply to a magistrate for a search warrant. The BBC states that a search warrant would never be applied for solely on the basis of non-cooperation with TV Licensing and that in the event of being denied access to unlicensed property will use detection equipment rather than a search warrant. Detection technology TV detector vans TV detector vans have in the past featured heavily in TV Licensing publicity, highlighting that technology capable of detecting signals from operating TV sets could be employed. Detector vans date from the 1950s, when the Post Office converted Hillman Minx and Morris Oxford estate cars, which had large aerials attached to their roofs. Subsequently Commers were introduced. In the 1980s, vans were supplied by Dodge and Leyland. In the 1990s, Ford Transits were introduced. In 2003, TVL launched its tenth generation of detector vans. It was stated that these vans had removable branding so that they could operate covertly. Few technical details of the detectors used have been released. In a press release from 2003, the BBC stated that: "the new vans are so powerful they can tell if a TV is in use in as little as 20 seconds". It was also stated that the equipment has a range of up to and "can pinpoint the actual room that the television set is in". However, on TV Licensing's own site in 2015, no information on range or accuracy of the equipment is given. It instead says that there are "a range of detection tools at our disposal in our vans". It is also stated that the available equipment has been developed in secrecy and that "engineers working on specific detection methods work in isolation – so not even they know how the other detection methods work." Although no technical details of the TV detectors used in these vans have been made public, it is thought that they operate by detecting electromagnetic radiation given off by a TV. The most common suggested method is the detection of a signal from the TV's local oscillator. It has been suggested in the media that TV detector vans do not actually exist. A 2013 article in the Radio Times reported that a leaked BBC document on the collection of the licence fee "makes no mention of detector vans – but it does contain plenty of other facts and figures". Hand-held detectors Hand-held TV detectors have also been developed by the BBC. In the Birmingham Mail for the same year, the detectors were described as 'little bigger than a torch', weighing 280g (10 oz), which made a beeping noise when they detect a TV. The company Buckman Hardy Associates has made such equipment for the BBC in the past but the equipment shown in the publicity campaigns run in 2007 was all made by the BBC itself. Optical detectors In 2013, it was revealed that the BBC had used optical TV detectors to apply for a search warrant. Although few technical details were given, it was stated in an application for a search warrant that: "the optical detector in the detector van uses a large lens to collect that light and focus it on to an especially sensitive device, which converts fluctuating light signals into electrical signals, which can be electronically analysed. If a receiver is being used to watch broadcast programmes then a positive reading is returned." The BBC stated that this was strong evidence that a set was "receiving a possible broadcast". Legal use of detection technology The BBC states that such technology used in conjunction with targeted advertising acts as a deterrent: its use may make it easier for TV Licensing agents to establish that an offence is likely to be taking place but they would still need to secure further evidence for successful prosecution. Furthermore, such technology is restricted in its use by the meaning of "surveillance and covert human intelligence sources" in the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 and the Regulation of Investigatory Powers (British Broadcasting Corporation) Order 2001. Like other public bodies that undertake covert surveillance, the BBC is subject to the scrutiny of the Office of Surveillance Commissioners, which inspects the BBC every other year. A number of official inspection reports on the BBC's detection methods have been made available following freedom of information requests These reports give an outline of the process of authorisation of the use of detection equipment. Briefly, applications for authorisation are made in the name of the Detection Manager of Capita. Correspondence between TV Licensing and the affected householder may be attached to the completed application forms which pass via a quality control 'gatekeeper' to the authorising officers (AOs) at the BBC. In 2012 there were two designated AOs at the BBC. To be authorised, an application must be shown to be 'necessary and proportionate'. AOs sometimes reject applications. Once approved, the authorisation lasts for a duration of eight weeks. TV Licensing states "detection equipment will only be used if other less intrusive and more cost effective routes have been exhausted", and the BBC has stated that "Detection technology is generally used to obtain search warrants". In a reply to a FOI request in 2011, the BBC stated "I can confirm that TVL has not, to date, used detection evidence in Court". The BBC also wrote that such evidence "is unnecessary" because "TVL uses detection evidence when applying for search warrants. If, following service of the warrant an individual is found to be evading payment of the TV Licence, then the evidence obtained via the search warrant is used in court, not the detection evidence. Search warrants In some cases, TV Licensing may apply to a magistrate (or a sheriff in Scotland) for a search warrant as part of the enforcement process. According to TV Licensing such an application may only be made 'when there is good reason to believe that an offence has been committed, evidence of the commission of that offence is likely to be found, and conditions regarding access to the property warrant the granting of a search warrant'. The same source also states that 'The BBC contracts Capita Business Services Ltd to carry out television licensing enforcement activities, including applying for and executing search warrants.' The BBC's contractor uses powers granted by Section 366 of the Communications Act 2003 to apply for and exercise search warrants. The Act specifies that the search warrant is valid for a month after being granted. According to the BBC, such warrants are usually executed in the presence of police officers. The TV Licensing Visiting Procedures state: 'To minimise the impact on normal operations Enforcement Managers accompanied by an EO should in normal circumstances execute search warrants. On no account must the warrant be executed without two officers being present. Normally the two officers must be accompanied by a Police Officer'. The warrant provides an authorisation to search a premises, and to examine and test any television receiver found. However, there is no power to seize any apparatus. According to the BBC Search Warrant Policy "force must not be used by TV Licensing to gain entry to a property". Data on the number of search warrants executed per year in the whole of the UK are not collated or held centrally by the various judicial bodies of the state. However, the BBC, itself, holds the information some of which has become available due to FOI requests. For example, in the financial year 2014–15, TV Licensing applied for 256 warrants to serve in the UK. 167 warrants were granted by the courts of which 115 were executed. In the same year in Scotland no warrants were applied for or served whilst in Northern Ireland 12 warrants were granted and 7 executed in the year. Some idea of the frequency at which warrants are used may also be taken from the result of a recent FOI request. It was revealed that Sheffield Magistrates granted TV Licensing a total of six search warrants in the years 2011, 2012 and 2013, whilst in Northampton (including Wellingborough and Kettering) only two were granted in this period. Information provided by the Scottish Court Service suggests that TV Licensing search warrant applications in Scotland are virtually non-existent. In their response to a FOI request the Scottish Court Service confirmed that no search warrant applications were made to courts in Scotland's two largest cities, Glasgow and Edinburgh, in the three-and-a-half years between 1 January 2011 and 21 July 2014. Prosecution and fiscal fines In 2014, 204,018 people were prosecuted or fined for TV licence offences: 185,580 in England and Wales (173,044 in England and 12,536 in Wales), 4,905 people in Northern Ireland and 15 in the Isle of Man. In Scotland, there were 13,486 cases disposed of via an out of court fine and 32 prosecuted via the courts in 2013–2014. There have been no prosecutions for TV licence offences in Jersey since 2009, all cases having been resolved at Parish Hall Enquiry. Putting these numbers in perspective, it would appear there are more prosecutions and convictions per capita in Wales than in any other country in the UK. Around 70% of TV licence evaders are female. This 30%-70% male/female ratio is pretty much constant across the whole of the UK and is at odds with statistics for other small crimes . This gender imbalance has not always been the case. In 1980, there were roughly similar numbers of men and women proceeded against for TV licence evasion. Since then the proportion of female to male defendants has risen steadily. In 2014, 24,025 prosecutions that were commenced by the BBC did not result in conviction (over one-in-ten cases in England and Wales). Licence evaders are liable for prosecution and a fine of up to £1,000 in the UK. However, because the licensing regime covers six different jurisdictions, the legal processes and penalties for the crime of TV licence evasion differ markedly across the British Islands. The average fine is £170 in England and Wales, £70 in Jersey, £80 in Northern Ireland, £75 in Scotland (out-of-court disposal) and £200 in the Isle of Man. TV licence evasion is not punishable by a period of imprisonment per se, but if convicted evaders refuse to pay the fine they were ordered to pay, or are incapable of paying it, a period of imprisonment may be imposed as a "last resort". The length of stay is decided by the amount owed. In England and Wales, 5 people were given an average of 19 days in 2018 (compared to 20 days in 2014, 32 in 2013 and 51 in 2012). There were no custodial sentences imposed during the five-year period 2009–10 to 2013–14 in Scotland or in Jersey. The British Government proposed decriminalising licence evasion, but the proposition was turned down by a House of Lords vote by 178 to 175 in February 2015. Behavioural research conducted for the BBC predicted that if TV licence evasion was decriminalised and the £1,000 maximum fine was replaced by a civil penalty of over £300, evasion rates would increase. The same report recommended to the DCMS that the current system should remain while Baroness Morgan admitted decriminalisation "would have an impact on BBC funding." England and Wales In England and Wales, prosecutions are the responsibility of the BBC and are carried out by its contractor, Capita, in magistrates' courts In England and Wales TV Licensing has a maximum of 26 weeks to lay information to court after receiving information regarding unlicensed use of a TV from its enquiry officers. During this period, and a maximum of 24 hours before a decision to prosecute a householder is taken, TV Licensing will check if a licence has been purchased. The decision to prosecute usually takes place 12–14 weeks from receiving the enquiry officer's report. TV Licensing serves documents on defendants four to six weeks prior to a court hearing. A final check to see if a TV licence has been purchased is made a maximum of two days before the hearing. Licence fee evasion makes up around one-tenth of all cases prosecuted in magistrates' courts and 0.3% of court time. Proceedings for TV Licence evasion form a high percentage of all prosecutions carried out against women – over a third of all cases against women in England and Wales in 2013 were for this offence. By comparison, TV licence evasion made up around 5% of prosecutions against men in 2013 in England and Wales. The maximum fine for this offence of up to £1,000 is frequently publicised by TV Licensing to maximise deterrence. In reality, magistrates rarely impose the maximum fines allowed to them by law. For example, during the year 2005–6, the average fine including costs was approximately £153 (slightly more than the cost of a licence). According to a 2013 TV Licensing briefing document, the level of fines and costs imposed by magistrates' courts vary considerably between different regions of England and Wales. In North Wales average fines and costs were stated to be £108.90 whilst offenders in the English Midlands area of "Black Country, Staffordshire & West Mercia" were required to pay £197.70. Magistrates take into account the financial situation of the defendant when imposing fines. They also take into account: whether it is a first offence; if a TV licence has been purchased and the length of time a defendant was unlicensed. The following are regarded as 'factors indicating lower culpability' which can result in mitigation of the sentence: Accidental oversight or belief licence held Confusion of responsibility Licence immediately obtained A guilty plea may also result in a lower fine. According to TV Licensing: "many evaders claim that an enquiry officer told them they would not be prosecuted if they bought a licence". However, it is also pointed out that "it is a disciplinary offence for an enquiry officer to say or suggest this". Nevertheless, the same TV Licensing briefing does say that: "first-time evaders may escape prosecution if they purchase a licence immediately". The UK government has stated that: "Most TV licensing cases that are heard by magistrates courts are uncontested and the case is therefore often resolved in the defendant's absence." The Magistrates' Association has been calling for the decriminalisation of TV licence evasion for nearly twenty years, concerned that evaders are punished disproportionately. The Adam Smith Institute has published a report calling for the BBC to give up the licence fee. One of the reasons given is the licence fee criminalises poor people, in particular women with children living on welfare. The report claims that such people could be liable to be re-prosecuted almost immediately unless they dispose of their TVs. In fact, a National Audit Office report from 2002 stated that "significant numbers of offenders do not buy a licence following conviction". TV Licensing is managed as a sales operation and its officers are motivated by commission payments. In 2005, a TV Licensing officer was found guilty of false accounting and perverting the course of justice after he deliberately forged the confessions of four people to obtain commission payments. In April 2012 an Essex man convicted of TV licence evasion had his conviction overturned when TV Licensing were unable to confirm the validity of video evidence they presented in the original trial. According to TV Licensing, 30% of those prosecuted for TV Licence evasion in 2012 were found to have satellite or cable subscriptions. In 2018, there were a total of 129,446 cases in England and Wales where TV Licence evasion was the principal offence. Of these, 121,203 people were convicted. Although those found guilty of TV licence evasion cannot be sent to prison for that offence, if they default on their fine, they can be imprisoned. For example, in 2018, 5 people were imprisoned in England and Wales for defaulting on fines imposed for TV licence evasion. Northern Ireland In Northern Ireland, prosecutions are the responsibility of the BBC and are carried out by its contractor, Capita, in magistrates' courts. The prosecution process is very similar to that of England and Wales. In 2008, 5,272 people in Northern Ireland were prosecuted for non-payment of the television licence fee of which 4,118 were fined. The corresponding figures for 2007 were 5,901 people prosecuted and 4,464 fines imposed. Scotland In Scotland, the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Office undertakes prosecutions for TV licence evasion. Very few cases in Scotland come to court. Instead of prosecution, in Scotland, TV licence fee evaders are usually asked by the Procurator Fiscal to pay a fiscal fine and a small number are simply given a warning. For example, in 2013–2014, just ten cases reached the courts whereas 12,969 people were asked to pay a fiscal fine, no action was taken in 275 cases, and 174 people were sent a warning. In addition, two people were asked to pay compensation and one person was offered the chance to pay a combination of fiscal fine and compensation. In 2013–14, almost all of the fiscal fines (12,603 out of 12,969) were at the level 2 rate of £75. In 2014–15, 13% of all fiscal fines in Scotland were issued for Communications Act offences, stated to be mainly TV licensing offences. The total number of fiscal fines imposed for these offences was 4,874. In 2015–16, 7,962 fiscal fines were issued for Communications Act offences, of which 72% were issued to women. In 2016–17, there were a total of 4,799 fiscal fines imposed for Communications Act offences. In the years 2016–17 and 2017–18, prosecutions against suspected licence fee evaders were reduced to single figures. In 2016–17, 5 people were prosecuted of which 4 were found guilty. In the following year there were 6 prosecutions resulting in 5 guilty verdicts. Isle of Man On the Isle of Man, prosecutions are prepared by Capita on behalf of the BBC although they use Manx qualified lawyers in the Magistrates' Court. The maximum fine is £1,000. In a submission to Tynwald (the Isle of Man Government) regarding prosecution for non-payment of the BBC licence fee in the Crown dependencies, the BBC stated 59 cases were laid to court in the Isle of Man between 2007 and 2009 although "these figures include cases where no further action may have been taken (e.g. because a writ was not served or the case was withdrawn)". In its response to the UK Government's TV Licence Fee Enforcement Review, published in 2015, the Isle of Man Government 'agreed that it is supportive of the decriminalisation of non-payment of the TV licence fee'. Guernsey The maximum fine for licence fee evasion in Guernsey is £2,000. Initial investigations into licence fee evasion are carried out by Capita employees as in the UK. However, prosecutions are carried out by police and law officers. According to the States of Guernsey: "it appears the TV Licensing Inspectors visit the island once every three to four years, therefore offences are usually reported to us following these visits." In June 2013, Capita's television licensing enforcement officers visited Guernsey where according to the BBC, they found "130 people illegally watching TV without a licence". The Guernsey Police Annual Report 2014 states that no offences of "television receiver without a licence – install/use" were recorded in 2014 as opposed to two such cases in 2013. Jersey According to the States of Jersey government: "Enforcement in Jersey is initiated by the TV Licensing function of the BBC which passes information onto the Jersey Police who then conduct their own investigation. A fine for a TV licensing offence can only be levied following successful prosecution at the Magistrate's Court: the Centenier does not have the power to summarily levy a fine for a TV licensing offence at a Parish Hall Enquiry." The maximum fines for this offence in Jersey is £500. Prosecutions are carried out by the Centenier. According to the BBC: "in the case of Jersey we can say that between 2007 and 2009 41 cases were laid to court". In a response to a freedom of information request, the States of Jersey Police stated: "in 2014 there were fourteen prosecutions for having 'no TV licence'. All received cautions at the Parish Hall. Of the 14, eight were male and six were female. There were no prosecutions in 2015." There were no prosections in 2016. Enforcement overview Opinions on the licence fee Opinion polls In 2004, the BBC reported that "Almost 70% of people in the UK want changes to the way the BBC is funded", following an ICM poll for their current affairs programme Panorama, which showed that 31% were in favour of the existing licence fee system, 36% said the BBC should be paid for by a subscription and 31% wanted advertising to pay for the programmes. In August 2008, the Guardian newspaper reported that "The BBC is facing an uphill battle to maintain support for the licence fee", stating that according to an Ipsos MORI poll the newspaper had commissioned, 41% agreed and 37% disagreed that the licence fee is an "appropriate funding mechanism". When asked whether the licence fee is "good value for money", however, 47% disagreed, with more than half of them disagreeing strongly. The poll also showed that there is no longer a majority believing that the licence fee assured them of distinctive programming not available elsewhere — which, the newspaper said, had long been one of the arguments for its existence: 41% of the population disagreed with only 30% agreeing. The poll also showed that opinion was split by a growing north–south and socio-economic divide. In September 2009, the Guardian reported an ICM poll showing an increase in support for the licence fee to 43%; "The fee is backed by 43%, against 24% who think advertising should foot the bill and 30% who think people should pay to subscribe if they want to see BBC programmes. In 2004, only 31% backed the licence fee, 12 points lower than today.". In 2013, according to an ICM poll for the Sunday Telegraph, 70% stated that the BBC licence fee should be abolished or cut. 49% of those polled believed the fee should be scrapped altogether. In December 2019, a Savanta ComRes poll indicated that 2 out of 3 want the BBC licence fee abolished or reformed. A few days later, a Public First poll conducted for BBC Radio 4's Today Programme found that 74% of respondents want the licence fee abolished. In February 2020, a ComRes poll for the Sunday Express found that 61% of respondents want the BBC Licence Fee abolished. The same survey showed that 63% of people polled felt the BBC is an "important part of British culture" and the BBC questioned whether the results were skewed by not explaining what cuts would ensue. In March 2020, Press Gazette magazine ran a poll showing that 53% of its readers backed the compulsory licence fee model, while 47% were in favour of scrapping it. In August 2020, The Daily Express ran a poll showing that 97% of its readers backed scrapping the TV licence. Views of official bodies and policy institutes Previous inquiries, such as the parliamentary Peacock Committee in 1986 and the internal Davies committee in 2000, recommended continuing the licence fee, with conditions. In 2001, an Ofcom report found that the vast majority of those it interviewed, including owners of digital television equipment, supported the principle of a licence fee to fund public service television and radio. The advantages of such funding listed by those interviewed included diversity, high quality, education, innovation, entertainment, information, original productions, pluralism, accessibility, inclusion of minorities and free access. Another reason given in a response to Ofcom by the National Union of Journalists was that the licence fee allows the BBC to "retain independence" from both commercial and political pressures. Nonetheless, having surveyed public opinion during December 2003, a finding of the Department for Culture, Media and Sport was that "the way the licence fee is set and collected raised issues about fairness". Further criticisms, embodied in a 2005 Green Paper, included cost, value for money, whether or not the BBC should be publicly funded, the high cost of collection and enforcement and the methods used. Meanwhile, in 2004, the Institute for Public Policy Research criticised the TV licence fee for its regressive impact, pointing out that it represents a much higher proportion of income for poor households, that evaders are most likely to be single parents, lone tenants, pensioners and the economically inactive and that the difficulties they have in paying the licence fee are compounded by the penalties enforced for non-payment. Other technologies for receiving visual media, such as mobile phones and computers connected to the Internet, has led to questions over whether or not a licence fee based on television receiver ownership can continue to be justified when a television receiver is no longer the sole medium over which the BBC distributes its content; and these technological changes led the Department for Culture, Media and Sport to state in 2005 that the collection of a fixed charge based on television ownership may become difficult to sustain. In 2006, the House of Lords select committee on BBC Charter Review criticised the reclassification of the licence fee as a tax, pointing out that the BBC was in consequence reclassified as a central government body, with "significant implications for the BBC's independence". In a debate in the UK Parliament in October 2013, the licence fee was referred to as 'a flat-rate poll tax' and as 'probably the UK's most regressive tax' Some critics claim that the licensing system interferes with the freedom to receive information and contend that this is a contravention of Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights (the right to freedom of expression). In a case dealing with the German radio licence, the ECHR in Application No. 26907/95 stated "Such an undertaking cannot be successfully accomplished unless it is grounded in the principle of pluralism, of which the State is the ultimate guarantor." and "The interference complained of was, therefore, necessary in a democratic society. There is, accordingly, no appearance of a violation of the applicant's right under Article 10 (Art. 10)." Media views The television licence fee system has been variously criticised, commented upon and defended by the press. In 2010, the journalist Charles Moore was fined by a magistrates' court for watching TV without a licence. Moore had refused to pay in protest at the BBC's unwillingness to dismiss Jonathan Ross in the wake of his involvement in The Russell Brand Show prank telephone calls. Later, Moore was to describe the BBC licence fee as "the most regressive and most ruthlessly collected of all government imposts". In 2014, Nick Ross, a BBC presenter, stated that the licence fee was unfair and should be abolished. Gender disparity A review by the TV Licensing Agency published in 2017 considered the gender disparity in TV Licence prosecutions. 72% of prosecutions for TV licence evasion in 2017 were against women. TV licence evasion is the most common offence for which women are prosecuted in the UK. Although the review found that "There is no evidence of any discriminatory enforcement practices on the part of TV Licensing" commentators have highlighted the ongoing factors of poverty, debt and working in the home which combine to make it more likely that women will be charged with this crime than men. Women in the UK are nearly ten times more likely to be convicted than men and this leads to suggestions that the BBC may be guilty of "indirect gender discrimination". In 2020, in the light of a threatened judicial review the BBC agreed to follow up on the 2017 report and consider the structural sex discrimination which might exist in the scheme leading to this skewed level of prosecutions. Websites and blogs There are a number of websites that campaign against the TV licence. The BBC monitors the Internet for references to TV Licensing. According to the BBC "searches are carried out for the purpose of identifying external information relating to TV Licensing such that, where appropriate, we can respond and assist licence fee payers or correct inaccurate information as well as flag up customer complaints." Part of this monitoring 'flags up' critical comments about TV Licensing. An internal briefing note released by the BBC in response to a freedom of information request names the TV Licensing Blog as TV Licensing's "most prevalent activist" who has "built a significant following both for his blog and for his @TVLicensingblog Twitter feed (over 900 followers)". The BBC also monitors YouTube videos of enquiry officers and YouTube videos critical of TV Licensing as well as social media such as Facebook and Twitter. In June 2020, a campaign called "Defund the BBC" was founded by James Yucel, a student at Glasgow University, supported by political commentator and activist Darren Grimes. The group was featured on Dan Wootton's Talkradio show and currently has over 100,000 Twitter followers. Opinions on collection and enforcement methods In September 2008, the BBC's governing body, the BBC Trust, launched a review of TV Licensing's methods, following complaints about "heavy-handed" and "intimidating" tactics and during December 2008, it was reported by the press that the chairman of the all-party Commons Culture, Media and Sport committee had accused TV Licensing of behaving "like the Gestapo", employing "tactics that are outrageous", saying: "The tactics used by TV Licensing in their letters are intimidatory and cause genuine distress. Their records are not always correct, but they write letters that assume members of the public are criminals". In 2008, the former BBC television star, Noel Edmonds, stated that he had stopped paying his TV licence in a protest at the tone of BBC adverts aimed at TV licence evaders. Isle of Man The licensing system remains controversial in the Isle of Man due to the fact that the licence fee remains the same as in the UK and Channel Islands, even though the BBC provides neither a local television news service for the Isle of Man (similar to BBC Channel Islands) nor any BBC local radio or national radio opt-out station. The BBC has sought to redress the lack of coverage by improving its online news service for the Isle of Man, with permanent BBC staff based at the Manx Radio studios in Douglas. A select committee of Tynwald was established in 2009 to investigate the value for money of the licensing system for the Isle of Man, and the feasibility of the Isle of Man withdrawing from it. Future of the licence fee The current Royal Charter for the BBC expires on 31 December 2027 and the TV licence fee itself was fixed at £145.50 until March 2017. After this time, the fee increased in line with inflation for five years until 2022; the price was raised to £147. The government stated that "while the current licence fee collection system is in operation, the current system of criminal deterrence and prosecution should be maintained". In June 2019, it was announced that free TV licences for all over-75s that were supposed to be funded by the BBC as part of the 2017 agreement, would be abolished in June 2020. The TV Licensing website states that "From 1 June 2020, there will be a new scheme. Under the new scheme, anyone aged 75 or over who receives Pension Credit will still be eligible for a free TV Licence which the BBC will pay for. Households where there is no one aged 75 or over that receives Pension Credit will need to buy a licence if one is needed." This was delayed to 1 August 2020, in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic. During the 2019 general election campaign, then Prime Minister Boris Johnson said the government would consider decriminalising non-payment of the television licence, a move which the BBC warned could cost it £200 million a year. In January 2022, the then Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Nadine Dorries announced plans to terminate the licence after the current charter expires. Notes The Communications (Television Licensing) Regulations 2004 gives the following definition: "Television receiver" means any apparatus installed or used for the purpose of receiving (whether by means of wireless telegraphy or otherwise) any television programme service, whether or not it is installed or used for any other purpose. Any reference to receiving a television programme service includes a reference to receiving by any means any programme included in that service, where that programme is received at the same time (or virtually the same time) as it is received by members of the public by virtue of its being broadcast or distributed as part of that service. References External links TV licence cancellation TV Licensing (United Kingdom) Enforcement information released by the BBC after FOI request The BBC Licence Fee Bid – report for the BBC Board of Governors, April 2006 1946 in British television BBC Law of the United Kingdom Licensing Taxation in the United Kingdom Telecommunications-related introductions in 1946 Television terminology
4643078	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict%20in%20the%20Niger%20Delta	Conflict in the Niger Delta	The current conflict in the Niger Delta first arose in the early 1990s over tensions between foreign oil corporations and a number of the Niger Delta's minority ethnic groups who feel they are being exploited, particularly the Ogoni and the Ijaw. Ethnic and political unrest continued throughout the 1990s despite the return to democracy and the election of the Obasanjo government in 1999. Struggle for oil wealth and environmental harm over its impacts has fueled violence between ethnic groups, causing the militarization of nearly the entire region by ethnic militia groups, Nigerian military and police forces, notably the Nigerian Mobile Police. The violence has contributed to Nigeria's ongoing energy supply crisis by discouraging foreign investment in new power generation plants in the region. From 2004 on, violence also hit the oil industry with piracy and kidnappings. In 2009, a presidential amnesty program accompanied with support and training of ex-militants proved to be a success. Thus until 2011, victims of crimes were fearful of seeking justice for crimes committed against them because of a failure to prosecute those responsible for human rights abuses. Background Nigeria, after nearly four decades of oil production, had by the early 1980s become almost completely economically dependent on petroleum extraction, which at the time generated 25% of its GDP. This portion has since risen to 60%, as of 2008. Despite the vast wealth created by petroleum, the benefits have been slow to trickle down to the majority of the population, who since the 1960s have increasingly been forced to abandon their traditional agricultural practices. Annual production of both cash and food crops dropped significantly in the later decades of the 20th century. Cocoa production dropped by 43% for example; Nigeria was the world's largest cocoa exporter in 1960. Rubber production dropped by 29%, cotton by 65%, and groundnuts by 64%. While many skilled, well-paid Nigerians have been employed by oil corporations, the majority of Nigerians and most especially the people of the Niger Delta states and the far north have become poorer since the 1960s. The Delta region has a steadily growing population estimated at more than 30 million people in 2005, and accounts for more than 23% of Nigeria's total population. The population density is also among the highest in the world, with 265 people per square kilometre, according to the Niger Delta Development Commission. This population is expanding at a rapid 3% per year and the oil capital, Port Harcourt, and other large towns are also growing quickly. Poverty and urbanization in Nigeria are growing, and official corruption is considered a fact of life. The resulting scenario is one in which urbanization does not bring accompanying economic growth to provide jobs. Some Nigerian scholars state that the Niger Delta conflict has roots in a long history of exploitation and dispossession of the region beginning during the British imperial era: first for slaves during the 17th and 18th century, later for palm oil during the 19th century, and finally for petroleum after Nigerian independence. Conflict has also resulted from artificial political borders drawn during British rule that resulted in nearly 300 ethnic groups being arbitrarily consolidated into a single nation-state. Ogoni crisis Ogoniland is a region in the southeast of the Niger Delta basin. Economically viable petroleum was discovered in Ogoniland in 1957, just one year after the discovery of Nigeria's first commercial petroleum deposit. Royal Dutch Shell and Chevron Corporation set up shop there throughout the next two decades. The Ogoni people, a minority ethnic group of about half a million people who call Ogoniland home, and other ethnic groups in the region attest that during this time, the government began forcing them to abandon their land to oil companies without consultation, offering negligible compensation. A 1979 constitutional amendment gave the federal government full ownership and rights to all Nigerian territory and also declared that eminent domain compensation for seized land would "be based on the value of the crops on the land at the time of its acquisition, not on the value of the land itself." The Nigerian government could now distribute the land to oil companies as it deemed fit, said the Human Rights Watch. The 1970s and 1980s saw government promised benefits for the Niger Delta peoples fall through and fail to materialize, with the Ogoni growing increasingly dissatisfied and their environmental, social, and economic apparatus rapidly deteriorating. The Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) was formed in 1992, spearheaded by Ogoni playwright and author Ken Saro-Wiwa, became the major organization representing the Ogoni people in their struggle for ethnic and environmental rights. Its primary targets, and at times adversaries, have been the Nigerian government and Royal Dutch Shell. Beginning in December 1992, the conflict between the Ogoni and the oil companies escalated to a level of greater seriousness and intensity on both sides. Both parties began carrying out acts of violence and MOSOP issued an ultimatum to the oil companies (Shell, Chevron, and the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation) demanding some $10 billion in accumulated royalties, damages and compensation, and "immediate stoppage of environmental degradation", as well as negotiations for mutual agreement on all future drilling. The Ogonis threatened mass action to disrupt oil company operations if they failed to comply with MOSOP demands, and thereby shifted the focus of their actions from the unresponsive federal government to the oil companies producing in the region. The rationale for this assignment of responsibility was the benefits accrued by the oil companies from extracting the natural wealth of the Ogoni homeland, and the central government's neglectful failure to act. The government responded by banning public gatherings and declaring disturbances to oil production acts of treason. Oil extraction from the territory slowed to a trickle of (.5% of the national total). Military repression escalated in May 1994. On May 21, soldiers and mobile policemen appeared in most Ogoni villages. On that day, four Ogoni chiefs (all on the conservative side of a schism within MOSOP over strategy) were brutally murdered. Saro-Wiwa, head of the opposing faction, had been denied entry to Ogoniland on the day of the murders, but he was detained in connection with the killings. The occupying forces, led by Major Paul Okuntimo of Rivers State Internal Security, claimed to be 'searching for those directly responsible for the killings of the four Ogonis.' However, witnesses say that they engaged in terror operations against the general Ogoni population. Amnesty International characterized the policy as deliberate terrorism. By mid-June, the security forces had razed 30 villages, detained 600 people and killed at least 40. This figure eventually rose to 2,000 civilian deaths and the displacement of around 100,000 internal refugees. In May 1994, nine activists from the movement who later became known as 'The Ogoni Nine', among them Ken Saro-Wiwa, were arrested and accused of incitement to murder following the deaths of four Ogoni elders. Saro-Wiwa and his comrades denied the charges, but were imprisoned for over a year before being found guilty and sentenced to death by a specially-convened tribunal, hand-selected by General Sani Abacha, on 10 November 1995. The activists were denied due process and upon being found guilty, were hanged by the Nigerian state. The executions met with an immediate international response. The trial was widely criticised by human rights organisations and the governments of other states, who condemned the Nigerian government's long history of detaining its critics, mainly pro-democracy and other political activists. The Commonwealth of Nations, which had pleaded for clemency, suspended Nigeria's membership in response to the executions. The United States, the United Kingdom, and the EU all implemented sanctions—but not on petroleum, Nigeria's primary export. Shell claimed to have asked the Nigerian government to show clemency towards those found guilty, but said its request was refused. However, a 2001 Greenpeace report found that "two witnesses that accused them [Saro-Wiwa and the other activists] later admitted that Shell and the military had bribed them with promises of money and jobs at Shell. Shell admitted having given money to the Nigerian military, who brutally tried to silence the voices which claimed justice". As of 2006, the situation in Ogoniland has eased significantly, assisted by the transition to democratic rule in 1999. However, no attempts have been made by the government or any international body to bring about justice by investigating and prosecuting those involved in the violence and property destruction that have occurred in Ogoniland, although individual plaintiffs have brought a class action lawsuit against Shell in the US. Ijaw unrest (1998–1999) The December 1998, All Ijaw Youths Conference crystallized the Ijaws' struggle for petroleum resource control with the formation of the Ijaw Youth Council (IYC) and the issuing of the Kaiama Declaration. In it, long-held Ijaw concerns about the loss of control over their homeland and their own lives to the oil companies were joined with a commitment to direct action. In the declaration, and in a letter to the companies, the Ijaws called for oil companies to suspend operations and withdraw from Ijaw territory. The IYC pledged "to struggle peacefully for freedom, self-determination and ecological justice," and prepared a campaign of celebration, prayer, and direct action, Operation Climate Change, beginning December 28. In December 1998, two warships and 10–15,000 Nigerian troops occupied Bayelsa and Delta states as the Ijaw Youth Congress (IYC) mobilized for Operation Climate Change. Soldiers entered the Bayelsa, the state capital of Yenagoa, announced they had come because youths trying to stop the oil companies. On the morning of December 30, two thousand young people processed through Yenagoa, dressed in black, singing and dancing. Soldiers opened fire with rifles, machine guns, and tear gas, killing at least three protesters and arresting twenty-five more. After a march demanding the release of those detained was turned back by soldiers, three more protesters were shot dead including Nwashuku Okeri and Ghadafi Ezeifile. The military declared a state of emergency throughout Bayelsa State, imposed a dusk-to-dawn curfew, and banned meetings. At military roadblocks, local residents were severely beaten or detained. At night, soldiers invaded private homes, terrorizing residents with beatings and raping the women and girls. On January 4, 1999, about one hundred soldiers from the military base at Chevron's Escravos facility attacked Opia and Ikiyan, two Ijaw communities in Delta State. Bright Pablogba, the traditional leader of Ikiyan, who came to the river to negotiate with the soldiers, was shot along with a seven-year-old girl and possibly dozens of others. Of the approximately 1,000 people living in the two villages, four people were found dead and sixty-two were still missing months after the attack. The same soldiers set the villages ablaze, destroyed canoes and fishing equipment, killed livestock, and destroyed churches and religious shrines. Nonetheless, Operation Climate Change continued, and disrupted Nigerian oil supplies through much of 1999 by turning off valves through Ijaw territory. In the context of high conflict between the Ijaw and the Nigerian Federal Government (and its police and army), the military carried out the Odi massacre, killing scores if not hundreds of Ijaws. Subsequent actions by Ijaws against the oil industry included both renewed efforts at nonviolent action and attacks on oil installations and foreign oil workers. Creation of the Niger Delta Development Commission (2000–2003) The Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) was established in 2000 by President Olusegun Obasanjo with the sole mandate of developing the petroleum-rich Niger-Delta region of southern Nigeria. Since its inauguration, the NDDC has focused on the development of social and physical infrastructures, ecological/environmental remediation and human development. The NDDC was created largely as a response to the demands of the population of the Niger Delta, a populous area inhabited by a diversity of minority ethnic groups. During the 1990s these ethnic groups, most notably the Ijaw and the Ogoni established organizations to confront the Nigerian government and multinational oil companies such as Shell. The minorities of the Niger Delta have continued to agitate and articulate demands for greater autonomy and control of the area's petroleum resources. Timeline Emergence of armed groups in Niger Delta (2003–2004) The ethnic unrest and conflicts of the late 1990s (such as those between the Ijaw, Urhobo and Itsekiri), coupled with a peak in the availability of small arms and other weapons, led increasingly to the militarization of the Delta. Local and state officials offered financial support to the paramilitary groups they believed would attempt to enforce their own political agenda. Conflagrations have been concentrated primarily in Delta and Rivers States. Prior to 2003, the epicenter of regional violence was Warri. However, after the violent convergence of the largest military groups in the region, the Niger Delta People's Volunteer Force (NDPVF) led by Mujahid Dokubo-Asari and the Niger Delta Vigilantes (NDV) led by Ateke Tom (both of which are primarily made up of Ijaws), conflict became focused on Port Harcourt and outlying towns. The two groups dwarf a plethora of smaller militias, supposedly numbering more than one hundred. The Nigerian government classifies these groups as "cults", but many began as local university fraternities. The groups have adopted names largely based on Western culture, some of which include Icelanders, Greenlanders, KKK, and Vikings. All of the groups are constituted mostly by disaffected young men from Warri, Port Harcourt, and their suburban areas. Although the smaller groups are autonomous, they have formed alliances with and are largely controlled from above by either Asari and his NDPDF or Tom's NDV, who provide military support and instruction. The NDPVF was founded by Asari, a former president of the Ijaw Youth Council, in 2003 after he "retreated into the bush" to form the group with the explicit goal of acquiring control of regional petroleum resources. The NDPFV attempted to control such resources primarily through oil "bunkering", a process in which an oil pipeline is tapped and the oil extracted onto a barge. Oil corporations and the Nigerian state point out that bunkering is illegal; militants justify bunkering, saying they are being exploited and have not received adequate profits from the profitable but ecologically destructive oil industry. Bunkered oil can be sold for profit, usually to destinations in West Africa, but also abroad. Bunkering is a fairly common practice in the Delta but in this case the militia groups are the primary perpetrators. The intense confrontation between the NDPVF and NDV seems to have been brought about by Asari's political falling out with the NDPVF's financial supporter Peter Odili, governor of Rivers State following the April 2003 local and state elections. After Asari publicly criticized the election process as fraudulent, the Odili government withdrew its financial support from the NDPVF and began to support Tom's NDV, effectively launching a paramilitary campaign against the NDPVF. Subsequent violence occurred chiefly in riverine villages southeast and southwest of Port Harcourt, with the two groups fighting for control of bunkering routes. The conflagrations spurred violent acts against the local population, resulting in numerous deaths and widespread displacement. Daily civilian life was disrupted, forcing schools and economic activity to shut down, widespread property destruction resulted. The state campaign against the NDPVF emboldened Asari who began publicly articulating populist, anti-government views and attempted to frame the conflict in terms of pan-Ijaw nationalism and "self-determination." Consequently, the state government escalated the campaign against him by bringing in police, army, and navy forces that began occupying Port Harcourt in June 2004. The government forces collaborated with the NDV during the summer, and were seen protecting NDV militiamen from attacks by the NDPVF. The state forces failed to protect the civilian population from the violence and actually increased the destruction of citizens' livelihood. The Nigerian state forces were widely reported to have used the conflict as an excuse to raid homes, claiming that innocent civilians were cahoots with the NDPVF. Government soldiers and police obtained and destroyed civilian property by force. The NDPVF also accused the military of conducting air bombing campaigns against several villages, effectively reducing them to rubble, because they were believed to be housing NDPVF soldiers. The military denies this, claiming they engaged in aerial warfare only once in a genuine effort to wipe out an NDPVF stronghold. Innocent civilians were also killed by NDPVF forces firing indiscriminately in order to engage their opponents. At the end of August 2004 there were several particularly brutal battles over the Port Harcourt waterfront; some residential slums were completely destroyed after the NDPVF deliberately burned down buildings. By September 2004, the situation was rapidly approaching a violent climax which caught the attention of the international community. Nigerian oil crisis (2004–2006) After launching a mission to wipe out NDPVF, approved by President Olusegun Obasanjo in early September 2004, Mujahid Dokubo-Asari declared "all-out war" with the Nigerian state as well as the oil corporations and threatened to disrupt oil production activities through attacks on wells and pipelines. This quickly caused a major crisis the following day on September 26, 2004, as Shell evacuated 235 non-essential personnel from two oil fields, cutting oil production by . Nigeria was the world's tenth largest oil exporter. The abundant oil reserves resulted in widespread exploitation. The Niger Delta region encompasses about 8% of Nigeria's landmass and is the largest wetlands region on the African continent. Oil drilling in the region began in the 1950s. In the beginning, the oil drilling in the region really stimulated Nigeria's economy and was extremely beneficial to the country. Numerous multinational corporations established oil operations in the region and made a conscious effort to not violate any environmental or human rights regulations. Shell began drilling in the Niger Delta region in 1956. Over time, Shell's presence in Nigeria has been very detrimental. These negative consequences are the result of thousands of oil spills, human rights violations, environmental destruction, and corruption. Over the past half century, Nigeria has become a plutocracy; political power is concentrated solely in the hands of the socioeconomic elite. Shell's strong presence has played a major role in the absence of democracy in Nigeria. According to the documentary Poison Fire, one and a half million tons of oil have been discharged into the Delta's farms, forests, and rivers since oil drilling began in 1956. This is equivalent to 50 Exxon Valdez disasters. Hundreds of kilometers of rain forest have been destroyed by the oil spills. When petroleum is discharged into the soil, the soil becomes acidic, which disrupts photosynthesis and kills trees because their roots are not able to get oxygen. Moreover, the fish population has also been negatively affected by oil drilling. The region is home to over 250 different fish species, and 20 of these species are found nowhere else in the world. If oil spills continue at this rate entire species will become extinct and the entire Nigerian fishing industry will be decimated. The oil spills in the Niger Delta also have negative implications on local human health. A primary cause of this is the effect crude oil spills have on crops in the given area. According to a Stanford University article, Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, there has been an estimation of 240,000 barrels of oil being spilled annually onto the Niger Delta region. Therefore, the prolificacy of this soil is prone to producing crops that contain higher amounts of metal than they would otherwise. Crops that prevailed in the oil spill, such as the pumpkin and the cassava, increased in lead absorption by over 90%. Human Health Effects of Heavy Metals addresses the harm lead and other metals can cause after strenuous exposure. Lead is a heavy metal that accumulates around regions that produce extreme amounts of fossil fuels and seep into products of consumption. Consuming lead is toxic enough to affect every organ and nervous system in the human body. Other detriments include the development of anemia, pregnancy miscarriages, wearing of body joints, and reduction of sperm efficiency. Another detrimental result of crude oil spills in the region is an increase of exposure to radiation, making individuals more prone to developing cancer. Due to the circumstances, the Niger Delta is only capable of producing small portions of food unaffected by oil spills. This has increased hunger in families and individuals of all ages, leading to a country of predominant malnutrition. There is also a higher demand for food of good quality, but not enough monetary income, which leads to sex exchanges that ultimately transmit diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and increase teenage pregnancy and illegal abortions. Citizens briefly mention their bodily experience when consuming local crops and protein in the HBO documentary, The Battle Raging in Nigeria over Control of Oil. The implications on local human health are a direct consequence of environmental changes. As a result, there has been an influx of legal Acts and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) established between the early 80's and the early 2000s to reduce the crude oil damage in the Niger region. Part IV of Nigeria's Oil Pipelines Act (1990) addresses the laws of compensation for any damage done to the Nigerian community; oil companies are legally obligated by the judicial court to repay the country for harming their infrastructure and environment, so long as these affected regions are occupied by local people. In the year 2000, the Niger Delta Development Commission(NDDC) was entrenched on the region with the purpose of encouraging environmental relief, preventing pollution, as well as locating and removing any inhibitions to community advancement. Developed in 1981 was one of the first NGO's to dedicate work towards oil spills, the Clean Nigeria Associates(N.C.A.). The N.C.A. currently consists of fifteen oil companies who attempt to tackle any pollutants that are being spilled into the Niger Delta's bodies of water. Multilateralism also plays a key role in the act of restoring the region. The United States provides the Nigerian Navy with equipped patrol boats to prevent oil smugglers from entering, leaving, or engaging in any business in the area. Though action has been taken in the previous years, the Niger Delta continues to experience environmental and physical detriments with little to no legitimate interference from the oil companies involved. Royal Dutch Shell controversy Platform London, Friends of the Earth Netherlands (Milieudefensie) and Amnesty International have launched international campaigns aimed at having Shell clean the oil spills in the Delta. The organisations are concerned about the economic and health consequences for the people in the region. Shell's inability to respond effectively has led Friends of the Earth Netherlands and Amnesty International to believe it actively contributes to the human rights violations in the region. Because of the large area affected, the environmental consequences are vast. Piracy and kidnappings (2006–2014) Starting in October 2012, Nigeria experienced a large spike in piracy off its coast. By early 2013 Nigeria became the second most-pirated nation in Africa, after Somalia. The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta is thought to be behind most of the attacks. Since October 2012, MEND has hijacked 12 ships, kidnapped 33 sailors, and killed 4 oil workers. Since this started the United States has sent soldiers to train Nigerian soldiers in maritime tactics against pirates. Since this initiative began, 33 pirates have been captured. Although the Nigerian Navy now has learned new tactics to use against pirates, attacks still occur on a regular basis. Since 2006, militant groups in Nigeria's Niger Delta, especially the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND), have resorted to taking foreign employees of oil companies hostage. More than 200 foreigners have been kidnapped since 2006, though most were released unharmed. Military crackdown (2008–2009) In August 2008, the Nigerian government launched a massive military crackdown on militants. They patrolled waters and hunted for militants, searched all civilian boats for weapons, and raided numerous militant hideouts. On May 15, 2009, a military operation undertaken by a Joint Task Force (JTF) began against MEND militants operating in the Niger Delta region. It came in response to the kidnapping of Nigerian soldiers and foreign sailors in the Delta region. Thousands of Nigerians have fled their villages and hundreds of people may be dead because of the offensive. Presidential amnesty program (2009–2016) Pipeline attacks had become common during the insurgency in the Niger Delta, but ended after the government on June 26, 2009, announced that it would grant amnesty and an unconditional pardon to militants in the Niger Delta which would last for 60 days beginning on August 6, 2009, ending October 4, 2009. Former Nigerian President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua signed the amnesty after consultation with the National Council of State. During the 60-day period, armed youths were required to surrender their weapons to the government in return for training and rehabilitation by the government. The program has been continued into the present. Militants led their groups to surrender weapons such as rocket-propelled grenades, guns, explosives, and ammunition. Even gunboats have been surrendered to the government. Over 30,000 purported members signed up between October 2009 and May 2011 in exchange for monthly payments and in some cases lucrative contracts for guarding the pipelines. Though the programme has been extended through this year, the new government of Muhammadu Buhari sees it as a potentially enabling corruption and so feels that cannot be continued indefinitely. The amnesty office has worked to reintegrate the fighters into society, primarily by placing and sponsoring them in vocational and higher education courses in Nigeria and abroad. The Presidential Amnesty Program (PAP) program proved to be a success, with violence and kidnappings decreasing sharply. Petroleum production and exports have increased from about 700,000 barrels per day (bpd) in mid-2009 to between 2.2 and 2.4 million bpd since 2011. However, the program is costly and chronic poverty and catastrophic oil pollution that which fueled the earlier rebellion, remain largely unaddressed. With Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan's defeat in the March 2015 elections, the amnesty program seemed likely to end in December 2015 and with patronage to former militant leaders terminated, local discontent is deepening. 2016 escalation A February 2016 explosion in a pipeline operated by Shell Petroleum Development Corporation, a Royal Dutch Shell subsidiary to the Shell Forcados export terminal halted both production and imports. Speculation centered on militants using divers. Emmanuel Ibe Kachikwu, the minister of state for petroleum and the head of Nigeria's oil company, said Nigerian production was down 300,000 barrels a day as a result. On May 11, 2016, Shell closed its Bonny oil facility. Three soldiers guarding the installation were killed in an attack, said Col. Isa Ado of the Joint Military Force. A bomb had closed down Chevron's Escravos GTL facility a week earlier. On May 19, 2016, ExxonMobil's Qua Iboe shut down and evacuated its workers due to militant threats. The Niger Delta Avengers (NDA), a militant group in the Niger Delta, publicly announced its existence in March 2016. The NDA have attacked oil-producing facilities in the delta, causing the shutdown of oil terminals and a fall in Nigeria's oil production to its lowest level in twenty years. The attacks caused Nigeria to fall behind Angola as Africa's largest oil producer. The reduced oil output has hampered the Nigerian economy and destroyed its budget, since Nigeria depends on the oil industry for nearly all its government revenue. In late August 2016, NDA declared a ceasefire and agreed to negotiate with the Nigerian government. After declaration of ceasefire by Niger Delta Avengers, Reformed Egbesu Fraternities comprising the three militants groups Egbesu Boys of the Niger Delta, Egbesu Red Water Lions and Egbesu Mightier Fraternity; announced a 60-day ceasefire. On August 9, 2016, Niger Delta Greenland Justice Mandate declared its existence and threatened to destroy refineries in Port Harcourt and Warri within 48 hours, as well as a gas plant in Otu Jeremi within a few days. The next day, the group reportedly blew up a major oil pipeline operated by the Nigerian National Petroleum Company (NNPC) in Isoko. On August 12, 2016, the group warned that it will blow up additional oil installations in the future. On August 19, 2016, the group reportedly blew up two pipelines belonging to NPDC in the Delta State. On August 30, 2016, the group blew up the Ogor-Oteri oil pipeline. On 4 September, the group claimed it had rigged all marked oil and gas facilities with explosives and warned residents living near them to evacuate Biafran insurgency From early 2021, Niger Delta militant groups such as the "Niger Delta People's Salvation Force" led by Asari-Dokubo joined an insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria which pitted Biafran separatists against Nigerian security forces, armed Fulani herders, and bandits. Asari-Dokubo formed the "Biafra Customary Government" (BCG) in March 2021. Igbos in the Niger Delta also joined the Biafran insurgency. Meanwhile, the Niger Delta Avengers continued to target and destroy pipelines, while local bandit groups exploited the unrest to stage raids. See also References Further reading External links SPECIAL REPORT: Checkmating the Resurgence of Oil Violence in the Niger Delta of Nigeria Journal of Energy Security, May 2010 Peace and Security in the Niger Delta: Baseline Study WAC Global Services Baseline Study, December 2003 Other Separatist Groups - MASSOB-Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra "Blood Oil" by Sebastian Junger in Vanity Fair, February 2007 (accessed 28 January 2007) Nigerian Oil -- "Curse of the Black Gold: Hope and Betrayal in the Niger Delta"—article from National Geographic Magazine (February 2007) A Look At the Fight Over Nigeria's Natural Resources December 26, 2006 Environmental Pollution in Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: The Conceptual Inadequacy of ‘Environmental Justice’ Terrorism in Nigeria Conflicts in 2003 Conflicts in 2004 Conflicts in 2005 Conflicts in 2006 Conflicts in 2007 Conflicts in 2008 Conflicts in 2009 Conflicts in 2010 Conflicts in 2011 Conflicts in 2012 Conflicts in 2013 History of Nigeria Petroleum industry in Nigeria 21st-century conflicts Wars involving Nigeria Conflicts in 2014 Conflicts in 2015 2014 in Nigeria 2015 in Nigeria Conflicts in 2016 Conflicts in 2017 Conflicts in 2018 Conflicts in 2019 Conflicts in 2020 Conflicts in 2021 Conflicts in 2022 Niger River Delta Conflicts in 2023
4643088	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave%20Boulanger	Gustave Boulanger	Gustave Clarence Rodolphe Boulanger (25 April 1824 – 22 September 1888) was a French figurative painter and academic artist and teacher known for his Classical and Orientalist subjects. Education and career The Néo-Grecs and the Prix de Rome Boulanger was born in Paris in 1824. He never knew his father, and when his mother's death left him orphaned at the age of fourteen, he became the ward of his uncle, Constant Desbrosses, who in 1840 sent him to study first under the history painter Pierre-Jules Jollivet and then at the atelier of Paul Delaroche, where Boulanger met and befriended his fellow student Jean-Léon Gérôme. Boulanger and Gérome would become leading lights of the Néo-Grec movement in French art, which revisited the fascination of previous generations for the Classical world, but brought to its austere subject matter subversive touches of whimsy, sensuality, and eroticism. "When they appear on the contemporary art scene, the Néo-Grecs will be defended as rejuvenators of the Classical tradition by some, condemned as gravediggers of history painting by others…they rarely give an orthodox image of Antiquity, some, like Gérôme, Boulanger and Hamon, not hesitating to choose licentious subjects, to parody mythological characters, or to invent very personal allegories of Antiquity." In 1845, Boulanger was sent by his uncle to Algeria to tend to Desbrosses's business interests there. Boulanger was fascinated by all he saw, and what was planned as a two-month stay turned to eight, until Desbrosses threatened to cut off his funds. Boulanger brought back a large number of sketches which he used for his first Orientalist paintings. (This was the first of at least three trips to North Africa, including one in 1872 with Gérôme.) In 1848 and 1849, he shared communal living and working quarters with other artists of the Néo-Grec movement at the Chalet, 27 rue de Fleurus. The group also gathered at the atelier of Gérôme on rue de Sevres. Boulanger turned his efforts to winning the Prix de Rome, and with it, a scholarship to the Académie de France à Rome. In 1848, he obtained second place with Saint Pierre chez Marie, and the next year he won the Grand Prix with Ulysse reconnu par Euryclée and departed for Rome, where he would remain until 1855. His education and research included study at the excavations of Pompeii. He also traveled to Greece. Each year, the students at Rome sent back to the Academy in Paris a painting to demonstrate their progress, and for public exhibition; Boulanger's works repeatedly disappointed the Academy and scandalized critics, beginning with the first, Phryné, in 1850. Wrote one reviewer: M. Boulanger, a first year pensionnaire, spent a lot of patience to paint with great finesse…a fat naked woman with red hair and slanted blue eyes, seated on rags of all colors and a scrap of cushion on which is engraved in Greek letters her name: Phryné. To take on this marvelous beauty who inspired Praxiteles' masterpiece and the famous Venus of Apelles, an artist must impose on himself the most severe purity of design, the utmost simplicity of line, the calm splendor of beauty. M. Boulanger's Phryné is far from responding to this program. In 1856, when his studies at Rome were complete, Boulanger took a second trip to North Africa, and then returned to Paris. Boulanger moved into his own atelier at rue de La Rochefoucauld, 64, but continued to meet and socialize with the other Néo-Grecs. He became one of Jean-Léon Gérôme's closest friends; after 1863, Gérôme regularly entrusted him with the management of his studio at the École des Beaux-Arts during his travels in the East. The Pompeiian palace of Prince Napoleon In 1855, Prince Napoléon, cousin of Napoleon III, decided to build a palace inspired by the villas of Pompeii, in particular by the Villa of Diomedes. The palace had rooms around an atrium open to the sky with a shallow pool below. Busts of the Bonaparte family surrounded the atrium, with a white marble statue of Napoleon I presiding in the guise of a deified Caesar. Gérôme took part in the project by making three paintings that he considered "perhaps the most beautiful things he ever signed." The Pompeiian palace was inaugurated on 14 February 1860, in the presence of the Emperor and Empress. Théophile Gautier was present to hear the recitation of his poem written for the occasion, La Femme de Diomède: Prologue. Then famous actors of the Théâtre-Français and the Comedie-Française performed The Flute Player, a play by Emile Augier, a friend of Gautier and the Néo-Grecs. Boulanger's Répétition théâtrale dans la maison d’un poète romain at the Salon of 1855 played a part in inspiring both the Pompeiian palace and its inauguration with a play. Boulanger was privileged to immortalize the occasion with a work presented at the Salon of 1861, Répétition du "Joueur de flûte" et de la "Femme de Diomède" chez le prince Napoléon (Rehearsal of "The Flute Player" and "Wife of Diomedes" at the Place of Prince Napoléon). The painting depicts not the performance itself but a rehearsal, with only writers, actors, and a Black slave present. Gautier wrote that the painting "will preserve the memory of a charming spectacle…[The actors] are ancients and moderns at the same time…M. Boulanger was able to merge, with rare spirit and a perfect fit, two apparently irreconcilable elements: the present and past, Paris and Pompeii before the eruption of Vesuvius!…rarely has an ancient pastiche been more successful." With its synthesis of art, architecture, theatricality, re-enactment, wry humor, and royal patronage, Boulanger's Répétition du "Joueur de flûte" may be seen as the apotheosis of the Néo-Grec aesthetic. The Franco-Prussian War and the Commune When the enemy forces approached Paris in 1870, like many of the artists who stayed in Paris, having neither enlisted in the army nor fled abroad, Boulanger became a member of the National Guard, joining ranks with his friend Charles Garnier, as well as Edgar Degas, Édouard Manet, Auguste Rodin, and Louis Émile Benassit. As normal life and all previous projects came to a stop, Boulanger painted a series of works documenting the momentous events. These scenes of fire and carnage, quite unlike anything else in his oeuvre, are in the collection of the Musée Carnavalet. The Classical world Boulanger would continue to evoke the world of the ancient Greeks and Romans throughout his career. Noting his deep research and attention to detail, one critic called him "a scholar at least as much as a virtuoso." Many of these paintings are in private collections, and some are known only from written descriptions or from lithographs or other reproductions of the originals. Orientalist art Like his friend Gérôme, Boulanger would also paint Orientalist subjects throughout his career, drawing inspiration from his travels in North Africa. …Africa had opened up new horizons for him, had stirred in him unforgettable emotions, but had not thrown him into the great current into which Delacroix was to venture and from which, with his marvelous genius, Delacroix was to emerge unharmed. Gustave Boulanger brought back the brilliance of the Orient in his eye rather than in his thought. He dreamed of a quieter Orient, with broad lines, fine types, gently pleated draperies; an Orient with the sky of Greece. Because museums preferred to collect his Classical subjects, Boulanger's Orientalist works were for a long time less well known, but in the 21st-century art market they are more sought after and bring higher prices. Portraits and character studies Though less known for his portraiture, Boulanger painted and drew portraits throughout his career. The Slave Market Boulanger produced one of his most famous paintings near the end of his life, shown at the Paris Salon of 1886: Un Maquignon d’esclaves à Rome (A Slave Dealer in Rome), which has become better known as The Slave Market. A "pendant" painting, Esclaves à vendre (Slaves for Sale), followed in 1888 and was to be Boulanger's last exhibited painting. Though set in the ancient Roman world, these paintings are stylistically closer to Boulanger's Orientalist works. The realism is stark, with none of the playfulness and luxurious fantasy of his previous Classical paintings; The Slave Market seems a world away from Répétition du "Joueur de flûte". The Slave Market is thought to be in a private collection. The status and location of Esclaves à vendre (known only from a black and white reproduction) is unknown. Teacher and advocate of Academic art Boulanger was an influential teacher with a long list of students. At the prestigious Académie Julian, Boulanger, unlike many instructors, accepted both male and female students. Alice De Wolf Kellogg remembered Boulanger as her favorite teacher, writing, "His instruction was the simplest—most broad—most rousing…that I ever received." When Boulanger was inducted as a member of the Institut de France in 1882, he joined the faculty of the Beaux-Arts de Paris (more formally known as the École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts) and in his final years was both a teacher and an ardent champion of Academic art and its traditions and methods. After joining the faculty he delivered and published two eloquent speeches. The first was Notice sur M. Lehmann in 1883, an encomium to the recently deceased Henri Lehmann, whom Boulanger saw as an exemplar of the best artistic virtues. The second speech was À nos élèves (To Our Students) delivered in 1885, in which Boulanger attacked what he saw as a decadent, vain striving for novelty in the arts. "We see this so-called novelty appear from year to year under pretentious and ill-justified names such as naturalism, impressionism, luminism, intentionism, tachisme—to use the slang with which they claim to glorify impotence and laziness." He went on to deliver a paean to the accomplishments of French art, praising the rigorous standards passed from masters to students that had made Paris the art capital of the world. He quoted : "Art must be a chain; it is when it breaks that there is decadence." In a letter to Eugéne Montrosier dated 17 July 1888, Boulanger wrote: "I fight Modernity to the utmost when it manifests itself in the clownish pranksters who have elevated all their impotence and all their laziness to the state of principles. But, these people are still very few in number…There are, beside them, a lot of young men who have talent that I really appreciate. Now, the rowdy Modernity of which you speak, believe me, has no future; it will pass as I have seen so many others pass, of which nothing remains after a few years." Montrosier in an obituary wrote: "Gustave Boulanger, beneath his peaceful exterior, hid an iron will and a wrestler's temperament. He was sometimes wrong; he did not want to go with his century and lend himself to the changes that French art had to undergo, but he resisted in good faith and fought with conviction." Personal life Friendship with Charles Garnier Boulanger shared a long and fruitful relationship, both personal and professional, with the architect Charles Garnier. Garnier obtained the Grand Prix de Rome in 1848 at age twenty-three, for architecture. Boulanger obtained his Grand Prix de Rome for art the next year at age twenty-five, and the two met as students enjoying their subsequent scholarships at the French Academy at Rome. A portrait of Garnier by Boulanger dated 1854 is in the collection of the Academy at the Villa Medici. Boulanger would execute several more portraits of Garnier over the decades. In 1868, Boulanger spent the month of May traveling in Spain with Garnier and his wife, Louise Bary Garnier. Garnier's travel journal, filled with architectural sketches and character studies, includes a few drawings by Boulanger, and several sketches of Boulanger by Garnier, including one of "pauvre Boulanger" with a scarf binding his jaw with the knot tied atop his head, suffering a toothache. The Bibliothèque nationale de France has made the original manuscript of Garnier's Voyage en Espagne freely available online, and an English translation with facsimile of the original was published in 2012. The two friends found the opportunity to collaborate when Garnier designed two opulent opera houses and commissioned Boulanger to execute large and elaborate paintings to decorate walls and ceilings. Boulanger's paintings for the Foyer de la Danse in the Opéra Garnier in Paris (1875) and his massive ceiling painting Allegory of Music high above the stage of the Opéra de Monte-Carlo (1879) were judged by some critics to be his most successful work. The two men came to share a familial intimacy and were in almost daily contact. Boulanger's closeness to the Garniers can be seen in his drawing of their infant son Daniel sleeping, made around 1862; the child died at age two. The poignant memento eventually passed from the Garnier family to the Louvre. In a letter to Garnier, Boulanger inquired: "How is the earthly envelope of that beautiful soul that is so dear to me? Do you know you are the second person in my life in whom have I found an imagination and a heart after my own fashion?" (Boulanger does not name the first person.) Born a year and a half apart, Boulanger and Garnier died within a year of each other. Friendship with Mademoiselle Nathalie Boulanger was the close friend of one of the most famous actresses in France, Zaïre-Nathalie Martel, known to one and all as . She remains a legend in the annals of the Comedie-Française, not least for her quarrel with the much younger Sarah Bernhardt. At a ceremony honoring the birthday of Molière on 15 January 1863, Bernhardt's younger sister, Regina, stepped on the train of Mademoiselle Nathalie's gown. Mademoiselle Nathalie shoved Regina off the gown, causing the girl to strike a stone column and gash her forehead. Bernhardt stepped forward and slapped Mademoiselle Nathalie so hard that the older actress fell onto another actor. When Bernhardt refused to apologize, she was forced to leave the Comedie-Française. While a contemporary source, the unsigned obituary of Boulanger in Courrier de l'Art, says that Boulanger was Nathalie's husband, the foremost Boulanger scholar of the 20th century, Marie-Madeleine Aubrun, refuted this: "Although here and there the idea of marriage has been insinuated, we have found no written trace of it. Furthermore, the actress's death announcement in 1885 does not mention the name of Gustave Boulanger, which seems surprising. And above all, the death certificate specifies célibataire [single]." Mademoiselle Nathalie died three years before Boulanger, in 1885. He donated his portrait of her, painted in 1867, to the Comedie-Française. Personal appearance Boulanger's self-portrait at age 30 or 31, executed while he was in Rome, depicts an artist with a penetrating gaze and an elegantly waxed mustache. But a later art historian was struck by the contrast between the older Boulanger's personal appearance and the polished perfection of his art. "As for G. Boulanger, his works, all of grace, elegance and charm, do not correspond at all to our picture of him. A round face with a flattened, bald head, a squat nose, a small mouth, half-closed eyes, a shaggy beard—these are the traits of a magician of color and form, the creator of so many exquisite works!...And yet, as with Verlaine, of whom the image of Boulanger makes one think, what delicacy lies beneath this rough bark!" Death On the evening of Friday, 21 September 1888, Boulanger suffered a pulmonary congestion, took to bed, and died the next day. Eugène Montrosier, who saw him on his deathbed, wrote thatGustave Boulanger must have had a presentiment of his death, because, on the very day he was to fall ill, he insisted on reproducing, in a vehement study, the portrait of a three-year-old child whose photograph had been before him for several months, a project he had been setting aside. Yes, his last painting was done with the feverish haste of those who fear they will not be able to finish the work they have begun in time. Added Charles Narrey: "Gustave Boulanger sang while painting. I had never seen him in such good spirits, nor so full of confidence. Showing me this portrait, he said: 'I passed for a good draftsman, but only now I feel that I am on the way to becoming a good painter.'" Without family, at his home at rue Ballu, 6, Boulanger died attended by his concierge and two praying nuns. He was given "a beautiful funeral" attended by "le tout Paris artistique et littéraire," with speeches by his friends Henri Chapu, Tony Robert-Fleury, and Charles Garnier. By his will his estate was split between his cousin Paulemma Hennequin, his goddaughter Nathalia Desbrosses, and Mademoiselle Nathalie; having pre-deceased him, her share was claimed by the State. Legacy Boulanger's long and influential teaching career carried forward his principles of art well into the next century, even as the countervailing influence of Impressionism and other movements ultimately prevailed. Unlike Gérôme (who died in 1904), he did not live long enough to see the tide turn decisively against him, but the tide was turning nonetheless. An unsigned obituary in the Courrier de l'Art was scathing, saying that Boulanger was "a perfectly gallant man, a very mediocre painter, and in no way an artist," who "taught better than he painted. The man is deeply and very legitimately missed; the painter will not be, not because M. Boulanger painted mainly Greek or Roman subjects, but because he massacred them constantly by painting them without any trace of originality, without the slightest style, with the most despairing vulgarity, a ruthlessly convinced harshness and the most routine monotony." The British critic Marion Spielmann wrote a less hostile but still ambivalent assessment: "France has lost one of her most popular painters. I say 'popular' advisedly, for although he was a painter who always reached a high level of excellence...he never rose to be a really great artist," and his talent, though "of a very high order…never once reached the borderland of absolute genius." Spielmann noted that Boulanger was most often compared to Gérôme and Alma-Tadema, but in such comparisons "the times were few indeed when Boulanger...came out the victor." Spielmann suggested that it was for his decorations, such as his paintings at the Opéra Garnier, that Boulanger would "retain his reputation." The enormous fame and prestige of Gérôme and Alma-Tadema precipitously declined and virtually collapsed in the next century—Gérôme's painting The Snake Charmer, which sold for $19,500 in 1888, sold for just $500 in 1942. But while the works of those two artists are once again attracting the interest of collectors, scholars, and the general public, Boulanger remains obscure. No large-scale reassessment, such at that accorded Gérôme with the 2010 exhibitions at the Getty Museum and the Musée d'Orsay, has been granted to Boulanger. His Orientalist works, like those of other painters in the genre, have risen sharply in value in the 21st century (thanks largely to a generation of immensely wealthy Arab collectors who "want to take it back and have it for themselves"), but in this field his auction records are a fraction of those of Gérôme. Boulanger and Gérôme were linked from the very beginning of their careers. Edmond About wrote in 1867:Boulanger hatched from the same atelier as Gérôme. He has not always followed the same route; his very independent originality led him sometimes to right, sometimes to left; influences from Rome and the Academic milieu effected deviations here and there; but there is always a visible kinship between those two talents. Curiosity, research, finesse and a grain of preciousness, love of the new, passion for the finished, need for exact detail: these are the common features that unite these two artists and maintain their family resemblance.The American art critic Earl Shinn went so far as to call Boulanger "a sort of alter ego of Gérôme's" who "fits his peculiarities into those of his friend like the lining into the waistcoat," but allowed that "occasionally, as in recent decorations of a Paris mayor's office," Boulanger could strike "a classical vein with more popular grace than Gérôme, though with less originality." Forever compared to Gérôme (and deemed the lesser artist), Boulanger seems fated to dwell in his shadow. No art historian or curator has undertaken the task of decoupling Boulanger's legacy, so as to allow a full assessment of his work, based solely on its own merits. Boulanger in museums Paris La Mort de Cyrus (study), 1844, École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts. Ulysse reconnu par Euryclée, 1849, École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts. Portrait du poète et librettiste Camille du Commun du Locle, 1854, gouache, watercolor and pencil, Musée du Louvre département des Arts graphiques. Répétition du “Joueur de flûte” et de “La femme de Diomède” chez le prince Napoléon (study), 1860, Comédie-Française. Répétition du “Joueur de flûte” et de “La femme de Diomède” chez le prince Napoléon, 1861, Musée d’Orsay. Daniel Garnier endormi (drawing of Charles Garnier's infant son, who lived 1862–1864), c. 1862, Musée du Louvre département des Arts graphiques. Portrait de Zaïre-Nathalie Martel, dite , 1867, Comédie-Française. Sarrebruck après la bataille, c. 1870, Musée Carnavalet. L’Assaut du cimetière par les troupes régulières, 1871, Musée Carnavalet. Épisode de la Commune, place de la Concorde, 1871, Musée Carnavalet. L’Hôtel de Ville incendié, assailli par les troupes de Versailles, 1871, Musée Carnavalet. La Rotonde de la Villette cernée par les troupes Versaillaises, 1871, Musée Carnavalet. La tour Saint-Jacques reprise par les troupes Versaillaises, 1871, Musée Carnavalet. Les Danses champêtre, bacchique, amoureuse et guerrière (studies), before 1875, Bibliothèque nationale de France. Vertus civiques: Le Mariage, Le Départ à la guerre, Vie antique, L'Étude, La Famille, Forge, 1878, studies for the Salle des Mariages de la Mairie du 13e arrondissement, Musée des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Paris, Petit Palais. Portrait de Charles Garnier, n.d., Bibliothèque nationale de France. Miscellaneous drawings, sketches and studies, Musée du Louvre département des Arts graphiques. Elsewhere in France Portrait de Monsieur Sinclair-Desbrosses, 1849, Musée Lambinet. Parc de la villa Borghèse à Rome, c. 1847, Musée Hébert, La Tronche. Ulysse reconnu par Euryclée (study), 1849, Musée Magnin, Dijon. Acis et Galatée, 1848, . Le Repas des Dieux, after Raphael, 1853, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Rennes. Tête d’Italienne, 1854, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Valenciennes. César arrive au Rubicon (study), 1854, Musée de Picardie, Amiens. César arrive au Rubicon, 1854, Musée de Picardie. Venus Captive, 1860, Le Mamillare (or Le Bain; Après le bain), 1867, Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Angers. Saint Sébastien et l’empereur Maximilien Hercule, 1877, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Marseille. Portrait de Madame Lambinet, née Nathalie Sinclair, 1887, Musée Lambinet, Versailles. Rome Portraits of Boulanger's fellow pensionnaires at the Académie de France à Rome, Villa Medici: Charles Lecointe, 1849; Jules Duprato and , 1851; Alfred de Curzon, 1852; Charles Garnier and , 1854; , Denis Lebouteux, and Boulanger's self-portrait, 1855. The Netherlands Phryné, 1850, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam. Russia Répétition théâtrale dans la maison d’un poète romain, 1855, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg. United Kingdom Portrait de Charles Garnier, 1884, Aberdeen Art Gallery. United States Deux Maures, c. 1850, Baltimore Museum of Art. Sirène (or Mermaid), n.d., Baltimore Museum of Art. L’Automne, 1850, Cleveland Museum of Art. Portrait of Woman and Three Children, drawing, 1852, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Boulanger in public buildings Decorative paintings for the Foyer de la Danse, Opéra Garnier, Paris, 1875: Allegory of Music, ceiling painting above the stage in the Salle Garnier, Opéra de Monte-Carlo, Monaco, 1879. Le Mariage; L’Étude; La Patrie; Vir esto; Uxor esto, 1878, Salle des Mariages de la Mairie (city hall) of the 13th arrondissement of Paris. Boulanger combined his expertise at portraiture and at large-scale projects by including images of people close to him when he executed these large murals. Some of these portraits can be identified from preliminary drawings by Boulanger conserved at the Musée Carnavalet. The faces can be clearly seen in an engraving by William Haussoullier after the mural called Le Mariage, or by the longer title Les époux se doivent mutuellement fidélité secours assistance. Boulanger’s close friend Mademoiselle Nathalie is the most prominent of the female figures, dominating the left side. Among the witnesses to the wedding at right can be seen Boulanger’s friends and colleagues Ernest Meissonier, Alexandre Cabanel, Jean-Léon Gérôme, Alexandre Dumas fils, and Boulanger’s closest friend, Charles Garnier. Boulanger also included a self-portrait, the figure at far right. Another study at the Carnavalet depicts the youthful figure leaning against a column and gesturing with his right hand. Earlier studies from the planning stages, conserved at the Petit Palais, show the same figures in a less finished state, without identifiable faces. Boulanger at auction A record for a Boulanger painting was set by La Cour du Palais de Dar Khdaouedj El Amia, Alger (1877), auctioned for $576,000 at Christie's in New York in 2005. Other notable results include $265,250 for El Hiasseub, Conteur arabe (1868) in 2009, £119, 700 for The Prayer/La Prière (1871) in 2021, $66,000 for Catherine I of Russia Negotiating the Treaty of Prut with the Turks (1866) in 2006, €18,750 for Project de décor pour le Foyer de la Dansee à l'Opéra Garnier (a large pencil and watercolor study, before 1875) in 2008, and €11,256 for The Flowergirl (1888) in 2004, and €9,450 for La déroute des Kabyles (1863) in 2022. In 1848, as a student, Boulanger submitted a painting for the Prix de Rome; the entry did not win (it came in second), and the painting, Saint Pierre introduit dans la maison de Marie, mère de Jean, also called Saint Pierre chez Marie, was believed lost for 171 years until it was rediscovered in the attic of an old house in a small hamlet in Creuse, France. The painting represents a rare example of religious art by Boulanger. France 3 television called it "la trouvaille de l'année" (the find of the year). It was auctioned at the Hôtel des Ventes in Guéret in November 2019 and realized €21,000. See also List of pupils of Gustave Boulanger List of Orientalist artists Orientalism References Sources About, Edmond (1867). Salon de 1866, Paris: Hachette, 1867. Aubrun, Marie-Madeleine (1986). "Gustave Boulanger, peintre éclectique," Bulletin de la Société d'histoire de l'art français, no. 72, cat. 110, 1986, pp. 167–256. Blaugrund, Annette and Bowie, Joanne W. and Kellogg, Alice D. (1988). "Alice D. Kellogg: Letters from Paris, 1887–1889", Archives of American Art Journal, Vol. 28, No. 3, 1988, pp. 11–19. Boulanger, Gustave (1885). À nos élèves, text of a speech, Paris: A. Lahure, 1885. Boulanger, Gustave (1883). Notice sur M. Lehmann, speech memorializing Henri Lehmann (who died in Paris in 1882), delivered before the Académie des Beaux-Arts, session of 27 January 1883. Bouvet, Charles (1925). "Gustave Boulanger, Collaborateur de Charles Garnier à l'Opéra", Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Nov. 1925, pp. 301–311. Brookner, Anita (1962). "Current and Forthcoming Exhibitions: Paris" (includes review of Répétition du "Joueur de flûte"), The Burlington Magazine, vol. 104, no. 713, August, 1962, pp. 361–364. Chu, Petra ten-Doesschate (2013). "Public Commemoration and Private Memory: Félix Bracquemond vis-à-vis the Siege of Paris and the Commune", Getty Research Journal, No. 5, 2013, p. 74. Claretie, Jules (1896). "Un Livre Unique: l'Affaire Clemenceau Peinte et Illustrée" (reproduces two images drawn by Boulanger directly on the pages of a book by Alexandre Dumas fils), La Lecture, 10 April 1896, pp. 103–112. Couëlle, Colombe (2010). "Désirs d'Antique ou comment rêver le passé gréco-romain dans la peinture européenne de la seconde moitié du XIX e siècle", Anabases, No. 11 (2010), pp. 21–54. Du Pays, A. (1851), "Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Exposition des Grands Prix–Envoi des pensionnaires de l’Académie à Rome," L’Illustration, 9–16 October 1851, no. 450, vol. XVIII, pp. 227–228. Garnier, Charles (1868). Voyage en Espagne, original manuscript and drawings with the collaboration of Louise Bary Garnier, Gustave Boulanger, and Ambroise Baudry, Bibliothèque nationale de France. Garnier, Charles (2012). Journey to Spain, vol. 1 (English translation) and vol. 2 (facsimile of original ms. in French, with the collaboration of Louise Bary Garnier, Gustave Boulanger, and Ambroise Baudry), Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain: Nerea, 2012. Garnier, Charles (1875). Le nouvel Opéra de Paris: Peintures Décoratives (paintings by Boulanger for the Foyer de la Danse, plates 2–7), Paris: Duchet & Cie., 1875. Gautier, Théophile (1861). "Boulanger (Gustave)" in Abécédaire du Salon de 1861, Paris: 1861, p. 67-71. Gautier, T., Houssaye, A., nd Coligny, C. (1866). Le palais pompéien de l'avenue Montaigne: études sur la maison grécoromaine, ancienne résidence duprince Napoléon, Paris, 1866. Gold, Arthur & Fizdale, Robert (1991). The Divine Sarah: A Life of Sarah Bernhardt, New York: Knopf. "Le Gynécée. From a Painting by Gustave Boulanger", The Art Journal, New Series, Vol. 2, 1876, pp. 266–267. Hanselaar, Saskia (2016). "La maison pompéienne de Joseph Napoléon par Gustave Boulanger", Histoire par l'image, posted May 2016. Haseltine Galleries (1874). Catalogue of Mr. Charles F. Haseltine's Collection of Oil Paintings and Aquarelles, Philadelphia: 1874, Boulanger entries (The Pompeian Maid, no. 206, and Hercules at the Feet of Omphale, no. 308), pp. 37 and 59. Hooper, Lucy H. (1878). "The Exhibition at Les Mirlitons" (Boulanger's The Home of the Cadi: a Reminiscence of Algiers in the Olden Times described), The Art Journal, New Series, Vol. 4, 1878, pp. 122–124. Jagot, Hélène (2013). La Peinture Nó-Grecque (1847–1874); Réflexions sur la constitution d’une catégorie stylistique, Theses pour obtenir le grade de Docteur (en Histoire de l'art) de l'Université de Paris-Ouest Nanterre La Défense. Javel, Firmin (1888). "Gustave Boulanger", L'Art français, no. 76, 6 Oct. 1888, p. 4. Javel, Firmin (1889). Catalogue des oeuvres de Gustave Boulanger, Paris, 1889. Leeuw, Ronald de (1996). "Gustave Boulanger. Phryne: courtisane en beeldhouwersmodel," Van Gogh Bulletin, 11 (1996) 3, pp. 10–13. Legrand Caroline (2019). "Une peinture de concours", La Gazette Drouot, 23 October 2019. Mirbeau, Octave (1885). "La tristesse de Monsieur Boulanger," La France, 13 April 1885; reprinted in Mirbeau, Combats esthétiques, Paris: Nouvelles Editions Séguier, 1993, vol. 1, pp. 150–153. Montrosier, Eugène (1881). Les Artistes Modernes, vol. I (Boulanger chapter, pp. 21–24), Paris: H.Launette, 1881. Montrosier, Eugène (1888). "Gustave Boulanger, Revue Illustrée, v. 6, no. 69, 15 Oct. 1888, pp. 274–280. Safran, Linda (1980). "A Note on Boulanger's Répétition Générale du Joueur de Flûte," Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 6, no. 96, November 1980, pp. 185–6. Shinn, Earl (1881). Modern French Art, New York: A.W. Lovering, 1881. Spielmann, M.H. (1889). "Gustave Boulanger", The Magazine of Art, vol. XII, 1889, pp. 70–72. Weidinger, Corina (2006). Imperial Desire and Classical Revival: Gustave Boulanger's Rehearsal of "The Flute Player", thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware, 2006. White, Clara M. (1899). "A Western Art Collection" (image and critique of Boulanger's Daily News Reading before the Barber Shop of Licinius), Brush and Pencil, Vol. 4, No. 4, July 1899, pp. 181–191. Wien, Jo Ann (1981). The Parisian Training of American Women Artists, Woman's Art Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1, Spring-Summer 1981, p. 42. External links Gustave Boulanger, Dictionnaire biographique des pensionnaires de l’Académie de France à Rome online 19th-century French painters French male painters 1824 births 1888 deaths Orientalist painters Prix de Rome for painting Academic art Academic staff of the Académie Julian Members of the Académie des beaux-arts 19th-century French male artists
4643445	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keiko%20Fujimori	Keiko Fujimori	Keiko Sofía Fujimori Higuchi (; born 25 May 1975) is a Peruvian politician. Fujimori is the eldest daughter of former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori and Susana Higuchi. From August 1994 to November 2000, she held the role of First Lady of Peru, during her father's administrations. She has served as the leader of the Fujimorist political party Popular Force since 2010, and was a congresswoman representing the Lima Metropolitan Area, from 2006 to 2011. Fujimori ran for president in the 2011, 2016, and 2021 elections, but was defeated each time in the second round of voting. Early life Early life and education Keiko Sofía Fujimori Higuchi was born on 25 May 1975 in the Jesús María district of Lima, the capital of Peru. Fujimori's parents are Japanese Peruvians; her father is former President of Peru Alberto Fujimori, who was elected in the 1990 Peruvian general election, and her mother is Susana Higuchi. In addition, Fujimori would come to have three siblings: Kenji Gerardo (born May 1980), Hiro Alberto (born December 1976) and Sachi Marcela (born March 1979). Fujimori, as the eldest child in her family, would often mediate between her parents – who experienced a conflicted marriage – and her siblings. For primary and secondary education, Keiko Fujimori and her siblings attended Peruvian Catholic School (Recoleta Academy of the Sacred Hearts). As she became a teenager, she would often feel that she needed to please her father, according to Vásquez de Velasco, and was able to use publicly funded presidential vehicles, including the presidential jet, for her personal events. When her father was elected president in 1990, he was reportedly approached by the military to implement Plan Verde; a plan for Peru to adopt a neoliberal economy, to ethnically cleanse vulnerable populations and to establish control of the media. With backing of the military, he later led a self-coup when he dissolved congress in 1992, violating the independence of the judiciary and the press, and began persecuting opponents. Subsequently, with the approval of a new constitution, the president could be re-elected in the following elections. Throughout her father's presidency, the government committed multiple human rights violations that included forced sterilizations, and extrajudicial killings during the internal conflict in Peru. It was also alleged that Fujimori embezzled between US$600 million and US$2 billion through graft. Such allegations placed Fujimori seventh in the list of money embezzled by heads of government active within 1984–2004. Alberto Fujimori's revitalization of the economy of Peru and defeat of Shining Path, however, has resulted in continued support from some Peruvians, with the former president having a divisive legacy overall in the country. After her father's coup, Fujimori graduated from secondary school and travelled to the United States in 1993 to pursue a bachelor's degree in Business Administration at Stony Brook University. The cost of Fujimori and her sibling's studies in the United States, estimated to be about $918,000 in total, was reportedly funded by Chief of the National Intelligence Service (SIN) Vladimiro Montesinos, with his secretary Matilde Pinchi Pinchi saying Keiko personally received money at SIN facilities while General Julio Salazar would travel to New York to deliver funds on occasion. La Prensa would later report that a foundation in Panama was established, received bank transfers from Montesinos' account and paid for Fujimori's studies at Boston University. She would go on to graduate from the university in May 1997, completing her studies in Business Administration. First Lady of Peru In 1994, Fujimori's father stripped her mother of her title of First Lady of Peru with the intent of silencing her after she accused him publicly and in the Peruvian Judicial Branch of kidnapping, torture and corruption, this led to the two separating in the same year, taking with them the last vestiges of her mother's titles. One day shortly after, Fujimori received a call from her father while studying in the United States, with the president asking his daughter to attend a formal dinner in Miami, though this quickly turned into a multi-day trip. On 23 August 1994, Keiko stopped her studies at Stony Brook and returned to Peru, where her father appointed her as First Lady of Peru, the youngest first lady in the Americas. Fujimori's father reportedly used her as an accessory instead of having her perform notable functions, choosing his daughter to fill the office because she was obedient. While serving as First Lady, Fujimori downplayed the allegations raised by her mother, ignoring reports by the press and international groups. On top of her symbolic functions, from April 1994 to November 2000, her father made her head of (Foundation for the Children of Peru), which is usually led by the first lady, and she created Fundación Peruana Cardioinfantil (Peruvian Foundation for Infant Cardiology) for children with congenital heart diseases. Fujimori's parents formally divorced in 1996. In the years after their separation, Susana said that she was subjected to torture at least five-hundred times between 1992 and 2000, telling the press that Alberto had ordered his partner Vladimiro Montesinos to execute her, though Montesinos said he refused on the ground of being a devout Catholic. As first lady, she received three main accusations: that she diverted clothing donated through charity by Japanese-Peruvians, a controversy that even made it before Supreme Court of Peru; that she ordered the Government Palace's rooms painted pink; and the perceived betrayal, as it was seen by many opposition members, when she refused to defend her mother who had been denounced and persecuted by her father. Fujimori responded to the last criticism by alleging that the accusations of tortures made by her mother were a "legend." She would later reconcile with her mother, who then assisted her with her presidential campaigns. In 1998, as her father intended to run for an unprecedented and at that point unconstitutional third term, Fujimori came out in a strong declaration against her father's plan, supporting a plan made by the opposition. She put out a statement: "As a daughter, I would prefer that my father rest, but as a citizen, I believe he is what the country requires." Fujimori still helped her father despite her reservations in his reelection campaign in April 2000, as she had done in his 1995 campaign. In November 2000, her father fled to Japan and resigned from the presidency while visiting Brunei once news came of a massive corruption scandal. Shortly after the scandal broke, Fujimori had asked her father to not renounce anything and to return to Peru to defend himself before a court of law. Fujimori was forced to leave the Government Palace of Peru on 21 November 2000 after the Congress of Peru officially vacated her father Alberto's position as president of Peru. Her mother, now a member of congress, offered Fujimori to stay with her, though Fujimori refused and preferred to stay with her aunt Juana Fujimori beside her father's family. United States residency and arrest of her father In August 2001, Fujimori visited Tokyo to meet with her father who still had dual citizenship, the main reason Japan was reluctant to reject his asylum and extradite him. She moved to the United States in 2002 to further pursue her business career, studying at Columbia University. While in New York, she met Mark Vito Villanella and married him in a wedding attended by many Fujimorist officials in the Miraflores district of Lima that was officiated by Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne, Archbishop of Lima and member of Opus Dei. The newlyweds returned to New York where Fujimori would continue her MBA studies. Fujimori's father arrived in Santiago de Chile in preparation of his return to Peru to run anew as a presidential candidate on 6 November 2005 and was arrested shortly after by Interpol. After her father's arrest in Chile, Fujimori's father was blocked from announcing his candidacy for President of Peru in the 2006 Peruvian general election, as was his political coalition Si Cumple. Congress of Peru (2006–2011) As a result of Alberto Fujimori's arrest, those sympathetic to the ex-president created the party Alliance for the Future (Alianza por el Futuro) with the acronym AF recognizing their previous leader. With her father unable to preside over the new party, Keiko Fujimori was chosen as the party's leader and candidate, which resulted with her ending her residency in the United States. It was in this context that she finally returned to the country and ran for Congress in the general elections of 2006. At this time, she would continue to defend the actions of her father and Montesinos. On 6 January 2006, Keiko managed to get her new party included in the Peruvian Registry of Political Organizations. In that year's legislative elections, she topped the list of her party's candidates. The party's presidential candidate, Martha Chavez Cossio, running with vice presidential candidate Santiago Fujimori (Keiko's uncle), finished in fourth place, with 7.4% of the valid votes. Keiko received the most votes of any congressional candidate that year, with 602,869 votes, more than three times more than the runner up, Mercedes Cabanillas; breaking the national record for most votes received by a legislator up to that point. The Alliance received 1.4 million votes in total, or 13% of all valid votes cast, winning 13 congressional seats and becoming the fourth most powerful party in the Congress. In the night of the first vote, 9 April, Fujimori declared, "I believe that much of the support is because I am the daughter of Alberto Fujimori, and it is obvious that I am really the recipient of the caring and gratefulness that the people have for my father." She would serve as a Member of the National Congress from 26 July 2006 – 26 July 2011 for Lima. With the election of Alan Garcia to the presidency, Fujimori now became the part of the congressional opposition. Adopting a moderate tone concerning Garcia, who did not have a majority of parliament, Fujimori announced her willingness to cooperate on certain issues. During her term, she played the role of a discreet legislator who was yet a prominent spokesperson for fujimorismo until the role was handed to Carlos Raffo Arce in 2008. Of the only 20 legislative projects she proposed in five years, just 6 were approved. The majority of her proposals concerned reforms of the legal code. Fujimori and her parliamentary bloc supported various government policies, such as their fruitless reform of the Penal Code to reintroduce the death penalty for terrorists. Later, she attempted to reintroduce the death penalty for pedophilia and robbery. She authored a law that restricts penitentiary benefits for those who commit serious offenses, and another law that obligates judges to give the highest sanctions to repeat offenders. Similarly, she passed a law that reduces the jail benefits to those who are protected under the "sincere confession" provision. In September 2007, she organized demonstrations in support of her father, who was now being judged for his previous crimes. She told the press that she was confident of his acquittal because "there is no hard evidence." Fujimori insisted that her father was unaware of the crimes committed by Montesinos and other public functionaries. In December, the ex-president received his first guilty verdict and was convicted of participating in acts of corruption, murder, human rights abuses, and other charges. His daughter considered the ruling an "injustice", the result of "political and judicial persecution", saying that the Peruvian judiciary "inspires no confidence." The next year, she said that if she was elected president, she would "not hesitate" to use her presidential pardon power on her own father. On 13 January 2008, Fujimori announced the creation of a new political party, Fuerza 2011, that would nominate a candidate for 2011. It would nominate her if her father was blocked from running by the law. Other Fujimorista organizations, such as Cambio 90 and New Majority, decided to maintain their organizational independence. In April 2009, Alberto was convicted for another time, this time sentenced for 25 years of prison for crimes against humanity, specifically referring to various massacres, which left 25 people in total dead. Before the ruling, Fujimori had organized another demonstration that had managed to obtain the attendance of 10,000 people, where she challenged the existence of any evidence against her father. She attributed the ruling to "vengeance" against "the best president that we have ever had in the country." In an opinion poll taken at the time, 70% of the population believed that the ex-president was guilty, while just 27% believed he was innocent. At the same time, when asked whether they would support him for president, between 19 and 21% said that they would if he were allowed to run. Fujimori was criticized for being absent from 500 sessions of Congress, according to the publication La República. During this time, she gave birth to two daughters and needed to take maternity leave. Furthermore, she was outside of the country for a total of 223 days between August 2006 and 2010, with her primary trip destinations being Chile (5 times) and the United States (10 times), where she spent almost 100 days between January and May 2008 finishing her master's degree in Columbia University. According to the same publication, of the 42 sessions of the commission on the economy in which she was a member, she was only present for 7. Presidential campaigns 2011 general election During 2009, Keiko Fujimori began the collection of signatures to create Fuerza 2011, her own political party. Fujimori hired former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani as an advisor. On 9 March 2010, the National Jury of Elections formally recognized the political party after more than one million signatures were collected, a number that surpassed the requirement by 854,000 signatures. On 19 May, she officially launched this new political organization. On 17 December, she announced her candidacy during a campaign in a Lima neighborhood. Rafael Rey, minister of defense, Peruvian representative to the Andean Parliament and member of the conservative party National Renewal, was the first vice-presidential candidate while Jaime Yoshiyama, her father's former minister during his presidency, was the second. Throughout the entire campaign, Fujimori fiercely defended her various proposals, among them to apply the death penalty to certain crimes, create jobs, fight poverty, control public accounts, sponsor free trade, counter crime, begin an "offensive against corruption", improve the education system via a reward initiative for excellent teachers, and an accompanying system for gauging teacher skills. Her campaign was fundamentally built upon a defense of her father's government. In her opinion, that government had been responsible for defeating terrorism and stabilizing the economy. However, she also found it necessary to distance herself from the scandals that ended up ending the presidency of her father, trying to blame Montesinos for the violations of human rights and corruption while also promising to not pardon her father, a constitutional power of the president. Fujimori also recognized "errors" and "excesses" committed during her father's terms and reminded the public of her opposition to her father's third term. During the campaign for the first ballot, Fujimori became embroiled in a new scandal as she admitted to having received donations from people allegedly involved in drug trafficking during her run for Congress in 2006. She admitted to having received 10,000 dollars from two convicted women who, according to Fujimori, were victims of persecution. Opinion polls granted her high possibilities to win the presidential elections in 2011; she was leading in presidential election polls as of July 2010. In the first round of the 2011 presidential elections, Fujimori received 23.551% of the votes (3.4 million), second only to Ollanta Humala, a leftist nationalist candidate who received 31.699% of the votes. Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was third with 18.512%, followed by Alejandro Toledo and Luis Castañeda, ex-mayor of Lima. Kuczynski and Castañeda subsequently declared their support for Fujimori while Toledo declared for Humala. With 37 representatives, Fuerza 2011 became the second most powerful party in congress. Fujimori's brother, Kenji Gerardo Fujimori, was elected representative for Lima, receiving the most votes of any national candidate. The second vote was polarized. Near election date, polls indicated effectively a tie due to the margin of error. The election was also marked by fearmongering by both sides of the aisle. According to Sinesio Lopez, professor at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, "Humala's candidacy fed into fears that his political program would kill small businesses. Keiko's candidacy, meanwhile, fed into fears of a return to corruption and violation of human rights that had occurred during her father's government." Humala was also branded by his opponents as a purportedly Chavista authoritarian. As a result, both were incredibly polarizing figures, with polls showing that both encountered stern rejection from about 50% of the population during the first round of voting. According to the Barcelona Centre for International Affairs, eight million people, mostly centrists and members of the middle class, said they would be electing the "lesser evil" for the nation. In the 5 June runoff, she lost to Humala, 51.34% (7,937,704 votes) to 48.66% (7,490,647 votes). She had received the majority of her support from the business community, conservatives, the majority of the press, liberal professionals, small businesses, the church, and much of the Lima middle class. With 90% of polls closed, Fujimori admitted her defeat and personally congratulated Humala on his win. Post-campaign of 2011 After her 2011 defeat, Fujimori began to work toward a renewed campaign for 2016. Her strategy began with a small change as on 29 June 2012, she announced a new name for her party: Fuerza Popular, a change that officially took effect 4 January 2013. According to her, she had chosen a new name for the party so that it "would be able to last in the times." The logo for her party, orange with a big white "K" (for Keiko), stayed the same. Furthermore, she continued to serve as its president. The new party did not present any declaration of ideology for the electoral authorities, but she seemed to maintain the essence of fujimorismo, including the defense of neoliberal economics, financial stability, and strict security. Despite these continuities, she continued to slowly distance herself from the legacy of her father. In October 2012, Fujimori and her brothers requested a humanitarian pardon for their father, who, according to the defense, was having health problems. Fujimori herself declared "we are submitting a letter to president Ollanta Humala in order to inform him of this request for freedom. It will be personal letter from four children to inform him of the commencement of this process." In June 2013, Humala denied the request for clemency, alleging that according to a medical professional, the ex-president did not suffer from any terminal illness nor any serious and incurable mental illnesses. In January 2015, her father was convicted for a third time, this time sentenced for eight years for having been guilty for misappropriation of public funds to buy off tabloids for his 2000 election. Between 2011 and 2016, Fujimori intended to strengthen her party, travelling across the country to mitigate the hesitancy many still had toward her because of her connection to Alberto Fujimori, a factor that had been decisive in her 2011 defeat. She dedicated herself to cutting the association, including by removing corrupt members of her party and reaching out to youth. Her electoral base continued to be in Lima and the center of the country. Although she did not serve out a single public function during this period that could have increased her visibility, Fujimori led all opinion polls throughout 2015, with more than 30% support. She also benefited from an ongoing political crisis and accusations of corruption against Humala that made his approval ratings drop to just 20%. 2016 general election On 4 December 2015, Fujimori officially announced her candidacy for president in the 2016 elections. Her running mates were ex-minister of agriculture and irrigation Jose Chilmper Ackerman for first vice president and Vladimiro Huaroc Portocarrero, ex-regional governor of Junin as the second vice president. Fujimori outlined six "pillars", among them defense of institutions of a higher law, independence of powers, protection of human rights, support for limiting the armed forces, a free market, tax cuts, incentives for small businesses, use of emergency state funds to kickstart the economy, increase in supply of government bonds, and expansion of electrical and internet infrastructure in rural areas. In January 2016, there were 19 presidential candidates, but by the first vote, nine had been expelled or dropped out. César Acuña and Julio Guzmán, two of the main competitors, had been excluded according to the National Jury of Elections. The candidacy of Acuña was interrupted because he gave money to the people during the campaign and Guzmán was forced out of the race because of questions about whether his party functioned democratically. Fujimori was not free of accusations as the JNE also requested her removal from the election after it came to light that she had received donations larger than those allowed by the election laws. Fujimori countered that the accusations against her were "irresponsible" and alleged insufficient evidence. The JNE dismissed the claims as unfounded, declaring that "The candidate has not engaged in the prohibited activities of offering or giving money or gifts in the aim of obtaining votes." The outcome provoked suspicions that the original exclusionary rulings had been made in favor of Fujimori's candidacy, calling into question the clarity of the system for applying the election rules. As the first vote arrived, Fujimori maintained her lead over her competitors. With Acuña and Guzmán's disqualifications, her main opponents were now the center-right economist and former minister Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (PPK), the left-leaning psychologist and congresswoman Veronika Mendoza, and the former delegate Alfredo Barnechea. Also in the ring were Alan Garcia and Alejandro Toledo, ex-presidents whose prospects were dim because of investigations and revelations connecting them to Operation Car Wash. On the anniversary of the self-coup of 1992, more than 50,000 demonstrators, most of them called by the non-profit organization No a Keiko, protested Fujimori's candidacy with chants such as "Fujimori never more" in the Plaza San Martin. As she had done in the previous elections, she promised to not pardon her father, but promised also to continue the struggle in court for his release; she also affirmed that this was a decision taken by the whole family, not just herself. Fujimori maintained a high level of disapproval, approximately 45% according to Ipsos, deriving mainly from the negative legacy of her father who was again seeking freedom and appeals for his sentence. The appeals process intensified, bringing Keiko to distance herself from the controversial shadow of her father, vowing to not follow his path, to provide reparations to women who were allegedly sterilized under her father, and to promise to not pardon him for his crimes, signing a document during a debate symbolizing her promise. She also stated that she would not run for another election if she won the presidency. She also supported the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, responsible for detailing the human rights violations committed between 1980 and 2000 by both the Shining Path Insurgency and the government, for the first time. Polls indicated that she placed first in the first round of voting on 10 April, garnering approximately 40% of the vote over opponents Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Verónika Mendoza who each received approximately 20%. Fuerza Popular obtained an absolute majority in the congress, garnering 73 of 130 available seats. After learning of the results, Fujimori said, "The new political map that has been drawn clearly shows us that Peru wants reconciliation and does not want any more violence." However, as no candidate had obtained a majority of votes for president, a second vote would be scheduled for 5 June. In this next stage of the campaign, Fujimori traveled across the country, especially to where her father continued to maintain a steady level of popularity, while PPK talked about possible allies and intended to present himself as a centrist candidate capable of winning over the antifujimorista vote. Fujimori continued to be the favorite according to polls, but her campaign suffered a major setback: as the election approached, accusations surfaced of connections between drug trafficking and Congressman Joaquín Ramírez, Secretary General of Fuerza Popular and one of Fujimori's principle aids. On 15 May 2016, Peruvian news program Cuarto Poder broadcast a report conducted with Univisión that alleging that Ramírez was being investigated by the DEA for money laundering. According to the report, the DEA had a recording in which Ramirez told a commercial pilot, "Do you know that China [referring to Keiko] gave me 15 million dollars during the last campaign in order to "clean" them for the 2011 campaign, and that I 'cleaned' them through a chain of faucets?" The DEA denied that there was any investigation into Fujimori, who denied any involvement in the case or having in fact ever given any money to Ramirez. Her image continue to take a hit, primarily due to fears that the country would turn into a narco-state with her election, fears that were stoked by her rival PPK. At the same time, prosecutors announced they would be investigating suspicions of money laundering and other irregularities in Fujimori's campaign, which she dismissed as simply a smear campaign. In the final days before the vote, the leaders of the left, such as Mendoza, announced their support for PPK. At the beginning of June, another march organized by several left-leaning organizations against Fujimori garnered thousands of demonstraters in Lima, an event shared considerably via social media under the title "it is not hate, it is love for Peru." According to analysts, this second march was decisive in those not yet decided showing support for the PPK. In a very contested election, Fujimori trailed Pedro Pablo Kuczynski according to exit polls as ballots were counted late into the evening on 5 June 2016. The recount took up copious amounts of time after election day. Due to the narrow margin involved, the national (and international, to a lesser degree) press only began to consider PPK as the new "virtual president" on 9 June, four days after the original vote. At that point, PPK had obtained 50.12% of the vote, compared with 49.88% for Fujimori. On 10 June, Fujimori admitted her defeat, saying that her party had a "vigilant" opposition and wishing the new president elect well. On the other hand, Fujimori also claimed that the PPK had won with the help of "promoters of hatred" and "the political, economic, and media power of the outgoing government." Kuczynski had won by a narrow margin of less than half a percentage point, and was sworn in as president on 28 July. Post-campaign of 2016 After the 2016 elections, Fujimori continued to be the main leader of the opposition against PPK's government presiding over the parliamentary majority, while defending herself from accusations of having maintained a controversial relationship with the Odebrecht conglomerate. In December 2017, she supported the first impeachment process against Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, though he pardoned her father Alberto Fujimori on 24 December 2018 three days after the impeachment process failed. Her brother, Kenji Fujimori, declared his opposition to such a move, which worsened a growing rift between the siblings over their father's legacy and control of the opposition. In March 2018, PPK resigned having been accused of buying votes against his impeachment. At the time, Kenji was recorded negotiating for votes in favor of PPK's acquittal, dubbed his kenjivideos, in return for a pardon for his father, a deal which PPK ended up following through with. When she found out about the videos, Keiko, accused of being partly responsible for the leak of the recordings, condemned her brother's actions. Upon his expulsion from Congress in June 2018, Kenji responded, "Keiko, congratulations! Here you have my head on a platter." During the second round of elections in 2016, Kenji did not vote for his own sister because he refused to compromise on the freedom of their father or have a discourse on his errors. When he lost a challenge to become leader of Fuerza Popular, Kenji promised to run for president in 2021, something that his sister was also planning to do for the third time, this time in a new party that would split from Fuerza Popular along with other dissidents in the party. When PPK resigned on 23 March 2017, the presidency was passed to civil engineer Martín Vizcarra, with Fujimori welcoming him and wished for his "success" through a tweet the same day. Nevertheless, she heavily criticized Vizcarra's 2018 Peruvian constitutional referendum since included on the ballot was whether citizens supported the re-election of congressmen and the return of a bicameral legislature. She claimed that the ballot items "are evidence of centrist populism", asked the president to "stop seeing congress members as your enemies", and was empowered to make as the parliamentary majority leader to attempt to defeat the measures through the referendum. Arrest and temporary imprisonment On 10 October 2018, Fujimori was arrested and placed in provisional detention on charges of money laundering days after the Supreme Court of Peru nullified the pardon of her father, ordering him back to prison. The arrest came at the request of the Public Ministry, who accused her of illegally receiving money from Odebrecht during her campaign in 2011 as part of the Lava Jato corruption scandal. The arrest order stated that she led a "criminal organization inside of Fuerza 2011 [today Fuerza Popular]." In response, Fujimori wrote, "this is what we call political persecution ... without evidence against me, I am deprived of liberty, but still with my head held high and my spirit intact." On 18 October, she was let go as her appeal was accepted by the National Audience. On 31 October, she was arrested again when she was again sentenced to 3 years of pretrial detention for money laundering and "a high risk of escaping", as per the decision by judge Richard Concepcion Carhuancho. Fujimori appealed yet again to be set free but the appeal was rejected by the Superior Court of Justice in January 2019. By August of that year, the Supreme Court, due to an impasse between its members, delayed their decision on her appeal. During the investigations, in September, the publication La Republica revealed that Fujimori had used a pseudonym together with the rest of her party's leadership in a Telegram group chat called "Titanic Group" where she made the most important party decisions under the name Ruth. By the beginning of December, Jose Camayo, a businessman investigated for the "White Collar Port" case involved with Fuerza Popular, declared before the Operation Car Wash Special Team that Señora K, a person accused of corruption, was in fact Keiko Fujimori herself, something that was later denied by her, and yet still had a significant impact on the ongoing investigation. In January 2020, the tribunal decided, four votes to three, to grant her habeas corpus on the grounds that the preventative detention sentence was invalid for its violation of her liberty. Shortly afterward, her husband Mark Vito began a hunger strike in a camp installed in front of the prison where she was detained. On 28 January, the judge Victor Zuniga Urday re-imposed a preventive prison for 15 months on the charges of money laundering from the Odebrecht company. On 30 April 2020, a Peruvian appeals court overturned her 15-month detention order and granted her a conditional release from prison. She was finally released on bail on 5 May 2020. 2021 general election After a few months out of the spotlight despite still leading her party, on 25 September 2020, she announced her total return to politics. A month later, 30 November, still under investigation by the Operation Car Wash team, she tweeted that she was officially announcing her candidacy as the Fuerza Popular's presidential candidate with her ballot partners ex-congressional president Luis Galarreta as first vice president and the former lawyer and director of National Solidarity, Patricia Juarez as second vice president. Fujimori's party helped lead the controversial removal of Martín Vizcarra and his replacement by Manuel Merino, which resulted with the 2020 Peruvian protests. The protests were violently put down, resulting in the deaths of two college students among the protestors. Shortly after their deaths, Fujimori lamented what had happened and also considered the current situation as "unsustainable", calling for Merino to step down or else he "should be censured right here right now", a move she believed a majority of Congress would support. On 9 December, she officially won the internal party elections to be come Fuerza Popular's candidate for the 2021 election. The campaign got off to a rocky start as on the same day as a victory, a poll by Peru21 released a national Datum poll which revealed that 63% of Peruvians said they would "never vote" for her. Then, on 21 December, the National Jury of Elections declared that Fuerza Popular's presidential board was "inadmissible" and gave them two days to follow their instructions. In the end, the board was finally revised and admitted. She has said that she wanted to be a president with a "heavy hand" and "authority", proposing increased legal protection on law enforcement. She has called for the construction of more prisons to reduce overcrowding and to offer more instances of probation for small crime offenders. In a break with previous elections in which she promised not to pardon her father, Fujimori emphasized her closeness to his legacy during this election, stating that "after conversations that I have had with my father, through letters and during the year he's recently had in freedom, we've been able to get much closer and understand things about each other" as well as expressing that his presidency "was not a dictatorship, despite some moments of authoritarianism", and making clear a renewed promise to pardon her father if elected. She proposed a large stimulus to voters that would represent three percent of Peru's annual gross domestic product, possibly increasing the low national debt that exists in Peru. Throughout the presidential campaign, she was among the frontrunners in opinion polling. Following the first round election, Fujimori gave a speech in which she framed the runoff as a battle between "markets and Marxism", framing her second round opponent Pedro Castillo as a communist. Americas Society/Council of the Americas wrote that a Fujimori presidency would bring the appearance of maintaining the status quo in Peru, but it would make the nation "far from stable." Election aftermath After Castillo took the lead during the ballot-counting process in the second round of elections, Fujimori disseminated unsubstantiated claims of electoral fraud. According to The Guardian, various international observers countered Fujimori's claims, stating that the election process was conducted in accordance with international standards, with electoral observers from the Inter-American Union of Electoral Organizations, the Organization of American States, and the Progressive International denying any instances of widespread fraud while also praising the accuracy of the elections. Fujimori's statements about possibly overturning the election were described as being inspired by the attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election by former U.S. president Donald Trump. The Guardian also reported that analysts and political observers criticized Fujimori's remarks, noting that it made her appear desperate after losing her third presidential run in a ten-year period. If elected into the presidency, criminal investigations against Fujimori would have been suspended until July 2026, with Anne Applebaum writing in The Atlantic that "the personal stakes are high. ... Fujimori previously spent a year in jail while awaiting trial for allegedly collecting illegal campaign contributions, and she could conceivably be sent back." In December 2021, prosecutor José Domingo Pérez reported that Fujimori received one million dollars from the Odebrecht Department of Structured Operations that was delivered through offshore intermediary accounts of Gonzalo Monteverde's company Construmaq. Domingo stated that he held 1,900 pieces of evidence to determine that a criminal group existed within Popular Force. 2026 bid for the presidency On 27 December 2022, General Secretary of Popular Force Luis Galarreta suggested that Fujimori is preparing to be a candidate in Peru's next presidential election, despite her denial of interest in running. The statement was seen as a possible accidental admission of her plans, since she had previously denied interest in running again after her losses in 2011 and 2016 before ultimately doing so. Public and political image Fujimori has continued to promote her father's ideology of Fujimorism within Peru and her political career was her father's idea. The New York Times wrote that her political movement was created "to help whitewash" her father Alberto's legacy. She has been described as having an authoritarian, centre-right, right-wing populist, and far-right political ideology. According to Fujimori, she believes in leading Peru with a "heavy hand" and that democracy "cannot be weak ... must be supported by a solid principle of authority." She has based some of her support from the Peruvian elite of European-descent. Michael Shifter, professor and president of Inter-American Dialogue, admitted that Fujimori has "definite political skill" and "has constructed a base of support." However, he considers the holdover of many of her father's officials in her own team as something that "generates resistance in parts of society that still have very bad memories from years defined by violation of human rights, corruption, and a polarized political climate." Despite attempts to craft her and her father's image as being moderate, anti-Fujimorism is considered one of the most important political forces in Peru. According to a poll taken by Ipsos in March 2016, 27% of voters "definitely would not vote" for her. Fujimori's Popular Force party, which held a majority within the Congress of Peru until its dissolution in 2019, has little public support in Peru. In early 2018, Fujimori saw approval rating of about 30%. By July 2018, her public approval had dropped to 14% and her disapproval had increased to more than 88%, with the drop in her approval rating being correlated with allegations that placed her in the midst of the Odebrecht scandal. Prior to first round presidential elections in 2021, Ipsos polls found that 66.3% of respondents definitely would not vote for her, 7.1% probably would not vote for her, 16.3% probably would vote for her, and 7% definitely would vote for her. References Bibliography External links Biography in-depth by CIDOB Foundation Analysis of Keiko Fujimori by Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA) Official site of his period 2006–2011 in the Congress of the Republic of Peru 1975 births Boston University School of Management alumni Candidates for President of Peru Children of presidents of Peru Columbia Business School alumni First ladies of Peru Keiko Fujimorista politicians Living people Members of the Congress of the Republic of Peru Peruvian anti-communists Peruvian politicians of Japanese descent Peruvian women in business 21st-century Peruvian politicians 21st-century Peruvian women politicians Anti-abortion activists Politicians from Lima Peruvian women activists Women members of the Congress of the Republic of Peru
4643464	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajon%20Rondo	Rajon Rondo	Rajon Pierre Rondo (, born February 22, 1986) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). A point guard, Rondo played two years of college basketball for the Kentucky Wildcats before being drafted 21st overall by the Phoenix Suns in the 2006 NBA draft and subsequently traded to the Celtics in a draft-day trade. Rondo is a two-time NBA champion, four-time NBA All-Star, has earned four NBA All-Defensive Team honors including two First Team honors, and was named to the All-NBA Third Team in 2012. During his time in Boston, Rondo helped the Celtics advance to the NBA Finals in 2008 and 2010, winning a championship in 2008 as the team's starting point guard. Rondo is known to be a versatile facilitator in the NBA, leading the league in assists three times and in steals once; he also ranks fourth in Celtics history in assists and third in steals. Rondo has sometimes been described as a "stat-sheet stuffer", ranking 13th in NBA history for triple-doubles with 32 in the regular season, and fifth in NBA history for triple-doubles with 10 in the playoffs. After seasons with the Celtics, Rondo was traded to the Dallas Mavericks in December 2014. Following a tumultuous five-month stint he turned into a journeyman, joining the Sacramento Kings, Chicago Bulls, New Orleans Pelicans, Los Angeles Lakers (two stints), Atlanta Hawks, Los Angeles Clippers, Cleveland Cavaliers over the next years. With the Lakers, he won a second championship in 2020. Early life Rondo was born on February 22, 1986, in Louisville, Kentucky. He has three siblings. He had little contact with his father, who left his family when he was seven years old. To support the family, his mother worked the third shift at Philip Morris USA, a tobacco company. Rondo was first interested in football, before his mother steered him towards basketball because she felt that the sport would be less punishing on his skinny frame. After Rondo became serious about basketball, he attended Louisville's Eastern High School for three years. During his junior year at Eastern High School, he averaged 27.9 points, 10.0 rebounds and 7.5 assists which earned him a spot on the All-State honors and was named the 7th Region Player of the Year. He transferred to Virginia's Oak Hill Academy for his senior year where he averaged 21.0 points per game (ppg), 3.0 rebounds per game (rpg) and 12.0 assists per game (apg) and finished the 2003–04 season with a 38–0 record. In his senior year at Oak Hill Academy, Rondo broke Jeff McInnis's single-season school record of 303 assists, while averaging a double-double. There, he included two efforts of 27 assists and a single-game school record of 31, merely four away from the all-time national record. He also had a 55-point game in high-school, second highest all-time in Oak Hill Academy, surpassed only by Calvin Duncan with 61. Rondo was named to the McDonald's All-American Team in 2004 and scored a total of 14 points, 4 assists and 4 rebounds in the all-star game. He also participated in the 2004 Jordan Brand Capital Classic game, logging 12 points, 5 assists and 4 steals. Rondo was also named a second-team Parade All-American. He ended his career as Oak Hill Academy's all-time assists leader in a single season with 494 assists, surpassing McInnis. College career Rondo committed to Kentucky over hometown Louisville. Rondo, along with All-Americans Joe Crawford and Randolph Morris, gave coach Tubby Smith and Kentucky the top-rated recruiting class for 2004 according to Rivals.com. Rondo led Kentucky to several wins including victories against Louisville, South Carolina and Central Florida, but Kentucky failed to advance to the Final Four of the NCAA Tournament in either Rondo's freshman or sophomore seasons. He was named to the SEC All-Freshmen Team. He set a Kentucky record for most steals in single-season, with a total of 87 steals in his freshman year and made at least one steal in every game. He finished his freshman year at Kentucky averaging 8.1 points, 2.9 rebounds, 3.5 assists and 2.6 steals. In his sophomore year he had a career-high 12 assists against Ole Miss, despite playing just 23 minutes, and 25 points against Louisville. Rondo also set another Kentucky record for most rebounds in a game by a guard, with 19 rebounds in an early season loss to Iowa. He was not known for being a shooter, however, going 18–66 from the three-point line with a 57.1 percent free throw average. He averaged 11.2 points, 6.1 rebounds, 4.9 assists and 2.1 steals per game in his sophomore year. Rondo was also named to the U.S. men's national under-21 basketball team, which traveled to Argentina for the 2005 FIBA Under-21 World Championship. He averaged 11.0 points and 4.5 assists in the eight-game tournament, garnering much attention from NBA scouts. The U.S. men's national under-21 basketball team won the gold medal at the Global Games held in Texas in late July. Professional career Boston Celtics (2006–2014) 2006 NBA draft Following the 2005–06 NCAA season, Rondo announced he would forgo his final two seasons at Kentucky and enter the NBA draft. Rondo was drafted 21st overall by the Phoenix Suns in the 2006 NBA draft. Phoenix then traded him to the Boston Celtics along with Brian Grant for the Cleveland Cavaliers' first-round draft pick in the 2007 NBA draft and cash considerations. He was the first point guard to be chosen in the draft. In another draft-day deal, the Celtics acquired Sebastian Telfair from the Portland Trail Blazers, finally uniting the backcourt Rick Pitino had envisioned at Louisville. He was signed by the Boston Celtics on July 4, 2006. 2006–07 season: Rookie year During his rookie season in the NBA, Rondo played a supporting role and would split time with Sebastian Telfair and Delonte West. Rondo only started in 25 games that season due to his initial backup role to Telfair. He made his NBA regular season debut on November 1, 2006, in a home loss against the New Orleans Hornets. In his rookie season, he lacked on his jump shot which resulted in him slashing to the basket for a teardrop or layup. While coming off the bench, he managed to score a career-high 23 points against the Toronto Raptors, and record his first career double-double in a road losing effort against the Washington Wizards. In his first career start, he matched his career-high against the Los Angeles Clippers, though the line-ups were constantly being shuffled between Telfair and Rondo at the point guard. After officially becoming a starter, he began to receive more playing time (career-high 47 minutes of playing time) that led to an improvement in production (career-high 14 rebounds against the San Antonio Spurs, and a career-high 7 steals against the Indiana Pacers). As the mid-season approached, his numbers began to increase, which earned him an NBA All-Rookie Second Team selection. He finished the season with an average of 6.4 ppg and 3.8 apg, ranking in the top ten in the NBA in steals (128) and also ranking in the top ten among rookies in several other categories, including first in steals, second in assists and sixth in minutes. In the end, however, the Celtics finished the season with a 24–58 win–loss record and failed to qualify for the playoffs. 2007–08 season: First championship After Telfair and West were traded during the off-season of the 2007–08 season, Rondo secured a spot in the starting lineup, starting in every game. Surrounded by All-Stars Kevin Garnett, Paul Pierce and Ray Allen, he quickly became a steady, consistent player. In his 77 games played, he averaged 10.6 points per game (ppg), 5.1 assists per game (apg) and 4.2 rebounds per game (rpg). His role as a playmaker reflected in him leading the team in assists and steals. In a game against the New Jersey Nets, Rondo suffered a lower back injury late in the third quarter, forcing him to miss the next four games. He made his successful return from injury and to the starting lineup in a road win against the New York Knicks. A week later, he matched his career-high against the Miami Heat, and then scored a career-high 24 points in a home game against the Los Angeles Clippers the following month. During the All-Star break, he was selected to play on the Sophomore Team in the T-Mobile Rookie Challenge and Youth Jam. Following the All-Star weekend, Rondo recorded a career-high 16 assists in a home victory against the Charlotte Bobcats. Despite his solid rookie year, there was much speculation about Boston needing a veteran point guard. In March, they signed veteran point guard Sam Cassell as a free agent to serve as a backup. The Celtics' best single-season improvement in NBA history earned them the number one seed in the Eastern Conference Playoffs. Following the regular season, Rondo finished in the top five for the NBA Most Improved Player voting. Rondo made his playoff debut on April 20, 2008, against the Atlanta Hawks and finished the game with 15 points, 9 assists and 2 steals. The Celtics closed out the series in seven games, went on to defeat Cleveland in the next round, and then beat the Pistons in the Eastern Conference Finals. In the NBA Finals, facing the Los Angeles Lakers, Rondo recorded two strong performances, including a career-high 16 assists in Game 2. In Game 3, however, Rondo left the court in the third quarter after rolling his ankle. The ankle injury was considered a "non-factor," and Rondo eventually made his return in Game 4. In Game 6, the point guard posted a playoffs career-high 6 steals as the Celtics defeated the Lakers 4–2, giving Rondo his first NBA championship ring. After the game Lakers head coach Phil Jackson called Rondo the "star" of Game 6. 2008–09 season: Breakthrough In his third NBA campaign, the Celtics began the season with the best starting record in NBA history and also set a franchise record with a nineteen-game winning streak. Rondo's numbers increased from his previous season performance; however, he was criticized for his shooting. He recorded his first career triple-double along with a career-high in assists (16 points, 13 rebounds and 17 assists), against the Indiana Pacers. In a home win against the New York Knicks, Rondo led the team to tie a franchise record with 18 straight wins. However, after the winning streak was snapped, the team struggled as they lost seven out of their next nine games. Rondo—matched up with one of the league's quicker guards, Tony Parker—recorded 16 assists in a losing effort against the Spurs, one short of his season-high. Less than a week later against the Mavericks, he recorded his second career triple-double (19 points, 15 rebounds and 14 assists), and then recorded a career-high 32 points against the Phoenix Suns on his 23rd birthday. He became the first NBA athlete to sign an endorsement contract with Red Bull on April 17, 2009. He finished the season ranking fifth in the NBA in assists (8.2) and steals (1.9). The team finished the season as the second seed in the Eastern Conference, although they entered the playoffs without their injured All-Star power forward Kevin Garnett. In the playoffs match-up against the Chicago Bulls, despite putting up a playoff career-high 29 points in Game 1, the Celtics lost in overtime. Boston won the next two games and in Games 2 and 4, Rondo recorded triple-doubles and became the first Celtic player with two triple-doubles in the same series since Larry Bird in 1986. He also became the first player with multiple triple-doubles in the same playoff series since Jason Kidd had three triple-doubles in the 2002 Eastern Conference Finals. In Game 6, he recorded a career-high 19 assists without a turnover, tying an NBA playoffs record. In the next round against the Orlando Magic, the Celtics lost the first game before Rondo's triple-double performance in Game 2 helped secure a home win. His third triple-double of the postseason tied Larry Bird's franchise record and also became the first to do that since Jason Kidd had four. However, the Celtics were defeated in seven games in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. During the postseason, Rondo nearly averaged a triple double with 16.9 points, 9.7 rebounds and 9.8 assists. 2009–10 season: First All-Star selection During the 2009–10 season, Rondo averaged career highs in points (13.7), assists (9.8) and steals (2.3) and became the first Celtic to lead the league in steals. On November 2, 2009, Rondo signed a five-year extension with the Celtics worth a guaranteed $55 million. In a road victory against the Orlando Magic on Christmas day, Rondo recorded 17 points, 13 rebounds and 8 assists, two assists shy of a triple double. Three days later, Rondo scored 30 points with 15 assists in a road loss to the Golden State Warriors. On January 10, 2010, Rondo recorded his third regular-season career triple-double, with 22 points, 13 assists and 10 rebounds against the Toronto Raptors. On January 28, 2010, he received his first NBA All-Star selection as a reserve on the Eastern Conference squad for the 2010 NBA All-Star Game. He also competed in the 2010 H-O-R-S-E contest but lost in the finals to Kevin Durant. Rondo recorded his fourth regular-season career triple-double against the Denver Nuggets on March 24, 2010, with 11 points, 15 assists and 11 rebounds. Two days later against the Sacramento Kings, Rondo entered the game tied with Rick Fox for a franchise record of most steals in a single-season (167), eventually establishing the record with a second-quarter steal from Sean May. In a game against the Houston Rockets on April 2, 2010, he broke Bob Cousy's franchise record for most assists in a single-season. In the 2010 NBA Playoffs, the Celtics defeated the Miami Heat in five games and faced the Cleveland Cavaliers in the second round. In Game 2, Rondo dished out 19 assists tying his career-high and also tying a franchise record for most assists in a playoff game. In Game 4, he recorded his fourth postseason triple-double along with a playoff career-high 29 points and 18 rebounds. He joined Wilt Chamberlain and Oscar Robertson as the only other player in NBA history to have 29 points, 18 rebounds and 13 assists in a playoff game. The Celtics eventually defeated the Cavaliers and the Orlando Magic in the Eastern Conference Finals in six games. In the Finals, the Celtics once again faced the Los Angeles Lakers, a team they previously beat in 2008. In Game 2, Rondo recorded his second triple-double of the postseason (19 points, 12 rebounds and 10 assists), however, despite Rondo's performance, the Celtics succumbed to the Lakers in seven games. 2010–11 season: Surging popularity In the first game of the 2010–11 season, Rondo put up 17 assists, which tied with Oscar Robertson for the third-most assists in a season opener. In the third game of the season, he dished out a career-high 24 assists along with a triple-double (10 points and 10 rebounds) against the New York Knicks. It tied him with Isiah Thomas as the only players in NBA history to have at least 24 assists in a triple-double. His total of 50 assists through the first three games of the season tied John Stockton's NBA record for most assists in the first 3 games of the season. In the next game against the Detroit Pistons, he finished the game with 17 assists for a total of 67 assists, which is the most assists in the team's first four games in NBA history. With a 15 assists effort the following day, Rondo again set a record for most assists through the first five games. Rondo's season also began with injuries. He played through plantar fasciitis in his feet. He missed three games in November due to a strained left hamstring. He sprained his left ankle in a win against the New York Knicks on December 15, 2010, and missed the next seven games. On April 22, in the third game of the first-round playoff series against the New York Knicks, Rondo had a triple-double with 20 assists. Rondo set a Celtics franchise record for most assists in a playoff game. He was also tied with LeBron James with 6 career triple-doubles in the playoffs until James reached his seventh further on in the playoffs during Game 4 of the Finals. Rondo had the third best selling jersey in the league during the 2010–11 season, behind only James and Kobe Bryant. 2011–12 season: All-NBA selection On February 21, 2012, Rondo was named an injury replacement for Joe Johnson on the Eastern Conference roster at the 2012 NBA All-Star Game. With 18 points, 17 rebounds, and 20 assists against the Knicks on March 4, he joined Wilt Chamberlain, Magic Johnson, and Jason Kidd as the only players to have at least 15 points, rebounds, and assists in the same game. In a win against the Heat on April 1, Rondo registered another triple-double (16 points, 14 assists and 11 rebounds). Rondo closed out the regular season with 24 consecutive games of 10 or more assists. This is not only a Celtics franchise record, but is also the longest streak the NBA has seen since John Stockton logged a streak of 29 such games in 1992. This streak was still considered active and resumed at the beginning of the 2012–13 regular season. Rondo posted his sixth triple-double of the season (with 20 assists) in an overtime win against the Hawks on April 11. He had his first triple double of the 2012 playoffs against the same team on May 4, another on May 13 in the first game of the second round against the 76ers, and a third on May 26 in the last game of that round, helping the Celtics advance to the Eastern Conference finals. He joined Larry Bird as the only Celtics players to record a triple-double in a Game 7. In Game 2 of the Eastern Conference Finals, Rondo scored a career-high 44 points while grabbing 8 rebounds and adding 10 assists. According to the Elias Sports Bureau, Rondo is the only player in NBA history with 44 points, 10 assists, and 8 rebounds in a playoff game. On June 6, 2012, Rondo passed Bob Cousy for having 39 playoff games of 10 or more assists, making him the Celtics' all-time leader in that area. Rondo recorded another triple double in the seventh game of the Eastern Conference Finals, but the Celtics lost to the Miami Heat, ending their playoff run. This tenth playoff triple-double tied Rondo for third (with fellow Celtic Larry Bird) among NBA career leaders. 2012–13 season: Season-ending injury Rondo began the season with 24 consecutive games of 10+ assists. He continued that streak, and recorded his 37th game with 10+ assists against the Orlando Magic on November 25, 2012, matching John Stockton's longest streak. Only Magic Johnson had a longer streak (46 games). The streak ended the next game against the Brooklyn Nets, when he was ejected for fighting with Kris Humphries after Humphries fouled Rondo's teammate Kevin Garnett. Humphries was also ejected, along with Brooklyn's Gerald Wallace, who was accused of escalating the incident. Rondo only recorded three assists before he was ejected. Rondo was voted the starting point guard spot for the 2013 NBA All-Star Game, but on January 27, 2013, during a game with the Miami Heat, it was revealed that Rondo had torn his ACL and would miss the remainder of the season. Rondo still led the NBA in assists in the season. 2013–14 season: Comeback On January 15, 2014, Rondo was assigned to the Maine Red Claws of the NBA D-League for training and rehab purposes. Later that day, he was recalled by the Celtics. On January 17, 2014, Rondo made his season debut with the Celtics, nearly a year after tearing his ACL. In 19 minutes of game time, he recorded 8 points, 4 assists and 2 rebounds in a 104–107 loss to the Los Angeles Lakers. Upon his return, he was named the 15th captain in Boston Celtics history. On February 2, 2014, in a 96–89 win over the Magic, Rondo recorded his first double-double since his injury (19 points, 10 assists). On April 4, 2014, Rondo recorded his first triple-double of the season with 11 points, 11 rebounds and 16 assists, in a 102–111 loss to the Philadelphia 76ers. 2014–15 season: Final year in Boston On September 26, 2014, Rondo was ruled out for six to eight weeks after undergoing surgery to repair a broken left hand. The injury was a result of a fall at his home the night before. After missing the entire preseason, Rondo returned for the regular season opener on October 29 and recorded 13 points, 12 assists and seven rebounds in 30 minutes to help the Celtics beat the Brooklyn Nets 121–105. On November 5, he recorded 13 points, 10 rebounds and 15 assists against the Toronto Raptors. On December 2, he recorded 19 assists and 12 rebounds against the Atlanta Hawks. On December 7, he recorded 13 points, 13 rebounds and 11 assists against the Washington Wizards. On December 10, he recorded 12 points, 10 rebounds and 10 assists against the Charlotte Hornets. On December 17, in his final game as a Celtic, Rondo recorded 13 points, 15 assists and seven rebounds in a 109–92 win over the Orlando Magic. Dallas Mavericks (2014–2015) On December 18, 2014, Rondo was traded, along with Dwight Powell, to the Dallas Mavericks in exchange for Jae Crowder, Jameer Nelson, Brandan Wright, a 2015 first-round pick and a 2016 second-round pick. He made his debut for the Mavericks two days later, scoring six points on 3-for-11 shooting to go with nine assists and seven rebounds in a 99–93 win over the San Antonio Spurs. In his return to Boston on January 2, 2015, Rondo scored a career-high 15 first-quarter points, finishing with a season-best 29 to lead Dallas to a 119–101 victory. Rondo also had a career-high five 3-pointers and finished with six rebounds and five assists. Throughout January however, cracks began to appear in the relationship between Rondo and the Mavericks. Rondo struggled to fit in the Mavericks' system, and he often butted heads with head coach Rick Carlisle. While there were no reported issues off the court, Rondo's lack of chemistry with his teammates was noticeable throughout the season. And while the Mavericks' defense slightly improved with the acquisition of Rondo, their offense took a noticeable step backward, dropping from the best in the league to fourth in points per game by late February. In late April, Rondo and the Mavericks mutually agreed to part ways following a tumultuous end to the season. Rondo was benched after Game 2 of the Mavericks' first-round playoff series against the Houston Rockets and didn't play again as Dallas was eliminated in five games. The team claimed that a back injury had sidelined Rondo indefinitely, but reports later surfaced that that was simply to "save face" after the two sides decided to part ways. His teammates also reportedly opted not to give him a playoff share. Sacramento Kings (2015–2016) On July 13, 2015, Rondo signed a one-year, $10 million contract with the Sacramento Kings. He made his debut for the Kings in their season opener on October 28, 2015, recording four points, seven rebounds and four assists in a 111–104 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. Two days later, he recorded 21 points and eight assists in a 132–114 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On November 13, he recorded his third triple-double in four games and 25th of his career with 23 points, 10 rebounds and 14 assists in a 111–109 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On November 18, he recorded his fourth triple-double of the season with 12 points, 12 rebounds and 10 assists in a 103–97 loss to the Atlanta Hawks. On November 23, he recorded 14 points and a franchise-high 20 assists in a 127–122 overtime loss to the Charlotte Hornets. On November 27, he had 16 points and 16 assists in a 101–91 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves. He became the first player since 1977–78 to have 16 points, 16 assists and no turnovers in a game. Rondo was ejected from the Kings' December 3 game against the Boston Celtics by Bill Kennedy, and in response, Rondo called Kennedy a "faggot". Kennedy publicly came out as gay just over a week later, and Rondo was suspended by the NBA for one game without pay on December 14. After posting two statements on Twitter that were widely panned as not being apologetic, Rondo issued a more contrite apology on December 15. On January 23, 2016, Rondo recorded his fifth triple-double of the season with 11 points, 10 rebounds and 10 assists in a 108–97 win over the Indiana Pacers. Two days later, he had 20 assists and 10 rebounds in a 129–128 double-overtime loss to the Hornets, thus recording 10 or more assists in 12 straight games, a Sacramento record. The streak ended at 14 games. On February 19, he recorded a near triple-double with a then season-high 24 points, 10 rebounds, nine assists and five steals in a 116–110 win over the Denver Nuggets. On February 29, Rondo had 11 points, 12 assists and nine rebounds in a 131–116 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder. He reached double figures in assists for the 39th time in 2015–16, tying a Sacramento record established by Reggie Theus in 1985–86. On March 25, he had 12 assists against the Phoenix Suns and passed Theus' record. On April 5, he recorded his sixth triple-double of the season with a season-high 27 points, 12 assists and 10 rebounds in a 115–107 loss to the Portland Trail Blazers, setting a Kings franchise record for triple-doubles in a season. Chicago Bulls (2016–2017) On July 7, 2016, Rondo signed a two-year, $28 million contract with the Chicago Bulls. He made his debut for the Bulls in their season opener on October 27, recording 4 points, 6 rebounds, 9 assists and 2 steals in a 105–99 win over the Boston Celtics. On November 10, he had a then season-best game with 16 points and 12 assists in a 98–95 win over the Miami Heat. On December 2, he recorded his first triple-double of the season with 15 points, 12 assists and 11 rebounds in a 111–105 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. Three days later, he was suspended by the Bulls for one game for conduct detrimental to the team. On January 10, 2017, Rondo scored 12 points against the Washington Wizards in his first game since December 30. In that December 30 game, he posted a plus-minus rating of minus-20 during 11 first-half minutes in Chicago's 111–101 loss to the Indiana Pacers. He was subsequently removed from coach Fred Hoiberg's rotation for five games before being reinserted following injuries to Dwyane Wade and Jimmy Butler. On March 13, 2017, he scored a season-high 20 points and had six assists and seven rebounds in his first start since December 30 as the Bulls beat the Charlotte Hornets 115–109. He bested that mark on March 21, scoring 24 points in a 122–120 overtime loss to the Toronto Raptors. On April 1, he had a season-high 25 points and added 11 rebounds in a 106–104 win over the Atlanta Hawks. On April 21, Rondo was ruled out indefinitely after breaking his right thumb in Game 2 of the Bulls' first-round playoff series against the Celtics. While the Bulls went up 2–0 in the series with Rondo, they never found their rhythm over the final four games without Rondo; as a result, they lost to the Celtics in six games. On June 30, 2017, he was waived by the Bulls. New Orleans Pelicans (2017–2018) On July 19, 2017, Rondo signed a one-year, $3.3 million contract with the New Orleans Pelicans. On October 8, 2017, he was diagnosed with a sports hernia. Two days later, he underwent surgery and was ruled out for four to six weeks. He made his debut for the Pelicans on November 13, 2017, against the Atlanta Hawks, recording two points and two assists in about five minutes in the first half. He made his first start of the season two days later, recording four points and eight assists in 14 minutes in a 125–116 loss to the Toronto Raptors. On December 10, 2017, he recorded 13 points and 18 assists in a 131–124 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. On December 27, 2017, he set a franchise record with a career-high 25 assists in a 128–113 win over the Brooklyn Nets. He broke Chris Paul's mark with his 22nd assist and became just the seventh player in NBA history to reach 25 assists in a game, joining Scott Skiles, John Stockton, Jason Kidd, Kevin Johnson, Nate McMillan and Isiah Thomas. On January 8, 2018, Rondo had 12 points and 15 assists in a 112–109 win over the Detroit Pistons. He had nine of his assists in the first quarter, tying a franchise record. On February 10, 2018, he recorded 25 points, 12 assists and 10 rebounds in a 138–128 double overtime win over the Brooklyn Nets. In the Pelicans' regular season finale on April 11, 2018, Rondo had 19 points and 14 assists in a 122–98 win over the San Antonio Spurs. In Game 1 of the Pelicans' first-round playoff series against the Portland Trail Blazers, Rondo tied a franchise record with 17 assists to go with eight rebounds and six points in a 97–95 win. In Game 2, Rondo had 16 points, 10 rebounds and nine assists in a 111–102 win. In Game 4, Rondo had 16 assists, as the Pelicans completed a first-round sweep of the Trail Blazers with a 131–123 victory. In the second round against the Golden State Warriors, Rondo had 21 assists in Game 3, the Pelicans' only win before being eliminated in five games. Los Angeles Lakers (2018–2020) 2018–19 season: Missing playoffs On July 6, 2018, Rondo signed a one-year, $9 million contract with the Los Angeles Lakers, who expected him to mentor and compete with second-year point guard Lonzo Ball. In his debut for the Lakers in their season opener on October 18, Rondo recorded 13 points and 11 assists in a 128–119 loss to the Portland Trail Blazers. Two days later, in a game against the Houston Rockets, Rondo and Chris Paul got into a fist fight over a shove by Brandon Ingram delivered to James Harden. The conflict, worsened due to Paul's claim that Rondo spat on him, resulted in Rondo receiving a three-game suspension. After breaking his right hand in a 126–117 win over the Trail Blazers on November 14, Rondo was ruled out for four to five weeks. In his return game on December 21 after missing 17 games, Rondo had eight points and nine assists off the bench in a 112–104 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. On December 25 against the Golden State Warriors, after just three games back from his hand injury, Rondo suffered a sprain to his right ring finger. He underwent surgery three days later and was subsequently ruled out for an estimated four to five weeks. He returned to action on January 24, 2019, after missing 14 games, recording 15 points, 13 assists and six rebounds in a 120–105 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves. On February 7, he hit a 20-foot jumper as time expired in Boston to lift the Lakers to a 129–128 win over the Celtics, as he finished with 17 points and 10 assists. It was his first career go-ahead field goal in the final 10 seconds of the fourth quarter or overtime. On March 4, Rondo moved to 11th place in triple-doubles in NBA history, while also becoming the second player (the other being Mark Jackson) to record a triple-double with five different teams, when he recorded his 32nd triple-double with a season-high 24 points, 10 rebounds and 12 assists as the Lakers lost 113–105 to the Clippers. On March 29, he had 17 assists and five steals in a 123–115 win over the Charlotte Hornets, becoming the first Lakers' player with at least 17 assists and five steals since Magic Johnson in December 1989. 2019–20 season: Second championship On July 8, 2019, Rondo re-signed with the Lakers, and went on to play an integral part in the team's 2020 NBA Finals series win, his first in 12 years and becoming the second player in NBA history, after Clyde Lovellette, to win a championship with both the Boston Celtics and the Lakers, with Rondo being the first to win with Los Angeles as Lovellette won with Minneapolis Lakers. Rondo's 105 assists in the 2020 NBA playoffs are the most by a bench player in a single postseason since the 1971 playoffs, surpassing Manu Ginóbili's 95 assists in 2014. Atlanta Hawks (2020–2021) On November 23, 2020, Rondo signed a multi-year deal with the Atlanta Hawks. On December 28, 2020, Rondo made his Hawks debut, putting up 12 points and eight assists in a 128–120 win against the Detroit Pistons. Los Angeles Clippers (2021) On March 25, 2021, Rondo was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers in exchange for Lou Williams, two second-round draft picks and cash considerations. On April 4, he made his debut in a 104–86 win over his former team, the Los Angeles Lakers, and recorded two points and three assists in 13 minutes. On April 8, he recorded 15 points and nine assists, both season highs, off the bench in a 113–103 win over the Phoenix Suns. On August 16, 2021, Rondo was traded, alongside Daniel Oturu, Patrick Beverley and a second-round draft pick to the Memphis Grizzlies in exchange for Eric Bledsoe. Twelve days later, he agreed to a buyout and was waived. Return to the Lakers (2021–2022) On August 31, 2021, Rondo signed a one-year deal to return to the Lakers. Cleveland Cavaliers (2022) On January 3, 2022, the Lakers traded Rondo to the Cleveland Cavaliers as part of a three-team deal that also included the New York Knicks. He made his debut for the Cavaliers on January 7, recording 11 points, 5 rebounds, and 3 assists in a 114–101 win over the Portland Trail Blazers. Career statistics NBA Regular season \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 78 \|\| 25 \|\| 23.5 \|\| .418 \|\| .207 \|\| .647 \|\| 3.7 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .1 \|\| 6.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 77 \|\| 77 \|\| 29.9 \|\| .492 \|\| .263 \|\| .611 \|\| 4.2 \|\| 5.1 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .2 \|\| 10.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 80 \|\| 80 \|\| 33.0 \|\| .505 \|\| .313 \|\| .642 \|\| 5.2 \|\| 8.2 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .1 \|\| 11.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 81 \|\| 81 \|\| 36.6 \|\| .508 \|\| .213 \|\| .621 \|\| 4.4 \|\| 9.8 \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\|2.3* \|\| .1 \|\| 13.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 68 \|\| 68 \|\| 37.2 \|\| .475 \|\| .233 \|\| .568 \|\| 4.4 \|\| 11.2 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .2 \|\| 10.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 53 \|\| 53 \|\| 36.9 \|\| .448 \|\| .238 \|\| .597 \|\| 4.8 \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\|11.7* \|\| 1.8 \|\| .1 \|\| 11.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 38 \|\| 38 \|\| 37.4 \|\| .484 \|\| .240 \|\| .645 \|\| 5.6 \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\|11.1* \|\| 1.8 \|\| .2 \|\| 13.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 30 \|\| 30 \|\| 33.3 \|\| .403 \|\| .289 \|\| .627 \|\| 5.5 \|\| 9.8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .1 \|\| 11.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 22 \|\| 22 \|\| 31.8 \|\| .405 \|\| .250 \|\| .333 \|\| 7.5 \|\| 10.8 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .1 \|\| 8.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Dallas \| 46 \|\| 46 \|\| 28.7 \|\| .436 \|\| .352 \|\| .452 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 6.5 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .1 \|\| 9.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Sacramento \| 72 \|\| 72 \|\| 35.2 \|\| .454 \|\| .365 \|\| .580 \|\| 6.0 \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\|11.7* \|\| 2.0 \|\| .1 \|\| 11.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 69 \|\| 42 \|\| 26.7 \|\| .408 \|\| .376 \|\| .600 \|\| 5.1 \|\| 6.7 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .2 \|\| 7.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|New Orleans \| 65 \|\| 63 \|\| 26.2 \|\| .468 \|\| .333 \|\| .543 \|\| 4.0 \|\| 8.2 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .2 \|\| 8.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Lakers \| 46 \|\| 29 \|\| 29.8 \|\| .405 \|\| .359 \|\| .639 \|\| 5.3 \|\| 8.0 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .2 \|\| 9.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| \| style="text-align:left;""\|L.A. Lakers \| 48 \|\| 3 \|\| 20.5 \|\| .418 \|\| .328 \|\| .659 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 5.0 \|\| .8 \|\| .0 \|\| 7.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Atlanta \| 27 \|\| 2 \|\| 14.9 \|\| .400 \|\| .378 \|\| .500 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 3.5 \|\| .7 \|\| .1 \|\| 3.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Clippers \| 18 \|\| 1 \|\| 20.4 \|\| .486 \|\| .432 \|\| 1.000 \|\| 3.1 \|\| 5.8 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .1 \|\| 7.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Lakers \| 18 \|\| 0 \|\| 16.1 \|\| .324 \|\| .267 \|\| .500 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 3.7 \|\| .7 \|\| .3 \|\| 3.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Cleveland \| 21 \|\| 1 \|\| 19.4 \|\| .429 \|\| .397 \|\| .750 \|\| 2.8 \|\| 4.9 \|\| .9 \|\| .0 \|\| 6.2 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 957 \|\| 733 \|\| 29.9 \|\| .456 \|\| .324 \|\| .611 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 7.9 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .1 \|\| 9.8 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|All-Star \| 3 \|\| 0 \|\| 18.7 \|\| .545 \|\| .000 \|\| .000 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 7.0 \|\| .3 \|\| .0 \|\| 4.0 Play-in \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2022 \| style="text-align:left;"\| Cleveland \| 2 \|\| 0 \|\| 20.6 \|\| .273 \|\| .143 \|\| \|\| 2.5 \|\| 5.5 \|\| .5 \|\| .0 \|\| 3.5 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan=2\| Career \| 2 \|\| 0 \|\| 20.6 \|\| .273 \|\| .143 \|\| \|\| 2.5 \|\| 5.5 \|\| .5 \|\| .0 \|\| 3.5 Playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|2008 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| style="background:#E0CEF2; width:3em"\|26 \|\| style="background:#E0CEF2; width:3em"\|26 \|\| 32.0 \|\| .407 \|\| .250 \|\| .691 \|\| 4.1 \|\| 6.6 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .3 \|\| 10.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2009 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 14 \|\| 14 \|\| 41.2 \|\| .417 \|\| .250 \|\| .657 \|\| 9.7 \|\| 9.8 \|\| 2.5 \|\| .2 \|\| 16.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2010 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 24 \|\| 24 \|\| 40.6 \|\| .463 \|\| .375 \|\| .596 \|\| 5.6 \|\| 9.3 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .1 \|\| 15.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2011 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 38.3 \|\| .477 \|\| .000 \|\| .632 \|\| 5.4 \|\| 9.6 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .0 \|\| 14.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2012 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Boston \| 19 \|\| 19 \|\| 42.6 \|\| .468 \|\| .267 \|\| .696 \|\| 6.7 \|\| 11.9 \|\| 2.4 \|\| .1 \|\| 17.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2015 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Dallas \| 2 \|\| 2 \|\| 18.6 \|\| .450 \|\| .500 \|\| .000 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .0 \|\| .0 \|\| 9.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2017 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 2 \|\| 2 \|\| 33.7 \|\| .423 \|\| .000 \|\| .500 \|\| 8.5 \|\| 10.0 \|\| 3.5 \|\| .5 \|\| 11.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2018 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New Orleans \| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 33.6 \|\| .413 \|\| .421 \|\| .643 \|\| 7.6 \|\| 12.2 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .2 \|\| 10.3 \|- \|style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|2020 \|style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Lakers \| 16 \|\| 0 \|\| 24.7 \|\| .455 \|\| .400 \|\| .684 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 6.6 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .1 \|\| 8.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2021 \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Clippers \| 13 \|\| 0 \|\| 16.9 \|\| .340 \|\| .393 \|\| .667 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 3.8 \|\| .4 \|\| .2 \|\| 4.2 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 134 \|\| 105 \|\| 34.0 \|\| .440 \|\| .330 \|\| .649 \|\| 5.6 \|\| 8.5 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .2 \|\| 12.5 College \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2004–05 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Kentucky \| 34 \|\| 34 \|\| 25.1 \|\| .510 \|\| .303 \|\| .583 \|\| 2.9 \|\| 3.5 \|\| 2.6 \|\| .2 \|\| 8.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2005–06 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Kentucky \| 34 \|\| 28 \|\| 31.0 \|\| .482 \|\| .273 \|\| .571 \|\| 6.1 \|\| 4.9 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .1 \|\| 11.2 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 68 \|\| 62 \|\| 28.1 \|\| .493 \|\| .283 \|\| .577 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 4.2 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .2 \|\| 9.6 Awards and honors 2-time NBA champion: 2008, 2020 4-time NBA All-Star: 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 All-NBA Team: Third Team: 2012 4-time NBA All-Defensive: First Team: 2010, 2011 Second Team: 2009, 2012 NBA All-Rookie selection: Second team: 2007 Records NBA regular season: 2010: most steals (189), most steals per game (2.3) 2012: most assists per game (11.7), most triple-doubles (6) 2013: most assists per game (11.1), most triple-doubles (5) 2016: most assists per game (11.7), most assists (839) NBA playoffs: 2008: most assists (172), most steals (45) 2009: most assists (127), most triple-doubles (3) 2010: most triple-doubles (2), most steals (46) 2011: most triple-doubles (1) 2012: most assists (227), most assists per game (11.9), most triple-doubles (4) Boston Celtics: Most assists in a single season: 794 (2009–10) Most steals in a single season: 189 (2009–10) Most assists in a playoff game: 20 (2010–11) Most assists per game (season): 11.7 (2011–12) New Orleans Pelicans: Most assists in a game: 25 (2017–18) Most assists in a playoff game: 21 (2017–18) See also List of National Basketball Association annual steals leaders List of National Basketball Association annual assists leaders List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders List of National Basketball Association career triple-double leaders List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff steals leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff triple-double leaders List of National Basketball Association players with most assists in a game References External links Kentucky Wildcats bio 1986 births Living people 20th-century African-American people 21st-century African-American sportspeople African-American basketball players American men's basketball players Atlanta Hawks players Basketball players from Louisville, Kentucky Boston Celtics players Chicago Bulls players Cleveland Cavaliers players Dallas Mavericks players Eastern High School (Louisville, Kentucky) alumni Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball players Los Angeles Clippers players Los Angeles Lakers players McDonald's High School All-Americans National Basketball Association All-Stars New Orleans Pelicans players Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball) Phoenix Suns draft picks Point guards Sacramento Kings players

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.